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diff --git a/old/69074-0.txt b/old/69074-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1cbccbe..0000000 --- a/old/69074-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52357 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The uncivilized races of men in all -countries of the world; vol. 2 of 2, by John G. Wood - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The uncivilized races of men in all countries of the world; vol. - 2 of 2 - Being a comprehensive account of their manners and customs, and - of their physical, social, mental, moral and religious - characteristics - -Author: John G. Wood - -Release Date: September 30, 2022 [eBook #69074] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Brian Coe, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was - produced from images made available by the HathiTrust - Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE UNCIVILIZED RACES OF MEN -IN ALL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD; VOL. 2 OF 2 *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - This is Volume II (of II) of this work, containing (after the front - matter) page numbers 769-1481, chapters LXXVI-CLXX, and illustration - numbers 212-443; Volume I contains (after the front matter) pages - 11-768, chapters I-LXXV, and illustration numbers 1-211. For ease of - reference, the Table of Contents, List of Illustrations and Index - have been included in both volumes. - - Text between _underscores_ represents text printed in italics in the - source document. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. - - More information on the transcription and the changes made may be - found in the Transcriber’s Notes at the end of this text. - - - - -[Illustration: A REPRESENTATION OF UNCIVILIZED ISLANDERS AND INDIANS.] - - - - - THE - UNCIVILIZED - RACES OF MEN - IN - ALL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD; - - BEING - - _A COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT OF THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, - AND OF THEIR PHYSICAL, SOCIAL, MENTAL, MORAL AND - RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS_. - - BY - - REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S. - - AUTHOR OF “ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS,” “ANECDOTES OF - ANIMAL LIFE,” “HOMES WITHOUT HANDS,” “BIBLE ANIMALS,” “COMMON OBJECTS - OF THE COUNTRY AND SEASHORE,” ETC. - - WITH NEW DESIGNS - BY ANGAS, DANBY, WOLF, ZWECKER, ETC., ETC. - - IN TWO VOLUMES. - VOL. II. - - HARTFORD: - THE J. B. BURR PUBLISHING CO. - 1877. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In this volume will be found a selection of the most interesting -uncivilized tribes that inhabit, or once inhabited, America and the -vast number of islands which lie between that country and the eastern -coast of Asia, including among them the great groups of Australia and -New Zealand. A short notice is given of the long-perished Lake-dwellers -of Switzerland, and the partial civilization of India, China, Japan and -Siam is also represented. - -My best thanks are due to the Geographical and Anthropological -Societies, for the constant access permitted to their libraries, and to -the Curator of the “Christy Collection,” for the assistance which he -rendered in the illustration of the work. - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE. - 1. Pictorial representation of African races Frontispiece. - 2. Kaffir from childhood to age 13 - 3. Old councillor and wives 13 - 4. Kaffir cradle 18 - 5. Young Kaffir armed 21 - 6. Kaffir postman 21 - 7. Unmarried Kaffir girls 25 - 8. Old Kaffir women 25 - 9. Kaffir ornaments--necklaces, belt, etc. 33 - 10. Kaffir needles and sheaths 33 - 11. Articles of costume 33 - 12. Dolls representing the Kaffir dress 33 - 13. Bracelets made of the hoof of the bluebok 39 - 14. Apron of chief’s wife 39 - 15. Ivory armlets 39 - 16. Necklaces--beads and teeth 39 - 17. Young Kaffir in full dress 43 - 18. Girl in dancing dress 43 - 19. Kaffir ornaments 49 - 20. Dress and ornaments 49 - 21. The Kaffirs at home 57 - 22. Interior of a Kaffir hut 63 - 23. A Kaffir kraal 63 - 24. A Kaffir milking bowl 67 - 25. A Kaffir beer bowl 67 - 26. A Kaffir beer strainer 67 - 27. A Kaffir water pipe 67 - 28. Woman’s basket 67 - 29. Kaffir cattle--training the horns 73 - 30. Return of a Kaffir war party 73 - 31. Procession of the bride 83 - 32. Kaffir passing his mother-in-law 88 - 33. Bridegroom on approval 97 - 34. Kaffir at his forge 97 - 35. Spoons for eating porridge 103 - 36. Group of assagais 103 - 37. Kaffir warriors skirmishing 111 - 38. Muscular advocacy 111 - 39. Goza, the Kaffir chief, in ordinary undress 117 - 40. Goza in full war dress, with his councillors 117 - 41. Panda’s review 121 - 42. Hunting scene in Kaffirland 121 - 43. Cooking elephant’s foot 133 - 44. A Kaffir dinner party 145 - 45. Soldiers lapping water 145 - 46. A Kaffir harp 155 - 47. Exterior of a Kaffir hut 155 - 48. Spoon, ladle, skimmers 155 - 49. A Kaffir water pipe 155 - 50. A Kaffir fowl house 155 - 51. Necklace made of human finger bones 167 - 52. A remarkable gourd snuff-box 167 - 53. Poor man’s pipe 167 - 54. Kaffir gentlemen smoking 167 - 55. The prophet’s school 174 - 56. The prophet’s return 174 - 57. Old Kaffir prophets 177 - 58. The Kaffir prophetess at work 188 - 59. Unfavorable prophecy 188 - 60. Preserved head 203 - 61. Head of Mundurucú chief 203 - 62. Burial of King Tchaka’s mother 203 - 63. Dingan, the Kaffir monarch, at home 209 - 64. Kaffir women quarrelling 209 - 65. Hottentot girl 219 - 66. Hottentot woman 219 - 67. Hottentot young man 223 - 68. Hottentot in full dress 223 - 69. Hottentot kraal 229 - 70. Card playing by Hottentots 237 - 71. Bosjesman shooting cattle 237 - 72. Grapple plant 247 - 73. Bosjesman woman and child 247 - 74. Hottentots asleep 247 - 75. Bosjesman quiver 247 - 76. Frontlet of Hottentot girl 247 - 77. Poison grub 259 - 78. Portrait of Koranna chief 271 - 79. Namaquas shooting at the storm 271 - 80. Knife and assagai heads 281 - 81. Bechuana knives 281 - 82. A Bechuana apron 281 - 83. Ornament made of monkeys’ teeth 281 - 84. Bechuana parliament 287 - 85. Female architects among the Bechuanas 287 - 86. Magic dice of the Bechuanas 292 - 87. Spartan practices among the Bechuanas 294 - 88. The girl’s ordeal among the Bechuanas 294 - 89. Plan of Bechuana house 299 - 90. Bechuana funeral 302 - 91. Grave and monument of Damara chief 302 - 92. Damara warrior and wife 308 - 93. Damara girl resting 308 - 94. Portrait of Ovambo girl 317 - 95. Ovambo women pounding corn 317 - 96. Ovambo houses 329 - 97. Makololo house building 329 - 98. Children’s games among the Makololo 333 - 99. M’Bopo, a Makololo chief, at home 333 - 100. Spearing the hippopotamus 343 - 101. The final attack 343 - 102. Boating scene on the Bo-tlet-le River 351 - 103. Batoka salutation 351 - 104. Batoka men 357 - 105. Pelele, or lip ring, of the Manganjas 357 - 106. Hippopotamus trap 363 - 107. Axes of the Banyai 363 - 108. The marimba, or African piano 371 - 109. Singular headdress of the Balonda women 371 - 110. Wagogo greediness 387 - 111. Architecture of the Weezee 387 - 112. A husband’s welcome among the Weezee 391 - 113. Sultan Ukulima drinking pombé 391 - 114. Harvest scene among the Wanyamuezi 397 - 115. Salutation by the Watusi 397 - 116. Rumanika’s private band 404 - 117. Arrest of the queen 412 - 118. Reception of a visitor by the Waganda 417 - 119. The magician of Unyoro at work 417 - 120. Wanyoro culprit in the shoe 423 - 121. Group of Gani and Madi 431 - 122. Removal of a village by Madi 431 - 123. Group of the Kytch tribe 437 - 124. Neam-Nam fighting 437 - 125. Wooden chiefs of the Dôr 449 - 126. Scalp-locks of the Djibbas 449 - 127. Bracelets of the Djibbas 449 - 128. Ornaments of the Djour 449 - 129. Women’s knives 449 - 130. A Nuehr helmet 449 - 131. The Latooka victory 457 - 132. Gorilla hunting by the Fans 457 - 133. A Bari homestead 465 - 134. Funeral dance of the Latookas 465 - 135. The ceremony of M’paza 478 - 136. Obongo market 478 - 137. The giant dance of the Aponos 486 - 138. Fishing scene among the Bakalai 486 - 139. Ashira farewell 499 - 140. Olenda’s salutation to an Ishogo chief 499 - 141. A Camma dance 508 - 142. Quengueza’s (chief of the Camma) walk 508 - 143. The Camma fetish man ejecting a demon 517 - 144. Olanga drinking mboundou 517 - 145. Fate of the Shekiani wizard 526 - 146. The Mpongwé coronation 526 - 147. Attack on a Mpongwé village 537 - 148. Bargaining for a wife by the Fanti 537 - 149. The primeval child in Dahome 552 - 150. Fetishes, male and female, of the Krumen 552 - 151. Dahoman ivory trumpets 558 - 152. Dahoman war drum 558 - 153. War knives of the Fanti 558 - 154. Fetish trumpet and drum 558 - 155. Ashanti caboceer and soldiers 564 - 156. Punishment of a snake killer 564 - 157. “The bell comes” 569 - 158. Dahoman amazons 569 - 159. Amazon review 576 - 160. The Dahoman king’s dance 576 - 161. The basket sacrifice in Dahome 583 - 162. Head worship in Dahome 595 - 163. The attack on Abeokuta 595 - 164. The Alaké’s (king of the Egbas) court 605 - 165. Mumbo Jumbo 605 - 166. A Bubé marriage 612 - 167. Kanemboo man and woman 612 - 168. Washing day in Abyssinia 617 - 169. A Congo coronation 617 - 170. Ju-ju execution 619 - 171. Shooa women 631 - 172. Tuaricks and Tibboos 631 - 173. Begharmi lancers 638 - 174. Musgu chief 638 - 175. Dinner party in Abyssinia 643 - 176. Abyssinian heads 643 - 177. King Theodore and the lions 652 - 178. Pleaders in the courts 652 - 179. A battle between Abyssinians and Gallas 662 - 180. Interior of an Abyssinian house 662 - 181. Buffalo dance in Abyssinia 670 - 182. Bedouin camp 670 - 183. Hunting the hippopotamus 679 - 184. Travellers and the mirage 679 - 185. Travelling in Madagascar 692 - 186. Australian man and woman 698 - 187. Women and old man of Lower Murray 698 - 188. Hunter and his day’s provision 707 - 189. The sea-grass cloak 707 - 190. Bee hunting 716 - 191. Australian cooking a snake 716 - 192. Australian tomahawks 722 - 193. Australian clubs 722 - 194. Australian saw 722 - 195. Tattooing chisels 722 - 196. Man of Torres Strait 722 - 197. Basket--South Australia 722 - 198. Heads of Australian spears 731 - 199. Throw-sticks of the Australians 731 - 200. Boomerangs of the Australians 731 - 201. Spearing the kangaroo 739 - 202. Catching the cormorant 739 - 203. Australian shields 742 - 204. The kuri dance 749 - 205. Palti dance, or corrobboree 749 - 206. An Australian feast 759 - 207. Australian mothers 759 - 208. Mintalta, a Nauo man 765 - 209. Young man and boy of South Australia 765 - 210. Hut for cure of disease 765 - 211. Tomb of skulls 765 - 212. Tree tomb of Australia 775 - 213. Smoking bodies of slain warriors 775 - 214. Carved feather box 775 - 215. Australian widows and their caps 781 - 216. Cave with native drawings 781 - 217. Winter huts in Australia 787 - 218. A summer encampment 787 - 219. New Zealander from childhood to age 794 - 220. Woman and boy of New Zealand 803 - 221. A tattooed chief and his wife 803 - 222. Maori women making mats 809 - 223. The Tangi 809 - 224. Parátene Maioha in his state war cloak 820 - 225. The chiefs daughter 820 - 226. Hongi-hongi, chief of Waipa 820 - 227. Maories preparing for a feast 831 - 228. Maori chiefs’ storehouses 831 - 229. Cannibal cookhouse 835 - 230. Maori pah 835 - 231. Green jade ornaments 841 - 232. Maori weapons 841 - 233. Wooden and bone merais 841 - 234. Maori war dance 847 - 235. Te Ohu, a native priest 860 - 236. A tiki at Raroera pah 860 - 237. Tiki from Whakapokoko 860 - 238. Mourning over a dead chief 872 - 239. Tomb of E’ Toki 872 - 240. Rangihaeta’s war house 877 - 241. Interior of a pah or village 877 - 242. Maori paddles 881 - 243. Green jade adze and chisel 881 - 244. Common stone adze 881 - 245. A Maori toko-toko 881 - 246. New Caledonians defending their coast 893 - 247. Andamaners cooking a pig 893 - 248. A scene in the Nicobar Islands 903 - 249. The Outanatas and their weapons 903 - 250. The monkey men of Dourga Strait 909 - 251. Canoes of New Guinea 909 - 252. Huts of New Guinea 916 - 253. Dance by torchlight in New Guinea 916 - 254. The ambassador’s message 924 - 255. The canoe in a breeze 924 - 256. Presentation of the canoe 937 - 257. A Fijian feast 943 - 258. The fate of the boaster 943 - 259. Fijian idol 949 - 260. The orator’s flapper 949 - 261. Fijian spear 949 - 262. Fijian clubs 949 - 263. A Fijian wedding 957 - 264. House thatching by Fijians 957 - 265. A Buré, or temple, in Fiji 963 - 266. View in Makira harbor 963 - 267. Man and woman of Vaté 973 - 268. Woman and child of Vanikoro 973 - 269. Daughter of Tongan chief 973 - 270. Burial of a living king 980 - 271. Interior of a Tongan house 980 - 272. The kava party in Tonga 988 - 273. Tongan plantation 991 - 274. Ceremony of inachi 991 - 275. The tow-tow 999 - 276. Consulting a priest 999 - 277. Tattooing day in Samoa 1012 - 278. Cloth making by Samoan women 1012 - 279. Samoan club 1018 - 280. Armor of Samoan warrior 1018 - 281. Beautiful paddle of Hervey Islanders 1018 - 282. Ornamented adze magnified 1018 - 283. Spear of Hervey Islanders 1018 - 284. Shark tooth gauntlets 1025 - 285. Samoan warriors exchanging defiance 1027 - 286. Pigeon catching by Samoans 1027 - 287. Battle scene in Hervey Islands 1035 - 288. Village in Kingsmill Islands 1035 - 289. Shark tooth spear 1041 - 290. Shark’s jaw 1041 - 291. Swords of Kingsmill Islanders 1041 - 292. Tattooed chiefs of Marquesas 1046 - 293. Marquesan chief’s hand 1046 - 294. Neck ornament 1046 - 295. Marquesan chief in war dress 1046 - 296. The war dance of the Niuans 1054 - 297. Tahitans presenting the cloth 1054 - 298. Dressing the idols by Society Islanders 1067 - 299. The human sacrifice by Tahitans 1077 - 300. Corpse and chief mourner 1077 - 301. Tane, the Tahitan god, returning home 1084 - 302. Women and pet pig of Sandwich Islands 1084 - 303. Kamehameha’s exploit with spears 1089 - 304. Masked rowers 1089 - 305. Surf swimming by Sandwich Islanders 1093 - 306. Helmet of Sandwich Islanders 1097 - 307. Feather idol of Sandwich Islanders 1097 - 308. Wooden idol of Sandwich Islanders 1097 - 309. Romanzoff Islanders, man and woman 1101 - 310. Dyak warrior and dusum 1101 - 311. Investiture of the rupack 1105 - 312. Warrior’s dance among Pelew Islanders 1105 - 313. Illinoan pirate and Saghai Dyak 1113 - 314. Dyak women 1113 - 315. Parang-latok of the Dyaks 1122 - 316. Sumpitans of the Dyaks 1122 - 317. Parang-ihlang of the Dyaks 1122 - 318. The kris, or dagger, of the Dyaks 1129 - 319. Shields of Dyak soldiers 1129 - 320. A parang with charms 1129 - 321. A Dyak spear 1129 - 322. Canoe fight of the Dyaks 1139 - 323. A Dyak wedding 1139 - 324. A Dyak feast 1147 - 325. A Bornean adze axe 1152 - 326. A Dyak village 1153 - 327. A Dyak house 1153 - 328. Fuegian man and woman 1163 - 329. Patagonian man and woman 1163 - 330. A Fuegian settlement 1169 - 331. Fuegians shifting quarters 1169 - 332. Araucanian stirrups and spur 1175 - 333. Araucanian lassos 1175 - 334. Patagonian bolas 1175 - 335. Spanish bit and Patagonian fittings 1175 - 336. Patagonians hunting game 1180 - 337. Patagonian village 1187 - 338. Patagonian burial ground 1187 - 339. A Mapuché family 1201 - 340. Araucanian marriage 1201 - 341. Mapuché medicine 1207 - 342. Mapuché funeral 1207 - 343. The macana club 1212 - 344. Guianan arrows and tube 1214 - 345. Gran Chaco Indians on the move 1218 - 346. The ordeal of the “gloves” 1218 - 347. Guianan blow guns 1225 - 348. Guianan blow-gun arrow 1225 - 349. Guianan winged arrows 1225 - 350. Guianan cotton basket 1225 - 351. Guianan quiver 1225 - 352. Guianan arrows rolled around stick 1225 - 353. Guianan arrows strung 1225 - 354. Feathered arrows of the Macoushies 1231 - 355. Cassava dish of the Macoushies 1231 - 356. Guianan quake 1231 - 357. Arrow heads of the Macoushies 1231 - 358. Guianan turtle arrow 1231 - 359. Guianan quiver for arrow heads 1231 - 360. Feather apron of the Mundurucús 1231 - 361. Head-dresses of the Macoushies 1238 - 362. Guianan clubs 1238 - 363. Guianan cradle 1238 - 364. A Warau house 1244 - 365. Lake dwellers of the Orinoco 1244 - 366. Guianan tipiti and bowl 1249 - 367. Guianan twin bottles 1249 - 368. Feather apron of the Caribs 1249 - 369. Bead apron of the Guianans 1249 - 370. The spathe of the Waraus 1249 - 371. The Maquarri dance 1260 - 372. Shield wrestling of the Waraus 1260 - 373. Jaguar bone flute of the Caribs 1265 - 374. Rattle of the Guianans 1265 - 375. Mexican stirrups 1265 - 376. Iron and stone tomahawks 1265 - 377. Indian shield and clubs 1265 - 378. Mandan chief Mah-to-toh-pa and wife 1277 - 379. A Crow chief 1284 - 380. American Indians scalping 1284 - 381. Flint-headed arrow 1290 - 382. Camanchees riding 1291 - 383. “Smoking” horses 1291 - 384. Snow shoe 1295 - 385. Bison hunting scene 1299 - 386. Buffalo dance 1299 - 387. The Mandan ordeal 1305 - 388. The last race 1305 - 389. The medicine man at work 1311 - 390. The ball play of the Choctaws 1311 - 391. Indian pipes 1315 - 392. Ee-e-chin-che-a in war costume 1318 - 393. Grandson of a Blackfoot chief 1318 - 394. Pshan-shaw, a girl of the Riccarees 1318 - 395. Flat-head woman and child 1319 - 396. Indian canoe 1322 - 397. Snow shoe dance 1322 - 398. Dance to the medicine of the brave 1322 - 399. The canoe race 1327 - 400. Esquimaux dwellings 1327 - 401. Esquimaux harpoon head 1337 - 402. Burial of Blackbird, an Omaha chief 1341 - 403. Esquimaux spearing the walrus 1341 - 404. The kajak and its management 1347 - 405. Esquimaux sledge driving 1347 - 406. Wrist-guard of the Esquimaux 1353 - 407. Esquimaux fish-hooks 1353 - 408. Feathered arrows of Aht tribe 1356 - 409. Ingenious fish-hook of the Ahts 1357 - 410. Remarkable carved pipes of the Ahts 1357 - 411. Bow of the Ahts of Vancouver’s Island 1357 - 412. Beaver mask of the Aht tribe 1357 - 413. Singular head-dress of the Aht chiefs 1357 - 414. Decorated paddles of the Ahts 1357 - 415. Canoe of the Ahts 1361 - 416. Aht dance 1367 - 417. Initiation of a dog eater 1367 - 418. A Sowrah marriage 1387 - 419. A Meriah sacrifice 1387 - 420. Bows and quiver of Hindoos 1394 - 421. Ingenious ruse of Bheel robbers 1397 - 422. A Ghoorka attacked by a tiger 1397 - 423. A Ghoorka necklace 1403 - 424. A kookery of the Ghoorka tribe 1403 - 425. The chakra or quoit weapon 1403 - 426. Indian arms and armor 1403 - 427. Suit of armor inlaid with gold 1406 - 428. Chinese repeating crossbow 1425 - 429. Mutual assistance 1427 - 430. Chinese woman’s foot and shoe 1428 - 431. Mandarin and wife 1437 - 432. Various modes of torture 1437 - 433. Mouth organ 1445 - 434. Specimens of Chinese art 1446 - 435. Decapitation of Chinese criminal 1451 - 436. The street ballad-singer 1451 - 437. Japanese lady in a storm 1454 - 438. Japanese lady on horseback 1455 - 439. Capture of the truant husbands 1464 - 440. Candlestick and censers 1465 - 441. Suit of Japanese armor 1469 - 442. King S. S. P. M. Mongkut of Siam 1469 - 443. Portrait of celebrated Siamese actress 1469 - - - - - CONTENTS - OF - VOLUME I. - - - Chap. Page. - - KAFFIRS OF SOUTH AFRICA. - I. INTELLECTUAL CHARACTER 11 - II. COURSE OF LIFE 17 - III. COURSE OF LIFE--_Concluded_ 20 - IV. MASCULINE DRESS AND ORNAMENTS 28 - V. MASCULINE DRESS AND ORNAMENTS--_Concluded_ 36 - VI. FEMININE DRESS AND ORNAMENTS 48 - VII. ARCHITECTURE 56 - VIII. CATTLE KEEPING 66 - IX. MARRIAGE 75 - X. MARRIAGE--_Concluded_ 82 - XI. WAR--OFFENSIVE WEAPONS 92 - XII. WAR--DEFENSIVE WEAPONS 108 - XIII. HUNTING 126 - XIV. AGRICULTURE 138 - XV. FOOD 143 - XVI. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS 159 - XVII. RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION 169 - XVIII. RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION--_Continued_ 180 - XIX. SUPERSTITION--_Concluded_ 192 - XX. FUNERAL RITES 200 - XXI. DOMESTIC LIFE 206 - - HOTTENTOTS. - XXII. THE HOTTENTOT RACES 217 - XXIII. MARRIAGE, LANGUAGE, AMUSEMENTS 232 - - THE BOSJESMAN, OR BUSHMAN. - XXIV. APPEARANCE--SOCIAL LIFE 242 - XXV. ARCHITECTURE--WEAPONS 251 - XXVI. AMUSEMENTS 262 - - VARIOUS AFRICAN RACES. - XXVII. KORANNAS AND NAMAQUAS 269 - XXVIII. THE BECHUANAS 280 - XXIX. THE BECHUANAS--_Concluded_ 291 - XXX. THE DAMARA TRIBE 304 - XXXI. THE OVAMBO, OR OVAMPO 315 - XXXII. THE MAKOLOLO TRIBE 324 - XXXIII. THE BAYEYE AND MAKOBA 337 - XXXIV. THE BATOKA AND MANGANJA 348 - XXXV. THE BANYAI AND BADEMA 361 - XXXVI. THE BALONDO, OR BALONDA, AND ANGOLESE 369 - XXXVII. WAGOGO AND WANYAMUEZI 384 - XXXVIII. KARAGUE 399 - XXXIX. THE WATUSI AND WAGANDA 408 - XL. THE WANYORO 422 - XLI. GANI, MADI, OBBO, AND KYTCH 429 - XLII. THE NEAM-NAM, DÔR, AND DJOUR TRIBES 440 - XLIII. THE LATOOKA TRIBE 453 - XLIV. THE SHIR, BARI, DJIBBA, NUEHR, DINKA, AND SHILLOOK - TRIBES 461 - XLV. THE ISHOGO, ASHANGO, AND OBONGO TRIBES 475 - XLVI. THE APONO AND APINGI 484 - XLVII. THE BAKALAI 491 - XLVIII. THE ASHIRA 496 - XLIX. THE CAMMA OR COMMI 504 - L. THE SHEKIANI AND MPONGWÉ 521 - LI. THE FANS 529 - LII. THE FANS--_Concluded_ 535 - LIII. THE KRUMEN AND FANTI 544 - LIV. THE ASHANTI 554 - LV. DAHOME 561 - LVI. DAHOME--_Continued_ 573 - LVII. DAHOME--_Concluded_ 581 - LVIII. THE EGBAS 590 - LIX. BONNY 600 - LX. THE MAN-DINGOES 607 - LXI. THE BUBES AND CONGOESE 610 - LXII. BORNU 620 - LXIII. THE SHOOAS, TIBBOOS, TUARICKS, BEGHARMIS, AND MUSGUESE 628 - LXIV. ABYSSINIANS 641 - LXV. ABYSSINIANS--_Continued_ 649 - LXVI. ABYSSINIANS--_Concluded_ 658 - LXVII. NUBIANS AND HAMRAN ARABS 673 - LXVIII. BEDOUINS, HASSANIYEHS, AND MALAGASY 681 - - AUSTRALIA. - LXIX. APPEARANCE AND CHARACTER OF NATIVES 694 - LXX. DRESS--FOOD 703 - LXXI. WEAPONS 719 - LXXII. WEAPONS--_Concluded_ 727 - LXXIII. WAR--AMUSEMENTS 744 - LXXIV. DOMESTIC LIFE 755 - LXXV. FROM CHILDHOOD TO MANHOOD 761 - - - - - CONTENTS - OF - VOLUME II. - - - Chap. Page. - - LXXVI. MEDICINE--SURGERY--DISPOSAL OF DEAD 769 - LXXVII. DWELLINGS--CANOES 784 - - NEW ZEALAND. - LXXVIII. GENERAL REMARKS 792 - LXXIX. DRESS 800 - LXXX. DRESS--_Concluded_ 807 - LXXXI. DOMESTIC LIFE 816 - LXXXII. FOOD AND COOKERY 826 - LXXXIII. WAR 838 - LXXXIV. CANOES 852 - LXXXV. RELIGION 856 - LXXXVI. THE TAPU 863 - LXXXVII. FUNERAL CEREMONIES--ARCHITECTURE 869 - - NEW CALEDONIA. - LXXXVIII. APPEARANCE--DRESS--WARFARE 883 - - ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. - LXXXIX. ORIGIN OF NATIVES--APPEARANCE--CHARACTER--EDUCATION 888 - - NEW GUINEA. - XC. PAPUANS AND OUTANATAS 898 - XCI. THE ALFOËRS OR HARAFORAS 905 - - PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. - XCII. THE AJITAS OR AHITAS 919 - - FIJI. - XCIII. APPEARANCE--DRESS 922 - XCIV. MANUFACTURES 929 - XCV. GOVERNMENT--SOCIAL LIFE 934 - XCVI. WAR--AMUSEMENTS 948 - XCVII. RELIGION--FUNERAL RITES 960 - - SOLOMON ISLANDS AND NEW HEBRIDES. - XCVIII. CHARACTER--DRESS--CUSTOMS 968 - - TONGA. - XCIX. GOVERNMENT--GRADATIONS OF RANK 976 - C. WAR AND CEREMONIES 984 - CI. SICKNESS--BURIAL--GAMES 997 - - SAMOA, OR NAVIGATOR’S ISLAND. - CII. APPEARANCE--CHARACTER--DRESS 1008 - CIII. WAR 1016 - CIV. AMUSEMENTS--MARRIAGE--ARCHITECTURE 1028 - - HERVEY AND KINGSMILL ISLANDS. - CV. APPEARANCE--WEAPONS--GOVERNMENT 1032 - - MARQUESAS ISLANDS. - CVI. DRESS--AMUSEMENTS--WAR--BURIAL 1044 - - NIUE, OR SAVAGE ISLANDS. - CVII. ORIGIN--COSTUME--LAWS--BURIAL 1052 - - SOCIETY ISLANDS. - CVIII. APPEARANCE--DRESS--SOCIAL CUSTOMS 1057 - CIX. RELIGION 1064 - CX. HISTORY--WAR--FUNERALS--LEGENDS 1072 - - SANDWICH ISLANDS. - CXI. CLIMATE--DRESS--ORNAMENTS--WOMEN 1081 - CXII. WAR--SPORT--RELIGION 1088 - - CAROLINE ARCHIPELAGO. - CXIII. DRESS--ARCHITECTURE--AMUSEMENTS--WAR 1100 - - BORNEO. - CXIV. THE DYAKS, APPEARANCE AND DRESS 1110 - CXV. WAR 1119 - CXVI. WAR--_Concluded_ 1128 - CXVII. SOCIAL LIFE 1137 - CXVIII. ARCHITECTURE, MANUFACTURES 1149 - CXIX. RELIGION--OMENS--FUNERALS 1157 - - TIERRA DEL FUEGO. - CXX. APPEARANCE--ARCHITECTURE--MANUFACTURES 1161 - - PATAGONIANS. - CXXI. APPEARANCE--WEAPONS--HORSEMANSHIP 1172 - CXXII. DOMESTIC LIFE 1183 - - ARAUCANIANS. - CXXIII. DRESS--ETIQUETTE--GOVERNMENT 1190 - CXXIV. DOMESTIC LIFE 1196 - CXXV. GAMES--SOCIAL CUSTOMS 1204 - - THE GRAN CHACO. - CXXVI. APPEARANCE--WEAPONS--CHARACTER 1211 - - THE MUNDURUCÚS. - CXXVII. MANUFACTURES--SOCIAL CUSTOMS 1215 - - THE TRIBES OF GUIANA. - CXXVIII. WEAPONS 1221 - CXXIX. WEAPONS--_Concluded_ 1228 - CXXX. WAR--SUPERSTITION 1239 - CXXXI. ARCHITECTURE--SOCIAL CUSTOMS 1245 - CXXXII. DRESS--AMUSEMENTS 1255 - CXXXIII. RELIGION--BURIAL 1263 - - MEXICO. - CXXXIV. HISTORY--RELIGION--ART 1271 - - NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. - CXXXV. GOVERNMENT--CUSTOMS 1273 - CXXXVI. WAR 1281 - CXXXVII. HUNTING--AMUSEMENTS 1293 - CXXXVIII. RELIGION--SUPERSTITION 1301 - CXXXIX. SOCIAL LIFE 1316 - - ESQUIMAUX. - CXL. APPEARANCE--DRESS--MANNERS 1333 - CXLI. HUNTING--RELIGION--BURIAL 1338 - - VANCOUVER’S ISLAND. - CXLII. THE AHTS, AND NEIGHBORING TRIBES 1354 - CXLIII. CANOES--FEASTS--DANCES 1362 - CXLIV. ARCHITECTURE--RELIGION--DISPOSAL OF DEAD 1369 - - ALASKA. - CXLV. MALEMUTES--INGELETES--CO-YUKONS 1374 - - SIBERIA. - CXLVI. THE TCHUKTCHI--JAKUTS--TUNGUSI 1377 - CXLVII. THE SAMOÏEDES--OSTIAKS 1381 - - INDIA. - CXLVIII. THE SOWRAHS AND KHONDS 1385 - CXLIX. WEAPONS 1395 - CL. SACRIFICIAL RELIGION 1407 - CLI. THE INDIANS, WITH RELATION TO ANIMALS 1416 - - TARTARY. - CLII. THE MANTCHU TARTARS 1422 - - CHINA. - CLIII. APPEARANCE--DRESS--FOOD 1426 - CLIV. WARFARE 1433 - CLV. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS 1441 - - JAPAN. - CLVI. DRESS--ART--AMUSEMENTS 1449 - CLVII. MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS 1458 - - SIAM. - CLVIII. GOVERNMENT--DRESS--RELIGION 1467 - - ANCIENT EUROPE. - CLIX. THE SWISS LAKE-DWELLERS 1473 - - CENTRAL AFRICA. - CLX. THE MAKONDÉ 1475 - CLXI. THE WAIYAU 1478 - CLXII. THE BABISA AND BABEMBA 1482 - CLXIII. THE MANYUEMA 1487 - CLXIV. THE MANYUEMA--_Concluded_ 1492 - CLXV. UNYAMWEZI 1496 - CLXVI. UVINZA AND UHHA 1500 - CLXVII. THE MONBUTTOO 1503 - CLXVIII. THE PYGMIES 1508 - CLXIX. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN TRIBES 1511 - CLXX. THE AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE 1515 - - CENTRAL ASIA. - CLXXI. THE KAKHYENS 1520 - - - - -CHAPTER LXXVI. - -AUSTRALIA--_Continued_. - -MEDICINE, SURGERY, AND THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. - - - BILBOS, OR NATIVE DOCTORS -- WOUNDS AND BRUISES -- A STRANGE CURE -- - TREATMENT OF THE HEADACHE -- A DREAM AND ITS RESULTS -- THE MAGIC - CRYSTAL, OR DOCTOR-STONE -- ITS EFFECTS ON WOMEN AND CHILDREN -- THE - DOCTOR-HOUSE -- SUCTION AS A MEANS OF CURE -- BELIEF IN CHARMS -- - THE PARENT’S SKULL -- CEREMONIES OF MOURNING -- CUTTING THE HEAD AND - BODY AS A SIGN OF WOE -- DRIVING AWAY THE EVIL SPIRITS -- FEAR OF - GHOSTS -- BURIAL AMONG THE PARNKALLAS AND NAUOS -- THE TOMB OF SKULLS - -- A SUMMARY MODE OF BURIAL -- FUNERAL OF BOYS -- THE TREE-TOMBS - -- SMOKING THE WARRIORS -- INCONSISTENT BEHAVIOR -- BURIAL OF OLD - WOMEN -- THE WIDOWS’ CAPS -- RELIGIOUS IDEAS OF THE ABORIGINES -- - THE VARIOUS EVIL SPIRITS -- THE BUNYIP -- ROCK AND CAVE PAINTINGS -- - THEORY OF TRANSMIGRATION. - -We will now see how the Australian natives treat sickness of various -kinds. Among them are certain personages called bilbos, or doctors, to -whom the sick usually appeal in cases of illness or pain. It is not -known, however, whether the mere fact of age gives a man the rank of -bilbo, or whether it is attained by sundry ceremonials, as is the case -with the Africans and other savages. - -The most usual mode of treating any local disease or pain is by -pressing the hands upon the affected part, and kneading it, a remedy -which is found in every part of the world, and which is really -efficacious in many complaints, especially in rheumatic affections, or -in sprained or over-exerted muscles. If a limb be wounded, bruised, or -sore, the native practitioners tie a fillet tightly above it, for the -purpose, as they say, of preventing the malady from reaching the body. -Headaches are treated by tying a bandage firmly round the temples, and, -if the pain be obstinate, the doctors bleed the patient under the arm, -using a sharp piece of quartz as a lancet. The flowing blood is never -allowed to be wasted, but is received on the body of the operator, and -diligently rubbed into the skin, under the notion that by this process -both parties are strengthened. This depends, however, on the sex of the -patient, women being never bled, nor allowed to have the blood of any -other person sprinkled upon them. - -About 1832, a curious disease broke out among the natives of Wellington -Valley, resembling the small-pox in many things, and yet displaying -symptoms which scarcely belong to that dread disease, the one fatal -scourge of savage tribes. It was preceded by headache, fever, -sore-throat, &c., and accompanied by pustules very much resembling -those of the small-pox. It was, however, scarcely virulent enough for -the real disease, though it was probably a milder form of it, and was -subject to the power of vaccine matter. It was not limited to the -natives, but attacked many Europeans just like the genuine small-pox, -and in one case was fatal. - -It is here mentioned on account of the mode of cure adopted by the -native doctors. They punctured the pustules with sharp fish-bones, and -squeezed them well with the blunt end of their rude lancets, and it is -a noteworthy fact that the rate of mortality was very much reduced. Of -course the doctors used other modes, whereby they gave their patients -confidence in their powers. The chief of these was performed by means -of a number of slender rods, six to nine feet in length, which were -stuck in the ground in the form of a crescent, and addressed with -long speeches and many mysterious gestures. Among the Australians, -this disease, whatever it may be, does not strike the abject terror -with which it is usually accompanied. Although they know that it is -infectious, they do not abandon the sick person, unless perhaps the -doctor pronounces the patient incurable; in which case they save him -prolonged pain, and themselves useless trouble, by burying him alive. -The native term for this disease is “thunna-thunna,” and it is known to -have existed when the country was first discovered, so that it is not -imported from civilized countries. - -Another remarkable kind of cure for the headache is mentioned by Mr. -Angas. The patient being seated on the ground, a string is tied round -his head, the knot being carefully adjusted to the middle of the -forehead. The operator, who is always a woman, seats herself opposite -the patient, places the line between her lips, and frets them with it -until they bleed freely. The idea is that the disease, attracted by the -blood, passes along the line from the patient’s head, and is cast out -together with the blood. - -A very remarkable instance of this mode of cure is related in Tyerman -and Bennett’s “Voyage round the World.” A man had dreamed that he -had been speared in the side, and had died in consequence of the -wound. Although, when he woke, he knew it was but a dream, he was so -frightened that he became very ill, retired to his hut, chose the place -of his burial, and lay down to die. - -Nearly a week elapsed, during which he could take no food, grew worse -and worse, and it was plain that nature would not hold out much longer. -The priests--or rather sorcerers, for it cannot be ascertained that -the New Hollanders have any other kind of priests, having, in fact, -no religious worship--came to do what they could for him with their -enchantments. By their order he was carried down to the side of a -running water, and tumbled into the stream, where it was pretty deep, -head foremost. When taken out, he was rolled in the sand till his body -was quite encased with it. This again was washed off by pouring water -over him. - -“Meanwhile a young woman of the company was perceived plaiting a cord -of kangaroo’s hair, which, when completed, was bound round his chest, -and a knot, very cunningly implicated by one of the operators, was -placed over that part of his side into which the spear of his dream -had entered. From this knot a line was passed to the young woman who -had prepared the bandage. This she drew through her mouth backward and -forward (as children sometimes do with a piece of packthread) until -she began to spit blood, which was said to be sucked by that process -from the wound in the sick man’s side. _There_ it was now perceptible -that, from whatever cause, a considerable swelling had arisen under the -knot. Toward this one of the sorcerers began to stroke the man’s flesh -from all the adjacent regions of the back, belly, and chest, as though -to force the blood thither. He then applied his mouth to the swelling, -and, with hideous noises, sometimes sucked it with his lips, sometimes -pressed it violently with his hands, till _forth came the point of a -spear_, four inches in length, which he presented to the astonished -spectators and the expecting sufferer, as verily extracted from the -man’s side. - -“Then he applied his mouth again to the swollen part, from which, -although there was no visible wound, he appeared to draw blood and -corrupt matter, stains of both being soon seen on the swarthy skin. -At length, with distended cheeks, as though he had filled his mouth -with the abominable matter, he ran about, anxiously looking for a fit -place to discharge it upon; but, affecting to find none, he crossed -the water, and deposited the nauseous extract behind a bush. The poor -man’s hopes revived, and he now believed that he should get well again. -Mr. Dunlop thereupon sent him some tea, which, however, he would not -drink, but requested that it might be given to the sorcerer, and, if he -drank it, then it would do himself (the patient) good. He was deceived, -disappointed, and died.” - -The Australians are tolerably good surgeons in a rough-and-ready sort -of way, and are clever at setting broken limbs. After bringing the -broken ends of the bone together, they support the limb by several -pieces of wood which act as splints, and then make the whole secure by -bandages, which they often strengthen with gum, exactly as is done in -modern surgery. - -One of the most powerful remedies employed by the native practitioners -is the “doctor-stone.” This is nothing but a common quartz crystal; -but the doctors aver that they manufacture it themselves, and that -the ingredients are kept secret. Like the witarna, mentioned on page -747, women are never allowed even to look upon the doctor-stone, and -are impressed with the belief that, if they dared to set their eyes -upon the forbidden object, they would be immediately killed by its -radiant powers. The larger the crystal, the more valuable is it; and a -tolerably large one can scarcely be procured from the natives at any -price. - -The doctors say that this stone is not only fatal to women, but also -destroys men if flung at them with certain incantations. An European -settler once challenged a native doctor to say as many charms as he -liked, and throw the magic stone as much as he pleased. This offer, -however, he declined, giving the usual excuse of savages, that the -white man belonged to a totally different order of beings, and, -although the poor black fellow would die from the effects of the -doctor-stone, the white man was much too powerful to be hurt by it. - -The mode in which the crystal is used is very curious, and has been -described by an eye-witness. - -A native of the Tumat country, named Golong, was suffering from a spear -wound received in a skirmish with a hostile tribe, and was brought to -a bilbo, named Baramumbup, to be healed. The patient being laid on the -ground outside the encampment so that women could not run the risk of -death through the accidental sight of the crystal, the doctor began a -close examination of the wound, and sucked it. He then retired to a -distance from the patient, muttered some magic words for a minute or -so, and placed the crystal in his mouth. Having retained it there for -a short time, he removed it, spat on the ground, and with his feet -trampled on the saliva, pressing it deeply into the ground. This was -repeated several times, and the doctor took his leave. - -For several successive evenings the whole of the process was gone -through, and the recovery of the patient, which was really rapid, -was attributed by all parties to the wonderful efficacy of the -doctor-stone. “On making inquiry,” writes Dr. Bennett, “why the -physician is so careful in trampling the saliva discharged from his -mouth into the ground, no satisfactory reason could be obtained, a -vague answer only being returned to the query. But it is not improbable -that they consider, by this practice, that they finally destroy the -power of the evil spirit, extracted by the operation through the -virtues of the stone. Some such reason for this proceeding may be -inferred from an observation made to any European who may be present at -this part of the ceremony, ‘that he (_i. e._ the disease) may not come -up again.’” - -It is remarkable that a ceremony almost exactly identical in principle -is employed by the Guaycura tribe of Brazil. Among them the doctors, or -payés, cure local ailments, whether wounds or otherwise, by sucking the -part affected, spitting into a hole dug in the ground, and then filling -in the earth, as if to bury the complaint. - -The Australian doctors make great use of the principle of suction, and -employ it in all kinds of cases. If, for example, a patient has a bad -pain in his stomach from overeating, or suffers more than he thinks -right from the blow of a waddy, the doctor sucks at the afflicted part -vigorously, and at last produces from his mouth a piece of bone, or -some other hard substance, which he asserts to be the concentrated -essence of the pain, or other ailment. The reader may remark that the -bones with which the gums of youths are lanced in the ceremonies of -initiation are supposed to be produced from the bodies of the operators -by means of suction. - -A very remarkable curative agent is shown in the illustration No. 3, -page 765, which is taken from a sketch by Mr. Baines. It consists -of a stone building, which at first sight looks so like an ordinary -Druidical remain that it might be taken for one, except for its -dimensions. Instead, however, of being composed of huge stones, each -weighing several tons, it is quite a tiny edifice, scarcely larger than -the grotto which children erect with oyster-shells. The patient lies -in, or rather under it, the aperture being just wide enough to admit -his body, and the small roof only covering a very small portion of -the inmate. Sundry superstitious rites are employed at the same time, -and the remedy is efficacious, like the crystal already mentioned, in -consequence of enlisting the imagination of the sufferer. - -These little buildings are found along the Victoria River, and for a -considerable time the object for which they were built greatly puzzled -the discoverers. - -A medicine scarcely less efficacious than the doctor’s stone is human -fat, which is carefully preserved, and administered by being rubbed in -and around the affected part. As, however, it is highly valued by the -warriors it is not easily procured, and, had it to be taken solely from -the bodies of slain enemies, would in all probability never be used -at all. The efficacy of this repulsive remedy does not depend on the -individual from whom it is taken, that of a child or woman being quite -as useful as that of a warrior. - -According to Mr. G. T. Lloyd, the practice of deserting the helpless -is found in Australia as well as in other countries, and is practised -exactly as is the case in Africa. When a person is ill the relations, -as a rule, do not trouble themselves to visit the sick person, and, -when there is no apparent hope of recovery, a supply of food and firing -enough to last them for several days is left near them, and they are -then abandoned to their fate. Even in the case of poor old Tarmeenia, -mentioned on page 747, the son, although he carried his wounded father -more than four miles in order to place him in safety, never once came -to see him. - -Seeing that the natives place such implicit faith in the healing power -of the doctor’s stone, it is natural that they should also believe in -sundry charms as preservatives against disease and misfortune. One of -these charms is a sort of girdle, several inches wide in the middle, -and tapering to a mere thong at each end. If it be made of string -prepared from the bulrush root, it is called Taara or Kuretti; and if -made of human hair, it goes by the name Godlotti. It is used more as a -curative than a preventive, and is mostly found among the tribes of the -lower Murray River. The hair, when twisted into thread, is wound upon a -curious spindle, consisting of two slender pieces of wood placed across -each other at right angles. - -Another charm is shown in the illustration No. 2, on the 765th page, -slung round the neck of the boy. It is the beak of the black swan, -which, from its scarlet color, contrasts well with the black skin of -the wearer. The little boy’s name is Rimmilliperingery, and Mr. G. -F. Angas remarks that he was an engaging little fellow, and had the -largest and softest pair of dark eyes that could be imagined. The -elder figure is that of a young man named Tyilkilli, belonging to the -Parnkalla tribe of Port Lincoln. He has been selected as a favorable -example of the Australian young man in good circumstances, well-fed, -careless, and gay with the unthinking happiness of mere animal life, -which finds a joy in the very fact of existence. - -Among many of the tribes may be seen a strange sort of ornament, or -rather utensil; namely, a drinking-cup made of a human skull. It is -slung on cords and carried by them, and the owner takes it wherever he -or she goes. These ghastly utensils are made from the skulls of the -nearest and dearest relatives; and when an Australian mother dies, -it is thought right that her daughter should form the skull of her -mother into a drinking-vessel. The preparation is simple enough. The -lower jaw is removed, the brains are extracted, and the whole of the -skull thoroughly cleaned. A rope handle made of bulrush fibre is then -attached to it, and it is considered fit for use. It is filled with -water through the vertebral aperture, into which a wisp of grass is -always stuffed, so as to prevent the water from being spilled. - -Inconsistency is ever the attribute of savage minds. Although they -consider that to convert the skull of a parent into a drinking vessel, -and to carry it about with them, is an important branch of filial -duty, they seem to have no very deep feelings on the subject. In fact, -a native named Wooloo sold his mother’s skull for a small piece of -tobacco. His mind was evidently not comprehensive enough to admit two -ideas together, and the objective idea of present tobacco was evidently -more powerful than the comparative abstraction of filial reverence. - -Mr. Angas saw one which was carried by a little girl ten years of -age. Like “Little Nell,” she was in attendance upon an old and infirm -grandfather, and devoted her little life to him. In nothing was the -difference of human customs shown more plainly than in the use of the -mother’s skull as a drinking vessel--an act which we should consider as -the acme of heathen brutality, but with these aborigines is held to be -a duty owed by the child to the parent. - -Perhaps my classical readers will remember a chapter in Herodotus which -bears on this very subject. He finds fault with Cambyses for breaking -into the temples of the Cabeiri, burning their idols, and so hurting -the religious feelings of the people; and remarks that he was wary in -offending against any religious sentiment, however absurd it might -appear to himself. He then proceeds to tell an anecdote of Darius, who -had at his court some “Indians called Callatians,” and some Greeks. He -asked the Greeks (who always burned their dead, as the Hindoos do now), -what bribe would induce them to eat the bodies of their dead parents, -and they naturally replied that for no bribe could they perform so -horrible a deed. Then, in the presence of the Greeks, he asked the -Callatians, who ate their dead (as several savage nations do now), for -what sum they would consent to burn the bodies of their dead. They, as -it appears from the style of their answer, were even more shocked than -the Greeks at the idea of such horrible sacrilege, and would not deign -to give a direct answer, but begged Darius to “speak words of good -omen.” (See _Thalia_, xxxvii. 8.) - -A somewhat similar proceeding is narrated in the life of -Nussir-er-deen, the late king of Oude. His native ministers, jealous -of the influence exercised over him by some of his European friends, -complained that the English guests treated the monarch with disrespect, -by retaining their shoes in his royal presence. The king, who, -enervated as he was by vanity, dissipation, self-indulgence, and -flattery, was no fool, immediately proposed a compromise. “Listen to -me, nawab; and you, general, listen to me. The King of England is my -master, and these gentlemen would go into his presence with their shoes -on. Shall they not come into mine, then? Do they come before me with -their hats on? Answer me, your excellency.” - -“They do not, your majesty.” - -“No, that is _their_ way of showing respect. _They_ take off their -hats, and _you_ take off your shoes. But come now, let us have a -bargain. Wallah! but I will get them to take off their shoes and leave -them without, as you do, if you will take off your turban and leave -it without, as they do.” (See Knighton’s “Private Life of an Eastern -King.”) - -We now come naturally to the burial of the dead, and the various -ceremonies which accompany the time of mourning. Although the relatives -seem so careless about the sick person, they really keep a watch, and, -as soon as death actually takes place, they announce the fact by loud -cries. The women are the principal mourners, and they continue to -sob and shriek and moan until they are forced to cease from absolute -exhaustion. They cut their bodies until the blood streams freely -from their wounds, and some of them chop their own heads with their -tomahawks until their shoulders and bodies are covered with blood. - -The reader will probably have noticed how widely spread is this custom -of wounding the body as a sign of mourning, and especially as a -lamentation for the dead. We have seen that it exists in Africa, and we -shall see that it is practised in many other countries. That it was -practised in ancient days by the people among whom the Jews lived, we -see from several passages of Scripture. See for example Deut. xiv. 1: -“Ye shall not cut yourselves, nor make any baldness between your eyes -for the dead.” Also Jer. xvi. 6: “They shall not be buried, neither -shall men lament for them, nor cut themselves, nor make themselves -bald for them.” There is also the well-known passage concerning the -sacrifice that the priests of Baal offered, in the course of which they -“cut themselves after their manner with knives and lancets, till the -blood gushed out upon them.” - -The body is not disposed of at once, but is suffered to remain for -a considerable time, during which decomposition takes place, and is -allowed to work its course until the flesh is separated from the bones. -The body is watched carefully during the night; and if a passing meteor -should appear in the sky, the people shout and wave firebrands in order -to drive away a certain evil spirit named _Yúmburbar_, which is thought -to be the real though invisible cause of death and all calamities, and -to haunt the spot where a dead body lies for the purpose of feeding -upon it. - -When decomposition has done its work, the bones are carefully -collected, cleaned, and painted red, after which they are wrapped up -in bark, and carried about with the tribe for a time. This term being -fulfilled, they are finally disposed of in various ways, according to -the customs of the tribe to which they belonged. Some tribes scoop -holes in soft rocks, and place the remains therein, while others prefer -hollow trees for that purpose. Sometimes the body is placed in the cave -without being reduced to a skeleton, and in some places the soil is -of such a nature that the body becomes dried before decomposition can -proceed very far. During the Exhibition of 1862 one of these desiccated -bodies was exhibited in England, and called the “petrified” man. It -was, however, nothing but a shrivelled and dried-up body, such as is -often found in very dry soils. - -Near the Murrumbidgee River, in the Wellington Valley, there is a -remarkable stalactitic cavern, divided into several “halls.” This -cavern is, or has been, a favorite burying-place of the aborigines, who -seem to have employed it for the same purpose that Abraham purchased -the cave of Machpelah. In consequence of the use of the cavern as a -burial place, the natives are rather nervous about entering it, and -they flatly refuse to venture into the darker recesses, for fear of -the “dibbil-dibbil.” When Dr. Bennett visited it in 1832, he found in -a small side cave the skeleton of a woman. The bones had been placed -there nearly twenty years before. - -The Parnkalla and Nauo tribes have another mode of burial, which -somewhat resembles that which is employed by the Bechuanas. The body -is placed in a crouching or squatting position, such as is employed -by the natives when sitting, the knees being drawn up to the chin, the -legs close to the body, and the hands clasped over the legs. Examples -of this attitude may be seen in many of the illustrations. A circular -pit or grave, about five feet in depth, is then dug, and after the body -is lowered into the pit a number of sticks are laid over the grave, -nearly touching one another. A thick layer of leaves and another of -grass are then placed on the sticks, and over all is heaped the earth -which has been dug out of the pit, so that the grave looks something -like a huge anthill. - -In Northern Australia the natives have a curious method of disposing -of the dead. They gather the skulls together, and heap them into -a circular mound, placing stones round them to keep them in their -places. They do not cover the skulls, but make the tomb in an open and -conspicuous place. Such a tomb is illustrated on page 765. - -The blacks of the Clarence River build monuments which are somewhat -similar in appearance, but are made of different materials. They place -a number of stones in a circle, and in the centre they erect an upright -slab of stone. They can give no reason for this custom, but only say -that “black-fella make it so,” or “it belong to black-fella.” The -former reply signifies that the custom has always prevailed among the -natives; and the second, that the tomb shows that a native lies buried -beneath the upright stone. - -Some of the tribes along the Clarence River have a curious mode of -disposing of the dead--a mode which certainly has its advantages in its -great economy of trouble. When an old man feels that the hand of death -is on him, he looks out for a hollow tree, climbs it, lets himself down -to the bottom of the hollow, and so dies in his tomb. - -In New South Wales the young people are buried beneath small tumuli, -but the adults are buried in a rather curious fashion. A pile of dry -wood, leaves, &c. is built, about three feet in height and six or seven -in length. On the pile the body is laid on its back, having the face -directed toward the rising sun. The fishing apparatus, spears, and -other weapons and implements of the dead man are next laid on the pile, -and the body is then covered over with large logs of wood. The pile is -fired by the nearest relative, and on the following day, when the place -is cool, the ashes of the dead are collected, and carefully buried. - -Should a woman die, leaving an unweaned child, the poor little creature -is buried together with the ashes of its mother. The natives defend -this practice as a humane one, saying, with savage justice, that it is -better to kill the child speedily than to allow it to pine to death -from starvation. - -As is the case with many tribes in different parts of the world, -as soon as any one dies the name borne by the deceased is no more -mentioned. So strictly is this rule observed, that if another member of -the tribe should happen to bear the same name, it must be abandoned, -and a new name taken, by which the bearer will ever afterward be known. - -Mr. Angas, to whom we are indebted for so much of our knowledge of the -Australians, gives an interesting account of the burial of a boy, as -described to him by an eye-witness: - -“Previously to burying the corpse of the boy, a contest with clubs and -spears took place, but no injury was done to the parties engaged. The -body was placed in a bark canoe, cut to the proper length, a spear, -a fishing-spear, and a throwing-stick, with several other articles, -being placed besides the corpse. The women and children made great -lamentations during the ceremony, and the father stood apart, a picture -of silent grief. - -“The canoe was placed on the heads of two natives, who proceeded with -it slowly toward the grave; some of the attendants waving tufts of -dried grass backward and forward under the canoe and amongst the bushes -as they passed along. The grave being dug, a native strewed it with -grass, and stretched himself at full length in the grave, first on his -back and then on his side. As they were about to let down the child -into the grave, they first pointed to the deceased and then to the -skies, as though they had a vague idea that the spirit had ascended to -another world. - -“The body was then laid in the grave, with the face looking toward -the rising sun, and, in order that the sunshine might fall upon the -spot, care was taken to cut down all shrubs around that could in any -way obstruct its beams. Branches were placed over the grave, grass and -boughs on them, and the whole was crowned with a log of wood, on which -a native extended himself for some minutes, with his face to the sky.” - -At the beginning of this description is mentioned a sham fight. This is -held in consequence of a curious notion prevalent among the aborigines, -that death from natural causes must be ransomed with blood. It suffices -if blood be drawn even from a friend, and the mode by which they make -the required offering, and at the same time gratify their combative -nature, is by getting up a sham fight, in which some one is nearly sure -to be wounded more or less severely. - -Sometimes the body of the dead man is disposed of rather oddly. In some -parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the body by fire, -or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a peculiarly conspicuous -object. Should a tree grow favorably for their purpose, they will -employ it as the final resting-place of the dead body. Lying in its -canoe coffin, and so covered over with leaves and grass that its shape -is quite disguised, the body is lifted into a convenient fork of the -tree, and lashed to the boughs by native ropes. No further care is -taken of it, and if, in process of time, it should be blown out of the -tree, no one will take the trouble of replacing it. - -Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial platform -is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches in the -ground, and connecting them at their tops by smaller horizontal -branches. Such are the curious tombs which are represented in the -illustration No. 3, on page 775. These strange tombs are mostly placed -among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful than the sound of -the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch in which the corpse -is lying. The object of this aerial tomb is evident enough, namely, to -protect the corpse from the dingo, or native dog. That the ravens and -other carrion-eating birds should make a banquet upon the body of the -dead man does not seem to trouble the survivors in the least, and it -often happens that the traveller is told by the croak of the disturbed -ravens that the body of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over -his head. - -The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who have -died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in battle the -body is treated in a very different manner. A moderately high platform -is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the dead warrior, -with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are crossed, and the -arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is then removed, and, -after being mixed with red ochre, is rubbed over the body, which has -previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is done in the ceremony -of initiation. The legs and arms are covered with zebra-like stripes of -red, white, and yellow, and the weapons of the dead man are laid across -his lap. - -The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform, -and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the -friends and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to -speak. Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their duty -being to see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to keep the -flies away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu feathers. When a -body has been treated in this manner, it becomes hard and mummy-like, -and the strangest point is, that the wild dogs will not touch it after -it has been so long smoked. It remains sitting on the platform for two -months or so, and is then taken down and buried, with the exception of -the skull, which is made into a drinking-cup for the nearest relative, -as has already been mentioned. - -[Illustration: (1.) CARVED FEATHER BOX, NEW ZEALAND. (See page 813.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) SMOKING THE BODIES OF SLAIN WARRIORS. (See page -777.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) TREE TOMBS OF AUSTRALIA. (See page 774.)] - -Considering the trouble which is taken in the preparation of these -bodies, and the evident respect which is felt for a brave warrior -in death as well as in life, the after treatment of them is very -remarkable. When a friend, or even an individual of the same tribe, -sees one of these mummified bodies for the first time, he pays no honor -to it, but loads it with reproaches, abusing the dead man for dying -when the tribe stood in such need of brave and skilful men, and saying -that he ought to have known better than to die when there was plenty of -food in the country. Then, after contemplating the body for some time, -he hurls his spear and club at it, crying out at the same time, “Why -did you die? Take that for dying.” - -In the illustration No. 2, on page 775, two of these bodies are seen -seated on the platform, supported by being tied to the uprights by -their hands and heads, and having their weapons in their laps. On one -side is one of the sentinels engaged in driving away the flies with his -flapper, and on the other is a second sentinel bringing fuel for the -fire. The seated figures belong to the same tribe. - -Around Portland Bay, and toward the south-eastern parts of the -continent, the natives have a curious combination of entombment and -burning. They let the dead body down into one of the hollow trees, -where it is supported in an upright position. A quantity of dry leaves -and grass is then heaped upon the tree, and the whole consumed by fire, -amid the dismal screams and cries of the women. - -It is rather curious that funeral ceremonies are only employed in the -case of those whose death is supposed to be a loss to the tribe. Men, -and even boys, are therefore honored with funeral rites, because the -younger men are warriors, the boys would have been warriors, and the -old men have done service by arms, and are still useful for their -wisdom. Even young women are buried with some amount of show, because -they produce children for the tribe. - -But of all beings an old woman is most utterly despised. She can render -no service; she has never been considered as anything but a mere -domesticated animal, and even for domestic purposes she has ceased to -be useful. When she dies, therefore, no one regrets her. She is nothing -but a useless burden on her people, consuming food which she does not -earn, and sitting by the fire when the younger women are engaged in -work. It is nothing to them that she has worn herself out in the hard, -thankless, and never ceasing labor which constitutes the life of an -Australian woman, and so when she dies her body is drawn away out of -the camp by the heels, and stuffed away hastily in some hollow tree -or cave that may be most convenient. Sometimes the body is laid on a -bough, as has already been described; but even in such a case it is -merely laid on the branch, without being placed in a canoe, or covered -with matting, boughs, and leaves, as is the case with the bodies of -men. The corpse is allowed to remain on the branch until it falls to -pieces; and when any of her relatives choose to take the trouble, they -will scrape a hole in the sand and bury the scattered bones. - -The shee-oak, or casuarina, is the tree which is generally selected -for this purpose, partly because it is one of the commonest trees of -Australia, and partly because the peculiar growth of its boughs affords -a firm platform for the corpse. - -The time of mourning does not cease with the funeral, nor, in case of a -tree-tomb, with the subsequent interment of the bones. At stated times -the women, by whom the mourning is chiefly performed, visit the tomb, -and with their kattas, or digging-sticks, peck up the earth around -them, and make the place look neat. This done they sit down and utter -their most doleful cries and lamentations. In some places they content -themselves with vocal lamentations, but in others the women think it -necessary to show their grief by repeating the head chopping, limb -scarring, and other marks of blood-letting which accompany that portion -of the funeral ceremonies. - -In one part of Australia, near the north-west bend of the Murray, -a most remarkable custom prevails. Widows attend upon the tombs of -their dead husbands, and, after shaving their heads, cover them with -pipe-clay kneaded into a paste. The head is first covered with a net, -to prevent the pipe-clay from sticking too tightly to the skin, a -misfortune which is partly averted by the amount of grease with which -every Australian is anointed. - -A layer of this clay more than an inch in thickness is plastered -over the head, and when dry it forms a skull-cap exactly fitting the -head on which it was moulded, and on account of its weight, which is -several pounds, must be very uncomfortable to the wearer. These badges -of mourning may be found lying about near the tumuli, and, until -their real use was discovered, they were very mysterious objects to -travellers. In the illustration No. 1, on the 781st page, is seen a -burying place near the river. Several of the mound tombs of the natives -are shown, and in the foreground are two widows, seated in the peculiar -attitude of Australian women, and wearing the widow’s cap of pipe-clay. -Several other caps are lying near the tombs, having been already -employed in the ceremonies of mourning. - -So careful are the natives of the marks of respect due from the -survivors to the dead, that a widow belonging to one of the tribes on -the Clarence River was put to death because she neglected to keep in -order the tomb of her late husband, and to dig up periodically the -earth around it. - - * * * * * - -From the disposal of the dead, we are naturally led to the religious -belief of the Australians. Like all savages, they are very reticent -about their religious feelings, concealing as far as possible their -outward observances from the white people, and avowing ignorance, if -questioned respecting the meaning of those which have become known -to the strangers. Some observances, however, have been explained by -Gi’ôm, the unfortunate Scotch woman who had to reside so long among the -Kowráregas, and others by native converts to Christianity. Even these -latter have not been able to shake off the superstitious ideas which -they had contracted through the whole of their previous lives, and -there is no doubt that they concealed much from their interrogators, -and, if pressed too closely, wilfully misled them. - -The following short account will, however, give an idea of the state of -religious feeling among the aborigines, as far as can be ascertained. -And, in consequence of the rapid and steady decrease of the native -tribes, it is possible that our knowledge of this subject will never be -greater than it is at present. - -In the first place, there are no grounds for thinking that the -aborigines believe in any one Supreme Deity, nor, in fact, in a deity -of any kind whatever. As is usual with most savage nations, their -belief in supernatural beings is limited to those who are capable of -doing mischief, and, although the conception of a beneficent spirit -which will do good never seems to enter an Australian’s mind, he -believes fully, in his misty fashion, in the existence of many evil -spirits which will do harm. - -Of these there are many. One of them is the _Arlak_, a being which -takes the shape of a man. It is only seen at night, and is in the habit -of watching for stragglers in the dark, seizing them and carrying -them off. Several natives told Mr. M’Gillivray that they had seen the -arlak; and one man, who had summoned enough courage to fight it when -it attacked him, showed the marks of the demon’s teeth upon his body. -Fortunately, the arlak cannot endure light, and therefore the natives, -if they have to go the smallest distance in the dark, take a fire-stick -in one hand and a weapon of some sort in the other. - -One kind of evil spirit, which is very much dreaded by the aborigines, -is the one in whom death is personified. He is short, thick, very ugly, -and has a disagreeable smell. The natives of the Moorundi district -believe in a native spirit, wonderfully similar in attributes to the -Necker of German mythology. Although, according to their accounts, it -is very common, they have great difficulty in describing it, and, as -far as can be ascertained from their statements, it is like a huge -star-fish. This demon inhabits the fresh water, or there might have -been grounds for believing it to be merely an exaggeration of the -cuttle-fish. - -Throughout the greater part of Australia is found the belief in the -Bunyip, a demon which infests woods, and which has been seen, as is -said, not only by natives but by white men. The different accounts of -the animal vary extremely. Some who have seen it aver it to be as large -as a horse, to have a pair of eyes as big as saucers, and a pair of -enormous horns. - -Others give a very different account of it, and one of the Barrabool -Hill natives gave a very animated description of the dreaded bunyip. -He illustrated his lecture by a spirited drawing, in which the bunyip -was represented as having a long neck and head, something like that of -the giraffe, a thick flowing mane, and two short and massive fore-legs, -each of which was armed with four powerful talons. The entire body was -covered with strong scales, overlapping each other like those of the -hawksbill turtle. This creature he represented as half beast, half -demon, and vaunted the superior courage of his ancestors, who ventured -to oppose this terrible creature as it lay in wait for their wives and -children, and drove it out of the reeds and bush into the water whence -it came. - -Thinking that some large and now extinct beast might have lived in -Australia, which might have been traditionally known to the aborigines, -scientific men have taken particular pains to ransack those portions -of the country which they could reach, in hopes of finding remains -which might be to Australia what those of the megatherium and other -huge monsters are to the Old World. Nothing of the kind has, however, -been found. Some very large bones were once discovered on the banks of -a shallow salt lagoon (just the place for the bunyip), but when sent -to the British Museum they were at once found to be the remains of a -gigantic kangaroo. At present, the legend of the bunyip stands on a -level with that of the kraken--every native believes it, some aver that -they have seen it, but no one has ever discovered the least tangible -proof of its existence. - -To these evil spirits the natives attribute every illness or -misfortune, and in consequence are anxious to avoid or drive them -away. All meteors are reckoned by them among the evil spirits, and are -fancifully thought to be ghosts which multiply by self-division. The -aborigines think, however, that by breathing as loudly as they can, and -repeating some cabalistic words, they disarm the demons of their power. - -They have one very curious belief,--namely, that any one who ventured -to sleep on the grave of a deceased person, he would ever afterward -be freed from the power of evil spirits. The ordeal is, however, so -terrible that very few summon up sufficient courage to face it. “During -that awful sleep the spirit of the deceased would visit him, seize him -by the throat, and, opening him, take out his bowels, which it would -afterward replace, and close up the wound! Such as are hardy enough to -go through this terrible ordeal--encounter the darkness of the night -and the solemnity of the grave--are thenceforth ‘koradjee’ men, or -priests, and practise sorcery and incantations upon the others of their -tribe.” - -In Southern Australia, the natives believe that the sun and moon -are human beings, who once inhabited the earth. The planets are -dogs belonging to the moon, who run about her; and the various -constellations are groups of children. An eclipse of either the sun -or moon is looked upon as a terrible calamity, being sure to be the -forerunner of disease and death. - -All burial-places of the dead are held as liable to be haunted by evil -spirits, and are therefore avoided. Promontories, especially those -which have rocky headlands, are also considered as sacred; and it is -probably on account of that idea that the skull monuments, mentioned on -page 773, are raised. - -Some of these places are rendered interesting by specimens of native -drawings, showing that the aborigines of Australia really possess the -undeveloped elements of artistic power. Owing to the superstition -which prevails, the natives can scarcely be induced to visit such -spots, giving as their reason for refusing that “too much dibbil-dibbil -walk there.” Mr. Angas was fortunate enough, however, to discover a -considerable number of these drawings and carvings, and succeeded in -impressing into his service an old native woman. His description is so -vivid, that it must be given in his own words:-- - -“The most important result of our rambles around the bays and rocky -promontories of Port Jackson was the discovery of a new and remarkable -feature connected with the history of the natives formerly inhabiting -this portion of New South Wales. - -“I refer to their carvings in outline, cut into the surface of flat -rocks in the neighborhood, and especially on the summits of the various -promontories about the harbors of the coast. Although these carvings -exist in considerable numbers, covering all the flat rocks upon many -of the headlands overlooking the water, it is a singular fact that up -to the present time they appear to have remained unobserved; and it -was not until my friend Mr. Miles first noticed the rude figure of a -kangaroo cut upon the surface of a flat rock near Camp Cove, that we -were led to make a careful search for these singular and interesting -remains of a people who are now nearly extinct. - -“About a dozen natives of the Sydney and Broken Bay tribes were -encamped amongst the bushes on the margin of a small fresh-water lake, -close to Camp Cove; and from amongst them we selected ‘Old Queen -Gooseberry’ (as she is generally styled by the colonists) to be our -guide, promising her a reward of flour and tobacco if she would tell us -what she knew about these carvings, and conduct us to all the rocks and -headlands in the neighborhood where like figures existed. At first the -old woman objected, saying that such places were all _koradjee_ ground, -or ‘priest’s ground,’ and that she must not visit them; but at length, -becoming more communicative, she told us all she knew, and all that she -had heard her father say, respecting them. She likewise consented at -last to guide us to several spots near the North Land, where she said -the carvings existed in greater numbers; as also the impressions of -hands upon the sides of high rocks. - -“With some difficulty we prevailed upon the haggard old creature to -venture with us into a whale-boat; so, with Queen Gooseberry for our -guide, we crossed to the North Land. After examining the flat rocks -in every direction, we found sufficient examples of these singular -outlines to confirm at once the opinion that they were executed by the -aboriginal inhabitants; but at what period is quite uncertain. From -the half-obliterated state of many of them (although the lines are cut -nearly an inch deep into the hard rock), and from the fact that from -several of them we were compelled to clear away soil and shrubs of -long-continued growth, it is evident that they have been executed a -very long time. - -“At first we could not bring ourselves to believe that these carvings -were the work of savages, and we conjectured that the figure of the -kangaroo might have been the work of some European; but when, pursuing -our researches further, we found all the most out-of-the-way and least -accessible headlands adorned with similar carvings, and also that -the whole of the subjects represented _indigenous_ objects--such as -kangaroos, opossums, sharks, the _heileman_ or shield, the boomerang, -and, above all, the human figure _in the attitudes of the corrobboree -dances_--we could come to no other conclusion than that they were of -native origin. Europeans would have drawn ships, and horses, and men -with hats upon their heads, had they attempted such a laborious and -tedious occupation. - -“An old writer on New South Wales, about the year 1803, remarks, -when referring to the natives, ‘They have some taste for sculpture, -most of their instruments being carved with rude work, effected with -pieces of broken shell; and _on the rocks_ are frequently to be seen -various figures of _fish_, _clubs_, _swords_, _animals_, _&c._, not -contemptibly represented.’ - -“Some of the figures of fish measured twenty-five feet in length; -and it is curious that the representations of the shield exactly -corresponded with that used by the natives of Port Stephens at the -present day. These sculptured forms prove that the New Hollanders -exercised the art of design, which has been questioned, and they also -serve to corroborate Captain Grey’s discoveries of native delineations -in caves upon the north-west coast of Australia, during his expedition -of discovery. At Lane Cove, at Port Aiken, and at Point Piper, we also -met with similar carvings. Whilst on a visit at the latter place, -it occurred to me that on the flat rocks at the extremity of the -grounds belonging to the estate where I was staying, there might be -carvings similar to those at the Heads; and on searching carefully -I found considerable numbers of them in a tolerably perfect state -of preservation. Of all these I took measurements, and made careful -fac-simile drawings on the spot.” - -In the appendix to his work, Mr. Angas gives reduced copies of -these figures, some of which are executed with wonderful spirit and -fidelity. Even the human figures, which are shown with extended arms -and spread legs, as in the dance, are far better than those usually -drawn by savages, infinitely superior to those produced by the -artists of Western Africa, while some of the animals are marvellously -accurate, reminding the observer of the outline drawings upon Egyptian -monuments. The best are, perhaps, a shark and a kangaroo. The latter is -represented in the attitude of feeding. - -In some parts of Australia, the carvings and paintings are usually in -caves by the water’s edge, and of such a character is the cave which is -shown in the illustration No. 2, on the following page. These caves are -in sandstone rock, and the figures upon them are mostly those of men -and kangaroos, and it is a remarkable fact that in the human figures, -although their eyes, noses, and even the joints of the knees, are -boldly marked, the mouth is invariably absent. - -Human hands and arms are often carved on rocks. One very remarkable -example was discovered by Captain Grey in North-West Australia. When -penetrating into a large cave, out of which ran a number of smaller -caves, the explorers were struck by a really astonishing trick of -native art. The sculptor had selected a rock at the side of the cavity, -and had drawn upon it the figure of a hand and arm. This had then been -painted black, and the rock around it colored white with pipe-clay, so -that on entering the cave it appeared exactly as if the hand and arm of -a black man were projecting through some crevice which admitted light. - -Their belief in ghosts implies a knowledge that the spirit of man is -immortal. Yet their ideas on this subject are singularly misty, not to -say inconsistent, one part of their belief entirely contradicting the -other. They believe, for example, that when the spirit leaves the body, -it wanders about for some time in darkness, until at last it finds a -cord, by means of which a “big black-fella spirit” named Oomudoo pulls -it up from the earth. Yet they appropriate certain parts of the earth -as the future residence of the different tribes, the spirits of the -departed Nauos being thought to dwell in the islands of Spencer’s Gulf, -while those of the Parnkallas go to other islands toward the west. As -if to contradict both ideas, we have already seen that throughout the -whole of Australia the spirits of the dead are supposed to haunt the -spots where their bodies lie buried. - -And, to make confusion worse confounded, the aborigines believe very -firmly in transmigration, some fancying that the spirits of the -departed take up their abode in animals, but by far the greater number -believing that they are transformed into white men. This latter belief -was put very succinctly by a native, who stated in the odd jargon -employed by them, that “when black-fella tumble down, he jump up all -same white-fella.” - -This idea of transmigration into the forms of white men is very -remarkable, as it is shared by the negro of Africa, who could not have -had any communication with the black native of Australia. And, still -more strangely, like the Africans, they have the same word for a white -man and for a spirit. The reader may remember that when Mrs. Thompson -was captured by the natives, one of them declared that she was his -daughter Gi’ôm, who had become a white woman, and the rest of the tribe -coincided in the belief. Yet, though she became for the second time a -member of the tribe, they always seemed to feel a sort of mistrust, and -often, when the children were jeering at her on account of her light -complexion and ignorance of Australian accomplishments, some elderly -person would check them, and tell them to leave her in peace, as, poor -thing, she was nothing but a ghost. - -It has been found, also, that numbers of white persons have been -recognized by the blacks as being the spirits of their lost relatives, -and have in consequence been dignified with the names of those whom -they represented. Mr. M’Gillivray mentions that the natives of Port -Essington have a slight modification of this theory, believing that -after death they become Malays. - -Of their belief in the metempsychosis, or transmigration into animal -forms, there are but few examples. Dr. Bennett mentions that on one -occasion, at Bérana Plains, when an European was chasing one of the -native animals, a native who was with him begged him not to kill it, -but to take it alive, as it was “him brother.” When it was killed, he -was very angry, and, as a proof his sincerity, refused to eat any of -it, continually grumbling and complaining of the “tumbling down him -brother.” - -[Illustration: (1.) AUSTRALIAN WIDOWS AND THEIR CAPS. (See page 777.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CAVE WITH NATIVE DRAWINGS. (See page 780.)] - -The Nauo tribe preserve a tradition which involves this metempsychosis. -Once upon a time, a certain great warrior, named Willoo, fought their -tribe, and carried off all the women, and killed all the men except -two. The survivors climbed up a great tree, followed by Willoo. They, -however, broke off the branch on which he was climbing, so that he fell -to the ground, and was seized by a dingo below, when he immediately -died, and was changed into an eagle hawk, which has ever afterward been -called by the name of Willoo. - -The same tribe think that a small lizard was the originator of the -sexes, and in consequence call it by different names; the men using the -term _ibirri_, and the women _waka_. Following up the idea, the men -kill every male lizard that they can find, while the women do the same -by the females. - -Connected with this subject is their idea of creation. Of a single -Creator of all things they have not the least notion, but they possess -some traditions as to the origin of men or natural objects. The -Kowrárega tribe say that the first created man was a huge giant named -Adi. One day, while he was fishing off Hammond Island, he was caught by -the tide and drowned, a great rock starting up to mark the spot. This -is now called Hammond’s Rock. His wives saw his fate, committed suicide -by flinging themselves into the sea, and were immediately changed into -a series of dry rocks on a neighboring reef. These rocks are still -called by the natives _Ipīle_, _i. e._ the Wives. - -The natives of the Lower Murray have a curious tradition respecting the -origin of the river, and the Alexandrina and Albert Lakes. The river -was made by Oomudoo, the “big black-fella spirit,” already mentioned. -He came down from the sky in his canoe, and ordered the water to rise -and form the river, which he then clothed with bulrushes and populated -with fish. He brought two wives with him, but they unfortunately proved -intractable, and ran away from him, whereupon Oomudoo made the two -lakes in question, one of which drowned each wife. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXVII. - -AUSTRALIA--_Concluded_ - -ARCHITECTURE AND BOAT-BUILDING. - - - PARALLEL BETWEEN THE BOSJESMAN AND THE AUSTRALIAN -- MODES OF - BUILDING HUTS -- A SUMMER ENCAMPMENT -- RUDE NATURE OF THE HUTS - -- RETREATS OF THE WOMEN -- BONE HUTS OF ENCOUNTER BAY -- WINTER - HOUSES -- HUTS NEAR THE COORUNG -- FIRE-MAKING -- BIRD-SNARING -- A - SELF-ACTING SNARE -- BOAT-BUILDING -- USES OF THE STRINGY BARK -- A - FRAIL VESSEL -- CANOE FOR GENERAL USE -- THE REED CANOE -- GRADUAL - EXTINCTION OF NATIVE TRIBES. - -In many points the Australian savage bears a curious resemblance to the -Bosjesman of Southern Africa, of whom a full account has already been -given at 242-268 page. - -So similar, indeed, are they, that the colonists use the word Bushman -to designate the native savage, just as they call the spotted dasyure -by the name of cat, and the wombat by that of badger. Much confusion -has consequently arisen; and there is now before me a book descriptive -of savage life, in which the author has mixed up the Bosjesman of -Africa and the Bushman of Australia in the most amusing manner, -actually transplanting a quotation from a book of African travels into -the account of Australia. - -Like the Bosjesman, the Australian depends upon his weapons for the -greater part of his food, living almost entirely upon the game which he -kills, and being skilled in the art of destroying the wariest and most -active of animals with the simplest of weapons. He lives in a state of -perpetual feud, his quarrels not being worthy of the name of warfare; -and his _beau idéal_ of a warrior is a man who steals upon his enemy by -craft, and kills his foe without danger to himself. - -He cultivates no land, neither has he the least notion of improving his -social condition. He cares nothing for clothes, except, perhaps, as a -partial shelter from the elements, and utterly ridicules the notion -that there is any connexion between clothing and modesty. - -Indeed, on one occasion, when a girl had been presented with a -petticoat by a white lady, and returned to her people, displaying with -pride her newly acquired property, her companions instead of displaying -envy at her finery, only jeered at her, inquiring whether she thought -herself so much better than her forefathers, that she should want to -wear clothes like the white strangers. The consequence was, that in a -day or two the solitary garment was thrown aside, and she walked about -as before, in the primitive accoutrements of her tribe. - -Like the African Bosjesman, the Australian native has no settled home, -although he considers himself as having a right to the district in -which his tribe have taken up their abode. Contrary to the usage of -civilized life, he is sensitive on the general question, and careless -in detail. With civilized beings the hearth and home take the first -place in the affections, the love of country being merely an extension -of the love of home. With the Australian, however, as well as the -Bosjesman, the case is just reversed. He has no home, and cares not for -any one spot more than another, except that some spots are sheltered -and others exposed. He passes a semi-nomad existence, not unlike that -of the Arab, save that instead of pitching his tent on a convenient -spot, and taking it away when he leaves it, he does not trouble himself -even to carry the simple materials of a tent, but builds a rude hut in -any spot which he may happen to fancy, and leaves it to decay when he -forsakes the spot. - -The chief object of the ordinary hut made by an Australian savage is -to defend the inmates from the cold south-west breezes. Consequently, -the entrances of the huts may be found, as a rule, turned toward the -north-east, whence come the warm winds that have passed over the -equator. - -The summer encampment (see page 787) of an Australian family is -very simple. A number of leafy boughs are stuck in the ground in a -semicircular form, the size of the enclosed space varying with the -number of the family. These boughs are seldom more than four feet in -height, and often scarcely exceed a yard, their only object being to -keep off the wind from the fire, and from the bodies of the natives as -they squat round the flame or lie asleep. That any one should expect -a shelter while he is standing never seems to enter the imagination -of an Australian savage, who, like other savages, never dreams of -standing when he can sit, or, indeed, of taking any trouble that is not -absolutely necessary. - -All the stories that are told of the industry of savage life are pure -inventions, and if labor be, as we are often told, the truest nobility, -we ought to hear no more of the “noble savage.” Consistently with this -idea, the native Australian’s only idea of the hut is a place where -he can sit and gorge himself with food, and lie down to sleep after -his enormous meal. A fence a yard in height is therefore quite good -enough for him, and, as long as no rain falls, he thinks a roof to be a -needless expenditure of labor. - -In the illustration referred to we have an example of an encampment -on which the natives have bestowed rather more care than usual, and -have actually taken the pains to form the branches into rude huts. The -spears, shields, and other weapons of the natives are seen scattered -about, while round the fire sit or lie the men who have satisfied their -hunger. The reader will perceive that from a little distance such an -encampment would be almost invisible; and, indeed, except by the thin -smoke of the fire, the most practised eye can scarcely detect the spot -where natives are encamping. Even the spears which project above the -bush huts look at a little distance merely like dried sticks; and, if -the inhabitants be very anxious to escape observation, they establish -their encampment in a retired spot, where the surrounding objects -harmonize as closely as possible with the rude shelter which answers -all their needs. - -In many places the natives construct a habitation similar in principle, -but differing in structure. Should the locality abound in the -eucalypytus, or stringy-bark tree, the natives make a hut altogether -different in appearance. With wonderful dexterity, they strip off the -bark of the tree in large flakes, six or seven feet in length. A few -large branches of trees are then laid on the ground, so that they form -a rough sort of framework, and upon these branches the flakes of bark -are laid. An hour’s labor will make one of these huts, so that the -natives have really no inducement to take any care of them. Even the -very best hut which a native Australian ever made would be inferior to -the handiwork of an English boy of ten years old. For my own part, I -remember building far better huts than those of the Australians, though -I was at the time much below ten years of age, and had gained all my -knowledge of practical architecture from “Sandford and Merton.” - -There is, however, one great advantage in these bark huts--namely, -the rapidity with which they can be made, and the shelter which they -really do give from the traveller’s great enemy, the night wind. Even -European travellers have been glad to avail themselves of these simple -structures, and have appreciated the invaluable aid of a few sheets -of bark propped against a fallen branch. Those who have been forced -to travel without tents through a houseless country have learned by -experience that the very best shelter from the night winds is not -height, but width. A tree, for example, forms but a very poor shelter, -while a low wall barely eighteen inches high and six feet in length -keeps off the wind, and enables the wearied traveller to rest in -comparative comfort. Such a shelter is easily made from the sheets -of stringy bark, one or two of which will form a shelter for several -sleepers. - -Perhaps the simplest huts that human beings ever dignified by the name -of habitation are those which are made by the women of a tribe when the -men are away. It sometimes happens that the whole of the adult males -go off on an expedition which will last for a considerable time--such, -for example, as a raid upon a neighboring tribe--leaving the women and -children to take care of themselves. These, knowing that they might -be pounced upon by enemies who would take advantage of the absence of -their defenders, retire into the recesses of the woods, where they -build the oddest houses imaginable, half burrows scraped among the -roots of trees, and half huts made of bark and decayed wood. These -habitations are so inconspicuous that even the practised eye of the -native can scarcely discover them. - -On the shores of Encounter Bay may be seen some very curious -habitations. Every now and then a whale is thrown ashore by a tempest; -and in such a case the tribes of the neighborhood flock round it with -great rejoicings, seeing in it an unlimited supply of food. Huge as -the animal may be, it is ere long consumed, and nothing left but the -skeleton. Of the bones the natives make the framework of their huts, -the ends of the ribs being fixed in the ground, so that the bones form -the supports of the arched roof, which is nothing more than boughs, -grass, and matting thrown almost at random upon the bony framework. - -During the winter time the native huts are of better construction, -although the best hut that an Australian ever made is but a very rude -and primitive specimen of architecture. These winter huts are made on -the same principle as those employed in summer, but the materials are -more closely put together. The framework of these huts is made by -sticking a number of saplings in the ground, and tying them together. -Smaller branches and twigs are then passed in and out of the uprights, -and pressed down to make a tolerably firm wall. Over the wall comes a -layer of large leaves, and an outer covering of tea-tree bark is placed -over the trees, and held in its place by a lashing of rattan. These -houses are about five feet in height, and have an arched opening just -large enough for a man to enter on his hands and knees. - -Such huts as these, however, are but seldom seen, the ordinary winter -dwellings being made of bushes, as seen in an illustration on the next -page. Near the entrance, but not within it, the fire is kindled, and -at night the natives crowd into the hut, filling it so completely that -a view of the interior displays nothing but a confused mass of human -limbs. The reader will perceive that the luxury of a door has not been -contemplated by the native architects--an omission which is perhaps -rather fortunate, considering the crowded state of the interior. - -Along the shores of the Coorung a rather peculiar kind of habitation is -used. It must first be mentioned that the Coorung is a back-water inlet -of the sea, running parallel to it for some ninety miles or so, never -more than a mile and a half from the sea, and divided from it only by -a range of enormous sandhills. It is a wild and desolate place, but is -inhabited by the Milmendura tribe, who made themselves so notorious for -the massacre of the passengers and men of the ship _Maria_. The natives -probably like the spot, because in the Coorung, which is protected from -the ocean waves by the sandhills, they can take fish without danger, -and because the sandhills furnish a fruit called the monterry, or -native apple, as, although a berry growing upon a creeping plant, it -looks and tastes like a miniature apple. - -The situation is much exposed in the winter time to the cold south-west -blasts, and the natives accordingly make comparatively strong huts. -Their dwellings are formed of a framework of sticks, over which is -plastered a thick layer of turf and mud. In addition to this they heap -over the hut a great quantity of the sand and shells of which the -ground is chiefly composed, so that the houses of the Milmendura look -like mere mounds or hillocks rising from the sandy soil. - -The fire which is found in every Australian encampment is generally -procured by friction from two pieces of wood, one being twirled rapidly -between the hands and the other held firmly by the feet. Indeed, the -Australian savage produces fire exactly as does the South African (see -page 100). This accomplishment, however, is not universal, some tribes -being unable to produce fire, and being dependent on the “fire-sticks” -which the women carry with them. It has occasionally happened that -the women have been careless enough to allow all their fire-sticks -to expire, and in such a case they are obliged to go to the nearest -friendly tribe, and beg a light from them, in order to procure fire -wherewith to cook the game that their husbands have brought home. - -Before leaving this part of the subject, it will be as well to mention -briefly a few of the devices used by the Australian natives in taking -their game. - -One of these devices is remarkably ingenious, and is principally -employed in duck catching. The natives find out a spot where the ducks -resort in order to feed, and arrange their nets so that they may -intercept birds that fly down upon them. When the ducks are all busy -feeding, the native hunter, who has concealed himself near the place, -alarms the birds by suddenly imitating the cry of the fish-hawk, one -of their deadliest foes. The terrified ducks rise in a body; but, just -as they ascend, the wily native flings into the air a triangular piece -of bark, imitating again the cry of the hawk. The birds, fancying that -the hawk is sweeping down upon them, try to escape by darting into the -reeds, and are caught in the nets. - -Another ingenious plan is used for capturing birds singly. The native -makes a sort of screen of branches, and conceals himself within it. In -his hand he carries a long and slender rod, at the end of which there -is a noose, and within the noose a bait. Under cover of the screen -he comes close to the bird, and gently places the treacherous noose -near it. By degrees the bird comes closer and closer to the bait, -and, as soon as its head is fairly within the noose, it is secured by -a dexterous twist of the hand. Sometimes the native does not employ -a bait. He builds his simple shelter by some spot where birds are -accustomed to drink, and calls them by imitating their note. They come -to the spot, and, not seeing their companions, perch upon the sticks -under which the hunter is concealed, a large bunch of grass being -generally used to prevent the birds from seeing him. As soon as the -bird perches, he slips the noose over its head, draws it inside the -shelter, kills it, and waits for another. - -In some parts of the country the natives make a self-acting snare, very -much on the principle of the nets used in snaring rabbits. It consists -of a sort of bag, and has its opening encircled by a running string, -the other end of which is fastened to some fixed object, such as a -tree-stump. The bag is made of split rattans, so that it remains open, -and, as the meshes are very wide, the bait which is placed within it -can easily be seen. - -[Illustration: (1.) WINTER HUTS. (See page 786.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) A SUMMER ENCAMPMENT. (See page 784.)] - -If a bird or animal should come to the bait, which is fixed at the very -extremity of the bag, it naturally forces its way toward the tempting -object, and in so doing pulls upon the string and closes the mouth of -the bag behind it. The more it struggles, the firmer is it held; and -so it remains until it is taken out, and the trap set again. This very -ingenious snare is used mostly for bandicoots and similar animals, -though birds are sometimes caught in it. - -The natives have another self-acting trap, which is identical in -principle with the eel baskets and lobster pots of our own country. -A number of these traps were found by Mr. Carron in some huts near -Princess Charlotte’s Bay. They were made of strips of cane, and were -about five feet in length by eight or nine inches in diameter at the -mouth. From the opening they gradually tapered for some four feet, and -then suddenly enlarged into a large round basket or pocket, the lower -ends of the neck projecting into the basket so as to hinder any animal -from returning through the passage by which it entered. This trap was -used indifferently for catching fish and small animals. For the latter -purpose it was laid in their track, and for the former it was placed in -a narrow channel, through which the fish were forced to pass by being -driven by a party of natives in the water. - -The reader will remember that on page 785 there is a reference to the -“stringy-bark,” and its use in architecture. The same bark is used -for a great number of purposes, among which that of boat-building is -perhaps the most conspicuous. Should a native come to the side of a -river which he does not wish to swim, he supplies himself with a boat -in a very expeditious manner. Going to the nearest stringy-bark trees, -and choosing one which has the lines of the bark straight and not -gnarled, he chops a circle round the tree so as to sever the bark, and -about seven or eight feet higher he chops a second circle. His next -proceeding is to make a longitudinal cut down one side of the tree, -and a corresponding one on the other side. He then inserts the handle -of his tomahawk, his digging-stick, or any such implement, between the -bark and the wood, and, by judicious handling, strips off the bark in -two semi-cylindrical, trough-like pieces each of which is capable of -being made into a boat. - -Should he be alone, he seldom troubles himself to do more than tie -the bark together at each end of the trough, and in this frail vessel -he will commit himself to the river. But if his wife, or any second -person, should be with him, he makes the simple boat more trustworthy -by digging a quantity of clay out of the river bank, kneading it into -each end of the trough, and tying the bark over the clay. As soon as he -reaches the opposite shore, he lands, pushes the canoe back into the -river and abandons it, knowing that to make a second canoe will not be -nearly so troublesome as to take care of the first. - -If, however, he wants a canoe in which he goes fishing, and which, -in consequence, must be of a stronger make, he still adheres to -the stringy bark as his material, though he takes more care in the -manufacture. The bark is bent, like the birch bark of the North -American Indians, by moisture and heat; and even with this better kind -of boat clay is required at each end, and is also used for stopping up -any leakage. - -He also exhibits a still better use of the stringy-bark. The bark is -not only formed into a boat-like shape, but it is kept in its form by -cross-pieces of wood. The edges are also strengthened: and altogether -this canoe shows a wonderful advance in boat-building. The vessel -is propelled with a regular paddle instead of the fish spear: and -altogether the boat and the accompanying implements remind the observer -of the birch-bark canoes and vessels of America. - -Another simple form of boat is made on a totally different principle -from those which have already been described, and, instead of being -a hollow trough of bark, is a solid bundle of reeds and sticks tied -together in a very ingenious manner, and giving support to one or more -persons, according to its size. - - * * * * * - -Such is the history of the aboriginal tribes of Australia, whose -remarkable manners and customs are fast disappearing, together with -the natives themselves. The poor creatures are aware of the fact, and -seem to have lost all pleasure in the games and dances that formerly -enlivened their existence. Many of the tribes are altogether extinct, -and others are disappearing so fast that the people have lost all heart -and spirit, and succumb almost without complaint to the fate which -awaits them. In one tribe, for example, the Barrabool, which numbered -upward of three hundred, the births during seventeen years were only -twenty-four, being scarcely two births in three years; while the deaths -had been between eighteen and nineteen per annum. - -Mr. Lloyd gives a touching account of the survivors of this once -flourishing tribe:-- - -“When I first landed in Geelong, in 1837, the Barrabool tribe numbered -upward of three hundred sleek and healthy-looking blacks. A few months -previous to my leaving that town, in May 1853, on casually strolling up -to a couple of miam-miams, or native huts, that were erected upon the -banks of the Burwan River, I observed seated there nine loobras (women) -and one sickly child. - -“Seeing so few natives, I was induced to ask after numbers of my old -dark friends of early days--Ballyyang, the chief of the Barrabool -tribe, the great Jaga-jaga, Panigerong, and many others, when I -received the following pathetic reply: ‘Aha, Mitter Looyed, Ballyyang -dedac (dead), Jaga-jaga dedac; Panigerong dedac,’ &c., naming many -others; and, continuing their sorrowful tale, they chanted, in minor -and funereal tones, in their own soft language, to the following effect: - -“‘The stranger white man came in his great swimming corong (vessel), -and landed at Corayio with his dedabul boulganas (large animals), and -his anaki boulganas (little animals). He came with his boom-booms -(double guns), his white miam-miams (tents), blankets, and tomahawks; -and the dedabul ummageet (great white stranger) took away the -long-inherited hunting-grounds of the poor Barrabool coolies and their -children,’ &c., &c. - -“Having worked themselves into a fit of passionate and excited -grief, weeping, shaking their heads, and holding up their hands -in bitter sorrow, they exclaimed, in wild and frenzied tones: -‘Coolie! coolie! coolie! where are our coolies now! Where are our -fathers--mothers--brothers--sisters? Dead!--all gone! dead!’ Then, in -broken English, they said, ‘Nebber mind, Mitter Looyed, tir; by ’m by -all dem black fella come back white fella like it you.’ Such is the -belief of the poor aborigines of Victoria; hence we may firmly infer -that they possess a latent spark of hope in their minds as to another -and better world. - -“Then, with outstretched finger, they showed me the unhappy state of -the aboriginal population. From their statement it appeared that there -existed of the tribe at that moment only nine women, seven men, and one -child. Their rapid diminution in numbers may be traced to a variety -of causes. First, the chances of obtaining their natural food were -considerably lessened by the entire occupation of the best grassed -parts of the country, which originally abounded in kangaroo and other -animals upon which they subsisted. The greater number of these valuable -creatures, as an irresistible consequence, retired into the wild -uninhabitable countries, far from the haunts of the white man and his -destructive dogs. - -“Having refused the aid of the Government and the Missionary Societies’ -establishments at the River Burwan and Mount Rouse, the natives were -to a serious extent deprived of animal food, so essential to a people -who were ever exposed to the inclemencies of winter and the exhausting -heats of summer. Influenza was one of the greatest scourges under which -they suffered. Then, among other evils attending their association with -the colonists, the brandy, rum, and tobacco told fearfully upon their -already weakened constitutions.” - -This one tribe is but an example of the others, all of whom are surely, -and some not slowly, approaching the end of their existence. For many -reasons we cannot but regret that entire races of men, possessing many -fine qualities, should be thus passing away; but it is impossible not -to perceive that they are but following the order of the world, the -lower race preparing a home for the higher. - -In the present instance, for example, the aborigines performed barely -half of their duties as men. They partially exercised their dominion -over the beasts and the birds--killing, but not otherwise utilizing -them. But, although they inherited the earth, they did not subdue -it, nor replenish it. They cleared away no useless bush or forest, -to replace them with fruits; and they tilled no land, leaving the -earth exactly in the same condition that they found it. Living almost -entirely by the chase, it required a very large hunting-ground to -support each man, and a single tribe gained a scanty and precarious -living on a tract of land sufficient, when cultivated, to feed a -thousand times their number. In fact, they occupied precisely the same -relative position toward the human race as do the lion, tiger, and -leopard toward the lower animals, and suffered in consequence from the -same law of extinction. - -In process of time white men came to introduce new arts into their -country, clearing away useless forest, and covering the rescued earth -with luxuriant wheat crops, sufficient to feed the whole of the -aborigines of the country; bringing also with them herds of sheep and -horned cattle to feed upon the vast plains which formerly nourished -but a few kangaroo, and to multiply in such numbers that they not only -supplied the whole of their adopted land with food, but their flesh was -exported to the mother country. - -The superior knowledge of the white man thus gave to the aborigines the -means of securing their supplies of food; and therefore his advent was -not a curse, but a benefit to them. But they could not take advantage -of the opportunities thus offered to them, and, instead of seizing upon -these new means of procuring the three great necessaries of human life, -food, clothing, and lodging, they not only refused to employ them, -but did their best to drive them out of the country, murdering the -colonists, killing their cattle, destroying their crops, and burning -their houses. - -The means were offered to them of infinitely bettering their social -condition, and the opportunity given them, by substituting peaceful -labor for perpetual feuds, and of turning professional murderers into -food-producers, of replenishing the land which their everlasting -quarrels, irregular mode of existence, and carelessness of human life -had well-nigh depopulated. These means they could not appreciate, -and, as a natural consequence, had to make way for those who could. -The inferior must always make way for the superior, and such has ever -been the case with the savage. I am persuaded that the coming of the -white man is not the sole, nor even the chief, cause of the decadence -of savage tribes. I have already shown that we can introduce no vice -in which the savage is not profoundly versed, and feel sure that the -cause of extinction lies within the savage himself, and ought not to -be attributed to the white man, who comes to take the place which the -savage has practically vacated. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXVIII. - -NEW ZEALAND. - -GENERAL REMARKS. - - - LOCALITY OF NEW ZEALAND -- GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE PEOPLE -- - THE TWO CASTES, AND THEIR SUPPOSED ORIGIN -- CONTRAST BETWEEN THE - SEXES -- LAXNESS OF MORALS -- NUMBER OF THE POPULATION, AND THE - DIFFERENT TRIBES -- MODE OF GOVERNMENT -- DISTINCTION BETWEEN RANKS - -- FORMATION OF THE CLANS, OR SUB-TRIBES -- THE SLAVES, THEIR VALUE - AND TREATMENT -- THE TENURE OF LAND -- A COMPLEX ARRANGEMENT AND - CONSEQUENT DIFFICULTIES -- ESTABLISHING A CLAIM -- NATIVE LAW -- THE - “LEX TALIONIS” -- SENSITIVENESS TO DISGRACE -- THE PREVALENCE OF - SUICIDE -- STRANGE CONDUCT OF A MAORI CHIEF -- THE SISTER’S VENGEANCE. - -Southward and eastward of Australia we come to the group of islands -known collectively as New Zealand. Like Australia, New Zealand -possesses many peculiarities of climate and natural production, and is -inhabited by a number of tribes which are generally hostile to each -other, but which are almost identical in appearance and habits. We -shall therefore be enabled to treat of this important portion of the -globe with much more brevity than could be the case if, as in Africa, -the tribes differed from each other in hue, dress, and customs. - - * * * * * - -Taken as a whole, the New Zealanders are a singularly fine race of -people--tall, powerful, and well made. Though varying somewhat in -shade, the color is always a brown of some kind, the complexion being -sometimes as light as that of a Spaniard, and sometimes of a dark -umber. It is, however, always of a clear tint and never approaches to -the deep black of the Australian. The nose is straight and well formed, -in many cases being boldly aquiline; and the mouth is rather large, and -the lips moderately full, though not resembling those of the negro. The -cheekbones are rather high, but not much more prominent than those of a -genuine Scotchman; and the eyes are large, dark, and vivacious. - -The teeth are remarkably white and even, and the feet and hands small -and well proportioned. The foot is very well developed, the native -never having spoiled its beautiful mechanism with shoes or boots, and -being accustomed to use the toes in many tasks wherein a civilized -European requires his fingers. The toes are, for example, continually -employed in holding one end of a rope, while the fingers are engaged -in twisting or plaiting it; and the consequence is that the natives -are able to ridicule with justice the misshapen feet and toes of the -European. - -The men have naturally a full beard; but they always remove every -vestige of hair on the face, in order to show the patterns which are -tattooed upon it. Now and then a very old and powerful chief will dare -to allow his beard to grow; but, as a rule, the face is divested of all -covering: so that the absence of the beard, together with the profuse -tattoo, destroys all evidences of age, and makes the countenance of a -young man of twenty look nearly as old as that of his grandfather aged -sixty. - -The hair is plentiful, and mostly straight, being twisted and curled by -art into the various fashionable forms. In some cases it is light, or -even reddish, in color; and in such instances accompanies a complexion -of peculiar fairness. Albinism exists among the New Zealanders, but -is not agreeable in appearance, the eyes being always weak, and the -skin looking as if it had been artificially whitened. In fact, such an -albino looks among his dark fellows like a plant that has been bleached -by growing in the dark. - -There seems to be two castes of men among the New Zealanders. The upper -caste is distinguished by the above characteristics; but the lower is -shorter in stature, and has coarse and curly, though not woolly hair, -more prominent cheekbones, and a much blacker skin. This second race, -according to Dr. Dieffenbach, “is mixed in insensible gradations with -the former, and is far less numerous; it does not predominate in any -one part of the island, nor does it occupy any particular station in -a tribe; and there is no difference made between the two races among -themselves. - -[Illustration: NEW ZEALANDER FROM CHILDHOOD TO AGE. (See page 795.)] - -“But I must observe that I never met any man of consequence belonging -to this tribe, and that, although freemen, they occupied the lower -grades: from this we may, perhaps, infer the relation in which they -stood to the earliest immigrants into the country, although their -traditions and legends are silent on the subject. - -“From the existence of two races in New Zealand the conclusion might -be drawn that the darker were the original proprietors of the soil, -anterior to the arrival of a stock of true Polynesian origin; that they -were conquered by the latter, and nearly exterminated. This opinion has -been entertained regarding all Polynesian islands; but I must observe -that it is very doubtful whether those differences which we observe -among the natives of New Zealand are really due to such a source. We -find similar varieties in all Polynesian islands, and it is probable -that they are a consequence of the difference of castes so extensively -spread among the inhabitants of the tribes of the great ocean. - -“If one part of the population of New Zealand are a distinct -race--a fact which cannot be denied as regards other islands--it is -very curious that there should be no traces of such a blending in -the language, where they would have been most durable, or in the -traditions, which certainly would have mentioned the conquest of one -race by the other, if it had happened. Captain Crozet, a Frenchman, who -early visited New Zealand, says that he found a tribe at the North Cape -darker than the rest. I could observe nothing of the kind there, though -I visited all the natives. Nor are those darker-colored individuals -more common in the interior; I should say, even less so. - -“There is undoubtedly a greater variety of color and countenance among -the natives of New Zealand than one would expect--a circumstance -which might prove either an early blending of different races, or a -difference of social conditions, which latter supposition would go far -to explain the fact. All the New Zealanders speak of the Mango-Mango, -or Blacks of New South Wales, as unconnected with and inferior to -themselves; but they never make such a distinction regarding their own -tribes.” - -As is often the case with uncivilized people, the women are decidedly -inferior to the men, being much shorter, and not nearly so well -made. They are not treated with the harshness which is the usual -characteristic of married life among savages, and are even taken -into their husbands’ counsels, and have great influence in political -affairs. Still, the heavy work of the household falls upon their -shoulders, and the lot of an ordinary New Zealand wife is rather a -severe one. She has to cultivate the ground, to carry the produce of -the distant fields to the house, and, when the family is travelling, -the women have to carry all the heavy loads. It is no wonder, -therefore, that a life of such drudgery should tell upon the women, -both in preventing the proper development of their frame and in causing -their beauty to decay. Those who preserve their beauty longest are the -daughters of wealthy chiefs, who can afford slaves by whom all the hard -work is done, and who therefore free their mistresses from one of the -causes of deterioration. - -There is, however, another cause, which is perhaps equally effective, -but not so palpable. This is the very lax code of morality which -prevails among them, a young girl being permitted the utmost freedom -until she is married, although afterward she is a model of constancy. -This license is exercised at a very early age, and the natural -consequence is that the due development of the frame is checked. This -vicious system is so much a matter of course, that it carries no -reproach with it, and the young girls are remarkable for their modest -and childlike demeanor. - -Of course they become aged much earlier than those whose development -takes place at a later period of life; but they compensate for their -deteriorated appearance by their peculiar kindliness of demeanor. The -engraving No. 1, illustrates the countenance and dress of a New Zealand -woman and her boy. - -Unlike the men, the women do not disfigure their faces by the tattoo, -which gives to them the stern and fixed expression so characteristic -of a New Zealand warrior; and they thus allow the really flexible and -intelligent features to have full play. The only portions of the face -that are marked with the tattoo are the lips, which are rendered blue -by the process, as it is considered disgraceful for a woman to have red -lips. The tattooing is always performed when the child is allowed to -take her place among women; and, as may be imagined, it gives a livid -and altogether unpleasant appearance to the mouth. - -The children are very pleasing and interesting little creatures. They -are full of intelligence, and unusually free and open in their manner. -Unlike the children of most savage nations, they live as much with -the men as with the women, and partake even in the councils of their -parents, thus having their faculties sharpened at a very early age. -The illustration opposite gives typical examples of the New Zealander -from childhood to age, and the reader will notice the contrast between -the soft and rounded outlines of the youth, and the harsh, rigid -countenances of the old man and his consort. - - * * * * * - -In proportion to the dimensions of New Zealand, the population is very -small; and, even in the earliest days of our acquaintance with it, -the land seems to have been but thinly inhabited. That such should be -the case is very remarkable, as a very thin population is generally -found in those countries where, as in Australia, the inhabitants live -principally by the chase, and therefore require a very large tract -of land to support them. The New Zealanders, however, do not live by -the chase, for the simple reason that there are no animals which are -worth the trouble of hunting; so that a family of twenty or so, even if -they had the entire country as a hunting-ground, would find themselves -in very great straits were they obliged to procure their food by the -chase. The reasons for this thin population will be presently seen. - -According to Dieffenbach’s calculation, the native population of the -entire country may be reckoned rather below one hundred and fifteen -thousand. These are divided into twelve great tribes, which are again -subdivided into sub-tribes, or clans, each of which has its separate -name, and is supposed to belong to a certain district. The fighting -men, or warriors, form about one-fourth of the whole population; the -remaining three-fourths being made up of old men, women, and children. -Since this calculation the numbers of the aborigines have considerably -lessened. The most important of the tribes seems to be the Waikato, -which is divided into eighteen clans, and which occupies a very large -proportion of the country. This tribe alone can bring into the field -six thousand fighting men; so that the entire number of the tribe may -be calculated at twenty-four thousand or so. - -The Waikato clans have managed to preserve their individuality better -than the others, and, though brought much in contact with civilization, -and having adopted some of the habits of their white visitors, they -have still retained many of their ancient customs, and, as Dieffenbach -remarks, have preserved much of their ancient vigor and original -virtues. - -The tribe that is strongest in mere numbers is the Nga-te-kahuhuna, -which inhabits the east coast, and may be reckoned at thirty-six -thousand strong. In fact, these two tribes alone outnumber the whole of -the others taken collectively. One tribe, the Rangitani, is interesting -from the fact that it was described by Captain Cook. In his days it -was evidently a large and flourishing tribe, but some few years ago -it could scarcely muster three hundred warriors, representing a total -number of twelve hundred. The decadence of this tribe is probably owing -to the destructive wars in which the New Zealanders engage, and which -are often so fierce as to erase a tribe entirely. - -The government of the New Zealanders is a curious mixture of -simplicity and complication. Monarchy is unknown, each tribe having -its own great chief, while an inferior chief presides over each clan, -or sub-tribe. The whole of the population may be roughly divided into -three ranks. First come the nobility, then the free men, and lastly the -slaves. The nobility go by the general name of Rangatira--a title which -is always given to officers, missionaries, and other white men who are -placed in command over others. - -In each tribe one of the Rangatira is the Ariki, or principal chief; -but, as he is necessarily a Rangatira, he is always addressed by that -title, and, in consequence, a stranger finds some difficulty, even -after a prolonged visit, in ascertaining who is the Ariki. Among the -New Zealanders there is no Salic law, so that the Ariki need not be a -warrior, and may be a woman. The office is hereditary, and the existing -Ariki is always held in the highest veneration in virtue of his -descent. Even the hostile tribes respect an Ariki, and in most cases, -if he should be captured in battle, the victors will spare his life. -One or two of the most powerful chiefs living have been captured and -afterward released, whereas, had they been common men, or even ordinary -Rangatiras, they would have been killed, their bodies eaten, and their -heads dried and fixed as trophies on the houses of their conquerors. - -A sort of tax, or tribute, is paid by the different families, though -the tax is entirely a voluntary one, and may be great or small, -or withheld altogether, at pleasure. Mostly the Ariki is a man of -considerable mental powers, and, in such a case, he exercises great -authority over the tribe, either as a priest or a warrior. There is -nothing to prevent the Ariki from assuming the office of priest, and in -many instances he has been able to exercise a far greater influence by -spiritual than by physical means. - -The Rangatira are the great men, or nobles, of the land, and with them, -as with the Ariki, the rank is hereditary. The law of succession is -very remarkable, the eldest son being the heir to his father’s rank; -but if the child dies, the youngest, and not the next eldest, becomes -the lawful successor. These two heirs, the eldest and the youngest -sons, are called by a name which signifies the fat of the earth. - -Each Rangatira is independent of his fellows, though they collectively -form a sort of body which we may compare with the House of Peers in -England. Any Rangatira who has sufficient influence may gather together -the members of his clan, build a fortified village, or pah, and become -a petty sovereign in his own dominions. It is in this way that the -various clans, or sub-tribes, are formed, each gathering round a noble -of more than usual ability, and adopting a name by which the members -will ever afterward be known. - -The free men form the great body of the warriors; some of them being -the sons of Rangatira, and others merely having the privilege of free -birth; which carries with it the right of tattooing the face. Sometimes -a free man who is remarkable for his generalship and courage will take -the command of an expedition, even though men of higher rank than -himself should be engaged in it. - -Last come the slaves. These are always procured from two sources: -they are either captives taken in battle, or are the children of such -captives. The value of such slaves is very great. All savages are -idle, but the New Zealander is one of the laziest of mortals in time -of peace. In war he is all fire and spirit; but in peace he lounges -listlessly about, and will not do a stroke of work that can possibly be -avoided. - -He may, perhaps, condescend to carve the posts of his house into some -fantastical semblance of the human form, or he may, perchance, employ -himself in slowly rubbing a stone club into shape, or in polishing or -adorning his weapons. Whatever real work is to be done is left to the -women or the slaves, and a man who values his wife or daughter will -endeavor to procure slaves who will relieve her of the drudgery. - -There are slaves of both sexes, to whom the appropriate work is -allotted. They are considered the absolute property of their owner, -who may treat them as he pleases, and, if he prefers to kill them, may -do so without attracting any attention. Of course he would not do so -except for very good reasons, as he would deprive himself of a valuable -article of property. There have been cases, as we shall presently see, -when the owner of slaves has deliberately murdered them for the sake of -selling their heads. - -Once a slave, always a slave. Should one of these unfortunates manage -to escape and get back to his own tribe, his owner would apply for -him, and he would be given up, the right of the master to his slave -being universally recognized. Still, as a rule, the slaves are treated -well, and some of them, who have attained excellence in certain arts, -often become richer men than their owners. So great is the value of -slaves, that many a war has been undertaken for the mere purpose of -slave hunting, and some of the most disastrous and obstinate feuds have -originated in the slave hunt. - -Connected with the government of the New Zealanders is the land -question. This is a strangely complicated business, as every inch of -ground has an actual owner, while there are usually several claimants -who allow their rights, real or imagined, to lie in abeyance as long -as the land is owned by one who can hold his own, while they will all -prefer their claims at his death, or even during a lengthened absence. - -So it has often happened that the white men, while desiring to act -according to law and honor, have involved themselves in a very net of -difficulties. A chief, for example, may agree to sell a portion of -territory, will receive the price, and will sign a deed, which will be -witnessed by natives as well as by Europeans. No sooner has he done so, -than a claimant comes forward, declaring that the chief in question had -no real right to the land, and therefore had no right to sell it. - -His claim will be inquired into, and, if it seems to be tolerably -consistent with likelihood, the man will be paid an additional sum for -his consent to the sale. The matter, however, is not at an end, for -such is the jealousy with which the natives regard land, that, as long -as a foreigner holds an inch of ground, so long will there be a native -who prefers a claim to it. Strange as it may seem, the white man would -incur less odium by taking the land by force, and seizing it by right -of conquest, than by trying to act according to justice and equity. - -War is a fertile source of misunderstanding about land. A tribe may -be driven out of a district, and their land given to others, who hold -it as long as they can keep it, the original possessors being sure to -reconquer it if possible. It has sometimes happened that a chief to -whom such lands have been presented has transferred them to another -chief, and he, in his turn, has sold them to European settlers, the -bargain being ratified by his own followers, who are considered as -having a share in such property. - -The colonists take the land, clear it, cultivate it, and when the crops -are fairly in the ground, the dispossessed tribe will come forward -and prefer their claim to it. Those to whom it was sold have already -received their price, and do not trouble themselves to oppose the -claim; and the consequence is, that the colonists are obliged either to -make a second payment or to run the risk of war. - -As to the claims themselves, they are of the most curious and -unexpected character, such as no European would be likely to -anticipate. According to Dieffenbach, “There exists a very distinct -notion of the rights of landed property among the natives, and every -inch of land in New Zealand has its proprietor. Sometimes land is -given to a strange tribe, either as pay, or from other considerations, -but the proprietor reserves certain rights, some of which are what we -should term manorial. - -“It was formerly very common that the fat of the native rats (Kiore) -killed on such lands should be given to the principal proprietor, and -in many cases a title to land seems to have been derived from the fact -of having killed rats on it. Thus a chief will say, ‘This or that piece -of land is mine; I have killed rats on it.’ Generally, however, land -descends, as with us, by inheritance.” - -Such being the complicated tenure on which land is held--a tenure which -is often puzzling to the natives themselves--it is no matter of wonder -that English settlers should have found themselves in difficulties. It -is said that the colonists tried to make themselves masters of the land -by unfair means, _i. e._ either by forcibly taking possession of it, or -by inveigling the ignorant natives into signing documents which they -did not understand, and thus selling their paternal estates for rum, -tobacco, and a few blankets. - -This may to some extent have been the case when the colonists first -came to settle in the country. But the natives are far too intelligent -to remain long ignorant of the power of pen, ink, and paper, and -there is no doubt that in many cases they intentionally outwitted the -purchaser, either by putting forward a sham owner of the ground, who -had no right to sell it, and who vanished with his share of the prize -as soon as the bargain was concluded, or by asserting ignorance of the -meaning of the document which had been signed, and refusing to carry -out its conditions. That the white men succeeded too often in cheating -the natives is unfortunately true, but it is no less true that the -natives as often cheated the colonists. - -Law among the New Zealanders seems to be of the simplest kind, and, as -far as we know, is not so well developed as among some of the tribes of -Southern Africa. The three offences of which the law takes cognizance -are murder, theft, and adultery. For the first of these offences a sort -of _lex talionis_ holds good, the relatives of the slain man being -sure, sooner or later, to kill the murderer, unless he manages to -compromise with them. Even theft is punished in a similar fashion, the -thief being robbed in his turn. - -As to the third offence, it is punishable in various ways; but both the -offending parties are supposed to have forfeited their lives to the -husband. If, therefore, the fact be discovered, and the culprit be a -person of low rank, he seeks safety in flight, while, if he be a man -of rank, he expects that the offended husband will make war upon him. -Sometimes, if a wife discovers that her husband has been unfaithful to -her, she will kill his paramour, or, at all events, disgrace her after -the native custom, by stripping off all her clothes, and exposing her -in public. Even the husband is sometimes subjected to this punishment -by the wife’s relations; and so much dreaded is this disgrace that -men have been known to commit suicide when their offence has been -discovered. - -Suicide, by the way, is not at all uncommon among the New Zealanders, -who always think that death is better than disgrace, and sometimes -destroy themselves under the most trivial provocation. One such -case is mentioned by Mr. Angas. “On arriving at the village or -kainga of Ko Nghahokowitu, we found all the natives in a state of -extraordinary excitement. We had observed numbers of people running -in that direction, along the margin of the river, from the different -plantations, and, on inquiry, we learned that an hour previously to -our arrival the son of an influential chief had committed suicide by -shooting himself with a musket. - -“Our fellow-travellers, with Wisihona their chief, were all assembled, -and we followed them to the shed where the act had been perpetrated, -and where the body still lay as it fell, but covered with a blanket. -The mourners were gathered round, and the women commenced crying most -dolefully, wringing their hands, and bending their bodies to the earth. -We approached the body, and were permitted to remove the blanket -from the face and breast. The countenance was perfectly placid, and -the yellow tint of the skin, combined with the tattooing, gave the -corpse almost the appearance of a wax model. The deceased was a fine -and well-made young man. He had placed the musket to his breast, and -deliberately pushed the trigger with his toes, the bullet passing right -through his lungs. Blood was still oozing from the orifice made by the -bullet, and also from the mouth, and the body was still warm.” - -The cause of this suicide was that which has already been mentioned. -The young man had been detected in an illicit correspondence with the -wife of another man in the same village. The woman had been sent away -to a distant settlement, a proceeding which had already made her lover -sullen and gloomy; and, on the day when Mr. Angas visited the place, -he had become so angry at the reproaches which were levelled at him by -some of his relations, that he stepped aside and shot himself. - -The determined manner in which the New Zealanders will sometimes commit -suicide was exemplified by the conduct of another man, who deliberately -wrapped himself up in his blanket, and strangled himself with his own -hands. The crime was perpetrated in the common sleeping-house, and was -achieved with so much boldness that it was not discovered until the man -had been dead for some time. - -A remarkable instance of this phase of New Zealand law took place when -Mr. Dieffenbach visited the Waipa district. He was accompanied by a -chief, who called a girl to him, and handed her over to the police -magistrate as a murderess. The fact was, that her brother, a married -man, had formed an intimacy with a slave girl, and, fearing the -vengeance of his wife’s relatives, had killed himself. His sister, in -order to avenge the death of her brother, found out the slave girl in -the bush, and killed her. The strangest part of the business was, that -the accused girl was the daughter of the chief who denounced her. - -The girl pleaded her own cause well, saying, what was perfectly true, -that she had acted according to the law of the land in avenging the -death of her brother, and was not amenable to the laws of the white -man, which had not yet been introduced into her country. As might be -imagined, her plea was received, and the girl was set at liberty; -but her father was so earnest in his wish to check the system of -retaliatory murder, that he actually offered himself in the place of -his daughter, as being her nearest relation. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXIX. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -DRESS. - - - DRESS AND ORNAMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALANDER -- THE TATTOO OR THE MOKO - -- ITS FORMIDABLE CHARACTER -- THE TATTOO A MARK OF FREEDOM -- - THE TATTOO OF THE FACE, AND ITS DIFFERENT PORTIONS -- COST OF THE - OPERATION -- THE IMPLEMENTS, AND MODE OF USING THEM -- TIME OCCUPIED - IN COMPLETING IT -- PAYMENT OF THE OPERATOR, AND THE TATTOO SONG -- - SOURCE WHENCE THE PIGMENT IS OBTAINED -- SCARLET PAINT, AND MODE - OF MAKING IT -- THE NEW ZEALAND BELT -- SYMBOLISM OF THE TATTOO -- - PRESERVING THE HEADS OF WARRIORS -- THE TRAFFIC IN HEADS -- A COOL - BARGAINER. - -We will now proceed to the appearance and dress of the natives of New -Zealand, or Maories, as they term themselves. As the most conspicuous -part of the New Zealander’s adornment is the tattooing with which the -face and some other portions of the body are decorated, we will begin -our account with a description of the moko, as it is called by the -natives. - -There are many parts of the world where the tattoo is employed, but in -none is it of so formidable a description as among the New Zealanders. -As the reader is probably aware, the tattoo consists of patterns made -by introducing certain coloring matters under the skin; charcoal, -variously prepared, being the usual material for the purpose. We have -already seen among the Kaffirs examples of ornamenting the skin by -cutting it deeply so as to form scars, and in Australia a similar but -more cruel custom prevails. In neither of these countries, however, is -there any attempt at producing an artistic effect, while in New Zealand -beauty of design is the very object of the tattoo. - -There is a distinction between the tattoo of the New Zealanders and the -Polynesians; that of the latter people being formed by rows of little -dots, and that of the former by lines cut completely through the skin. -On account of this distinction, though a New Zealander and a Polynesian -be covered from head to foot with tattoo marks, there is no possibility -of mistaking the one for the other. - -The moko of the New Zealander is a mark of rank, none but slaves being -without a more or less complete tattooing of the face. In the present -day, even the chiefs have begun to discontinue the ancient custom, -chiefly owing to the exertions of the missionaries, who objected -to the practice as a mark of heathendom. Consequently, several of -the most powerful convert chiefs present a very curious, not to say -ludicrous, aspect, which can hardly have a good effect in recommending -Christianity to the people. Having been converted before the moko was -completed, and being unwilling to continue the process and unable to -obliterate those portions which were already drawn, they appear with -one half of their faces tattooed and the other half plain, or perhaps -with a solitary ring round one eye, and a couple of curves round one -side of the mouth. - -As, however, the present work treats only of the native customs, and -not of modern civilization, the New Zealanders will be described as -they were before they had learned to abandon the once-prized tattoo, to -exchange the native mat for the English blanket, the picturesque war -canoe for the commonplace whaling boat, and the spear and club for the -rifle and bayonet. - -The principal tattoo is that of the face and upper part of the head, -which, when completed, leaves scarcely an untouched spot on which -the finger can be placed. When finished, the whole face is covered -with spiral scrolls, circles, and curved lines; and it is remarkable, -that though a certain order is observed, and the position of the -principal marks is the same in every case, no two persons are tattooed -in precisely the same manner, the artists being able to produce an -infinite variety with the few materials at his command. - -For example, the first portion of the tattoo is always a series of -curved lines, reaching from the corners of the nose to the chin, and -passing round the mouth. This portion of the tattoo goes by the name -of _rerepi_. Next comes a spiral scroll on the cheekbone; and below it -is another spiral, reaching as low as the jaw-bone. These are called -respectively _kakoti_ and _korohaha_. Next come four lines on the -middle of the forehead, called _titi_; and besides these there are -several lines which run up the centre of the nose and cover its sides, -some which spread over the forehead, others which occupy the chin; -and even the lips, eyelids, and ears are adorned with this singular -ornament. - -Besides possessing these marks, a great chief is seldom content unless -he can cover his hips with similar lines, each of which has, like those -of the face, its proper name. - -Although the moko was considered as a mark of rank, there were no -sumptuary laws which forbade its use. Any one, provided he were not a -slave, might be tattooed as much as he pleased; but the expense of the -operation was so great, that none but men of position could afford a -complete suit of moko. No man could tattoo himself, and the delicacy -of touch and certainty of line was so difficult of attainment, that -tattooing became an art or science, which was left in the hands of -a few practitioners, who derived a good income from their business. -Some of those who had attained much reputation for their skill used to -command very high fees when called in to decorate a client, and their -services could therefore only be secured by the men of high position. -It is rather remarkable that some of the most celebrated operators were -slaves, men who were forbidden to wear the tattoo on their own persons. - -The mode of operation is as follows. The patient lies on his back, and -places his head between the knees of the operator, who squats on the -ground after the usual native fashion. The latter then takes a little -of the black pigment, and draws on the face the line of the pattern -which he intends to follow; and in some cases he slightly scratches -them with a sharp instrument, so as to make a sketch or outline -drawing. The object of this scratching is to prevent the pattern from -being obliterated by the flowing blood and the black pigment which is -rubbed into the wounds. - -Next, he takes his instrument or chisel, which is usually made of -teeth, or the bone of a bird, and with it follows the pattern, cutting -completely through the skin. Sometimes, when engaged in tattooing the -face, a careless operator has been known to cut completely through -the cheek, so as to put a temporary check to smoking, the sufferer -experiencing some difficulty in getting the smoke into his mouth at -all, and then finding it escape through the holes in his cheek. On page -722 the reader may find an illustration which gives a good idea of the -different forms of the tattooing chisel. As the operator proceeds, -he continually dips the edge of his chisel in the black pigment, and, -when he has cut a line of a few inches in length, he rubs more of the -pigment into the wound, using a little bunch of fibre by way of a brush -or sponge. - -The cutting is not done as with a knife, but by placing the edge of the -chisel on the skin, and driving it along the lines of the pattern by -repeated blows with a small mallet. As may be imagined, the pain caused -by this operation is excruciating. It is painful enough to have the -skin cut at all, even with the keenest blade, as any one can testify -who has been unfortunate enough to come under the surgeon’s knife. But -when the instrument employed is a shark’s tooth, or a piece of bone, -when it is driven slowly through the skin by repeated blows, and when -the wound is at once filled with an irritating pigment, it may be -imagined that the torture must be dreadful. It is, however, reckoned a -point of honor to endure it without giving any signs of suffering. - -Owing to the character of the tattoo, the destruction of the skin, and -the consequent derangement of its functions, only a small portion can -be executed at a time, a complete moko taking from two to three years, -according to the constitution of the individual. Dreadful swellings are -always caused by it, especially of the glands in the neighborhood of -the wounds, and the effects are so severe that men have died when too -large a portion has been executed at one time. - -Every stroke of the chisel or _uki_ leaving an indelible mark, it -is of the greatest consequence that the operator should be a man of -skill, and devote all his energies to tracing a clear, though elaborate -pattern, in which the lines are set closely together, sweep in regular -curves, and never interfere with each other. - -While a man is being tattooed, his friends and those of the operator -sing songs to him, in which he is encouraged to endure the pain -bravely, and to bear in mind the lasting beauty which will be conferred -upon him when the pattern is completed. The songs of the operator’s -friends contain some very broad hints as to the scale of payment which -is expected. Although, as has been stated, the best of tattooers are -paid very highly, there is no definite fee, neither is any bargain -made, the operator trusting to the liberality of his client. But, as -a man would be contemned as a skulking fellow if he were to ask the -services of a good operator and then pay him badly, the practical -result is that a good tattooer always secures good pay. - -Moreover, he has always the opportunity of avenging himself. As only a -small portion of the moko can be executed at a time--say, for example, -the spiral curve on one cheek--if the operator be badly paid for the -first portion of his work, he will take care to let the chisel slip -out of its course when he proceeds to the second part, or will cut his -lines coarsely and irregularly, thus disfiguring the stingy man for -life. - -Mr. Taylor gives a translation of one of these tattooing songs: - - “He who pays well, let him be beautifully ornamented; - But he who forgets the operator, let him be done carelessly. - Be the lines wide apart. - O hiki Tangaroa! - O hiki Tangaroa! - Strike that the chisel as it cuts along may sound. - O hiki Tangaroa! - Men do not know the skill of the operator in driving his sounding - chisel along. - O hiki Tangaroa!” - -The reader will see that the song is a very ingenious one, magnifying -the skill of the operator, promising a handsome moko to the liberal -man, and threatening to disfigure him if he be niggardly in his -payments. - -While the operation of tattooing is going on, all persons in the -pah, or enclosure, are under the tabu, or tapu, lest any harm should -happen to them; the work of tattooing being looked upon with a kind -of superstitious reverence. The meaning of the word ‘tapu’ will be -explained when we come to treat of the religious system of the New -Zealander. - -The effect of the moko on the face is well shown in illustration -No. 2, on the next page, which represents a chief and his wife. The -reader will probably observe that on the face of the woman there are -marks which resemble the tattoo. They are, however, the scars left by -mourning over the body of some relative, a ceremony in which the women -cut themselves unmercifully. The dress worn by both persons will be -presently described. - -The pigment used in tattooing is made from the resin of the kauri pine, -and the greater part of it is made at one spot, where the tree grows -plentifully. There is a rocky precipice, and a little distance from its -edge a deep and narrow pit is sunk. A channel is cut through the face -of the cliff into the pit, and the apparatus is complete. When a native -wishes to make a supply of tattooing pigment, he cuts a quantity of -kauri wood, places it in the pit, and sets fire to it, thus causing the -burnt resin to fall to the bottom of the pit, whence it is scraped out -through the channel. - -Scarlet paint is much employed by the natives, especially when they -decorate themselves for battle. It is obtained from an ochreous -substance which is deposited in many places where water has been -allowed to become stagnant. Some spots are celebrated for the -excellence of the ochre, and the natives come from great distances to -procure it. When they wish to make their scarlet paint, they first -carefully dry and then burn the ochre; the result of which operation -is, that a really fine vermilion is obtained. - -This paint is used for many purposes, and before being used it is mixed -with oil obtained from the shark. The natives are fond of decorating -their houses with it, and by means of the scarlet lines increase, -according to their own ideas, the beauty of the carved work with which -every available point is adorned. Even their household goods are -painted after a similar manner, the fashionable mode being to paint all -the hollows scarlet, and the projecting portions black. Their canoes -and wooden ornaments are profusely adorned with red paint. But the most -valued use of this pigment is the part which it plays in the decoration -of a warrior when he goes to battle. - -In such cases paint constitutes the whole of his costume, the mats in -which he takes so great a pride in time of peace being laid aside, many -warriors being perfectly naked, and with the others the only covering -of any kind being a belt made of plaited leaves. - -One of these belts in my collection is seven feet in length, and only -three and a half inches wide in the broadest part; while at either end -it diminishes to a mere plaited thong. It is folded fourfold, and on -opening it the mode of construction is plainly seen; all the loose ends -being tucked inside. - -The material is phormium leaf cut into strips an inch in width, each -alternate strip being dyed black. Each strip is then divided into eight -little strips or thongs, and they are so plaited as to produce an -artistic checkered pattern of black and white. The ingenuity in forming -so elaborate a pattern with so simple a material is extreme; and, as -if to add to the difficulty of his task, the dusky artist has entirely -changed the pattern at either end of the belt, making it run at right -angles to the rest of the fabric. The belt is also used in lieu of -clothing when the men are engaged in paddling a canoe. - -The paint, therefore, becomes the characteristic portion of the New -Zealander’s war dress, and is applied for the purpose of making himself -look as terrible as possible, and of striking terror into his enemies. -It is, however, used in peace as well as in war, being regarded as a -good preservative against the bites and stings of insects, especially -the sandflies and mosquitoes. It is also used in mourning, being rubbed -on the body as a sign of grief, precisely as ashes are used among -some of the Oriental nations. Some travellers have thought that the -continual use of this pigment gives to the New Zealanders the peculiar -softness and sleekness of skin for which they are remarkable, and which -distinguishes them from the Fijians, whose skin feels as if it had been -roughened with a file. This theory, however, is scarcely tenable, the -soft texture of the skin being evidently due to physical and not to -external causes. - -[Illustration: (1.) NEW ZEALAND WOMAN AND HER BOY. (See page 795.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) TATTOOED CHIEF AND HIS WIFE. (See page 802.)] - -A warrior adorned in all the pride of the tattoo and scarlet paint is -certainly a terrific object, and is well calculated to strike terror -into those who have been accustomed to regard the Maori warriors with -awe. When, however, the natives found that all the painting in the -world had no effect upon the disciplined soldiers of the foreigner, -they abandoned it, and contented themselves with the weapons that none -are more able to wield than themselves. - -Moreover, the paint and tattoo, however well it might look on a warrior -armed after the primitive fashion, has rather a ludicrous effect when -contrasted with the weapons of civilization. There is now before me -a portrait of a Maori chief in full battle array. Except a bunch of -feathers in his hair, and a checked handkerchief tied round his loins, -evidently at the request of the photographer, he has no dress whatever. -He is tall, splendidly made, stern, and soldierlike of aspect. But -instead of the club, his proper weapon, he bears in his hand a Belgian -rifle, with fixed bayonet, and has a cartouche-box fastened by a belt -round his naked body. - -His face is tattooed, and so are his hips, which are covered with a -most elaborate pattern, that contrasts boldly with his really fair -skin. Had he his club and chief’s staff in his hands, he would look -magnificent; having a rifle and a cartouche-box, he looks absurd. Even -a sword would become him better than a rifle, for we are so accustomed -to associate a rifle with a private soldier, that it is difficult to -understand that a powerful chief would carry such a weapon. - -The curious mixture of native and European dress which the Maories are -fond of wearing is well described by Mr. Angas. “Raupahara’s wife is -an exceedingly stout woman, and wears her hair, which is very stiff -and wiry, combed up into an erect mass upon her head about a foot in -height, somewhat after the fashion of the Tonga islanders, which, when -combined with her size, gives her a remarkable appearance. - -“She was well dressed in a flax mat of native manufacture, thickly -ornamented with tufts of cotton wool; and one of her nieces wore -silk stockings and slippers of patent leather. This gay damsel was, -moreover, a very pretty girl, and knew how to set off her charms to -advantage; for over an European dress she had retained her native -ornaments, and had wrapped herself coquettishly in a beautiful, -‘kaitaka,’ displaying her large hazel eyes above its silky folds.” - -It has often been thought that the warrior regarded his moko, or -tattoo, as his name, permanently inscribed on his face; and this notion -was strengthened by two facts: the one, that in the earlier times of -the colonists the natives signed documents by appending a copy of their -moko; and the other, that each man knows every line of his tattoo, -and sometimes carves a wooden bust on which he copies with admirable -fidelity every line which appears on his own head or face. Such a work -of art is greatly valued by the Maories, and a man who has carved one -of them can scarcely be induced by any bribe to part with it. - -Moreover, the moko of a warrior is often accepted as the conventional -representation of himself. For example, on the pillars of a very -celebrated house, which we shall presently describe, are numerous human -figures which represent certain great chiefs, while men of lesser mark -are indicated by their moko carved on the posts. Thus it will be seen -that the moko of a chief is as well known to others as to himself, and -that the practised eye of the native discerns among the various curves -and spirals, which are common to all free men, the characteristic -lines which denote a man’s individuality, and in producing which the -tattooers’ skill is often sorely tried. - -It has already been mentioned, that when a warrior falls in battle, and -his body can be carried off by the enemy, the head is preserved, and -fixed on the dwelling of the conqueror. No dishonor attaches itself to -such an end; and, indeed, a Maori warrior would feel himself direfully -insulted if he were told that in case of his death in the field his -body would be allowed to remain untouched. - -In fact, he regards his moko precisely in the same light that an -American Indian looks upon his scalp-lock; and, indeed, there are many -traits in the character of the Maori warrior in which he strangely -resembles the best examples of North American savages. - -In order to preserve the head of a slain warrior, some process of -embalming must evidently be pursued, and that which is commonly -followed is simple enough. - -The head being cut off, the hair is removed, and so are the eyes; the -places of which are filled up with pledgets of tow, over which the -eyelids are sewed. Pieces of stick are then placed in the nostrils -in order to keep them properly distended, and the head is hung in -the smoke of the wood fire until it is thoroughly saturated with the -pyroligneous acid. The result of this mode of preparation is, that the -flesh shrinks up, and the features become much distorted; though, as -the Maori warrior always distorts his countenance as much as possible -before battle, this effect is rather realistic than otherwise. - -It is often said that heads prepared in this fashion are proof -against the attacks of insects. This is certainly not the case, as -I have seen several specimens completely riddled by the ptilinus -and similar creatures, and have been obliged to destroy the little -pests by injecting a solution of corrosive sublimate. In spite of the -shrivelling to which the flesh and skin are subject, the tattooing -retains its form; and it is most curious to observe how the finest -lines completely retain their relative position to each other. - -Not only are the heads of enemies treated in this fashion, but those -of friends are also preserved. The difference is easily perceptible -by looking at the mouth, which, if the head be that of a friend, is -closed, and if of an enemy, is widely opened. - -Some years ago, a considerable number of these preserved heads were -brought into Europe, having been purchased from the natives. Of late -years, however, the trade in them has been strictly forbidden, and on -very good grounds. In the first place, no man who was well tattooed -was safe for an hour, unless he were a great chief, for he might at -any time be watched until he was off his guard, and then knocked down, -killed, and his head sold to the traders. Then, when the natives became -too cautious to render head hunting a profitable trade, a new expedient -was discovered. - -It was found that a newly tattooed head looked as well when preserved -as one which had been tattooed for years. The chiefs were not slow in -taking advantage of this discovery, and immediately set to work at -killing the least valuable of their slaves, tattooing their heads as -though they had belonged to men of high rank, drying, and then selling -them. - -One of my friends lately gave me a curious illustration of the trade -in heads. His father wanted to purchase one of the dried heads, but -did not approve of any that were brought for sale, on the ground that -the tattoo was poor, and was not a good example of the skill of the -native artists. The chief allowed the force of the argument, and, -pointing to a number of his people who had come on board, he turned -to the intending purchaser, saying, “Choose which of these heads you -like best, and when you come back I will take care to have it dried -and ready for your acceptance.” As may be imagined, this speech put an -abrupt end to all head purchasing, and gave an unexpected insight into -the mysteries of trading as conducted by savage nations. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXX. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. - - - THE “MATS” OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS -- THE MATERIAL OF WHICH THEY ARE - MADE -- THE NEW ZEALAND FLAX, OR PHORMIUM -- MODE OF MAKING THE - MATS -- VARIOUS KINDS OF MATS -- THE RAIN MAT AND ITS USES -- THE - OPEN-WORKED MAT -- THE DIFFERENT ORNAMENTS OF THE MAT: STRINGS AND - TAGS, SCARLET TUFTS AND BORDERS -- WAR CLOAKS OF THE CHIEFS -- THE - DOGS’-HAIR MAT -- THE CHIEF PARÁTENE IN HIS CLOAK -- MODE OF MAKING - THE WAR CLOAKS -- BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE CHIEF -- AMUSING INSTANCE OF - VANITY IN A CHIEF -- SUBSTITUTION OF THE BLANKET AND ITS ATTENDANT - EVILS -- ORNAMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALANDER’S HEAD -- FEATHERS, AND - FEATHER BOXES -- VARIOUS DECORATIONS OF GREEN JADE -- TIKIS AND - EAR-RINGS -- A REMARKABLE AMULET -- THE SHARK’S TOOTH -- MODES OF - DRESSING THE HAIR -- HAIR-CUTTING AND SHAVING -- A PRIMITIVE RAZOR. - -We now come to the costume of the New Zealanders. This is of a rather -remarkable character, and may be characterized by the generic title -of mat, with the exception of the belt which has just been described. -The costume of the New Zealander consists of a square or oblong mat, -varying considerably in size, though always made on the same principle. -In this mat the natives envelop themselves after a very curious -fashion, generally muffling themselves up to the neck, and often -throwing the folds round them after the fashion of a conventional stage -villain. - -These mats are of various textures, and differ as much in excellence -and value as do the fabrics of more civilized lands. The material -is, however, the same in all cases, and even the mode of wearing the -garment, the value being estimated by the fineness of the material, the -amount of labor bestowed upon it, and the ornaments introduced into it. - -The material of which the mats are made is the so-called New Zealand -“flax,” scientifically known by the name of _Phormium tenax_. -It belongs to the natural family of the Liliaceæ and the tribe -Asparagaceæ. The plant has a number of showy yellow flowers arranged on -a tall branch-panicle, and a number of straightish leaves, all starting -from the root, and being five or six feet long, and not more than two -inches wide at the broadest part. - -The fibres which run along these leaves are very strong and fine, and, -when properly dressed and combed, have a beautiful silky look about -them. At one time great quantities of New Zealand flax, as it was -called, were imported into Europe, and the plant was cultivated in some -of the southern parts of the Continent. Strong, however, as it may be, -it has the curious fault of snapping easily when tied in a knot, and -on this account is not valued so much in Europe as in its own country. -I have before me a large roll of string made by natives from the -phormium. It is very strong in proportion to its thickness, and much of -it has been used in suspending various curiosities in my collection; -but it cannot endure being made into a knot. It is useful enough in -hitches, especially the “clove-hitch;” but as soon as it is tied into a -knot, it will hardly bear the least strain. - -The principle on which the mats are made is very simple. A weaving -frame is erected on sticks a foot or so from the ground, and upon it -is arranged the weft, made of strings or yarns, placed as closely -together as possible, and drawn quite tight. The weft is double, and -is passed under and over each yarn, and the upper one is always passed -between the ends of the under weft before it is drawn tight. The mat is -therefore nothing more than a number of parallel strings laid side by -side, and connected, at intervals of an inch or so, by others that pass -across them. More care is taken of the edges, which are turned over, -and the yarns are so interwoven as to make a thick and strong border. - -When the wefts are hauled tight, they are beaten into their place by -means of a bone instrument, very much like a paper knife in shape; -and in every respect the weaving of a New Zealander most strongly -reminds the spectator of the process of making the Gobelin tapestries. -In both cases there is a fixed warp on which the weft is laboriously -woven by hand, and is kept straight and regular by being struck with -an instrument that passes between the threads of the warp. Although -at the present day the warp of the Gobelin tapestry is stretched -perpendicularly, in former times it was stretched longitudinally in a -low frame, exactly similar in principle to that which is employed by -the New Zealander. - -The reader will perceive that the process of weaving one of these mats -must be a work of considerable time, and an industrious woman can -scarcely complete even a common mat under eighteen months, while one of -the more elaborate robes will occupy twice that time. - -The illustration No. 1 on the next page, is drawn from a sketch of a -house belonging to one of the great chiefs, and in it are seen some -women busily employed in making mats. One of them is scraping the -leaves with a shell or stone, while another is engaged at the primitive -loom. The mat is represented as nearly completed, and the woman is seen -with the four ends of the double weft in her hand, passing them across -each other before she draws them tight. A heap of dressed leaves of the -phormium is seen in the background, and a bundle of the long swordlike -leaves is strewn on the floor. Various baskets and other implements, -made of the same material, are hung from the rafters; and in front is -one of the curiously carved poles which support the roof. - -It has been mentioned that there is but one principle on which all the -mats are made, but that there is a very great variety in making them. -There is, for example, the rain mat, which is used in wet weather. As -the structure proceeds, the manufacturer inserts into each knot of the -weft an undressed blade of the phormium upon which the epidermis has -been allowed to remain. When wrapped round the body, the leaves all -fall over each other, so as to make a sort of penthouse, and to allow -the rain to run over their smooth and polished surfaces until it falls -to the ground. - -When rain comes on, and a number of natives are seen squatting on the -ground, each wearing his rain mat, they have a most absurd appearance, -and look like a number of human beings who had hidden themselves in -haycocks. On page 803 may be seen the figure of a chief wearing one of -these dresses. The name of the mat is E mangaika. - -I have seen another kind of mat, which is made in a kind of open-work -pattern, produced by crossing every fifth strand of the warp. This -mat is of the very best quality, and, considering the nature of the -material of which it is made, is wonderfully light, soft, and pliant. - -Another kind is the woman’s mat, of which there are several varieties. -It is of larger size than that employed by the men, and is capable of -enveloping the entire figure from head to foot. It is of rather lighter -material than the rain mat, and is decorated on the exterior with a -number of strings, varying in length from a few inches to three feet or -so. A variety of this mat is distinguished by having the strings white -instead of black. Specimens of both these mats are in my collection, -and the general effect of them can be seen by reference to any of the -illustrations which represent the native women. - -Strings or tags are undoubtedly the most characteristic portion of -the dress, and there is scarcely a mat of any description that is not -ornamented with them. One variety of mat, which is called E wakaiwa, -is covered with long cylindrical ornaments that look very much as if -they were made of porcupine quills, being hard, and colored alternately -black and yellow. The ornaments are, however, made of the phormium leaf -in a very ingenious manner. The epidermis is carefully scraped off the -under side of the leaf with a sharp-edged shell, and the leaf is then -turned over. On the upper side the epidermis is removed at regular -intervals, so as to expose the fibres. - -The next process is to put the scraped leaf into a dye made of a -decoction of kinan bark, and to let it remain for a definite time. -When it is taken out, the dye has stained the exposed fibres a deep -glossy black, while it has not been able to touch the polished yellow -epidermis that is allowed to remain. The dyed leaves are next rolled -up until they form cylinders as large as goose quills, and are then -woven in regular rows into the material of a mat. As the wearer moves -about, the cylinders rustle and clatter against each other, producing a -sound which seems to be peculiarly grateful to the ears of the natives. -Such a mat or cloak is highly prized. Several of these mats are in my -collection, and very curious examples of native art they are. - -One of these has cost the weaver an infinity of trouble. It is nearly -five feet wide and three in depth. The warp has been dyed black, while -the weft is white; and the effect of the weft passing in reverse lines -across the warp is very good. Every other line of weft is decorated -with the cylindrical tassels each of which is nine inches in length, -and is divided into four parts by the removal of the epidermis. These -tassels begin at the fourth line of warp, and are regularly continued -to the lower edge, whence they hang so as to form a fringe. On account -of their number, they would qualify the garment as a rain mat on an -emergency; and the rattling they make as the mat is moved is very much -like that which is produced by a peacock when it rustles its train. - -[Illustration: (1.) WOMEN MAKING MATS. (See page 808.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE TANGI. (See page 824.)] - -Along the upper edge, which passes over the shoulders, the strings -have been rolled together into ropes as thick as the finger, and then -plaited so as to form a thick and soft border which will not hurt the -neck. The portion of the mat which comes between the edge and the -first row of tassels is ornamented with scraps of scarlet wool plaited -into the weft. This wool is a favorite though costly ornament to the -natives, being procured from seamen’s woollen caps, which they unpick, -and the yarns used to ornament the dress. - -One of these mantles brought from New Zealand by Stiverd Vores, Esq., -is adorned very largely with scarlet wool. It is completely bordered -with the precious material, a narrow line of scarlet running under -the upper edge, a broader under the lower, while the two sides are -decorated with a band nearly four inches in width. In this case the -wool has been arranged in a series of loops; but in another specimen -the loops are cut so as to form a fringe. - -In this latter mantle the tags, instead of being cylindrical and -alternately black and yellow, are entirely black, each rolled leaf -being wholly divested of its epidermis, and the fibres radiating from -each other in tassel fashion. I rather think that the object of this -mode of treatment is to prevent the eye from being distracted by the -jangling yellow tags, and so to permit the scarlet border to exhibit -its beauties to the best advantage. - -Scarlet worsted is, of course, a comparatively late invention, and has -only been introduced since the visits of Europeans. In former days -the natives were equally fond of ornamenting their cloaks, and were -obliged to use the plumage of birds for the purpose. The feathers taken -from the breast of the kaka (a species of nestor) were mostly used for -this purpose. Although the colored ornaments are generally disposed -in lines, they are sometimes arranged in tufts, which are disposed in -regular intervals over the whole of the dress. Examples of this kind of -decoration may be seen in several of the costumes which are drawn in -this work. - -The yarns or strings of which the warp is made are not twisted or -plaited, but consist merely of the phormium fibres as they lie in the -leaf. The leaves are prepared for this purpose by scraping off the -epidermis on both sides, and then beating them on a flat stone with a -pestle made of the hard volcanic stone employed in the manufacture of -adzes and other tools. - -The most valuable of all the dresses are the war cloaks of the great -chiefs. They are very large, being sometimes nearly six feet in depth, -and wide enough to be wrapped over the entire body and limbs. Their -native name is Parawai. - -Before making one of these great war mats, the weaver collects a large -quantity of dog’s hair, which she assorts into parcels of different -colors. She then sets up her simple loom, and fixes the warp as -usual. But with every knot or mesh which she makes with the weft she -introduces a tuft of hair, taking care to make each tuft long enough to -overlap and conceal the insertion of the tufts in the next row. She is -also careful about the regular arrangement of the hues, so that when a -complete mat is made by a skilful weaver, it looks exactly as if it was -composed of the skin of some large animal, the vegetable fibres which -form the fabric itself being entirely concealed by the tufts of hair. - -One of these mats is the result of some four years’ constant labor, and -causes some surprise that a people so naturally indolent as the Maories -should prove themselves capable of such long and steady industry. But -the fact is, the mat maker is a woman and not a man, and in consequence -is obliged to work, whether she likes it or not. - -In the next place, mat weaving scarcely comes under the denomination -of labor. The woman is not tied to time, nor even bound to produce a -given number of mats within a given period. Her living, too, does not -depend upon the rate of her work, and whether she takes eighteen months -or two years to produce a garment is a matter of total indifference to -all parties. Besides, she never works alone, but is always accompanied -by friends, one of whom, perhaps, may be occupied in a similar manner, -another may be employed in scraping the phormium leaves, and another is -engaged in pounding and softening the fibres, or drying those that have -just been dyed black. - -But, whatever their hands may be doing, the weavers’ tongues are never -still. A continual stream of talk flows round the looms, and the duty -of mat making is thus changed into an agreeable mode of enjoying the -pleasures of conversation while the hands are employed in a light and -easy labor. - -Very great ingenuity is displayed by the woman to whom is entrusted -the onerous task of making a war mat. No two are alike, the weaver -exercising her discretion respecting the colors and their arrangement. -Some of them are made on the same principle as the Bechuana -kaross,--namely, darkest in the centre, and fading into the lightest -hues round the edges. Others are white or pale in the middle, and edged -with a broad band of black or dark brown hair. Sometimes the colors are -arranged in a zigzag pattern, and several mats are striped like tiger -skins. They always have a sort of collar, composed of strips of fur, -which hang about six inches over the shoulders. - -In New Zealand there are one or two dresses which are made almost -entirely of fur, the skins being dressed with the hair adhering to -them, and then sewed together. A very remarkable mat is possessed by -a powerful chief named Parátene Maioha. It is made of strips of dogs’ -fur sewed over a large flaxen mat. Of this garment he is very proud, -and reserves it to be worn on grand occasions. A portrait of this -celebrated chief is given in the illustration No. 1, on the 820th page, -partly to show the aspect of a Maori chief in time of peace, and partly -to give the reader an idea of the peculiar look of the war cloak. - -There is also before me a photographic portrait of Parátene, -authenticated by his autograph, in which he is represented as clad in -a different manner. He wears two mats or cloaks, the lower being of -the finest flax, and called by the natives kaitaka. A description of -this kind of cloak will be presently given. Over the kaitaka he wears a -very remarkable war cloak, which is made of dogs’ fur sewed upon a flax -mat. It reaches a little below the knees, and is made in perpendicular -stripes alternately dark and pale, and is furnished with a thick collar -or cape of the same material. This cape, by the way, bears a curious -resemblance to the ornament which is worn by the Abyssinian chiefs. - -Unfortunately for the general effect of the picture, Parátene has -combed, divided, and brushed his hair in European fashion; and muffled -up as he is to the chin, it is too evident that he is wearing a -complete European suit under his mats. The cape has fallen off a little -on the right side, and we have the absurd anomaly of a face profusely -tattooed surmounted with hair that has just been brushed and combed, a -dog-skin war mat, from which protrudes a bare right arm, a jade earring -six inches long, and a black cravat and turn-down collar. In his right -hand he grasps his cherished merai; his staff of office, or E’hani, -rests against his shoulder; and by his side is his long battle-axe, -adorned with a tuft of feathers and dog-skin. This same Parátene is a -man of great mark among the Maories. - -As is the case with natives of rank who have associated with Europeans, -he is known by several names. The following account of him is given by -Mr. G. F. Angas: - -“Parátene (Broughton), whose native name was Te Maihoa, is a cousin of -Te Whero-whero, and one of the leading men of the Ngatimahuta branch of -the Waikato tribes. He generally resides in a village (or kainga) on -the northern bank of the picturesque little harbor of Waingaroa, on the -west coast of the Northern Island; and the correctness of his general -conduct, and the gravity of his demeanor, have obtained for him a -marked ascendancy over many of his equals in rank. - -“Eccentricity is the principal feature in the character of this chief; -and the scrupulous attention which he invariably pays to those trifling -circumstances which constitute his notions of etiquette often renders -his conduct highly curious. He has gained, by unwearied application, -a smattering of arithmetic, and one of his most self-satisfactory -exploits is the correct solution of some such important problem as -the value of a pig of a certain weight, at a given price per pound, -making the usual deduction for the offal. His erudite quality and -the dignified gravity of his carriage have commanded the deferential -respect of his people, and encouraged them to consider him quite an -oracle. - -“One little incident will place the harmless foible of this chief’s -character in a striking light. When the author was about to employ his -pencil in the delineation of his figure, Parátene desired to be excused -for a few moments. Having gained his point, he sought an interview -with Mrs. Wells, the missionary’s wife (under whose hospitable roof -his portrait was taken), and, preferring his request with some solemn -intimations of its paramount importance, begged ‘Mother’ to lend him a -looking-glass, that he might compose his features in a manner suitable -to his own idea of propriety ere he took his stand before the easel of -the artist.” - -It may be observed, by the way, that “Mother” is the term always -employed by the natives when addressing the wife of a missionary. -The autograph of Parátene, to which allusion has already been made, -is written with pencil, and is perfectly intelligible, though the -characters are shaky, large, and sprawling, and look as if they had -been made by fingers more accustomed to handle the club than the pencil. - -The last kind of mat which will be mentioned is the kaitaka. This -garment is made of a peculiar kind of flax, cultivated for the express -purpose, and furnishing a fibre which is soft and fine as silk. The -whole of the mat is plain, except the border, which is in some cases -two feet in depth, and which is most elaborately woven into a vandyked -pattern of black, red, and white. At the present day a good kaitaka -is scarcely anywhere to be seen, the skill required in making them -being so great that only a few weavers can produce them, and European -blankets being so easily procured that the natives will not take the -trouble of weaving garments that take so much time and trouble. - -Handsome as are these native garments, they are not very pleasant to -wear. As the threads are only laid parallel to each other, and are -not crossed, as in fabrics woven in the loom, they form scarcely any -protection against the wind, although they may serve to keep out the -rain. The mats are very heavy, my own small specimen of the waikawa -cloak weighing five pounds and a half, and so stiff that they cannot -be conveniently rolled up and packed away when out of use. An English -blanket, on the contrary, is close-textured, resists the wind, is very -light, and can be rolled up into a small compass; so that it is no -wonder that the natives prefer it. - -Unfortunately for them, it is not nearly so healthy a garment as that -which is made by themselves, as it is worn for a long time without -being washed, and so becomes saturated with the grease and paint with -which the natives are fond of adorning their bodies. In consequence, it -fosters several diseases of the skin to which the Maories are subject, -and it has been found that those who wear blankets are much more -subject to such ailments than those who adhere to the native raiment. - -In some parts of the country, where the ground is hard and stony, the -natives plait for themselves sandals or slippers, which very much -resemble those which are used by the Japanese. They consist of the -ever-useful phormium fibres, which are twisted into cords, and then -plaited firmly into the shape of a shoe sole. - - * * * * * - -We now proceed from the dress to the ornaments worn by the New -Zealanders. - -In some respects they resemble those which are in use among other dark -tribes. Feathers are much valued by them, and among the commonest -of these adornments is a bunch of white feathers taken from the -pelican, and fastened to the ears so as to fall on the shoulder. An -example of this may be seen in the portrait of the old warrior on page -794. Sometimes the skin of a small bird is rudely stuffed, and then -suspended as an earring, and sometimes one wing will be placed at each -side of the head, the tips nearly meeting above. - -The most prized of these adornments are the tail feathers of the bird -called by the natives E Elia, or E Huia (_Neomorpha Gouldii_). It is -allied to the hoopoos, and is remarkable for the fact that the beak -of the male is straight and stout, while that of the female is long, -slender, and sickle-shaped. The color of the bird is a dark glossy -green of so deep a hue that in some lights it seems to be black. The -tail feathers, however, are tipped with snowy white, so that when -the bird spreads its plumage for flight, the tail looks at a little -distance as if it were black, edged with white. - -The bird is only found in the hills near Port Nicholson, and, as it is -very wary, can scarcely be obtained except by the help of a native, who -imitates its cry with wonderful perfection. The name E Elia is said -to be merely an imitation of the long shrill whistle of the bird. The -birds are so valued by the Maories that in all probability the species -would have been extinct by this time, but for the introduction of -European customs, which to a certain degree have driven out the ancient -customs. - -The feathers of the tail are the parts of the bird that are most valued -by the chiefs, who place them in their hair on great occasions. So -much do they prize these feathers, that they take the trouble to make -boxes in which they are kept with the greatest care. These boxes are -made by the chiefs themselves, and are covered with the most elaborate -carvings, some of them being the finest specimens of art that can be -found in New Zealand. They are of various shapes, but a very good idea -of their usual form may be obtained from the illustration No. 3, on -page 775. The usual forms are similar to that of the illustration, but -in some cases the boxes are oblong. There is now before me a drawing of -one of these boxes, which is covered with an equally elaborate pattern, -in which the lines are mostly straight instead of curved, the pattern -being of a vandyked character, similar to that upon the kaitaka cloak. -There is a projecting handle upon the lid, and an almost similar handle -upon each end. - -The natives do not, however, confine themselves to wearing the tail -feathers, but, when they can obtain so valuable a bird, are sure to use -every portion of it. The head seems to be thought of next importance to -the tail, and is suspended to the ear by a thong. - -Perhaps the most characteristic ornaments that are worn by the New -Zealanders are those which are made of green jade. This mineral, called -by the natives Poonamu, is mostly found near the lakes in the Middle -Island, and is valued by them with almost a superstitious reverence. -If a very large piece be found, it is taken by some chief, who sets -to work to make a club from it. This club, called a merai, will be -described when we come to treat of war as conducted by the Maories. - -In the illustration No. 1, on page 841, are represented some of the -most characteristic jade ornaments. - -Fig. 1 is a flat image bearing the rude semblance of a human being, and -made of various sizes. That which is here given is rather smaller than -the usual dimensions. It is called by the natives Tiki, and is at the -same time one of the commonest and the highest prized articles among -the New Zealanders. A new one can be purchased for a sum which, though -it would be considered absurdly high in England for such an object, is -in New Zealand really a low price, and scarcely repays the trouble of -carving it. - -Jade is an extremely hard mineral, ranking next to the ruby in that -respect, and, in consequence of its extreme hardness, taking a peculiar -glossy polish that is seen on no other substance. The time which is -occupied in carving one of these ornaments is necessarily very great, -as the native does not possess the mechanical means which render its -manipulation a comparatively easy task to the European engraver, and -can only shape his ornaments by laboriously rubbing one piece of stone -upon another. - -That ornaments made of such a material should be highly prized is not -a matter of surprise, and it is found that a wealthy chief will give -an extraordinarily high price for a handsome jade ornament. There is -in my collection a very ancient Buddhist amulet, made of the purest -green jade, and beautifully carved, the remarkable portion of it being -a revolving wheel with spiral spokes, the wheel being cut out of -the solid jade. The amulet was found in the apartments of the Queen -of Oude, and had evidently been imported from China, where it was -engraved, the whole character of the work belonging to a very ancient -epoch of Chinese art. It was shown to a Maori chief, who was then -visiting England, and who was intensely pleased with it, saying that, -if it were sent to New Zealand and offered for sale to one of the great -chiefs, it would be purchased for £20 or £25 of English money. - -It has been just mentioned that, in spite of the labor bestowed on -the ornament, a new tiki can be purchased for a moderate sum. Such, -however, would not be the case were the tiki an old one. These -ornaments are handed down from father to son, and in process of time -are looked upon with the greatest reverence, and treated as heirlooms -which no money can buy. - -One of these tikis was seen by Mr. Angas lying on the tomb of a child, -where it had been placed as an offering by the parents. It had lain -there for a long time; but, in spite of the value of the ornament, no -one had ventured to touch it. It was a very small one, even less in -size than the drawing in the illustration, and had in all probability -been worn by the child on whose tomb it lay. - -Most of these tikis are plain, but some of them have their beauty -increased by two patches of scarlet cement with which the sockets of -the eyes are filled. - -The tikis are worn on the breast, suspended by a cord round the neck; -and almost every person of rank, whether man or woman, possesses one. -They are popularly supposed to be idols, and are labelled as such in -many museums; but there is not the least reason for believing them to -fulfil any office except that of personal decoration. The Maories are -fond of carving the human figure upon everything that can be carved. -Their houses are covered with human figures, their canoes are decorated -with grotesque human faces, and there is not an implement or utensil -which will not have upon it some conventional representation of the -human form. It is therefore not remarkable that when a New Zealander -finds a piece of jade which is too small to be converted into a -weapon, and too flat to be carved into one of the cylindrical earrings -which are so much valued, he should trace upon it the same figure as -that which surrounds him on every side. - -The most common forms of earring are those which are shown at figs. 4 -and 5, the latter being most usually seen. It is so strangely shaped -that no one who did not know its use would be likely to imagine that it -was ever intended to be worn in the ear. Two rather remarkable earrings -are worn in New Zealand as marks of rank; one being a natural object, -and the other an imitation of it. This earring is called mako tamina, -and is nothing but a tooth of the tiger shark. Simple though it be, it -is greatly prized, as being a mark of high rank, and is valued as much -as a plain red button by a Chinese mandarin, or, to come nearer home, -the privilege of wearing a piece of blue ribbon among ourselves. - -Still more prized than the tooth itself is an imitation of it in -pellucid jade. The native carver contrives to imitate his model -wonderfully well, giving the peculiar curves of a shark’s tooth with -singular exactness. Such an ornament as this is exceedingly scarce, and -is only to be seen in the ears of the very greatest chiefs. Anything -seems to serve as an earring, and it is not uncommon to see natives of -either sex wearing in their ears a brass button, a key, a button-hook, -or even a pipe. - -There is very little variety in the mode of dressing the hair, -especially among women. Men generally keep it rather short, having -it cut at regular intervals, while some of the elders adhere to the -ancient custom of wearing it long, turning it up in a bunch on the top -of the head, and fastening it with combs. - -These are formed after a fashion common to all Polynesia, and extending -even to Western Africa. The teeth are not cut out of a single piece -of wood, but each is made separately, and fastened to its neighbor by -a strong cross-lashing. The teeth, although slight, are strong and -elastic, and are well capable of enduring the rather rough handling to -which they are subjected. - -Children of both sexes always wear the hair short like the men; but as -the girls grow up, they allow the hair to grow, and permit it to flow -over their shoulders on either side of the face. They do not part it, -but bring it down over the forehead, and cut it in a straight line just -above the eyebrows. When they marry, they allow the whole of the hair -to grow, and part it in the middle. They do not plait or otherwise -dress it, but merely allow it to hang loosely in its natural curls. - -Hair-cutting is with the New Zealanders a long and tedious operation, -and is conducted after the fashion which prevails in so many parts of -the world. Not knowing the use of scissors, and being incapable of -producing any cutting instrument with an edge keen enough to shave, -they use a couple of shells for the operation, placing the edge of one -under the hair that is to be cut, and scraping it with the edge of the -other. - -Although this plan is necessarily a very slow one, it is much more -efficacious than might be imagined, and is able not only to cut -the hair of the head, but to shave the stiff beards of the men. In -performing the latter operation, the barber lays the edge of the lower -shell upon the skin, and presses it well downward, so as to enable the -upper shell to scrape off the hair close to the skin. Beard-shaving -is necessarily a longer process than hair-cutting, because it is not -possible to cut more than one or two hairs at a time, and each of them -takes some little time in being rubbed asunder between the edges of the -shells. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXI. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -DOMESTIC LIFE. - - - CEREMONIES ATTENDANT ON BIRTH -- PREVALENCE AND CAUSES OF - INFANTICIDE -- A CURIOUS INSTANCE OF SUPERSTITION -- NAMES AND THEIR - SIGNIFICATION -- THE CEREMONY OF SPRINKLING -- THE RECITATIONS -- - CHANGES OF NAME -- MARRIAGE -- COURTSHIP AND WIFE-SNATCHING -- - AMUSEMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS -- THE SWING, OR GIANT STRIDE - -- DRAUGHTS AND OTHER SEDENTARY GAMES -- CHILDREN’S SPORTS -- - TOP-SPINNING, KITE-FLYING -- AND CAT’S-CRADLE -- SWIMMING AND DIVING - -- CURIOUS PETS: DOGS, PIGS, AND PARROTS -- BALL-PLAYING -- MUSIC AND - SINGING -- CHARACTER OF THE SONGS -- MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS -- THE FIFE, - THE WAR TRUMPET, AND THE WAR BELL -- CURIOUS MODE OF SALUTATION -- - THE “TANGI,” AND ITS LUDICROUS APPEARANCE -- ITS WEARISOME EFFECT ON - A FOREIGNER -- UNCERTAIN TEMPER OF THE MAORIES -- STRENGTH OF MEMORY, - AND CURIOSITY. - -We will now examine the domestic life of the New Zealander, and begin -at the beginning, _i. e._ with his birth. - -As is mostly the case in those nations which do not lead the artificial -life of civilization, there is very little trouble or ceremony about -the introduction of a new member of society. The mother does not -trouble herself about medical attendants or nurses, but simply goes off -into some retired place near a stream, and seldom takes with her even a -companion of her own sex. When the baby is born, the mother bathes her -child and then herself in the stream, ties the infant on her back, and -in a short time resumes the business in which she was engaged. Until -the child is named the mother is sacred, or “tapu,” and may not be -touched by any one. - -The New Zealand women are too often guilty of the crime of infanticide, -as indeed might be imagined to be the case in a land where human life -is held at so cheap a rate. Various causes combine to produce this -result. If, for example, the child is deformed or seems sickly, it -is sacrificed as an act of mercy toward itself, the Maories thinking -that it is better for the scarcely conscious child to be destroyed at -once than to die slowly under disease, or to live a despised life as a -cripple. - -Revenge, the leading characteristic of the Maori mind, has caused the -death of many an infant, the mother being jealous of her husband, or -being separated from him longer than she thinks to be necessary. Even -a sudden quarrel will sometimes cause the woman, maddened by anger, -to destroy her child in the hope of avenging herself upon her husband. -Slave women often systematically destroy their children, from a desire -to save them from the life of servitude to which they are born. In many -cases the life of the child is sacrificed through superstitious terror. - -A very curious example of such a case is given by Dr. Dieffenbach. -A recently married wife of a young chief was sitting near a pah or -village, on the fence of which an old priestess had hung her blanket. -As is generally the case with New Zealand garments, the blanket was -infested with vermin. The young woman saw one of these loathsome -insects crawling on the blanket, caught it, and, according to the -custom of the country, ate it. The old woman to whom the garment -belonged flew into a violent passion, poured a volley of curses on the -girl for meddling with the sacred garment of a priestess, and finished -by prophesying that the delinquent would kill and eat the child which -she was expecting. - -The spirit of revenge was strong in the old hag, who renewed her -imprecations whenever she met the young woman, and succeeded in -terrifying her to such a degree that she was almost driven mad. -Immediately after the child was born the old woman found out her -victim, and renewed her threats, until the young mother’s mind was so -completely unhinged, that she hastily dug a hole, threw her child into -it, and buried it alive. She was, however, filled with remorse for the -crime that she had committed; and before very long both she and her -husband had emancipated themselves from their superstitious thraldom, -and had become converts to Christianity. - -It is seldom, however, that a mother kills her child after it has lived -a day; and, as a general rule, if an infant survives its birth but for -a few hours, its life may be considered as safe from violence. Both -parents seem equally fond of infants, the father nursing them quite -as tenderly as the mother, lulling it to sleep by simple songs, and -wrapping its little naked body in the folds of his mat. - -Soon after its birth the child is named, either by its parents or -other relatives, the name always having some definite signification, -and mostly alluding to some supposed quality, or to some accidental -circumstance which may have happened at the time of birth. Much -ingenuity is shown in the invention of these names, and it is very -seldom found that the son is named after his father or other relative. -All the names are harmonious in sound, and end with a vowel; and even -in the European names that are given by the missionaries at baptism the -terminal syllable is always changed into a vowel, in order to suit the -native ideas of euphony. - -When the child is about two or three months old, a ceremony is -performed which is remarkable for its resemblance to Christian baptism. -The origin of the ceremony is not known, and even the signification -of the words which are employed is very obscure. Very few persons are -present at the ceremony, which is carried on with much mystery, and is -performed by the priest. - -The three principal parts of the rite are that the child should be -laid on a mat, that it should be sprinkled with water by the priest, -and that certain words should be used. As far as has been ascertained, -the mode of conducting the ceremony is as follows: The women and girls -bring the child and lay it on a mat, while the priest stands by with a -green branch dipped in a calabash of water. A sort of incantation is -then said, after which the priest sprinkles the child with water. The -incantation differs according to the sex of the child, but the sense of -it is very obscure. Indeed, even the natives cannot explain the meaning -of the greater part of the incantation: so that in all probability it -consists of obsolete words, the sounds of which have been retained, -while their sense has been lost. - -As far as can be ascertained, the incantation consists of a sort of -dialogue between the priest and the women who lay the child on the mat. -The following lines are given by Dieffenbach, as the translation of the -beginning of the incantation said over female children. He does not, -however, guarantee its entire accuracy, and remarks that the true sense -of several of the words is very doubtful. The translation runs as -follows: - -_Girls._ “We wish this child to be immersed.”--_Priest._ “Let it be -sprinkled.” - -_Girls._ “We wish the child to live to womanhood.”--_Priest._ “Dance -for Atua.” - -_Girls._ “Me ta nganahau.” (These words are unintelligible.)--_Priest._ -“It is sprinkled in the waters of Atua.” - -_Girls._ “The mat is spread.”--_Priest._ “Dance in a circle.” - -“Thread the dance.” - -The reader must here be told that the word “Atua” signifies a god, -and that the word which is translated as “womanhood” is a term that -signifies the tattooing of the lips, which is performed when girls -are admitted into the ranks of women. The above sentences form only -the commencement of the incantation, the remainder of which is wholly -unintelligible. - -When the child is old enough to undertake a journey to the priest’s -house, another ceremony takes place, in which the baby name that the -parents have given to the infant is exchanged for another. According -to Mr. Taylor’s interesting account, when the child has arrived at the -house of the priest, the latter plants a sapling as a sign of vigorous -life, and holds a wooden idol to the ear of the child, while he -enumerates a long string of names which had belonged to its ancestors. -As soon as the child sneezes, the priest stops, the name which he -last uttered being that which is assumed by the child. We are left to -infer that some artificial means must be used to produce sneezing, as -otherwise the task of the priest would be rather a tedious one. - -After the requisite sign has been given, and the child has signified -its assent to the name, the priest delivers a metrical address, -differing according to the sex. Boys are told to clear the land and -be strong to work; to be bold and courageous in battle, and comport -themselves like men. Girls are enjoined to “seek food for themselves -with panting of breath,” to weave garments, and to perform the other -duties which belong to their sex. - -Even this second name is not retained through life, but may be changed -in after life in consequence of any feat in war, or of any important -circumstance. Such names, like the titles of the peerage among -ourselves, supersede the original name in such a manner that the same -person may be known by several totally distinct names at different -periods of his life. - -There seems to be no definite ceremony by which the young New Zealand -lad is admitted into the ranks of men. The tattoo is certainly a sign -that his manhood is acknowledged; but this is a long process, extending -over several years, and cannot be considered as an initiatory rite like -those which are performed by the Australians. - -When a young man finds himself able to maintain a wife, he thinks about -getting married, and sets about it very deliberately. Usually there -is a long courtship, and, as a general fact, when a young man fixes -his affections on a girl, he is sure to marry her in the end, however -much she or her friends may object to the match. He thinks his honor -involved in success, and it is but seldom that he fails. - -Sometimes a girl is sought by two men of tolerably equal pretensions; -and when this is the case, they are told by the father to settle the -matter by a pulling match. This is a very simple process, each suitor -taking one of the girl’s arms, and trying to drag her away to his own -house. This is a very exciting business for the rivals as well as for -the friends and spectators, and indeed to every one except the girl -herself, who is always much injured by the contest, her arms being -sometimes dislocated, and always so much strained as to be useless for -some time. - -In former times the struggle for a wife assumed a more formidable -aspect, and several modern travellers have related instances where the -result has been a tragic one. If a young man has asked for a girl and -been refused, his only plan is to take her by force. For this purpose -he assembles his male friends, and makes up his mind to carry the -lady off forcibly if he cannot obtain her peacefully. Her friends in -the meantime know well what to expect, and in their turn assemble to -protect her. A fierce fight then ensues, clubs, and even more dangerous -weapons being freely used; and in more than one case the intended bride -has been killed by one of the losing side. Sometimes, though not very -often, a girl is betrothed when she is quite a child. In that case she -is as strictly sacred as if she were actually a married woman, and the -extreme laxity of morals which has been mentioned cannot be imputed to -such betrothed maidens. Should one of them err, she is liable to the -same penalties as if she were actually married. - -The New Zealanders seldom have more than one wife. Examples are known -where a chief has possessed two and even more wives; but, as a general -rule, a man has but one wife. Among the Maories the wife has very much -more acknowledged influence than is usually the case among uncivilized -people, and the wife always expects to be consulted by her husband in -every important undertaking. Marriage usually takes place about the age -of seventeen or eighteen, sometimes at an earlier age in the case of -the woman and a later in the case of the man. - -As to the amusements of the New Zealanders, they are tolerably varied, -and are far superior to the mere succession of singing and dancing, in -which are summed up the amusements of many uncivilized races. Songs -and dances form part of the amusements of this people, but only a part, -and they are supplemented by many others. - -One of the most curious was seen by Mr. Angas in the interior of the -country, but never on the coasts. A tall and stout pole, generally the -trunk of a pine, is firmly set in the ground on the top of a steep -bank, and from the upper part of the pole are suspended a number of -ropes made of phormium fibre. The game consists in seizing one of the -ropes, running down the bank, and swinging as far as possible into the -air. Sometimes they even run round and round the pole as if they were -exercising on the giant stride; but as they have not learned to make a -revolving top to the pole or swivels for the ropes, they cannot keep up -this amusement for any long time. - -They have a game which is very similar to our draughts, and is played -on a checkered board with pebbles or similar objects as men. Indeed, -the game bears so close a resemblance to draughts, that it may probably -be a mere variation of that game, which some New Zealander has learned -from an European, and imported into his country. - -There is also a game which much resembles the almost universal “morro,” -and which consists in opening and closing the hand and bending the -elbow, performing both actions very sharply, and accompanying them with -a sort of doggrel recitation, which has to be said in one breath. - -The children have many games which are very similar to those in use -among ourselves. They spin tops, for example, and fly kites, the latter -toy being cleverly made of the flat leaves of a kind of sedge. It is -triangular in form, and the cord is made of the universal flax fibre. -Kite-flying is always accompanied by a song; and when the kites are -seen flying near a village, they are a sign that the village is at -peace, and may be approached with safety. - -Perhaps the chief amusement of the children is the game called Maui, -which is in fact a sort of “cat’s-cradle.” The Maori children, however, -are wonderful proficients at the game, and would look with contempt on -the few and simple forms which English children produce. Instead of -limiting themselves to the “cradle,” the “pound of candles,” the “net,” -and the “purse,” the New Zealander produces figures of houses, canoes, -men and women, and various other patterns. They say that this game was -left to them as an inheritance by Maui, the Adam of New Zealand, and it -appears to be intimately connected with their early traditions. - -The elder children amuse themselves with spear-throwing, making their -mimic weapons of fern-stems bound at the end. These they throw with -great dexterity, and emulate each other in aiming at a small target. - -[Illustration: (1.) PARÁTENE MAIOHA IN HIS STATE WAR CLOAK. (See page -812.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE CHIEF’S DAUGHTER. (See page 821.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) HONGI-HONGI, CHIEF OF WAIPA. (See page 850.)] - -Swimming is one of the favorite amusements of the New Zealanders, who -can swim almost as soon as they can walk, and never have an idea that -the water is an unfriendly element. Both sexes swim alike well, and in -the same manner, _i. e._ after the fashion which we call “swimming like -a dog,” paddling the water with each arm alternately. Being constantly -in the water, they can keep up the exertion for a long time, and in -their bathing parties sport about as if they were amphibious beings. -They dive as well as they swim, and the women spend much of their time -in diving for crayfish. - -In those parts of the country where hot springs are found the natives -are fond of bathing in the heated water. Mr. Angas makes the following -observations on this custom:--“Upon the beach of the lake, near Te -Rapa, there is a charming natural hot bath, in which the natives, -especially the young folks, luxuriate daily. Sunset is the favorite -time for bathing, and I have frequently seen of an evening at least -twenty persons squatting together in the water, with only their heads -above the surface. - -“Boiling springs burst out of the ground, close to a large circular -basin in the volcanic rock, which, by the assistance of a little art, -had been rendered a capacious bath. The boiling stream is conducted -into this reservoir gradually, and the temperature of the water is kept -up or decreased by stopping out the boiling stream with stones, through -which it trickles slowly, whilst the main body runs steaming into the -lake. - -“The medicinal properties of these hot mineral springs preserve the -natives in a healthy state, and render their skins beautifully smooth -and clear. Indeed, some of the finest people in the island are to be -observed about Taupo, and the beauty and symmetry of the limbs of many -of the youth would render them admirable studies for the sculptor.” - -Perhaps the oddest amusement with which the New Zealanders have ever -recreated themselves is one that only occurred some sixty years ago, -and is not likely to be reproduced. About that date Captain King took -away two New Zealanders to Norfolk Island for the purpose of teaching -the settlers the art of flax-dressing. When he came back to restore -them to their homes, he planted a quantity of maize, which was then -new in the country, and presented the natives with three pigs. Most -of them had never seen any animal larger than a cat, and the others, -who had a vague recollection of seeing horses on board Captain Cook’s -vessel, naturally mistook them for those animals. Thinking them to be -horses, they treated them as horses, and speedily rode two of them to -death. The third did not come to a better end, for it strayed into a -burial-ground, and was killed by the indignant natives. - -Nowadays the Maories understand pigs far too well to ride them. Pigs -have become quite an institution in New Zealand. Every village -is plentifully populated with pigs, and, as may be seen in the -illustration of a village which will be given on a future page, one of -the commonest objects is a sow with a litter of pigs. - -Little pigs may be seen tottering about the houses, and the natives, -especially the women, pet pigs exactly as European women pet dogs and -cats. They carry them in their arms, fondle and pet them; and nothing -is more common than to see a young girl unfold her mantle and discover -a pig nestling under its folds. Such a girl, for example, as the one -who is represented in the illustration No. 2, on the preceding page, -would be very likely indeed to have a pig in her arms under the shelter -of her mantle. - -The figure in question is the portrait of the daughter of a chief. -Her name is Tienga, and she is the daughter of a very powerful and -celebrated chief. Her costume is, like her character, an odd mixture -of civilization and nature. Her mantle is the native flax mat, under -which she may probably wear a muslin, or even silken, garment, articles -of dress of which the young lady in question was, when her portrait -was taken, exceedingly proud. On her head she wears a common straw -hat, purchased from the trader at some five hundred per cent. or so -above its value, and round it she has twisted a bunch of a species of -clematis, which grows with great luxuriance in the forests. - -It is a curious study to note the different characteristics of the -human mind. An Oriental would turn with unspeakable disgust from the -very touch of a pig, and is scarcely less fastidious concerning the -dog. Yet the inhabitants of that wonderful group of islands which -stretches from Asia to America have a wonderful affinity for both -these animals, and especially for pigs, displaying, as we shall find -on a future page, their affection in a manner that seems to our minds -extremely ludicrous. - -Pigs are now fast becoming acclimatized to the country, just like the -mustang horses of America. When a tribe has suffered extinction, as too -often happens in the sanguinary and ferocious wars in which the people -engage, the pigs escape as well as they can; and those that evade the -enemy have to shift for themselves, and soon resume all the habits of -the wild swine from which they were originally descended. Those which -now inhabit the country are easily to be distinguished from their -immediate ancestors, having short heads and legs and round compact -bodies. - -The native name for the pig is “poaka,” a word which some have thought -to be derived from the English word “pork.” Dr. Dieffenbach, however, -differs from this theory, and thinks that the native word, although of -European origin, is derived from a source common both to England and -New Zealand. He thinks that the New Zealanders had some knowledge of -the pig previous to its introduction by England, and that they derived -their knowledge from Spanish voyagers. He is strengthened in this -opinion by the fact that the name for dog, “perro,” is likewise Spanish. - -Pigs and dogs are not the only pets, the natives being in the habit of -catching the kaka parrot, which has already been mentioned, and keeping -it tame about their houses. They make a very effective and picturesque -perch for the bird, covering it with a sloping roof as a protection -against the sun, and securing it to the perch by a string round its -leg. Mr. Angas mentions that he has brought these birds to England, but -that the climate did not agree with them, and they all died. - -Many of the New Zealanders, especially the women, are dexterous -ball-players, throwing four balls in various ways so as always to keep -them in the air. Some few of them are so skilful that they surpass our -best jugglers, playing with five balls at a time, and throwing them -over the head, round the neck, and in various other ingenious modes of -increasing the difficulty of the performance. - -Most of their sports are accompanied with songs, which, indeed, seem to -be suited to all phases of a New Zealander’s life. In paddling canoes, -for example, the best songster takes his stand in the head of a vessel -and begins a song, the chorus of which is taken up by the crew, who -paddle in exact time to the melody. - -Respecting the general character of these songs Dieffenbach writes -as follows: “Some songs are lyric, and are sung to a low, plaintive, -uniform, but not at all disagreeable tune.... E’ Waiata is a song of -a joyful nature; E’ Haka one accompanied by gestures of mimicry; E’ -Karakia is a prayer or an incantation used on certain occasions. In -saying this prayer there is generally no modulation of the voice, -but syllables are lengthened and shortened, and it produces the same -effect as reading the Talmud in synagogues. Most of these songs live in -the memory of all, but with numerous variations. Certain Karakia, or -invocations, however, are less generally known, and a stranger obtains -them with difficulty, as they are only handed down among the tohunga, -or priests, from father to son. - -“To adapt words to a certain tune, and thus to commemorate a passing -event, is common in New Zealand, and has been the beginning of all -national poetry. Many of these children of the moment have a long -existence, and are transmitted through several generations; but their -allusions become unintelligible, and foreign names, having undergone a -thorough change, cannot be recognized.” - -All these songs are accompanied by gesticulations more or less violent -and in that which is known as E’ Haka the bodily exertion is extreme. -The singers sit down in a circle, throw off their upper mats, and sing -in concert, accompanying the song with the wildest imaginable gestures, -squinting and turning up their eyes so as to show nothing but the -whites. - -Of musical instruments they have but very vague and faint ideas. Even -the drum, which is perhaps the instrument that has the widest range -through the world, is unknown to the native New Zealander. Drums -resound in all the islands of the Pacific, but the New Zealander never -indulges himself in a drumming. The sole really musical instrument -which he possesses is a sort of fife made out of human bone. Generally, -the flute is formed from the thigh-bone of a slain enemy; and when this -is the case, the Maori warrior prizes the instrument inordinately, and -carries it suspended to the tiki which he wears slung on his breast. - -There are certainly two noise-producing instruments, which have no -right to be honored with the title of musical instruments. These are -the war bell and the war trumpet. - -The former is called the war bell in default of a better word. It -consists of a block of hard wood about six feet long and two thick, -with a deep groove in the centre. This “bell” is suspended horizontally -by cords, and struck by a man who squats on a scaffold under it. With -a stick made of heavy wood he delivers slow and regular strokes in the -groove, the effect being to produce a most melancholy sound, dully -booming in the stillness of the night. The war bell is never sounded by -day, the object being to tell the people inside the pah, or village, -that the sentinel is awake, and to tell any approaching enemy that it -would be useless for him to attempt an attack by surprise. Its native -name is Pahu. - -The war trumpet is called Putara-putara. It is a most unwieldly -instrument, at least seven feet in length. It is hollowed out of a -suitably-shaped piece of hard wood, and an expanding mouth is given -to it by means of several pieces of wood lashed together with flaxen -fibre, and fitted to each other like the staves of a cask. Toward the -mouth-piece it is covered with the grotesque carvings of which the New -Zealanders are so fond. It is only used on occasions of alarm, when -it is laid over the fence of the pah, and sounded by a strong-lunged -native. The note which the trumpet produces is a loud roaring sound, -which, as the natives aver, can be heard, on a calm night, the distance -of several miles. In fact, the sound appears to be very much the same -as that which is produced by the celebrated Blowing Stone of Wiltshire. - -In some places a smaller trumpet is used in time of war. The body of -this trumpet is always made of a large shell, generally that of a -triton, and the mode of blowing it differs according to the locality. -The simplest kind of shell-trumpet is that which is in use throughout -the whole of the Pacific Islands. It is made by taking a large empty -shell, and boring a round hole on one side near the point. The shell -is blown like a flute, being placed horizontally to the lips, and the -air directed across the aperture. In fact, it exactly resembles in -principle the horn and ivory trumpets of Africa, which are shown on a -preceding page. - -There is, however, in the British Museum a much more elaborate form of -trumpet, which is blown with a mouth-piece. In this case the point of -the shell has been removed and a wooden mouth-piece substituted for it, -so that it is blown at the end, like trumpets in our own country. - -The dances of the New Zealander are almost entirely connected with war -and will therefore be mentioned when we come to treat of that subject. - -The mode of salutation at parting and meeting is very curious, and to -an European sufficiently ludicrous. When two persons meet who have -not seen each other for some time, it is considered a necessary point -of etiquette to go through the ceremony called _tangi_. The “g,” by -the way, is pronounced hard, as in the word “begin.” They envelope -themselves in their mats, covering even their faces, except one eye, -squat on the ground opposite each other, and begin to weep copiously. -They seem to have tears at command, and they never fail to go through -the whole of the ceremony as often as etiquette demands it. Having -finished their cry, they approach each other, press their noses -together for some time, uttering the while, a series of short grunts! -Etiquette is now satisfied and both parties become very cheerful and -lively, chatting and laughing as if there had never been such a thing -as a tear in existence. - -Mr. Angas tells a ludicrous story of a tangi which he once witnessed. A -woman was paddling a very small canoe, and fell in with the exploring -party, who were in two large canoes. Seeing some friends on board of -the large canoes, she ran her little vessel between them, and began a -vigorous tangi. - -Time being pressing, she could not stop to wrap herself up in the -orthodox style, but burst into a flood of tears in the most approved -fashion, and paddled and howled with equal vigor. Still crying, she put -on board a basket of potatoes as a present, and received in return a -fig of tobacco. The tangi being by this time complete, the old woman -burst into a loud laugh, had a lively talk with her friends, turned her -little canoe round, and paddled briskly out of sight. - -In one instance this force of habit was rather ludicrously exemplified. -The writer shall tell his own story. - -“At Hopeton we met with a sister of Karake, or Clark, the chief of -Waikato Heads, whose portrait I had painted when at Auckland. This -portrait I showed to the old woman, who had not seen her brother for -some time, when, to my surprise and amusement, she at once commenced -a most affectionate tangi before the sketch; waving her hands in the -usual manner, and uttering successively low whining sounds expressive -of her joy. - -“After she had, as I imagined, satisfied herself with seeing the -representation of her brother, I was about to replace the sketch in -my portfolio, when she begged of Forsaith that she might be permitted -to tangi over it in good earnest, saying, ‘It was her brother--her -brother; and she must TANGI till the tears come.’ And sure enough, -presently the tears did come, and the old woman wept and moaned, and -waved her hands before the picture, with as much apparent feeling as -if her brother himself had thus suddenly appeared to her. I could not -prevail upon the old creature to desist, and was at length compelled -to leave the portrait in Forsaith’s care, whilst I was employed in -sketching elsewhere. In future I shall be more cautious how I show my -sketches to the old women, finding that they are liable to produce such -melancholy results.” - -Mr. A. Christie, to whom I am indebted for much information about -the country, told me an anecdote of a tangi performed in England by -a party of Maories who had visited this country. They were about to -bid farewell to one of their friends, and visited his house for that -purpose, desiring to be allowed to perform the tangi. - -Knowing their customs, their host took them into an empty room, -previously cautioning his family not to be surprised at the ceremony. -The whole party then sat down on the floor, and raised a most dismal -howl, wailing, waving their hands, shedding floods of tears, and, in -fact, enjoying themselves in their own queer way. The tangi being over, -they all became lively and chatty, and finally took leave after the -undemonstrative English fashion. - -To a stranger the performance of the tangi is very amusing for the -first few times of witnessing it; but he soon becomes tired of it, and -at last looks upon it as an unmitigated nuisance, wasting time, and -subjecting him to a series of doleful howls from which he has no mode -of escape. Mr. Angas describes a tangi to which he was subjected. - -“At sunset we reached a small fortified port, on the summit of a hill -overlooking the lake. There were but few natives residing in it, to -whom the sight of a pakeha (white man) was indeed astonishing; and, -after the salutation of welcome, they commenced a tangi at my guides -and myself. - -“The man who introduced us uttered a faint sound in his throat, like -that of a person crying at a distance, and continued to look mournfully -on the ground. The welcome of the men was voluble and loud: they howled -dismally, and their tears fell fast for some time. - -“Another female soon arrived, who, squatting on the ground, commenced -a tangi with her friends, so loud and doleful--now muttering and anon -howling like a hyena--that it made me feel quite dismal. There she sat, -yelling horribly, to my great annoyance, but Maori etiquette compelled -me to look grave and not to disturb her. There seemed to be no end to -this woman’s wailings of welcome. The night was cold, and she still -continued to sit by the fire prolonging her lugubrious and discordant -strains. Sometimes she would pitch a higher key, going upward with a -scream, shaking her voice, and muttering between every howl; then it -would be a squall with variations, like ‘housetop cats on moonlight -nights.’ - -“Then blowing her nose with her fingers, she made some remarks to the -woman next her, and recommenced howling in the most systematic way. -Once again she became furious; then, during an interval, she spoke -about the pakeha, joined in a hearty laugh with all the rest, and -at last, after one long continued howl, all was silent, to my great -relief.” - -The manner in which the natives can produce such torrents of tears -is really marvellous; and they exhibit such apparent agony of grief, -acting the part to such perfection, that for some time a stranger can -hardly believe that the profusely weeping natives are simply acting a -conventional part. - -In the illustration No. 2, on the 809th page, is shown the sort of -scene which takes place at a pah when some of the inhabitants return -after a long absence--a scene which would be very pathetic did it not -trench upon the ludicrous. - -When a party of strangers arrive at a pah, the preliminary part of -the tangi, _i. e._ the sitting down and weeping, is omitted, another -ceremony being substituted for it. The visitors are introduced into -the interior of the pah, where a large space has been kept clear. The -principal chief of the village then advances, clad as if for war, _i. -e._ wearing nothing but his moko and plenty of scarlet paint, and -bearing a spear in his hand. He brandishes and aims the spear as if he -meant to pierce the chief of the opposite party, and then throws it -toward, but not at, the stranger. The visitors then squat silently on -the ground, according to Maori etiquette, and presently each stranger -is faced by one of the receiving tribe, who goes through the ceremony -of ongi, or pressing noses, which is the last part of the tangi. This -lasts for some time, and, when it is completed, the provisions are -brought out and a great feasting ensues. - -As to the general character of the natives, it presents a curious -mixture of wildness and ferocity, affection and fickleness, benevolence -and vengefulness, hospitality and covetousness. The leading -characteristic of the Maori mind is self-esteem, which sometimes takes -the form of a lofty and even chivalrous pride, and at other times -degenerates into childish vanity. It is this feeling which leads a New -Zealander to kill himself rather than live to suffer disgrace, and -which causes him to behave with the politeness for which the well-bred -New Zealander is so conspicuous. Degenerating into vanity, it is easily -wounded; and hence the accidentally hurt feelings of a Maori, added to -the vengefulness which forms so large a portion of his nature, have -occasioned long and desolating wars, in which whole tribes have been -extinguished. - -The temper of the Maories is, as is often the case with uncultivated -natures, quick, tetchy, and, though pleasing enough as a general rule, -is apt to change suddenly without the least provocation; a lively, -agreeable person becoming suddenly dull, sullen, and ill-tempered. This -fickleness of demeanor is very troublesome to Europeans, and, indeed, -is sometimes assumed by the natives, for the purpose of seeing how much -their white companion will endure. When they find that he meets them -with firmness, they lay aside their unpleasant manner, and become quite -gay and sociable. - -Often, however, an European hurts their feelings quite unintentionally, -through sheer ignorance of the minute code of etiquette which they -observe. If, for example two Europeans meet and wish to discuss a -subject, they stand still and have their talk, or perhaps they walk -backward and forward. Two New Zealanders, on the contrary, would -always sit down, as it is thought a mark of inattention to stand while -addressed by another. Again, when a New Zealander enters a house, he -makes his salutation and then squats down in silence for some time, -the omission of this ceremony being looked upon as great a mark of -ill-breeding as to go into a drawing-room with the hat on is considered -among ourselves. - -One curious trait of the Maori character is the inability to keep a -secret. This curious disposition sometimes subjects the natives to very -unpleasant consequences. Those, for example, who have adopted the laws -of the white man, have discovered that there are many delinquencies -which can be done with impunity, provided that they are committed in -secret. But according to Dieffenbach, “with the art of keeping a secret -the New Zealander is little acquainted. Although he possesses in many -other respects great self-control, the secret must come out, even if -his death should be the immediate consequence.” - -They have a strong and tenacious memory, easily acquiring knowledge, -and retaining it with wonderful accuracy. The strength of their memory -is well exemplified by the native converts to Christianity, who -will repeat long passages of the Bible and many hymns with absolute -exactness. - -One of the most remarkable examples of this characteristic is afforded -by an old chief named Horomana Marahau, who is popularly known as -Blind Solomon. He has led a most exciting and varied life, hawing -been engaged in war ever since he was a boy, and once actually taken -prisoner by the ferocious chief E’ Hongi, or Shongi, as he is generally -called. He has captured many a pah, and assisted in eating many a slain -enemy, and had he not escaped when he himself was made prisoner, he -would have shared the same fate. - -His last exploit was an attack on Poverty Bay where he and his -followers took the pah, and killed and afterward ate six hundred of the -enemy. Shortly after this feat he became blind, at Otawaho, where he -first met with the missionary. In process of time he became a convert, -and afterward labored as a teacher, displaying the same earnest energy -which distinguished his military career, and, though an old man, -undertaking long and toilsome journeys for the purpose of instructing -his fellow-countrymen. Mr. Angas once heard him deliver a funeral -oration over the body of a child, which he describes as one of the -finest and most impassioned bursts of eloquence he ever heard. - -Horomana was peculiarly suited for the office of instructor in -consequence of his exceptionally retentive memory. He knows the whole -of the Church Service by heart, together with many hymns and long -passages of the Bible, and when he was examined in the Catechism, it -was found that he knew every word correctly. This strength of memory, -by the way, useful as it is when rightly employed, is sometimes abused -by becoming an instrument of revenge, a Maori never forgetting an -insult, whether real or imaginary, nor the face of the person by whom -he was insulted. - -The curiosity of the people is insatiable, and they always want to hear -all about everything they see. This spirit of curiosity has naturally -led them to take the greatest interest in the various arts and sciences -possessed by the white man, and in order to gratify it they will often -hire themselves as sailors in European ships. Accustomed to the water -all their lives, and being admirable canoe men, they make excellent -sailors, and soon learn to manage boats after the European fashion, -which differs essentially from their own. Some of them penetrate into -the higher mysteries of navigation, and in 1813 a New Zealander was -captain of a whaler. - -They take quite as much interest in the familiar objects of their own -country as in those which are brought to them by foreigners. They have -names for all their animal, vegetable, and even mineral productions, -pointing out and remarking upon any peculiarities which may be found in -them. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXII. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -FOOD AND COOKERY. - - - HOSPITALITY OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS -- EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION -- THE - CHURLISH HOSTS AND THEIR REWARD -- A NEW ZEALAND FEAST -- THE WALL OF - PROVISIONS -- FOOD-BASKETS -- THE KUMARA OR SWEET POTATO -- WASHING - AND COOKING VEGETABLES -- THE CABBAGE PALM AND FERN ROOT -- A NATIVE - LEGEND -- THE PAWA SHELL -- THE MUSSEL AND OYSTER -- FISHING -- THE - NET, THE TRAP, THE HOOK, AND THE SPEAR -- BIRD-CATCHING -- CAPTURING - THE KIWI-KIWI AND PARROT -- PIG-CATCHING AND COOKING -- CANNIBALISM, - ITS SIGNIFICATION AND EXTENT -- EATING HUMAN FLESH A SUPERSTITIOUS - CUSTOM -- ANECDOTES OF CANNIBALISM. - -The New Zealanders are the most hospitable and generous of people; a -stranger, whether native or European, is welcomed into the villages, -is furnished with shelter, and provided at once with food. Should -the visitor be a relative, or even an intimate friend, they hold all -their property in common, and will divide with him everything that -they possess. Even if a Maori has earned by long labor some article of -property which he was very anxious to possess, he will give it to a -relation or friend who meets him after a long separation. - -This generosity of disposition has unfortunately been much checked by -contact with the white man, and those natives who have much to do with -the white settlers have lost much of their politeness as well as their -hospitality. Instead of welcoming the traveller, housing him in their -best hut, providing him with their choicest food, and tending him as -if he were a near relation, they have become covetous and suspicious, -and instead of offering aid gratuitously will sometimes refuse it -altogether, and at the best demand a high rate of payment for their -assistance. - -The native converts to Christianity have deteriorated greatly in this -respect through the misjudged zeal of the missionaries, who have taught -their pupils to refuse food and shelter to, or to perform any kind -of work for, a traveller who happens to arrive at their houses on a -Sunday--a circumstance which must continually occur in a country where -the travellers are entirely dependent on the natives. Dr. Dieffenbach, -who always speaks in the highest terms of the zeal and self-denial -of the missionaries, writes as follows on this subject: “Highly as -I appreciate the merits of the missionaries, I must say that they -have omitted to teach their converts some most important social, -and therefore moral, duties, which they will only acquire by a more -intimate intercourse with civilized Europeans. - -“In their native state they are as laborious as their wants require; -but, easily satisfying those, and incapable even by their utmost -exertions to compete with the lowest of Europeans, they get lazy and -indolent, prefer begging to working, and pass a great part of their -time in showing their acquired fineries and in contemplating the -restless doings of the colonist. As servants they are very independent, -and Europeans will do well, if they want any native _helpers_, to treat -them with attention, and rather as belonging to the family than as -servants. They have this feeling of independence very strongly, and it -is very creditable to them. - -“There is every reason to believe that in a short time the character -of the New Zealanders will be entirely changed, and any one who wishes -to see what they were formerly must study them in the interior, where -they are still little influenced by intercourse with us, which I must -repeat, has been little advantageous to them.” - -The same writer relates an amusing anecdote respecting the ancient -custom of hospitality. He had been travelling for some distance with -scarcely any provisions, and came upon a tribe which churlishly refused -hospitality to the party, and would not even furnish a guide to show -them their way. One of them condescended to sell a small basket of -potatoes in exchange for some needles, but nothing more could be -obtained, and, after spending a day in vain, the party had to pack up -and resume their march. - -After they had left the pah, they came suddenly across a family of -pigs. One of the native attendants immediately killed a large sow, and -in a few minutes the animal was cut up and the pieces distributed. -Not liking to take food without paying for it, Dr. Dieffenbach hung -the offal of the pig on a bush, together with an old pair of trousers -and an iron kettle. His attendants, however, went back and took them -away, saying that it was the custom of the country that a stranger -should be supplied with food, and that, if it were not given to him, -he had a right to take it when, where, and how he could. They were -very much amused at the whole proceeding, and made many jokes on the -disappointment of the churlish people who refused to sell a pig at a -good price, and then found that it had been taken for nothing. - -Hospitality being such a universal and imperative characteristic of the -aboriginal Maori, it may be imagined that when a chief gives a feast -he does so with a liberal hand. Indeed, some of these banquets are on -so enormous a scale, that a whole district is ransacked to furnish -sufficient provisions, and the inhabitants have in consequence to live -in a state of semi-starvation for many months. Mr. Angas mentions that, -when he visited the celebrated chief Te Whero-Whero, he saw more than a -thousand men planting sweet potatoes in order to furnish provisions for -a feast that the chief intended to give to all the Waikato tribes in -the following spring. - -These feasts are continued as long as any food is left, and a very -liberal chief will sometimes get together so enormous a supply of -provisions that the banquet lasts for several weeks. Songs and dances, -especially the war dance, are performed at intervals throughout the -time of feasting. - -The first illustration on the 831st page gives a good idea of the -preliminaries which are observed before the celebration of an ordinary -feast, such as would be given by a well-to-do Rangatira. A sort of -scaffold is erected, on the bars of which are hung large supplies of -fish, mostly dried shark, together with pieces of pork, and similar -luxuries. The upper part of the scaffold is formed into a flat stage, -on which are placed large baskets full of sweet potatoes and common -potatoes. The guests range themselves in a circle round the scaffold, -and the chief who gives the feast makes a speech to them, brandishing -his staff of office, running up and down the open space, leaping in the -air, and working himself up by gestures to an extraordinary pitch of -excitement. - -One of my friends was distinguished by having a feast given in his -honor, and described the ceremony in a very amusing manner. The -generous founder of the feast had built a sort of wall, the contents -of which were potatoes, sweet potatoes, pigs, and fish. By way of -ornament, he had fixed a number of sticks into the wall, like so many -flagstaffs, and to the top of each he had fastened a living eel by way -of a flag or streamer, its contortions giving, according to his ideas, -a spirit to the whole proceedings. - -He then marched quickly backward and forward between the wall of -provisions and his guests, who were all seated on the ground, and as -he marched uttered a few broken sentences. By degrees his walk became -quicker and quicker, and changed into a run, diversified with much -leaping into the air, brandishing of imaginary weapons, and utterance -of loud yells. At last he worked himself up into a pitch of almost -savage fury, and then suddenly squatted down silently, and made way for -another orator. - -The waste which takes place at such a feast, which is called in the -native language _hui_, is necessarily very great. In one such party -mentioned by Mr. Angas, the donor arranged the provisions and presents -for his guests in the form of a wall, which was five feet high, as -many wide, _more than a mile in length_, and supplied for many days -thousands of natives who came to the feast from very great distances. -The great chiefs take great pleasure in rivalling each other in their -expenditure, and it was for the purpose of building a still larger -food wall that Te Whero-Whero was so busily setting his men to work in -planting the kumeras, or sweet potatoes. - -Considerable variety is shown in the manner of presenting the food -to the guests. Generally it is intended to be eaten on the spot, but -sometimes it is meant to be given away to the people, to be consumed -when and where they like. In such a case either the scaffold or the -wall is used. The scaffold is sometimes fifty or sixty feet high, and -divided into a number of stories, each of which is loaded with food. If -the wall be employed, it is separated into a number of divisions. In -either case, when the guests are seated, a chief who acts as the master -of the ceremonies marches about and makes a speech, after the fashion -of his country; and, after having delivered his oration, he points out -to each tribe the portion which is intended for it. The chief man of -each tribe takes possession of the gift, and afterward subdivides it -among his followers. - -It is rather remarkable that the baskets in which the provisions are -served are made for the express purpose, and, having fulfilled their -office, are thrown aside and never used again. Should a chief take one -of these baskets and begin to eat from it, not only the basket but any -food which he may leave in it is thrown away, no chief ever eating -after any one, or allowing any one to eat after him. - -So when a chief takes his basket of food, he withdraws himself from -the rest of the company and consumes his food, so that no one shall -be incommoded by his rank. Ordinary people, even the Rangatiras, -are not nearly so fastidious, one basket of food sufficing several -of them, three or four being the usual number for a basket. Each of -these baskets contains a complete meal, and is usually supplied with -plenty of potatoes and kumeras, some fish, and a piece of pork. The -meat is passed from one to another, each taking a bite, or tearing -off a portion; and when they have finished, they wipe their hands on -the backs of the dogs which are sure to thrust themselves among the -revellers. - -These feasts naturally lead us to the various kinds of food used by the -New Zealanders, and their modes of procuring and preparing them. - -We will begin with the plant which is the very staff of life to the -New Zealander, namely, the kumera, or sweet potato, as it is popularly -though erroneously called. This plant is largely cultivated by the -Maories, who are very careful in selecting a proper soil for it. The -best ground for the kumera is that which has been thickly wooded, and -is cleared for the purpose. The natives take but little trouble about -preparing the land, merely cutting down the trees and burning the -brushwood, but never attempting to root up the stumps. - -The ground is torn up rather than dug by a simple instrument, which is -nothing more than a sharpened pole with a cross-piece fastened to it, -on which the foot can rest. As the New Zealanders do not wear shoes, -they cannot use an iron spade as we do; and it may easily be imagined -that the unprotected foot of the Maori would suffer terribly in -performing a task which, even among our stoutly-shod laborers, forces -them to wear a plate of iron on the sole of the boot. - -The _kaheru_, as this tool is called, is more effective than an iron -spade could be, in consequence of the peculiar character of the soil, -which is thickly interlaced with the roots of ferns, brushwood, and -shrubs. A few of these curious spades are tipped with a piece of green -jade, and are then highly valued by the natives. Such a tool is called -E Toki. The Maories have also a kind of hoe which is very useful in -some soils. - -The kumeras are planted in regular rows, and the greatest care is taken -to keep the field clear of weeds. The dark agriculturists even remove -every caterpillar that is seen upon the plants; and altogether such -elaborate care is taken that the best managed field in Europe cannot -surpass, and very few even equal, a piece of land cultivated by the New -Zealander. - -Each family has its own peculiar field, the produce of which is -presumed to belong to the family. But a great portion of the labor -performed in it may be done by poor men who have no land of their own. -In such a case, they acquire, in virtue of their labor, a legal right -over the fruits of the land which they have helped to till. Sometimes -the head or chief of a tribe, considering himself as the father of -the family, institutes a general sale, and distributes the proceeds -according to the amount of material or labor which each has contributed. - -Before the potatoes are cooked, they are carefully washed in a simple -and very effective manner. A woman puts them into a basket with two -handles, popularly called a “kit,” wades into a running stream, -puts one foot into the basket, takes hold of the handles, and rocks -the basket violently backward and forward, while with her foot she -continually stirs up and rubs the potatoes. In this manner the earth -is washed away from the vegetables, and is carried off by the stream -through the interstices of the basket. - -At the present day, the kumera, although very highly valued, and used -at every important feast, has been rivalled, if not superseded, by -the common potato which can be raised with less trouble and cooked -more easily. Both the kumera and potato are cooked in a sort of oven, -made by heating stones, and much resembling the cooking-place of the -Australians. No cooking is allowed to take place in the house, the act -of preparing food being looked upon as a desecration of any building. -Through ignorance of this curious superstition, Europeans have -frequently brought upon themselves the anger of the natives by eating, -and even cooking, food within a house which is looked upon as sacred. - -In consequence of this notion, the oven is either constructed in the -open air, or at best in a special house called Te-kauta, which is made -of logs piled loosely upon each other, so as to permit the smoke to -escape. - -The bud, or “cabbage,” of the nikau-palm, a species of Areca, is highly -prized by the Maories, who fell every tree which they think likely to -produce a young and tender bud. This vegetable is sometimes eaten raw, -and sometimes cooked in the same mode as the potato. Fortunately, -the tree is not wasted by being cut down, as its leaves are used for -many purposes, such as making temporary sheds when travellers are -benighted in the forest, thatching houses, and similar uses. Still, the -destruction of this useful and graceful palm is very great, and there -is reason to fear that the improvident natives will wholly extirpate -it, unless means be taken to preserve it by force of law. - -The Maories have one curious plan of preparing food, which seems to -have been invented for the purpose of making it as disgusting as -possible. They take the kumera, the potato, or the maize, and steep -it in fresh water for several weeks, until it is quite putrid. It is -then made into cakes, and eaten with the greatest zest. To an European -nothing can be more offensive, and the very smell of it, not to -mention the flavor, is so utterly disgusting that even a starving man -can hardly manage to eat it. The odor is so powerful, so rancid, and -so penetrating, that when Europeans have been sitting inside a house -and a man has been sitting in the open air eating this putrid bread, -they have been forced to send him away from the vicinity of the door. -By degrees travellers become more accustomed to it, but at first the -effect is inexpressibly disgusting; and when it is cooked, the odor is -enough to drive every European out of the village. - -In former days the fern-root (_Pteris esculenta_) was largely eaten by -the natives, but the potatoes and maize have so completely superseded -it that fern root is very seldom eaten, except on occasions when -nothing else can be obtained. When the fern root is cooked, it is -cut into pieces about a foot long, and then roasted. After it is -sufficiently cooked, it is scraped clean with a shell. The flavor of -this root is not prepossessing, having an unpleasant mixture of the -earthy and the medicinal about it. - -About December another kind of food comes into season. This is the -pulpous stem of one of the tree-ferns which are so plentiful in New -Zealand (_Cyathea medullaris_). It requires long cooking, and is -generally placed in the oven in the evening, and eaten in the morning. - -With regard to the vegetables used in New Zealand, Dr. Dieffenbach has -the following remarks. After mentioning the native idea that they were -conquerors of New Zealand, and brought with them the dog and the taro -plant (_Arum esculentum_), he proceeds as follows:--“A change took -place in their food by the introduction of the sweet potato or kumera -(_Convolvulus batata_)--an introduction which is gratefully remembered -and recorded in many of their songs, and has given rise to certain -religious observances. - -“It may be asked, What was the period when the poor natives received -the gift of this wholesome food, and who was their benefactor? On the -first point they know nothing; their recollection attaches itself to -events, but not to time. The name, however, of the donor lives in their -memory. It is E’ Paui, or Ko Paui, the wife of E’ Tiki, who brought -the first seeds from the island of Tawai. E’ Tiki was a native of the -island of Tawai, which is not that whence, according to tradition, the -ancestors of the New Zealanders had come. He came to New Zealand with -his wife, whether in less frail vessels than they possess at present, -and whether purposely or driven there by accident, tradition is silent. - -“He was well received, but soon perceived that food was more scanty -here than in the happy isle whence he came. He wished to confer a -benefit upon his hosts, but knew not how to do it, until his wife, -E’ Paui, offered to go back and fetch kumera, that the people who -had received them kindly might not suffer want any longer. This she -accomplished, and returned in safety to the shores of New Zealand. - -“What a tale of heroism may lie hidden under this simple tradition! -Is it a tale connected with the Polynesian race itself? or does it -not rather refer to the arrival in New Zealand of the early Spanish -navigators, who may have brought this valuable product from the island -of Tawai, one of the Sandwich Islands, where the plant is still most -extensively cultivated? There can be scarcely any doubt but that New -Zealand was visited by some people antecedent to Tasman. Kaipuke is the -name of a ship in New Zealand--_buque_ is a Spanish word--Kai means to -eat, or live. No other Polynesian nation has this word to designate -a ship. Pero (dog) and poaca (pig) are also Spanish. Tawai, whence -E’ Paui brought the kumera, is situated to the east of New Zealand -according to tradition, and the first discoverers in the great ocean, -Alvaro Mendana (1595), Quiros (1608), Lemaire, and others, arrived from -the eastward, as they did at Tahiti, according to the tradition of the -inhabitants. Tasman did not come to New Zealand until 1642.” - -However this may be, the fields of kumera are strictly “tapu,” and -any theft from them is severely punished. The women who are engaged -in their cultivation are also tapu. They must pray together with the -priests for the increase of the harvest. These women are never allowed -to join in the cannibal feasts, and it is only after the kumera is -dug up that they are released from the strict observance of the tapu. -They believe that kumera is the food consumed in the “reinga,” the -dwelling-place of the departed spirits; and it is certainly the food -most esteemed among the living. - -They have several ways of preparing the sweet potato. It is either -simply boiled, or dried slowly in a “hangi,” when it has the taste of -dates, or ground into powder and baked into cakes. The kumera, like -most importations, is rather a delicate vegetable, and while it is -young it is sheltered by fences made of brushwood, which are set up on -the windward side of the plantation when bad weather is apprehended. -Great stacks of dried brushwood are seen in all well-managed kumera -gardens, ready to be used when wanted. So great is the veneration of -the natives for the kumera, that the storehouses wherein it is kept are -usually decorated in a superior style to the dwelling of the person who -owns them. - -In illustration No. 2, on the next page, several of these elaborate -storehouses are shown. They are always supported on posts in such a -way that the rats cannot get among the contents, and in some instances -they are set at the top of poles fifteen or twenty feet high, which are -climbed by means of notches in them. These, however, are almost without -ornamentation, whereas those which belong specially to the chief are -comparatively low, and in some cases every inch of them is covered -with graceful or grotesque patterns, in which the human face always -predominates. - -Some of these curious storehouses are not rectangular, but cylindrical, -the cylinder lying horizontally, with the door at the end, and -being covered with a pointed roof. Even the very posts on which the -storehouses stand are carved into the rude semblance of the human form. - -The Maories also say that the calabash, or _hue_, is of comparatively -late introduction, the seeds having been obtained from a calabash which -was carried by a whale and thrown on their shores. - -A very curious article of vegetable food is the cowdie gum, which -issues from a species of pine. This gum exudes in great quantities from -the trees, and is found in large masses adhering to the trunk, and also -in detached pieces on the ground. It is a clear, yellowish resin; and -it is imported into England, where it is converted into varnish. The -flavor of the cowdie gum is powerfully aromatic, and the natives of the -northern island chew it just as sailors chew tobacco. They think so -much of this gum, that when a stranger comes to visit them, the highest -compliment that can be paid to him is for the host to take a partially -chewed piece of gum from his mouth, and offer it to the visitor. - -The New Zealanders eat great quantities of the pawa, a species of -Haliotis, from which they procure the pearly shell with which they are -so fond of inlaying their carvings, especially the eyes of the human -figures. Shells belonging to this group are well known in the Channel -Islands under the name of Ormer shells, and the molluscs are favorite -articles of diet. Those which are found in New Zealand are very much -larger than the species of the Channel Islands, and the inhabitants are -tough and, to European taste, very unpalatable. Great quantities are, -however, gathered for food. The putrid potato cakes are generally eaten -with the pawa; and the two together form a banquet which an Englishman -could hardly prevail on himself to taste, even though he were dying of -hunger. - -Mussels, too, are largely used for food: and the natives have a way -of opening and taking out the inmate which I have often practised. If -the bases of two mussels be placed together so that the projections -interlock, and a sharp twist be given in opposite directions, the -weaker of the two gives way, and the shell is opened. Either shell -makes an admirable knife, and scrapes the mollusc out of its home even -better than a regular oyster-knife. - -Oysters, especially the Cockscomb oyster (_Ostræa cristata_), are very -plentiful in many parts of the coast, and afford an unfailing supply of -food to the natives. They are mostly gathered by women, who are in some -places able to obtain them by waiting until low water, and at other -places are forced to dive at all states of the tide. - -Fish form a large portion of New Zealand diet; and one of their -favorite dishes is shark’s flesh dried and nearly putrescent. In this -state it exhales an odor which is only less horrible than that of the -putrid cakes. Mr. Angas mentions one instance where he was greatly -inconvenienced by the fondness of the natives for these offensive -articles of diet. He was travelling through the country with some -native guides, and on arriving at a pah had procured for breakfast some -remarkably fine kumeras. The natives immediately set to work at cooking -the kumeras, among which they introduced a quantity of semi-putrid -shark’s flesh. This was not the worst of the business, for they next -wove some of the phormium baskets which have already been described, -filled them with the newly-cooked provisions, and carried them until -the evening repast, giving the traveller the benefit of the horrible -odor for the rest of the day. - -Fish are either taken with the net, the weir, or the hook. The net -presents nothing remarkable, and is used as are nets all over the -world, the natives weighting them at the bottom, floating them at the -top, shooting them in moderately shallow water, and then beating the -water with poles in order to frighten the fish into the meshes. - -Traps, called pukoro-tuna, are made of funnel-shaped baskets, just like -the eel-traps of our own country; but the most ingenious device is the -weir, which is built quite across the river, and supported by poles for -many yards along its side. Often, when the net or the weir is used, the -fish taken are considered as belonging to the community in general, and -are divided equally by the chief. - -[Illustration: (1.) PREPARING FOR A FEAST. (See page 827.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CHIEFS’ STOREHOUSES. (See page 830.)] - -Sometimes a singularly ingenious net is used, which has neither float -nor sinkers. This net is about four feet wide, thirty or forty feet in -length, and is tied at each end to a stout stick. Ropes are lashed to -the stick, and the net is then taken out to sea in a canoe. When they -have arrived at a convenient spot, the natives throw the net over the -side of the canoe, holding the ropes at either end of the boat, so that -the net forms a large semicircle in the water as the boat drifts along. -In fact it is managed much as an English fisherman manages his dredge. - -In the middle of the canoe is posted a man, who bears in his hand a -very long and light pole, having a tuft of feathers tied to one end of -it. With the tufted end he beats and stirs the water, thus driving into -the meshes of the net all the small fishes within the curve of the net. -Those who hold the ropes can tell by the strain upon the cords whether -there are enough fish in the net to make a haul advisable, and when -that is the case, the net is brought to the side of the canoe, emptied, -and again shot. - -Spearing fish is sometimes, but not very largely, employed. The hooks -employed by the New Zealanders present a curious mixture of simplicity -and ingenuity. It really seems strange that any fish should be stupid -enough to take such an object in its mouth. There is, however, one -which is a singularly admirable contrivance. The body of the hook is -made of wood, curved, and rather hollowed on the inside. The hook -itself is bone, and is always made from the bone of a slain enemy, so -that it is valued as a trophy, as well as a means of catching fish. -This bone is fastened to the rest of the hook by a very ingenious -lashing; and, in some instances, even the bone is in two pieces, which -are firmly lashed together. In consonance with the warlike character of -the natives, who seem to be as ready to offer an insult to other tribes -as to take offence themselves, the use of the enemy’s bone is intended -as an insult and a defiance to a hostile tribe. - -The body of the hook is lined with the pawa shell, and to the bottom -of it is attached a tuft of fibres. This hook is remarkable for -requiring no bait. It is towed astern of the canoe, and when pulled -swiftly through the water it revolves rapidly, the pearly lining -flashing in the light like the white belly of fish, and the tuft of -fibres representing the tail. Consequently, the predatorial fish take -it for the creature which it represents, dash at it as it flashes -by them, and are hooked before they discover their mistake. If any -of my readers should happen to be anglers, they will see that this -hook of the New Zealander is exactly similar in principle with the -“spoon-bait” which is so efficacious in practised hands. One of these -hooks in my collection is quite a model of form, the curves being -peculiarly graceful, and the effect being as artistic as if the maker -had been a professor in the school of design. The length of my hook is -rather more than four inches: and this is about the average size of -these implements. The string by which it is held is fastened to the -hook in a very ingenious manner; and indeed it scarcely seems possible -that so apparently slight a lashing could hold firmly enough to baffle -the struggles of a fish large enough to swallow a hook more than four -inches in length, and three-quarters of an inch in width. Some of these -hooks are furnished with a feather of the apteryx, which serves the -purpose of an artificial fly. - -Both salt and fresh water crayfish are taken in large quantities. The -latter, which are very large, are almost invariably captured by the -women, who have to dive for them, and the former are taken in traps -baited with flesh, much like our own lobster-pots. Birds are almost -always caught by calling them with the voice, or by using a decoy bird. -The apteryx, or kiwi-kiwi, is taken by the first of these methods. It -is of nocturnal habits, and is seldom seen, never venturing out of its -haunts by day. It is very thinly scattered, living in pairs, and each -pair inhabiting a tolerably large district. At night it creeps out of -its dark resting-place among the ferns, where it has been sleeping -throughout the day, and sets off in search of worms, grubs, and other -creatures, which it scratches out of the ground with its powerful feet. -During the night it occasionally utters its shrill cry; that of the -male being somewhat like the words “hoire, hoire, hoire,” and that of -the female like “ho, ho, ho.” - -When the natives wish to catch the apteryx, they go to the district -where the bird lives, and imitate its cry. As soon as it shows itself, -it is seized by a dog which the hunter has with him, and which is -trained for the purpose. As the bird is a very strong one, there is -generally a fight between itself and the dog, in which the powerful -legs and sharp claws of the bird are used with great effect. Sometimes -the hunter has ready a torch made of the cowdie resin, and by lighting -it as soon as the kiwi-kiwi comes in sight he blinds the bird so -effectually by the unwonted light that it is quite bewildered, does not -know in what direction to run, and allows itself to be taken alive. - -At some seasons of the year the bird is very fat, and its flesh is said -to be well flavored. In former days, when it was plentiful, it was -much used for food, but at the present time it is too scarce to hold -any real place among the food-producing animals of New Zealand, its -wingless state rendering it an easy prey to those who know its habits. -The skin is very tough, and, when dressed, was used in the manufacture -of mantles. - -The parrots are caught by means of a decoy bird. The fowler takes with -him a parrot which he has taught to call its companions, and conceals -himself under a shelter made of branches. From the shelter a long rod -reaches to the branches of a neighboring tree, and when the bird calls, -its companions are attracted by its cries, fly to the tree, and then -walk down the rod in parrot fashion, and are captured by the man in the -cover. - -Formerly the native dog used to be much eaten; but as the species has -almost entirely been transformed by admixture with the various breeds -of English dogs, its use, as an article of food, has been abandoned. -Pigs are almost the only mammalia that are now eaten; but they are not -considered as forming an article of ordinary diet, being reserved for -festive occasions. The pork of New Zealand pigs is said to surpass that -of their European congeners, and to bear some resemblance to veal. This -superiority of flavor is caused by their constantly feeding on the fern -roots. In color they are mostly black, and, although tame and quiet -enough with their owners, are terribly frightened when they see a white -man, erect their bristles and dash off into the bush. - -We now come to the question of cannibalism, a custom which seems to -have resisted civilization longer in New Zealand than in any other -part of the world. In some places cannibalism is an exception; here, -as among the Neam-Nam of Africa, it is a rule. An illustration on -the next page represents a cannibal cooking-house, that was erected -by a celebrated Maori chief, in the Waitahanui Pah. This was once a -celebrated fort, and was originally erected in order to defend the -inhabitants of Te Rapa from the attacks of the Waikato tribes. Both -these and their enemies having, as a rule, embraced Christianity, -and laid aside their feuds, the pah has long been deserted, and will -probably fall into decay before many years have passed. Mr. Angas’ -description of this pah is an exceedingly interesting one. - -“Waitahanui Pah stands on a neck of low swampy land jutting into the -lake, and a broad, deep river, forming a delta called the Tongariro, -and by some the Waikato (as that river runs out again at the other end -of Tampo Lake), empties itself near the pah. The long façade of the pah -presents an imposing appearance when viewed from the lake; a line of -fortifications, composed of upright poles and stakes, extending for at -least half a mile in a direction parallel to the water. On the top of -many of the posts are carved figures, much larger than life, of men in -the act of defiance, and in the most savage posture, having enormous -protruding tongues; and, like all the Maori carvings, these images, or -waikapokos, are colored with kokowai, or red ochre. - -“The entire pah is now in ruins, and has been made tapu by Te Heuheu -since its desertion. Here, then, all was forbidden ground; but I eluded -the suspicions of our natives, and rambled about all day amongst the -decaying memorials of the past, making drawings of the most striking -and peculiar objects within the pah. The cook houses, where the father -of Te Heuheu had his original establishment, remained in a perfect -state; the only entrance to these buildings was a series of circular -apertures, in and out of which the slaves engaged in preparing the food -were obliged to crawl. - -“Near to the cook houses there stood a carved patuka, which was the -receptacle of the sacred food of the chief; and nothing could exceed -the richness of the elaborate carving that adorned this storehouse. -I made a careful drawing of it, as the frail material was falling to -decay. Ruined houses--many of them once beautifully ornamented and -richly carved--numerous _waki-tapu_, and other heathen remains with -images and carved posts, occur in various portions of this extensive -pah; but in other places the hand of Time has so effectually destroyed -the buildings as to leave them but an unintelligible mass of ruins. -The situation of this pah is admirably adapted for the security of its -inmates: it commands the lake on the one side, and the other fronts the -extensive marshes of Tukanu, where a strong palisade and a deep moat -afford protection against any sudden attack. Water is conveyed into the -pah through a sluice or canal for the supply of the besieged in times -of war. - -“There was an air of solitude and gloomy desolation about the whole -pah, that was heightened by the screams of the plover and the tern, as -they uttered their mournful cry through the deserted courts. I rambled -over the scenes of many savage deeds. Ovens, where human flesh had been -cooked in heaps, still remained, with the stones used for heating them -lying scattered around, blackened by fire; and here and there a dry -skull lay bleaching in the sun and wind, a grim memorial of the past.” - -The chief reason for the persistent survival of cannibalism is to be -found in the light in which the natives regard the act. As far as can -be ascertained, the Maories do not eat their fellow-men simply because -they have any especial liking for human flesh, although, as might be -expected, there are still to be found some men who have contracted -a strong taste for the flesh of man. The real reason for the custom -is based on the superstitious notion that any one who eats the flesh -of another becomes endowed with all the best qualities of the slain -person. For this reason, a chief will often content himself with the -left eye of an adversary, that portion of the body being considered as -the seat of the soul. A similar idea prevails regarding the blood. - -[Illustration: (1.) CANNIBAL COOK HOUSE. (See page 834.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) MAORI PAH. (See page 846.)] - -When the dead bodies of enemies are brought into the villages, much -ceremony attends the cooking and eating of them. They are considered as -tapu, or prohibited, until the tohunga, or priest, has done his part. -This consists in cutting off part of the flesh, and hanging it up on a -tree or a tall stick, as an offering to the deities, accompanying his -proceedings with certain mystic prayers and invocations. - -Most women are forbidden to eat human flesh, and so are some men and -all young children. When the latter reach a certain age, they are -permitted to become eaters of human flesh, and are inducted into their -new privileges by the singing of chants and songs, the meaning of -which none of the initiates understand, and which, it is probable, are -equally a mystery to the priest himself who chants them. - -The palms of the hands and the breast are supposed to be the best -parts; and some of the elder warriors, when they have overcome their -reluctance to talk on a subject which they know will shock their -interlocutors, speak in quite enthusiastic terms of human flesh as an -article of food. - -That cannibalism is a custom which depends on warfare is evident from -many sources. In war, as we shall presently see, the New Zealander can -hardly be recognized as the same being in a state of peace. His whole -soul is filled with but one idea--that of vengeance; and it is the -spirit of revenge, and not the mere vulgar instinct of gluttony, that -induces him to eat the bodies of his fellow-men. A New Zealander would -not dream of eating the body of a man who had died a natural death, -and nothing could be further from his thoughts than the deliberate and -systematic cannibalism which disgraces several of the African tribes. - -How completely this spirit of vengeance enters into the very soul of -the Maories can be inferred from a short anecdote of a battle. There is -a small island in the Bay of Plenty called Tuhua, or Mayor’s Island, -the inhabitants of which, about two hundred in number, had erected a -strong pah, or fort, in order to defend themselves from the attacks -of tribes who lived on the mainland, and wanted to capture this very -convenient little island. The fort was built on a very steep part of -the island, craggy, precipitous, and chiefly made up of lava. - -After making several unsuccessful attacks, the enemy at last made an -onslaught in the night, hoping to take the people off their guard. The -inmates were, however, awake and prepared for resistance; and as soon -as the enemy attacked the pah, the defenders retaliated on them by -allowing them to come partly up the hill on which the pah stands, and -then rolling great stones upon them. Very many of the assailants were -killed, and the rest retreated. - -Next morning the successful defenders related this tale to a -missionary, and showed the spot where so sanguinary an encounter had -taken place. The missionary, finding that all the stones and rocks -were perfectly clean, and betrayed no traces of the bloody struggle -which had taken place only a few hours previously, asked to be shown -the marks of the blood. His guide at once answered that the women had -licked it off. It has sometimes been stated that the Maories will kill -their slaves in order to furnish a banquet for themselves; but such -statements are altogether false. - -Cannibalism is at the present day nearly, though not quite, extinct. -Chiefly by the efforts of the missionaries, it has been greatly -reduced; and even in cases where it does take place the natives are -chary of speaking about it. In wars that took place some forty years -ago, we learn that several hundred warriors were slain, and their -bodies eaten by their victors. In comparatively recent times twenty -or thirty bodies have been brought into the pah and eaten, while at -the present day many a native has never seen an act of cannibalism. -This strange and ghastly custom is, however, so dear to the Maori mind -that one of the chief obstacles to the conversion of the natives to -Christianity is to be found in the fact that the Christian natives are -obliged to abjure the use of human flesh. Still, the national instinct -of vengeance is rather repressed than extirpated, and there are many -well-known occasions when it has burst through all its bonds, and the -savage nature of the Maori has for a time gained ascendency over him. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXIII. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -WAR. - - - THE MODE OF WARFARE DEPENDENT ON WEAPONS -- THE SPEAR, NOW EXTINCT -- - THE MERAI, AND THE MATERIALS OF WHICH IT IS MADE -- THE GREEN JADE - MERAI, AND ESTIMATION IN WHICH IT IS HELD BY THE CHIEFS -- THE STONE - MERAI -- THE BONE MERAI, AND ITS VARIED SHAPES -- MODE OF USING THE - WEAPON -- CAPTURE OF SHIPS -- AN EXCITING SCENE AND TIMELY RELIEF - -- THE BATTLE-AXE, OR PATU -- ITS FORM, AND MODE OF USING IT -- THE - CHIEF’S SPEAR, OR HANI -- ITS RESEMBLANCE TO THE ANCIENT SCEPTRE - -- THE TONGUE OF DEFIANCE -- THE WAR DANCE -- ITS EFFECT ON BOARD - SHIP -- THE FORT, OR PAH, AND ITS CONSTRUCTION -- NATIVE ENGINEERING - -- THE REPULSE AT THE GATE PAH -- CONCEALING AN AMBUSH -- FATE OF - CAPTIVES -- THE CHIEF E’HONGI AND HIS BATTLES -- SLAVE-DRIVING WITH A - MERAI -- ETIQUETTE OF WAR -- A TRUCE AND A BARTER -- RETALIATION FOR - BLOODSHED -- CEREMONIES BEFORE AND AFTER A BATTLE. - -We now come to the one great object of a Maori’s life, namely, war. -Before we treat of actual warfare, it will be necessary to describe the -weapons which are used, as much of the character of warfare materially -depends on them. - -In those parts of the world, for instance, where missiles, such as bows -and arrows or spears, are the principal weapons, war becomes a series -of skirmishes, each individual trying to conceal himself as much as -possible from the enemy, and to deal his own blows without exposing -himself to retaliation. But when the weapons are of a nature that -necessitates hand-to-hand combat, warfare naturally assumes a different -aspect, and, if the forces be at all disciplined, more resembles the -regulated war of civilized nations than the independent single combats -which represent war in most savage countries. - -To this latter category belong the weapons of the New Zealander. In -former days the Maori warriors used to employ the spear, but that -weapon has long been laid aside. A few specimens are still retained, -but they are intended, not to be used against an enemy, but in -welcoming a friend, the chief who receives his guests pointing the -spear at them, and throwing it toward them, as has already been -described. When Mr. Angas visited the islands, he found only a very few -of these spears, and they were used entirely for peaceful purposes. -They were of the same character as those of the great Polynesian group, -_i. e._ made entirely of wood, long, sharply pointed, and armed with a -series of barbs. - -One of these spears is shown at figure 1, of “Maori weapons,” on -page 841. The reader will understand that only the head of the spear -is shown, the entire length of the weapon being about twelve feet. -The barbs are seen to be arranged in double order, a number of them -pointing backward, and then, after a blank space, several rows pointing -forward. The object of this device was ingenious enough. The spear was -supposed to be pushed through the body of a man until it was stopped by -the second row of barbs. It will be seen that his body would then rest -in the blank space, and the barbs on either side of him would prevent -it from being drawn out or pushed through, so that a wound from the -weapon was necessarily mortal. A spear made on the same principle, and -employed by the Bechuanas, is shown on page 281. - -The weapons used by the Maories are very few in number, and of the -simplest possible construction. It is extraordinary, by the way, what -misconceptions exist on this subject. With the generality of persons -almost every club, axe, or spear is set down as belonging to New -Zealand, especially if it has any carving about it. Even the best -public collections are not free from these errors, and in one of the -most celebrated collections of arms I discovered within five minutes -ten or twelve wrong labels. - -There is now before me an illustrated work on savage manners and -customs, in which is a group of “New Zealand arms,” containing thirteen -objects. Of these only one is a genuine weapon of New Zealand, and -two others are doubtful. There are two Fiji clubs (one of them with a -hollow tubular handle!), one stone knife of New Caledonia, two clubs -of the Tonga Islands, one Maori chief’s staff of office, one New -Zealander’s carpenter’s adze, one “poi” mallet and one “gnatoo” mallet -from Tonga, and two articles which the draughtsman may have intended -for clubs, but which have been transformed by the engraver’s art into -bottle-gourds. Besides, there is one nondescript article which may be a -drum (and therefore cannot belong to New Zealand), or it may be a pail, -or it may be a jar, and another nondescript article. - -We need not, however, wonder at these trifling errors when, in the -same work, a scene in a North American wigwam is described as a “New -Zealand christening,” and the “Interior of a Caffre hut” is fitted with -Abyssinian arms and implements: the men are represented as wearing long -two-forked beards like those of the Fans, headdresses like those of -Tonga, and capes like those of Abyssinia; while a smooth-haired woman, -instead of being dressed in Kaffir fashion, is naked with the exception -of a white cloth tied round her hips. The hut itself is a singularly -ingenious example of perversity on the part of the draughtsman, who has -selected precisely those very characteristics which do not belong to -the Kaffir hut. In the first place, the hut is three times too large, -and the walls are apparently of clay--certainly not of the basket-work -employed by Kaffirs in house-building. The floor, which in a Kaffir hut -is laid down with clay, as smooth as a table and hard as concrete, is -irregular and covered with grass; while, by way of climax, the door is -high enough to allow a man to pass without stooping, and is finished -with a beautiful arched porch covered with creepers. - -With the exception of one man, who may, by some stretch of imagination, -be taken for a Hottentot, neither the hut, its furniture, its -inhabitants, nor their weapons, bear the slightest similitude to those -of any part of Southern Africa. Such being the case with museums and -books, we need not be surprised that the popular ideas respecting the -weapons and warfare of New Zealand are very indefinite. - -Of course, at the present day, the Maories have practically discarded -their ancient weapons in favor of the rifle, which they know well how -to use, retaining the aboriginal weapons more as marks of rank than -for active service. We have, however, nothing to do with these modern -innovations, and will restrict ourselves to the weapons that belong to -the country. - -The first and most important of these is the merai, or short club. -This weapon is exactly analogous to the short sword used by the -ancient Romans, and in some cases resembles it so closely that if the -cross-guard were removed from the sword and the blade rendered convex -instead of flat, the shapes of the two weapons would be almost exactly -identical. - -The material of which these weapons are made is sometimes wood and -sometimes stone, but mostly bone, the latter material being furnished -by the spermaceti whale. The stone merai is the most valued, on account -of the difficulty of finding a suitable piece for the purpose, and of -the enormous time which is consumed in cutting it to the desired shape -with the very imperfect instrument which the Maori possesses. In fact, -a stone merai is lowly and laboriously ground into shape by rubbing it -with a piece of stone and a sort of emery powder. - -Every merai has a hole drilled through the end of the handle. Through -this hole is passed a loop of plaited cord, by means of which the -weapon is slung to the wrist, to prevent the wearer from being disarmed -in battle. Drilling the hole is a very slow process, and is done by -means of a wetted stick dipped in emery powder. - -The finest merai of this description that I have seen belongs to H. -Christie, Esq., and is remarkable not merely for its size, but for the -regularity and beauty of its curves. The material is the dark, dull -green volcanic stone of which the New Zealanders make so many of their -implements. It is nearly eighteen inches in length, and rather more -than four inches wide at the broadest part. There is a similar weapon, -nearly as large, in the collection of the United Service Institution; -but the curves are not so regular, nor is the article so handsome. - -One of these weapons is in my collection. It is of equal beauty in -shape with that which has been described, but is not so long. It is -rather more than fourteen inches in length, and not quite four inches -wide. It weighs two pounds six ounces, and is a most formidable weapon, -a blow from its sharp edge being sufficient to crash through the skull -of an ox, not to mention that of a human being. - -Every chief, however low in rank, is sure to have one of these merais, -of which he is very proud, and from which he can scarcely be induced -to part. The great chiefs have their merais made of green jade, such -as has already been described when treating of Maori ornaments. These -weapons are handed down from father to son, and are so highly valued -by the natives that it is hardly possible to procure one, unless it be -captured in battle. If a chief should die without a son to whom his -merai can descend, the weapon is generally buried with him. - -At fig. 6, in the “weapons,” on page 841, is seen one of these green -jade merais. The shape is not nearly so elegant as that of my weapon -which has just been described. Indeed, with so valuable and rare a -mineral as this green jade, it is not easy to find a piece large enough -to be cut into an ordinarily shaped weapon and the manufacturer is -obliged to do his best with the material at his command. - -At fig. 7 is an example of the commonest kind of merai, that which -is made of wood. As the material of such a weapon is comparatively -valueless, the Maories seem to indemnify themselves by adding ornament -to the weapon. For example, they very seldom make the merai of the same -simple shape as that at fig. 6, but give it a distinct edge and back as -at fig. 7. In some cases they make it into a most elaborate piece of -native art, the whole being so beautifully carved that it looks more -like a number of carved pieces of wood fitted together than a weapon -cut out of one solid block. - -A singularly beautiful example of such a weapon is to be seen in fig. -1 of the illustration “Merais,” on page 841. As the reader may see it -is one mass of carving, the design being cut completely through the -wood, and therefore being alike on both sides. The back of the merai is -carved into a pattern of singular beauty and boldness, and the edge is -armed with a row of shark’s teeth, which make its blows very formidable -when directed against the naked bodies of the Maori warriors. The -specimen from which the drawing was taken may be seen in the collection -of the British Museum. - -The second fig. of the illustrations shows a merai made of bone. The -material is mostly obtained from the blade bone of the spermaceti -whale, and in consequence the weapon is said in books of travel to be -made of whalebone, thus misleading the ordinary reader, who is sure to -understand “whalebone” to be the black elastic substance obtained from -the Greenland whale. - -These merais are extremely variable in shape. Some of them are made -like the stone weapons, except that they are much flatter, and have in -consequence both edges alike. Sometimes they are studded with knobs and -cut into hollows; sometimes carved into patterns, much resembling that -of the wooden merai, but not so elaborate. The specimen which I have -selected for the illustration shows examples of the ornaments and studs. - -I possess a very good merai which has been made from the lower jaw -of the spermaceti whale. This weapon is shown in fig. 4 of the same -illustration, opposite, and close by it is a section of the jaw of -the whale, in order to show the manner in which it is cut. This -weapon measures seventeen inches in length by three and a half inches -in width, and weighs one pound nine ounces. In consequence of this -comparative lightness, it is a much more efficient weapon than the -stone merai; for the latter is so heavy that, if a blow misses its aim, -the striker is unable to recover the weapon in time to guard himself, -or to repeat the blow, and so lays himself open to the enemy. - -If the reader will look at the section of bone, he will see that it -is porous in the centre and hard and solid at the edges. It is from -the solid part that the merai has been cut, and in consequence the -weapon is very flat. The numerous channels through which pass the -blood vessels that nourish the bone are seen in the section, and in -the drawing of the merai one of them is shown traversing the weapon -longitudinally. The name of the merai is “patu-patu,” the _u_ having -the same sound as in flute. - -Many of the natives have found out that the English bill-hook answers -admirably as a merai, and can be obtained with very little trouble. -Great quantities of them were at one time imported from Birmingham; -but the rifle and bayonet have in latter days so completely superseded -all other weapons that the Maories trouble themselves little about the -bill-hook. - -When a Maori fights with the merai, he does not merely strike, his -usual movement being to thrust sharply at the chin of the enemy; and if -he succeeds in striking him with the point, he cuts him down with the -edge before he can recover himself. - -At fig. 5 of the “Maori weapons,” on the next page, is seen an axe, or -tomahawk. This is a curious mixture of European and Maori work, the -blade being obtained from England, and the handle made and carved in -New Zealand with the usual grotesque patterns which a Maori likes to -introduce into all objects connected with warfare. The thigh bone of a -slain enemy is a favorite handle for such a tomahawk. - -Before the fierce and warlike character of the New Zealanders was -known, they took several vessels by the use of the merai. It was easy -to suspend the short club over the shoulder, where it was hidden by -the mat, so that when a party of natives came on board, apparently -unarmed, having ostentatiously left their patus and other weapons in -their canoes, each man was in fact armed with the weapon that he most -trusted. The plan pursued was, that the Maories should mingle freely -with the crew, until each man was close to one of the sailors. At a -signal from the chief, the concealed merai was snatched from beneath -the mat, and in a moment it had crashed through the head of the -selected victim. - -Even after this ruse was discovered, the ingenious Maories contrived -to get hold of more than one vessel under pretence of exhibiting their -war dance, which in a moment was changed from the mimicry of battle -into reality, the warriors leaping among the spectators and dealing -their blows right and left among them. Ship-taking seems, indeed, to -be a proceeding so dear to the New Zealander, that he can scarcely -resist the temptation when it is offered him. In Messrs. Tyerman and -Rennet’s “Missionary Voyage” there is an anecdote of an adventure that -befell them, which, but for the timely aid of a friendly chief, would -undoubtedly have had a tragic issue. - -[Illustration: (1.) GREEN JADE ORNAMENTS. (See page 813.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) WOODEN AND BONE MERAIS. (See page 840.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) MAORI WEAPONS. (See pages 838, 840, 844.)] - -The ship had arrived off New Zealand, and while at anchor the following -events occurred:--“This morning our little vessel was surrounded with -canoes, containing several hundreds of the natives, of both sexes, who -presently climbed up, and crowded it so much that we were obliged to -put a bar across the quarter-deck, and _tabu_ it from intrusion. The -commerce in various articles, on both sides, went on pretty well for -some time, till one provoking circumstance after another occurred, -which had nearly led to the seizure of the ship and the loss of our -lives. - -“In the confusion occasioned by the great throng in so narrow a space, -the natives began to exercise their pilfering tricks, opportunities for -which are seldom permitted to slip away unimproved. Suddenly the cook -cried out, ‘They have stolen this thing;’ but scarcely had he named -the thing (some kitchen article), when he called out again, ‘They have -stolen the beef out of the pot!’ and then a third time, ‘They have -stolen my cooking pan!’ Presently another voice bawled out from the -forecastle, ‘Captain! they have broken open your trunk, and carried -away your clothes!’ - -“Up to this time we had been in friendly intercourse with the chiefs, -rubbing noses, and purchasing their personal ornaments and other -curiosities, suspecting no mischief. But now, in the course of a few -moments, without our perceiving the immediate reason, the whole scene -was changed. We found afterward that the captain (Dibbs), on hearing of -the audacious thefts above mentioned, had become angry, and while he -was endeavoring, rather boisterously, to clear the deck of some of the -intruders, one of them, a chief, on being jostled by him, fell over the -ship’s side into the sea, between his own canoe and the vessel. This -was seized instantaneously as the pretext for commencing hostilities. -The women and children in the course of a few minutes had all -disappeared, leaping overboard into their canoes, and taking with them -the kakaous, or mantles, of the warriors. The latter, thus stripped -for action, remained on deck; of which, before we were aware, they had -taken complete possession; and forthwith made us their prisoners. - -“Tremendous were the bawlings and screechings of the barbarians, while -they stamped, and brandished their weapons, consisting principally -of clubs and spears. One chief with his cookies (his slaves) had -surrounded the captain, holding their spears at his breast and his -sides, on the larboard quarter of the vessel. Mr. Tyerman, under guard -of another band, stood on the starboard; and Mr. Bennet on the same -side, but aft, toward the stern. Mr. Threlkeld and his little boy, not -seven years old, were near Mr. Bennet not under direct manual grasp of -the savages. The chief who, with his gang, had been trafficking with -Mr. Bennet, now brought his huge tattooed visage near to Mr. B.’s, -screaming, in tones the most odious and horrifying: ‘Tongata, New -Zealandi, tongata kakino?--Tongata, New Zealandi, tongata kakino?’ - -“This he repeated as rapidly as lips, tongue, and throat could utter -the words, which mean, ‘Man of New Zealand, is he bad man?--Man of New -Zealand, a bad man?’ Happily Mr. Bennet understood the question (the -New Zealand dialect much resembling the Tahitian): whereupon, though -convinced that inevitable death was at hand, he answered, with as much -composure as could be assumed, ‘Kaore kakino tongata New Zealandi, -tongata kapai’ (‘Not bad; the New Zealander is a good man’); and so -often as the other, with indescribable ferocity of aspect and sharpness -of accent, asked the same question (which might be a hundred times), -the same answer was returned. - -“‘But,’ inquired Mr. Bennet, ‘why is all this uproar? Why cannot we -still rub noses, and buy and sell, and barter, as before?’ At this -moment a stout slave, belonging to the chief, stepped behind Mr. -Bennet, and pinioned both his arms close to his sides. No effort was -made to resist or elude the gigantic grasp, Mr. B. knowing that such -would only accelerate the threatened destruction. Still, therefore, -he maintained his calmness, and asked the chief the price of a neck -ornament which the latter wore. Immediately another slave raised a -large tree-felling axe (which, with others, had been brought to be -sharpened by the ship’s company) over the head of the prisoner. This -ruffian looked with demon-like eagerness and impatience toward his -master for the signal to strike. - -“And here it may be observed that our good countrymen can have no idea -of the almost preternatural fury which savages can throw into their -distorted countenances, and infuse into their deafening and appalling -voices, when they are possessed by the legion-fiend of rage, cupidity, -and revenge. Mr. Bennet persevered in keeping up conversation with the -chief, saying, ‘We want to buy bruaa, kumera, ika, &c. (hogs, potatoes, -fish), of you.’ - -“Just then he perceived a youth stepping on deck with a large fish -in his hand. ‘What shall I give you for that fish?’--‘Why, so many -fish-hooks.’--‘Well, then, put your hand into my pocket and take them.’ -The fellow did so. ‘Now put the fish down there, on the binnacle, and -bring some more, if you have any,’ said Mr. Bennet. At once the fish -that he had just bought was brought round from behind and presented to -him again for sale. He took no notice of the knavery, but demanded, -‘What shall I give you for that fish?’--‘So many hooks.’--‘Take them. -Have you no other fish to sell?’ A third time the same fish was -offered, and the same price in hooks required and given, or rather -taken, by the vendor, out of his jacket pockets, which happened to be -well stored with this currency for traffic. A fourth time Mr. Bennet -asked, ‘Have you never another fish?’ At this the rogues could contain -their scorn no longer, but burst into laughter, and cried, ‘We are -cheating the foreigner!’ (‘Tangata ke!’) supposing that their customer -was not aware how often they had caught him with the same bait.” - -By this ingenious plan of pretending to be the dupe of the Maories, -Mr. Bennet contrived to gain time, of which he knew that every minute -was of the greatest importance, and at last he was rewarded for his -courageous diplomacy by the arrival of a boat, in which was a friendly -chief, who at once cleared the ship. - -The reader will observe that at this time the New Zealanders had not -abandoned the use of the spear as a weapon of war, though only twenty -years afterward scarcely a spear could be found that was not intended -as an emblem of hospitality instead of strife. - -At fig. 3 of “Weapons” is shown a very curious club, called Patu by the -natives, and popularly, but wrongly, called by sailors a battle-axe. -It is about five feet in length, and has at one end a flat, axe-like -head, and at the other a sharp point. One of these weapons in my -possession, presented to me, together with many similar articles, by E. -Randell, Esq., is five feet one inch in length, and weighs two pounds -six ounces, being exactly the same weight as the stone merai already -described. The rounded edge of the axe-like head is very sharp, and -certainly looks as if it was intended for the purpose of inflicting -wounds. Such, however, is not the case, the Maori using the pointed -butt as a spear or pike, and striking with the back of the head and not -with the edge. - -Through the lower portion of the head is bored a hole, to which is -suspended a bunch of feathers and streamers. Sometimes this tuft is -only a foot in length, but is often longer. In a specimen taken by Sir -J. E. Alexander it is half as long as the patu itself. At first sight -this appendage seems, like the multitudinous feathers which decorate a -North American spear or club, to be merely an ornament, and to detract -from, rather than add to, the efficiency of the weapon. But the Maori -warrior is far too keen a soldier to sacrifice use to ornament, and, if -he employs the latter, he is sure to take care that the former is not -endangered by it. - -In the present case, this apparently useless appendage adds materially -to the effectiveness of the weapon. When the warrior, armed with the -patu, meets an adversary, he does not rush at him heedlessly, but -fences, as it were, with his weapon, holding it in both hands, twirling -it about, and flourishing the bunch of feathers in the face of his foe -so as to distract his attention. Neither does he stand in the same -spot, but leaps here and there, endeavoring to take the foe off his -guard, and making all kinds of feints in order to test the adversary’s -powers. Should he see the least opening, the sharp point of the butt is -driven into his adversary’s body, or a severe blow delivered with the -head, the stroke being generally made upward and not downward, as might -be imagined. - -In fact, the whole management of the patu is almost identical with that -of the old quarterstaff of England, a weapon whose use is unfortunately -forgotten at the present day. The bunch of feathers is not an -invariable appendage. In my own specimen, for example, it has never -been used, and I have seen many others in which the hole has not been -bored for the insertion of the string that ties the feathers together. - -The last weapon drawn in this illustration is hardly worthy of the -name. It is a dagger, and is shown at fig. 4. At fig. 2 of the same -illustration is seen an implement which is generally mistaken for a -spear, and is labelled as such in many a collection. It is, however, no -spear at all, but a sceptre, or staff of office belonging to a chief. -The Maori name is E’Hani. It is shaped at the butt like an exceedingly -elongated merai, and indeed the entire implement looks as if the hani -and the merai were but different modifications of the same weapon. - -Be this as it may, the hani is no spear, but a staff of office, almost -identical in form with that which was borne by the ancient kings and -heralds in the times of Troy. At the upper end is seen the head, which -bears some resemblance to the point of a spear, and has given ground -to the notion that the implement in question is really a spear. This -portion, however, does not serve the purpose of offence, but is simply -a conventional representation of the human tongue, which, when thrust -forth to its utmost, conveys, according to Maori ideas, the most bitter -insult and defiance. When the chief wishes to make war against any -tribe, he calls his own people together, makes a fiery oration, and -repeatedly thrusts his hani in the direction of the enemy, each such -thrust being accepted as a putting forth of the tongue in defiance. - -In order to show that the point of the hani is really intended to -represent the human tongue, the remainder of it is carved into a -grotesque and far-fetched resemblance of the human face, the chief -features of which are two enormous circular eyes made of haliotis shell. - -Generally, the hani is ornamented with feathers like the patu; but -many of the staves are without this decoration, which is looked upon -as a mere non-essential. These staves vary greatly in length. My own -specimen is between five and six feet in length, and is without the -feather ornaments, whereas others are not more than a yard in length, -and are decorated with a bunch of feathers as long as themselves. The -chiefs are nearly as tenacious of the hard as the merai, and do not -seem to be easy if it be put out of their reach. Some years ago several -Maori chiefs came to visit England, and were taken to see the various -sights of London. But whether they went to the theatre, or to the -Zoological Gardens, or to make calls, they invariably took their hanis -with them, sometimes carrying a short one for convenience’ sake, but -appearing to attach the greatest value to its possession. - -One of these curious implements in my collection is six feet in -length, and is made of the same wood as the patu. If held upright the -resemblance of the point to the outstretched tongue is not very plain; -but if it be held horizontally, the effect is quite altered, and the -whole of the tip is seen to represent a human head with the tongue -thrust out as far as possible between the lips. As the tongue is only -a conventional representation, it is covered with a pattern, a ridge -running along the centre, and each side being marked with precisely -similar curves and semi-spirals. - -In spite of its length, it really makes a very convenient -walking-staff, and, on an emergency, might do duty as a weapon, the -tongue-like tip being sharp enough to act as a spear head, and the -flattened butt being heavy enough to stun a man with a well-directed -blow. My specimen does not possess the tuft of feathers and dog’s-hair -which decorates the hani shown in the “weapons” (fig. 2, p. 841); but -this adornment is not considered as forming a necessary part of the -implement. - -Before a party engage in war, they think themselves bound to join in -the war dance. There are war dances in almost all savage tribes, but -that of the New Zealander surpasses them all. In other cases, each -warrior gives himself up to the excitement of the moment, and shouts, -yells, dances, and brandishes his weapons as he seems to think fit; but -the Maori warrior’s dance is of a far different character, being guided -by a discipline and precision of drill to which that of the Russians -themselves is loose and irregular. - -They begin by smearing the whole of their clothing and by painting -their faces with scarlet ochre, so as to make themselves as hideous as -possible. When they assemble for the dance, they arrange themselves -in lines, mostly three deep, and excite their naturally passionate -disposition to the highest pitch by contorting their faces and -thrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, interspersing these -gestures with shouts, yells, and challenges to the enemy. The dance -itself begins with stamping the feet in perfect time with each other, -the vigor of the stamp increasing continually, and the excitement -increasing in similar proportion. - -Suddenly, with a yell, the whole body of men leap side-ways into the -air, as if actuated by one spirit, and, as they touch the ground, -come down on it with a mighty stamp that makes the earth tremble. The -war song is raised, and in accordance with its rhythm the men leap -from side to side, each time coming down with a thud as of some huge -engine. The effect of the dance upon the performers is extraordinary. -It seems to make them for the time absolute maniacs, their whole nature -being given up to the furious excitement of the moment. Their faces -are frightfully contorted, and thus assume an absolutely demoniacal -expression. - -Even when war is not impending, the magic influence of the dance -affects the performers as strongly as if they were close to a pah or -fort of the enemy, ready for battle; and when, as is sometimes the -case, the Maories give a dance in honor of a visitor, they become so -furiously excited that they are quite dangerous until they have had -time to cool. - -On one such occasion a party of Maories who had visited a ship were -requested to exhibit their war dance, and very good-naturedly did so. -But in a short time their measured leaps became so vehement, and their -stamps so powerful, as they shouted the martial rhymes of the war song, -that they shook the whole ship as if by blows of a battering-ram; and -the commanding officer, fearful that they would absolutely smash the -deck, begged them to desist. His entreaties were in vain, even if they -were heard, though it is very likely that, in their furious excitement, -the dancers were deaf to every sound except the war song which they -were yelling at the top of their voices; and the dance proceeded to its -end, and did not cease until the performers were quite exhausted by the -furious exertions they had made. - -The most ludicrous part of the dance was the conduct of the chief. He -had been treated with much attention, and presented with a full suit of -naval uniform, of which he was mightily proud, and in which he stalked -about the deck to the great admiration of his subjects. When he was -asked whether the war dance could be given, he at once ordered his -followers to accede to the request, and at first stood quietly by while -they went through the performance. - -The influence of the dance was, however, too contagious to be resisted, -and rapidly extended itself to him. First he merely swayed his body in -rhythm with the steps of the dancers, then he joined _sotto voce_ in -the song, then he began to stamp in time with them, and at last threw -off all restraint, sprang into line, and leaped, yelled, and stamped as -enthusiastically as any of them, splitting his new garments to pieces, -and presenting a very sorry sight when his excitement had died away. - -The illustration opposite represents a portion of a party of warriors -as they appear when performing their war dance. Only the first three -ranks of them are seen; but the reader must picture for himself the -long lines of warriors stretching into the distance, numbering often -from one to two hundred. The leading chief is seen in front, with -his green jade merai in his hand; and another but inferior chief is -stationed behind him. In the background is shown a portion of the pah -in which the dance is taking place; a chief’s storehouse for food is -seen on the right, and under the shelter of the houses are seated the -women who are watching the dance. - -I have already said that war is always in the thoughts of a genuine -Maori. Unlike the vaporing Fiji warrior, who is always ready to boast, -and seldom ready to fight, preferring to knock his enemy on the head -when asleep, the Maori is a brave soldier, accustomed from his earliest -childhood to deeds of war. A mimic war forms one of the favorite games -of the Maori children, though it is necessarily restricted to boys. -Just as boys of our country build snow castles, and attack and defend -them with snow-balls, so do the young New Zealanders build miniature -forts, and enact on a small scale the deeds of actual war, using light -sticks instead of the merai and patu. They make their forts by erecting -mounds of earth, and building the fortresses of stakes, in exact -imitation of the more substantial architecture of the veritable pah. - -These ingenious pahs well exemplify the whole system of Maori warfare. -The two opposing parties seldom meet each other in the open ground, as -is the case with European warfare; neither do they employ an irregular -skirmishing fight among trees or under cover, as is the case with many -savage tribes. The attacking party is sure to be very superior in -numbers to their foes, and the latter, knowing that this will be the -case, resort to the system of fortification, and entrench themselves in -forts, or pahs. - -These pahs are marvellous examples of uncivilized engineering, and are -admirably adapted to the purpose which they are intended to fulfil. -They are always placed in some strong situation, sometimes on the -seashore, sometimes on heights, and one or two of the strongest are -built on the very edge of a perpendicular precipice, so that they -cannot be attacked on three sides, while the fourth can only be -approached by a narrow and awkward path, along which only a few men can -pass, and which can be defended by a comparatively limited number of -the besieged. (See p. 830.) - -Taking one of these pahs is really a great enterprise for the natives, -and before they knew the use of firearms it is wonderful that they ever -took a pah at all. Many of them are indeed impregnable, and, until -firearms were introduced into the colony, could bid defiance to all -enemies. They were so situated that by merely rolling stones down the -approach the path could be cleared of every foe. They are surrounded -with trenches, and have ingenious sally-ports so constructed that the -defenders can issue from unexpected parts of the fort, make a sudden -attack on the assailants, and retreat through the same aperture when -they have attained their purpose. - -They are fenced round with very strong posts, lashed together so firmly -that they are able to resist any ordinary attack. Since firearms were -introduced, the Maories have modified the structure of the pahs to -suit their new weapons, throwing out angles to secure a flanking fire, -and filling the interior with trenches in which the defenders can lie -secure from the fire of the enemy. Since they learned the terrible -power of shells, the natives have learned to construct “traverses,” _i. -e._ cross-walls in the trenches, which not only guard the inmates from -the fragments of the shells, but prevent an enfilading fire from doing -much damage. Rifle-pits are also constructed with singular ingenuity. -One pah was remarkable for being built over a number of boiling -springs, which were used as traps for the enemy when the fort was -besieged. - -The reader may remember the unfortunate business at the Gate Pah, -at Tauranga. When taken by storm, the pah appeared to be empty and -deserted, the natives having apparently escaped, according to their -custom, when they found the place no longer tenable. They had, however, -laid a trap, into which the assailants fell. When the latter had -scattered themselves over the interior, and were quite off their guard, -picking up arms, utensils, and other objects lying carelessly about, -a terrific musketry fire was opened from under their very feet, the -natives having constructed pits in which they hid themselves until the -enemy were attracted within their range by the weapons and implements -which they had laid on purpose to act as a bait. The men, who were -entirely off their guard, and many of whom besides were but raw -recruits, were struck with a sudden panic, and, with a few honorable -exceptions, rushed out of the pah, followed and cut up by the fire of -the wily foe. - -[Illustration: THE MAORI WAR DANCE. (See page 846.)] - -Of course the repulse was but temporary; but such a stratagem as this -is sufficient to show the military genius of the Maori, who, if he -becomes an enemy, is one that cannot be despised with impunity. This -system of taking the enemy by surprise is the usual mode of fighting -among the Maories, who display wonderful ingenuity in contriving -ambushes, and enticing the enemy into them. When we were first driven -into war with the natives of New Zealand, we were frequently entrapped -in an ambuscade; and in one case the hidden enemy were so close to our -men, their dusky forms being hidden in the shadows of the bush, that -many of the soldiers who escaped with life had their faces completely -tattooed with grains of unburnt powder from the muskets of the enemy. - -If the assailants succeed in taking the pah, a terrible massacre always -ensues. Every man is killed who is capable of wielding a weapon, -while the women and children are carried off to become the slaves of -the conquerors--a doom from which, as I have already stated, there -is no escape; the unfortunate women, their children, and any future -offspring, being slaves without the possibility of release, not even -their own tribe being able, according to Maori law, to interfere with -the right of the captors. - -The bodies of the warriors are of course reserved to be baked and -eaten. Sometimes even the prisoners fall victims to the thirst for -blood which characterizes these islanders; and in this respect the -women are as bad as the men, if not worse. For example, the principal -wife of a very great chief, named E’Hongi, was accustomed, even though -blind, to murder some of the captives, when they were brought home by -her formidable husband. Her own end was, however, more tragic than -that of any of her victims. E’Hongi was in the habit of making long -excursions to different parts of the country, in which he took his wife -with him. On one of these excursions she fell sick, and had to be left -behind. In consequence of her blindness, added to her debility, she was -unable to act in her own defence, and a number of dogs, discovering her -weakness, tore her to pieces and devoured her. - -She seems, however, to have been a woman of unexceptionally strong -feelings of vengeance. “She had,” writes Mr. Angas, “a little -slave-girl to attend upon her, toward whom she evinced a strong -attachment. The little creature was interesting and good-tempered, and -her mistress was apparently so fond of her that she was spared the -experience of the misery of slavery; she was only a favorite. - -“Hongi returned from one of his successful expeditions of war, but had -left a son upon the field of battle, and the lamentation was great. -The petted slave-child laid her head upon the lap of her mistress, and -poured out her share of the general sorrow. But the spirit of vengeance -or of insane retribution came over the heart of the bereaved mother; -and she carried the child to the water, and cruelly suffocated her in -satisfaction of her selfish sorrow.” - -It was not long after this incident that she met with her death. When -she was left behind, a small shed was erected on poles, according to -native custom, and a supply of food was placed near her. When the party -returned the shed was lying prostrate, and among its ruins were the -whitened bones of the inmate. It is supposed that the wind blew down -the shed, and so enabled the dogs to reach her. - -This same E’Hongi was a really remarkable man, and earned a great name -for wisdom and courage. Having made a voyage to England, he threw all -his energies into strengthening his military power, and took back with -him a quantity of muskets and ammunition. - -He came back to his own country exactly at the proper time. A long -and somewhat desultory war had been going on between the Waikatos and -other tribes, in which the former had, after many vicissitudes, been -victorious, and, after finally conquering their enemies, had returned -to their country in triumph. - -Just then E’Hongi came back to his own tribe, the Nga Puis, distributed -his firearms among the best warriors, and when he had instructed -them in the use of the new and terrible weapons, entered the Waikato -country, and attacked their great pah called Matuketuke. The Waikatos, -having only their clubs, and not having sunk the trenches which in -these days are dug in every pah that is intended to resist an assault, -could not contend against firearms, and in a few minutes the fort was -taken. It was in this engagement that Horomona and Te Whero-Whero were -captured. - -The slaughter on this occasion was terrible, two thousand warriors -being killed, and their bodies eaten by the victorious tribe, who built -vast numbers of ovens for the special purpose of cooking the bodies of -the slain. For many years afterward the remains of the ovens, and the -whitened bones of the two thousand warriors, might be seen as tokens of -the terrible scene, where feasts were kept up until all the bodies had -been consumed, and every evil passion of unrestrained human nature was -allowed to have its full sway. - -One of the very muskets which were used on this occasion, and which was -given by George IV. to E’Hongi when he visited England, is now in the -collection of Colonel Sir. J. E. Alexander. It is one of the regular -“Brown Bess” weapons, once so dear to soldiers, and now irreverently -termed a gaspipe. - -Prisoners without number were captured on this occasion; and indeed the -supply of slaves thus obtained so far exceeded the demand for them, -that the Nga Puis killed many of them on their journey home, merely -to rid themselves of them. E’ Hongi, though known to be a man of the -most determined courage, not to say ferocity, when engaged in war, and -rather disposed to behave in an overbearing manner toward those whom -he considered as his inferiors, was at the same time peculiarly mild -and courteous in his demeanor to his equals, and toward strangers was -remarkable for his gentle courtesy. - -There was another very celebrated chief of a somewhat similar name, -Hongi-Hongi, who has sometimes been confounded with his great -predecessor. One feat of this warrior is so characteristic that it -deserves mention. He was leading an attack on a pah near Mount Egmont, -captured it, and, according to custom, killed the warriors, and took -the rest of the inmates as his slaves. Sixty of these unfortunate -beings fell to the share of Hongi, who drove them like a flock of -sheep, with his green jade merai, all the way to his home, a distance -of one hundred and eighty miles. - -This chief was proof against the missionaries of all kinds. Mr. Angas -once asked him whether he was a _mihanari_, _i. e._ a Protestant -convert, or a _pikopo_, _i. e._ a Roman Catholic. Hongi denied that -he was either one or the other, and confessed with glee that he was a -_revera_, or devil, _i. e._ that he still remained a heathen. - -It is very unfortunate that intolerance in religious matters has been -fostered by those who ought to have made it their business to repress -any such feeling. The consequence is, that the Protestant converts -regard their Roman Catholic brethren as reveras, or devils, while -the latter have allied themselves with their acknowledged heathen -countrymen; and thus, under the pretence of religion, the customary -feuds are kept up with perhaps even additional bitterness. - -I have the pleasure of presenting to the reader, on the 820th page, -a portrait of Hongi-Hongi, as he appeared in the year 1844, dressed -in his full panoply of war costume. This, of course, would be doffed -before he went into actual fight. In his ear is one of the green jade -ornaments which have already been described, and in his right hand he -bears his merai, the celebrated weapon with which he drove the slaves -before him. He is represented as standing just inside the wall of his -pah, a position which he insisted on taking up, and having his portrait -drawn to send to the Queen of England. In fact, he was so decided on -this point, that he refused to let Mr. Angas leave the pah until the -portrait was completed. The portion of the pah which is shown in the -illustration gives a good idea of this kind of fortification, the -enormous posts with their circular tops being sunk deeply into the -ground, and smaller posts placed between them; a horizontal pole is -laid across them; and the whole is firmly lashed together, either with -the ordinary phormium rope, or with the stem of the wild vine. - -Warfare among the Maories, fierce and relentless as it may be in -some particulars, is not devoid of a sort of chivalry which somewhat -relieves it from its more ferocious aspect. There is, for example, a -well-known code of military etiquette which is sometimes exhibited in a -mode that to us seems rather ludicrous. - -For example, the Waikatos and Taranaki tribes were at war as usual, -and the Waikato were besieging a pah belonging to their enemies. The -pah, however, was too strong for them; and moreover the defenders had -contrived to get hold of several guns belonging to a vessel that had -been wrecked on the shore, and had induced some Europeans to mount and -work them, which they did with such success that the Waikatos were -forced at last to abandon the siege. - -But, in the very midst of the contest, a vessel appeared in the offing, -and a truce was immediately concluded in order to allow both parties to -trade. Accordingly, both the besiegers and besieged set off amicably to -the vessel, and, having completed their bargains, returned to resume -their hostilities. A very amusing scene then occurred. The Taranakis, -who were the besieged party, had much the best of the trading, as they -possessed a large quantity of dressed flax, or phormium, and exchanged -it for a quantity of tobacco. - -Now tobacco is one of the greatest luxuries that a New Zealander -can possess; and unfortunately for the besieging Waikatos, they had -no tobacco. They had, however, a plentiful supply of muskets, which -they had taken in an attack upon another pah, while the besieged were -very short of arms. So they struck up a trade, the Waikatos being so -inordinately desirous of obtaining tobacco, that they gave in return -fire-arms which were to be turned against themselves. - -“The scene,” writes Mr. Angas, “as described by an eye-witness, must -have been most ludicrous. The Waikato thrust his musket half-way -through the palisades of the pah, retaining, however, a firm hold of -his property until the intending purchaser from within thrust out in a -similar manner the quantity of tobacco he was willing to give; neither -party relinquishing his hold of the property about to change hands -until he had secured a firm grasp of that offered by his adversary.” - -The chief who led the Waikatos on this occasion was the celebrated -Wiremu Nera, or William Taylor; the former name being the nearest -approach that the Maories can make to the proper pronunciation. His -Maori name was Te Awaitaia, and he was widely celebrated for his -dauntless courage and his generalship in conducting or resisting an -attack. Being closely allied with the famous chief Te Whero-Whero -(or Potatau), he was engaged in nearly all the combats between the -Waikatos and the Taranakis. On one of his warlike expeditions he took -a pah containing nearly eighteen hundred inhabitants, and, of course, -killed nearly all of them, and carried the survivors as slaves into the -Waikato district. - -Latterly, he embraced Christianity, and became as zealous in the cause -of peace as he had been in that of war. When he became a Christian, -Te Whero-Whero was so well aware of his value as a warrior, that he -exclaimed to those who brought him the news, “I have lost my right arm!” - -Although repulsed on this occasion by the three guns taken from the -wrecked ship, the Waikatos were not discouraged, and made a second -attack. The Taranakis, however, had seen too much of Waikato courage -to risk a second siege, and so quietly made off, some two thousand in -number, accompanied by the Europeans who had served the guns for them. -The latter very rightly spiked the guns when they left the pah, so that -when the Waikatos came again and took the pah, they found it deserted, -and the guns useless to the captors. - -The Taranakis lived in deadly fear of the powerful and warlike -Waikatos, and, but for the love which they felt toward their native -country, would have fled, and left the conquerors to take quiet -possession. They were even obliged to have their plantations in the -bush, where none but the owner could find them; for they feared, and -with reason, that if their dreaded enemies could discover the sources -whence their provisions were obtained, they would destroy the whole -plantation, and leave their victims to starve. They were in such a -state of nervous alarm about a suspected invasion by their powerful -neighbors, that on one occasion, when a fire was seen in the distance, -every one took it for granted to be a fire lighted by the Waikatos, and -in consequence every one kept awake all night, ready to give the alarm -at the first unwonted sight or sound. - -Among the New Zealanders is a custom of retaliation which is found -with but little variation in many parts of the world. If blood has -been shed, the friends of the dead man issue from the pah, with the -determination of killing the first person whom they may happen to meet. -Should he belong to an inimical tribe, so much the better; should he -belong to the same tribe, so much the worse; for in either case he is -killed. On such an occasion one of the avengers would be bound to kill -his own brother, should he happen to be the first man who came in the -way of the party. - -Such an exercise of vengeance is rather an inconvenient one to those -who are engaged in it; for they are forbidden the use of their ordinary -comforts, they may not eat any food except that which is indigenous -to New Zealand, and, above all, they are not allowed to smoke. When, -therefore they have been unable to find any human being whom they can -sacrifice, the aid of the priest, or tohunga, is called in. He pulls -up a tuft of grass, and, after repeating one of the many incantations -which abound in New Zealand lore, and of which neither the hearers nor -the reciter understand one word in ten, he throws the grass into the -nearest stream, in token that the avengers are released from their vow. -Blood, however, must still be shed; but after this ceremony has been -performed, the blood of any living thing, even though it be a bird, is -held sufficient to satisfy the traditional custom of the Maori race. - -Elaborate rites closely allied with this ceremony are employed both -before and after battle; but, as they belong rather to the subject of -religion than of war, we will postpone them for the present. - -As the New Zealanders know that it is a point of military honor -combined with personal gratification to eat the bodies of slain -enemies, they are equally desirous of securing the bodies of their -foes and of carrying off those who have fallen on their own side; and -in many instances the anxiety to save those who have fallen has caused -others to share the same fate while attempting to carry off their dead -or wounded comrades. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXIV. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -CANOES. - - - THE CANOE, AND ITS USES IN PEACE AND WAR -- THE COMMON TRADING CANOE - -- SKILL OF THE BOATMEN -- THE LARGE WAR CANOES, AND MODE OF BUILDING - THEM -- DECORATIONS OF THE CANOES -- SKILFUL CARVINGS -- THE THEORY - OF THE VARIOUS PATTERNS -- NAMES OF CANOES -- MANAGEMENT OF THE SAIL - -- CANOE SONGS -- A COMPLETE BOAT-LOAD -- MODE OF LANDING -- SHAPE - OF THE PADDLES, AND MODE OF USING THEM -- CARVING TOOLS -- SUPPOSED - COMPASSES. - -War is carried on quite as much by water as by land, and a chief who -knows the principles of good generalship always uses the sea as well -as the land to serve as a basis for his attack. For this reason the -Maories take care to build their pahs in spots where they are well -defended from attack both on the seaward and the landward side. Some of -them are on the very verge of high-water mark, while others are perched -on the tops of cliffs, the base of which is washed by the waves. - -One of the most picturesque of these is a pah situate near Mount -Egmont, and known by the name of the Waimate Pah. There is a cliff that -rises perpendicularly some four or five hundred feet above the level of -the water which laves its foot, and on the very summit of this cliff is -situated the pah in question. It is of considerable size, containing -many houses and is fortified with the usual wooden fence. In order to -render it as nearly as possible impregnable, the only approach is by -a very narrow and very steep path, that cannot be ascended except by -people who have strong heads, the path being so narrow, so steep, and -so dangerous that two men could defend it against fifty. - -In his warlike expeditions E’Hongi made great use of his canoes, taking -them inland as far as they would go, and then having them dragged over -land to the next river. - -These canoes play so important a part in the life of a New Zealander, -whether in war or peace, that they require a detailed description. The -canoes are of several kinds, according to the work which they have to -perform. The simplest form of the New Zealander’s canoe is little more -than a trunk of a tree hollowed into a sort of trough. Being incapable -of withstanding rough weather, this canoe is only used upon rivers. -Some of these canoes, which are called by the name of _kaupapas_, -are from forty to fifty feet in length, and in the widest part not -exceeding a yard in “beam.” A plentiful supply of fern leaves is laid -at the bottom of the canoe, and upon these the passengers recline. -Canoes of a similar character, called _tiwai_, are used in the inland -lakes, and sit so low in the water that they appear to have no gunwale. - -Owing to their want of beam, these canoes are as easily upset as the -slight skiffs in which races are rowed on English rivers. The agile -Maori, accustomed from childhood to balance himself in these crank -vessels, traverses them with ease and security, but an European -generally upsets four or five canoes before he learns how to enter or -leave them properly. The natives manage these canoes with wonderful -skill, and, apparently regardless of the risk of capsizing the canoe, -dash their paddles into the water with furious energy, driving up spray -on all sides, and making the canoe and its rowers look at a distance -like some gigantic centipede dashing through the water. - -The vessels, however, of which the Maories are most fond, and on which -they expend the most labor, are the large canoes in which the warriors -embark when on a campaign. Those canoes are made from the cowrie pine -(the same tree which furnishes the aromatic gum already mentioned); and -the tree being a very large one, the natives are able to make their -canoes of considerable size. Some of these canoes are upward of eighty -feet in length and in consequence are able to carry a great number of -warriors. - -They are built in rather an elaborate manner. First the trough-like -vessel is formed from the tree trunk; and if it were left in that -state, it would be simply a very large kaupapa. As, however, it is -intended for sea voyages, and may have to endure rough weather; it is -much wider in proportion than the boat which is only used on rivers, -and is, moreover, rendered more seaworthy by gunwales. These are made -separately, and are lashed firmly to the sides of the boat by the -ordinary flax ropes. - -Both the head and stern of the canoe are decorated with carving, -exactly similar in character to the specimens of native art which -have already been described. They are pierced with the most elaborate -patterns, which have as their basis the contour of the human -countenance and the semi-spiral curve. Perhaps a single canoe head will -have fifty or sixty human faces on it, each with the tongue protruded, -with the cheeks and forehead covered with tattooed lines, and with a -pair of goggle eyes made of the haliotis shell. The mode which a native -adopts when carving these elaborate patterns is as follows: - -After shaping out the general form of the article to be carved, he -fixes on some part which he thinks will be suitable for the purpose, -and carves a human head upon it. When this is completed, he pitches -upon a second spot at some distance from the first, and carves another -head, proceeding in this way until he has carved as many heads as he -thinks the pattern will require. - -He next furnishes the heads with bodies and limbs, which are always -represented in a very squat and ungainly manner, and fills in the -vacant spaces with the beautiful curved lines which he loves so well to -draw and carve. The minute elaboration of some of these war canoes is -so intricate that it baffles all power of description, and nothing but -a well executed photograph could give a correct idea of the beauty of -the workmanship. It is a marvellous example of the development of art -under difficulties. It is quite unique in its character, so that no one -who is acquainted with the subject can for a moment mistake a piece of -New Zealand carving for that of any other country. - -Besides carving the canoes, the Maori paints them with vermilion in -token of their warlike object, and decorates them profusely with -bunches of feathers and dog’s hair, just like the tufts which are -attached to the patu. When the canoes are not wanted, they are drawn up -on shore, and are thatched in order to save them from the weather. - -Like more civilized nations, the New Zealanders give names to their -canoes, and seem to delight in selecting the most sonorous titles that -they can invent. For example, one canoe is called Maratuhai, _i. e._ -Devouring Fire; and others have names that coincide almost exactly with -our Invincibles, Terribles, Thunderers, and the like. - -These boats are furnished with a very remarkable sail made of the -raupo rush. It is small in proportion to the size of the vessel, is -triangular in shape, and is so arranged that it can be raised or -lowered almost in a moment. They are better sailors than would be -imagined from their appearance, and run wonderfully close to the wind. - -Sometimes from fifty to sixty men paddle in one of these war canoes, -singing songs in time to the stroke, and guided both in song and stroke -by a conductor who stands in the middle of the canoe, prompting the -words of the song, and beating time for the paddlers with a staff which -he holds in his hand. Owing to the power of the water in reflecting -sound, the measured chant of the paddle-song can be heard on a river -long before the canoe comes in sight. - -Mr. Angas gives an interesting account of a journey in a Maori canoe. -After mentioning that the vessel was so deeply laden that its sides -were not more than two inches above the water, he proceeds as follows: -“The paddles were plied with great spirit; the exertions of the natives -being stimulated by the animated shouting song kept up incessantly -by the one or other of the party. At length the splashing was so -violent that we became nearly drenched, and on requesting the Maori -before us to throw less water in our faces, he replied with a proverb -common among them, that ‘No one is dry who travels with the Waikatos,’ -meaning that the people of this tribe excel all others in the speed and -dexterity with which they manage their canoes. - -“Our natives were in excellent spirits. They had been on a long journey -to Auckland, where they had seen the _pakeha_ (white man, or stranger) -in his settlement, and had witnessed many sights of civilization to -which they were previously strangers. They had also purchased articles -of European manufacture, and longing to return home to the peaceful -banks of the Waipa, to present them to their friends as tokens of their -regard. Their wild, deafening songs, with their heads all undulating -at every stroke, the contortions of their eyes, and their bare, tawny -shoulders, finely developing their muscles as they all dashed their -paddles simultaneously into the water, rendered the scene at once novel -and animating. - -“The canoe songs are generally improvised, and frequently have -reference to passing objects. Such ejaculations as the following -were uttered by our companions at the highest pitch of their voices, -‘Pull away! Pull away! Pull away!’ ‘Dig into the water!’ ‘Break your -backs,’ &c. From the prow of one of the canoes a native flute sounded -plaintively. This is a very rude and imperfect instrument, and they -do not play it with any degree of skill, it having only two or three -notes.” The flute in question is that which is made of human bone, and -has been described on a previous page. It is played by placing the -orifice against one nostril, and stopping the other with the finger. - -When the natives proceed on a journey in their canoes, they are so sure -of their own skill and management that they overload them to a degree -which would cause an immediate capsize in most countries. One chief, -named Wirihona, who was travelling with his family, afforded a curious -example of overloading a boat with impunity. The canoe was delicate and -frail, and in the bow sat a little boy with a small fire kept between -two pieces of bark. In the fore part of the canoe, where it was narrow, -sat the younger children, the adult members of the family being placed -in the middle, where the boat was widest. Toward the stern came another -batch of young children, and on the stern, which projects over the -water, sat Wirihona himself, steering the vessel with his paddle. - -The canoe in which were Mr. Angas and his companions was, as the reader -may recollect, so laden that her gunwale barely rose two inches above -the surface. As long as they were paddling along the narrower and more -sheltered parts of the river, all went smoothly enough, though the -deeply-laden state of the crank boat gave cause for uneasiness. At -last, however, they came to some wide and open reaches exposed to the -wind, and had, moreover, to cross the current diagonally. - -“The wind blew violently, and meeting the current, caused an unpleasant -sea in the middle channel of the river. Our heavily-laden canoe was not -fitted to encounter anything beyond still water; and, as our natives -related to each other where this and that canoe were upset, they dashed -their paddles into the water with all their energy, and our bark was -soon in the midst of the terrible current. We were every moment in -imminent danger of being swamped; the water rushed in on both sides; -and nothing but the extreme swiftness with which we glided through the -current prevented us from filling. - -“As the canoe dashed against the opposite shore, our natives gave a -loud shout and commenced bailing out the water, which we had shipped -in great quantities, with a _tatau_ or scoop. We now looked anxiously -toward the second canoe, and watched them literally pulling for their -lives, splashing and dashing with the utmost vehemence. The frail -bark appeared almost swallowed up by the angry stream, but she glided -securely through it, and the drenched chief and his family repeated -the sound of welcome to the opposite shore, as their canoe also dashed -in safety against its banks.” - -The paddles with which the Maories propel their canoes are -curious-looking implements, and are so formed that they will answer -almost equally well as paddles or weapons. Indeed, it is not unlikely -that their peculiar shape was given to them for this very reason. In -the illustration No. 1, on page 881, are seen two examples of the New -Zealand paddle, both being drawn from specimens in my collection, and -being useful as showing the typical form of the implement. - -They are rather more than five feet in length, and have very long -blades which are leaf-shaped and sharply pointed at the tips, so that a -thrust from one of these paddles would be quite as dangerous as if it -were made with the butt of the patu. The blade, too, is sharp at the -edges, and, being made of rather heavy wood, is capable of splitting a -man’s skull as effectually as if it had been the short merai. - -In one of these paddles the handle is curved in a peculiar manner, -while in the other it is straight, and forms a continuation of the -blade. The former of these implements is quite plain, and even at the -end of the handle there is no carving, while the latter is liberally -adorned with patterns both on the blade and handle, and at their -junction there is the inevitable human figure with the protruding -tongue, the goggle eyes, and the generally aggressive expression that -characterizes all such figures. None of the New Zealand paddles are -adorned with the minute and elaborate carving which is found upon -the paddles of several of the Polynesian islands. The carving of the -New Zealanders is of a far different and much bolder character; and, -instead of covering his paddle with small patterns repeated some -hundreds of times, the Maori carves nothing but bold, sweeping curves -and imitations of the human face. - -As far as is known, the Maori carver makes no use of measuring tools, -doing all his work by the eye alone. He does not even use compasses in -describing his circles; and in consequence, whenever he carves, as is -often the case, a number of concentric circles on a rafter or beam, the -circles are quite undeserving of the name, and always tend rather to an -irregular oval form. - -There is in my collection a remarkable instrument, presented to me -by C. Heaton, Esq. It bears a label with the following inscription, -“A New Zealand Compass, by which the natives turn the volute in -their carving.” In shape it resembles one half of a parenthesis -[Illustration], and is armed at each point with a shark’s tooth, -which is inserted into a groove, and then lashed firmly with a cord -passing through holes bored in the tooth and through the semicircular -handle. It is made of the same wood as the paddle. Having, as I have -already stated, abundant reason to distrust the accuracy of labels, and -thinking that the curves of New Zealand carving did not possess the -regularity which would accompany them had they been sketched out by -an instrument, I showed the tool to several observant travellers who -have spent much time in New Zealand, and asked them if they recognized -it. None of them had seen the implement. Mr. Christie, who gave much -attention to the manufactures of New Zealand, knew nothing about it, -and Mr. Angas, who visited the island for the express purpose of -collecting information respecting the Maories, and to whose pen I am -indebted for nearly all the illustrations of the life and manners of -the New Zealanders, had never seen or heard of such a tool. I possess -many specimens of New Zealand carving, and have seen many others, -together with a great number of photographs, and in no case have I -noticed a single circle or portion of a circle that was regular enough -to have been drawn by the aid of compasses. - -I even doubt whether this article was made in New Zealand at all, and -am inclined to think that it belongs to the Tonga or the Kingsmill -Islands. As to its use, I have no opinion. - -In propelling these canoes, the New Zealander holds his paddle in -both hands, and always keeps it on the same side of the vessel, being -balanced by a companion on the other side. He employs no rowlock, but -uses one hand as a fulcrum near the blade, while the other holds the -handle nearer the tip. The boat is steered by means of a large paddle -in the stern. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXV. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -RELIGION. - - - THE GOOD AND EVIL INFLUENCES -- THE LIZARD ATUAS -- ALARM OF THE - CHIEF -- MAORI PRAYERS -- DIFFICULTY IN TRANSLATING THEM -- THE - SACRED LANGUAGE -- THE TOHUNGAS, OR PRIESTS -- BELIEF IN THE FUTURE - STATE -- THE SACRED BRANCH -- THE MALEVOLENT SPIRITS -- HAUNTED - MOUNTAINS -- THE TIKIS, OR SUPPOSED IDOLS OF THE MAORIES -- SOME - GIGANTIC WOODEN TIKIS -- BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT -- FATE OF A WITCH - -- COUNTRY OF THE WIZARDS -- INCANTATION OVER THE SICK -- MAORI - ANATOMISTS. - -We now come to the religion of the Maories. This is a curious mixture -of simplicity and elaboration, having the usual superstitions common to -all savage tribes, and being complicated with the remarkable system of -“tapu,” or “taboo,” as the word is sometimes spelt. - -Of real religion they have no idea, and, so far as is known, even their -superstitions lack that infusion of sublimity which distinguishes the -religious system of many savage nations. They have a sort of indefinite -belief in a good and evil influence; the former going by the generic -name of Atua, and the latter of Wairua. Now, Atua is a word that has a -peculiar significance of its own. It may signify the Divine Essence, -or it may be applied to any object which is considered as a visible -representative of that essence. - -Thus, if a Maori wishes to speak of God, he would use the word Atua. -But he would equally apply it to a lizard, a bird, a sun-ray, or a -cloud. There is one species of lizard, of a lovely green color, called -by the natives _kakariki_, which is held in the greatest veneration -as a living representative of divinity, and is in consequence always -dreaded as an atua. The belief which the natives hold on this subject -is well shown by an anecdote told by Mr. Angas. - -“The following incident will show how deeply the belief in witchcraft -and the supposed influence of the atuas obtains among those who are -still heathens. The missionary was shown some small green lizards -preserved in a phial of spirits, Muriwenua and another man being in the -room. We forgot at the moment that the little creatures in the phial -were atuas, or gods, according to the superstitious belief of Maori -polytheism, and inadvertently showed them to the man at the table. - -“No sooner did he perceive the atuas than his Herculean frame shrank -back as from a mortal wound, and his face displayed signs of extreme -horror. The old chief, on discovering the cause, cried out, ‘I shall -die! I shall die!’ and crawled away on his hands and knees; while the -other man stood as a defence between the chief and the atuas, changing -his position so as to form a kind of shield, till Muriwenua was out -of the influence of their supposed power. It was a dangerous mistake -to exhibit these atuas, for the chief is very old, and in the course -of nature cannot live long, and, if he dies shortly, his death will -certainly be ascribed to the baneful sight of the lizard gods, and I -shall be accused of _makutu_ or witchcraft.” In connection with this -superstition about the lizard, the same traveller mentions a curious -notion which prevails regarding a spider. - -“On the beach of the west coast is found a small, black, and very -venomous spider, called _katipo_ by the natives. Its bite is -exceedingly painful, and even dangerous, and the natives think that -if the katipo bites a man and escapes, the man will die. But if he -contrives to catch the spider, and makes a circle of fire round it so -that it perishes in the flames, then the man recovers as the spider -dies.” - -The extent to which the imagination of the natives is excited by their -fear of witchcraft is scarcely credible. There was one woman named -Eko, who was the most celebrated witch of the Waikato district. She -exercised extraordinary influence over the minds of the people, who -looked upon her as a superior being. On one occasion, when angry with -a man, she told him that she had taken out his heart. The man entirely -believed her, and died from sheer terror. - -Objects which they cannot understand are often considered by the -Maories as atuas. Thus a compass is an atua, because it points in -one direction, and directs the traveller by its invisible power. A -barometer is an atua, because it foretells the weather. A watch is an -atua, on account of the perpetual ticking and moving of the hands. -Fire-arms used to be atuas until they came into common use, and lost -the mystery which was at first attached to them. - -Yet the Maori never addresses his prayers to any of these visible -objects, but always to the invisible Atua of whom these are but the -representatives. The prayers are almost entirely made by the priests -or tohungas, and are a set form of words known only to the priests -and those whom they instruct. The meaning of the prayers is often -uncertain, owing to the obsolete words which are profusely employed -in them, and of which, indeed, the prayer almost entirely consists. -Prayers, or incantations, as they may perhaps be called with more -precision, are made on almost every occasion of life, however trivial, -and whether the Maori desires safety in a battle, a favorable wind -when on the water, success in a campaign, or good luck in fishing, the -tohunga is called upon to repeat the appropriate prayer. Many of these -prayers or incantations have been preserved by Dr. Dieffenbach and -others. One of these prayers, which can be more correctly translated -than many of them, is uttered at the offering of a pigeon. It is -designated as “A prayer that the pigeon may be pure, that it may be -very fat: when the fire burns, the prayer is said.” - -“When it is lighted, when it is lighted, the sacred fire, O Tiki! When -it burns on the sacred morning, O give, O give, O Tiki, the fat. It -burns for thee the fat of the pigeon; for thee the fat of the owl; for -thee the fat of the parrot; for thee the fat of the flycatcher; for -thee the fat of the thrush. A water of eels; where is its spring? Its -spring is in heaven; sprinkle, give, be it poured out.” - -Offerings of food are common rites of Maori native worship, and -offerings are made of both vegetable and animal food. It is much to -be regretted that very many of the ancient religious rites of the New -Zealanders have perished, and that they have been entirely forgotten -by the present generation. Such a loss as this can never be replaced, -and the fact that it has occurred ought to make us the more careful in -rescuing from speedy oblivion the expiring religious customs of other -uncivilized nations. - -Prayers, such as have been mentioned, are handed down by the tohungas -or priests from father to son, and the youths undergo a long course -of instruction before they can take rank among the priests. Dr. -Dieffenbach was once fortunate enough to witness a portion of this -instruction. “I was present at one of the lessons. An old priest was -sitting under a tree, and at his feet was a boy, his relative, who -listened attentively to the repetition of certain words, which seemed -to have no meaning, but which it must have required a good memory to -retain in their due order. At the old tohunga’s side was part of a -man’s skull filled with water. Into this from time to time he dipped a -green branch, which he moved over the boy’s head. At my approach the -old man smiled, as if to say. ‘See how clever I am,’ and continued his -_abracadabra_. - -“I have been assured by the missionaries that many of these prayers -have no meaning; but this I am greatly inclined to doubt. The words -of the prayers are perhaps the remains of a language now forgotten; -or, what is more probable, we find here what has existed among most -of the nations of antiquity, even the most civilized, viz: that -religious mysteries were confined to a certain class of men, who kept -them concealed from the _profanum vulgus_, or communicated only such -portions of them as they thought fit. - -“They often had a sacred symbolic language, the knowledge of which -was confined to the priesthood, as, for instance, the Egyptian -hieroglyphics and the Sanscrit; or, if we look nearer home, we find the -religion of Thor, Odin, and Freya enveloped in a poetical mythos, which -has for its foundation deep and grand philosophical conceptions of -morals and ethics.” - -It is a rather curious fact that, contrary to the usual custom -of heathen priests, the tohungas did not oppose the Christian -missionaries, but were among the first to receive the new religion. -Some of them seem to have received it too hastily and without -sufficient knowledge of its principles, as we see from the miserable -travesty of Christianity which has sprung up of late years among the -Maories, and which is in New Zealand what the system of Taeping is in -China. - -The priests are, as a rule, the most expert artists and woodcarvers in -the country; so that the word “tohunga” is often applied by the natives -to a man who is skilful in any art, no matter whether he be a priest or -not. - -The illustration No. 1, on the 860th page, is a portrait of a very -celebrated tohunga, taken by Mr. Angas in 1844. His name was Te Ohu. -The portrait was obtained during a great meeting of chiefs at Aluahu. -Te Ohu distinguished himself greatly on this occasion, running about -after the fashion of Maori orators, shaking his long and grizzled -locks from side to side, stamping furiously on the ground, and uttering -his speech in a singularly deep and sonorous voice. - -In the background of the sketch may be seen two remarkable articles. -The one, which is the half of a canoe, stuck upright in the ground, -marks the grave of a deceased chief; and the other is a pole, on which -are hung a calabash of water and a basket of food, with which the -spirit of the dead can refresh himself when he returns to visit the -scene of his lifetime. Sometimes a dish of cooked pigeons is added; -and in one case a model of a canoe, with its sail and paddles, was -placed on the tomb, as a conveyance for the soul of the departed when -he wished to cross the waters which lead to the eternal abodes of the -spirit. - -Concerning the state of the spirit after the death of the body the -Maories seem to have very vague ideas. The sum of their notions on -this subject is as follows:--They believe that the spirit of man is -immortal, and that when it leaves the body it goes to the Reinga, or -place of departed spirits. Shooting and falling stars are thought to -be the souls of men going to this place. The entrance to the Reinga -is down the face of a rocky cliff at Cape Maria Van Diemen. Lest the -spirit should hurt itself by falling down this precipice, there is a -very old tree which grows there, on which the spirits break their fall. -One particular branch was pointed out as being the portion of the tree -on which the spirits alighted. - -One of the missionaries cut off this branch, and in consequence the -natives do not regard it with quite so much awe as they did in former -days. Still Dr. Dieffenbach remarks that, when he visited the islands, -they held the spot in great veneration, and not even the Christian -natives would go near it. - -All spirits do not enter the Reinga in the same manner, those of chiefs -ascending first the upper heavens, where they leave the left eye, which -becomes a new star. For this reason, if a chief is killed in war, his -left eye is eaten by the chief of the victorious party, who thinks that -he has thus incorporated into his own being the courage, skill, and -wisdom of the dead man. - -Spirits are not considered as imprisoned in the Reinga, but are able to -leave it when they please, and to return to the scene of their former -life. They can also hold converse with their friends and relatives, -but only through the tohungas. Sometimes, but very rarely, the tohunga -sees the spirit; and even then it is only visible as a sunbeam or a -shadow. The voice of the spirit is a sort of low whistling sound, like -a slight breeze, and is sometimes heard by others beside the tohunga. -He, however, is the only one who can understand the mysterious voice -and can interpret the wishes of the dead to the living. - -As to the life led by departed spirits, the Maories seem to have no -idea; neither do they seem to care. They have a notion that in Reinga -the kumeras, or sweet potatoes, abound; but beyond that tradition they -appear to know nothing. - -As to the malevolent spirits, or wairuas, the same cloudy -indefiniteness of ideas seems to prevail. The word wairua signifies -either the soul or a dream, and is mostly used to signify the spirit -of some deceased person who desires to act malevolently toward the -living. Such spirits are supposed to haunt certain spots, which are -in consequence avoided by the New Zealander. Mountains are especial -objects of his veneration, and those which are lofty enough to have -their tops covered with perpetual snow are specially feared. He fancies -that they are inhabited by strange and monstrous animals, that fierce -birds of huge size sit continually on their whitened tops, and that -every breeze which blows from them is the voice of the spirit which -haunts it. - -In consequence of these superstitions, the natives can no more be -induced to ascend one of these mountains than to approach a burial -ground. They have a curious legend about the Tongariro and Mount -Egmont, saying that they were originally brother and sister, and lived -together, but that they afterward quarrelled and separated. There is -another strange legend of a spot near Mount Egmont. Owing to the nature -of the ground, a strong chemical action is constantly taking place, -which gives out great quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The -natives say that in former days an Atua was drowned near the spot, and -that ever since that time his body has been decomposing. - -As to the idols of the New Zealanders, it is very doubtful whether -they ever existed. There are, it is true, many representations of the -human form, which are popularly supposed to be idols. It was formerly -supposed that the green jade ornaments, called “tikis,” which are worn -suspended from the neck, were idols; but it is now known that they are -merely ornaments, deriving their sole value from being handed down from -one generation to another. - -Three examples of the so-called idols are here given. One of them -is remarkable for its gigantic proportions and curious shape. It is -about sixteen feet in height, and instead of consisting of a single -human figure, as is usually the case, the enormous block of wood is -carved into the semblance of two figures, one above the other. This -arrangement is not uncommon in New Zealand, and is found also in -Western Africa. I possess a walking staff of both countries, which are -composed of several human figures, each upon the other’s head. The New -Zealand staff will be presently described and figured. - -[Illustration: (1.) TE OHU, A NATIVE PRIEST. (See page 857.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) A TIKI AT RAOERA PAH. (See page 861.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) TIKI FROM WHAKAPOKOKO. (See page 861.)] - -This gigantic tiki stands, together with several others, near the -tomb of the daughter of Te Whero-Whero, and, like the monument which -it seems as it were to guard, is one of the finest examples of native -carving to be found in New Zealand. The precise object of the tiki is -uncertain; but the protruding tongue of the upper figure seems to show -that it is one of the numerous defiant statues which abound in the -islands. The natives say that the lower figure represents Maui, the -Atua who, according to Maori tradition, fished up the islands from the -bottom of the sea. - -As may be seen in the illustration No. 2, on the preceding page, -nearly the whole of both figures is carved with most elaborate curved -patterns, which descend over the arms, and adorn those parts of the -statue which do duty for hips. A portion of the paling of Raroera Pah -is seen in the background, and around the tiki grow many plants of the -phormium, or New Zealand flax. - -Near this wonderful and mysterious piece of carving stand several -others, all of the ordinary type. Two such tikis are shown in the -illustration No. 3, opposite, drawn from sketches taken at Whakapokoko. -Although not quite so large as the double tiki of Raroera, they are of -very great size, as may be seen by contrasting them with the figure of -the woman who is standing by one of them. - -The firmest belief in witchcraft prevails in New Zealand, though not -to such an extent as in many parts of Africa. In cases of illness for -which no ordinary cause can be discovered, especially if the patient be -of high rank, “makuta,” or witchcraft, is always suspected. If a chief, -for example, fancies that he has been bewitched, he thinks over the -names of those who are likely to have a spite against him, and pitches -upon some unfortunate individual, who is thereby doomed to death. One -curious example of such a murder is related by Mr. Angas. - -He met a party of natives, who told him that a woman, a relation of the -chief Ngawaka, had been shot by another chief, who suspected that she -had bewitched his son. The young man had been taken ill, and, though -the woman in question did her best to cure him, he died. His father -took it into his head that she had killed him by her incantations, -and, after loading his musket with a stick, shot her through the body. -As, however, she was the relation of Ngawaka, it was expected that the -chief would demand compensation for her death, and that the murderer -would have to pay a very heavy sum. This sort of compensation is called -“taua.” - -There are several modes of witchcraft; but that which is most practised -is performed by digging a hole in the ground and invoking the spirit of -the person who is to be bewitched. After the incantations are said, -the invoked spirit appears above the hole like a flickering light, and -is then solemnly cursed by the witch. Sometimes, instead of digging a -hole, the witch goes by night to the river bank, and there invokes the -spirit, who appears as a flame of fire on the opposite bank. - -Dr. Dieffenbach gives rather a curious account of a district named -Urewera, which is supposed to be the special abode of witches. It is -situated in the northern island, between Taupo and Hawkes’ Bay, and -consists of steep and barren hills. The inhabitants of this district -are few and scattered, and have the reputation of being the greatest -witches in the country. - -“They are much feared, and have little connection with the neighboring -tribes, who avoid them, if possible. If they come to the coast, the -natives there scarcely venture to refuse them anything, for fear of -incurring their displeasure. They are said to use the saliva of the -people whom they intend to bewitch, and visitors carefully conceal it, -to give them no opportunity of working them evil. Like our witches and -sorcerers of old, they appear to be a very harmless people, and but -little mixed up with the quarrels of their neighbors. - -“It is a curious fact that many of the old settlers in the country have -become complete converts to the belief in these supernatural powers. -Witchcraft has been the cause of many murders: a few days before I -arrived at Aotea, on the western coast, three had been committed, in -consequence of people declaring on their deathbeds that they had been -bewitched.... - -“It is another curious fact, which has been noticed in Tahiti, Hawaii, -and the islands inhabited by the great Polynesian race, that their -first intercourse with Europeans produces civil wars and social -degradation, but that a change of ideas is quickly introduced, and that -the most ancient and deeply-rooted prejudices soon become a subject of -ridicule to the natives, and are abolished at once. The grey priest, or -tohunga, deeply versed in all the mysteries of witchcraft and native -medical treatment, gives way in his attendance on the sick to every -European who pretends to a knowledge of the science of surgery or -medicine, and derides the former credulity of his patient. - -“If a chief or his wife fall sick, the most influential tohunga, or -a woman who has the odor of sanctity, attends, and continues day and -night with the patient, sometimes repeating incantations over him, -and sometimes sitting before the house and praying. The following is -an incantation which is said by the priest as a cure for headache. He -pulls out two stalks of the _Pteris esculenta_, from which the fibres -of the root must be removed, and, beating them together over the -head of the patient, says this chant.”--The chant in question is as -unintelligible as those which have already been mentioned. Its title is -“A prayer for the dead (_i. e._ the sick man) when his head aches: to -Atua this prayer is prayed, that he, the sick man, may become well.” - -When a chief is ill, his relations assemble near the house and all weep -bitterly, the patient taking his part in the general sorrowing; and -when all the weeping and mourning has been got out of one village, the -patient is often carried to another, where the whole business is gone -over again. Should the sick person be of an inferior class, he goes off -to the bush, and remains there until he is well again, choosing the -neighborhood of a hot spring if he can find one, or, if no such spring -is at hand, infusing certain herbs in boiling water and inhaling the -steam. - -As may be imagined from the practice which they have in cutting up -the dead for their cannibal feasts, the Maories are good practical -anatomists, and know well the position of all the principal organs and -vessels of the body. Consequently, they can operate in cases of danger, -using sharp-edged shells if they have no knives. They can also set -broken limbs well, bringing the broken surfaces together, binding the -limb with splints, laying it on a soft pillow, and surrounding it with -a wickerwork contrivance in order to guard it against injury. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXVI. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Continued_. - -THE TAPU. - - - THE TAPU, OR LAW OF PROHIBITION -- TAPU A SUBSTITUTE FOR GOVERNMENT - -- PROTECTION TO PROPERTY AND MORALS -- ABUSE OF THE TAPU -- THE - CHIEF AND THE SAILOR -- THE CHIEF AND HIS MAT -- A VALUABLE SPLINTER - -- THE HEAD OF THE CHIEF -- AN UNLUCKY MISTAKE -- HOW TAONUI GOT HIS - ARMOR -- HAIR CUTTING -- TROUBLES OF AN ARTIST -- THE CARVED HEAD - -- TE-WHERO-WHERO AND HIS PORTRAIT -- THE TAPU MOUNTAIN -- BANEFUL - EFFECTS OF THE TAPU ON NATIVE ART -- DESTRUCTION OF THE PAHS AND - HOUSES -- THE TERMINABLE TAPU -- THE BATTLE-TAPU -- TAKING OFF THE - TAPU -- DUTY OF THE TOHUNGA -- THE TAPU THE STRENGTH OF THE CHIEFS. - -We now come naturally to the custom of Tapu or Taboo, that -extraordinary system which extends throughout the whole of Polynesia, -modified slightly according to the locality in which it exists. - -The general bearings of the law of tapu may be inferred from the -sense of the word, which signifies prohibition. The system of tapu is -therefore a law of prohibition, and, when stripped of the extravagances -into which it often deteriorates, it is seen to be a very excellent -system, and one that answers the purpose of a more elaborate code of -laws. In countries where an organized government is employed the tapu -is needless, and we find that even in those parts of the earth where -it was once the only restrictive law it has fallen into disuse since -regular government has been introduced. - -Were it not for the law of tapu, an absolute anarchy would prevail in -most parts of Polynesia, the tapu being the only guardian of property -and morality. In order that it may be enforced on the people, the -terrors of superstition are called into play, and, in the absence of -secular law, the spiritual powers are evoked. - -Unprotected by the tapu, property could not exist: protected by it, -the most valued and coveted articles are safer than they would be in -England or America despite the elaborate legal system that secures -to every man that which is his own. In New Zealand, when a man has -cultivated a field of kumeras, or sweet potatoes, he needs no fence and -no watchman. He simply sends for the tohunga, who lays the tapu on the -field; and from that moment no one save the owner will venture within -its boundaries. - -Sometimes a canoe is hauled up on the beach, and must be left there -for some time unwatched. The owner need not trouble himself about -securing his vessel. He has the tapu mark placed upon it, and the boat -is accordingly held sacred to all except its possessor. Similarly, if a -native boat-builder fixes on a tree which he thinks can be made into a -canoe, he places the tapu on it, and knows that no one but himself will -dare to cut it down. The mark of tapu in this case is almost invariably -the removal of a strip of bark round the trunk of the tree. - -Then the system of tapu is the only guardian of morals. It has been -already mentioned that an extreme laxity in this respect prevails among -the unmarried girls. But as soon as a girl is married she becomes -tapu to all but her husband, and any one who induces her to become -unfaithful must pay the penalty of the tapu if the delinquents be -discovered. Nor is the tapu restricted to married women. It is also -extended to young girls when they are betrothed; and any girl on whom -the tapu has thus been laid is reckoned as a married woman. - -It will be seen, therefore, that the principle of the tapu is a good -one, and that it serves as protection both to property and morals. -There are, of course, many instances where this system has run into -extravagances, and where, instead of a protection, it has developed -into a tyranny. - -Take, for example, the very praiseworthy idea that the life of a chief -is most important to his people, and that his person is therefore -considered as tapu. This is a proper and wholesome idea, and is -conducive to the interests of law and justice. But the development of -the system becomes a tyranny. The chief himself being tapu, everything -that he touched, even with the skirt of his garment, became tapu, and -thenceforth belonged to him. So ingrained is this idea that on one -occasion, when a great chief was wearing a large and handsome mantle -and found it too heavy for a hot day, he threw it down a precipice. His -companion remonstrated with him, saying that it would have been better -to have hung the mat on a bough, so that the next comer might make -use of it. The chief was horror-struck at such an idea. It was hardly -possible that a superior to himself should find the mat, and not likely -that an equal should do so, and if an inferior were to wear it, he -would at once die. - -As the very contact of a chiefs garment renders an object tapu, _à -fortiori_ does his blood, and one drop of the blood of a chief falling -upon even such objects as are free from the ordinary laws of tapu -renders them his property. A curious example of the operation of this -law occurred when a meeting of chiefs was called at the Taupo lake. As -the principal man of the tribes, the celebrated chief Te Heu-heu was -invited, and a new and beautifully carved canoe sent to fetch him. As -he stepped into it, a splinter ran into his foot, inflicting a very -slight wound. Every man leaped out of the canoe, which was at once -drawn up on the beach and considered as the property of Te Heu-heu. -Another canoe was procured, and in it the party proceeded on their -journey. - -Another kind of tapu takes place with regard to any object which is -connected with the death of a native. If, for example, a Maori has -fallen overboard from a canoe and been drowned, the vessel can never -be used again, but is tapu. Or if a man commits suicide by shooting -himself, as has already been mentioned, the musket is tapu. But in -these cases the articles are tapu to the atuas, and not to men. -Sometimes they are left to decay on the spot, no man daring to touch -them, or they are broken to pieces, and the fragments stuck upright in -the earth to mark the spot where the event occurred. - -Sometimes this personal tapu becomes exceedingly inconvenient. The wife -of an old and venerable tohunga had been ill, and was made tapu for a -certain length of time, during which everything that she touched became -tapu. Even the very ground on which she sat was subject to this law, -and accordingly, whenever she rose from the ground, the spot on which -she had sat was surrounded with a fence of small boughs stuck archwise -into the earth, in order to prevent profane feet from polluting the -sacred spot. - -The most sacred object that a New Zealander can imagine is the head of -the chief. It is so sacred that even to mention it is considered as an -affront. Europeans have often given deadly offence through ignorance of -this superstition, or even through inadvertence. Mr. Angas narrates a -curious instance of such an adventure. A friend of his was talking to a -Maori chief over his fence, and the conversation turned upon the crops -of the year. Quite inadvertently he said to the chief, “Oh, I have in -my garden some apples as large as that little boy’s head”--pointing at -the same time to the chief’s son, who was standing near his father. - -He saw in a moment the insult that he had offered, and apologized, but -the chief was so deeply hurt that it was with the greatest difficulty -that a reconciliation was brought about. The simile was a peculiarly -unfortunate one. To use the head of a chiefs son as a comparison at -all was bad enough, but to compare it to an article of food was about -the most deadly insult that could be offered to a Maori. All food and -the various processes of preparation are looked down upon with utter -contempt by the free Maori, who leaves all culinary operations to the -slaves or “cookies.” - -One of the very great chiefs of New Zealand was remarkable for his -snowy white hair and beard, which gave him a most venerable aspect. He -was held in the highest respect, and was so extremely sacred a man that -his head might only be mentioned in comparison with the snow-clad top -of the sacred mountain. - -The same traveller to whom we are indebted for the previous anecdote -relates a curious story illustrative of this etiquette. There was a -certain old chief named Taonui, who was in possession of the original -suit of armor which was given by George IV. to E’ Hongi when he visited -England. “The subsequent history of this armor is somewhat curious. It -passed from the Nga Puis to Tetori and from Tetori to Te Whero-Whero -at the Waikato feast, and came into Taonui’s hands under the following -circumstances. - -“On the death of a favorite daughter Te Whero-Whero made a song, the -substance of which was, that he would take off the scalps of all the -chiefs except Ngawaka, and fling them into his daughter’s grave to -avenge her untimely death. The words of this song highly insulted the -various individuals against whom it was directed, more especially as -it was a great curse for the hair of a chief, which is sacred, to be -thus treated with contempt. But the only chief who dared to resent this -insult from so great a man as Te Whero-Whero was Taonui, who demanded a -‘taua,’ or gift, as recompense for the affront, and received the armor -of E’ Hongi in compensation. - -“I made a drawing of the armor, which was old and rusty. It was of -steel, inlaid with brass, and, though never worn by the possessors in -battle--for it would sadly impede their movements--it is regarded with -a sort of superstitious veneration by the natives, who look upon it as -something extraordinary.” - -A chief’s head is so exceedingly sacred that, if he should touch it -with his own fingers, he may not touch anything else without having -applied the hand to his nostrils and smelt it so as to restore to the -head the virtue which was taken out of it by the touch. The hair of a -chief is necessarily sacred, as growing upon his head. When it is cut, -the operation is generally confided to one of his wives, who receives -every particle of the cut hair in a cloth, and buries it in the ground. -In consequence of touching the chief’s head, she becomes tapu for a -week, during which time her hands are so sacred that she is not allowed -to use them. Above all things, she may not feed herself, because she -would then be obliged to pollute her hands by touching food, and such a -deed would be equivalent to putting food on the chief’s head--a crime -of such enormity that the mind of a Maori could scarcely comprehend its -possibility. - -When engaged in his explorations in New Zealand, and employed in -sketching every object of interest which came in his way, Mr. Angas -found this notion about the chief’s head to be a very troublesome one. -He was not allowed to portray anything connected with food with the -same pencil with which he sketched the head of a chief, and to put a -drawing of a potato, a dish for food, or any such object, into the same -portfolio which contained the portrait of a chief, was thought to be a -most fearful sacrilege. - -The artist had a narrow escape of losing the whole of his sketches, -which a chief named Ko Tarui wanted to burn, as mixing sacred with -profane things. They were only rescued by the intervention of Te -Heu-heu, a superstitious old savage, but capable of seeing that the -white man had meant no harm. Warned by this escape, Mr. Angas always -made his drawings of tapu objects by stealth, and often had very great -difficulty in eluding the suspicious natives. - -Even the carved image of a chief’s head is considered as sacred as the -object which it represents. Dr. Dieffenbach relates a curious instance -of this superstition. - -“In one of the houses of Te Puai, the head chief of all the Waikato, -I saw a bust, made by himself, with all the serpentine lines of the -moko, or tattooing. I asked him to give it to me, but it was only after -much pressing that he parted with it. I had to go to his house to fetch -it myself, as none of his tribe could legally touch it, and he licked -it all over before he gave it to me; whether to take the tapu off, or -whether to make it more strictly sacred, I do not know. He particularly -engaged me not to put it into the provision bag, nor to let it see the -natives at Rotu-nua, whither I was going, or he would certainly die in -consequence. - -“Payment for the bust he would not take; but he had no objection to -my making him a present of my own free will: which I accordingly did, -presenting him and his wife with a shirt each.” - -Once the natives were very angry because Mr. Angas went under a cooking -shed, having with him the portfolio containing the head of Te Heu-heu. -Even his hands were tapu because they had painted the portrait of so -great a chief, and he was subjected to many annoyances in consequence. -Finding that the tapu was likely to become exceedingly inconvenient, he -put a stop to further encroachments by saying that, if the people made -any more complaints, he would put Te Heu-heu’s head into the fire. This -threat shocked them greatly, but had the desired effect. - -Sometimes this sanctity of the chief is exceedingly inconvenient to -himself. On one occasion, when Mr. Angas was visiting the chief Te -Whero-Whero, he found the great man superintending the plantation of -a kumera ground and the erection of a house for himself. Rain was -falling fast, but the old chief sat on the damp ground, wrapped up in -his blanket, and appearing to be entirely unconcerned at the weather, a -piece of sail-cloth over the blanket being his only defence. - -He did not rise, according to the custom of the old heathen chiefs, -who will sometimes sit for several days together, in a sort of -semi-apathetic state. To the request that his portrait might be taken -Te Whero-Whero graciously acceded, and talked freely on the all -important subject of land while the painter was at work. Finding the -rain exceedingly unpleasant, the artist suggested that they had better -move into a house. The old chief, however, knowing that he could not -enter a house without making it his property by reason of contact -with his sacred person, declined to move, but ordered a shelter to -be erected for the white man. This was done at once, by fastening a -blanket to some upright poles: and so the portrait was completed, the -painter under cover and the sitter out in the rain. - -Localities can be rendered tapu, even those which have not been touched -by the person who lays the tapu upon them. The chief Te Heu-heu, for -example, was pleased to declare the volcano Tongariro under the tapu, -by calling it his backbone, so that not a native would dare approach -it, nor even look at it, if such an act could be avoided. Mr. Angas was -naturally desirous of visiting this mountain, but found that such a -scheme could not be carried out. He offered blankets and other articles -which a New Zealander prizes; but all to no purpose, for the tapu could -not be broken. The chief even tried to prevent his white visitors from -travelling in the direction of the mountain, and only gave his consent -after ordering that the sacred Tongariro should not even be looked -at. So deeply is this superstition engraven in the heart of the New -Zealander, that even the Christian natives are afraid of such a tapu, -and will not dare to approach a spot that has thus been made sacred -by a tohunga. Reasoning is useless with them; they will agree to all -the propositions, admit the inference to be drawn from them, and then -decline to run so terrible a risk. - -One of the finest examples of native architecture was made tapu by this -same chief, who seems to have had a singular pleasure in exercising -his powers. It was a pah called Waitahanui, and was originally the -stronghold of Te Heu-heu. It is on the borders of the lake, and the -side which fronts the water is a full half-mile in length. It is made, -as usual, of upright posts and stakes, and most of the larger posts -are carved into the human form, with visages hideously distorted, and -tongues protruded seaward, as if in defiance of expected enemies. - -Within this curious pah were the cannibal cook-houses which have -already been figured, together with several of the beautifully carved -patukas or receptacles for the sacred food of the chief. Specimens of -these may be seen figured on page 831. In this pah Mr. Angas found -the most elaborate specimen of the patuka that he ever saw. It was -fortunate that he arrived when he did, as a very few years more would -evidently complete the destruction of the place. Many of the most -beautiful implements of native art were already so decayed that they -were but a shapeless heap of ruins, and the others, were rapidly -following in the same path. Of these specimens of Maori carving and -architecture nothing is now left but the sketches from which have been -made the illustrations that appear in this work. - -Here I may be allowed to controvert a popular and plausible fallacy, -which has often been brought before the public. Travellers are blamed -for bringing to England specimens of architecture and other arts from -distant countries. It is said, and truly too, that such articles are -out of place in England. So they are: but it must be remembered that -if they had not been in England they would not have been in existence. -The marvellous sarcophagus, for example, brought to London by Belzoni, -and now in the Soane Museum, would have been broken to pieces and -hopelessly destroyed if it had been allowed to remain in the spot where -it was found. - -Again, had not the Assyrian sculptures found a home in the British -Museum, they would have been knocked to pieces by the ignorant tribes -who now roam over the ruins of Nineveh the Great. Even had the vast -statues defied entire destruction, the inscriptions would long ago have -been defaced, and we should have irreparably lost some of the most -valuable additions to our scanty knowledge of chronology. - -So again with the Elgin Marbles. Undoubtedly they were more in their -place in Greece than they are in England; but, if they had not been -brought to England, the iconoclastic hand of the Mussulman would have -utterly destroyed them, and the loss to art would have been indeed -terrible. - -Thus is it with regard to the specimens of savage art, no matter in -what way it is developed. Taking New Zealand as an example, there is -not in England a single specimen of a Maori house. It could be easily -taken to pieces and put together again; it is peculiarly valuable to -ethnologists on account of the extraordinary mixture which it displays -of ancient Egyptian architecture and ancient Mexican art; and in a -very few years there will not be a single specimen of aboriginal -architecture in the whole of New Zealand. The Maories, who have -abandoned the club for the rifle, the mat for the blanket, and even the -blanket for the coat and trousers, have begun to modify their ancient -architecture, and to build houses after the European models. - -Unless, therefore, means be taken to rescue specimens of Maori -architecture from destruction, it is much to be doubted whether in -twenty years’ time from the present date a single specimen will -exist as a type of native art. So it is with the canoes. Graceful, -picturesque, and adorned with the finest specimens of Maori art, the -canoes were unique among vessels. At the present day the more useful -but more commonplace whaleboat has superseded the canoe, and in a -few years the elaborately decorated vessels of the Maories will have -utterly passed away. - -We may be sure that the tide of civilization is sweeping so rapidly -over the world, that a very few years will see the end of savage life -in all lands to which the white man can gain access. The relics of the -ancient mode of life are left by the natives to perish, and, unless -they are rescued, and brought to a country where they can be preserved, -they will necessarily vanish from the face of the earth. Having this -idea in my own mind, I set myself some years ago to collect articles -of daily use from all parts of the world. The light which they throw -upon anthropology is really astonishing, and, among some eight or nine -hundred specimens, there is not one that does not tell its own story. - -Take, for example, the stone merai that lies before me. What a tale -does it not tell of the country where it was found, and of the workman -who made it! The stone shows that it was obtained from a volcanic -country; the short, weighty form of the weapon shows that it was made -for a courageous race who fought hand to hand; and the graceful curves -and perfect balance of the weapon show that the maker was a true -artist. More than that. The merai has been made by rubbing it with -another stone, and must have occupied years of labor. See, then, what a -tale this weapon tells us--the volcanic region, the courageous warrior, -and the worthlessness of time. Year after year the man must have worked -at that merai, bending his tattooed face over it, balancing it in his -hand, and watching its soft curves grow into perfection. Then, after it -was made, he has evidently carried it about with him, fought with his -foes, and dashed out their brains with its once sharp and now notched -edge. Afterward, when he, or may be his grandson, came to fight against -the white men, their fire-arms were too terrible to be opposed, and -the merai was taken from the hand of the dead warrior as he lay on the -field of battle, its plaited cord still round his wrist. Nevermore will -a stone merai be made, and before very long the best examples of Maori -weapons will be found in English museums. - -We will now return to the subject of the tapu. Useful as it may be as a -guardian of property, it often exaggerates that duty, and produces very -inconvenient results. For example, some travellers were passing through -the country, and were hungry and wearied, and without food. Very -opportunely there came in sight a fine pig; but the animal contrived to -run across a piece of ground which was tapu, and in consequence became -tapu itself for a certain number of days, and could not be eaten. - -There are thousands of such tapu spots in the country. If, for example, -a great chief has been travelling, every place where he sits to rest is -tapu, and is marked by a slight fence of sticks. In many cases, each of -these sacred spots has its own name. The same is the case when the body -of a chief is carried to his own pah for burial, every resting place of -the bearers becoming tapu. Therefore nothing was more likely than to -come across one of these tapu spots, or more easy than for the pig to -break through its slight fence. - -A curious modification of the tapu took place before and after a -battle. The tohunga assembled the warriors of his own party, and went -with them to the lake or river, which had been made tapu for the -purpose. The men then threw off all their clothing, and went into the -water, which they scooped up with their hands and threw over their -heads and bodies. The priest then recited the appropriate incantation. - -Thus the battle tapu was laid upon the warriors, who were thereby -prohibited from undertaking any other business except that of fighting, -and were supposed, moreover, to be under the protection of the gods. -This tapu was most strictly regarded, and the warriors had to learn -quite a long list of occupations which were forbidden to them, such as -carrying a load, cutting their own hair, touching the head of a woman, -and so forth. - -After the fighting is over, it is necessary that the tapu should be -taken off from the survivors, so that they should be enabled to return -to their usual mode of life. This ceremony is rather a complicated -one, and varies slightly in different parts of the country. The chief -features, however, are as follows:-- - -Each man who had killed an enemy, or taken a slave, pulled off a lock -of hair from the victim, and retained it as a trophy. They then went -in a body to the tohunga, and gave him a portion of the hair. This he -tied on a couple of little twigs, raised them high above his head, -and recited the incantation; after which the whole body joined in the -war song and dance. This being over, the warriors clapped their hands -together and struck their legs, that act being supposed to take off the -tapu which had been contracted by imbruing them in the blood of the -enemy. - -The war party then goes home, and a similar ceremony is undergone in -the presence of the principal tohunga of their pah, the hands being -clapped and the war dance performed. The remainder of the hair is given -to the tohunga, who, after reciting his incantation, flings the tuft -of hair away, and ends by another incantation, which declares that the -tapu is taken away. - -As a general rule, the tapu can only be taken off by the person who -imposed it; but if a man imposed a tapu on anything, another who was -very much his superior would not have much scruple in breaking through -it. By courtesy the tapu was mostly respected by great and small alike, -and, by courtesy also, the very great men often put themselves to great -inconvenience by refraining from actions that would lay the tapu on the -property of inferiors. Thus we have seen how a chief refused to enter a -house, lest he should render it his property, and preferred to sit in -the pouring rain, rather than run the risk of depriving an inferior of -his property. - -Should an object become tapu by accident, the tohunga can take off the -tapu and restore the object to use. A curious instance of the exercise -of this power is related by a traveller. A white man, who had borrowed -an iron pot for cooking, wanted some soft water, and so he placed the -pot under the eaves of a house from which the rain was running. Now, -the house happened to be tapu, and in consequence the water running -from it made the pot tapu. It so happened that a woman, who was -ignorant of the circumstance, used the pot for cooking, and when she -was told that the vessel was tapu she was greatly frightened, declaring -that she would die before night. In this difficulty a tohunga came to -her relief, repeated an incantation over the vessel, and made it “noa,” -or common, again. - -Sometimes the tapu only lasts for a period, and, after that time has -elapsed, expires without the need of any ceremony. Thus, if a person -who is tapu by sickness is touched by another, the latter is tapu for -a definite time, usually three days. If a sick person dies inside a -house, that house is _ipso facto_, tapu and may never again be used. -It is painted with red ochre, as a sign of its sanctity, and is left -to decay. In consequence of this superstition, when the patient seems -likely to die, he is removed from the house, and taken to a spot -outside the pah, where a shed is built for his reception. - -It will be seen from the foregoing account how great is the power of -the tapu, and how much it adds to the power of the chiefs. Indeed, -without the power of tapu, a chief would be but a common man among -his people--he would be liable to the tapu of others, and could not -impose his own. The tapu is one of the chief obstacles against the -spread of Christianity. Knowing that the missionaries treat the tapu -as a mere superstition, the great chiefs do not choose to embrace a -religion which will cause them to lose their highest privilege, and -would deprive them of the one great power by which they exercise their -authority. - -Mr. Williams, the well-known missionary, sums up the subject of the -tapu in very bold and graphic language:--“It is the secret of power, -and the strength of despotic rule. It affects things both great -and small. Here it is seen tending a brood of chickens, and there -it directs the energies of a kingdom. Its influence is variously -diffused. Coasts, islands, rivers, and seas; animals, fruit, fish, and -vegetables; houses, beds, pots, cups, and dishes; canoes, with all that -belong to them, with their management; dress, ornaments, and arms; -things to eat and things to drink; the members of the body; the manners -and customs; language, names, temper; and even the gods also; all come -under the influence of the tapu. - -“It is put into operation by religious, political, or selfish motives; -and idleness lounges for months beneath its sanction. Many are thus -forbidden to raise their hands or extend their arms in any useful -employment for a long time. In this district it is tapu to build -canoes; on that island it is tapu to erect good houses. The custom is -much in favor among chiefs, who adjust it so that it sits easily on -themselves, while they use it to gain influence over those who are -nearly their equals; by it they supply many of their wants, and command -at will all who are beneath them. In imposing a tapu, a chief need only -be checked by a care that he is countenanced by ancient precedents.” - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXVII. - -NEW ZEALAND--_Concluded_. - -FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND ARCHITECTURE. - - - THE MOURNING OVER THE DEAD CHIEF -- THE TANGI, AND THE SCARS WHICH - IT LEAVES -- FIRST BURIAL OF THE CHIEF -- THE WAHI TAPU -- THE - SECOND BURIAL, OR “HAHUNGA” -- REMOVAL OF THE TAPU, AND INSTALLATION - OF THE SUCCESSOR -- E’ HONGI’S DEATHBED -- A DECAYING PAH -- CANOE - TOMBS -- MONUMENT TO E’ TOKI -- TOMB OF TE WHERO-WHERO’S DAUGHTER -- - SAVAGE SENTIMENT -- MAORI ARCHITECTURE -- MATERIAL, SHAPE, AND SIZE - OF THE HOUSES -- A CROWDED SLEEPING PLACE -- THE EAT MAN HOUSE -- - RANGIHAEATA’S REVENGE -- PUATIA’S WAR-HOUSE AND ITS SCULPTURES -- - INTERIOR VIEW OF A PAH -- TOOLS USED IN HOUSE-BUILDING -- THE AXE AND - THE CHISEL -- THE TOKO-TOKO, OR WALKING STICK. - -We now come to the ceremonies that belong to funerals. - -When a chief, or indeed any Rangatira, dies, his friends and relations -deck the body in the finest clothes which the deceased had possessed -in his lifetime, lay it out, and assemble round it for the customary -mourning. The women are the chief mourners, and indulge in the most -demonstrative, not to say ostentatious, ebullitions of grief. Sometimes -they squat upon the ground, their bodies and faces wrapped in their -mantles, as if utterly overpowered by grief. Sometimes they wave -their arms in the air, shaking their hands with expressive gestures -of sorrow; and all the while they utter loud wailing cries, while the -tears stream down their cheeks. - -Much of this extravagant sorrow is necessarily feigned, according -to the custom of New Zealand life, which demands tears on so many -occasions; but there is no doubt that much is real and truly felt. The -women cut themselves severely with shells, making incisions in the skin -several inches in length. These incisions are filled with charcoal, -as if they had been part of the regular moko or tattoo, and become -indelible, being, in fact, perpetual records of sorrow. Some of these -women cut themselves with such severity, that in their old age they are -covered with the thin blue lines of the “tangi,” their faces, limbs, -and bodies being traversed by them in rather a ludicrous manner. The -tangi lines might be mistaken for regular tattooing, except for one -point. They have no pattern, and instead of being curved, as is always -the case with the moko, they are straight, about two inches in length, -and run parallel to each other. - -They address long speeches to the dead man, enumerating his many -virtues, his courage, his liberality, the strength of his tapu, and -so forth, mixed with reproaches to him for dying and going away from -them when they stood in such need of him. Indeed, the whole of the -proceedings, with the exception of cutting the skin, are very like -those of an Irish wake. - -In the illustration No. 1, on the 872nd page, are shown these various -ceremonies. The dead body of the chief is lying under the shed, wrapped -in the best mantle, and with a coronal of feathers in the hair. In -the front sits a chief, whose rank is denoted by his hani, or staff -of office, that lies by him, and by the elaborate mantle in which he -has wrapped himself. Standing near the corpse is one of the mourners, -with arms upraised and hands quivering, while others are seen sitting -in various attitudes of woe. The fence of the pah is shown in the -background, with its grotesque images and curious architecture. - -When the old people attend a funeral, they usually paint themselves -freely with red ochre, and wear wreaths of green leaves upon their -heads. The house in which the death took place is rendered tapu until -the body is finally disposed of--an event which does not take place for -some time. - -After the mourning ceremonies have been completed, the body is placed -in a sort of coffin and allowed to decay, the green jade merai, the -tiki, the hani, and other emblems of rank being placed with the corpse. -In some parts of the country this coffin is canoe-shaped, and suspended -to the branches of a tree, certain places being kept sacred for this -purpose. There existed, for example, several graves belonging to the -Nga-pui tribe, which had been preserved on account of the sacred -character which belonged to them. The natives had long abandoned the -custom of hanging the coffins of the dead on the trees, but the sacred -character still clung to them, and, though the woods in that part of -the country had been felled, the sacred groves were allowed to flourish -unharmed. - -Sometimes the body of a very great chief was placed in a wooden -receptacle in the midst of the pah, called the waki-tapu, and there -allowed to decay. As might be expected, a most horrible odor is -disseminated through the pah during the process of decomposition; but -the inhabitants do not seem to trouble themselves, their nostrils not -being easily offended. For example, when a whale is thrown ashore, the -stench of the huge mass of decomposition is so overpowering that an -European cannot endure it. The natives, however, say that they are used -to it, and do not notice it. Indeed, people who can eat the horrible -messes of putrid maize of which they are so fond must be so obtuse of -scent as to be indifferent to any ill odor. - -Be it as it may, in time the process of decay is supposed to be -complete,--seven or eight months being the usual time. A curious -ceremony, called the “hahunga,” then takes place. The friends and -relatives of the deceased chief are again assembled, and the bones are -solemnly taken from their receptacle and cleaned. The person who cleans -them is necessarily tapu, but is rendered “noa,” or common again, by -the eldest son and daughter of the deceased chief eating of the sacred -food offered to the dead. Should the eldest girl happen to be dead, the -food is placed in a calabash, and laid in the now empty coffin, the -spirit of the girl being called by name, and the food offered to her. -The spirit is supposed to partake of the food; and the tapu is thus -removed as effectually as if she were alive, and had visibly eaten the -provisions. Should the chief have had no daughter, the nearest female -relative takes the office. The usual orations are made in honor of the -deceased and the merai, tiki, and other ornaments of the dead chief are -then handed over to his eldest son, who thus takes possession of the -post which his father had vacated, the ceremony being analogous to a -coronation among Europeans. - -When the celebrated chief E’ Hongi, the “Scourge of New Zealand,” as -he has been called, died, his children were so afraid that they would -be attacked by those whom the terror of his name had kept quiet, that -they wanted to omit the preliminary orations and “tangi,” and to lay -his body in the “waki-tapu,” or sacred place, on the day after his -death. This intention was, however, overruled, chiefly in consequence -of the foresight of the dying chief. - -Feeling that his end was close at hand, he rallied his sons round -him, sent for all his warlike stores, the merais, patus, muskets, -ammunition, and, above all, the armor which he had received from George -IV., and bequeathed them to his children. He was asked what “utu,” or -satisfaction, should be exacted for his death, but replied that the -only utu which his spirit would desire was, that his tribe should be -valiant, and repel any attack that might be made upon them. But for -this really noble sentiment, there would have been great slaughter at -his death, in order to furnish attendants for him. - -That his tribe should for the future be valiant, and repel the attacks -of their enemies, was the ruling idea in E’ Hongi’s mind; and on March -6, 1828, he died, continually repeating the words, “Kia toa! kia -toa!”--_i. e._ “Be valiant! be valiant!” - -After the ceremony of cleaning the bones is over, they are taken by the -principal tohunga, or priest, who generally disposes of them in some -secret spot sacred to the remains of dead chiefs, and known only to -himself. Sometimes, however, they are laid in beautifully carved boxes, -which are supported on posts in the middle of the pah. - -Sometimes the waki-tapu, or sacred place in which the body of a chief -is placed while it undergoes decomposition, is marked in a very curious -manner, and the entire village deserted for a time. For example, at -the pah of Huriwenua, the chief had died about six weeks before Mr. -Angas arrived at the place, which he found deserted. “Not far from -this island pah stood the village of Huriwenua, the gaily-ornamented -tomb of the late chief forming a conspicuous object in the centre. -Here, although everything was in a state of perfect preservation, not a -living soul was to be seen; the village, with its neat houses made of -raupo, and its courtyards and provision boxes, was entirely deserted. -From the moment the chief was laid beneath the upright canoe, on which -were inscribed his name and rank, the whole village became strictly -tapu, or sacred, and not a native, on pain of death, was permitted to -trespass near the spot. The houses were all fastened up, and on most of -the doors were inscriptions denoting that the property of such an one -remained there. - -“An utter silence pervaded the place. After ascertaining that no -natives were in the vicinity of the forbidden spot, I landed, and trod -the sacred ground; and my footsteps were probably the first, since -the desertion of the village, that had echoed along its palisaded -passages. - -[Illustration: (1.) MOURNING OVER A DEAD CHIEF. (See page 869.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) TOMB OF E’ TOKI. (See page 873.)] - -“On arriving at the tomb, I was struck with the contrast between the -monument of the savage and that of the civilized European. In the -erection of the latter, marble and stone and the most durable of metals -are employed, while rapidly decaying wood, red ochre, and feathers -form the decorations of the Maori tomb. Huriwenua having been buried -only six weeks, the ornaments of the _waki-tapu_, or sacred place, -as those erections are called, were fresh and uninjured. The central -upright canoe was richly painted with black and red, and at the top -was written the name of the chief; above which there hung in clusters, -bunches of _kaka_ feathers, forming a large mass at the summit of the -canoe. A double fence of high palings, also painted red, and ornamented -with devices in arabesque work, extended round the grave, and at every -fastening of flax, where the horizontal rails were attached to the -upright fencing, were stuck two feathers of the albatross, the sunny -whiteness of which contrasted beautifully with the sombre black and red -of the remainder of the monument.” - -One of these tombs may be seen in the background of illustration No. -1, on p. 860, containing the portrait of an old priest, and another is -shown in the view of a village which will be given on a future page. - -Within the pah is often erected a monument or mausoleum of the dead. A -very beautiful example of this kind of tomb was erected in the pah of -Rangihaeta to the memory of E’ Toki, the mother of Raupahara. - -It was nearly semi-circular in shape, and the body was placed in it -in an upright position. It was covered with a roof, squared at the -corners, and projecting like a verandah all round, and sloping toward -the back. The central tomb, the roof, and the posts which supported it, -were all covered with the most elaborate arabesque pattern, mostly of a -spiral character. Paint was liberally used on it, that on the central -tomb or coffin being red and white, while that which decorated the roof -and posts was red and black. In front of the projecting roof was hung -the beautifully woven kaitaka mat of the deceased woman, and tufts of -the white feathers of the albatross were arranged at regular intervals -upon it. - -Even when Mr. Angas saw this beautiful example of Maori art, it was -beginning to decay, the climate being damp, and the natives never -repairing a decaying tomb. It was, of course, strictly tapu. No native -liked to go close to it, and for a slave, or even a free man of -inferior rank, to go within a certain distance of it would have been a -crime punishable with instant death. - -I have much pleasure in presenting on the preceding page an -illustration of this beautiful monument of Maori art, taken from a -drawing made by Mr. Angas in 1844, while the perishable materials of -which the tomb was made were yet in tolerable preservation. Under the -carved and decorated roof may be seen the semicircular coffin in which -the body had been placed, distinguished from the outer portion of the -tomb by the red and white colors with which it was painted, in contrast -to the red and black of the outer portions. The reader will notice -that red is the prevalent color in all tombs, because red is the hue -of mourning as well as of war among the Maories. Immediately under the -eaves of the front may be seen the highly ornamented border of the -kaitaka mat once worn by the deceased, and now left to decay upon her -tomb. - -Round the tomb itself runs a slight and low fence. This palisade, small -as it might appear, afforded ample protection to the tomb, inasmuch as -the whole space within it was rendered sacred by a tapu laid upon it by -Raupahara, so that not even the highest chief would venture to enter -the forbidden enclosure. - -One of the finest specimens of carving in New Zealand--perhaps the -finest in the whole country--is, or rather was, a mausoleum erected by -Te Whero-Whero to his favorite daughter. It was upon the death of this -daughter that Te Whero-Whero gave such dire offence to the other chiefs -by threatening to throw their scalps into his daughter’s grave, for -which offence he had to give up the celebrated armor of E’Hongi by way -of fine. - -The monument was erected in Raroera, formerly one of the largest and -finest pahs in New Zealand, but rendered desolate by the act of the -headstrong and determined chief. He had this wonderful tomb built -for his daughter, and, as soon as her body was placed within it, he -pronounced the whole pah to be tapu. It was at once deserted: old and -young quitted the place, leaving everything behind them, the provisions -to moulder and the weapons to decay. Solid houses that had occupied -many years in building and carving were allowed to fall into mere -shapeless heaps of ruins; and even in 1844 the rank vegetation had so -completely overrun the place that many of the best pieces of native -work were covered by the foliage. - -The tomb is about twelve feet high, and consists of the usual box for -the reception of the body, covered by a projecting roof, which is -supported by pillars. Were it as graceful in form as the monument to -E’ Toki, this would be by far the finest specimen of native art; but -unfortunately it does not possess the bold outline and contrast of the -curve and the straight line which are so characteristic of E’ Toki’s -tomb. - -The elaboration of the carving on this monument is so great that it -almost baffles the skill of the draughtsman. Mr. Angas succeeded -in copying it, and when the drawing was shown to the artist who had -executed the work he was astounded, and pronounced the white man to -be a great tohunga. The roof is supported by pillars, each pillar -consisting of two human figures, the upper standing on the head of -the lower. The upper figure is about seven feet in height, and has a -gigantic head, with an enormous protruding tongue that reaches to the -breast. - -The whole of the tomb is covered with human heads. Exclusive of those -upon the posts, the front alone of the tomb contains fourteen faces, -each differing from the other in expression and pattern of the moko, -but all wearing the same defiant air. Their enormous eyes are made -peculiarly conspicuous by being carved out of haliotis shell, carrying -out on a large scale the plan adopted in the chiefs’ hanis and other -sculptures. The whole of the space between the figures is covered -with the most elaborate arabesques, intertwining with each other in -a bewildering manner, but each running its own boldly curved course. -Between the various pieces that compose this tomb are set bunches and -tufts of white and green feathers, which serve to adorn as well as -disguise the necessary seams of the woodwork. - -This wonderful monument was entirely carved by one man, named Paranui. -He was lame, and in consequence had expended his energies in art, in -which he had so greatly distinguished himself that he took rank as -a tohunga. He was equally celebrated as a tattooer; and it may well -be imagined that a man who could design so extraordinary a piece -of workmanship must be skilful in inventing the endless variety of -patterns needful in the decoration of chief’s faces. In performing this -work, Paranui had but one tool, the head of an old bayonet. - -The loss of such specimens of native art as those which have been -described carries out my former remarks on the necessity for removing -to our own country every memorial of savage life that we can secure. We -inflict no real injury upon the savages, and we secure an invaluable -relic of vanishing customs. These monuments, for example, were simply -carved and then left to decay. Had they been removed to this country, -where they would have been guarded from the power of the elements and -the encroachments of vegetation, we should have seen them in complete -preservation at the present day, and likely to last as long as the -building which contained them. - -Of course the sentimental argument may be pleaded against this view of -the case; but in matters which are of vital importance in the grand -study of anthropology mere sentiment ought to have no place. Neither -has it such place as some often imagine. The savage, finding that the -white man yields to him on this point, is only too glad to find any -vantage ground, and always presses on as fast as the other yields--just -as has been done in India with the question of caste. We cannot measure -their mental sensibilities any more than their physical by our own. A -savage endures with stoicism tortures which would kill an European, -simply because he does not feel them as much. And the mental and -physical sensibilities are very much on a par. - -The Maori is perhaps the finest savage race on the face of the earth, -and yet we cannot think that he is exactly an estimable being, whose -ambition is murder, and whose reward is to eat the body of his victim, -who never does a stroke of work that he can avoid, and who leads a life -of dissipation as far as his capabilities go. Of all savage nations, -the New Zealander displays most sorrow for the loss of a friend or -relation. Tears flow profusely from his eyes, and every tone of his -voice and every gesture of his body convey the impression that he is -borne down by unendurable woe. Yet we have seen that this effusion of -sorrow is mostly premeditated, and merely a conventional mode of acting -required by the etiquette of the country. - -When two people can be bathed in tears, speak only in sobbing accents, -utter heart-rending cries, and sink to the ground as overwhelmed by -grief, we cannot but compassionate their sorrow and admire their -sensibility. But if, in the middle of all these touching demonstrations -of grief, we see them suddenly cease from their sobs and cries, enter -into a little lively conversation, enjoy a hearty laugh, and then -betake themselves afresh to their tears and sobs, we may take the -liberty of doubting their sincerity. - -So with those beautiful houses and monuments that are left to perish -by neglect. The builder did in all probability feel very keenly at the -time, though the feeling of grief seems sometimes to take a curious -turn, and be metamorphosed into vengeance and an excuse for war; but it -is very much to be doubted whether grief for the departed is a feeling -that is really permanent in the savage mind. The Maori chief may lay -his tapu on an entire village when a relative dies, and if, after -the lapse of years, any one be rash enough to invade the forbidden -precincts, he will visit the offence with instant punishment. But it -must be remembered that the infringement of the tapu in question is -not an insult to the dead but to the living, and that when the chief -punishes the offender, he does not avenge an affront offered to his -dead relative, but a direct insult to himself. - -In spite of his sentiment, I think that the Maori might have been -induced to sell such specimens of art, and even if he refused to yield -to such a proposition, he would have respected us none the less if, -when we had captured a pah, we exercised the right of conquest, and -took that which we could not buy. Or even supposing that the first idea -had proved impracticable, and the second unadvisable, it would not -have been very difficult to have induced a native artist to execute a -duplicate which he could sell for a price which would enrich him for -life. - -Such sentiments are, I know, unpopular with the mass of those who only -see the savage at a distance, which certainly, in the case of savage -life, lends the only enchantment to the view that it can possess. But -I believe them to be just and true, and know that the closer is our -acquaintance with savage life, the more reason we have to be thankful -for civilization. The savage knows this himself, and bitterly feels -his inferiority. He hates and fears the white man, but always ends by -trying to imitate him. - -To return to these monuments. In former times they existed in great -numbers, and even in more recent days those which survive are so -characteristic of a style of art that may have taken its rise from -ancient Mexico, that I should have been glad to transfer to these pages -several more of Mr. Angas’ sketches. - - * * * * * - -It will be seen from several of the previous illustrations that -the New Zealanders must possess much skill in architecture. The -observant reader must have remarked that the art of house-building is -practically wanting in Australia; and that such should be the case -is most extraordinary, seeing that architectural skill is singularly -developed among the great Polynesian families. The New Zealander, whose -country has much in common with Australia, is remarkable for the skill -and taste which he displays in architecture; and a short space will -therefore be devoted to this subject. - -As is the case throughout Polynesia in general, the material used in -house-building is wood, and the various pieces of which a house is -composed are fastened together not by nails, but by ropes and strings, -which in many cases are applied in a most elaborate and artistic -manner, beauty being studied not only in the forms of the houses and in -the carved patterns with which they are adorned, but in the complicated -lashings with which they are bound together. As, however, this branch -of ornamental architecture is carried to a greater extent in Fiji than -in New Zealand, I shall reserve the details for the description of the -Fiji Islands. - -The size of some of these edifices is very great. For example, in -1843 the Maori converts built for themselves a place of worship large -enough to contain a thousand persons, and measuring eighty-six feet in -length by forty-two in width. The size of this edifice was evidently -determined by the length of the ridge-pole. This was cut from a single -tree, and was dragged by the natives a distance of three miles. The -cross-lashings of the building were all ornamental, giving to it a -peculiar richness of finish. - -We are, however, chiefly concerned with the domestic architecture -of the Maories. Within each pah or enclosed village are a number of -houses, each representing a family, and separated from each other -by fences, several houses generally standing near each other in one -enclosure. A full-sized house is about forty feet long by twenty -wide, and is built on precisely the same principle as the tombs which -have been just described, the actual house taking the position of the -coffin, and being sheltered from the weather by a gable roof, which -extends far beyond the walls, so as to form a sort of verandah. The -roof is supported on separate posts, and does not, as with ourselves, -rest upon the walls of the house. The roof always projects greatly at -the principal end of the house, in which the door is situated, so that -it forms a sort of shed, under which the members of the family can -shelter themselves from the sun or rain without going into the house. -A genuine New Zealander has a great love for fresh air, and, as we -have seen, will composedly sit for a whole day on the wet ground in a -pouring rain, although a house may be within easy reach. Yet at night, -when he retires to rest, he is equally fond of shutting himself up, and -of excluding every breath of fresh air. - -Indeed, the native does not look upon a house as a place wherein to -live, but merely as a convenient shelter from the elements by day and -a comfortable sleeping-place by night. As soon as evening is near, -a fire is lighted in the middle of the house, which fills it with -smoke, as there is no chimney. The New Zealander, however, seems to -be smoke-proof, and sits composedly in a place which would drive an -European half mad with smarting eyes. Indeed, before the natives become -inured to the acrid vapor, their eyes have much to endure, and it is to -the habit of sitting in the smoke that the bleared look so prevalent in -old people is chiefly due. - -Not only do the natives thus surround themselves with a smoky -atmosphere, but they limit its quantity as well as its quality. The -number of men and women that will pack themselves into one house at -night is almost incredible, each person lying down on a simple mat, -and retaining the same clothes that have been worn during the day. As, -however, the heat becomes excessive, the inmates generally contrive to -throw off their clothing during the night. By daybreak the heat and -closeness are almost stifling to an European, and it is rather an -amusing sight to see a hut give up its inmates on the morning of a cold -day, the whole party being enveloped in steam as they come into the -cold air. - -At the principal end of the house, under the verandah, is the entrance. -This strangely resembles the gate of an Egyptian temple, being made of -three large beams, the two side posts slightly inclining to each other, -and the third laid upon them. The aperture is closed by a sliding door, -and at the side of the door is generally a square window, which can be -closed in the same manner. In some large houses there were two of these -windows, one on either side of the door. - -As the roof is made with a considerable slant, the walls are seldom -more than two or three feet high where the roof touches them, though -in the middle the house is lofty enough. The roof is supported on the -inside by one or two posts, which are always carved elaborately, and -almost invariably have the human figure as one of the ornaments upon -them. The ridge-pole is flattened and boardlike, and in good houses -is carved and painted in patterns, usually of the spiral character. -This board, as well as those which are used in different parts of the -building, is made by hacking the trunk of a tree on both sides, until -it is reduced to the required thickness, the native Maories having no -tool which can answer the purpose of a saw. - -At the end of the ridge-pole, over the door, is carved a distorted -human figure, intended to represent the owner of the house, and -recognized as such by the lines of the moko or tattoo on its face, and -generally having the tongue thrust out to an inordinate extent. - -An illustration on page 877 represents the most celebrated of all Maori -houses, namely, the war house of the ruthless chief Rangihaeta, an -edifice which fully expresses the ferocious character of the builder. -These houses are designed by chiefs in honor of some great victory, -and are surrounded with wooden figures, which either represent in -derision the leading warriors of the enemy who have been killed, or -the victorious chief and his own warriors in the act of defying and -insulting the enemy by thrusting out their tongues at them. This house -bears the ominous name of Kai-tangata, or Eat-man. - -The illustration is taken from a sketch made by Mr. Angas, who -describes the building as follows: “Kai-tangata, or Eat-man House, is -a wooden edifice in the primitive Maori style, of large dimensions, -with the door-posts and the boards forming the portico curiously and -elaborately carved in grotesque shapes, representing human figures, -frequently in the most indecent attitudes. The eyes are inlaid with -pawa shell, and the tattooing of the faces is carefully cut. The -tongues of all these figures are monstrously large, and protrude out -of the mouth, as a mark of defiance toward their enemies who may -approach the house. The whole of the carved work, as well as the wooden -parts of the building, are colored red with _kokowai_, an ochre found -principally on the side of the volcano of Taranaki. - -“The portico or verandah of Rangihaeta’s house is about twelve feet -deep, and the ridge-pole and frame boards of the roof are richly -painted in spiral arabesques of black and red; the margin of each -spiral being dotted with white spots, which add richness to the effect. -The spaces between the woodwork are filled up with variegated reeds, -beautifully arranged with great skill, and fastened together with -strips of flax dyed red, and tied crosswise, so as to present the -appearance of ornamental basketwork. - -“Above the centre of the gable-roofed portico is fixed a large wooden -head, elaborately tattooed, with hair and a beard fastened on, composed -of dogs’ tails. Within the house is a carved image of most hideous -aspect, that supports the ridge-pole of the roof. This is intended to -represent the proprietor, and is said by the natives to be entirely the -work of Rangihaeta’s own hand.” - -This figure, together with the pole that issues from the head, may -be seen in illustration No. 1, on page 809, which represents the -interior of the house. On account of the circumstance recorded in the -beginning of this description, the artist has been unable to draw a -vast number of carvings which decorated this house, so that much of the -extraordinary elaboration is necessarily omitted. - -Rangihaeta displayed his merciless disposition in one of the -unfortunate skirmishes which often took place between the Maories -and the English, and which have afterward been equally regretted by -both parties, the white men having generally offered an unintentional -insult to the natives, and the latter having resented it in the heat of -passion. On this occasion, a number of the white men had been captured -by the Maories under the two chiefs Rangihaeta and Raupahara, who were -related to each other by marriage, the former having married a daughter -of the latter. Some time previously, this woman had been accidentally -killed by a chance shot, which, as a matter of course, her relations -insisted on considering as intentional. - -[Illustration: (1.) RANGIHAETA’S WAR HOUSE. (See page 876.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) INTERIOR OF A PAH OR VILLAGE. (See page 879.)] - -While the prisoners and their capturers were standing together, another -chief named Puatia tried to make peace, saying that the slain on both -sides were about equal. His proposition was accepted, the lately -opposing parties shook hands, and all would have gone well had they -not been joined by Rangihaeta, who had been employing himself in the -congenial task of killing all the wounded. He immediately demanded the -lives of the prisoners, and when Raupahara refused to accede to his -demand, Rangihaeta told him to remember his daughter. The bereaved -chief was silent at this implied reproach, and, before he had time to -collect his thoughts, Rangihaeta glided round the party, getting behind -each of the captives as they stood among the Maories, and killed them -successively with his merai. The ubiquitous land question was at the -bottom of this sad business. - -Houses like the Kai-tangata were formerly common, answering the purpose -of the ancient trophies. A war house nearly as celebrated as that which -has just been described was erected by Puatia, the chief of Otawhao -Pah, in order to commemorate the capture of Maketu on the east coast. -Since Puatia died, the whole of this splendid pah was rendered tapu, -and, in consequence, the buildings within it were given up to decay. -Mr. Angas was fortunate enough to secure a sketch of the war house -before, like the rest of the buildings in the pah, it had entirely -decayed. - -The house itself is perhaps scarcely so neatly made as the Kai-tangata, -but it derives great interest from the number of figures with which -the beams, rafters, and posts are decorated. On either side of the -verandah stand two huge wooden figures, which are intended to represent -two chiefs who fell in battle, but who, as belonging to the victorious -side, are represented with their tongues defiantly menacing the beaten -enemy. - -The figure that supports the central pole represents a chief who was -one of the principal warriors at the capture of Maketu. At the height -of six and ten feet respectively, on the same pole, are carvings which -represent two other warriors, their moko, or tattoo, doing duty for the -whole of the person. Still higher are a couple of figures representing -warriors, the upper figure appearing to stand on the roof itself. -Just within the upper part of the gable is the figure of Pokana, a -warrior who was living at the time when the house was built, and who -is represented with a pipe in his mouth. Around the house are numbers -of similar figures, each representing some well-known individual, -and having a signification which is perfectly well understood by the -natives. - -It was in this ruined pah of Otawhao that the disused wooden war-bell -was found. The former owner, Puatia, was converted to Christianity -before his death, and, while he lay sick within his pah, he had a -school established for the purpose of disseminating Christianity, and -used to call his people round him for the morning and evening prayers. - -It has been mentioned that, owing to the contempt with which the -Maories regard everything that pertains to the preparation of food, -cooking is never carried on in the dwelling-houses. If possible, it -is conducted in the open air; but when the weather is too wet or too -windy, a shed is employed. These cooking sheds are built expressly for -the purpose, and no one with any claims to rank ever enters within -them. Were no shelter but a cooking shed to be found within miles, the -Maori chief would not enter it, no matter how severe the weather might -be. - -The cooking sheds are built very simply, the sides or walls being -purposely made with considerable interstices, so that the wind may pass -freely between them. They are roofed with beams, over which is placed a -thatch of the raupo rush. As, among other articles of diet, the putrid -maize is prepared in these sheds, the European traveller is often glad -to find that the abominable mess will be cooked at a distance from him. - -Some of the larger pahs contain a great number of houses, and several -of them are inhabited by at least two thousand people. Civilization -has at the present day exercised great influence upon the pahs, and -reduced them, as a rule, to fortresses rather than villages. In many -districts the use of the pah has been practically abandoned, those -natives who wish to be at peace devoting themselves to the cultivation -of the ground and living in scattered houses, without caring for the -protection of the fence. - -The illustration No. 2, on page 877, is taken from a sketch by Mr. -Angas, representing the interior of a pah as seen by him in 1844. -One or two of the houses are seen scattered about, adorned with the -grotesque figures of which the Maori is so fond, and having several of -the inmates sitting under the shelter of the deep verandah. Rather in -the background are one or two of the ingenious and beautifully carved -storehouses, in which food is protected from the rats, and on one side -is a great wooden tiki projecting from the ground. Just behind the -large storehouse is seen the curious monument that marks the waki-tapu, -or sacred burial-place of a chief, a half canoe being planted in the -ground and painted with elaborate patterns in red, the color for -mourning and war among the New Zealanders. - -Groups of the natives may be seen scattered about, conspicuous among -whom is the council that is sitting in the foreground, under the -presidency of the seated chief, whose hani, or staff of office, marks -his dignity. A slave woman is seen working at her task of beating -the flax leaves; and wandering promiscuously about the pah, or lying -comfortably asleep, are the pigs, with which every village swarms. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the tools with which the Maori performs all this -wonderful amount of carpentering and carving. - -Looking at the results, we might naturally fancy that the dusky -architect possessed a goodly array of tools; but, in fact, his tools -are as few and simple as his weapons, and may be practically considered -as two, the adze and the chisel. On the next page an example of each -is drawn, the artist having taken care to select the best and most -valuable specimens; the blades being formed from the precious green -jade, and the handles carved elaborately, so as to be worthy of the -valuable material from which the blades are shaped. - -As may be imagined, these tools cannot have very sharp edges given to -them, as the brittleness of the stone would cause it to chip into an -edge like that of a bad saw, and in consequence the worst iron axe is a -far better tool than the best specimen of green stonework that a Maori -ever made. - -At No. 3 may be seen one of the common “tokis,” or stone axes, that -were formerly so much used in building canoes. The specimen from -which it is drawn is in my collection, and I have selected it for -illustration because it gives so excellent an idea of the structure of -the tool, and the mode of fastening the blade to the handle. This is -achieved in a very ingenious manner, and although it scarcely seems -possible to secure the requisite firmness by a mere lashing of string, -the Maori workman has contrived to attach the blade as firmly as if it -had been socketed. - -This mode of fastening the blade to the handle prevails over the -greater part of the Polynesian group, and, although the elaboration of -the lashings varies considerably, the principle is exactly the same -throughout. The same plan prevails even in Borneo, and there is in my -collection a boat-builder’s adze, the iron blade of which is lashed to -the socket in precisely the same manner, the only difference being that -split rattan is employed instead of string. The reader will notice the -peculiar shape of the adze-edge, which is exactly that of the incisor -tooth of any rodent animal. Whether the maker intentionally copied the -tooth is doubtful, but that he has done so is evident. - -Tools such as these are necessarily imperfect; yet with these the -Maories patiently executed the elaborate and really artistic designs -which they once lavished on their dwellings, their canoes, their -weapons, and their tools. They could not even make a walking stick but -they must needs cover it with carvings. There is in my collection, and -illustrated at fig. 4, a remarkably fine example of such a walking -stick, called in the Maori tongue “toko-toko,” which was presented to -me by Stiverd Vores, Esq. As the reader may see from the illustration -it is ornamented with six complete human figures, and a human face on -the knob of the handle. The portions of the stick that come between the -figures are completely covered with carving, and the only plain surface -is that which is intended to be grasped by the hand. - -The six figures are in three pairs, set back to back, and those of each -pair exactly resemble one another. A distinct gradation is observed in -them, the uppermost pair having their faces most elaborately tattooed, -the middle pair being less ornamented, and the lowermost pair having -a comparatively simple tattoo. In the position of the heads there is -also a distinction, which I believe to have some signification known to -the carver. The upper pair have the left hand laid on the breast, and -the right hand pressed to the lips; the middle pair have the left hand -still on the breast, and the right fingers touching the throat; while -the lower figures have both hands clasped on the breast. - -All the figures are separated, except at the backs of the heads, the -hips, and the heels, where they touch each other; so that the labor -expended on this stick has been very great. - - * * * * * - -We now take farewell of this interesting race--a race which is fast -waning away, and will soon perish altogether. No New Zealander will -ever sit on the broken arches of London Bridge, and contemplate -the ruins of St. Paul’s. The Maori is fast disappearing, and in a -comparatively few years it is certain that not a Maori of pure blood -will be found in the islands; and before a century has elapsed, even -the characteristic tattoo will be a remembrance of the past, of which -the only memorials will be the dried heads that have been preserved -in European museums. It is pitiful that such a race should be passing -away; but its decadence cannot be arrested, and in a short time the -Maories will be as completely extinct as the people of the stone age, -leaving nothing but their manufactures as memorials of their existence. -Such memorials, therefore, ought to be sedulously preserved. Every -piece of genuine native carving that can be found in New Zealand ought -to be secured and brought to England, where it can be preserved for -future ages, and, with the isolated specimens that are scattered in -private houses throughout the country, ought to be gathered together in -some central museum, where they can be accessible to all who interest -themselves in the grand science of anthropology. - -[Illustration: (1.) MAORI PADDLES. (See page 854.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) GREEN JADE ADZE AND CHISEL. (See page 880.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) COMMON STONE ADZE. (See page 880.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) TOKO-TOKO. (See page 880.)] - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXVIII. - -NEW CALEDONIA. - - - POSITION AND DIMENSIONS OF NEW CALEDONIA -- APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF - THE NATIVES -- THE DANCING MASK -- NATIVE ARCHITECTURE -- SMOKE AND - MOSQUITOES -- WARFARE -- CURIOUS WEAPONS -- THE SLING AND THE SPEAR - -- MODE OF THROWING THE SPEAR -- THE OUNEP, OR “AMENTUM” OF THE - ANCIENTS -- SHAPE OF THE CLUB -- OBJECTS OF WAR -- CANNIBALISM -- THE - KNIFE AND FORK -- DIET AND COOKERY IN GENERAL -- THE NOUGUI SPIDER -- - MODE OF DRINKING -- CHARACTER OF THE NEW CALEDONIANS -- AN INGENIOUS - THEFT -- THE KATA -- THE ISLE OF PINES, AND ITS INHABITANTS. - -East of Australia is a tolerably large island known by the name of New -Caledonia. It is of no very great extent, but is inhabited by a people -who deserve a short notice in these pages. - -The New Caledonians are nearly black in color, and in general form and -appearance bear some resemblance to the aborigines of Tasmania. They -are, however, better looking, and wear altogether a less savage aspect, -probably on account of the comparatively regular supplies of food which -they can obtain. They are of ordinary stature, but one man was seen -who measured rather more than six feet in height. His form, however, -was ill proportioned. They wear scarcely any dress, the men having -generally a single leaf hanging from their girdles, or at the most a -strip of soft bark answering the purpose of drawers, while the adult -women wear a narrow fringed girdle, which passes several times round -the waist. - -Their hair is woolly and short, but at a distance many of them would -be taken for long-haired people, in consequence of a habit of making -artificial tresses some two feet in length, out of grass and the hair -of a bat. Some of these appendages are so long that they fall to the -middle of the back. Round the head is sometimes tied a small net with -wide meshes, and the chiefs wear an odd sort of a hat. These hats are -cylindrical, and decorated with a large circular ornament at each side, -a plume of feathers at the top, and a long drooping tuft of grass and -hair that hangs down the back. The hat forms no protection to the head, -having no crown to it, and is only used as a mark of rank. - -The natives also make a sort of mask, very ingeniously cut out of -wood, having the mouth open and the eyes closed. The wearer looks, not -through the eyes, but through some apertures which are made in the -upper part of the mask. It is supposed that these masks are employed -in war, when the combatants desire to disguise themselves from their -opponents. This, however, is only a conjecture. I have little doubt -that the wooden mask described and figured by D’Entrecasteaux is -nothing more than an ornament used in the native dances. It is, in -fact, the “momo,” which is described by more recent travellers. When -complete, the “momo” is decorated with plumes of feathers, long tufts -of hair, and a thick, coarse network, which does duty for a beard, and -descends as far as the knees of the wearer. - -A mask made in a precisely similar manner is used by the natives of -Vancouver’s Island, but is employed by them in their dances. One of -these masks is in my collection, and will be described in the course of -the work. - -Ear ornaments of various kinds are in favor among the New Caledonians, -and some, of the natives enlarge the hole in the lobe to such an extent -that it forms a long loop, the end of which falls on the shoulders. -Occasionally, they try the elasticity of the ear too much, and tear it -completely through. Anything seems to be worn in the ears, and when -a New Caledonian cannot find a suitable ornament, he fills up the ear -with a leaf or a roll of bark. They do not tattoo themselves, but draw -black lines across the breast with charcoal, the lines being broad, -and traced diagonally across the breast. Necklaces of various kinds -are worn, and these ornaments bear a certain resemblance to those -of New Guinea, consisting principally of a twisted string, to which -is suspended a shell or piece of bone, carved in a manner which the -natives are pleased to consider as ornamental. - -Although by nature the men possess thick and stiff beards, these -hirsute ornaments are generally removed, the hair being pulled up by -the roots by means of a pair of shells used in lieu of tweezers. - -Architecture among the New Caledonians is infinitely superior to that -of Australia, and in some respects almost equals that of New Zealand. -The houses are conical in shape, and often reach from ten to eleven -feet in height in the middle. - -The principle on which the huts are built is perfectly simple. The -native architect begins by digging a hole in the ground, and planting -in it a stout pole, some fifteen feet in length, and nine or ten inches -in circumference. A number of smaller poles or rafters are set in the -ground around the standard or central pole, their bases being planted -in the earth and their tips leaning against the standard. Smaller -branches are interwoven among the rafters, and the whole is rendered -weather-tight by dried herbage lashed to the walls. - -These simple walls are often several inches in thickness; and as the -natives spread thick mats on the floor, they are well sheltered from -the weather. - -The entrance is very small, never above three feet in height, and on -occasions can be closed with a rude door made of palm branches. Some of -the latter kind of huts have regular door-posts, on which are carved -rude imitations of the human face. A fire is almost always kept burning -inside the hut, not so much for the sake of warmth or for culinary -purposes, as to form a defence against mosquitoes. Smoke, therefore, is -encouraged; and, though it may be the lesser of two evils, it forms a -great drawback to the comfort of Europeans, who can defy the mosquitoes -by their clothes, and can protect themselves at night by means of -curtains. The central post of the house is mostly decorated with -shells, and carved at the top into the shape of a human being. - -Each house is usually surrounded with a fence some four or five feet -in height, and within the hut there is a curious piece of furniture -which gives to the rude habitation quite a civilized look. This is a -wooden shelf, suspended by cords exactly like our hanging bookshelves. -It is hung about four feet from the ground, but as the cords are very -slight, it can support only a trifling weight. The native name for -this shelf is “paite.” - - * * * * * - -We will now proceed from domestic to military life, and devote a small -space to warfare among the New Caledonians. - -It is very remarkable that among these naked and peculiarly savage -cannibals we should find two of the weapons of war which were in -greatest favor among the civilized Romans of the classic times. These -are the sling and the javelin, the latter being cast by a peculiar -arrangement of a thong, so that, in point of fact, the New Caledonian -warrior does not only sling the stone, but the spear also. - -We will take these weapons in order, the sling coming first, as being -the simpler of the two weapons. - -The construction of the sling or “wendat,” as the natives call it, is -very simple, the weapon being merely a doubled thong with a pouch in -the middle, in which the stone is placed. This pouch is made of two -small cords laid side by side, and as the smooth stone might slip out -of it, the slinger always wets the missile in his mouth before placing -it in the pouch. The stones are cut out of a hard kind of steatite, -which can take a good polish. They are oval in shape, and are carefully -ground down by friction, the surface becoming very smooth in the -process. - -Thirty or forty of these stones are kept in a small net, which is -fastened to the left side of the slinger. In illustration No. 1, on -page 893, one of the warriors is seen with his sling in his hand, and -the net filled with stones fastened to his side. When the slinger -wishes to hurl a stone, he does not waste time and strength by whirling -the sling round and round, but merely gives it one half turn in the -air, and discharges the missile with exceeding force and wonderful -accuracy of aim. In consequence of only giving one half turn to the -sling, the stones can be hurled nearly as fast as they can be thrown by -the hand, and the weapon is therefore an exceedingly formidable one in -the open field when fire-arms are not opposed to it. - -We now come to the spear, or rather javelin. - -This weapon is of very great length, some specimens measuring fourteen -or fifteen feet from butt to point; and unless the warrior were able -to supplement the natural strength of his arm by artificial means, he -would not be able to throw the spear more than a few yards. He has -therefore invented an instrument by which he can hurl this long and -unwieldly weapon to a considerable distance. The principle on which -this instrument is formed is identical with that of the Australian -throw-stick, but there is a difference in the application. The -Australian throw-stick is straight, rigid, and is applied to the butt -of the spear, whereas the implement used by the New Caledonian is -flexible, elastic, and applied to a spot a little behind the middle of -the spear. - -This instrument is ingeniously simple. It is nothing more than a -plaited cord or thong made of a mixture of cocoa-nut fibre and -fish-skin. It is a foot or more in length, and is furnished at one end -with a knob, while the other is worked into a loop. This elastic cord -is called by the natives “ounep.” When the warrior desires to throw a -spear, he slips the loop over the forefinger of his right hand, and -allows it to hang in readiness for the spear. As soon as the time comes -for the spear to be thrown, the man balances the weapon for a moment so -as to find the middle, and then casts the end of the thong round it in -a sailor’s half-hitch, drawing it tight with his forefinger. - -As long as pressure is thus kept upon the thong, it retains its hold of -the spear; and as soon as it is released, “the half-hitch” gives way -and allows the spear to free itself. The mode of throwing is therefore -evident. The warrior holds the loop of the thong on his forefinger, -the rest of the hand grasping the spear. As he throws the weapon, he -loosens the hold of his hand, and so hurls the spear by means of the -thong. - -The classical reader will doubtless remember that this thong or “ounep” -is precisely the “amentum” of the ancients, but is actually superior -in its construction and manipulation. The amentum was simply a loop of -cord or leather fastened to the shaft of the javelin just behind the -balance. When the warrior wished to throw a spear, he grasped the shaft -in his hand, inserted his fingers in the loop, and by means of the -additional leverage was able to throw a heavy weapon to a considerable -distance. See, for example, Ovid’s Metamorphoses, xii. 321: - - “Inserit amento digitos, nec plura locutus, - In juvenem torsit jaculum;” - -in English, “He inserted his fingers into the amentum, and, -without saying more, whirled the dart at the youth.” Commentators -have been extremely perplexed about this passage. In the first place -they were rather uncertain as to the meaning of the word “amentum,” -and in the second place, they could not see the force of the word -“torsit,” _i. e._ whirled. The reader will, however, see how perfectly -appropriate is the term, the spear being flung with a whirling movement -as a stone from a sling. The same word is used by Virgil: “Intendunt -acres arcus, amentaque torquent.” Another writer also alludes to this -instrument: - - “Amentum digitis tende prioribus, - Et totis jaculum dinige viribus;” - -_i. e._ “Stretch the amentum with your first fingers, and aim the -javelin with your full strength.” - -Ingenious as was the amentum of the ancients, the ounep is far superior -to it. With the ancients a separate amentum had to be fixed to each -spear, while among the New Caledonians only one ounep is required. - -Besides these weapons, the club is much used, and great ingenuity -is shown in its manufacture. The shape and size of the clubs are -extremely variable, and in some of them the natives have exhibited a -surprising amount of artistic skill, the curves being singularly bold -and flowing. One of these clubs, which is indeed a typical form, is in -my collection. The form of the head is evidently taken from the beak of -a bird, and the curves are exceedingly bold and sweeping. It is rather -more than three feet in length, and it weighs almost exactly two pounds -and a half. - -War is in New Caledonia, as in New Zealand, the chief occupation of the -men. The first lesson that a child receives is fighting, and the idea -is prevalent with him as long as he lives. As soon as he is born, the -boy is consecrated to the god of war, and a hard black stone is laid -on his breast, as a symbol that his heart must be as hard as a stone -in battle. Even the women take a share in the fighting, and, though -they are not actual combatants, they follow their relatives to the -battle, in order to seize the bodies of slain enemies, and drag them -away to the cooking oven. Strife is always fomented by the priests -from interested motives, inasmuch as the hands of the slain are their -perquisites, and among the connoisseurs in cannibalism the palms of the -hands are the most delicate portions of the human body. - -Primarily the New Caledonians are cannibals because they are warriors, -the body of a dead enemy being always supposed to be eaten by the -victors. There is mostly a fight over the body of a fallen warrior, the -one party trying to drag it away to the cooking oven, and the other -endeavoring to save it for burial by themselves. - -As a rule, however, the body is carried off by the women, who have the -task of cooking it. The preparation of the body is quite a ceremonial, -each part of it belonging by right to certain individuals, and even the -carving being regulated by strict rules. A peculiar kind of knife is -made of flat serpentine stone, oval in form, and about seven inches in -length. Two holes are bored on one side of it, by means of which it is -fastened to a wooden handle. This knife is called “nbouet.” - -With the nbouet the body is opened, and the whole of the intestines are -torn out by means of a fork made expressly for the purpose. This fork -is composed of two human armbones placed side by side, about an inch -apart, and fastened tightly together. They are sharply pointed, and are -very effectual instruments for the purpose. Sometimes the bodies are -cut up for cooking, but in many cases they are baked entire, the women -priding themselves in serving them up in a sitting posture, furnished -and dressed in full war costume. - -Thus, then, we see that cannibalism is connected with warfare; but -unfortunately it is not restricted to war. When Captain D’Entrecasteaux -went in search of _La Pérouse_, one of the natives was eating a -newly-roasted piece of meat. The naturalist to the expedition -immediately recognized it as being part of the body of a child. The man -who was eating it did not attempt to deny the fact, but even pointed -out on the body of a little boy the part of the body which he was -eating, and gave his hearers to understand that the flesh of children -was very good. - -This cannibalism of New Caledonia explained some curious gestures -which the natives were fond of making. They used to be very familiar -with their white visitors, feeling their arms and legs, looking at -each other with admiration, and then whistling and smacking their lips -loudly. In point of fact, they were admiring the well-fed limbs of the -white men, and anticipating to each other the delights of a feast upon -the plump Europeans. - -As, however, flesh is but a luxury among the New Caledonians, and -cannot be considered as an ordinary article of diet, the natives -depend chiefly for their existence on vegetable food. Roots of various -kinds are eaten by them, as well as cocoa-nut and other fruit; all the -cooking, as well as the work in general, being performed by the women. -Shell-fish are also much eaten, and are procured by the women. The -large clam-shell is found on the shores of the island, and supplies -abundance of food; while the smaller molluscs are mostly dug out of the -sand by women, who frequently spend half a day up to their waists in -water. - -Two very strange articles of diet are in use among the New Caledonians. -The first is a sort of spider, which spins large and thick nets in the -woods, often incommoding travellers by the number and strength of the -silken cords. They are not eaten raw, but cooked by being placed in a -covered earthen jar, which is set on a brisk fire. The natives call -the spider by the name of “nougui.” It is gray above, the back being -covered with a fine silvery down, and below it is black. - -The second article of diet is clay, of which the natives will consume a -great amount. The earth in question is a soft greenish steatite, which -crumbles very easily, and has the property of distending the stomach, -and so allays the cravings of hunger, even though it does not nourish -the body. A well-distended stomach is one of the great luxuries of a -savage, and, in accordance with this idea, a man was seen to eat a -piece of steatite twice as large as his fist, even though he had just -taken a full meal. Some of the natives have been known to eat as much -as two pounds of this substance. A similar propensity is found both in -Africa and America. - -When they drink at a pool or river, they have an odd fashion of dipping -the water with their hands, and flinging it into their mouths, so that -much more water is splashed over their heads than enters their mouths. - -With regard to the bodies of those who fall in war, and are rescued -from the enemy, many ceremonies are employed. According to Captain -Head, in his “Voyage of the _Fawn_” they are “brought home with loud -lamentations, and buried with great wailing and shrieking from the -appointed mourners, who remain unclean often for several years after -burying a great chief, and are subject to many strict observances. -For weeks they continue nightly to waken the forest echoes with their -cries. After ten days have elapsed, the grave is opened, and the -head twisted off; and, again in this custom resembling the Andaman -islanders, the teeth are distributed as relics among the relatives, and -the skull preserved as a memorial by the nearest kin, who daily goes -through the form of offering it food. - -“The only exceptions are in the case of the remains of old women, whose -teeth are sown in the yam patches as a charm to produce good crops; -their skulls set up upon poles being deemed equally potent in this -respect.” - -The general character of the New Caledonians seems to be tolerably -good, and, in spite of their evident longing after the flesh of their -visitors, they are not on the whole inhospitable. They are clever -thieves, and are ingenious in robbery by means of an accomplice. On -one occasion, when a native was offering for sale a basket full of -sling-stones, and was chaffering about the price, an accomplice came -quietly behind the white man and uttered a loud yell in his ears. -Naturally startled, he looked behind him, and in a moment the man with -whom he was trading snatched away the basket and the goods offered in -exchange, and ran away with them. - -One of the officers was robbed of his cap and sword in an equally -ingenious manner. He had seated himself on the ground, and for better -security had placed his sword under him. Suddenly one of the natives -snatched off his cap, and as he instinctively rose to rescue it, -another man picked up his sword and escaped with it. They even tried to -steal a ship’s boat, together with the property in it, and would not -leave it until they were attacked by a strong body of armed sailors. - -They make very good canoes--as, indeed, is generally the case with -islanders. The largest canoes are mostly double, two boats being -placed alongside of each other, and connected by a platform. They -have a single mast, which is stepped toward one end of the compound -vessel, and can sail with considerable swiftness, though they are -not so manageable as those of New Guinea, some of which are marvels -of boat-building. They can accommodate a considerable number of -passengers, and have generally a fire burning on the platform, which is -protected from the heat by a thick layer of earth. - -A rather remarkable custom prevails among them, which derives its chief -interest from the fact that it is practised in Northern Asia. This -is the Kata, or scarf of felicity. It is a little scarf, of white or -red material; and when two persons meet they exchange their katas--a -ceremony which is analogous to shaking hands among ourselves. - -Whether these savages are the aborigines of the island is doubtful. -If they be so, they seem to have declined from the comparative -civilization of their ancestors. This, indeed, is their own opinion; -and, in support of this theory, they point to the ruins which are still -to be seen, and which tell of architecture far beyond the power of the -present natives. There are even the remains of an aqueduct eight miles -in length, a piece of engineering which would never have entered the -head of the New Caledonian of the present day. Perhaps these works of -art may have been constructed by immigrants, who have since left them -to perish; but, in any case, their presence in such a spot is most -remarkable. - - -THE ISLE OF PINES. - -Some thirty miles to the south-east of New Caledonia, and in fact -forming part of the same group, there is a small island, called by -Captain Cook the Isle of Pines, in consequence of the number of -araucarias with which its hills are covered. The strait between the -Isle of Pines and New Caledonia proper is nearly all shoal water, -caused by the numerous coral reefs. - -In many respects the inhabitants of this island resemble those of New -Caledonia. They are not, however, so dark, and their features are -tolerably good. They are cannibals from choice, wrapping up the bodies -of the dead in banana leaves, and then cooking them in ovens. Some -years ago, they contrived to indulge their taste for human flesh at the -expense of their neighbors. - -About 1840, it was found that sandal wood grew on the island, and -several vessels proceeded thither for the sake of procuring this -valuable product. At first they did so with great risk, and lost many -of their men from the onslaughts of the natives. Afterward, however, a -Sydney merchant set up an establishment for the collecting and storing -of sandal wood and bêches-de-mer, and since that time the natives have -become quite peaceable. - -In course of this transitional time between utter barbarism and -commerce, they learned by painful experience the power of fire-arms. As -soon as they became accustomed to trade, the first thing that they did -was to procure a large stock of fire-arms and to go off with them to -New Caledonia, where they landed, shot as many of the natives as they -could, and brought their bodies home for consumption. It is true that a -constant feud raged between the two islands, but the sudden acquisition -of fire-arms gave the people of the Isle of Pines a terrible advantage -over their hereditary foes, and enabled them almost to depopulate the -south-eastern part of the island. - -They care no more for dress than the New Caledonians, but are very -fond of ornament, the men appropriating all the best decorations, and -leaving the women to take what they can get. The men friz their hair -out as much as possible, and wrap a thin scarf round it, or sometimes -cut it short, leaving only a tuft on one side of the head. The women -shave off the whole of the hair, thus depriving themselves of their -natural ornament, and rendering themselves very unprepossessing to -European eyes. The rough work is done by them, the men reserving to -themselves the noble occupations of war, fishing, house building, and -canoe making, the only real work which they do being yam planting, -after the ground has been prepared by the women. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXXIX. - -THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. - - - POSITION OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS -- ORIGIN OF THE NATIVES -- THEIR - ROVING HABITS AND LACK OF CLOTHING -- THEIR HATRED OF STRANGERS - -- THE NATIVES AND THE STEAMER -- APPEARANCE OF THE WOMEN -- THE - ENORMOUS BOW AND SKILL OF THE MINCOPIE ARCHERS -- VARIOUS MODES OF - FISHING -- EXCELLENCE OF THEIR CANOES, AND MODE OF MAKING THEM -- - THE LONG PADDLES -- THE SHIP’S CREW BEATEN BY THE MINCOPIE CANOE MEN - -- CANNIBALISM NOT PRACTISED IN THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS -- INGENIOUS - FIREPLACES AND METHOD OF COOKING -- WANT OF ARCHITECTURAL SKILL -- - EDUCATION OF THE CHILDREN, AND THEIR GAMES -- POWERS OF SWIMMING -- - MATRIMONIAL ARRANGEMENTS -- DEATH AND BURIAL -- THE NICOBAR ISLANDS - -- APPEARANCE AND COSTUME OF THE INHABITANTS -- THE CROSS-BOW AND ITS - ARROW -- A PRIMITIVE HAMMOCK -- TOMBS IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS. - -We will now pass to the westward, and travel gradually through the -wonderful group of islands which extends almost from Asia to America, -and which is known by the general title of Polynesia. One or two of -them will have to be omitted for the present, so as not to break the -continuity of races, but will be described before we pass upward -through America, from Tierra del Fuego to the Esquimaux. - - * * * * * - -In the Bay of Bengal, and not much to the eastward of India, is seen -a group of islands, named the Andamans. They are of considerable -length, but very narrow, seldom exceeding twenty miles in breadth, and -are arranged very much after the fashion of the New Zealand islands, -though on a smaller scale. These islands exhibit a phenomenon almost -unparalleled in the history of the human race. - -They lie close to India, a country in which a high state of -civilization has been reached many centuries ago. They are almost in -the middle of the track which is traversed by multitudes of ships, -and yet their inhabitants are sunk in the deepest depths of savage -degradation. Even the regular visits made by the Chinese vessels to the -Andaman coasts, for the purpose of procuring the trepang, have had not -the least effect upon them; and they afford perhaps the most perfect -example of savage life which the surface of the earth can show. - -The origin of the Andamaners is a problem to anthropologists. They are -small in stature, the men being on an average but little above five -feet in height, and the women being still smaller. They are very dark, -but have scarcely anything except their color in common with the negro. -They have neither the huge projecting jaws and cavernous mouth of the -true negro, nor his curiously elongated heel; and though they are so -small as almost to merit the name of pigmies, they are perfectly well -formed. The hair, when it is allowed to grow, is seen to be thick and -bushy, and resembles that of the Papuans; and it is the opinion of -many competent judges that the Andamaners are the aborigines of the -Papuan race, who have never permitted contact with strangers, and have -preserved their own individuality intact. - -In habits they are absolutely savage, their arts being limited to the -manufacture of canoes and weapons, architecture and agriculture being -equally unknown. They possess one of the chief characteristics of -savage life in their roving disposition, never remaining long in one -spot, a stay of three or four days being considered a long visit to -any place. They have no laws, no religion, and no tribal distinctions. -Marriage, as we understand the word, is unknown to them; and there -seems to be few restrictions of consanguinity, a mother and her -daughter being sometimes the wives of the same husband. - -Clothing is entirely unknown to them; and when captives have been -taken, they have always found clothes to be an incumbrance to them, -though they were pleased with gaudy handkerchiefs tied round their -heads. The only covering which they care for is one which they share in -common with many of the pachydermatous animals, and employ for the same -purpose. It is nothing more than a layer of mud, with which the natives -plaster themselves in the morning and evening, in order to defend -themselves from the attacks of the mosquitoes, sandflies, and other -insect plagues. - -Until the last few years our knowledge of the Andamaners has been -almost _nil_, in consequence of their hatred of strangers, and the -determined opposition which they offer to any foreigners landing on -their shores. The very presence of a boat or a ship seems to excite -them to frenzy. In Captain Mouatt’s valuable account of these islands -is an animated description of a scene which occurred off the coast. - -The steamer, on rounding a point, came suddenly upon two groups of -savages, who were at first paralyzed by fear at the sudden apparition -of the unknown object, with its columns of white steam roaring from -the escape-pipe, its smoke, and its plashing paddles. In a few moments -they recovered from their surprise, and raised a simultaneous shout of -defiance. Two boats’ crews were sent ashore, to the extreme anger of -the Mincopies. - -“A peculiar natural phenomenon rendered the scene still more striking -and impressive as the interval between the two parties, the savage and -the civilized, was gradually diminished by the onward motion of the -boats. The spray as it rose in clouds from the breakers dashing on the -shore, reflecting the rays of the declining sun, magnified considerably -the slight figures of the natives, making massive and formidable -giants of men who were in reality little more than sable dwarfs. As -the cutters neared that part of the shore where they had stationed -themselves, and they clearly perceived that we were making preparations -to land, their excitement was such that they appeared as if they had -suddenly become frantic. - -“They seemed to lose that restraint and control which it is the pride -of the savage to exhibit in time of danger, and jumped and yelled like -so many demons let loose from the bottomless pit, or as if there had -been a Bedlam in that locality, and they the most unmanageable of its -frantic inmates. Their manner was that of men determined and formidable -in the midst of all their excitement. They brandished their bows in our -direction; they menaced us with their arrows, said by common report--so -often a liar--to be poisoned; exhibiting by every possible contortion -of savage pantomime their hostile determination. To use a common -vulgar expression of some of the seamen, they seemed to have made up -their minds to ‘chaw us all up.’... - -“The spear which he flourished incessantly was terminated by a bright, -flat, pointed head, which gleamed with flashes of light, as, circling -rapidly in the air, it reflected the rays of the sun. Sometimes he -would hold it aloft, poising it in his uplifted hand, as if with the -intention of hurling it with unerring and deadly aim at the first who -dared to approach the shore of his native island. At length, in a -paroxysm of well-acted fury, he dashed boldly into the water, boiling -and seething round him as it broke in great billows on the beach, and -on the rocks by which it was defended, and, fixing an arrow in his bow, -he shot it off in the direction of the steamer, as if that were the -arch enemy that had provoked his bellicose fury.” - -The second party of natives, who turned out to be females, were as -frightened as their male friends were angry. After several failures -in launching a canoe, they rushed in a body to the jungle and hid -themselves from the strangers. They exhibited the usual characteristics -of the people, a basket for fish doing duty for clothes, and a patch of -red ochre on their heads taking the place of hair. So repulsive were -they in their appearance, that the sailors declined to leave mirrors -on the shore as presents for them, saying that such hideous creatures -ought not to be allowed to look at their own features. - -The weapons with which the Mincopie men threatened the strangers are -really formidable, and before very long the exploring party learned to -hold them in great respect. The bows are sometimes six feet long and -enormously powerful,--so powerful in fact that the strongest sailors -tried in vain to bend the weapons which the pigmy Mincopies handled -with such skilful ease. - -The shape of the bow is very peculiar. Instead of being nearly -cylindrical, largest in the middle and tapering regularly to each -end, it is nearly flat except at the handle, on either side of which -it becomes very broad. In fact, a good idea of it may be taken from a -flattened hour-glass, the channel in the middle being the handle. - -The force and accuracy with which these tiny men can shoot are really -wonderful. They very seldom fail to hit their mark at any reasonable -distance, and can make tolerably sure of a man at sixty or seventy -yards, so that the Mincopie bow is really a far better weapon than the -old “Brown Bess” musket ever was. One arrow that was shot at a boat’s -crew at a distance of sixty yards struck a hickory oar, and knocked off -a piece of wood as large as a man’s hand. - -These arrows are very neatly made. They are about three feet in -length, and are made of a reed by way of shaft, to the end of which is -fastened a piece of hard wood in order to give weight. Upon this tip is -fixed the head, which is usually the barbed tail bone of the sting-ray, -and sometimes, though not always, poisoned. Should this terrible weapon -enter the body, it cannot be removed without a severe operation, the -sharp brittle barbs being apt to snap off and remain in the wound if -any force be used in extracting the arrow. - -Their consummate skill in the use of the bow is obtained by constant -practice from earliest infancy. As is the assagai to the Kaffir, the -boomerang to the Australian, and the lasso to the Gaucho, so is the bow -to the Andamaner. The first plaything that a Mincopie boy sees is a -miniature bow made for him by his father, and, as he advances in age, -bows of progressive strength are placed in his hands. Consequently, he -is so familiarized with the weapon that, by the time he is of full age, -the pigmy Andamaner draws with graceful ease a bow which seems made for -a giant. - -Numbers of the toy bows and arrows may be seen scattered about an -encampment if the natives are forced to leave it in a hurry, and their -various sizes show the ages of the children to whom they belonged. The -education of the Mincopie archer is in fact almost precisely like that -of the old English bowmen, who, from constant practice in the art, and -being trained from childhood in the use of the bow, obtained such a -mastery of the weapon as made them the terror of Europe. - -Being such skilful archers, they trust almost entirely to the bow and -arrow, caring little for any other weapon. Even the harpoon, with which -they catch the larger fish, is shot from the powerful bow. It is, in -fact, a very large arrow, with a moveable head. This head fits loosely -into a hole at the end of the arrow, and is secured to the shaft by -a thong. It is a very remarkable fact that the bow and harpoon arrow -of the Mincopies are almost exactly like those which are used by the -inhabitants of Vancouver’s Island. They are twice as large, but in -shape almost identical, as will be seen when we come to the North of -America. - -When they use the harpoon, a long and elastic cord is attached to it, -one end of which is retained by the archer. The cord is made from a -fibre which has the useful property of hardening by being soaked in -water. For killing the fish when held with the harpoon the Mincopies -use smaller arrows, without barbs or movable heads. - -The Mincopies are very expert fishermen, and use nets which are made -from the same fibre that has been mentioned. For small fish they make -the nets of rather thin but very tough string, but for turtle and -large fish they make nets of cord as thick as a man’s finger. One side -of the net is held to the bed of the sea by heavy stones laid on it, -and the other is upheld by floats. - -The women search for molluscs, a business which occupies a considerable -part of their time. They always carry neat baskets, in which to put the -results of their industry, and each woman has generally a small net -fixed to a handle, like that which is used by butterfly collectors. - -In nothing do the Andamaners show their superior skill more than -in canoe making. Their bows and arrows are, as we have seen, good -specimens of savage manufacture, but in the making and management of -canoes they are simply unapproachable, even though their tools are of -the rudest possible description. - -Furnished merely with a simple adze made of a stone fixed into a -handle, the Mincopie boat maker searches the forest for a suitable -tree, and after a week or ten days succeeds in bringing it to the -ground. The rest of the process is so well described by Captain Mouatt, -that it must be given in his own words. - -“The next operation is to round the trunk, a process which they perform -with remarkable dexterity, it being almost impossible to conceive how, -with the imperfect instruments at their command, they execute their -work with so much skill and neatness. Practice, however, must render -them, as well as others, perfect; and hence it is that in a short time -the rough and shapeless trunk begins to assume form and proportions; -and, when the process is finished, exhibits a finish and perfection -that even a Chinese carpenter, by far the most handy and ingenious -of human ‘chips,’ would regard with a feeling of envy, as a work of -dexterity which it would be vain for him to attempt to imitate. - -“As soon as the trunk has been rounded, they commence the operation of -cutting and chipping at it externally, until eventually the outlines -of the elegant canoe begin to appear from the shapeless mass of the -knotted trunk, just as, by the skill of the statuary, the beautiful -figure gradually assumes its fair proportions in the block of marble. -The shape externally is generally finished with great care and -elaboration before they proceed to hollow it internally, the next -process to which they direct their attention. The interior is excavated -in the same perfect and business-like manner, until the shell is no -thicker than the side of a deal bonnet-box, although it still preserves -that strength which would enable it to resist successfully the utmost -force and violence of the waves, should it even be assailed by a -storm--a thing not at all probable, as, unless carried out to sea by -some accident, it is rare that the Andamaners venture far from the -shore. - -“The buoyancy of these boats, when they are well constructed and -carefully finished, is remarkable. They float lightly on the top of the -waves, and, unless they have received some injury, it is considered -almost impossible to sink them. We sometimes made the attempt, but -never succeeded. We fired at them repeatedly when at Port Mouatt--which -may be regarded as a sort of Andaman Pembroke-yard, where a fleet of -Mincopie men-of-war were lying in every stage of preparation--but they -still floated with as great ease and buoyancy as ever. They would -make excellent life-boats, such, we believe, as have never yet been -constructed by any of our most experienced boat-builders.” - -Near shore the boatmen paddle about with perfect ease in these fragile -vessels, though an European can hardly proceed twenty yards without -being upset. When they go further to sea they add a light outrigger -to one side of the canoe, and then venture forty or fifty miles from -land. They always, in such cases, take fire with them, which has the -double advantage of attracting the fish at night, and of cooking them -when taken. Sometimes a number of boats will remain all night at sea, -and the effect of their fires and torches is very picturesque when seen -from the land. - -The outrigger is certainly a new invention. The earlier travellers, -who were always minute enough in their accounts, did not mention the -outrigger, and, as far as can be seen, the idea has been borrowed from -some Cingalese canoe which had got into a current and been drifted -toward the island. - -The paddles are rather peculiar in their form, and, apparently, very -ineffective, looking something like long spoons with flattened bowls, -or, on a smaller scale, the “peels” with which bakers take bread out of -their ovens. The women are the paddle makers, and the implements vary -from three to four feet long. They are cut from a very hard wood, and -the work of making them is necessarily laborious. - -Imperfect as the canoe and paddles seem to be, they are in fact -absolute marvels of efficiency. The tiny Mincopies, furnished with -these simple paddles, and seated in a canoe cut by themselves out of -a tree trunk, can beat with ease our best oarsmen. Captain Mouatt got -up several races between the Mincopies and his own prize crew in their -favorite boat. In point of fact there was never any race at all, the -Andamaners having it all their own way, and winning as they liked. The -powerful, sweeping stroke of the man-of-war’s crew was beautiful to -see, but the little Mincopies shot through, or rather over, the water -with such speed that the sailors were hopelessly beaten, although -they strained themselves so much that they felt the results of their -exertions for some time afterward. - -Slight, and almost as active as monkeys, the Mincopies ascend the -tallest trees with the like agility, applying the soles of their feet -and the palms of their hands to the trunk, and literally running up -them. When they reach the branches, they traverse them with as much -ease and security as if they were on firm land. Indeed, their powers of -tree climbing seem to be equal to those of the inhabitants of Dourga -Strait, of whom an account will presently be given. - -We now come to a question which has often been agitated, namely, the -asserted cannibalism of the Andamaners. - -It is a question that every observant reader would be sure to ask -himself, as the Andamaners are just such a savage race as might be -expected to feed habitually on human bodies. Yet, though we find the -comparatively civilized New Zealander sharing with the savage New -Caledonian the habit of eating human flesh, the Mincopie, who is -infinitely below the New Zealander, and certainly not above the New -Caledonian, is free from that revolting practice. He undoubtedly has -been known to eat human flesh, but only when urged by extreme hunger -to eat the flesh of man or to die; and in so doing he has but set -an example which has been followed by members of the most civilized -countries. - -That they are fierce and cruel toward foreigners is true enough, and it -is also true that the bodies of those whom they have killed have been -found frightfully mutilated, the flesh being almost pounded from the -bones by the blows which have been showered upon the senseless clay in -the blind fury of the savage. But no attempt has been made to remove -any part of the body, and it was evident that the victors had not even -entertained the idea of eating it. - -The food of the Andamaners is tolerably varied, and is prepared in -a very simple and ingenious oven. A large tree is selected for this -purpose, and fire is applied to it at the bottom, so that by degrees a -large hole is burned in it, the charred wood being scraped away so as -to form eventually a large hole. This is the Mincopie oven, and at the -bottom a heap of ashes, about three feet in depth, is always left. The -fire smoulders away gradually among the ashes, and never entirely goes -out; so that whenever a native wishes to cook his pig, turtle, or fish, -he has only to blow up the smouldering embers, and in a few moments he -has fire sufficient for his purposes. - -These oven-trees are very carefully preserved, the natives never -cutting them down, and always managing to prevent them from being -entirely burned through. In illustration No. 2, on the 893d page, one -of these trees is shown, with the fire burning in the hollow, and the -natives sitting round it. The Mincopies always contrive to have the -opening of the oven in such a direction that the rain cannot get into -it and put out the fire. - -Pigs have been mentioned as forming part of the Andamaners’ food. -These pigs are small and black, with spare, hard bristles, that look -like pieces of wire. They are wonderfully active, and, according to -Captain Mouatt, “are the most curious and mischievous little animals -in creation. They have a leer that makes them look like so many -Mephistopheles, who have chosen to assume that peculiar form, in many -respects a very appropriate one, for, if they are not so many little -devils, they are certainly possessed by them. - -“At the time of our visit to the Cinque Islands, we turned out a dozen -of them, and, our unwonted appearance filling them with alarm, they ran -off from us with the velocity of an Indian express train, squeaking -like mad. We set off and had a regular hunt after them--a hunt that -beats to chalks the most exciting scene of pig-sticking ever seen in -Bengal. After discharging their rifles, some of the hunters would -probably find the pigs between their legs, making them measure their -length on the sand. The falls were made with considerable violence, -though they were not dangerous, for they only excited our risible -faculties; and as each one came down he was greeted with a loud and -hearty burst of laughter, as a sort of congratulation to him in his -misfortune.” - -The architecture of the Andamaners is very primitive. Four posts are -stuck in the ground in the form of a square, and the builder is quite -indifferent as to their straightness. Two of them are much longer -than the others, so that when they are connected by sticks, a sloping -roof is formed. Palm leaves are then placed upon them, one lying -over the other in tile fashion, so that they form a protection from -perpendicularly falling rain. A number of these huts are generally -erected in a circle, in some cleared space in the forest, which is -sheltered by large trees, and within a convenient distance of water. -One or two of these simple houses may be seen in the illustration. - -Primitive as are these huts, some attempt is made at ornamenting them, -the decorations being characteristically the trophies of the chase. -Skulls of pigs and turtles, bundles of fish-bones, and similar articles -are painted with stripes of red ochre, and hung to the roofs off the -huts. Ochre painting, indeed, seems to be the only idea that the -Andamaners have of ornament, if perhaps we except a string which the -dandies tie round the waist, having a piece of bone or other glittering -article hanging from it. - -This ochre is in great request among the Mincopies, the women being -especially fond of it by way of a decoration of their heads. As has -already been mentioned, they shave the head completely, using, instead -of a razor, a piece of flint chipped very thin, and having a sharp -edge. They are wonderfully adroit at making these primitive knives, -which are exactly like those of the stone age. The hair having been -scraped off, a tolerably thick plastering of red ochre is rubbed on the -head, and the toilet of a Mincopie belle is complete. - -Not only is the ochre used for external application, but it is -administered internally. What is good for the outside, the Mincopie -logically thinks will be equally good for the inside. So, when he feels -ill, he makes a sort of bolus of red ochre and turtle oil, swallows it, -and thinks that he has cured himself. Wounds are dressed by binding -certain leaves upon them, and in many cases of internal pains, bruises, -or swellings, scarification is freely used. Certain individuals enjoy -a sort of reputation for success in the treatment of disease, and are -much honored by the less skilful. - -It has already been mentioned that marriage is nothing more than taking -a female slave. - -When a wife becomes a mother, the only treatment which she receives -is, that after the birth of her child she is plentifully rubbed with -the red ochre and turtle oil, and is expected to follow her usual -occupations on the next day. The young child is soused with cold water, -poured out of one of the great bamboo vessels which the Mincopies use, -and is dried by rubbing with the hand. Like its parent, the child wears -no clothing; but if the party should be on their travels, and rain -begin to fall, the mother pulls a few leaves from the next tree, ties -them together with a fibre of rattan, and fastens them on the body of -the child. This is the only clothing which an Andamaner ever wears. - -Children are never weaned, but continue to take their childish -nourishment until the mother is absolutely incapable of affording it. -Both parents redeem much of their savage nature by their affection -for their children, the father being quite as loving a parent as the -mother--a trait which is often absent among savage tribes. The children -reciprocate the affection, so that, in spite of the absence of any -definite home, there is a domestic character about the family which -could scarcely have been expected from such a race. - -It has been already mentioned that the boys amuse themselves chiefly -with small bows and arrows, having these toys of a continually -increasing size to suit their growth. The girls are fond of disporting -themselves by the sea-shore, and building sand houses for the waves to -knock down, precisely as is done by the civilized children of Europe -and America. Their great amusement is to build an enclosure with walls -of sand, and to sit in it as if it were a house of their own until -the rising tide washes away the frail walls. Both sexes are fond of -swimming, and as soon as they can walk the little black children are -seen running into and out of the water, and, if they can pick some -sheltered spot free from waves, they dive and swim like so many ducks. -A Hindoo, named Pooteeah, who was taken prisoner by the Mincopies, and -his life spared for some reason or other, states that they are such -excellent swimmers that several of them will dive together among the -rocks, search for fish in the crevices, and bring their struggling -captives to shore. This statement was discredited by those to whom -it was made, as were several other of his accounts. As, however, -subsequent observations showed that he was right in many of the -statements which were at first disbelieved, it is possible that he was -right in this case also. - -[Illustration: (1.) NEW CALEDONIANS DEFENDING THEIR COAST. (See page -884.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) ANDAMANERS COOKING A PIG. (See page 892.)] - -This man, by the way, was furnished with two wives, mother and -daughter, and, as he was above the ordinary size, Captain Mouatt -expresses some curiosity as to the appearance of the progeny. He made -his escape from the island before the birth of a child that one of his -wives was expecting, and, as the Mincopie mothers are remarkable for -their affection toward their children, it is likely that the little -half-caste was allowed to live, and that a new element may thus be -introduced into the race. - -They have more than once made use of their swimming powers in escaping -from captivity. Several instances have been known where Andamaners have -been kept prisoners on board ship, and have seemed tolerably reconciled -to their lot. As soon, however, as the ship neared land, they contrived -to escape for a moment from the eye of the sentry, slipped overboard, -and swam to land. They always dived as soon as they struck the water, -swam as far as they could without rising to the surface, and then, -after taking a single respiration, dived again, and so swam the -greater part of the distance under water. This mode of swimming was -doubtless practised by them when trying to escape from the arrows of an -unfriendly party. - -In Captain Syme’s “Embassy to Ava” there is a curious account of two -young Mincopie girls who had been decoyed on board the ship. They -were treated very kindly, and soon learned that no harm would be -done to them. “They suffered clothes to be put on, but took them off -again as soon as opportunity offered, and threw them away as useless -encumbrances. When their fears were over, they became cheerful, -chattered with freedom, and were inexpressibly diverted at the sight of -their own persons in a mirror. - -“They were fond of singing, sometimes in a melancholy recitative, at -others in a lively key; and often danced about the deck with great -agility, slapping the lower part of their bodies with the back of their -heels. Wine and spirituous liquors were disagreeable to them; no food -seemed so palatable as fish, rice, and sugar. In a few weeks, having -recovered strength and become fat, from the more than half-famished -state in which they were brought on board, they began to think -confinement irksome, and longed to regain their native freedom. - -“In the middle of the night, when all but the watchman were asleep, -they passed in silence into the Captain’s cabin, jumped out of the -stern windows into the sea, and swam to an island half a mile distant, -where it was in vain to pursue them, had there been any such intention; -but the object was to retain them by kindness, and not by compulsion, -an attempt that has failed on every trial. Hunger may (and these -instances are rare) induce them to put themselves into the power of -strangers; but the moment that their want is satisfied nothing short -of coercion can prevent them from returning to a way of life more -congenial to their savage nature.” - -Like many other savage races, the Mincopies make a kind of festivity on -each new moon; and as soon as the thin crescent appears they salute it -after their odd fashion, and get up a dance. Their dances are rather -grotesque, each performer jumping up and down, and kicking himself -violently with the sole of his foot, so as to produce a smart slapping -sound. This is the dance which is mentioned in the preceding account of -the two captives. - -When a Mincopie dies, he is buried in a very simple manner. No -lamentations are made at the time; but the body is tied in a sitting -position, with the head on the knees, much after the fashion employed -among the Bechuanas, and described on page 300. It is then buried, -and allowed to decay, when the remains are dug up, and the bones -distributed among the relatives. The skull is the right of the widow, -who ties it to a cord and hangs it round her neck, where it remains -for the rest of her life. This outward observance is, however, all -that is required of her, and is the only way in which she troubles -herself to be faithful to the memory of her dead husband. It is rather -strange that, though the Andamaners make no lamentations on the death -of a relative, they do not altogether dispense with these expressions -of sorrow, but postpone them to the exhumation and distribution of the -relics, when each one who gets a bone howls over it for some time in -honor of the dead. - - -THE NICOBAR ISLANDS. - -Immediately to the south of the Andaman Islands, and barely thirty -miles distant, lie the NICOBAR ISLANDS. The group consists of nine -tolerably large islands, and several of much smaller size. One of the -large islands, called Great Nicobar, is twenty miles long by eight -wide, while Little Nicobar is barely half these dimensions. - -The islands are singularly fertile, and abound in various kinds of -vegetation, especially in the cocoa-nut palm, not a specimen of -which is to be found in the Andaman Islands. This curious fact is -accounted for by the character of the Andamaners, who have an almost -superstitious love for the cocoa-nut. If one of the nuts be washed -ashore, it is always broken up and eaten; and if perchance one of the -fruit happens to escape the sharp eyes of the natives and to germinate, -its green feathery shoots are sure to attract the attention of the -first Mincopie who passes in that direction. A similar barrier to the -production of the cocoa-nut is found on the coast of Australia. - -Although so close to the Andaman Islands, the inhabitants of Nicobar -are very unlike the Mincopies, being a fine tall race, and of a copper -rather than a black hue. Unlike the Mincopies, the men are very fat, -especially about the breast, so that at a little distance they might -easily be mistaken for women. Moreover, they wear the hair long, and -parted in the middle, which to the eyes of a modern European, gives -them a peculiar effeminate look. They wear neither beard nor moustache, -their features are ugly, and their large mouths are stained a dark red -from the juice of the betel-nut, which they are continually chewing. - -There is one distinction, however, which is apparent at a considerable -distance. In lieu of clothes, the men wear a strip of cloth, never more -than two inches wide. This is passed round the waist, under the legs in -front, and tucked through itself behind, the end being left as long as -possible. The men place great value on the length of this tail, and he -is the best dressed man who wears it the longest. Some of the wealthy -among them have the tail dragging along the ground for several feet, -like an European lady’s train. If possible, this tail is made of blue -cloth, an article that is held in very high estimation by the natives. - -The women are quite as ill-favored as the men, and increase their -natural ugliness by shaving off all their hair. They do not wear tails -like the men, but have a plaited grass girdle, from which depends a -soft fibrous fringe about a foot in depth. - -The character of the Nicobarians is far gentler than that of the -Mincopies, the latter being proverbially fierce and cruel toward -strangers, and the former soon learning to welcome foreigners when -they have made up their minds that no harm is intended them. Captain -Campbell, to whom I am indebted for most of the information respecting -these natives, found them very agreeable and hospitable, ready to -barter, and always welcoming him to their houses. - -After a short time, even the women and children, who had at first -been scrupulously concealed, after the manner of savages, came boldly -forward, and were as hospitable as the men. On one occasion, while -paying a visit to one of their huts, Captain Campbell tried to make -friends with one of the children, all of whom were terribly frightened -at the white face of their visitor. Finding that no response was made -to his advances, he pulled the child from his hiding-place, and held -him for a little time, in spite of his struggles. The mother made no -opposition, but laughed heartily at the skirmish, evidently feeling -that no harm was intended toward her little one. - -The native weapons of the Nicobarians are very curious. As the people -are not of a warlike character like the Mincopies, their weapons are -used almost exclusively for killing game. The most formidable is a -tolerably large spear headed with iron, which is used for killing -hogs, and is thrown like the assagai of Southern Africa. They have -also a smaller javelin for fish-killing, and a number of many-pointed -hand-spears for the same purpose. The most remarkable of their weapons -is a cross-bow, which is almost exactly like that of the Fan tribe of -Africa. It is not very powerful, and only propels a small arrow. Its -chief use is in killing birds. - -Besides these weapons, every man carries a cutlass-blade from which the -hilt has been removed, and a handle roughly made by wrapping some six -inches of the butt with cocoa-nut fibre. It is intended not so much as -a weapon as a tool, and with it the natives cut down trees, carve their -canoes, and perform similar operations. - -The architecture of the Nicobarians is infinitely superior to that of -the Mincopies, and is precisely similar in character to that which is -found among the inhabitants of New Guinea, the home of the Papuan race. - -The native architect begins by fixing a number of posts in the ground, -and erecting on them a platform of split bamboo. Over this platform -he builds a roof shaped exactly like a beehive, and his house is then -complete. The bamboo platform is the floor of the hut, and, being -elastic as well as firm, serves also for a bed. To this hut the native -ascends by a primitive sort of ladder, and passes into the chamber -through a hole cut in the floor. The sides of the hut are adorned with -the skulls of hogs, intermixed with spears, knives, bows, and arrows. -The huts are kept peculiarly neat and clean. - -A rather remarkable use is made of the hut. The open space between the -floor and the ground is far too valuable not to be utilized, as it -affords a cool and airy shelter from the sunbeams. Under this floor is -suspended a primitive sort of hammock, which is a board about six feet -in length, slung by ropes. In, or rather on, this very uncomfortable -hammock the Nicobarian likes to lounge away his time, dozing throughout -the hot hours of the day, sipping palm wine at intervals, and smoking -without cessation. In fact, we seem to have got again among the -inhabitants of Western Africa, so similar is the character of the -Nicobarian to that of the negro. The “Scene in the Nicobar Islands,” -represented on the 903d page, shows the personal appearance of the -Nicobarians and their style of architecture. - -The canoes of the Nicobarians are not so beautifully formed as those -of the Mincopies, but are constructed on the same principle, being -hollowed out of the trunks of trees, and supported by a slight -outrigger. They have a very high and ornamental prow, and are propelled -by short paddles. They are very light, and, when properly manned, skim -over the water at an astonishing pace. Some of them are nearly sixty -feet in length, while others are barely six or seven feet long, and -only intended for one person. - -The mode of burial is not in the least like that which is employed -among the Mincopies. When a man dies, the body is placed in a coffin, -which is generally made from a canoe. The canoe is cut in half, the -body being laid in one moiety, and covered with the other half. In -order to supply the deceased with provisions for his journey to the -spirit-land, a pig is killed and placed in the coffin, together with -a supply of yams and cocoa-nuts. In case he should be attacked on his -journey, a quantity of weapons, such as bows, spears, and cutlasses, -are placed in the coffin. - -The body is buried in the middle of the village, and the spot marked by -a stick, to which is attached a small streamer. After some time, when -the body has been consumed by the earth, the coffin is dug up again. -The deceased being now supposed to have completed his journey to his -spirit-home, his bones are thrown into the bush, and the cutlasses and -other weapons distributed among his relatives. - - - - -CHAPTER XC. - -NEW GUINEA. - - - THE HOME OF THE PAPUAN RACE -- DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF THE RACE - -- DERIVATION OF THE NAME -- GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE PAPUANS -- - THE SIGN OF PEACE -- AN UNFORTUNATE MISUNDERSTANDING -- DRESS AND - ORNAMENTS OF THE TRIBES OF DOURGA STRAIT -- THEIR AGILITY AMONG THE - TREES -- THE OUTANATA TRIBES -- TATTOOING AND ORNAMENTS -- ELABORATE - ARCHITECTURE -- WEAPONS -- THE DUST SIGNALS AND THEIR MEANING -- - THEIR UNSUSPICIOUS NATURE -- ABRAUW, THE CHIEF. - -We now come to the very home and centre of the Papuan race. - -New Guinea is a very large island, fourteen hundred miles in length, -and, as far as has been ascertained, containing some two hundred -thousand geographical square miles. It is separated from Australia only -by Torres Strait, and, as we have seen, a certain amount of intercourse -has taken place between the Papuans of the south of New Guinea and the -natives who inhabit the north of Australia. Fertile in the vegetable -kingdom, it possesses one or two animals which have the greatest -interest for the naturalist, such as the tree-kangaroo, the crowned -pigeon, and the bird of paradise. It is equally interesting to the -ethnologist as being the home of the Papuan race. - -Taken as a race, they are very fine examples of savage humanity, -tall, well-shaped, and powerful. They are remarkable for two physical -peculiarities. The one is a roughness of the skin, and the other is the -growth of the hair. The reader may remember that some of the tribes of -Southern Africa have the hair of the head growing in regular tufts or -patches, each about the size of a pea. - -It is a remarkable fact that, in the Papuan race, the hair grows in -similar patches, but, instead of being short like that of the South -African, it grows to a considerable length, sometimes measuring -eighteen inches from root to tip. The Papuans are very proud of this -natural ornament, and therefore will seldom cut it off; but as, if -left untrained, it would fall over the eyes, they have various modes -of dressing it, but in most cases manage to make it stand out at right -angles from the head. Sometimes they take the hair of each patch -separately and screw it up into a ringlet. Sometimes they tease out -all the hairs with a wooden comb of four or five prongs, and, as the -hair is very coarse and stiff, it is soon induced to assume a mop-like -shape, and to increase the apparent size of the head to an enormous -extent. - -Indeed, the word Papua is derived from this peculiarity of the hair. In -the Malay language, the word which signifies “crisped” is _pua-pua_, -which is easily contracted into _pa-pua_. Even the hair of the face -grows in similar patches, and so does that on the breast of the man, -and in the latter case the tufts are much further apart than on the -head or face. - -The color of the Papuans is a very dark chocolate, sometimes inclining -to black, but having nothing in common with the deep shining black of -the negro. Their features are large and tolerably well made, though the -nose is very broad at the wings, and the lips wide. The nose, however, -is not flat like that of the negro, but is prominent, rather arched, -and descends so low that when seen in front the tip nearly reaches the -upper lip. The natives seem to be perfectly aware of this peculiarity, -and perpetuate it in their carvings. - -Although taken as a whole, they are a fine race, there are many -diversities among the different tribes, and they may be divided -into the large and small tribes. The former are powerfully built, -but more remarkable for strength than symmetry--broad-breasted and -deep-chested, but with legs not equal in strength to the upper parts of -the body. - -Their character has been variously given, some travellers describing -them as gentle and hospitable, while others decry them as fierce and -treacherous. Suspicious of strangers they certainly are, and with -good reason, having suffered much from the ships that visited their -coasts. A misunderstanding may soon arise between savage and civilized -people, especially when neither understands the language of the other. -An example of such a misunderstanding is given by Mr. Earle in his -valuable work on the native races of the Indian Archipelago. Lieutenant -Modera, an officer in the Dutch navy, embarked with several other -gentlemen in the ship’s boat, for the purpose of landing on the shore -of Dourga Strait, a passage between the mainland and Frederick Henry -Island. - -“When the boat had proceeded to within a musket-shot distance from -them, the natives, who were armed with bows, arrows, and lances, -commenced making singular gestures with their arms and legs. The -native interpreter called out to them in a language partly composed of -Ceramese, and partly of a dialect spoken by a Papuan tribe dwelling -a little further to the north; but his words were evidently quite -unintelligible to them, as they only answered with loud and wild yells. -We endeavored, for a long time without success, to induce them to lay -aside their weapons, but at length one of them was prevailed upon to do -so, and the others followed his example, on which we also laid down our -arms, keeping them, however, at hand. - -“We now slowly approached each other, and the interpreter, dipping -his hand into the sea, sprinkled some of the water over the crown of -his head as a sign of peaceful intentions. This custom seems to be -general among all the Papuan tribes, and in most cases their peaceful -intentions may be depended upon after having entered into this silent -compact. - -“This they seemed to understand, for two of them immediately did the -same, on which the interpreter jumped into the shallow water, and -approached them with some looking-glasses and strings of beads, which -were received with loud laughter and yells. They now began dancing -in the water, making the interpreter join, and the party was soon -increased by other natives from the woods, who were attracted by the -presents. Mr. Hagenholtz also jumped into the shallow water and joined -in the dance, and they soon became so friendly as to come close round -the boat; indeed some of them were even induced to get in.” - -Meanwhile their confidence increased, and they began to barter with -their visitors, exchanging their ornaments, and even their weapons, -for beads, mirrors, and cloth. They were very inquisitive about the -strange objects which they saw in the boat, and, although they handled -everything freely, did not attempt to steal. One of them took up a -loaded pistol, but laid it down at once when the owner said it was -tapu, or forbidden. Unfortunately, a misunderstanding then took place, -which destroyed all the amicable feeling which had been established. - -“While all this was going on, they kept drawing the boat--unperceived, -as they thought--toward the beach, which determined us to return, as -our stock of presents was exhausted, and there seemed no probability -of our inducing any of them to go on board with us. Shortly before -this, Mr. Boers had ornamented a Papuan with a string of beads, who, on -receiving it, joined two of his countrymen that were standing a little -distance off with the arms that had been laid aside, but which they had -been gradually getting together again--a proceeding we had observed, -but, trusting in the mutual confidence that had been established, we -did not much heed it. - -“At the moment in which we were setting off the boat to return on -board, this man fixed an arrow in his bow, and took aim at Mr. Boers, -who was sitting in the fore part of the boat, on which the latter -turned aside to take up his gun, but before he could do so he received -the arrow in his left thigh, which knocked him over, shouting, ‘Fire! -fire! I am hit!’ as he fell. The order was scarcely given before every -one had hold of his arms (which, as before stated, were kept at hand), -and a general discharge put the natives to flight, swimming and diving -like ducks. - -“Before they took to flight, however, they discharged several more -arrows at our people, one of which struck Mr. Hagenholtz in the -right knee, another hit a sailor in the leg, while a third pierced a -sailor’s hat and remained sticking in it; and lastly, a Javanese had -the handkerchief shot off his head, but without receiving any personal -injury.” - -Three of the natives were severely wounded, if not killed, in this -unfortunate affair, which evidently arose, as Mr. Earle points out, -from misunderstanding, and not from deliberate treachery. Seeing the -boats being pulled toward the ships while four of their companions were -on board, they probably thought that they were being carried off as -captives, as has so often been done along their coast by the slavers. -They could not be expected to understand the difference between one -white man and another, and evidently mistook the Dutch sailors for -slavers, who had come for the purpose of inveigling them into the -ships, where they could not be rescued. - -The tribes of this part of the coast are not agreeable specimens of the -Papuan race. They are barely of the middle size, and lightly built. -Their skin is decidedly black, and they ornament their bodies with red -ochre, paying especial attention to their faces, which are made as -scarlet as ochre can make them. The hair is deep black, and is worn in -various ways. Most of the men plait it in a number of tresses, which -fall nearly on the shoulders, while others confine it all into two -tails, and several were seen with a curious headdress of rushes, the -ends of which were firmly plaited among the hair. They are a dirty set -of people, and are subject to diseases of the skin, which give them a -very repulsive appearance. - -Dress is not used by the men, who, however, wear plenty of ornaments. -They mostly have a belt made of plaited leaves or rushes, about five -inches wide, and so long that, when tied together behind, the ends -hang down for a foot or so. Some of them adorn this belt with a large -white shell, placed exactly in the middle. Earrings of plaited rattan, -necklaces, and bracelets, were worn by nearly all. Some of them had a -very ingenious armlet, several inches in width. It was made of plaited -rattan, and fitted so tightly to the limb that, when a native wished -to take it off for sale, he was obliged to smear his arm with mud, and -have the ornament drawn off by another person. - -Their principal weapons are bows, arrows, and spears, the latter being -sometimes tipped with the long and sharp claw of the tree-kangaroo. - -The agility of these Papuans is really astonishing. Along the water’s -edge there run wide belts of mangroves, which extend for many miles in -length with scarcely a break in them. The ground is a thick, deep, and -soft mud, from which the mangrove-roots spring in such numbers that no -one could pass through them even at low water without the constant use -of an axe, while at high water all passage is utterly impossible. - -As the natives, who are essentially maritime in their mode of life, -have to cross this belt several times daily in passing from their -canoes to their houses, and vice versa, they prefer doing so by means -of the upper branches, among which they run and leap, by constant -practice from childhood, as easily as monkeys. (See p. 909.) There is -really nothing extraordinary in this mode of progress, which can be -learned by Europeans in a short time, although they never can hope to -attain the graceful ease with which the naked savages pass among the -boughs. In some places the mangroves grow so closely together that to -traverse them is a matter of perfect ease, and Mr. Earle remarks that -he once saw a file of marines, with shouldered arms, making their way -thus over a mangrove swamp. - -The familiarity of these people with the trees causes them to look upon -a tree as a natural fortress, and as soon as explorers succeeded in -reaching the villages, the natives invariably made off, and climbed -into the trees that surrounded the villages. - -Wild and savage as they are, the Papuans of Dourga Strait display some -acquaintance with the luxuries of civilized life and are inordinately -fond of tobacco, the one luxury that is common to the highest and -lowest races of mankind. - -Some travellers have stated that these Papuans are cannibals, and it is -certain that their gestures often favor such an opinion. - -The Papuans of Dourga Strait are admirable canoe men, and paddle with -singular skill and power. They always stand while paddling, a plan -whereby they obtain a great increase of power, though perhaps at the -expense of muscular exertion. They give as their chief reason for -preferring the erect position, that it enables them to detect turtle -better than if they were sitting, and to watch them as they dive under -water after being wounded. - - * * * * * - -Skirting the coast of New Guinea and proceeding northward from Dourga -Strait, we come to the OUTANATA River, at the embouchure of which is -a tribe that differs much from those natives which have already been -described. They are a finer and taller set of men than those of Dourga -Strait, and seem to have preserved many of their customs intact since -the time when Captain Cook visited them. Their skin is a very dark -brown, and is described as having a bluish tinge, and they are said -to rub themselves with some aromatic substance which causes them to -diffuse an agreeable odor. - -It is probable that the bluish gloss may be due to the same aromatic -substance with which the body is perfumed. Mr. Earle thinks that the -odoriferous material in question is the bark of the tree called the -“rosamala.” - -The blue tinge is never seen among Papuan slaves, and this circumstance -adds force to Mr. Earle’s conjecture. - -The features are rather large, especially the mouth, and the lips -are thick. The custom of filing the teeth to a sharp point prevails -among this tribe, but is not universal. The eyes are small, and the -septum of the nose is always pierced so as to carry a piece of white -bone, a boar’s tusk, or some similar ornament. The hair is thick, and, -instead of being trained into long tails like that of the Dourga Strait -natives, it is plaited from the forehead to the crown. - -The men wear scarcely any real dress, many of them being entirely -naked, and none of them wearing more than a small piece of bark or -a strip of coarse cloth made either of cocoa-nut fibre or of split -bamboo. They are, however, exceedingly fond of ornament, and have all -the savage love of tattooing, or rather scarifying, the body, which is -done in a way that reminds the observer of the same process among the -Australians. The scarifications project above the skin to the thickness -of a finger, and the natives say that this effect is produced by first -cutting deeply into the flesh, and then applying heat to the wounds. -Anklets, bracelets, and other articles of savage finery are common, and -a man who does not wear an inch of clothing will pride himself on his -boar’s teeth necklace, his bracelets of woven rattan, and his peaked -rush cap. - -The women always wear some amount of clothing, however small, the very -fact of possessing apparel of any kind being conventionally accepted as -constituting raiment. Their solitary garment consists of a small apron, -about six inches square, made from the cocoa-nut fibre. - -It is rather remarkable that these people have the same habit of -placing their new-born children in hot sand, as has already been -described when treating of the now extinct Tasmanians. When the mother -goes about her work, she carries the child by means of a sort of sling -made of leaves or the bark of a tree. - -The architecture of the Outanatas is far superior to that of their -brethren of Dourga Strait. One of these houses, described by Lieutenant -Modera, was at least a hundred feet in length, though it was only five -feet high and six wide, so that a man could not stand upright in it. -There were nineteen doors to this curious building, which was at first -mistaken for a row of separate huts. The floor is covered with white -sand, and the inhabitants generally seat themselves on mats. Each of -these doors seemed to be appropriated to a single family, and near the -doors were placed the different fireplaces. Over the roof a fishing net -had been spread to dry in the sun, while a number of weapons were hung -under the roof. - -This house was built in a few days by the women and girls, and was -placed near a much larger building, which had been raised on piles. - -The weapons of the Outanatas are spears, clubs, and the usual bow and -arrows, which form the staple of Polynesian arms. - -The bows are about five feet in length, and are furnished with a string -sometimes made of bamboo and sometimes of rattan. The arrows are about -four feet in length, and made of cane or reed, to the end of which -is attached a piece of hard wood, generally that of the betel-tree. -The tips are mostly simple, the wood being scraped to a sharp point -and hardened in the fire, but the more ambitious weapons are armed -with barbs, and furnished with a point made of bone. The teeth of -the sawfish are often employed for this purpose, and a few of the -arrows are tipped with the kangaroo claw, as already mentioned in the -description of the Dourga Strait spear. - -Beside these weapons, the natives carry a sort of axe made of stone -lashed to a wooden handle, but this ought rather to be considered as -a tool than a weapon, although it can be used in the latter capacity. -With this simple instrument the Outanatas cut down the trees, shape -them into canoes, and perform the various pieces of carpentering that -are required in architecture. - -The most remarkable part of an Outanata’s equipment is an instrument -which greatly perplexed the earlier voyagers, and led them to believe -that these natives were acquainted with fire-arms. Captain Cook, who -visited New Guinea in 1770, mentions that as soon as he reached the -shore and had left his boat, three natives, or “Indians,” as he calls -them, rushed out of the wood, and that one of them threw out of his -hand something which “flew on one side of him and burnt exactly like -powder, but made no report.” The two others hurled their spears at the -travellers, who were in self-defence obliged to use their fire-arms. - -Not wishing to come to an engagement, they retired to the boat, and -reached it just in time, the natives appearing in considerable force. -“As soon as we were aboard, we rowed abreast of them, and their number -then appeared to be between sixty and a hundred. We took a view of -them at our leisure. They made much the same appearance as the New -Hollanders, being nearly of the same stature, and having their hair -short-cropped. Like them they also were all stark naked, but we thought -the color of their skin was not quite so dark; this, however, might be -merely the effect of their being not quite so dirty. - -“All this time they were shouting defiance, and letting off their fires -by four or five at a time. What those fires were, or for what purpose -intended, we could not imagine. Those who discharged them had in their -hands a short piece of stick--possibly a hollow cane--which they swung -sideways from them, and we immediately saw fire and smoke, exactly -resembling those of a musket, and of no longer duration. This wonderful -phenomenon was observed from the ship, and the deception was so great -that the people on board thought they had firearms; and in the boat, if -we had not been so near that we must have heard the report, we should -have thought they had been firing volleys.” - -The reader will doubtless remark here that the travellers were so -accustomed to associate fire with smoke that they believed themselves -to have seen flashes of fire as well as wreaths of smoke issue from -the strange weapon. Many years afterward, Lieutenant Modera contrived -to see and handle some of these implements, and found that they were -simply hollow bamboos, filled with a mixture of sand and wood-ashes, -which could be flung like smoke-wreaths from the tubes. The Outanatas, -their weapons, canoes and the remarkable instrument just described, -are illustrated on the following page. - -Some persons have thought that the natives used these tubes in -imitation of firearms, but the interpreters gave it as their opinion -that they were employed as signals, the direction of the dust cloud -being indicative of the intention of the thrower. Others say that -the tubes are really weapons, made for the purpose of blinding their -adversaries by flinging sand in their eyes. I cannot agree with this -last suggestion, because the other weapons of the Outanatas show that -the natives do not fight hand to hand like the New Zealanders. I think -that the interpreters were right in their statement that the tubes are -used for signalling, and this supposition is strengthened by the fact -that the natives of Australia do use smoke for the same purpose, as has -already been described. - -The canoes of the Outanatas are often of considerable size, measuring -fifty or sixty feet, and, although narrow in proportion to their -length from stem to stern, containing a great number of men. They are -handsomely carved and adorned with paint, and both ends are flat and -broad. The rowers stand up when they use their paddles, which are -necessarily of considerable length, having long handles and oval blades -slightly hollowed. The narrowness of these canoes strengthens the -opinion of several travellers, that the Outanatas are really an inland -tribe, descending the river in flotillas, and returning to their inland -home when the object of their expedition is accomplished. - -They seem to be less suspicious than their countrymen of Dourga Strait, -and have no hesitation in meeting Europeans and exchanging their own -manufactures for cloth, knives, and glass bottles, the last mentioned -objects being always favorite articles of barter with Polynesian -savages, who employ them when entire for holding liquids, and, if they -should unfortunately be broken, use the fragments for knives, lancets, -points of weapons, and similar purposes. Lieutenant Modera describes -the appearance of one of their flotillas as representing a perfect -fair, the boats being laid closely together, and their decks crowded -with natives laden with articles for barter. - -Unlike the Dourga Strait natives, those of the Outanata River had -no objection to come on board the European ships, and visited the -vessels in great numbers. Even their principal chief came on board -frequently. On the first occasion he disguised his rank, and merely -came as an ordinary native, but he afterward avowed himself, and came -freely on board in his own character. For convenience’ sake he called -himself Abrauw, _i. e._ Abraham, a name by which he was well known for -a considerable distance. He offered no objection to going below and -entering the Captain’s cabin, though his subjects were rather uneasy at -his absence, and shouted his name so perseveringly that he was obliged -every now and then to put his head out of the cabin window. He had all -the regal power of concealing astonishment, and witnessed with utter -imperturbability the discharge of firearms, the ticking of watches, -and examples of similar marvels. He did, however, display a little -interest in the musketry practice, which was directed at a succession -of bottles, slung from the yard-arm, but whether he was struck with the -accuracy of aim or with the needless destruction of valuable bottles is -doubtful. - -He seemed to be worthy of his position as chief, and was desirous of -establishing an European settlement near the mouth of the Outanata. -Unfortunately, the river, although a noble stream, has a sandbar across -the mouth which effectually prevents vessels of even light draught from -passing except at high water. The people in general were wonderfully -honest, not displaying the thievish propensities which cause the visits -of many savage tribes to be so troublesome. They even brought on board -articles which had been accidentally left on shore. They probably -owe much of their superiority to their connection with the Malay -Mohammedans, many of whom visit New Guinea as traders. - -[Illustration: (1.) A SCENE IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS. (See page 897.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE OUTANATAS AND THEIR WEAPONS. (See page 902.)] - - - - -CHAPTER XCI. - -NEW GUINEA--_Concluded_. - - - THE ALFOËRS OR HARAFORAS -- VARIOUS REPORTS RESPECTING THEM -- - THEIR MODE OF GOVERNMENT -- AN ALFOËRIAN DIVORCE COURT -- TREPANG - COLLECTING -- DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY -- FUNERAL RITES -- TRIBES OF - THE SOUTH-EASTERN COAST -- A QUAINT DRUMMER -- DRESS AND ORNAMENT - -- THE TATTOO -- THE FULL-DRESS PETTICOAT -- HAIR-DRESSING -- - EXCELLENCE OF THEIR CANOES -- AN INGENIOUS SAIL -- HOW TO STOP A - LEAK -- THE PIG-PET -- ARCHITECTURE -- DEFENCE AGAINST VERMIN -- - HOUSES OF REDSCAR BAY -- DREAD OF STEEL -- TRIBES OF THE NORTH-WEST - COAST -- THEIR CANOES -- MODES OF FISHING -- AQUATIC HOUSES -- MODE - OF GOVERNMENT -- APPOINTMENT OF A NEW CHIEF -- NEW GUINEA WEDDINGS - -- THE KARWAR, OR HOUSEHOLD GOD -- THE WAR-DANCE -- CEREMONIES AT - FUNERALS. - -We must here give a short space to some tribes called by various -names, such as Haraforas, Alfouras, and Alfoërs, and supposed by -many ethnologists to be a separate family living in New Guinea and -the neighboring islands, but as distinct from the generality of the -inhabitants as the Bosjesman of Southern Africa are from the Kaffir. - -This theory, however, has now been shown to be untenable, and it is now -known that the word Alfoërs, or Alfouras, is applied by the tribes of -the coast to those who live in the interior. The word has a Portuguese -origin, and as Mr. Earle remarks, is applied to the mountaineers of -the interior, just as the Spaniards called the aborigines of America -“Indians,” and the Mohammedan inhabitants of Salee and Mindano “Moros,” -or “Moors.” - -Most of the accounts that have been received of the Alfoërs are not at -all to be trusted. They have been described as peculiarly disgusting -and repulsive, ferocious, gloomy, living in the depths of the forest, -and murdering all strangers who came in their way. In fact, they have a -worse reputation than the Andamaners. It has been ascertained, however, -that these evil reports have originated from the coast tribes, who have -a very strong objection to allow foreigners to penetrate inland. - -The reason is obvious. The visits of the traders are exceedingly -valuable, furnishing all kinds of tools, weapons and ornaments, which -constitute the wealth of the savage. The natives, having purchased -these with articles which to themselves are comparatively valueless, -can sell their superabundance to the inland Alfoërs, and make an -enormous profit on their bargain. If the white men were allowed to go -inland and trade directly with the natives, their profitable traffic -would be broken up. - -As far as can be ascertained, the Alfoërs are in much the same state as -were the Outanatas before they were visited by traders. Those who were -seen were remarkable for a certain stupidity of aspect, a taciturnness -of disposition, and a slowness of movement, which are not found among -the Outanatas. As, however, they were slaves, it is more than likely -that these characteristics were the result of servitude. - -Subsequently some discoveries were made among the Alfoërs, which -entirely contradicted the reports of the coast tribes. They are -certainly rough in their manners, and if they take a dislike to a -foreigner, or if he should perchance offend any of their prejudices, -they eject him from the district with more speed than ceremony; taking -care, however, not to inflict personal damage, and refraining from -confiscating his property. - -As far as can be ascertained from the slight intercourse which has -been held with these tribes, there is no regular form of government, -the elders deciding disputes, and their decisions being respected. -They are an honest set of people, paying the greatest regard to the -rights of property; and being so scrupulous in this respect, that if -any one should even enter the house of an absent man he is called to -account, and made to pay a fine to the owner of the house. A similar -law exists with regard to the women. If a man should even touch, though -accidentally, the wife of another, he makes himself liable to a fine. - -A curious example of this regulation is mentioned by Lieutenant Kolff. -A man set out in his canoe to fish, intending to return in a week; but -being caught by contrary winds, he was driven away from his own part of -the coast, and was detained two months. Unfortunately he had only left -at home provisions for a week, and his wife, finding herself without -food, asked a neighbor to provide it for her. This he did, and as, day -after day, nothing was heard of the husband, the woman transferred her -affections and herself to the neighbor who had assisted her, and the -pair went off to another island. - -After two months had elapsed the husband came back, and, not finding -his wife, demanded her from her brothers, who were then bound to -produce her. They set off in search of the guilty couple, discovered -them, and brought them back, when the injured husband demanded an -enormous sum by way of fine. The man said that he could not possibly -pay such a sum if he were to work for the rest of his lifetime. The -affair was eventually brought before the elders, who decided that -the husband had done wrong in leaving his wife so ill provided for, -and that if he had supplied her with a sufficiency of provisions the -acquaintance between herself and her paramour would probably have been -avoided. So they decreed that the man should pay a small fine, and -advised the husband to leave plenty of provisions at home when he next -went out fishing. - -The principal object for which the natives make these expeditions is -the trepang, or sea-slug (_Holothuria_), which is in great demand in -China, and is purchased by traders from the natives for the Chinese -market. It is chiefly by means of the trepang that a man procures a -wife. As is the case among many savage tribes, a wife can only be -obtained by purchase, so that daughters are quite as valuable to their -parents as sons. With the Alfoërs, the marriage present must always -consist of foreign valuables, such as elephants’ tusks, gongs, China -dishes, cloth, and similar objects. These are obtained by exchanging -trepang with the traders. - -When, therefore, a young man wants a wife, and has settled the amount -of the marriage portion with the father, he goes off for a year on a -hunting expedition. He takes a canoe, and sails from island to island, -catching as much trepang as possible, and begging from all those whom -he visits. At the end of the year he returns home, knowing that by -means of the protective law his house and property will be perfectly -safe, and presents himself to the father of the girl with the goods -which he has obtained. It is seldom that he is able to make up the -entire amount at once, but he is allowed to pay by instalments. - -Property cannot be inherited, owing to a peculiar custom. As soon -as any one dies, his relations assemble, gather together all his -valuables, break them to pieces, and throw the fragments away. Even -the precious brass gongs are thus broken, the survivors thinking that -no one may use anything belonging to the dead. Large heaps of broken -china, ivory, and metal are found on the outskirts of villages that -have existed for any long time, showing that many deaths must have -occurred within its limits. - -The rest of the funeral ceremonies are curious, and are worthy of a -brief description. - -When death is ascertained, notice is sent to all the relatives of the -deceased, who often are scattered widely apart, so that several days -usually elapse before they can all assemble. The body meanwhile is kept -sprinkled with lime, in order to retard decay as much as possible, and -aromatic resins are burned in the house to counteract any ill odor. -As the relatives come, they take their places in the house, and begin -drinking. Before the traders supplied them with arrack, they had a -fermented liquor made by themselves from fruit. They always offer the -deceased a share of everything, putting a little food into the mouth -of the dead person, and pouring a little liquid between the senseless -lips. Meanwhile the women utter loud lamentations, gongs are beaten, -and a stunning uproar is kept up until the time of the funeral. - -When the relatives have all assembled, a bier is provided, covered with -cloth, the quantity and quality of which accord with the wealth of the -deceased; and the body is then brought out in front of the house, and -supported in a sitting position against a post. The villagers then -assemble, and a general feast takes place, a share of which is offered -to the deceased as before. Finding that he will neither eat nor drink, -in spite of the solicitations of his friends and companions, the body -is carried into the woods, where it is placed on a platform erected on -four feet. - -This being done, the concluding ceremony is left to the women. They -remove all their clothing, and then plant by the side of the platform -a young sapling; this ceremony being called the “casting away of the -body,” and considered as a symbol that the deceased has done with his -body, and thrown it from him. - - * * * * * - -Passing more to the eastward of New Guinea, we come to some interesting -nations inhabiting Brumer’s Island, and the neighborhood. These islands -are situate about lat. 10° 45´ S. and lon. 150° 23´ E. - -Living as they do on a number of small islands, the largest being -rather less than three miles in width, the natives are necessarily -maritime, passing from one island to another in their admirably -contrived vessels. They are accustomed to the visits of ships, and -boldly put off to meet them, taking no weapons, except for sale, and -displaying the greatest confidence in their visitors. - -One of these natives caused great amusement by his imitation of the -ship’s drummer. Some one gave him a large tin can, which he, being a -musical genius, immediately converted into a drum. At first he merely -pounded it with his hands, but when the ship’s drummer was sent into -the chains, and began to play upon his instrument, the man watched -him for a little time, and then began to imitate him in the most -ludicrous manner, his antics and grimaces being especially provocative -of laughter. The effect of his buffoonery was heightened by the manner -in which he had adorned his face. He had blackened his naturally dark -features with charcoal, and had drawn a streak of white paint over each -eyebrow, and another under the chin to the cheekbones. - -The mode of salutation is rather ludicrous to a stranger, as it -consists of pinching. When they desire to salute any one, they pinch -the tip of the nose with the finger and thumb of the right hand, while -with the left they pinch the middle of their stomachs, accompanying -this odd and complex gesture with the word “Magasûka.” These natives -seem to be a hospitable people, for, after several of them had been -received on board and treated kindly, they returned on the following -day, and brought with them a great quantity of cooked yams, for which -they refused payment. - -The men wear nothing but a small strip of pandanus leaf, but the women -have a dress which in principle is exactly similar to the thong-aprons -of Southern Africa. It consists of a number of very narrow strips of -pandanus leaf, reaching nearly to the knee. The girls wear only a -single row of these strips, but the women wear several layers of them, -one coming a little below the other, like flounces. In wet weather the -uppermost petticoat is taken from the waist and tied round the neck, -so as to protect the shoulders from the rain, which shoots off the -leaf-strips as off a thatched roof. - -On gala days a much handsomer petticoat is worn. This consists of much -finer leaf strips than those which constitute the ordinary dress, and -it is dyed of various colors. Some of them which were seen by Mr. -M’Gillivray were red and green, with bands of pale yellow and pure -white. The tufts of which they were composed were extremely light and -soft, and looked like very fine-twisted grass blades. Several of the -women, by way of finishing their toilet, had blackened their faces. -This process, if it did not add to their beauty, certainly did not -detract from it, as their faces were originally so plain that the black -covering could not make them more ugly. The young men and lads formed -a curious contrast to the women in this respect, many of them being -remarkable for their good looks. - -The women usually, though not invariably, divide their hair into a vast -number of little tresses, and twist them up like the thrums of a mop, -while the men tease out their stiff and wiry locks as much as possible, -and fix in them a slender stick, some two feet in length, decorated -with a little plume at the top, the base being cut into teeth and so -used as a comb. - -The inhabitants of Redscar Bay use a more elaborate system of tattooing -than that which has been described above. The men generally restrict -themselves to certain portions of the body, such as the breast, -cheeks, forehead, and arms, and even on those spots the tattooing is -comparatively slight. But the women are so covered with blue patterns, -that there is hardly a portion of their bodies which has not been thus -decorated. They have various patterns, but the usual type is formed -by double parallel lines, the intervals between which are filled with -smaller patterns, or with zigzag lines. As the dress of the women -consists merely of the leaf-strip petticoat, the patterns of the -tattooing are very fully displayed. - -The hair of the men is dressed here after a rather singular fashion. It -is shaved from the forehead for some three inches, and the remainder -is combed backward to its full length. A string is then tied round -it, so as to confine it as closely as possible to the head, leaving -rather more than half its length to be frizzed into a mop-like bundle -projecting from the crown. - -Those who are especially careful of their personal appearance add -an ornament which is not unlike the pigtail of the last century. A -tolerably large bunch of hair is gathered together and tied into a long -and straight tail, the end of which is decorated with some ornament. -In one case, a man had attached to his pigtail a bunch of dogs’ teeth. -The mouths, naturally wide, are disfigured with the universal custom of -chewing the betel-leaf mixed with lime, which stains the lips of a dull -brick-red, and makes the whole mouth look as if it had been bleeding. - -The hair is usually black, but some diversities of color are often -seen. Sometimes it is black except the tips of each tress, where the -hue becomes yellow or reddish, and sometimes the whole of the hair is -red. In all probability, this change of tint is produced by artificial -means, such as lime-water, the use of which is known in various parts -of New Guinea. Those who have the entire hair red have probably dyed -it lately, while those who have only the tips red have passed several -months without dyeing it. There is but little beard or moustache. - -As far as can be judged from appearances, the women are treated better -than is usually the case among savages, and seem to be considered as -equal with the men. They are affectionate parents, as was proved by the -fact that children were often brought by their fathers to look at the -ships. - -The average stature of these natives was rather small, few exceeding -five feet four inches in height. They were very active, but not -powerful, as was proved by testing their strength against that of the -ship’s crew. - -Allusion has already been made to their skill in boating. These natives -possess various canoes, some so small as only to hold, and by no means -to accommodate, one person, while others contain with ease fifty or -sixty at once. - -The commonest canoe is that which is popularly called a catamaran, -and which is more of a raft than a boat. It is formed of three planks -lashed together with rattan. The man sits, or rather kneels, a little -behind the centre, and is able to propel this simple vessel with great -speed. Some of these catamarans are large enough to carry ten or twelve -persons, together with a cargo. Instead of being merely three planks, -they consist of three great logs of wood laid side by side, and lashed -firmly together with rattan at their ends, in the centre, and midway -between the centre and each end. There is no particular bow or stern, -but the central log is longer than the others, so as to project at each -end, and is generally carved into rude patterns, and ornamented with -red and white paint. - -Of course the sea washes freely over this primitive vessel, so that the -natives are obliged to erect a small platform in the middle, on which -they can place any goods that might be damaged by wetting. - -One of the smaller catamarans is shown in the foreground of -illustration, No. 2, on the next page, and just behind it is one of -the large canoes with its sail struck. Such a canoe as this is about -twenty-five feet in length. It consists of two parts, the canoe proper -and the outrigger. The canoe proper is very curiously formed. It is -cut from the trunk of a tree, and, in spite of its length, is not more -than eighteen or nineteen inches in extreme width. The most curious -part of its construction is, that the sides, after bulging out below, -come together above, so that the space between the gunwale is barely -eight inches, there is only just room for a man’s legs to pass into the -interior of the boat. A section of the canoe would present an outline -very much like that of the Greek Omega reversed, thus--℧. In order to -preserve the gunwales from injury, a slight pole is lashed to them -throughout their entire length. - -As is the case with the catamaran, both ends of the canoe are alike. -They are generally raised well above the water, and are carved into -the semblance of a snake’s or turtle’s head, and decorated with paint, -tufts of feathers, shells, and similar ornaments. - -The outrigger is as long as the canoe, to which it is attached by a -series of light poles to the gunwale of the canoe itself. The method by -which the outer ends of the poles are fastened to the outrigger is very -curious, and can be better understood by reference to the illustration -than by a description. Like the ends of the canoe, those of the -outrigger poles are fashioned into a snake-like form. - -The natives can run along these poles to the outrigger with perfect -safety, often sitting upon it when the wind is high, so as to -preserve the balance of the vessel. In many canoes, however, a slight -platform is laid upon these poles, so as greatly to increase the -burthen-carrying space of the vessel; and a corresponding but smaller -platform projects from the opposite side of the canoe. On this platform -several paddlers are stationed, finding it easier to work their -long-handled paddles from the platform than from the narrow space of -the canoe itself. - -The sail is made of strips of palm leaf, interlaced with each other. -When it is not required, the sail is struck and rolled up, so as to -occupy as little room as possible, and the mast can also be struck, -like those of our sailing barges while passing under a bridge. - -Two other kinds of New Guinea canoes are shown in the same -illustration. These canoes are not found in the same part of New -Guinea, but, as the natives travel in them for considerable distances, -they have been brought together in the same illustration for the -convenience of comparison. - -Beyond the large canoe is a smaller one, with a sail that is set in -rather a curious manner. There is no mast, but the two edges of the -sail are fastened to slight spars, and when the native finds the wind -to be favorable, he fixes the lower ends of these spars in the canoe, -and supports the upper ends by stays or ropes that were fore and aft. -The reader will notice the pointed end of the cylindrical outrigger. On -the opposite side to the outrigger is a slight platform made of planks. -The platform itself is out of sight, but the reader may see the heads -and shoulders of the two men who are sitting on it. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE MONKEY MEN OF DOURGA STRAIT. (See page 900.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CANOES OF NEW GUINEA. (See page 908.)] - -This canoe is made near Redscar Point, and, except in the arrangement -of the sail, is somewhat similar to the vessels which are built at -Brumer Island. The paddles are between six and seven feet in length, -and are rather clumsily formed, without any attempt at ornament. - -The canoe to the right of the illustration is the most curious of these -vessels. The body of the canoe is made out of the trunk of a tree, -which is first shaped to a conical form at each end, and then hollowed. -Over the ends is firmly fixed a piece of wood, several feet in length, -so as to make the two ends into hollow cones into which the water -cannot force its way. The gunwale is raised about two feet by planks -which box in the opening of the canoe, and act as wash-boards, the -seams being pitched and rendered water-tight. - -These particulars are mentioned because in general the natives of New -Guinea are singularly indifferent as to the amount of water which -is taken in by their canoes, provided that they are not sunk. There -is, for example, one kind of New Guinea canoe found in Coral Haven, -in which the gunwales are not connected at the stern, which is left -open. The water would of course rush in, were it not that one of the -crew sits in the opening, forcing his body into it so as to render it -temporarily water-tight. Even with this precaution it is impossible to -prevent some water from making its way between the body of the man and -the sides of the canoe, as it heels over by the force of the wind, and -in squally weather another of the crew is obliged to keep perpetually -baling with a large shell. - -The most curious part of the canoe which we are now examining is the -sail, which, clumsy as it looks, is a very great improvement on those -which have been previously described, inasmuch as it can be shifted and -trimmed to suit the wind. - -The mast, instead of being merely stuck upright when wanted, is -permanently fixed, but is so short that it causes no inconvenience when -the sail is struck and the paddles alone are employed. It is fixed, -or “stepped,” into a hole in a board at the bottom of the canoe, and -is lashed to a transverse spar that extends across the canoe from one -gunwale to the other. At the head of the mast is a stout projecting -arm, through which is bored a hole. - -The sail is made by matting stretched between two slight spars, and -when not wanted it can be rolled up and laid up on the platform of -the outrigger. The halyard, a rope by which the sail is hauled to its -place, is fixed to the middle of the sail, and passes through the hole -in the projecting arm of the mast-head. Hopes are fastened to each -end, constituting the “tack” and the “sheet.” When the crew wish to -put their canoe about, they do so in a very expeditious manner, merely -letting go the ropes and hauling them in again, so as to turn the sail -and convert the sheet into the tack, and _vice versâ_. As both ends of -the canoe are alike, the vessel at once obeys the new impulse, and goes -off in the required direction. - -The canoe is steered with one special paddle some nine feet in length, -of which the oblong, rounded blade occupies half. - - * * * * * - -The inhabitants of the New Guinea coasts are remarkable for their skill -in swimming and diving. When H. M. S. _Rattlesnake_ was off New Guinea, -the anchor of one of the boats caught in the coral, and could not be -dislodged. An old man who was standing on the beach saw that something -was wrong, and swam off to the boat. He soon understood the case, and, -after diving several times, succeeded in clearing the anchor, a feat -for which he was rewarded by an axe. He always dived feet foremost, -without an effort, and remained under water for about half a minute. - -It is rather curious that the love of pigs which is found among the -New Zealanders should be quite as strongly developed among the natives -of New Guinea. The girls and women make great pets of them, and it is -not at all an uncommon event to see a young girl tripping along in -all the graceful freedom of the savage, holding a young pig in her -arms, and caressing and talking to it as an European girl talks to her -doll, or to her pet lapdog. These pigs are long-legged, black-skinned, -stiff-haired animals, not at all agreeing with our ideas of a pig’s -proper form. - -The dress used by the women consists of slender leaf-strips, and -forms a really graceful costume. Many of the women employ a kind -of tattooing, though they do not carry it to such an extent as to -disfigure themselves. The patterns, though elaborate, are very small -and delicate, and extend over a considerable portion of the body. -The arms and front of the body display a regular pattern, which is -usually carried over the shoulder for a little way, but leaves the back -untouched. The most delicate pattern is reserved for the arm and waist, -where it looks like a delicate blue lace fitting tightly to the skin. -The women are very proud of this ornament, and are always gratified -when a stranger expresses admiration of it. The men occasionally -use the tattoo, but in a comparatively scanty manner, confining the -patterns to a star or two on the breast. Now and then a man will have -a double series of stars and dots extending from the centre of the -chest to the shoulders, but on an average a native of this part of the -country is not so much tattooed as an ordinary English sailor. - -The architecture of this part of New Guinea differs from that of Dourga -Strait in being much more elaborate, but throughout New Guinea the -style of house-building is so similar that we will take a few examples -as representatives of the whole group of islands. All the houses are -elevated on posts like those of the Nicobar Islands, but have several -improvements in architecture. - -The posts vary in number according to the size of the house, and about -four feet from the ground each post passes through a wide circular -wooden disc, which serves as an effectual barrier against the rats and -snakes, which would otherwise take possession of the dwellings. The -posts are connected together at about five feet from the ground by -rafters, on which the floor is laid. - -These rafters, or joists, support a row of poles laid horizontally side -by side, and upon them are laid crosswise a great number of slighter -spars, thus forming a framework, on which is fixed the floor itself, -which consists of a number of thin planks taken from the cocoa-nut -tree. The supporting posts are about ten feet in total length, and -are connected at their tops by horizontal poles, on which a second or -upper floor is fixed, precisely similar to the principal floor, though -much smaller. On this upper floor are kept the weapons, implements, -provisions, and similar articles, for which accommodation cannot be -found on the principal floor. A supply of water, for example, is -generally kept in the huts, a number of empty cocoa-nut shells being -used in lieu of bottles, and closed at the orifice by a plug of grass. -In fact, they are identical in principal with the ostrich-egg vessels -of the South African savage, which have been already described upon a -preceding page. - -Entrance is gained to the house by a square hole in the flooring, and -the primitive staircase by which the inhabitants ascend into their -houses is equally simple and effectual. It is necessary that the -stairs--if we may use the term--should be so constructed, that while -human beings can easily obtain access to the house, the rats and other -vermin shall be kept out. If an ordinary ladder or even a notched -pole were fixed to the house, the rats and snakes would be sure to -climb up it and take possession of the dwelling. The native architect, -therefore, proceeds after a different fashion. - -Immediately under the opening in the floor he fixes two stout posts -in the ground, leaving them to project rather more than three feet. -The posts have forked heads, and upon them is laid a transverse pole, -which is firmly lashed to them. From this transverse pole another pole -is laid to the ground, so as to form an inclined plane up which the -inhabitants of the house can walk. It will now be seen, that if a man -walk up the inclined pole, to the transverse one, he can pass along -the latter in a stooping attitude until he comes to the opening in the -floor. He can then pass his body through the opening and lift himself -to the level of the floor, while the space which intervenes between the -horizontal post and the floor affords an effectual barrier against the -rats and other vermin. - -The reader will better understand this description by comparing it with -illustration No. 1, on the 916th page, which represents three of these -huts. That on the right is seen from the end, and is represented as -half finished, in order to show the structure of the interior. - -The sides and roof of the hut are formed of slight spars which are -lashed together by a framework, so as to form a support for the -thatching. This is made of coarse grass pulled up by the roots in large -tufts, and covered with an outer layer of cocoa-nut leaves. If the -house be a large one, there is an entrance at each end, and another -in the middle, each being closed with neatly woven mats. Similar but -coarser mats are fastened to the lower portion of the sides, in order -to exclude the wind. - -Up to this point the architecture is identical throughout the island, -but a divergence takes place in the shape of the house itself, -according to the locality. The usual form is that which is represented -in the illustration. Such a house as is there drawn is on the average -thirty feet in length, nine in width, and thirteen in total height, so -that a space of about three feet intervenes between the upper floor and -the roof. The central figure of the illustration shows the side view -of a finished hut, and the left-hand figure shows the end view of a -similar dwelling. - -In some places, however, such for example as Redscar Bay, the form of -the houses is different. Instead of having the slender poles which -form the framework of the walls bent over in a curved form, they are -arranged so as to make a lofty and sharply-pointed gable roof. A house -of this description, which measures thirty feet in length, will reach, -on an average, twenty-five feet in height. There is no distinction -between the roof and walls of the huts, except that the lower portion -of the roof is covered with sheets of a bark-like substance, which is -supposed to be the base of the cocoa-nut leaf flattened by pressure. -The entrance or door of these huts is at one end, and is covered with a -mat as has already been mentioned. Access is obtained by a sloping pole -resting on a short post. In some of these huts a number of spears were -seen in the interior, lashed along the sides, together with several -human skulls; but whether the latter were intended as ornaments, or -whether they were preserved in memorial of the dead owners, is not -certain. - -The people who inhabit Redscar Bay and its vicinity exhibited a curious -mixture of shyness and confidence. They came freely to the ships as -they anchored in the bay, and were very anxious to be admitted on -board, peeping into the ports in the most inquisitive manner, and -holding up their weapons and implements for sale. They have in use a -rather remarkable arrow, with a head in the form of a pointed gouge or -scoop. - -One of these arrows is in my collection. The shaft is made in the usual -manner from a reed, and is weighted at one end with a piece of hard and -heavy wood. Into this wooden tip is cut a deep groove, into which slips -the butt of the head. This is about eight inches in length, and is made -of bamboo, the reed being nearly cut away so as to leave a piece rather -more than half an inch in width in the middle, and tapering gently to -one end so as to form a point, and abruptly to the other end in order -to form a butt which can be slipped, into the wooden tip of the arrow. - -Bamboo scoops of a similar description, but of a larger size, are used -as knives, and are sharpened by the simple process of biting off a -piece of the edge. When Mr. M’Gillivray visited New Guinea, he asked -a native the use of the bamboo scoop; and when he found that it was -used as a knife, he produced his own knife, and, taking up a piece of -wood, he showed the superiority of steel over bamboo by cutting a stick -vigorously with it. - -Strangely enough, instead of being gratified with the performance of -the knife, the man was so frightened that he pushed off his canoe, -called his friends around him, and explained to them the terrible deed -that had been done. The knife was offered to him, but he looked upon -the proffered gift as an aggravation of the original offence, and -declined all overtures toward reconciliation. This aversion to steel -was found to be prevalent among the inhabitants of this part of New -Guinea. - -The bow by which these arrows are propelled is a very effective though -clumsily made weapon. My own specimen is about six feet in length, and -is made from some hard and tough wood, apparently that of the cocoa-nut -tree. It is very stiff, and requires a strong arm to draw it. The -string is a strip of rattan, like that which has already been mentioned -when treating of North Australia. - -Passing to the north-west of the island, we find that their appearance -and manners are not very dissimilar from those which belong to their -brethren of the southern coast. Taking the Dory people as our type, -we find that they often display good examples of the high and narrow -forehead of the Papuan family, and many of them have narrow and arched -noses, together with lips nearly as thin as those of an European. -Indeed, some of these natives possess a cast of countenance which is -so like that of an European that several travellers have thought that -there must have been some admixture of foreign blood. Such, however, is -not the case, these peculiarities belonging to the individual, and not -implying any foreign mixture. - -The canoes of this part of the country are rather different from those -of the southern coast. The mast is made of three distinct spars, -united at their tops. Two of them are fastened to the side by pins -passing through them, on which they work backward and forward, as if -on hinges. The third is not fastened to the vessel, but its butt fits -into a cavity from which it can be removed at pleasure. If, therefore, -the natives wish to use their paddles, all they have to do is to lift -the foot of this spar out of its socket, when the whole of the triple -mast can be lowered on deck. When the wind becomes favorable, and the -sail is to be employed, the masts are raised again, the butt of the -third spar is stepped into its socket, and the triple mast is thus kept -firmly upright. A similar contrivance is now proposed for our ships of -war, as these triple masts made of three slight iron bars cannot be so -easily shot away as the single and solid mast. - -The natives are very expert canoe-men, and are accustomed to the use -of their vessels from childhood. Even the small boys have their little -canoes, which are so light that they can be carried to and from the -water without difficulty. - -They excel as fishermen, being as expert in the water as on it. The -trepang fishery is energetically conducted by them, as it is by the -sale of trepang to the merchants that they obtain the greater part of -the foreign luxuries on which they set so high a value. The hawksbill -turtle is captured principally for the sake of the shell, which is also -purchased by the traders, and, together with mother-of-pearl shell, is -mostly sent to the Chinese markets. - -The mode of fishing with a net is much the same as on all these coasts. -The net is three or four feet in depth, and a hundred feet or more in -length. The meshes are about an inch in width. One edge is furnished -with a row of flat pieces of light wood, which act as floats, and along -the other edge are fastened a number of perforated shells by way of -weights. - -When the natives wish to use this net, they place it in a canoe, and -look out for a shoal of fish. As soon as a favorable opportunity is -found, the canoe is taken to seaward of the shoal, and let carefully -into the water. Each end is taken in charge by one or two men, who -bring the net round the shoal in semi-circular form, so as to enclose -the fish. These men gradually approach each other, while another -man beats the water with a pole, or flings stones into it, so as to -frighten the fish into the enclosure. As soon as the two ends of the -net have been brought together, the canoe comes up, and the net, with -the fish hanging in its meshes, is hauled on board. They also use -fish-traps, like those which have been already described in the account -of Australia, sinking them by means of a stone, and raising them by a -cord, to the end of which a bamboo buoy is fastened. - -They are tolerable smiths, and have a kind of bellows identical in -principle with those of savage Africa, but worked in a different -manner. Instead of having a couple of inflated skins, they have a pair -of wide bamboo tubes, about four feet in length, the lower ends of -which are buried in the earth, and connected by means of channels with -the hole in which the fire is made. The pistons are formed of bunches -of feathers tied to bamboos, and the blower works them alternately up -and down, so as to produce a tolerably constant blast. It is remarkable -that the bellows of the Chinese itinerant jeweller are fitted with -feather pistons. It is most probable that these bellows have been -borrowed from the more eastern islands. - -As to the actual working of the metal, it bears a curious similitude -to that which is employed in savage Africa. The anvil is generally a -stone, unless the native smiths can procure an iron “pig” or a piece of -a broken anchor. They can work in silver and copper as well as iron, -melting the two former metals and running them into moulds, to be -afterward beaten and worked into shape. - -The architecture of these tribes is rather remarkable. Like the -generality of houses in New Guinea, the huts are raised on stakes in -order to preserve them from vermin; but those of the Dory people are -similarly elevated in order to preserve them from water. These natives -have a curious predilection for building their huts on the sea-shore, -and place them below the level of low water. They begin this curious -style of architecture by building a long pier, or rather jetty, which -extends far into the sea, and which keeps open a communication between -the house and the shore. - -At the end of this jetty the hut itself is situated, and is made of -boarded walls and a thatched roof. Great as is the labor that is -bestowed upon it, the house does not come up to our ideas of comfort. -In the first place, the floors are made of rough spars, placed parallel -to each other, but still far enough apart to cause some uneasiness, not -to say danger, to an unpractised walker. - -A good specimen of a Dory house is about seventy feet long, twenty-five -wide, and fifteen high. Along the centre runs a tolerably wide passage, -and at either side are a number of rooms, separated from each other and -from the passage by mats. At the end next the sea there are no walls, -but only a roof, so that a sort of verandah is formed, under which -the inhabitants spend much of their time when they are not actively -employed. Such a house as this is usually occupied by some forty or -fifty individuals, consisting of about twenty men, together with the -wives and families of those who are married. All cooking is carried -on by the different families in their own chambers, each of which is -furnished with its own fireplace. - -The dress of the Dory natives varies but little from that of other -Papuans of New Guinea. The men, however, often ornament their bodies -with raised scars like those of the Australians, and they are fond -of tattooing their breasts and arms with figures of their weapons. -They are fond of ornaments, such as shells, twisted wire, and armlets -of plaited rattan. They ingeniously utilize the latter ornament by -plaiting a very thick and strong bracelet, and wearing it on the left -wrist and fore-arm, so as to protect the wearer from the recoil of the -bowstring. - -Though not a warlike people, they always go armed, carrying the -invariable parang, or chopper, which, as its very name imparts, is -procured from the Malay tribes. These parangs are chiefly made in -Borneo, as we shall see when we come to treat of the Dyaks. The Dory -Papuans do not seem to fight, as do some savage tribes, for the mere -love of combat; the chief object of warfare being the capture of -slaves, each of whom is valued at fifty shillings. - -This value is, however, a conventional term; and when a bargain is made -with the Dory people for so many slaves, in most cases the conventional -money value is intended, and not the actual slaves. In fact, the word -“slaves” is used much as we use the word “horses” in reckoning the -power of a steam-engine, or “tons” in describing the capacity of a -ship. Perhaps the words “pony” and “monkey,” of modern sporting slang, -are better illustrations. - -Still, slavery is rife among the Dory people, who sometimes make a raid -into a district, capture a village, and carry off the inhabitants into -servitude. They do not, however, treat their captives badly, but feed -them well, and seem to consider them partly in the light of domestic -servants, and partly as available capital, or as a means of exchange -when any of their own friends are taken prisoners by hostile tribes. - -The government of the Dory tribes is nominally a delegated -chieftainship, but in reality a sort of oligarchy. There is a certain -dignitary, called the Sultan of Tidore, under whose sway this part -of the country is supposed to be, and from him the chief of the Dory -tribes receives his rank. When the chief dies, one of his relatives -goes to convey the news to the Sultan, taking with him a present of -slaves and birds of paradise as tokens of allegiance. This man is -almost always appointed to the vacant place, and is bound to pay a -certain tribute of slaves, provisions, and war canoes, the latter being -employed in collecting the Sultan’s taxes. Should he fail to comply -with these conditions, his village would be attacked by the Sultan’s -fleet, and the whole district ransacked; so that the position of chief -has its anxieties as well as its privileges. - -[Illustration: (1.) HUTS, NEW GUINEA. (See page 912.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) DANCE BY TORCHLIGHT, NEW GUINEA. (See page 917.)] - -His authority is more nominal than real, for he decides nothing but -unimportant matters, leaving more weighty subjects to a council of -elders, who, as a rule, administer justice with impartiality. Their -laws are really good and sensible, and, though lenient, are based on -the principle of the old Jewish law, the eye for the eye and the tooth -for the tooth. - -Marriages are managed in a very simple manner, the bride and bridegroom -sitting opposite each other, in front of an idol, and the former giving -the latter some betel-leaf and tobacco. His acceptance of the present, -and taking the hand of the giver, constitute the whole of the ceremony. - -The idol which has been mentioned is called the Karwar, and is found in -every house except those which belong to Mohammedan natives. The Karwar -is a wooden figure, about eighteen inches in height, large-headed, -wide-mouthed, and long-nosed,--this peculiarity of the Papuan face -being exaggerated. It is represented as holding a shield, and wearing a -calico wrapper on the body and a handkerchief on the head. - -The Karwar plays an important part in the life of a Dory native. It is -present at his birth, takes part in his funeral, and, as we have seen, -is witness to his marriage. In all cases of perplexity the Karwar is -consulted, the devotee stating his intentions, and abandoning them -if he should feel nervous, such a sensation being supposed to be the -Karwar’s answer. There are plenty of fetishes, but these are only -supplementary to the Karwar. - -Without going into the details of the various tribes which inhabit this -part of the earth, we will glance at a few of the most interesting -customs. - -These Papuans have a strong love for flowers, especially those which -possess a powerful scent. They twine such flowers in their hair, weave -them into garlands for their necks, and carry them in their bracelets -and armlets. - -They are fond of singing and music, and, as far as has been -ascertained, are in the habit of composing extempore songs, as well as -singing those ditties which they know by heart. As for their musical -instruments, they consist chiefly of the cylindrical drum, a trumpet -made of a triton shell, and a sort of Pandean pipe, composed of six or -seven reeds of different lengths lashed firmly together. There is also -a wind instrument, which is nothing but a bamboo tube some two feet in -length. - -Accompanied by these instruments, they perform their curious dances, -one of which as been well described by Mr. M’Gillivray. “They advanced -and retreated together by sudden jerks, beating to quick or short time -as required, and chanting an accompanying song, the cadence rising and -falling according to the action. The attitude was a singular one--the -back straight, chin protruded, knees bent in a crouching position, and -the arms advanced. - -“On another occasion, one of the same men exhibited himself before us -in a war dance. In one hand he held a large wooden shield, nearly three -feet in length, and rather more than one in width, and in the other a -formidable looking weapon, two feet in length--a portion of the snout -of the sword-fish, with long, sharp teeth projecting on each side. -Placing himself in a crouching attitude, with one hand covered by the -shield, and holding his weapon in a position to strike, he advanced -rapidly in a succession of short bounds, striking the inner side of his -shield with his left knee at each jerk, causing the large cowries hung -round his waist and ankles to rattle violently. At the same time, with -fierce gestures, he loudly chanted a song of defiance. The remainder -of the pantomime was expressive of attack and defence, and exultation -after victory. - -“But a still more curious dance was once performed a few nights ago -by a party of natives who had left the ship after sunset, and landed -abreast of the anchorage. On seeing a number of lights along the beach, -we at first thought they proceeded from a fishing party, but on looking -through a night-glass the group was seen to consist of above a dozen -people, each carrying a blazing torch, and going through the movements -of the dance. At one time they extended rapidly into line, at another -closed, dividing into two parties, advancing and retreating, crossing -and recrossing, and mixing up with each other. This continued for half -an hour, and, it having apparently been got up for our amusement, a -rocket was sent up for theirs, and a blue light burned, but the dancing -had ceased, and the lights disappeared.” - -An accompanying illustration represents this wild and curious scene. -In the foreground are the dancers, each with his torch in his hand, -and indulging in the grotesque movements of the dance. To the left -are seen the musicians, one playing on the bamboo pipe, and the other -beating the drum which has before been mentioned. One of these drums is -lying in the foreground. It is a hollow cylinder of palm wood, about -two feet in length and four inches in diameter. One end is covered -with lizard-skin, and along the side there run longitudinal slits. The -native name for this drum is “baiatú.” - -The funeral ceremonies appear to differ according to the locality. -Among the Dory people, when a man dies, the body is rolled in white -calico, and laid on its side in a grave, its head resting on an -earthenware dish. The weapons and ornaments of the dead man are laid in -the grave, which is then filled up, and a thatched roof erected over it. - -Should the deceased be a head of a family, the Karwar is brought to -perform its last duties. When the man is buried, the Karwar is placed -near the grave, and violently execrated by all the mourners for -allowing its charge to die. The thatched roof being finished, the idol -is laid upon it, and idol and roof are left to decay together. As is -usual with savage tribes, funeral feasts are held at the time of burial -and for some days afterward, those which celebrate the deaths of chiefs -being kept up for a whole month. - - - - -CHAPTER XCII. - -THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. - -THE AJITAS, OR AHITAS. - - - POSITION AND DIMENSIONS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS -- THE MALAYS AND - THE NEGRITOS, OR AJITAS -- RESEMBLANCE TO THE BOSJESMAN -- THE BOW - AND POISONED ARROWS -- SKILL IN ARCHERY -- THE SAVAGE INSTINCT -- - MEETING A PARTY OF AJITAS -- THEIR APPEARANCE, AND CHIRPING SOUND OF - THEIR LANGUAGE -- CONCILIATING THE ABORIGINES -- GOVERNMENT OF THE - AJITAS -- THEIR ACTIVITY IN HUNTING -- NOMADIC PROPENSITIES OF THE - AJITAS -- REVERENCE FOR THE DEAD -- A QUARREL, AND ITS CAUSE. - -To the north-west of New Guinea lie several islands, which are grouped -together under the general name of Philippines. They consist of a -considerable number of islands, of which the northern island, called -Luza, and the southern island, called Magindano, are by far the largest. - -The inhabitants of the Philippines are of two kinds; namely, the -Malays and the Negritos. The former are evidently not the aboriginal -inhabitants, but have voyaged to the islands in their canoes and formed -a number of settlements. As in the course of the work we shall see -much of the Malay race, we will pass them by for the present, and only -notice the Negritos, or little negroes, so called by the Spanish on -account of their dark skins and small size. - -This strange little race is mostly known by a name which is given in -different forms. By some writers it is spelt Ajitas, by some Ahitas, -and by others Itas. Of these different forms I select the first, which, -by the way, is pronounced as if it were spelled Aheetas. - -The Ajitas are quite as small as the Bosjesmans of Southern Africa, -their average height being four feet six inches. They are well shaped, -and their skins, though of a very dark hue, are not so black as those -of the negro tribes. The features are tolerably good, except that the -nose is broad and rather flat, and that there is a marked deficiency of -chin. The hair is woolly, like that of other Papuans, and, as they do -not know how to dress it, they wear it in a sort of mop round the head. -The eyes are remarkable for a decided yellow tinge. - -In common with other savages who lead an uncertain kind of life, -fasting sometimes for two days together, and then gorging themselves -like wolves, they are apt to have their limbs and projecting stomachs -with a recurved back such as is the case with the Bosjesman, the back -being bent like the letter S. Their shape is in no way concealed by -their dress, which is nothing more than a wide belt of plaited bark -fastened round the waist. - -In many respects there is a great similarity between the Bosjesman -and the Ajita. The latter live by the chase and by plunder, having no -idea of agriculture. They always go armed, their weapons being bamboo -lances and bows and arrows, the latter being poisoned. The effect of -the poison with which they are tipped is to produce an unextinguishable -thirst in the animal, which seeks the nearest water, drinks, and dies. -As soon as it is dead, the hunter cuts away the flesh from around the -wound, as the poison would otherwise communicate so bitter a taste to -the whole carcass that the flesh could not be eaten. - -Their bows are but slight, as are their arrows, the poison doing the -work of death, and the depth of the wound being of no consequence. -They are skilful archers, having the bow and arrow in their hands from -infancy, and practising at any object that may take their attention. -Both sexes use the bow, and the little boys and girls are fond of -wading along the banks of streams and shooting the fish. - -Like the Bosjesman, the Ajita is always at feud with the other races -that inhabit the same country, and, small as he is, makes himself -dreaded by reason of his poisoned weapons. Sometimes Ajitas are taken -prisoners, and are generally enslaved. As they are light, active, and -not bad-looking, they are often employed as servants by the dignitaries -of Manilla. - -One of these people was in the household of an Archbishop of Manilla, -and was educated by him with great care. To all appearance he was -thoroughly civilized, and at last was ordained priest. But the -instincts of his savage nature were too strong for him, and the -man escaped from his position and civilized society, threw off his -garments, and rejoined his savage relatives. Such instances are -continually occurring, and it is almost impossible to retain an Ajita -in civilized society, no matter how well he may be treated, or how -young he may be when captured. - -The habits of the Ajitas are essentially of a savage character, and, as -a rule, travellers in the Philippines are obliged to be very careful -lest they should suddenly be set upon by these dangerous little -creatures. Sometimes, however, they can be gentle, and even hospitable, -and an instance of such conduct is related by M. de la Gironière, -part of whose narrative has been translated and quoted by Mr. Earle: -“We directed our course toward the north, among mountains always -covered with thick forests, and which, like those we had just quitted, -presented no traced route, excepting a few narrow pathways beaten by -wild beasts. We advanced with caution, for we were now in the parts -inhabited by the Ajitas. At night we concealed our fires, and one of us -always acted as sentinel, for what we feared most was a surprise. - -“One morning, while pursuing our way in silence, we heard before us a -chorus of squeaking tones, which had more resemblance to the cries of -birds than to the human voice. We kept on our ground, concealing our -approach as much as possible with the aid of the trees and brambles. -All at once we perceived at a little distance about forty savages, of -all sexes and ages, who had absolutely the air of animals. They were on -the banks of a rivulet, surrounding a great fire. We made several steps -in advance, and presented the butt-end of our guns toward them. As soon -as they perceived us, they set up shrill cries and prepared to take -to flight; but I made signs to them, by showing them some packets of -cigars, that we wished to offer them for their acceptance. - -“I had fortunately received at Binangonan all the instructions -necessary for knowing how to open a communication with them. As soon -as they comprehended us, they ranged themselves into a line, like men -preparing for a review; this was the signal that we might approach. -We went up to them with our cigars in our hands, and I commenced -distributing them from one extremity of the line. It was very important -that we should make friends with them, and give each an equal share, -according to their custom. The distribution being over, an alliance was -cemented, and peace concluded, when they commenced smoking. - -“A deer was hanging to a tree, from which the chief cut three large -slices with a knife of bamboo, and threw them upon the fire, and, -drawing them out an instant afterward, presented a piece to each of -us. The exterior was slightly burned and sprinkled with ashes, but the -interior was perfectly raw and bloody. It would not do, however, to -show the repugnance I felt at making a repast scarcely better than that -of a cannibal, for my hosts would have been scandalized, and I wished -to live in good correspondence with them for some days. I therefore ate -my piece of venison, which, after all, was not ill flavored, and my -Indian having followed my example, our good repute was established, and -treason on their part no longer possible.” - -M. de la Gironière showed his wisdom in accommodating himself to -circumstances, and in sacrificing his own predilections in favor of -expediency; and if all travellers had acted in a similar manner, we -should have known much more of savage manners and customs than we do -at the present time. After propitiating his little black hosts by tact -and kindness, he remained among them for some time, and by means of -an interpreter, whom he was fortunate enough to obtain, continued to -procure a considerable amount of information concerning a people of -whom scarcely anything had been previously known since their existence. - -The Ajitas live in small tribes, consisting of some fifty or sixty -individuals. They have no fixed residence, but wander about the country -according to the amount of game which they find. They have not the -least notion of house-building, and in this respect are even below the -aborigines of Australia, and at night they crowd round the fire and -lie as close to it as possible. This fire is the central point of the -tribe, the old people and children assembling round it during the day -while the adults are hunting for game; and if the hunters should be -able to bring in enough food to last for some days, they remain round -the fire until it is all consumed. - -There seems to be no particular form of government among the Ajitas, -who always choose one of the oldest men to be the chief of each -little tribe, and do not acknowledge any principal chief or king. Age -is respected among them, and in this point the Ajitas show their -superiority over many savage tribes. The language of the Ajitas is said -to resemble the chirping of birds rather than the voice of mankind, -but it must be remembered that the same was said of the Bosjesmen’s -language when European travellers first came among them. Any language -which is heard for the first time affects the ear unpleasantly, and -even those of Europe are generally stigmatized by foreigners as -gabbling or grunting, according to the pitch of the voice. Of the -structure of the Ajitas’ language nothing is yet known. - -In one point they are superior to many savage people. A man has but -one wife, and both are faithful in the married state. When a young man -wishes to marry, he asks the consent of her parents, who, on a fixed -day, send her into the woods alone before sunrise, and after an hour -the young man goes after her. If he can find her, and bring her back -before sunset, the marriage is acknowledged; but if he cannot succeed -in his search, he must yield all claims to her. It will be seen that -the real choice lies with the girl, who can always conceal herself if -she dislikes the intended bridegroom, or, even if he did find her, -could refuse to come back with him until the stipulated time has passed. - -The religion of the Ajitas seems to be, as far as can be ascertained -on a subject from which a savage always shrinks, a mere fetishism; any -object, such as an oddly-shaped tree trunk or stone, being worshipped -for a day, and then forsaken in favor of some other idol. - -Any real reverence in the nature of the Ajitas seems to be given to the -dead, whom they hold in veneration. Year after year they will resort to -the burial-places of their friends for the purpose of laying betel-nut -and tobacco upon the grave. Over each spot where a warrior is buried -his bow and arrows are hung, the Ajitas having an idea that at night -the man leaves his grave, and hunts until the morning. Owing to this -reverence for the dead, M. de la Gironière’s expedition nearly came to -a fatal termination. They had succeeded in procuring a skeleton from -the burial-place, when the theft was discovered by the Ajitas, who at -once set upon them, and fairly chased them out of their country, the -poisoned arrows proving to be weapons too formidable to be resisted, -especially when used by foes as active as monkeys, who could pour their -arrows on their foes, while they scarcely exposed an inch of their -little dark bodies to the enemy. - -It is owing to another form of this veneration for the dead that -travellers have so often come in collision with the Ajitas. When a -warrior dies, his companions are bound to take their weapons and roam -through the country, for the purpose of killing the first living -thing that they meet, whether man or beast. As they pass along, they -break the boughs in a peculiar manner as warnings to others, for even -one of their own tribe would be sacrificed if he fell in their way. -Travellers from other countries would either fail to see, or, if they -saw, to understand, the meaning of these little broken twigs, and in -consequence have been attacked by the Ajitas, not from any unfriendly -feelings, but in fulfilment of a national custom. - - - - -CHAPTER XCIII. - -FIJI. - -APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF THE FIJIANS. - - - POSITION OF THE FIJI ISLANDS -- GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- - THEIR PECULIAR HAIR, AND VARIOUS MODES OF DRESSING IT -- HAIR-DYES -- - THE FIJIAN MIRROR -- WIG-MAKING -- THE AMBASSADOR AND HIS MESSAGE -- - THE FIJIAN TURBAN -- WATER-PROOF HEADDRESSES -- DRESS OF THE FIJIANS - -- THE “MASI,” AND METHOD OF WEARING IT -- EAR-ORNAMENTS -- NECKLACES - AND FLOWERS -- TATTOOING AND PAINT -- PATTERNS USED FOR THE FACE -- - DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- THE ROUGHNESS OF THE SKIN AND USE OF PAINT - -- HAIR-DRESSING -- MAKING MASI AND MODE OF PRODUCING PATTERNS -- - INGENIOUS MODE OF STENCILLING -- THE WOMAN’S APRON, OR “LIKU,” AND - MODE OF WEARING IT. - -To describe the inhabitants of all the multitudinous islands of -Polynesia would be an agreeable, but impossible task, our space -confining us within limits which may not be transgressed. We will -therefore pass at once to the large and important group of islands -which is popularly known by the name of FIJI. - -This group of islands lies due north of New Zealand, and to the -eastward of New Guinea, so that they are just below the Equator. The -collective name of the islands has been variously given, such as Fiji, -Beetee, Feegee, Fidge, Fidschi, Vihi, and Viti. Of all these names, the -first and the last are correct, the northern portion of the islands -being known as Fiji, and the southern as Viti. The reader must remember -that these names are pronounced as if written Feegee and Veetee. - -The inhabitants of Fiji are a fine race of savages, tolerably well -formed, and with dark, though not black skin. Like other Papuans, they -are remarkable for their thick, bushy hair, which they dress in a -singular variety of patterns. As the appearance and costume of savage -races are the first points which strike a stranger, we will at once -proceed to describe them. - -The most conspicuous part of a Fijian’s general appearance is his -headdress, in the arrangement of which he gives the reins to his -fancy, and invents the most extraordinary variations of form and -color. Examples of the Fijian headdress will be seen in most of the -illustrations. But as it would be tedious to describe them as they -occur, I will mention a few of the most prominent varieties. - -The hair of the Papuan race is always stiff, wiry, and plentiful, -and grows to a considerable length; so that it necessarily assumes -a bushy form if suffered to grow according to its own will. The -Fijian, however, thinks that nature is to be improved by art, and -accordingly lavishes all the resources of a somewhat artistic character -on his hair. To train the hair into any of the graceful and flowing -methods which distinguish those soft-haired races would be utterly -impossible for a Fijian. He goes on quite the opposite principle, and, -true to real artistic feeling, tries to develop to the utmost those -characteristics which rightly belong to him, instead of endeavoring to -produce effects which would not be consonant with their surroundings. - -The principle on which a Fijian _coiffure_ is arranged is, that every -hair is presumed to grow naturally at right angles to the skin, and to -stand out stiffly and boldly. Supposing, then, that each hair could be -induced to follow its own course, without being entangled by others, -it is evident that the whole head of hair would form a large globular -mass, surrounding the face. It is, therefore, the business of the -Fijian hair-dresser to accept this as the normal form of the hair, and -to change or modify it as he thinks best. - -It is impossible to describe the various modes of Fijian hair-dressing -better than has been done by Mr. Williams, who resided in Fiji for -thirteen years. “Most of the chiefs have a hair-dresser, to whose care -his master’s hair is intrusted, often demanding daily attention, and -at certain stages of progress requiring several hours’ labor each day. -During all this time, the operator’s hands are _tapu_ from touching his -food, but not from working in his garden. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE AMBASSADOR’S MESSAGE. (See page 925.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) FIJIAN CANOE IN A BREEZE. (See page 932.)] - -“The hair is strong, and often quite wiry, and so dressed that it will -retain the position in which it is placed, even when projecting from -the head a distance of six or eight inches. One stranger, on seeing -their performance in this department, exclaims, ‘What astonishing -wigs!’ another thinks, ‘Surely the _beau idéal_ of hair-dressing must -exist in Fiji;’ a third, ‘Their heads surpass imagination.’” No wonder, -then, that they defy description. - -“Whatever may be said about the appearance being unnatural, the best -_coiffures_ have a surprising and almost geometrical accuracy of -outline, combined with a round softness of surface and uniformity of -dye which display extraordinary care, and merit some praise. They seem -to be carved out of some solid substance, and are variously colored. -Jet-black, blue-black, ashy white, and several shades of red prevail. -Among young people, bright red and flaxen are in favor. Sometimes two -or more colors meet on the same head. Some heads are finished, both as -to shape and color, nearly like an English counsellor’s wig. - -“In some, the hair is a spherical mass of jet black hair, with a white -roll in front, as broad as the hand; or, in lieu of this, a white, -oblong braid occupies the length of the forehead, the black passing -down on either side. In each case the black projects further than the -white hair. Some heads have all the ornamentation behind, consisting of -a cord of twisted coils, ending in tassels. In others, the cords give -place to a large red roll or a sandy projection falling on the neck. On -one head, all the hair is of one uniform length, but one-third in front -is ashy or sandy, and the rest black, a sharply defined separation -dividing the two colors. - -“Not a few are so ingeniously grotesque as to appear as if done -purposely to excite laughter. One has a large knot of fiery hair on his -crown, all the rest of the head being bald. Another has the most of -his hair cut away, leaving three or four rows of small clusters, as if -his head were planted with small paint brushes. A third has his head -bare, except where a black patch projects over each temple. One, two, -or three cords of twisted hair often fall from the right temple, a foot -or eighteen inches long. Some men wear a number of these braids so as -to form a curtain at the back of the neck, reaching from one ear to the -other. - -“A mode that requires great care has the hair wrought into distinct -locks, radiating from the head. Each lock is a perfect cone, about -seven inches in length, having the base outward, so that the surface -of the hair is marked out into a great number of small circles, the -ends being turned in, in each lock, toward the centre of the cone. In -another kindred style, the locks are pyramidal, the sides and angles of -each being as regular as though formed of wood. All round the head they -look like square black blocks, the upper tier projecting horizontally -from the crown, and a flat space being left at the top of the head. -When the hair, however, is not more than four inches long, this flat -does not exist, but the surface consists of a regular succession of -squares or circles. The violent motions of the dance do not disturb -these elaborate preparations, but great care is taken to preserve them -from the effects of the dew or rain.” - -Whenever the Fijian desires to know whether his headdress is in proper -order, he has recourse to his mirror. This is not a portable, but a -fixed article of manufacture, and is necessarily situated in the open -air. When the native sees a large tree with a sloping trunk, he cuts -in the upper part of the trunk several deep hollows, and arranges -the leaves of the tree so that the water from the foliage drips into -them, and keeps them full. These are his mirrors, and by their aid he -examines his hair, sees if the outline be quite correct, and, if he be -dissatisfied, arranges it with his long-handled comb, and then replaces -the comb in his mop of a head, carefully sticking it over one ear as a -soldier does his forage cap. - -Not content with having the hair plaited and frizzed out as has already -been described, many of the Fijians wear great wigs over their own -hair, thus increasing the size of their heads to the most inordinate -dimensions. The natives are excellent wig-makers and, as their object -is not to imitate nature, but to produce as fantastic an effect as -possible, it is evident that the result of their labor is often very -ludicrous. As is the case with their own hair, they dye these wigs of -various colors, red and white being the favorite hues. - -Three examples of these curious headdresses are shown in illustration -No. 1, on preceding page, which represents an ambassador delivering -a message from his chief to some man of consequence. Savages such -as these have no idea of writing, but, lest they should forget the -various terms of their message, they have recourse to a simple _memoria -technica_, consisting of a bundle of sticks, no two being of the same -length. - -Each of these sticks answers to one of the terms of the message, which -is repeated once or twice to the ambassador, who reckons them over -on his sticks. When he delivers his message, he unties the bundle, -selects the sticks in their order, and, laying them down in succession, -delivers the message without a mistake. - -In the illustration, the principal figure represents the ambassador, -the others being his attendants. He has laid down several of the -sticks, and is delivering the message belonging to one of them, while -he is holding the rest in his left hand. His headdress is of that -remarkable kind which consists of a number of conical locks of hair--a -fashion which denotes a man of rank, as no other could afford to have -such a _coiffure_ kept in order. The man seated next to the ambassador -has his hair in two colors, the greater part being dark and frizzed out -from the head, while a couple of rolls of a lighter hue pass over the -forehead. The central figure exhibits a favorite mode of hair-dressing, -in which the hair is clipped very short, except in certain spots, in -which it is allowed to grow, so as to form a series of brush-like tufts. - -Men of consequence mostly protect their enormous mops of hair by a sort -of thin turban, which is wrapped round them. The turban is made of a -piece of very delicate bark cloth, or masi, nearly as thin as gauze, -and perfectly white. It is sometimes six feet in length, but varies -according to the quantity of hair. It is twisted round the head in -different fashions, but is mostly fastened by a bow on the forehead, or -on the top of the head. Several examples of the turban will be seen in -the course of the following pages. Men of rank often wear the masi of -such length that the ends fall down behind like a scarf. - -In order to preserve their hair from being displaced by rain, they -use a waterproof covering of their own invention. This is a young -banana leaf, which is heated over a fire, and then becomes as thin, -transparent, and impervious to water as oiled silk. The light turban -offers no protection whatever, being soaked as easily as tissue paper, -which it somewhat resembles. - -Material similar to that which is worn on the head is used for the -dress. The masi which is employed for this purpose is mostly from -twenty to thirty feet in length, though a wealthy man will sometimes -wear a masi of nearly three hundred feet long. In this case, it is -made of very delicate material. It is put on in a very simple manner, -part being wound round the loins, and the rest passed under the legs -and tucked into the belt, so as to hang as low as the knees in front, -and to fall as low as possible behind. A wealthy man will often have -his masi trailing far behind him like a train. This is all the dress -which a Fiji man needs. Clothing as a protection from the weather is -needless, owing to the geniality of the climate, and the masi is worn -simply as a matter of fashion. - -Ornaments are worn in great profusion, and are of the kinds which -seem dear to all savage races. Ear ornaments of portentous size are -worn by the inhabitants of Fiji, some of them stretching the lobe -to such an extent that a man’s two fists could be placed in the -opening. The Fijians also wear breast ornaments, very similar in -shape and appearance to the large dibbi-dibbi which is worn by the -Northern Australians, and has evidently been borrowed from the Papuan -race. Any glittering objects can be made into necklaces, which often -combine the most incongruous objects, such as European beads, bits of -tortoise-shell, dogs’ teeth, bats’ jaws, and the like. - -Flowers are plentifully worn by the Fijian, who keeps up a constant -supply of these natural ornaments, weaving them into strings and -chaplets, and passing them, like belts, over one shoulder and under the -other. In the illustration on page 937th, which represents the payment -of taxes, several girls are seen adorned with these garlands. - -Tattooing is almost entirely confined to the women, and even in them -is but little seen, the greater part of the patterns being covered by -the _liku_ or fringe apron. When young, the women usually tattoo their -fingers with lines and stars in order to make them look ornamental -as they present food to the chief, and, after they become mothers, -they add a blue patch at each corner of the mouth. The operation is a -painful one, though not so torturing as that which is employed in New -Zealand, the pattern being made by the punctures of a sharp-toothed -instrument, and not by the edge of a chisel driven completely through -the skin. - -Paint is used very largely, the three principal colors being black, -white, and red. With these three tints they contrive to produce a -variety of effect on their faces, that is only to be rivalled by the -fancy displayed in their hair-dressing. Sometimes the face is all -scarlet with the exception of the nose, which is black, and sometimes -the face is divided like a quartered heraldic shield, and painted red -and black, or white, red, and black in the different quarterings. Some -men will have one side of the face black and the other white, while -others paint their countenances black as far as the nose, and finish -them off with white. - -Reversing the first-mentioned pattern, the Fijian dandy will -occasionally paint his face black and his nose red, or will have a -black face, a white nose, a scarlet ring round each eye, and a white -crescent on the forehead. Sometimes he will wear a white face covered -with round scarlet spots like those on a toy horse; or will substitute -for the round spots a large patch on each cheek and another round the -mouth, just like the face of a theatrical clown. - -Some very curious effects are produced by lines. A white face with a -single broad black stripe from the forehead to the chin has a very -remarkable appearance, and so has a face of which one side is painted -longitudinally with black stripes on a white ground, and the other -half with transverse stripes of the same colors. A similar pattern -is sometimes produced with black upon red. Perhaps the oddest of all -the patterns is formed by painting the face white, and upon the white -drawing a number of undulating lines from the forehead downward, the -lines crossing each other so as to form a sort of rippling network over -the face. - -So much for the dress of the men. That of the women is different in -every way. Though possessing the same kind of stiff, wiry, profuse -hair as the men, they do not trouble themselves to weave it into such -fantastic designs, but mostly content themselves with combing it out so -as to project as far as possible on every side. Sometimes they twist it -into a series of locks, which are allowed to fall on the head merely at -random, like the thrums of a mop. - -Paint is employed by them as by the men, though not with such -profusion. Scarlet seems to be their favorite color in paint, and to -this predilection Mr. Pickering was indebted for opportunities of -ascertaining by touch the peculiar roughness of the Papuan skin. The -Fijians, an essentially ceremonious and punctilious people, will not -allow themselves to be handled, and Mr. Pickering was rather perplexed -as to the means of ascertaining whether this roughness belonged to the -race, or whether it were only a peculiarity belonging to individuals. -The love of scarlet paint here came to his assistance. The vermilion -prepared by European art was so much superior to the pigments of Fiji, -that the natives were only too glad to have so brilliant a color put -on their faces and bodies. Accordingly men and women, old and young, -pressed forward to have a little vermilion rubbed on them, and the -mothers, after having their own faces painted, held out their infants -to participate in the same benefit. - -The native cloth, or masi, which has already been mentioned, is made -from the inner bark of the malo tree, and is manufactured in a simple -and ingenious manner. - -As at the present day English fabrics are largely imported into -Fiji, and are rapidly supplanting the delicate and becoming native -manufactures, the art of making the masi will soon become extinct in -Fiji, as has been the case in other islands where Europeans have gained -a footing. I shall therefore devote a few lines to the description of -its manufacture. - -The natives cut off the bark in long strips, and soak them in water -for some time, until the inner bark can be separated from the outer, -an operation which is performed with the edge of a shell. After it has -been removed from the coarse outer bark, it is kept in water so as to -preserve it in the necessary state of moisture; and when a sufficient -quantity is collected, the operation of beating it begins. - -Masi is beaten upon a log of wood flattened on the upper surface, -and so arranged as to spring a little with the blows of the mallet. -This tool does not resemble our mallet with a handle and a head, but -is simply a piece of wood about fourteen inches in length and two in -thickness, rounded at one end so as to form a handle, and squared for -the remainder of its length. Three sides of this mallet, or iki, as -it is called, are covered with longitudinal grooves, while the fourth -side is left plain. Those specimens that I have seen have the sides not -quite flat, but very slightly convex, perhaps by use, perhaps rounded -intentionally. A masi maker has several of these mallets, sometimes as -many as six or seven, each having some difference in the fluting, and -with them she contrives to produce a fabric that has all the effect of -woven linens among ourselves, the pattern being incorporated with the -material. - -There are in my collection several specimens of masi, one of which -is singularly beautiful. It is thin, snowy white, and soft as silk, -and, even at a distance, must have looked very graceful when wrapped -round the dark body of a Fijian warrior. But it is only on a closer -examination that the real beauty of the fabric is displayed. Instead of -merely beating the masi after the usual fashion, so as to impress upon -it the longitudinal grooves of the mallet, the native manufacturer has -contrived to change the position of her mallet at every blow, so as to -produce a zigzag pattern on the fabric, very much like the well-known -Greek pattern of European decorators. It is beautifully regular, and, -when the fabric is held up to the light, looks like the water mark in -paper. - -The plasticity of the malo bark is really wonderful. A strip of two -inches in length can be beaten to the width of eighteen inches, its -length being slightly reduced as the width increases. As the material -is very thin and flimsy, a single piece being, when beaten out, no -thicker than tissue paper, two or more pieces are usually laid on each -other and beaten so as to form a single thickness, the natural gluten -which this material contains being sufficient to unite them as if they -had been one piece. Some specimens of their larger mantles, now in my -collection, are as thick as stout brown paper, and very much tougher, -appearing both to the eye and the touch as if made of leather. - -When a large masi has to be made, many lengths of the bark are united -to each other, the ends being soaked in arrowroot starch, laid -carefully over each other, and then subjected to the mallet, which -forces the two pieces of bark to unite as if they were one substance, -and does not exhibit the least trace of the junction. As I have already -mentioned, some of these masis are of very great length. Mr. Williams -measured one which was for the use of the king on festival days, and -found its length to be five hundred and forty feet. Many of the large, -and at the same time thin masis, are used as mosquito curtains, and -in that case are decorated with patterns of dusky red and black. The -patterns generally commence at the centre, and are gradually extended -toward the edges. The mode of making these patterns is well described -by Mr. Williams:-- - -“Upon a convex board, several feet long, are arranged parallel, at -about a finger’s width apart, thin straight strips of bamboo, a quarter -of an inch wide; and by the side of these, curved pieces, formed of -the mid-rib of cocoa-nut leaflets, are arranged. Over the board thus -prepared the cloth is laid, and rubbed over with a dye obtained from -the _lauci_ (_Aleurites triloba_). The cloth, of course, takes the dye -upon those parts which receive pressure, being supported by the strips -beneath, and thus shows the same pattern in the color employed. A -stronger preparation of the same dye, laid on with a sort of brush, is -used to divide the squares into oblong compartments, with large round -or radiated dots in the centre. The kesa, or dye, when good, dries -bright. - -“Blank borders, two or three feet wide, are still left on each side of -the square, and to elaborate the ornamentation of these so as to excite -applause is the pride of every Fijian lady. There is now an entire -change of apparatus. The operator works on a plain board; the red -dye gives place to a jet black; her pattern is now formed by a strip -of banana leaf placed on the upper surface of the cloth. Out of the -leaf is cut the pattern, not more than an inch long, which she wishes -to print upon the border, and holds by her first and middle finger, -pressing it down with the thumb. Then, taking in her right hand a soft -pad of cloth steeped in dye, she rubs it firmly over the stencil, and a -fair, sharp figure is made. - -“The practised fingers of the women move quickly, but it is after all a -tedious process. In the work above described, the Lakemba women excel. -On the island of Matuku very pretty curtains are made, but the pattern -is large, and covers the entire square, while the spaces between the -black lines are filled in with red and yellow.” - -We now pass to the liku, or fringed girdle of the women. This is made -of various materials, and much trouble is usually expended in its -manufacture. The ordinary likus are little more than a number of slight -thongs fixed to a belt, and allowed to hang down for several inches. -When worn, it is passed round the waist and tied, not behind, but on -one side, and on festivals the bark cord by which it is fastened is -allowed to hang so low that it often trails on the ground as the wearer -walks along. - -The thongs are made of the bark of a species of hibiscus, called by the -natives _vau_, and used for many purposes, of long flexible roots like -that of the cascus grass, and of different grasses. One kind of liku -which is rather fashionable, is made of a vegetable parasite, called -by the natives _waloa_. The thongs of this liku are not thicker than, -packthread, and when fresh, are as flexible as silk. In process of -time, however, they become brittle, and are apt to break. The color of -this material is deep glossy black. - -There are in my collection two specimens of the liku, one of them being -made of the fashionable waloa. The other is the common liku. It is made -of split grass, the blades of which are more than three feet in length. -In order to make them into the garment they have been doubled, and -the loops woven into a narrow plaited belt of the same material. The -better kind of likus are, however, made with far greater care than is -bestowed on this article. There is but little difference in the thongs, -the chief labor being bestowed on the belt. In some cases the belt of -the liku is four inches in width, and is plaited into elegant patterns, -plaiting being an art in which the natives excel. - -In general shape the liku never varies, being worn by girls and women -alike. As long as a girl is unmarried, she wears a liku the fringe of -which is not more than three inches in depth, and the whole article is -so scanty that when tied round the waist the ends do not meet at the -hips by several inches. As soon as the girl is married, she changes her -liku in token of her new rank, and wears a garment with a fringe that -reaches half-way to her knees, and which entirely surrounds the body. -After she has become a mother, she wears an apron which quite reaches -to the knees, and sometimes falls below them. - - - - -CHAPTER XCIV. - -FIJI--_Continued_. - -MANUFACTURES. - - - MAT MAKING -- SAILS FOR THE CANOES -- FLOOR MATS AND BEDDING -- ROPE - AND STRING -- SINNET AND ITS VARIOUS USES -- THE NETTING NEEDLE AND - MESH -- FANS AND SUNSHADES -- THE ORATOR’S FLAPPER -- BASKET WORK -- - FIJIAN POTTERY, AND NATIVE ART -- POTTERY RESTRICTED TO THE WOMEN - -- THEIR SIMPLE TOOLS AND IMPERFECT MATERIALS -- MODE OF “FIRING” - THE VESSELS -- GLAZING THE WATER VESSELS -- FIJIAN FISHERMEN -- - VARIOUS KINDS OF NETS, AND MODES OF USING THEM -- THE TURTLE FISHERY - -- A BOLD DIVER -- CONTRACTORS FOR TURTLE -- MODES OF CATCHING THE - REPTILE -- A “HEAD” OF TURTLE AND ITS VALUE -- DANGERS OF THE FISHERY - -- FIJIAN CANOES, AND MODE OF MANAGING THEM -- BUILDING CANOES -- - INGENIOUS METHOD OF JOINING THE PLANKS -- TONGA CARPENTERS -- THE - FIJIANS INFERIOR SAILORS TO THE TONGANS -- FIJIAN TRADERS. - -Mats of various kinds are made by the women, and they display as -much ingenuity in mat-making as in the manufacture of masi. Mats are -employed for many purposes. The sails of the Fijian canoes are always -made of matting, which is woven in lengths and then sewed together -afterward, just as is the case with our own canvas sails. The width of -the strips varies from two to four feet, and their length from three -to a hundred yards. On an average, however, the usual length of these -strips is twenty feet, that being the ordinary length of a sail. Sail -mats are necessarily rather coarse, and are made from the leaf of the -cocoa-nut palm. - -Then there are floor-mats, which are used as carpets in the houses. -These vary in size according to the dimensions of the house, but twenty -feet by sixteen is a very ordinary measurement. They are generally -adorned with a border or pattern round the edges, this border being -about six inches wide, and often decorated with feathers and scraps of -any colored material that can be procured. Mats of a similar character, -but much finer texture, are used as bedding; the best kind, which is -called _ono_, being of a very fine texture. - -The native love of ornament is in no way better displayed than in their -rope and string making. The best rope is formed from several strands of -sinnet. This is a sort of plait made from the fibre of the cocoa-nut. -The fibre is carefully removed from the nut, baked, and combed out -like wool. Cordage is made by twisting sinnet together, and some of -the Fijian cords are nearly as thick as a cable, and possessed of -extraordinary elasticity and strength. The sinnet is used in a great -variety of offices, houses being built and the planks of the canoes -tied together with this most useful material. - -When made, the sinnet is made into great rolls, some of them being of -gigantic dimensions. Mr. Williams saw one which was twelve feet long, -and nearly seven feet in diameter. These rolls are differently shaped, -and each shape is known by its own name, such as the double cone, the -plain hank, the oval ball, the honeycomb ball, and the variegated -roll. These rolls are given as presents, and offered to the chiefs as -tribute, together with other property. In the large illustration on -page 937, which represents a tax-paying scene, one or two of these -rolls are shown. - -Sinnet is the favorite material for net making, but as it is costly, -nets are often constructed of the hibiscus bark. Another material is a -sort of creeper named _yaka_, which is steeped in water to dissolve the -green matter, then scraped to clean the fibres, and, lastly, twisted -into strings. It is remarkable that the netting needle and mesh are -exactly similar to those which are employed by ourselves, and the same -may be said of the mesh and needle of the Esquimaux. - -The same ingenuity in plaiting which is expended in the making and -rolling of sinnet asserts itself in various other manufactures, such -as basket and fan making. In the latter art the Fijian excels, and, as -the fan is almost as important to the Fijian as to the Japanese, much -play of fancy is exhibited in fan making. Dissimilar as are these fans -in shape, there is always a sort of character about them which denotes -their origin to a practised eye. - -I have a specimen in my collection, which is a very good type of the -Fijian fan. It is two feet in length, and rather more than a foot broad -in the widest part. The handle is made of cocoa-nut wood, and extends -nearly to the end of the fan, so as to form a support through its -entire length. It is fastened to the fan by double bands of the finest -and most beautifully plaited sinnet. The material of which the fan is -composed is cocoa-nut leaf, divided into doubled strips about the third -of an inch in width near the base of the fan, and gradually decreasing -toward its tip. A strong band of the same material runs round the edges -of the fan, and the two ends of this band are secured to the handle by -the same sinnet as has been just mentioned. - -Such a fan as this is employed rather as a sunshade or parasol than a -fan, and is held over the head when the owner happens to be seated in -the sunshine. It is very light, and is really a much more efficient -implement than its appearance intimates. - -The form of the fan is exceedingly variable. Sometimes they are -triangular, with the handle projecting from one of the angles, and -sometimes they are square, but with the handle passing diagonally -across them. Various modifications of the battledoor are in much favor, -and there is one form which almost exactly resembles that of the -Japanese handscreen. - -It is rather remarkable that the aborigines of tropical America, such -as the Caribs, the Accowais, and the like, make fans of precisely -similar material and structure, except that the handle is not -separately made of wood, but is formed from the ends of the leaf-strips -of which the implement is made. - -There is another curious article of manufacture which is properly -Fijian, but extends through several of the Polynesian group. It is -the orator’s flapper, which the native holds in his hand while he -speaks in council. An engraving showing its form is given on the 949th -page. The handle is carved into various patterns, and mostly, though -not invariably, is terminated by a rude representation of a couple -of human figures seated back to back. Sometimes the entire handle is -covered with sinnet, plaited in the most delicate patterns, as none -but a Fijian can plait. The tuft at the end is formed of cocoa-nut -fibre, which has first been soaked in water, next rolled round a small -twig, and then dried. When it is unwound from the stick, it has a -crisp, wrinkled appearance, very like that of the Fijian’s hair, and -is probably intended to imitate it. In the specimens of my collection, -some have sinnet-covered handles, and some carved handles, while some -have the tuft black, and others sandy red, just as is the case with the -hair of the natives. - -In their basket making, the Fijians are equally lavish of their -artistic powers, weaving them in patterns of such elaborate intricacy -as to put the best European makers to shame, and then, as if not -satisfied with the amount of work bestowed upon them, covering all the -edges with sinnet, braided into really artistic patterns. - -Indeed, the Fijians are born artists. Their work, although sometimes -grotesque, is always artistic, because always appropriate. They carry -this feeling of art into the material whose plasticity allows the -greatest freedom of manipulation; namely, earthenware. Some of the -vessels which are intended for cooking are quite plain, while others -which are made for other purposes are of elegant shape, and covered -with ornaments. Mr. Williams suggests, with much probability, that the -cooking pots are made in imitation of the cells of a species of black -bee which inhabits the Fiji group of islands. - -Several specimens of Fijian pottery are in the British Museum. As -examples of intuitive art they are far superior in outline and ornament -to the generality of decorated earthenware in civilized countries. A -conventional imitation of nature is the principle which is employed by -the Fijian potters, who find their chief patterns in flowers, leaves, -and fruits, thus obtaining the most graceful curves, joined to great -certainty and precision of outline. - -Rude as is the manipulation of the potter, and coarse as is the -material, the design of the vessel is sure to be bold and vigorous, -putting to shame the feeble prettiness with which we are too familiar -in this country. Going to nature for their models, the Fijian potters -display a wonderful power, fertility, and originality of design. In -any country, an artist who really studies nature is sure to produce -works that are fresh and original; and in a country like Fiji, which -is within the tropics, and in which the magnificent vegetation of the -tropics springs up in luxuriant profusion, it is likely that an artist, -however rude he may be, who studies in such a school, will produce -works of genuine merit. - -The art of pottery is confined to the women, and is practically -restricted to the wives and daughters of fishermen. The material -employed by them is a red or blue clay mixed with sand, and their -implements are merely an annular cushion, a flat stone, one or two -wooden scrapers, a round stone to hold against the inside of the -vessel, and a sharp stick. They have no wheel: and yet, in spite -of such disadvantages, they contrive to produce vessels so true in -outline, that few persons, unless they are practically acquainted with -pottery, could believe that they were merely rounded by the eye. - -The shapes of nearly all the vessels are very elegant, as is likely -to be the case from the models employed by the maker. They are often -wonderfully elaborate specimens of workmanship. Permanently covered -vessels, with a hole in the lid, are very common, and Mr. Williams saw -one jar as large as a hogshead, that was furnished with four openings -for the purpose of filling and emptying it rapidly. The most remarkable -examples are the compound vessels, several being united together at -the point where they touch, and further connected by arched handles. -In some cases, even the handles are hollow, and have an opening at the -top, so that the vessels can be filled or emptied through them. This -compound form has lately been copied by Europeans. - -Considering the amount of labor and artistic skill which is given to -pottery, it is a pity that the natives are not better off for material -and firing. The material is very coarse, and the very imperfect mode of -baking fails to give to the vessels the hard and almost imperishable -quality which distinguishes properly prepared earthenware. - -After the vessels have been shaped, and the decorative patterns traced -on them with a sharp stick, they are placed on the ground close -together, but not touching each other, and covered with a quantity of -dried leaves, grass, reeds, and similar materials. The pile is then -lighted, and when it has burned itself out the baking is supposed to -be finished. Those pots that are to be glazed are rubbed, while still -hot, with kawri, the same resin which has already been mentioned in the -account of New Zealand. - - * * * * * - -As may be expected in an island population, the Fijians are expert -fishermen, and employ various means of securing their prey. Nets, -weighted at one edge with shells and floated at the other with pieces -of light wood, are much used; and so are the hook, the creel, and the -weir. In some places a very remarkable net, or rather an imitation of a -net, called the _rau_, is used. To the long, flexible stems of creepers -are fastened a quantity of split cocoa-nut leaves, so as to make a -fringe of considerable depth and very great length, one of these raus -sometimes measuring nearly ten thousand feet from one end to the other. - -When completed, the rau is taken out to sea and thrown into the water, -the ends being attached to canoes, which stretch it to a straight line. -They then make for a small bay, across which the rau can be drawn, and -then capture all the fish by smaller nets or spears. Sometimes they do -not trouble themselves to return to the shore, but bring the net round -in a circle, the fish being so afraid of the leafy fringe that they -avoid it, and keep themselves in the middle of the toils. - -The principal use of the net is, however, in turtle fishing, a sport -which may be almost called an art. The turtle fishers supply themselves -with sinnet nets, some ten feet in width, and one or two hundred yards -in length. While the turtle are feeding upon the shore, the fishermen -carry out the net and shoot it to seaward, so that when the turtle -returns to the sea after feeding, it is sure to be intercepted by the -net, which has large meshes, in order to entangle the flippers of the -reptile. - -When the fishermen feel that the turtle is fairly caught, they proceed -to get it on board, a task of very great difficulty and some danger, -inasmuch as the turtle is in its own element, and the men are obliged -to dive and conduct their operations under water. The most active -diver tries to seize the end of one of the fore-flippers, and pulls it -violently downward, knowing that the instinctive desire to rid itself -of the inconvenience will cause the reptile to rise. Of course the -diver can only retain his hold for a limited time, but as soon as he -rises to the surface for breath another takes his place. Should the -turtle be a vicious one, as is often the case, one of the divers grasps -it across the head, fixing his finger and thumb in the sockets of the -eyes, so as to prevent the creature from doing mischief. - -Finding itself thus hampered, the turtle rises to the surface, when -it is seized by the other fishermen who are in the canoe, hauled on -board, and laid on its back, in which position it is utterly helpless. -The successful fishermen then blow loud blasts of triumph on their -conch-shell trumpets, and bring their prize to land. - -In consequence of the number of men who are employed in this pursuit, -the men almost invariably fish in parties, who are engaged by some -individual. Sometimes they are the servants of a chief, and fish on his -account, all the captured turtles belonging to him, but the fishermen -always receive a present of some kind when they have been successful. -Should the fishers be free men, they hire themselves, their nets, and -canoe to some one who will pay the regular price, for which they are -bound to make ten expeditions. Should they be entirely unsuccessful, -they get nothing, but each time that they bring a turtle ashore they -receive a present from the hirer, who is obliged, after the completion -of the fishing, to give the men a handsome present. Sometimes several -turtles are taken in a single day; but the business is a very -precarious one, even the best fishermen returning day after day without -catching a single turtle. - -Some of the modes of catching the turtle are very ingenious. When the -men have no net, they chase the reptile as they best can, keeping the -shadow of the sail just behind it so as to frighten it, and keep it -continually on the move. They will pursue it in this way for a long -time, until the creature is so exhausted that it can be captured by a -few divers without the aid of a net. When brought home, the turtles are -kept in pens and killed as wanted. - -Although the flesh of the turtle is highly esteemed, and the green -fat is appreciated nearly as much as in England, the chief value of -the turtle lies in its shell, the thirteen plates of which are called -a “head,” and sold to the traders by weight. A “head” weighing three -pounds is a fair one, a head that weighs four pounds is exceptionally -good, while one that exceeds five pounds is hardly ever seen. - -The dangers that beset the turtle fishery are many. Chief among them -is the shark, which is very plentiful on these coasts, and which is -equally fond of men and turtle, so that when it sees a turtle entangled -in the net it makes an attack, and is as likely to take off the limb -of one of the divers as to seize the reptile. Another fertile source -of danger lies in the structure of the coral reefs, which form the -principal shores of these islands. They are full of hollows and -crannies, and it sometimes happens that a diver becomes entangled in -them, and is not able to extricate himself in time to save his life. - -As the canoes return home after turtle fishing, the women come down to -the shore and meet them. Should the expedition be successful, the men -return with songs and shouts of triumph, as if they were bringing home -the bodies of slain foes, on which occasion, as we shall presently see, -a scene of horrid rejoicing takes place. Should they be unsuccessful, -they return in sad silence. - -In the former case, the women welcome the successful fishermen with -songs and dances, and sometimes become rather rough in the exuberance -of their delight. Mr. Williams once witnessed an amusing scene, in -which the women brought a quantity of bitter oranges down to the shore, -and when the fishermen were about to land, pelted them so mercilessly -that the men were in self-defence obliged to drive their aggressors off -the beach. - -As the canoe has so often been mentioned in connection with fishing, -it will be now described. In principle it resembles the form which -prevails among the great Polynesian group, though in detail it differs -from many of the ordinary vessels. All the canoes possess modifications -of the outrigger, but the best example is the double canoe, where two -boats are placed side by side in such a manner that one of them acts as -the outrigger and the other as the canoe. - -If the reader will refer to illustration No. 2, on the 924th page, -he will be able to understand the general appearance of this curious -vessel. The two canoes are covered over, so as to keep out the water, -and are connected by a platform which projects over the outer edges of -both boats. Hatchways are cut through the platform, so as to enable the -sailors to pass into the interior of the canoes. In the illustration -a man is seen emerging from the hatch of the outer canoe. Upon this -platform is erected a sort of deck-house for the principal person on -board, and on the top of the deck-house is a platform, on which stands -the captain of the vessel, so that he may give his orders from this -elevated position, like the captain of a steamboat on the paddle-box -or bridge. This position also enables him to trace the course of the -turtle, if they should be engaged in the profitable chase of that -reptile. - -The mode of managing the vessel is extremely ingenious. The short mast -works on a pivot at the foot, and can be slacked over to either end of -the vessel. When the canoe is about to get under way, the long yard is -drawn up to the head of the mast, and the latter inclined, so that the -mast, the yard, and the deck form a triangle. The halyards are then -made fast, and act as stays. When the vessel is wanted to go about, the -mast is slacked off to the other end, so that the stern becomes the -bow, the tack and the sheet change places, and away goes the vessel on -the other course. - -It will be seen that such a canoe sails equally well in either -direction, and, therefore, that it can be steered from either end. The -rudder is a very large oar, some twenty feet in length, of which the -blade occupies eight, and is sixteen inches wide. The leverage of such -an oar is tremendous, and, in a stiff gale, several men are required -to work it. In order to relieve them in some degree, rudder-bands are -used; but even with this assistance the men have great difficulty in -keeping the canoe to her course, and are nearly sure to receive some -very sharp blows in the side from the handle of the steering oar. -Sometimes a sudden gust of wind, or a large wave, will bring round the -rudder with such violence that the handle strikes a man in the side -and kills him. With all these drawbacks, canoe sailing is a favorite -occupation with the Fijians, who are as merry as possible while on -board, singing songs to encourage the steersman, watching the waves -and giving notice of them, and adding to the joyous tumult by beating -any drum that they may happen to have on board. Even when the wind -fails, and the canoe has to be propelled by poling if she should be in -shoal water, or by sculling if she should be too far out at sea for the -poles, the crew do their work in gangs, which are relieved at regular -intervals, those who are resting singing songs and encouraging those -who are at work. - -Sculling one of these large canoes is rather heavy work, the great -paddles being worked from side to side in perfect unison, the men -moving their feet in accordance with the rhythm of their comrades’ -song. As many as eight sculls are sometimes employed at the same time, -should the canoe be a large one and the crew tolerably numerous. The -sculling oars pass through holes in the deck, an equal number being out -fore and aft. - -The mode of building these canoes is so ingenious that I will try to -describe it, though without a plentiful use of diagrams description is -very difficult. Canoes of moderate size are cut out of single logs; and -in these there is nothing particularly worthy of remark. But when the -native ship-builder wishes to construct one of the great war canoes, he -has to exercise all the skill of his craft. - -Here it must be mentioned that the canoe makers form a sort of clan of -their own, and have their own chief, who is always a man eminent for -skill in his profession. The experienced Fijians know the workmanship -of these men as well as our artists know the touch and style of a -celebrated sculptor or painter, and contemplate both the man and his -workmanship with respectful admiration. - -The first process in canoe building is to lay the keel, which is made -of several pieces of wood carefully “scarfed” together; and upon it -the planking is fixed, without requiring ribs, as in our boats. The -most ingenious part of boat building is the way that the planks are -fastened, or rather tied together, without a vestige of the sinnet -appearing on the outside. Along the inside edge of each plank runs a -bold flange, through which a number of holes are bored downward at -regular distances, so that when two planks are placed together, the -holes in the flanges exactly coincide, and a cord can be run through -them. - -When a plank has been made, and all the flange holes bored, the edges -are smeared with a sort of white pitch, upon which is laid a strip of -fine masi. This of course covers the holes, which are reopened by means -of a small fire-stick. The planks thus prepared are called “vonos.” -When the vono is ready, it is lifted to its place, and very carefully -adjusted, so that all the holes exactly coincide. The best and -strongest sinnet is next passed eight or ten times through the hole, -drawn as tight as possible, and then tied. It will be seen, therefore, -that all the tying is done inside the vessel. In order to tighten the -sinnet still more, a number of little wedges are inserted under it in -different directions, and are driven home with the mallet. - -By this process the planks are brought so tightly together that, when -the carpenter comes to smooth off the outside of the vessel with his -adze, he often has to look very closely before he can see the line of -junction. Caulking is therefore needless, the white pitch and masi -rendering the junction of the planks completely waterproof. The vonos -are by no means equal in size, some being twenty feet in length, while -others are barely thirty inches, but all are connected in exactly the -same manner. - -The gunwales, and other parts above the water mark, do not require so -much care, and are fastened without flanges, a strip of wood or “bead” -being laid upon the junction, and the sinnet bands passing over and -over it and drawn tight with wedges, and the holes carefully caulked -with fibre and pitch. When the canoe is completed, it is beautifully -finished off, the whole of the outside being first carefully trimmed -with the adze, and then polished with pumice stone, so that it looks as -if it were made of one piece of wood. - -Ornament is freely used in the best canoes, especially in the two -projecting ends, which are carved in patterns, and frequently inlaid -with white shells belonging to the genus Ovulum or egg shells. This -form of canoe has gradually superseded the more clumsy forms that were -once in use in Tonga and the neighboring islands. The Tongans often -made voyages to Fiji, being better and bolder sailors, though their -canoes were inferior; and, having been struck with the superiority of -Fijian boat-building, have by degrees built their own vessels after -Fijian models. Being also remarkably good carpenters, they have taken -to boat building even in Fiji itself, and have in a great measure -ousted the native builders, being able to work better and quicker, and -for less pay. - -In spite of their excellent canoes, and their skill in managing their -vessels, the Fijians are not bold sailors, and, according to Mr. -Williams, “none have yet taken their canoes beyond the boundaries -of their own group.” He knew one old man named Toalevu (Great Fowl) -who had a fancy that he could make a profitable trading expedition -westward, and who accordingly loaded his canoe with pottery and -masi, and started off. After two or three days, however, he became -frightened, and made the best of his way back again, only to become a -standing warning to rash voyagers. Yet in waters which they know the -Fijians are excellent sailors, and the women appear to be as bold and -skilful as the men, assisting in steering, managing the sail, and even -in the laborious task of sculling or poling. - -Owing to their excellence in canoe building, the Fijians carry on -a brisk trade with other islands, supplying them not only with -the canoes, but with the masts, sails, sinnet, and other nautical -appliances, receiving in exchange the whales’ teeth, shells, weapons, -and other valued commodities. - - - - -CHAPTER XCV. - -FIJI--_Continued_. - -GOVERNMENT AND SOCIAL LIFE. - - - A NATIVE LEGEND -- THE RAT GOD, AND HIS MISHAPS ON A JOURNEY -- - EVASION OF A HUMILIATING CUSTOM -- MODERN CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT -- - THE VARIOUS RANKS OF CHIEFS AND PEOPLE -- THE SYSTEM OF VASU, OR - NEPOTISM EXTRAORDINARY -- SINGULAR POWER OF THE VASU -- THE SYSTEM - A HINDRANCE TO INDUSTRY -- THE VASU AS AN AMBASSADOR -- PAYMENT OF - TAXES -- PRESENTATION OF THE CANOE -- TRIBUTE PAID IN KIND AND IN - LABOR -- THE TENURE OF LAND -- A SINGULAR CUSTOM -- ATTACHMENT TO - THE SOIL -- THE DISAPPOINTED PURCHASER -- THE FAMILY THE TYPE OF - FIJIAN GOVERNMENT -- CODE OF ETIQUETTE AMONG THE FIJIANS -- THE COURT - LANGUAGE -- THE “TAMA,” AND ITS MODIFICATIONS -- MEETING A SUPERIOR - -- THE “BALEMURI” CUSTOM -- THE POLITE NATIVE WHO DID NOT GET A - MUSKET -- HOW GREAT CHIEFS VISIT EACH OTHER -- ORATORY, AND MODES OF - GREETING -- STRICTNESS OF THE CODE OF ETIQUETTE -- THE YOUNG CHIEF - AND THE GUANA’S TAIL -- A FIJIAN FEAST -- THE VAST OVENS, AND MODE - OF MAKING THEM -- PREPARATIONS FOR THE FEAST -- ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE - BANQUET -- VARIETY OF DISHES -- MODE OF DRINKING -- HOW TO OPEN A - COCOA-NUT -- CANNIBALISM -- THE KING THAKOMBAU -- PRESUMED ORIGIN OF - CANNIBALISM -- NATIVE LEGEND -- THE CANNIBAL FORKS -- OPPORTUNITIES - FOR HUMAN SACRIFICES -- “TAKING DOWN THE MAST” -- AN UNFORTUNATE - MISTAKE. - -Owing to the geographical nature of the Fiji group, which consists of -seven groups of islands, some of them very large and some very small, -the mode of government has never been monarchical, the country being -ruled by a number of chiefs of greater or less importance, according -to the amount of territory over which their sway extended. The various -islands had in former days but little connection with each other. At -the present time, more intercourse takes place, and in one instance the -visit involves a singular and ludicrous ceremonial. - -One of the gods belonging to Somo-somo, named Ng-gurai, went to visit -Mbau a spot on the eastern coast of Viti Lemi, one of the greater -islands, and to pay his respects to the god of that place. He was -accompanied by a Vuna god named Vatu-Mundre, who gave him a bamboo by -way of a vessel, and undertook to guide him on his journey. Ng-gurai -then entered into the body of a rat, seated himself on the bamboo, and -set off on his journey. After they had sailed for some time, Ng-gurai -lost his way on account of wanting to call at every island which he -passed, and at last, just as he arrived on the Mbau shore, he was -washed off the bamboo and nearly drowned in the surf. - -From this fate he was rescued by a Mbau woman, who took him into the -chiefs house, and put him among the cooks on the hearth, where he -sat shivering for four days. Meanwhile, Vatu-Mundre arrived at his -destination, and was received in royal manner by the Mbau god, who -tried in vain to induce him to become tributary to him. - -After a proper interval, the Mbau god returned the visit of -Vatu-Mundre, who had craftily greased the path, so that when his -visitor became animated, his feet slipped, and he fell on his back. -Vatu-Mundre then took advantage of his situation, and forced his -visitor to become his tributary. - -In consequence of this affair, the Mbau people pay a homage to -the natives of Vuna, but indemnify themselves by exacting a most -humiliating homage from the men of Somo-somo, though in fact Somo-somo -is the acknowledged superior of Vuna. - -Whenever a Somo-somo canoe goes to Mbau, the sail must be lowered -at a certain distance from shore, and the crew must paddle in a -sitting position. To keep up the sail or to paddle in the usual -standing position would cost them their lives. As soon as they come -within hearing of the shore they have to shout the Tama, _i. e._ the -reverential salutation of an inferior to a superior, and to reiterate -it at short intervals. - -Arrived on shore, they are not allowed to enter a house, but are kept -in the open air for four days, during which time they are obliged to -wear their worst dresses, move about in a stooping attitude, and to say -the Tama in a low and trembling voice, in imitation of the shivering -rat-god. After the four days have expired, they may enter houses and -dress in better clothes, but are still obliged to walk in a half-bent -attitude. When a Mbau man meets one of these crouching visitors, he -cries out, “Ho! Ho!” in a jeering manner, and asks the Somo-somo man -whether his god is yet at liberty. The unfortunate visitor is then -obliged to place his hand on his heart, stoop half-way to the ground, -and say humbly that Ng-gurai is allowed his liberty. - -Naturally disliking this oppressive and humiliating custom, the people -of Somo-somo have of late years managed to evade it by means of foreign -vessels. The custom of lowering the sail and paddling while seated -was not binding on people of other countries, and so they contrived -to visit Mbau on board of Tongan canoes, or, better still, English -ship-boats. - -Of late years the government has assumed a feudal aspect, the chiefs -of large districts being considered as kings, and having under them -a number of inferior chiefs who are tributary to them, and bound to -furnish men and arms when the king declares war. According to Mr. -Williams, the Fijians may be ranked under six distinct orders. First -come the kings, and next to them the chiefs of separate large islands -or districts. Then come the chiefs of towns, the priests, and the -Mata-ni-vanuas, or aides-de-camp of the great chiefs. Next to them come -the chiefs of professions, such as canoe building and turtle fishing, -and with them are ranked any distinguished warriors of low birth. The -fifth rank includes all the commonalty, and the sixth consists of the -slaves, who are always captives. - -As is often the case in countries where polygamy is practised, the law -of descent passes through the female line, the successor of the king or -chief being always the son of a woman of high rank. - -The oddest part of Fijian political economy is the system of Vasu, or -nephew--a system which may be described as nepotism carried to the -greatest possible extreme. Mr. Williams’s description of the Vasu is -very curious. “The word means a nephew, or niece, but becomes a title -of office in the case of the male, who in some localities has the -extraordinary privilege of appropriating whatever he chooses belonging -to his uncle, or those under his uncle’s power. - -“Vasus are of three kinds: the _Vasu-taukei_, the _Vasu-levu_ and the -_Vasu_;--the last is a common name, belonging to any nephew whatever. -Vasu-taukei is a term applied to any Vasu whose mother is a lady of the -land in which he was born. The fact of Mbau being at the head of Fijian -rank gives the Queen of Mbau a pre-eminence over all Fijian ladies, and -her son a place nominally over all Vasus. - -“No material difference exists between the power of a Vasu-taukei and a -Vasu-levu, which latter title is given to every Vasu born of a woman of -rank, and having a first-class chief for his father. A Vasu-taukei can -claim anything belonging to a native of his mother’s land, excepting -the wives, home, and land of a chief. Vasus cannot be considered -apart from the civil polity of the group, forming, as they do, one of -its integral parts, and supplying the high-pressure power of Fijian -despotism. - -“In grasping at dominant influence, the chiefs have created a power, -which ever and anon turns round and grips them with no gentle hand. -However high a chief may rank, however powerful a king may be, if -he has a nephew, he has a master, one who will not be content with -the name, but who will exercise his prerogative to the full seizing -whatever will take his fancy, regardless of its value or the owner’s -inconvenience in its loss. Resistance is not to be thought of, and -objection is only offered in extreme cases. A striking instance of the -power of the Vasu occurred in the case of Thokonauto, a Rewa chief, -who, during a quarrel with an uncle, used the right of Vasu, and -actually supplied himself with ammunition from his enemy’s stores.... - -“Descending in the social scale, the Vasu is a hindrance to industry, -few being willing to labor unrewarded for another’s benefit. One -illustration will suffice. An industrious uncle builds a canoe in which -he has not made half-a-dozen trips, when an idle nephew mounts the -deck, sounds his trumpet-shell, and the blast announces to all within -hearing that the canoe has that instant changed masters.” - -The Vasu of a king is necessarily a personage of very great importance; -and when he acts as delegate for the king, he is invested for the time -with royal dignity. He is sent, for example, to other places to collect -property, which is handed over to his king as tribute; and were it not -for a check which the king has over him, he might be tempted to enrich -himself by exacting more from the people than they ought to give. In -this case, however, the Vasu is held amenable to the king, and should -he exceed his proper powers, is heavily fined. - -Taxes, to which reference is here made, are paid in a manner differing -materially from the mode adopted in more civilized countries. In -Europe, for example, no one pays a tax if he can possibly escape from -it, and the visits of the tax-gatherer are looked upon as periodical -vexations. In Fiji the case is different. People take a pride in paying -taxes, and the days of payment are days of high festival. - -On the appointed day the king prepares a great feast, and the people -assemble in vast multitudes with their goods, such as rolls of sinnet, -masi, whales’ teeth, reeds, women’s dresses--and often accompanied by -their wearers--ornaments, weapons, and the like, and present themselves -in turn before the king. Each man is clad in his very best raiment, is -painted in the highest style of art, and displays the latest fashion in -hair-dressing. With songs and dances the people approach their monarch, -and lay their presents before him, returning to the banquet which he -has prepared for them. - -It is hardly possible to imagine a more animated scene than that -which occurs when the tribute from a distant place is taken to the -king, especially if, as is often the case, a valuable article, such -as a large war canoe, is presented as part of the tribute. A fleet -of canoes, containing several hundred people and great quantities of -property, makes its appearance off the coast, and is received with -great hospitality, as well may be the case. The king having seated -himself on a large masi carpet, the principal chief of the tribute -bearers comes before him, accompanied by his men bringing the presents -with them in proper ceremonial, the chief himself carrying, in the -folds of his robe, a whale’s tooth, which is considered as the symbol -of the canoe which is about to be presented, and which is called by the -same name as the canoe which it represents. - -Approaching the king with the prescribed gestures, the chief kneels -before him, and first offers to his master all the property which has -been deposited on the ground. He then takes from the folds of his -voluminous dress, which, as the reader may remember, is often several -hundred feet in length, the whale’s tooth, and makes an appropriate -speech. He compliments the king on the prosperity which is enjoyed by -all districts under his sway, acknowledging their entire submission, -and hoping that they may be allowed to live in order to build canoes -for him. As an earnest of this wish, he presents the king with a new -canoe, and, so saying, he gives the king the symbolical whale’s tooth, -calling it by the name of the vessel. On receiving the tooth, the king -graciously gives them his permission to live, whereupon all present -clap their hands and shout, the cry of the receivers being different -from that which is employed by the givers. - -In the following illustration one of these animated scenes is -represented. - -Nearly in the centre is the king seated on the masi carpet, having his -back to the spectator in order to show the mode in which the flowing -robes of a great man are arranged. In front of him kneels the chief of -the tax-paying expedition, who is in the act of offering to the king -the symbolical whale’s tooth. One or two similar teeth lie by his side, -and form a part of the present. In the distance is the flotilla of -canoes, in which the tax-paying party have come; and near the shore is -the new war canoe, which forms the chief part of the offering. - -In the foreground are seen the various articles of property which -constitute taxes, such as yams, rolls of cloth and sinnet, baskets, -articles of dress, and young women, the last being dressed in the -finest of likus, and being decorated, not only with their ordinary -ornaments, but with wreaths and garlands of flowers. Behind the -offering chief are his followers, also kneeling as a mark of respect -for the king; and on the left hand are the spectators of the ceremony, -in front of whom sit their chiefs and leading men. - -Tribute is not only paid in property, but in labor, those who accompany -the tax-paying chief being required to give their labor for several -weeks. They work in the fields, they thatch houses, they help in -canoe building, they go on fishing expeditions, and at the end of the -stipulated time they receive a present, and return to their homes. - -Should the king take it into his head to go and fetch the taxes -himself, his visit becomes terribly burdensome to those whom he honors -with his presence. He will be accompanied by some twenty or thirty -canoes, manned by a thousand men or so, and all those people have -to be entertained by the chief whom he visits. It is true that he -always makes a present when he concludes his visit, but the present is -entirely inadequate to the cost of his entertainment. - -The tenure of land is nearly as difficult a question in Fiji as in -New Zealand. It is difficult enough when discussed between natives, -but when the matter is complicated by a quarrel between natives and -colonists, it becomes a very apple of discord. Neither party can quite -understand the other. The European colonist who buys land from a native -chief purchases, according to his ideas, a complete property in the -land, and control over it. The native who sells it has never conceived -such an idea as the total alienation of land, and, in consequence, if -the purchaser should happen to leave any part of the land unoccupied, -the natives will build their houses upon it, and till it as before. -Then as in process of time the proprietor wants to use his ground for -his own purposes, the natives refuse to be ejected, and there is a -quarrel. - -The state of the case is very well put by Dr. Pritchard: “Every inch of -land in Fiji has its owner. Every parcel or tract of ground has a name, -and the boundaries are defined and well-known. The proprietorship rests -in families, the heads of families being the representatives of the -title. Every member of the family can use the lands attaching to the -family. Thus the heads of families are the nominal owners, the whole -family are the actual occupiers. The family land maintains the whole -family, and the members maintain the head of the family. - -[Illustration: PRESENTATION OF THE CANOE. (See page 936.)] - -“A chief holds his lands under precisely the same tenure, as head -of his family, and his _personal_ rights attain only to the land -pertaining to his family, in which right every member of his family -shares so far as on any portion of the land. But the chief is also head -of his tribe, and, as such, certain rights to the whole lands of the -tribe appertain to him. The tribe is a family, and the chief is the -head of the family. - -“The families of a tribe maintain the chief. In war they give him -their services, and follow him to the fight. In peace they supply him -with food. In this way, the whole tribe attains a certain collective -interest in all the lands held by each family; and every parcel of land -alienated contracts the source whence the collective tribal support -of the chief is drawn. From this complicated tenure it is clear that -the alienation of land, however large or small the tract, can be made -valid only by the collective act of the whole tribe, in the persons of -the ruling chief and the heads of families. Random and reckless land -transactions under these circumstances would be simply another seizure -of Naboth’s vineyard, for which the price of blood would inevitably -have to be paid.” - -Another cause of misunderstanding lies in a peculiar attachment which -the Fijian has to the soil. When he sells a piece of land, it is an -understood thing between the buyer and seller that the latter shall -have the exclusive right of working on the ground, that none but he -shall be employed to till the ground, or build houses upon it. The -white settlers who understand the customs of the natives have accepted -the condition, and find that it answers tolerably well. Those who are -unacquainted with native ideas have often suffered severely for their -ignorance, and, when they have brought a gang of their own workmen to -put up a house on the newly purchased land, have been fairly driven out -by armed parties of natives. - -Mr. Pritchard narrates an amusing anecdote, which illustrates the -working of this principle. A missionary had purchased some land -according to the code of laws which had been agreed upon by the native -chiefs and the colonists; all the natives who belonged to the family -having been consulted, and agreed to the purchase. As a matter of -course, they expected that the work of clearing the ground and building -the house would be given to them. Being ignorant of this custom, the -purchaser took some of his own people, but was immediately surrounded -by a body of armed savages, who flourished their clubs and spears, and -frightened him so much that he retreated to his boat, and made off. -When he was well out of range, all those who had muskets fired them in -the direction of the boat, as if to show that their intention was not -to kill but merely to intimidate. - -It will be seen from the foregoing passages, that the whole government -of Fiji is a repetition of one principle, namely, that of the family. -The head of a family is the nominal possessor of the land. All the -members of the family use the land, and support their head, as a return -for the use of the land. Districts again are considered as families, -the chief being the head, and being supported by the district. The -king, again, is considered as the father of all the chiefs, and the -nominal owner of all the land in his dominions, and he is therefore -entitled to be supported by the taxation which has been described. -Practically, however, he has no more right to land than any other head -of a family. - -From the preceding observations the reader may see that a definite -code of etiquette prevails among the Fiji islands. Indeed, there is no -part of the world where etiquette is carried to a greater extent, or -where it is more intimately interwoven with every action of ordinary -life. If, for example, one man meets another on a path, both having, as -usual, their clubs on their shoulders, as they approach each other they -lower their clubs to their knees, as a token that they are at peace, -and pass on. Retaining the club on the shoulder would be equivalent to -a challenge to fight. - -The leading characteristic of this code of etiquette is the reverence -for the chief, a reverence which is carried to such a pitch, that in -battle a chief sometimes comes out unhurt simply because his opponents -were so much awe-stricken by his rank that they did not dare to -strike him. Each superior therefore partakes of the chiefly character -as far as his inferiors are concerned, and expects the appropriate -acknowledgments of rank. - -This extraordinary reverence is carried so far that it has invented a -language of etiquette, no one with any pretensions to good breeding -speaking in ordinary language of a chief, of a chiefs head or limbs, -of a chiefs dress, or indeed of any action performed by a chief, but -supplying a paraphrastic and hyperbolical phraseology, of which our own -court language is but a faint shadow. The Tama, which has before been -mentioned, is the right of a chief, and is therefore uttered by men of -inferior rank, not only when they meet the chief himself, but when they -come within a certain distance of his village. So elaborate is this -code of ceremony that, discourteous as it might be to omit the Tama -when due, it would be thought doubly so to utter it on occasions when -it was not due. For example, the Tama is not used toward the close of -the day, or when the chief is either making a sail or watching a sail -maker at work; and if the Tama were uttered on any such occasion, it -would be resented as an insult. - -Passing a superior on the wrong side, and sailing by his canoe on the -outrigger side, are considered as solecisms in manners, while passing -_behind_ a chief is so deadly an insult that the man who dared do -such a deed would run the risk of getting his brains knocked out on -the spot, or, if he were a rich man, would have to pay a very heavy -fine, or “soro,” by way of compensation. The reason of this rule is -evident enough. The Fijian is apt to be treacherous, and when he -attacks another always tries to take him unawares, and steals on him, -if possible, from behind. It is therefore a rule, that any one passing -behind a superior is looked upon as contemplating assassination, and -makes himself liable to the appropriate penalty. - -If a man should meet a chief, the inferior withdraws from the path, -lays his club on the ground, and crouches in a bent position until -the great man has passed by. If, however, the two men should be of -tolerably equal rank, the inferior merely stands aside, bends his body -slightly, and rubs the left arm with the right hand, or grasps his -beard and keeps his eyes fixed on the ground. - -The act of giving anything to the chief, touching him or his dress, or -anything above his head, or receiving anything from him, or hearing a -gracious message from him, is accompanied by a gentle clapping of the -hands. Standing in the presence of a chief is not permitted. Any one -who addresses him must kneel; and if they move about, must either do so -on their knees, or at least in a crouching attitude. - -In some cases the code of etiquette is carried to an extreme which -appears to us exceedingly ludicrous. If a superior fall, or in any -other way makes himself look awkward, all his inferiors who are present -immediately do the same thing, and expect a fee as recognition of their -politeness. - -Mr. Williams narrates an amusing anecdote of this branch of etiquette, -which is called _bale-muri_ (pronounced bahleh-moo-ree), _i. e._ -follow in falling. “One day I came to a long bridge formed of a single -cocoa-nut tree, which was thrown across a rapid stream, the opposite -bank of which was two or three feet lower, so that the declivity was -too steep to be comfortable. The pole was also wet and slippery: and -thus my crossing safely was very doubtful. - -“Just as I commenced the experiment, a heathen said with much -animation, ‘to-day I shall have a musket.’ I had, however, just then -to heed my steps more than his words, and so succeeded in reaching the -other side safely. When I asked him why he spoke of a musket, the man -replied, ‘I felt certain you would fall in attempting to go over, and I -should have fallen after you (that is, appeared to be equally clumsy); -and as the bridge is high, the water rapid, and you a gentleman, you -would not have thought of giving me less than a musket.’” Ludicrous -as this custom appears, it is based upon a true sense of courtesy, a -desire to spare the feelings of others. - -When one person of rank visits another, a number of ceremonies are -performed in regular order. Should the visit be paid in a canoe, as is -mostly the case, a herald is sent a few days previously to give notice -of his coming, so as to avoid taking the intended host by surprise. As -soon as the canoe comes in sight, a herald is sent out to inquire the -name and rank of the visitor, who is met on the shore by a deputation -of petty chiefs, headed by one of the Matas, or aides-de-camp. If the -visitor be a personage of very high rank, the Matas will go ten miles -to meet him. - -As soon as the visitor and his retinue have reached the house of their -entertainer, they seat themselves, and the host, after clapping his -hands gently in token of salutation, welcomes them in a set form of -words, such as “Come with peace the chief from Mbau,” or “Somo-somo,” -as the case may be. - -A series of similar remarks is made by both parties, the main point -being that Fijian oratory is the driest and dullest of performances, -always broken up into short sentences, without any apparent connection -between them, and further hindered by the attitude of courtesy which -the speaker has to adopt. It is impossible for the finest orator in the -world to make an effective speech if he has to deliver it in a kneeling -position, with his body bent forward, his hands holding his beard, -and his eyes directed to the ground. In some parts of Fiji etiquette -requires that the orator’s back should be toward the chief whom he is -addressing. Nobody takes the trouble to listen to these speeches, or is -expected to do so, the chiefs often talking over indifferent matters -while the proper number of speeches are rehearsed. - -The ceremonies on leave-taking are quite as long, as intricate, and -as tedious; and, when the speeches are over, the two great men salute -each other after the fashion of their country, by pressing their faces -together, and drawing in the breath with a loud noise, as if smelling -each other. A chief of inferior rank salutes his superior’s hand, and -not his face. - -When the visitors start upon their return journey, the host accompanies -them for a part of the way, the distance being regulated by their -relative rank. If they should have come by sea, the proper etiquette is -for the host to go on board, together with some of his chief men, and -to accompany his visitors to a certain distance from land, when they -all jump into the sea and swim ashore. - -As is the case in all countries, whether savage or civilized, the code -of etiquette is rigidly enforced at meal-times. Even the greatest -chief, if present at a banquet, behaves in as deferential a manner as -the commonest man present. Though he may be in his own dominions, and -though he may hold absolute sway over every man and woman within sight, -he will not venture to taste a morsel of food until it has first been -offered to him. Many years ago one chief did so, and, in consequence, -the Fijians have hated his very name ever since. - -So great would be the breach of manners by such a proceeding, that the -life of the offender would be endangered by it. On one occasion it did -cost the chief his life. He inadvertently ate a piece of cocoa-nut -which had not been offered to him; and this insult so rankled in the -mind of one of his officers, who was in attendance, that he ran away -from his own chief, and joined another who was at war with him. A -battle took place, the offending chief was worsted, and was running -for his life, when he met the insulted officer, and asked for his -assistance. The man was inclined to give it, but the insult could not -be forgotten, and so, with an apology for the duty which he was called -on to perform, he knocked out his former master’s brains with his club. - -A still more astonishing instance of this feeling is mentioned by -Mr. Williams. A young chief and his father-in-law were about to dine -together, and a baked guana was provided for each. The guana is a -lizard which has a long and slender tail. In passing by his relative’s -guana, the young man accidentally broke off the end of its tail, which -would necessarily be rendered brittle by cooking. This was held to be -so gross an insult, that the offender paid for it with his life. - -Etiquette is shown to its fullest extent when a king or principal -chief gives a great banquet. As with the New Zealanders, such a feast -is contemplated for many months previously; vegetables are planted -expressly for it, and no one is allowed to kill pigs or gather fruit, -lest there should not be a sufficient quantity of provisions. - -Just before the day of festival, the final preparations are made. -Messages are sent to all the neighboring tribes, or rather to the -chiefs, who communicate them to the people. The turtle fishers bestir -themselves to get their nets and canoes in order, and, as soon as they -are ready, start off to sea. Yams and other root crops are dug up, the -ovens made, and the fuel chopped and brought ready for use. - -These ovens are of enormous size, as each is capable of cooking a -number of pigs, turtles, and vast quantities of vegetables. With all -our skill in cooking, it is to be doubted whether we are not excelled -by the Fijians in the art of cooking large quantities of meat at a -time. The ovens are simply holes dug in the ground, some ten feet in -depth and fifteen feet or so in diameter. - -The mode of cooking is very simple. A small fire is made at the bottom -of the pit, which is then filled with firewood, and as soon as the wood -is thoroughly on fire, large stones are placed on it. When the wood has -all burned away, the pigs, turtles, and vegetables are laid on the hot -stones, some of which are introduced into the interior of each animal, -so that it may be the more thoroughly cooked. The oven is then filled -up with boughs and green leaves, and upon the leaves is placed a thick -covering of earth. The oven regulates its own time of cooking, for as -soon as steam rises through the earthy covering, the contents of the -oven are known to be properly cooked. - -For the two or three days preceding the feast, all the people are full -of activity. They take a pride in the liberality of their chief, and -each man brings as many pigs, yams, turtles, and other kinds of food as -he can manage to put together. The king himself takes the direction of -affairs, his orders being communicated to the people by his Matas, or -aides-de-camp. Day and night go on the preparations, the pigs squealing -as they are chased before being killed, the men hard at work digging -the ovens, some loosening the earth with long pointed sticks, others -carrying off the loosened soil in baskets, while the flames that blaze -from the completed ovens enable the workmen to continue their labors -throughout the night. - -On these occasions the Fijians dispense with their ordinary feelings -respecting cooking. In Fiji, as in New Zealand, cooking is despised, -and the word “cook” is used as a term of reproach and derision. In -consequence of this feeling, all cooking is performed by the slaves. -But on the eve of a great feast this feeling is laid aside, and every -man helps to cook the food. Even the king himself assists in feeding -the ovens with fuel, arranging the pigs, stirring the contents of the -cooking pots, and performing offices which, on the following day, none -but a slave will perform. - -By the time that the cooking is completed, the various tribes have -assembled, and the ovens are then opened and the food taken out. It -is then arranged in separate heaps, a layer of cocoa-nut leaves being -placed on the ground by way of dish. On the leaves is placed a layer -of cocoa-nuts, then come the yams and potatoes, then puddings, and at -the top of all several pigs. The quantity of provisions thus brought -together is enormous. Mr. Williams mentions that at one feast, at -which he was present, two hundred men were employed for nearly six -hours in piling up the food. There were six heaps of food, and among -their contents were about fifty tons of cooked yams and potatoes, -fifteen tons of pudding, seventy turtles, and about two hundred tons of -uncooked yams. There was one pudding which measured twenty-one feet in -circumference. - -Profusion is the rule upon these occasions, and the more food that -a chief produces, the more honor he receives. One chief gained the -honorable name of High Pork, because he once provided such vast -quantities of food that before it could be finished decomposition had -begun in the pork. - -All being arranged, the distribution now begins, and is carried out -with that precision of etiquette which pervades all society in Fiji. -The various tribes and their chiefs being seated, the Tui-rara, or -master of the ceremonies, orders the food to be divided into as many -portions as there are tribes, regulating the amount by the importance -of the tribe. He then takes the tribes in succession, and calls their -names. As he calls each tribe, the people return their thanks, and a -number of young men are sent to fetch the food. This goes on until the -whole of the food has been given away, when a further distribution -takes place among the tribes, each village first taking a share and -then each family receiving its proper portion, which is handed to its -head. - -It is evident that the Tui-rara has no sinecure. He must possess the -most intimate knowledge of all the tribes, and the ranks of their -respective chiefs, and must at the same time be on the alert to -distinguish any stranger that may make his appearance. Should he be a -foreigner, he is considered a chief, and a chief’s portion, _i. e._ a -quantity sufficient for twenty Fijians or sixty Englishmen, is sent to -him. Of course he gives the greater part away, but in so doing he acts -the part of a chief. It is, in fact, the old story of Benjamin’s mess -translated into Fijian. - -The men always eat their food in the open air, but send the women’s -portion to the houses to be eaten within doors. - -The first illustration on the next page will give an idea of a Fijian -feast. On the left hand is seen the master of the ceremonies, calling -the name of a tribe, and in the centre are seen the young men running -to fetch the food. In the foreground is the portion of their tribe, -consisting of pigs, yams, turtles, and so forth. In front of them are -some of the curious drums, which will be presently described, and in -the distance are seen the members of the different tribes, some eating, -and others waiting for their portion. The curious building in the -background is one of the Burés, or temples, which will be presently -described. - -From the preceding description it will be seen that the Fijians are not -bad cooks, and that the number of dishes which they produce is by no -means small. The variety of the dishes is, however, much greater than -has been mentioned. They eat many kinds of fish, together with almost -every living creature that they find in the coral reefs. Some of their -preparations very much resemble those to which we are accustomed in -England. For example, a sort of shrimp sandwich is made by putting a -layer of shrimps between two taro leaves. Several kinds of bread are -known, and nearly thirty kinds of puddings. Turtle soup is in great -favor, and so are various other soups. - -The Fijians even make sauces to be eaten with various kinds of food, -the sweet juice of the sugar-cane being much used for this purpose. -They also have a sort of an imitation of tea, infusing sundry leaves -and grasses in boiling water, and drinking it when it becomes -sufficiently cool. Most of their food is cooked; but, like ourselves, -they prefer some food in an uncooked state. Small fish, for example, -are eaten alive, just as we eat oysters. - -They mostly drink water, or the milk of the cocoa-nut. To drink water -in native fashion is not very easy. They keep it in long bamboo tubes, -so that when it is raised to the lips the greatest care is required -lest it should suddenly deluge the face and body. - -Cocoa-nuts are opened in rather a curious manner. A stout stick is -sharpened at both ends, and one end driven firmly into the ground. -Taking the nut in both hands, the native dashes it on the stick, which -splits open the thick husk, and allows the nut to be extracted. With a -stone, or even with another cocoa-nut in case a stone should not be at -hand, the native hammers away round the pointed end, and contrives to -knock off a small round lid, which is then removed, leaving a natural -drinking-cup in his hand. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the terrible subject of cannibalism, on which no more -will be said than is necessary to illustrate the character of the -people. - -The Fijians are even more devoted to cannibalism than the New -Zealanders, and their records are still more appalling. A New Zealander -has sometimes the grace to feel ashamed of mentioning the subject in -the hearing of an European, whereas it is impossible to make a Fijian -really feel that in eating human flesh he has committed an unworthy -act. He sees, indeed, that the white men exhibit great disgust at -cannibalism, but in his heart he despises them for wasting such -luxurious food as human flesh. - -[Illustration: (1.) A FIJIAN FEAST. (See page 942.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE FATE OF THE BOASTER. (See page 952.)] - -Even the Christianized natives have to be watched carefully lest -they should be tempted by old habits, and revert to the custom which -they had promised to abjure. For example, Thakombau, the King of -Mbau, became a Christian, or at least pretended to do so. He was not -a particularly creditable convert. Some time after he had announced -himself to be a Christian, he went in his war canoe to one of the -districts under his sway. He was received with the horribly barbarous -ceremonial by which a very great chief is honored, conch-shell -trumpets blowing before him, and the people shouting their songs of -welcome. Thus accompanied, he walked through a double row of living -victims--men, women, and children of all ages--suspended by their feet, -and placed there to give the king his choice. The hopeful convert was -pleased to accept the offering, touching with his club as he passed -along those victims which seemed most to his taste. - -The natives are clever enough at concealing the existence of -cannibalism when they find that it shocks the white men. An European -cotton-grower, who had tried unsuccessfully to introduce the culture of -cotton into Fiji, found, after a tolerably long residence, that four -or five human beings were killed and eaten weekly. There was plenty of -food in the place, pigs were numerous, and fish, fruit, and vegetables -abundant. But the people ate human bodies as often as they could get -them, not from any superstitious motive, but simply because they -preferred human flesh to pork. - -Many of the people actually take a pride in the number of human bodies -which they have eaten. One chief was looked upon with great respect on -account of his feats of cannibalism, and the people gave him a title -of honor. They called him the Turtle-pond, comparing his insatiable -stomach to the pond in which turtles are kept; and so proud were they -of his deeds, that they even gave a name of honor to the bodies brought -for his consumption, calling them the “Contents of the Turtle-pond.” -This man was accustomed to eat a human body himself, suffering no one -to share it with him. After his family were grown up, he bethought -himself of registering his unholy meals by placing a stone on the -ground as soon as he had finished the body. His son showed these stones -to an English clergyman, who counted them, and found that there were -very nearly nine hundred. - -One man gained a great name among his people by an act of peculiar -atrocity. He told his wife to build an oven, to fetch firewood for -heating it, and to prepare a bamboo knife. As soon as she had concluded -her labors her husband killed her, and baked her in the oven which her -own hands had prepared, and afterward ate her. Sometimes a man has been -known to take a victim, bind him hand and foot, cut slices from his -arms and legs, and eat them before his eyes. Indeed, the Fijians are so -inordinately vain, that they will do anything, no matter how horrible, -in order to gain a name among their people; and Dr. Pritchard, who -knows them thoroughly, expresses his wonder that some chief did not eat -slices from his own limbs. - -Cannibalism is ingrained in the very nature of a Fijian, and extends -through all classes of society. It is true that there are some persons -who have never eaten flesh, but there is always a reason for it. Women, -for example, are seldom permitted to eat “bakolo,” as human flesh is -termed, and there are a few men who have refrained from cannibalism -through superstition. Every Fijian has his special god, who is supposed -to have his residence in some animal. One god, for example, lives in -a rat, as we have already seen; another in a shark; and so on. The -worshipper of that god never eats the animal in which his divinity -resides; and as some gods are supposed to reside in human bodies, their -worshippers never eat the flesh of man. - -According to the accounts of some of the older chiefs, whom we may -believe or not, as we like, there was once a time when cannibalism -did not exist. Many years ago, some strangers from a distant land -were blown upon the shores of Fiji, and received hospitably by the -islanders, who incorporated them into their own tribes, and made much -of them. But, in process of time, these people became too powerful, -killed the Fijian chiefs, took their wives and property, and usurped -their office. - -In this emergency the people consulted the priests, who said that the -Fijians had brought their misfortunes upon themselves. They had allowed -strangers to live, whereas “Fiji for the Fijians” was the golden rule, -and from that time every male stranger was to be killed and eaten, and -every woman taken as a wife. - -Only one people was free from this law. The Tongans, instead of being -killed and eaten, were always welcomed, and their visits encouraged, -as they passed backward and forward in their canoes, and brought with -them fine mats and other articles for barter. So much have these -people intermingled, that in the eastern islands, which are nearest -to those of Tonga, there is a decided mixture of Tongan blood. With -this exception, however, the Fijians went on the same principle as the -Ephesians of Shakespeare-- - - “If any Syracusan born - Come to the bay of Ephesus, he dies;” - -save that, instead of merely putting to death those who came from one -country, they only excepted one country from the universal law. - -The reader may remember that a sort of respect is paid to a human body -used for food. Educated people speak of it in the court language, and, -instead of using any vulgar term, such as a human body, they employ -the metaphorical language, and call it the “long pig.” As a general -rule, the vessels in which human flesh is cooked are reserved expressly -for that purpose, and both the vessel in which it is cooked and the -dish from which it is eaten are held as tapu. - -So highly is “bakolo” honored, that it is eaten, not with fingers, but -with a fork, and the implement in question is handed down from father -to son, like the merais and tikis of the New Zealander. These forks are -quite unlike those which are used in England. They mostly have four -prongs, but these prongs, instead of being set in a line, are generally -arranged in a circle or triangle as the case may be. They are carved -out of some very hard wood, and, when they have become venerable by -reason of age or of the rank of their proprietor, they receive names -of honor. For example, the cannibal chief who ate nearly nine hundred -human bodies had a fork which was named “Undro-undro,” the title -signifying a small person carrying a great burden. The fork was a small -object, but it had carried to the lips of its master the bodies of -nearly nine hundred human beings. - -As the Fijians set such a value on human flesh, it is to be expected -that they will invent a variety of excuses for obtaining it. For -example when a chief builds a house, he kills at least one human victim -to celebrate the event. If he builds a large war canoe, a series of -sacrifices takes place. A man is killed, for example, when the keel is -laid, and, if the chief be a very powerful one, he will kill a victim -as each plank is fixed in its place. Even when it is finished the -slaughter is not over, as, in the first place, the planks of the new -vessel have to be washed with human blood, and, in the next, the launch -must be commemorated in the same way as the building. One chief gained -some notoriety by binding a number of men, and laying them side by side -along the shore to act as rollers over which the canoe was taken from -the land into the sea. The weight of the canoe killed the men, who were -afterward baked and eaten. - -Even after the canoe is launched, excuses are found for carrying on -the system of human butchery. Whenever it touches at a place for the -first time, a man must be sacrificed in honor of taking down the mast, -this being done to show that the vessel means to make some stay at the -place. If a chief should arrive in a new canoe, and keep up his mast, -the people understand the signal, and bring on board a newly-slain -victim, so that the mast may be taken down. - -On one occasion, when a war canoe had been built at Somo-somo, the -missionaries exerted themselves so successfully that the canoe was -launched without the sacrifice of a single life. Eventually, however, -their well-intentioned interference rather increased than diminished -the number of victims. When the canoe arrived at Mbau, the chiefs were -so vexed that it had reached them unhonored by human blood that they -straightway attacked a village, killed some fourteen or fifteen men, -and ate them in order to do honor to the ceremony of taking down the -mast. - -Sometimes, in order to secure a victim whenever one is wanted, the -chiefs pick out secretly a certain number of men, and put them, so -to speak, on the black list. Whenever a sacrifice is needed, all the -executioners have to do is to find out how many victims are wanted, and -then to go and kill the requisite number of the black-list men. - -Whole towns are sometimes put on the black list, a curious example -of which custom is given by Mr. Williams. “Vakambua, chief of Mbau, -thus doomed Tavua, and gave a whale’s tooth to a Nggara chief, that he -might at a fitting time punish that place. Years passed away, and a -reconciliation took place between Mbau and Tavua, but, unhappily, the -Mbau chief failed to neutralize the engagement made with the Nggara. -A day came when human bodies were wanted, and the thoughts of those -who held the tooth were turned toward Tavua. They invited the people -of that place to a friendly exchange of food, and slew twenty-three of -their unsuspecting victims. - -“When the treacherous Nggarans had gratified their own appetites by -pieces of the flesh cut off and roasted on the spot, the bodies were -taken to Vakambua, who was greatly astonished, expressed much regret -that such a slaughter should have grown out of his carelessness, and -then shared the bodies to be eaten.” - -The Fijian can seldom resist meat, and that he should resist “bakolo” -could not be expected of him. In Mrs. Smythe’s “Ten Months in the Fiji -Islands,” an amusing instance of this predilection is recorded. “A -white man had shot and carried off a pig belonging to a Fijian, who, -being a convert, went to a native teacher named Obadiah, and asked -him to go to the delinquent and remonstrate with him. The teacher put -on his black coat, went to the man’s house, and with much earnestness -pointed out to him the iniquity of the deed, asking him how he would -have liked it had a Fijian killed one of his own pigs. The man listened -very respectfully, and allowed the error of his ways, acknowledging -that the teacher had put the matter in a new light. ‘But,’ said he ‘the -pig is now dead, and we cannot bring it to life again. Shall we throw -it out and let it go to waste, or, as it is just baked, and you have -not breakfasted, shall we not sit down, and you will ask a blessing?’ - -“Obadiah, taken by surprise by Q----’s penitence, and the compliment -paid to his own clerical functions, and swayed perhaps a little by the -irresistible love of all Fijians for roast pork, bowed his head, and -reverentially said a long prayer, after which the two set heartily to -work on the pig.” When the teacher went to the missionary to report -his successful labors, he was quite astonished at being charged with -complicity with the thief. - - - - -CHAPTER XCVI. - -FIJI--_Continued_. - -WAR AND AMUSEMENTS. - - - WEAPONS OF THE FIJIANS -- THE SLING, AND MODE OF USING IT -- THE - CLUB, AND ITS VARIOUS MODIFICATIONS -- GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE - CLUB INTO THE PADDLE -- MODE OF MAKING THE CLUBS, AND PREPARATION OF - THE TREES -- ORNAMENTS OF THE CLUBS, AND THEIR NAMES -- FIJIAN SPEARS - -- THEIR TERRIBLE BARBS -- OBJECTS OF WAR -- THE REVIEW -- THE FATE - OF THE BOASTER -- INGENIOUS ENGINEERING -- CRUELTY TOWARD PRISONERS - -- “CONSECRATION” OF A WARRIOR, AND HIS NEW NAME -- DOMESTIC LIFE -- - CEREMONIES AT BIRTH -- TRAINING IN REVENGE -- AMUSEMENTS -- VARIOUS - GAMES -- RIRIKI -- WOMEN AGAINST MEN -- DANCES AND SONGS -- MARRIAGE - FESTIVITIES -- WEDDING OF A CHIEF’S DAUGHTER -- DOMESTIC DISCIPLINE - -- THE KING’S STAFF -- FESTIVITIES AT HOUSE BUILDING -- MODE OF - THATCHING AND DECORATING THE HOUSES -- A PRACTICAL JOKE. - -In accordance with the plan on which this work has been arranged, -Fijian warfare will be described as it was before fire-arms were -introduced, and had changed the ancient style of warfare. - -The original weapons of the Fijian are the club, the axe (which, by -the way, is little more than a modification of the club), the bow, -the sling, and the spear. In most of these weapons is exhibited the -fancifully artistic nature of the manufacturers. The sling is perhaps -the only weapon from which ornament is almost wholly absent. Like the -corresponding weapon of the New Caledonians, it carries stones of -tolerable weight and great hardness, and, when wielded by a skilful -hand, becomes no inefficient weapon even against fire-arms themselves. -A stone hurled from a Fijian sling has been known to render a musket -useless, the stone having struck the barrel, and bent and indented it -as much as would have been done by a bullet. - -The chief weapon of the Fijian is the club, and upon this he lavishes -all the artistic power at his command, covering nearly the whole of it -with the most intricate and delicately executed carvings. Some clubs -are straight, like thick cudgels, others are curved. Those which are -knobbed at the end have an infinite variety in the knob, as we shall -presently see. Some are more or less flattened, while there are some -which are so flat and so broad that it is not easy at first sight to -determine whether they are clubs or paddles. Some are so large that -they require the whole exertion of a muscular man to wield them, while -others are so short that they are kept stuck in the girdle, and used -as missiles, precisely as the short knob-kerries are used by the South -Africans. A Fijian will often carry two or more of these clubs in his -girdle. - -Some of the most characteristic forms of Fijian clubs are given on -the following page, all being drawn from specimens in my collection. -Fig. 1 represents a club, and is evidently modified from a gnarled and -knotted branch, and by comparing a number of specimens together it is -easy to trace the progress of manufacture. This form of club is also to -be found among the Papuans of New Guinea, the natives of the Outanata -district carrying it. With the exception of the deep transverse cuts, -there is no attempt at ornament. It is tolerably heavy, though not very -large, and requires two hands to be wielded properly. - -Figure 2 represents one of the paddle-like clubs which have just been -mentioned. The blade is not an inch in thickness in the middle, and -it gradually slopes off to either side, so as to form a tolerably -sharp edge. With the exception of the handle, it is entirely covered -with carving; the dentated pattern, which seems common to nearly all -savage art, being very conspicuous. It is extremely weighty, and, to an -European, appears a very awkward instrument, except perhaps that the -broad blade might be utilized as a shield. - -[Illustration: (1.) ORATOR’S FLAPPER. (See page 930.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) IDOL OF SOLOMON ISLANDS. (See page 970.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) SPEAR. (See page 952.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) FIJIAN CLUBS. (See page 948.)] - -Fig. 3 is a club, which may be considered as a sort of intermediate -form between the two already mentioned. Like the last, it has a -broad blade, but is evidently a club and not a paddle. The blade is -strengthened by a bold ridge running along the centre. In order to -show the mode in which it is flattened, a side view of the lower -part is shown at fig. _a_, and a cross section of the blade is given -at fig. _b_. This kind of club is modified in various ways, but is -always made on the same principle, _i. e._ a round handle and a -flattened paddle-like end, sometimes nearly plain, as in the above -mentioned specimens, and sometimes furnished with knobs, teeth, and -spikes projecting from the sides. In some cases it assumes the shape -of a crescent, and looks, indeed, much like a cheese knife very much -magnified. - -Another very characteristic shape is given in fig. 4. As may be -imagined from the illustration, it is very weighty, so that even -to carry it about must be rather troublesome. It is covered with -carvings in the most lavish manner, and such value has been set by the -manufacturer upon the weapon, that he has even taken the trouble to -invent different patterns for the opposite sides. - -The peculiar form of this club is evidently due to the structure of -the branch from which it was cut, the projecting portion being the -base of another branch. Although in many specimens--my own among the -number--the club has been carved from a great log of solid wood, the -form has evidently been borrowed from the junction of two branches. The -edge of the club is cut into slight teeth, and just within the edge are -a number of round holes, set in a line. A tolerably bold ridge runs -along the head of the club and follows its curve, and through this -ridge are also bored a number of holes, apparently for the purpose of -attaching bunches of feathers, or other ornaments, to the weapon. - -The most characteristic club of Fiji is, however, that of which an -example is given in fig. 5. It is made from the stem and part of the -root of a young tree. In this part of the world there are certain trees -which grow in a manner which to us seems very peculiar. As is the case -with many trees, it sends a tap-root deeply into the earth, and is -further supported by a number of smaller roots which diverge from it -on all sides, and retain it in its upright position, just as a mast is -upheld by the standing rigging. - -While the tree is very young, it is drawn down nearly horizontally, and -fixed in that position, so as to be bent nearly at right angles close -to the earth. When it has grown to the thickness of a man’s wrist, the -top is cut off and the roots dug out of the ground. The tap-root is -then scraped down to a point, and all the smaller roots are cut off to -within an inch and a half of the tap-root, so as to form a radiating -mass of spikes, which are sharpened, and thus present the appearance -shown in the illustration. - -Such a club as this is an exceedingly valuable weapon, and the greatest -care is taken in its manufacture. The spike at the end is scraped -and rounded until it assumes a perfectly regular shape, and is then -polished until it shines like a well-rubbed piece of mahogany. The -radiating spikelets are each trimmed with the greatest nicety, so that, -in whatever direction the weapon is viewed, they all radiate with exact -regularity. - -The handle is polished as carefully as the lower spike, and in most -cases is adorned with elaborately carved patterns. In many clubs it -is completely covered with black and white sinnet made expressly for -this purpose, and plaited in patterns as elaborate as those which are -carved. Some of the best clubs are further ornamented by having scarlet -feathers worked in with sinnet. There are, indeed, scarcely any bounds -to the decoration of clubs, many of which are inlaid with shell, or -hogs’ tusks, or whales’ teeth, or even the teeth of men. These latter -ornaments are chiefly reserved for the knobs of the small missile club. - -Beside these, there is an infinite variety of forms, some of the clubs -exactly resembling the steel maces of the days of chivalry, others -being first squared and then cut into pyramidal form, while others look -just like enormous mushrooms. Some of them have the handles completely -covered with wickerwork; but, as a rule, these highly ornamental -weapons are not for use but for show, like the court sword of the -present day. - -Some of the names given to these clubs are highly suggestive. -For example, one was called “Weeping urges me to action,” others -“Disperser,” “Smasher,” and so forth. Those which belong to well-known -chiefs or distinguished warriors are used much as cards among -ourselves. If, for example, a great chief desires to pay a visit, he -will send his club as an intimation that the owner will follow. Or, if -one chief asks another for aid in war, the ordinary mode of showing -that the application is favorably received is for the latter to send -his club by the ambassador who brought the message. - -There is as great variety of spears as of clubs. Spears are almost -invariably of great length, some measuring fourteen or fifteen feet in -length. They are made from hard wood and are almost invariably armed -with a series of barbs. In the manufacture and arrangement of the -barbs, the Fijians show wonderful ingenuity. Mostly, they are not from -the same piece of wood as the spear itself, but in many weapons they -are made of other materials. The sharp tail-bone of the sting-ray is a -favorite material, both for the points and barbs of spears, probably -because it is very hard, and so brittle that it is nearly sure to -break off in the wound. Other barbs are made of a wood which has the -property of swelling up when moistened, and bursting in the wound, so -that it can hardly be extracted. Such spears as this are called by a -very ominous title, “The priest is too late.” Some of the spears are -not only carved in various patterns, but have the heads cut into a -kind of bold open work pattern, which has a very elegant appearance, -though it must detract greatly from the strength of the weapon. One -of the ordinary Fijian spears is shown on page 949, and is taken from -specimens in my collection, in which there are several others, but all -of a similar character. - -Many of the weapons have more than one point. In the specimens which I -have, the points are rather more than a yard in length, and are made of -separate pieces of wood, ingeniously dovetailed into the shaft of the -spear, and held in their place by lashings of sinnet. In my specimen, -the manufacturer has been so lavish of his labor, that he has not only -woven the sinnet into elegant patterns, but has continued them along -the whole of the shaft, covering it with a sort of mixture of the -zigzag and the dentated patterns. There are also spears with several -points, each point being barbed or deeply serrated on the inside cap. -These are not for war, but for fishing purposes. As for the war in -which these weapons are used, it is hardly deserving of the name. - -When two chiefs have decided on going to war, messengers pass between -them, and both sides beat up recruits for their armies and offer -gifts to the gods. Whales’ teeth and food form the chief part of -these offerings, and the latter is often given in vast quantities. -Independent chiefs often take advantage of war to increase their -property. Such a chief, for example, though urged by both sides to -join them, trims and hesitates, and bides his time. One party will -then send him a bribe, and as soon as the other party hear of it, they -send a larger bribe, in order to “press down” the former gift. The -result usually is, that the recipient keeps both bribes, and eventually -declines to fight on either side. - -The forces are gathered by a series of reviews, held as the army -marches. These reviews form the great charm of war, as any amount of -boasting may be done without the slightest risk. Each warrior rushes -up to the commanding chief, brandishes his weapons, and boasts of the -great deeds which he is going to do; all the warriors being in their -very best, with bodies covered with black powder, so as to contrast -with the snow-white masi, and their faces painted as none but a Fijian -can paint them, in order to look as martial as possible. - -The chief often ridicules the pretensions of these men, insinuating -that they will be more ready to run away than to fight; but this is -only for the purpose of inciting them to display their courage, and, -by way of inducing them to fight well, large gifts are promised to -those who distinguish themselves in battle. - -Sometimes a warrior, carried away by the excitement of the moment, -boasts that he will kill the enemy’s chief, eat his flesh, and make a -drinking-cup of his skull. This is generally a very foolish proceeding. -The menaced chief is sure to hear of it, and to promise a large reward -if the boaster be taken alive. - -Should he be captured, his fate is certain. His hands are bound behind -him, and a large bundle of dried cocoa-nut leaves is fastened tightly -across his shoulders, projecting for several feet on either side. -The ends of the leaves are then lighted, and the poor wretch is left -to die, the spectators laughing and jeering at him as he runs about, -maddened by the torment. This punishment is called by a name which -signifies carrying fuel. The artist has represented in the lower -engraving, on the 943d page, this frightful fate of the boaster. - -The party that are attacked usually retire into a native fort, the -structure of which often shows great engineering skill. The Fijians -are very apt at selecting a spot which is difficult of access, and -fortifying it in such a manner that two or three men could hold it -against a thousand. Mr. Williams visited one of these forts, and found -that the approach to it was not without danger, even in time of peace. -The only path to the fort led through thick and tangled vegetation, -and terminated on the edge of a precipice. The entrance to the fort -was on the face of the precipice, several yards from the end of the -path, and there was no mode of getting to it except by crawling along -the perpendicular rock by means of little holes in which the toes and -fingers could be inserted. - -When the natives cannot find a place of such natural strength, they -have a way of defending the entrance by a series of gates with -traverses between them, so that any enemies who forced the first gate -were obliged to go for some distance through a narrow passage which was -pierced with loopholes, through which spears could be thrust and arrows -shot. Even if they succeeded in passing the second gate, a similar -gauntlet had to be run before they could reach the third. Thorny -trees are in great request for the outer defences of these forts, the -bare-skinned natives greatly dreading the prickly walls, which every -year grow more dense and less penetrable. - -Knowing the strength of the forts, the natives do not care about -assaulting them, and, as they advance to the walls, avail themselves -of every cover. They then yell and shout derisive taunts at the enemy, -challenging them to come out and fight. Sometimes the challenge -is answered, a number of warriors issuing from the fort and each -selecting an adversary; often, however, as soon as the besiegers see -their challenge answered, they run away as fast as they can, the Fijian -liking to come behind his enemy and knock him on the head stealthily -better than to oppose him in open fight. - -Should a fort be taken, the slaughter is dreadful, and is nothing but -a massacre, the greater number being killed, and the rest reserved to -be put to death by torture. One favorite mode of torture is to stun the -unhappy captive with a club, and to throw him into a heated oven by way -of bringing him back to his senses. The struggles of the unfortunate -man as the fierce heat restores him to consciousness are greeted with -laughter and jeers by the delighted spectators. Others are bound hand -and foot and given to the sons of chiefs as subjects on which they can -try their skill at torturing. - -As these expeditions are nearly always made in canoes, the return of -the war party is seen from a great distance, and all the population -assemble on the beach to welcome the victorious warriors, the women -dancing and singing songs of triumph in honor of the conquerors. A -horrible scene then takes place, too horrible indeed to be described; -the bodies of the dead are offered in the temples, the ovens are -prepared, and for some days unbridled license reigns supreme. - -In connexion with warfare must be mentioned a curious custom of giving -a new name to men who have killed any of the enemy during the campaign. -Whether the enemy be an armed warrior slain in fair fight, an unarmed -man knocked down by stealth, a woman, or even a little child, signifies -nothing. The warrior has clubbed an enemy, and has a right to his new -name of honor. Should he have killed a chief, he takes the name of his -victim, and sometimes his own chief honors him by calling the man his -flag, his canoe, his comb, &c. Of the consecration ceremony, wherein -the new name is given, Mr. Williams once saw a very excellent example -at Somo-somo, the subject of consecration being a young chief. - -“The king and leading men having taken their seats in the public -square, fourteen mats were brought and spread out, and upon these were -placed a bale of cloth and two whale’s teeth. Near by was laid a sail -mat, and on it several men’s dresses. The young chief now made his -appearance, bearing in one hand a large pine-apple club, and in, the -other a common reed, while his long train of masi dragged on the ground -behind him. - -“On his reaching the mats, an old man took the reed out of the hero’s -hand, and despatched a youth to deposit it carefully in the temple of -the war god. The king then ordered the young chief to stand upon the -bale of cloth; and while he obeyed, a number of women came into the -square, bringing small dishes of turmeric mixed with oil, which they -placed before the youth, and retired with a song. The masi was now -removed by the chief himself, an attendant substituting one much larger -in its stead. The king’s Mata (aide-de-camp) next selected several -dishes of the colored oil, and anointed the warrior from the roots of -the hair to his heels. - -“At this stage of the proceedings one of the spectators stepped forward -and exchanged clubs with the anointed, and soon another did the same. -Then one left him a gun in place of the club, and many similar changes -were effected, under a belief that the weapons thus passing through his -hands derived some virtue. - -“The mats were now removed, and a portion of them sent to the temple, -some of the turmeric being sent after them. The king and old men, -followed by the young man and two men sounding conchs, now proceeded -to the seaside, where the anointed one passed through the ancients to -the water’s edge, returned, while the king and those with him counted -one, two, three, four, five, and each then threw a stone into the sea. -The whole company now went back to the town with blasts of the trumpet -shells, and a peculiar hooting of the men. - -“Custom requires that a hut should be built, in which the anointed -man and his companions may pass the next three nights, during which -time the newly named hero must not lie down, but sleep as he sits; he -must not change his masi, or remove the turmeric, or enter a house in -which there is a woman, until that period has elapsed. In the case -now described, the hut had not been built, and the young chief was -permitted to use the temple of the god of war instead. - -“During the three days he was on an incessant march, followed by half a -score lads reddened like himself. After three weeks he paid me a visit, -on the first day of his being permitted to enter a house in which there -was a female. He informed me his new name was _Kuila_, or Flag.” - -When a name of honor has thus been given to a man, the complimentary -title of _Koroi_, or consecrated, is prefixed to it. - -The battles of the Fijians are not, as a rule, remarkable for the -slaughter that takes place. They are, in fact, little but a series of -single combats. When a man falls, his friends try to get him off the -ground to save his life, if possible, or to be able to bury the body if -he should die; while the enemy use their best endeavors to secure the -wounded man in order to bake and eat him. No dishonor is attached to -the fact of a slain man being eaten. On the contrary, it is a proof of -his courage, for none but those who die bravely in battle are eaten in -the feast which follows upon the victory, the bodies of slain cowards -being contemptuously thrown into the bush. - - * * * * * - -We now come to a more pleasing part of Fijian character, namely, the -various incidents of domestic life. - -As soon as the Fijian child comes into the world, it is taken from the -mother, and given to another woman for three days, during which time -she lies at her ease. The first clothing which the child receives is -a thick coating of turmeric oil, and the first food which it knows is -either the juice of sugar-cane or of cocoa-nut. A name is given to -the child as soon as possible after its birth, and these names are -generally significant of some event that has happened either to the -child itself or to some member of its family. - -Though the Fijian children spend the great part of their time in the -open air, and are untrammelled by clothing, they are liable to a very -unpleasant disease called the “thoko,” which somewhat resembles the -“yaws” of the negro tribes. The parents are rather glad than sorry to -see their children afflicted with this disease, as they believe that -it forms a necessary adjunct to infantile health, and that a child who -escapes the thoko is sure to be sickly and feeble when it grows up. - -The Fijian child receives no training, unless encouragement of every -bad passion may be called by that name. Revenge is impressed upon the -child’s mind from its earliest infancy, and most horrible are the means -which are sometimes employed for this purpose. In riper years the -duty of revenge is kept always before his eyes. Should one man insult -another, the offended individual keeps himself constantly reminded of -the offence by placing some object in his sight, and not removing it -until he has avenged himself. - -Sometimes he will effect the same purpose by depriving himself of some -luxury until he has had his revenge. One man, for example, will plait -his hair in a particular manner, another will hang some article of -dress in his house, while another will refuse to dance, or to eat of -some particular kind of food. One chief, for example, hung a roll of -tobacco on the roof of his house, with the intention of refusing to -smoke until he had killed his enemy and could smoke that tobacco over -the dead body. Another refrained from speaking, and would only answer -by whistling. - -The knowledge of this custom makes the Fijians a most nervous race. -Should a strange canoe appear off the coast, the inhabitants of the -villages are all in a stir, some escaping to the woods, and others -concealing their food and other valuables in secret storehouses. They -do not like to walk alone in the evening. Mr. Williams mentions that -he has seen a whole company disperse at the lifting of a telescope, -and, more than once, when he was visited by natives and the door -suddenly slammed with the wind, the whole of his visitors rushed -tumultuously out of the windows. On one occasion, a number of men were -dragging a large canoe into the sea, when one of them espied a slight -crack on one side. He whispered his discovery to the man next him, he -to the next, and so on, and in a few minutes every man had run away -from the boat, fearing lest the owner should charge him with having -done the damage. - -The amusements of the Fijians are rather more varied than is usually -the case among savages. Some of them are identical with many of our -own children’s games, such as “hide and seek,” “blind man’s buff,” and -a sort of “hop, skip, and jump.” A sort of “pitch and toss,” is also -in vogue, the substitute for pence being the flat, circular fruit of a -species of mimosa. - -They have one game which bears some resemblance to that of the -“kangaroo-rat” of Australia, which has been described on page 730. The -players have a reed about four feet in length, at one end of which is -an oval piece of hard and heavy wood some six inches in length. This -instrument is held between the thumb and middle finger, the end of the -forefinger being applied to its extremity. With a peculiar underhand -jerk the player drives it horizontally, so that it glides over the -ground for a considerable distance, the player who sends the missile -farthest being the winner. In order that this favorite game maybe -constantly played, each village has attached to it a long strip of -smooth sward, which is kept sedulously trimmed, so that the missile may -skim along with as little resistance as possible. - -Then there is the swing. This is made much like the New Zealand swing, -but is used in a different manner. Instead of being held by the hands -alone, the rope has a loop at the end, into which the swinger inserts -his foot. Sometimes, it has a large knot, on which both feet can be -supported. Drawing the rope to the top of a convenient bank, the -swinger grasps it with his hands, leaps in the air, places his foot -in the loop, and goes sweeping through an enormous arc, the radius of -which often exceeds fifty feet. In some cases the swing is fixed by the -water side, and the more daring of the performers loosen their grasp at -the proper moment, and are hurled through the air into the water. - -One favorite game, called Ririki, is played after the following -fashion:--Close to the water’s edge is fixed a stout post, and on this -is laid the trunk of a tall cocoa-nut tree, so that its base rests on -the ground, and the tip projects over the water. The game consists in -running at full speed up this inclined tree, and jumping into the -water one after the other, swimming ashore and repeating the process. -This is a very lively game, the natives shouting and laughing the whole -time, and plunging so rapidly in succession that the water beneath the -end of the inclined tree is white with foam. The people are admirable -swimmers, and, having been accustomed to swim as soon as they could -walk, disport themselves in the water with as much ease as on land. -They are fond of swimming out to sea in parties, and join in various -aquatic games, such as trying to push each other under water, diving, -racing, and so forth. - -Some of their sports are rather rough. They have one game which bears -a certain resemblance to snow-balling, except that the missiles are -bitter oranges instead of snow-balls. In some places they jerk stones -at each other by means of elastic bamboos, and do so with such force -that considerable pain is caused when the missile strikes the bare skin. - -Sometimes a sort of mock battle takes place. When food is brought to -the men, the women suddenly rush upon them, try to drive them away, and -to seize the food. Rough as the women may be, the men seldom retaliate, -except by taking their assailants round the waists and throwing them on -the ground. Mr. Williams mentions one instance when a woman actually -shot a man dead with an arrow, turning the mock fight into a sad -reality. Several cases are known where the men have been so severely -handled that they have afterward died of their wounds. - -On certain occasions an amusing game is played by the young men. A thin -earthenware vessel is filled with water and suspended from a bough, and -a number of young men with their eyes blindfolded, try to break the -vessel by striking at it with long sticks. - -Music and dancing are greatly studied among the Fijians, and any one -who knows a new dance is sure to earn plenty of goods by teaching it. -Their musical instruments are very poor, consisting of drums, pipes, -and trumpets. The first-mentioned instruments are nothing more than -wooden cylinders, through one side of which a groove is cut about an -inch or so in width. The pipes are of two kinds; namely, a sort of -pandean pipe made of several strips of bamboo fastened together, and -the flute. This latter instrument is played by placing the aperture -close to one nostril, and breathing through it while the other is -stopped with the thumb of the left hand. The trumpets are merely -conch-shells blown through a hole in the side. - -The dances are very carefully got up, and more resemble military -movements than dances, the similitude being increased by the martial -array of the dancers, who are all dressed as if for war, their faces -painted with scarlet, their bodies powdered with black, and their best -clubs or spears in their hands. They execute intricate manœuvres, -marching in various figures, wheeling, halting, and stamping their -feet in exact time to the rhythm of the song and the beat of the drum. -Sometimes several hundred men are engaged in the dance, while the -musicians are twenty or thirty in number. - -The scene at one of these dances is very picturesque, but it wants the -furious energy which gives such fiery animation to the war dance of the -New Zealanders, the movements, though correct in point of time, being -comparatively dull and heavy. In order to enliven it a little more, a -professional buffoon is usually introduced upon the scene, who performs -sundry grotesque movements, and is usually applauded for his exertions. - -Music and dancing are always used at the celebration of a marriage, -and, as may be imagined from the punctilious nature of the Fijian, -there is no lack of ceremony on the occasion. - -Mostly, girls are betrothed when they are quite infants, no regard -being paid to disparity of age between themselves and their intended -husbands. The form of betrothal is rather curious, and consists in -the mother of the child taking a small liku, or woman’s girdle, and -presenting it to the man, who from that moment takes her daughter under -his protection until she is old enough to be married. - -In those cases where a young man takes a liking to a young woman, he -asks her of her father, making at the same time a small present as a -matter of form. Should the application be successful, an interchange -of presents then takes place between the friends of both parties, and -in a few days follows the ceremony called “warming,” which consists in -conveying to the house of the bride some food prepared by the intended -husband. In most parts of Fiji, the bride has a complete holiday for -four days, sitting quietly at home, dressed in her finest apparel, and -painted with turmeric and oil. At the expiration of the four days, -she is taken by a number of married women to the sea, where they all -join in fishing, and afterward cook the fish that they have taken. The -cooking being completed, the bridegroom is sent for, and the betrothed -couple eat together, each giving the other a portion of food. - -After this ceremony comes a period during which the bridegroom is -employed in building a house for his intended wife, and the girl -undergoes the painful tattooing which marks her as having taken her -place among women. During this time, she remains within the house so -as to shield her complexion from the sun. The house being completed, -all the friends of both families are gathered together, and a great -feast takes place, at which the givers make it a point of honor to be -as lavish as possible. At the end of this feast, the girl is formally -handed over to her husband, and exchanges her narrow liku for the -broader garment befitting her new condition. - -When the daughter of an important chief is married, her father always -gives her a number of female attendants, sometimes as many as twelve -or fifteen accompanying the bride to her home. They are placed under -the charge of an elderly woman who acts as their superintendent, and -are called by a name which signifies a pet servant. There is always a -great scene at the departure of a bride to her home, all her relations -and friends crowding round her, and kissing her until she is nearly -smothered by their caresses. - -An interesting description of the presentation of a bride is given by -Mr. Williams, and the artist has reproduced the scene in the engraving -No. 1, on the next page. “She was brought in at the principal entrance -by the king’s aunt and a few matrons, and then, led only by the old -lady, approached the king. She was an interesting girl of fifteen, -glistening with oil, wearing a new liku, and a necklace of curved -ivory points, radiating from her neck, and turning upward. The king -then received from his aunt the girl, with two whale’s teeth, which -she carried in her hand. When she was seated at his feet, his majesty -repeated a list of their gods, and finished by praying that the girl -might live, and bring forth male children. - -“To her friends, two men who had come in at the back door, he gave a -musket, begging them not to think hardly of his having taken their -child, as the step was connected with the good of the land, in which -their interests, as well as his own, were involved. The musket, which -was about equivalent to the necklace, the men received with bent heads, -muttering a short prayer, the close of which was exactly the same as -they had offered for years, ‘Death to Natawa.’ Tuikilakila then took -off the girl’s necklace and kissed her. The gayest moment of her life, -as far as dress was concerned, was past; and I felt that the untying -of that polished ornament from her neck was the first downward step to -a dreary future. Perhaps her forebodings were like mine, for she wept, -and the tears which glanced off her bosom and rested in distinct drops -on her oily legs were seen by the king, who said, ‘Do not weep. Are -you going to leave your own land? You are but going a voyage, soon to -return. Do not think it a hardship to go to Mbau. Here you have to work -hard; there you will rest. Here you fare indifferently; there you will -eat the best of food. Only do not weep to spoil yourself.’ As he thus -spoke, he played with her curly locks, complimenting her on her face -and figure. She reminded him of a sister of hers, who had been taken -to Mbau in years past.” - -She had certainly reason for her tears, as the condition of Fijian -wives is not a very enviable one. As is the case with most countries -in which polygamy is practised, the wives are apt to be very jealous -of each other, and to quarrel among themselves. Generally, their -squabbles are treated with contemptuous indifference by the husband as -long as they do not annoy him personally; but if he should feel himself -angered, he speedily checks the tumult by belaboring all parties alike -with a very sufficient stick which he keeps for the purpose. One chief -had a cudgel as thick as a broomstick, in which he seemed to take no -little pride, having carved and inlaid it with ivory. - -Women are not held in any great estimation, whether they be single or -married. A rather ludicrous example of the value set by Fijians upon -women occurred in the course of traffic between Europeans and natives. -A chief had bargained with the captain of a ship for a musket, the -price of which was to be two pigs. The chief went off with his musket, -but could only find one pig. So he honorably kept his bargain by -sending the one pig and a young woman instead of the other. - -In the description of the ceremonies attendant upon a wedding, mention -was made of the custom of building a house for the bride. The form of -Fijian houses varies according to locality. In some places they are -sharp-ridged and gabled, like those which have already been described -when treating of New Guinea. In others they are round, and in others -conical. Some are built on posts, and others simply on the ground. As -is the case throughout all Polynesia, the houses are made of a wooden -framework lashed together, and covered with a thatch of reeds. Many of -these houses are of great size, more than a hundred feet in length and -about forty in width. A house that is meant to endure for any length of -time is made of a wood called by the natives _vesi_, which is exactly -similar to the greenheart of India, and a sort of sandal wood is also -used for the same purpose. - -The walls are generally made of reeds arranged in three layers, -the middle layer being horizontal and the outer and inner layers -perpendicular. They are tied or sewed together with sinnet, and it is -the Fijian architect’s pride to weave the sinnet into elegant patterns. -Some men are celebrated for their skill in inserting and executing -these patterns, and go about from place to place as they are wanted. -Even the posts that support the edifice are often covered with reeds, -bound together in the same ingenious manner. The door is always a small -one, probably for the same reason that induces a Kaffir to make so low -an entrance to his hut; namely, fear of enemies. - -[Illustration: (1.) A FIJIAN WEDDING. (See page 956.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) HOUSE THATCHING. (See page 959.)] - -The thatch is sometimes of cocoa-nut or sugar-cane leaves, and -sometimes of grass, while in a few of the best houses both are used. -The leaves are doubled over reeds and sewed together, so as to form -lengths of about five or six feet. Grass thatch is fixed almost exactly -as straw is used in England being laid on the roof in bundles, and held -down by long mangrove branches, and tied firmly with rattan. - -House thatching is one of the most animated scenes that can be -imagined. As soon as the roof is finished, notice is given that the -thatchers are wanted, and then straightway assemble a gang of merry -laborers, varying in number according to the size of the house, as many -as three hundred sometimes uniting to thatch a very large house. Some -bring the leaves and grass, others bind and sew them into the proper -form, and others take them to the thatchers. Those who actually apply -the reeds always arrange themselves in pairs on the roof, one outside -and the other inside the building, so that one can take the end of -the lashing as it is pushed through the thatch by his comrade, draw -it tight, and return it to him. The reader may find house thatching -represented in a spirited engraving, on the 957th page. - -The noise that arises from a large house during the process of -thatching is almost deafening. Naturally, the Fijian has a great genius -for shouting, and on such occasions he fairly outdoes himself. Some -call for more grass, leaves, mangrove rods and rattans; others from -below shout in reply to them. Those who bring the materials must needs -shout as they clamber to the roof, and every one throws in a few yells -occasionally by way of encouragement to his companions. - -The most characteristic part of a Fijian house is the ridge pole -which runs along the top of the roof. It projects at either end for a -considerable distance, and in first-class buildings is worked into a -trumpet-like shape at the extremities. These projecting ends are mostly -blackened, and decorated with large white cowrie shells. A sort of -cable made of grass and bound with vine-stalks is generally laid on the -ridge pole, and in many cases is finished off with a row of tassels, -and nearly covered with patterns worked in sinnet. - -Some, though not all, the houses have openings by way of windows, which -can be closed by means of mats fastened over them like curtains. Within -the house, and nearly in the centre, is the fireplace, which is sunk -in the ground to a foot or so in depth, and surrounded by a sort of -fender made of hard wood. In very large houses, the fireplace is ten -or twelve feet square, and is covered by a wooden framework of several -tiers, on which cooking pots and similar utensils can be kept. There is -no chimney, nor even a hole in the roof, so that all the smoke from the -fireplace ascends to the roof, and finds its way out through the thatch -as it best can. In nearly every case the doorway is furnished with a -projecting roof. - -In connection with roof thatching, a characteristic joke is recorded of -the Mbau people. The short missile club is called _ula_, and the act of -hurling it is called _ulaula_. The latter word, however, also signifies -house thatching. By way of a practical joke, the people of Mbau sent to -those of Tailevu, asking them to come and _ulaula_. The latter, taking -the word in its ordinary sense, accepted the invitation, and came, -expecting the usual scene of merriment, when to their surprise, they -were saluted by a volley of _ulas_ hurled at them by their entertainers. - -The furniture of a Fijian house is simple. At one end is a raised dais, -on which the master of the house sleeps by night and reclines by day. -It is covered with mats, and over it are hung the sheets of thin masi -which are used as mosquito curtains. On this dais are generally one -or two pillows. These implements are not unlike those of the Kaffirs, -being nothing more than cylindrical bars of wood supported on legs at -either end. Some of them are from four to five feet in length. This -form of pillow is used on account of the mop-like headdress of the -natives, which would be pressed out of all shape were it laid on an -ordinary pillow. - -On the hearth are several large earthenware cooking pots, oval in -shape, and each set on three stones. As the quantity of food in them -diminishes, they are gradually tilted, so that when they contain but -very little food they lie quite on their sides. Near the hearth lies -the thick concave board on which bread is kneaded, and close to the -board are the smooth round stones by which the operation of kneading is -conducted. The small hand nets used for fishing are kept near the fire, -together with the knives and other implements used in preparing food. -Several earthen water jars are always placed near the fire. They may -be distinguished by their glazed surfaces, and are placed carefully on -a thick bed of grass. A few bamboo vessels containing salt and fresh -water, are generally placed near the larger jars. Round the foot of the -wall are ranged a series of bowls and jars, which contain the arrowroot -and similar articles of food. - - - - -CHAPTER XCVII. - -FIJI--_Continued_. - -RELIGION AND FUNERAL RITES. - - - THE GODS AND THEIR ABODES -- VISIT OF THE LAND CRAB -- FIJIAN - PRIESTS AND THEIR INSIGNIA -- CONSULTING THE DEITY -- VARIOUS MODES - OF DIVINATION -- THE DIFFICULT PASSAGE TO HEAVEN -- NATIVE TEMPLES, - THEIR STRUCTURE AND USES -- FEASTS GIVEN TO THE GODS -- SACRED - STONES -- MURDER OF THE AGED AND SICK -- A STRANGE MARK OF AFFECTION - -- PROVIDING THE DEAD WITH ATTENDANTS -- BURIAL OF A LIVING KING - -- A TERRIBLE SCENE -- VOYAGE TO THE CEMETERY, AND THE FUNERAL -- - SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE CUSTOMS OF FIJI AND INDIA -- MODE OF MOURNING - -- THE SUCCESSIVE RITES AFTER A FUNERAL -- THE CUSTOM OF LOLOKU -- - TOMB OF A CHIEF’S WIFE. - -The religion, or rather the superstition, of the Fijians is much like -that of other polytheists. The people acknowledge vast numbers of gods -of greater or lesser power; most, if not all, of which are symbolized -under some natural form, such as a hawk, a tree, or the like. Every -Fijian considers himself under the protection of some especial god, -and, as has been stated, will not eat the animal which is his symbol. - -An amusing instance of the reverence paid to the symbols of the gods -occurred at Tilioa. A very powerful god, who is worshipped at that -place, resides in a land crab, but, as that crustacean is scarcely ever -seen in the locality, there are but few opportunities of paying the -proper worship. Whenever any one saw a land crab, he immediately ran -to the priest, and forthwith the whole place was in a commotion. The -people assembled to pay their respects to their deity, and a number of -cocoa-nuts were gathered, strung together, and humbly presented to the -crab deity in order to propitiate him, and to induce him to give them -fair weather and a healthy season. - -As to the particular doctrines of the Fijian religion, it is scarcely -possible to learn much about them. In the first place, the people know -nothing, and the priests, who know but little, dislike communicating -their knowledge. Even the Christian converts can seldom be induced to -speak on the subject with any degree of truth. - -The priests are known by their official insignia, which consists of -an oval frontlet of scarlet feathers, and a long-toothed comb made of -separate pieces of wood ingeniously fastened together. Several of these -combs are in my collection, and are excellent examples of the artistic -capabilities of the makers. No two of them are alike, the delicate -thread which fastens them together being woven in a singular variety of -patterns. The threads are nearly as fine as hairs, and an additional -beauty is given to the pattern by using alternately a deep black and a -glittering yellow thread. - -The priests communicate with their deities by throwing themselves into -a sort of ecstatic state, technically called “shaking,” in which the -whole body is convulsed, and the utterances which come from the foaming -lips are held to be the responses of the god. A vivid idea of this mode -of consulting a deity is given by Mr. Williams in the valuable work to -which reference has often been made. - -“Nothing like regular worship or habitual reverence is found, and a -principle of fear seems the only motive for religious observances; -and this is fully practised on by the priests, through whom alone the -people have access to the gods, when they wish to present petitions -affecting their social or individual interest. When matters of -importance are involved, the _soro_ or offering consists of large -quantities of food, together with whales’ teeth. In smaller affairs a -tooth, club, mat, or spear, is enough. Young nuts covered with turmeric -powder formed the meanest offering I have known. On one occasion, when -Tuikilakila asked the help of the Somo-somo gods in war, he built the -war god a large new temple, and presented a quantity of cooked food, -with sixty turtles, beside whales’ teeth. - -“Part of the offering--the _sigana_--is set apart for the deity, the -rest forming a feast of which all may partake. The portion devoted to -the god is eaten by his priest and by old men, but to youths and women -it is tapu. - -“Strangers wishing to consult a god cut a quantity of fire wood for the -temple. Sometimes only a dish of yams or a whale’s tooth is presented. -It is not absolutely necessary for the transaction to take place at a -temple. I have known priests to become inspired in a private house or -in the open air; indeed, in some parts of Fiji, the latter is usually -the case. - -“One who intends to consult the oracle dresses and oils himself, and, -accompanied by a few others, goes to the priest, who, we will suppose, -has been previously informed of the intended visit, and is lying near -the sacred corner getting ready his response. When the party arrives, -he rises and sits so that his back is near to the white cloth by which -the god visits him, while the others occupy the opposite side of -the Buré. The principal person presents a whale’s tooth, states the -purpose of his visit, and expresses a hope that the god will regard -him with favor. Sometimes there is placed before the priest a dish of -scented oil with which he anoints himself, and then receives the tooth, -regarding it with deep and serious attention. - -“Unbroken silence follows. The priest becomes absorbed in thought, -and all eyes watch him with unblinking steadiness. In a few minutes -he trembles; slight distortions are seen in his face, and twitching -movements in his limbs. These increase to a violent muscular action, -which spreads until the whole frame is strongly convulsed, and the man -shivers as with a strong ague fit. In some islands this is accompanied -with murmurs and sobs, the veins are greatly enlarged, and the -circulation of the blood quickened. - -“The priest is now possessed by his god, and all his words and actions -are considered as no longer his own, but those of the deity who has -entered into him. Shrill cries of ‘Koi au! Koi au!’ (‘It is I! It is -I!’) fill the air, and the god is supposed thus to notify his approach. -While giving the answer, the priest’s eyes stand out and roll as if -in a frenzy; his voice is unnatural, his face pale, his lips livid, -his breathing depressed, and his entire appearance like that of a -furious madman. The sweat runs from every pore, and tears start from -his strained eyes; after which the symptoms gradually disappear. The -priest looks round with a vacant stare, and as the god says ‘I depart,’ -announces his actual departure by violently flinging himself down on -the mat, or by suddenly striking the ground with a club, when those -at a distance are informed by blasts on the conch, or the firing of a -musket, that the deity has returned into the world of spirits.” - -In many cases it is evident that the priests enact deliberate -impositions, but it is also certain that in many others they are -completely under the dominion of frenzy, and that they do not recollect -afterward the words which they uttered while in their delirious state. -“My own mind,” said one of them, “departs from me, and then, when it is -truly gone, my god speaks by me.” - -Various modes of divination are employed by the Fijian priests. They -have, for example, divination by the leaf, by the reed, by the nut, -and by water. The leaf is tested by taking it between the front teeth -and biting it. If it be completely severed, the omen is good; if it -hang together, even by a single fibre, the omen is unfavorable. One -priest had a very strange mode of divination by the leaf. He had two -magic leaves, which he placed on the sides of the applicant, and then -left them. If the leaf on the right side stung the skin, the omen was -good; but if any plots or treacheries were hatched, the leaf stung the -man on the left side, and so warned him of the danger. Another mode of -divination by the leaf is to bite it, and judge by the flavor whether -the omen be adverse or the contrary. - -The reed test is managed as follows. A number of short reeds are cut, -and laid in a row on the ground, a name being given to each. The priest -then holds his right foot over each, and the response is given by the -trembling of the foot. - -The water test is performed by holding the straightened arm slightly -upward, and pouring a few drops of water on the wrist. If the water -should run to the shoulder, the response is favorable; should it fall -off at the elbow, the answer is adverse. - -The next test is performed by laying a cocoa-nut on a small surface and -spinning it. When it stops, the response is given by the direction in -which the eye points. - -According to Fijian notions, the passage to Buruto or heaven is a very -difficult one, except for great chiefs, and the only plan by which -a man of inferior rank can hope to obtain admission is by telling -the god a lie, and proclaiming himself a chief with so much apparent -truthfulness that he is believed, and allowed to pass. Taking on his -shoulder his war club and a whale’s tooth, the Fijian spirit goes to -the end of the world, where grows a sacred pine, and throws the tooth -at it. Should he miss it, he can go no further; but if he hit it, he -travels on to a spot where he awaits the arrival of the women who were -murdered at his death. - -Escorted by them, he proceeds until he is met and opposed by a god -called Ravuyalo, whom he fights with his club. Should he fail, he is -killed and eaten by the god, and there is an end of him. Should he -conquer, he proceeds until he finds a canoe, into which he gets, and is -conveyed to the lofty spot where the chief god, Ndengei, lives. Over -the precipice extends the long steering oar of the god’s canoe. He is -then asked his name and rank, when he replies with a circumstantial -account of his grandeur and magnificence, of the countries over which -he has ruled, of the deeds which he did in war, and of the devastation -which he caused. He is then told to take his seat on the blade of the -oar. Should his story have been believed, he is conveyed to Buruto; but -should Ndengei disbelieve his story, the oar is tilted up, and he is -hurled down the precipice into the water below whence he never emerges. - -It has been mentioned that the spirit has to wait for the escort of his -wives. This is in order to prove that he is a married man, bachelors -having no hope of admission into Buruto. Should a wifeless man start on -his journey, he is confronted by a goddess, called the Great Woman, who -has a special hatred of bachelors, and, as soon as she sees one, flies -at him and tries to tear him in pieces. Sometimes she misses him in her -eagerness; but, even in such a case, he has to deal with another god, -who hides himself in the spirit path, and, as the soul of the bachelor -passes by, he springs on the wretched being, and dashes him to atoms -against a stone. - -The Burés or temples of the gods abound in Fiji, at least one Buré -being found in every village, and some of the villages having many of -these buildings. They are made of the same material as the houses, but -with much more care. Instead of being merely set on the ground, they -are placed on the top of a mound of earth, sometimes only slightly -elevated, and sometimes twenty feet or more in height. - -The natives think no labor too great for the decoration of a Buré, and -it is in those buildings that their marvellous skill in plaiting sinnet -is best shown. Every beam, post, and pillar is entirely covered with -sinnet plaited into the most beautiful patterns, black and red being -the favorite colors; and even the reeds which line the window frames, -and fill up the interstices between the pillars, are hidden in the -plaited sinnet with which they are covered. So lavish are the natives -of their work, that they are not content with covering the pillars and -reeds with sinnet work, but they make large plaited cords of the same -material, and hang them in festoons from the eaves. - -It has already been mentioned that the best houses have the ends of the -ridge-poles decorated with cowries, but those of the Buré are adorned -with long strings of cowries that sometimes reach the ground. Ordinary -laths are thought too common to be used in thatching temples, and the -beautifully carved spears of warriors are employed instead of simple -wood. When the Buré is erected on a high mound, entrance is gained to -it by means of a very thick plank cut into notched steps. - -Although the Burés are considered as temples, and dedicated to the god, -they are mostly used for secular purposes. Visitors from a distance are -generally quartered in them, and in many instances the principal men of -the village make the Buré their sleeping-place. Councils are held in -the Burés, and entertainments are given in them, of which the offerings -to the god form a large part. Sometimes, as has been mentioned, a chief -who wishes to propitiate some deity offers a great quantity of food in -his temple, and this food is consumed in a general feast. A certain -portion is dedicated to the god, and may only be eaten by the priests -and the old men, but the remainder may be eaten by any one. - -None of the food is left to perish, the Fijians having a convenient -belief which combines piety with self-indulgence. The god is supposed -to be a great eater, but only to consume the soul of the provisions, -so that when food is cooked and offered, the god eats the soul and the -people the body. The chief god, Ndengei, used to be both greedy and -dainty in his demands for food. He sometimes ate two hundred hogs and -a hundred turtles at a single feast, and was continually insisting on -human sacrifices. In order to procure these, no respect was paid to -persons, and so infatuated were the people that, to keep up Ndengei’s -supplies of human food, chiefs were known to kill their own wives. - -No regular worship is ever offered in the Burés, which, indeed, are -often left to fall into decay until some one desires to consult or -propitiate the god, when the building is repaired and cleaned for the -occasion. As may be expected, during the building of the Buré several -human sacrifices are offered. - -If the reader will refer to the drawing of the Buré on the following -page, he will see that in front of it are two oddly-shaped objects. -These are examples of the sacred stones, several of which are to -be found in various parts of Fiji. They are considered as the -dwelling-place of certain gods, and are held to be either male or -female, according to the sex of the deity who inhabits them. Should the -god be of the female sex, the fact is known by a woman’s apron or liku -being tied round the stone. One such god is a very useful one, because -he hates mosquitoes, and keeps them away from the spot in which he -dwells. Food is prepared and offered to those sacred stones, the god -as usual, eating the spirit of the food, and the priest and officers -consuming its outward form. - -[Illustration: (1.) A BURÉ, OR TEMPLE. (See page 962.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CANOE HOUSE AT MAKIRA BAY. (See page 970.)] - - * * * * * - -We now come to the funeral ceremonies of Fiji, taking those of the -chiefs as types of the whole. - -Among the Fijians a very singular superstition reigns. When men or -women become infirm with age, they are considered to have lived their -full time on earth, and preparations are made for their burial. So -ingrained is this belief, that if a man finds himself becoming feeble -with age or disease, he requests his sons to strangle him, and with -this request they think themselves bound to comply. Indeed, if they -think that he is too slow in making the request, they suggest to him -that he has lived long enough, and ought to rest in the grave. Such -conduct seems to imply that they are destitute of affection, but in -reality it is their way of showing their love for their parent. - -They are really a most affectionate race of people. A young chief -has been seen to sob with overpowering emotion at parting from his -father for a short time, and yet, were his parents to become ill or -infirm, he would think it his duty to apply the fatal rope with his -own hands. To be strangled by one’s children, or to be buried alive by -them, is considered the most honorable mode of death. The reason for -this strange custom seems to be that the Fijians believe the condition -of the spirit in the next world to be exactly the same as that of -the individual when in life. Consequently, affectionate children are -unwilling to allow their parents to pass into the next world in an -infirm state of body, and therefore strangle them out of sheer kindness. - -From a similar notion of kindness, they also strangle the favorite -wives and attendants of the dead chief, so as to provide him with the -followers to whom he has been accustomed. They also kill a powerful -warrior, in order that he may go before his chief through the passage -into the spirit land, and drive away the evil spirits who oppose the -progress of a new comer. These victims go by the name of “grass,” and -are laid at the bottom of the grave; the warrior painted and dressed -for battle, with his favorite club by his side, the women arranged in -folds of the finest masi, and the servants with their implements in -their hands; so that the inhabitants of the spirit world may see how -great a chief has come among them. - -All their preparations are carried on in a quiet and orderly manner, -the victims never attempting to escape from their fate, but vying with -each other for the honor of accompanying their chief. In some cases, -when a chief has died young, his mother has insisted on sharing his -grave. So deeply do the Fijians feel the necessity for this sacrifice -that the custom has been a greater barrier against Christianity even -than cannibalism or polygamy, and even those natives who have been -converted to Christianity are always uneasy on the subject. On one -occasion a Christian chief was shot, and by the same volley a young -man was killed. The Christian natives were delighted with the latter -catastrophe, inasmuch as it provided an attendant for their slain chief. - -The scene which takes place when a great chief is expected to die has -been described by Mr. Williams with great power. The King of Somo-somo, -a magnificent specimen of the savage, was becoming infirm through age, -and toward the middle of August 1845 was unable to do more than walk -about a little:-- - -“I visited him on the 21st, and was surprised to find him much better -than he had been two days before. On being told, therefore, on the -24th that the king was dead, and that preparations were being made for -his interment, I could scarcely credit the report. The ominous word -_preparing_ urged me to hasten without delay to the scene of action, -but my utmost speed failed to bring me to Nasima--the king’s house--in -time. The moment I entered it was evident that, as far as concerned two -of the women, I was too late to save their lives. The effect of that -scene was overwhelming. Scores of deliberate murderers in the very act -surrounded me: yet there was no confusion, and, except a word from him -who presided, no noise, only an unearthly, horrid stillness. Nature -seemed to lend her aid and to deepen the dread effect; there was not a -breath stirring in the air, and the half-subdued light in that hall of -death showed every object with unusual distinctness. - -“All was motionless as sculpture, and a strange feeling came upon me, -as though I was myself becoming a statue. To speak was impossible; I -was unconscious that I breathed; and involuntarily, or rather against -my will, I sunk to the floor, assuming the cowering posture of those -who were actually engaged in murder. My arrival was during a hush, just -at the crisis of death, and to that strange silence must be attributed -my emotions; and I was but too familiar with murders of this kind, -neither was there anything novel in the apparatus employed. Occupying -the centre of that large room were two groups, the business of whom -could not be mistaken. - -“All sat on the floor; the middle figure of each group being held in -a sitting posture by several females, and hidden by a large veil. On -either side of each veiled figure was a company of eight or ten strong -men, one company hauling against the other on a white cord which was -passed twice round the neck of the doomed one, who thus in a few -minutes ceased to live. As my self-command was returning to me the -group furthest from me began to move; the men slackened their hold, and -the attendant women removed the large covering, making it into a couch -for the victim. - -“As that veil was lifted some of the men beheld the distorted -features of a mother whom they had helped to murder, and smiled with -satisfaction as the corpse was laid out for decoration. Convulsion -strongly on the part of the poor creature near me showed that she still -lived. She was a stout woman, and some of the executioners jocosely -invited those who sat near to have pity and help them. At length a -woman said, ‘she is cold.’ The fatal cord fell, and as the covering was -raised I saw dead the oldest wife and unwearied attendant of the old -king.” - -Leaving the house of murder, Mr. Williams went to the hut of the -deceased king, determining to see his successor, and beg him to spare -the lives of the intended victims. - -To his horror and astonishment, he found that the king was still alive. -He was lying on his couch, very feeble, but perfectly conscious, every -now and then placing his hand to his side as he was racked by cough. -The young king was full of grief. He embraced his visitor with much -emotion, saying, “See, the father of us two is dead.” It was useless -to dispute the point. The poor old king certainly did move and speak -and eat; but, according to the son’s ideas, the movements were only -mechanical, the spirit having left the body. - -So the preparations for his funeral went on. His chief wife and an -assistant employed themselves in covering his body with black powder, -as if dressing him for the war dance, and fastening upon his arms and -legs a number of long strips of white masi, tied in rosettes, with the -ends streaming on the ground. They had already clad him in a new masi -of immense size, the white folds of which were wrapped round his feet. -In place of the usual masi turban, a scarlet handkerchief was bound on -his hair with a circlet of white cowrie-shells, and strings of the same -shells decorated his arms, while round his neck was an ivory necklace, -made of long curved claw-like pieces of whale’s teeth. - -The reader may perhaps wonder that the chief wife of the king was -suffered to live. The fact was that the young king would not allow her -to be killed, because no executioner of sufficient rank could be found. -She lamented her hard lot in being forbidden to accompany her husband -to the spirit land, and begged to be strangled, but without success. - -Presently the sound of two conch-shell trumpets was heard outside the -house, this being the official intimation that the old king was dead, -and the new king was then formally acknowledged by the chiefs who -were present. He seemed overcome with grief, and, gazing on the body -of his father’s attendant, he exclaimed, “Alas, Moalevu! There lies -a woman truly wearied, not only in the day but in the night also; -the fire consumed the fuel gathered by her hands. If we awoke in the -still night, the sound of our feet reached her ears, and, if spoken to -harshly, she continued to labor only. Moalevu! Alas, Moalevu!” - -The bodies of the murdered women were then rolled up in mats, placed on -a bier, and carried out of the door, but the old king was taken through -a breach made in the wall of the house. The bodies were carried down to -the seaside and placed in a canoe, the king being on the deck, attended -by his wife and the Mata, who fanned him and kept off the insects. - -When they arrived at Weilangi, the place of sepulture, they found the -grave already dug, and lined with mats. The bodies of the women were -laid side by side in the grave, and on them the dying king. The shell -ornaments were then taken from him, and he was entirely enveloped in -mats, after which the earth was filled in, and thus he was buried -alive. The poor old man was even heard to cough after a quantity of -earth had been heaped on him. - -This final scene is represented in an illustration on the 980th -page. In the foreground is seen the open grave, with the bodies of -the murdered women lying in it as “grass.” The still living king is -being borne to the grave by the attendants, while his successor sits -mournfully surveying a scene which he knows will be re-enacted in his -own case, should he live to be old and infirm. Just above the grave are -the rolls of fine mats with which the body of the king is to be covered -before the earth is filled in; and in the background appears the mast -of the canoe which brought the party to the burial-ground. - -The reader cannot but notice the resemblance between this Fijian custom -of strangling the wives and the well-known suttee of India. In both -cases the women are the foremost to demand death, and for the same -reason. Just as the Hindoo women arrange their own funeral pile, and -light it with their own hands, the Fijian woman helps to dig her own -grave, lines it with mats and then seats herself in it. - -The fact is, that the woman has positively no choice in the matter; -a wife who survives her husband is condemned to a life of neglect, -suffering, and insult, so that the short agony of immediate death is -preferable to such a fate, especially as by yielding to the national -custom she believes that she shall secure a happy and honored life in -the spirit land. Moreover, her relatives are bound by custom to insist -upon her death, as, if they did not follow this custom, they would be -accused of disrespect toward her husband and his family, and would run -the risk of being clubbed in revenge. - -In consequence of this horrid custom, the population of Fiji has been -greatly checked, for not only is there the direct sacrifice of life, -but much indirect loss is occasioned. Many of the murdered women -are mothers, whose children die for want of maternal care, so that, -what with the perpetual feuds and continual murders, the custom of -cannibalism, the sacrifice of wives with their husbands, the strangling -of the old or sick, and the death of children by neglect, very few -Fijians die from natural causes. Mr. Williams mentions that in a class -of nine children under his charge, the parents had all been murdered -with the exception of two, and these had been condemned to death, and -only saved through the exertions of the missionaries. - -After a king is buried, sundry ceremonies are observed. For twenty days -or so, no one eats until the evening, the people shave their heads -either partially or entirely, and the women cut off their fingers, -which are inserted in split reeds, and stuck along the eaves of the -royal house. Those who are nearly related to the dead king show their -grief by refusing to wear their usual dress, and substituting rude -garments of leaves. They often deny themselves the luxury of a mat to -lie upon, and pass their nights on the grave of their friend. The coast -is rendered tapu for a certain distance, no one being allowed to fish -until the proper time has elapsed, and the cocoa-nut trees are placed -under a similar restriction. - -Various strange rites take place on certain days after the funeral. -On the fourth day the friends assemble, and celebrate the melancholy -ceremony called the “jumping of maggots,” in which they symbolize the -progress of corruption. Next evening is one of a directly opposite -character, called the “causing to laugh,” in which the immediate -friends and relatives of the dead are entertained with comic games. On -the tenth day the women have an amusing ceremony of their own. Arming -themselves with whips, switches, or cords, they fall upon every man -whom they meet, without respect to age or rank, the greatest chiefs -only being exempt from this persecution. The men are not allowed to -retaliate, except by flinging mud at their assailants, and those -who have witnessed the scene say that nothing more ludicrous can be -imagined than to see grave, elderly men running in all directions, -pursued by the women with their whips and switches. - -The last ceremony is the completion of some special work begun in honor -of the dead. It may be the erection of a house, the making of a huge -ball of sinnet, a great bale of cloth, and, in any case, it bears the -name of the person in whose honor it was undertaken. Building large -canoes is a favorite form of this custom, and, during the whole time -that the work is in progress, the canoe is put to sleep at night by the -beating of drums, and awakened every morning in a similar manner, when -the carpenters come to their work. - -A curious ceremony takes place in Fiji when one of the principal chiefs -has died. It is called the loloku of the sail, and is a sort of a -signal of honor. Whenever a canoe approaches the coast for the first -time since the death of the chief, the vessel is obliged to show the -loloku. This is generally a long strip of masi tied to the head of the -mast, and as soon as the canoe touches the land, both the sail and masi -are thrown into the water. Sometimes, when the owner of the canoe is -tolerably rich, he adds to the simple loloku a whale’s tooth, which -is flung from the mast-head into the water, when the people dive and -scramble for it. - -Should the chief perish at sea, or be killed in a warlike expedition, -and be eaten by his enemies, the loloku is shown as carefully as if -he had been buried on shore, and his relatives try to compensate him -for his adverse fate, by killing an unusual number of women as his -attendants. Nearly twenty women have thus been sacrificed on the death -of a young chief who was drowned at sea. - -The graves of chiefs and their wives are marked by tombs. These are -sometimes nothing but stones at the head and foot of the grave, or -large cairns of stones piled on the deceased. Sometimes they are roofs -from three to six feet in height, decorated, after Fijian custom, with -patterns worked in sinnet. - -One tomb, that of a chief’s wife, was a very remarkable one. Her -husband had a large mound of earth thrown up, and faced with stones. -On the top of the mound was a double canoe, forty feet in length, held -firmly in its place by being imbedded in earth. Fine shingle was strewn -on the deck, and mats were spread on the shingle for the reception of -the body. Sand was then heaped over the canoe, and on the sand was -laid the body of a little child of whom the deceased woman had been -very fond. Over all was then built a large roof, made of mahogany, and -adorned with white cowrie-shells. - - - - -CHAPTER XCVIII. - -THE SOLOMON ISLANDS AND NEW HEBRIDES. - -CHARACTER, DRESS, CUSTOMS. - - - POSITION OF THE SOLOMON ISLANDS -- REASON FOR THE NAME OF THE GROUP - -- CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES -- CANNIBALISM -- DRESS AND ORNAMENTS - -- NEW IRELAND AND NEW BRITAIN -- NOMAD CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES -- - CAVE HOUSES -- THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS -- DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF THE - CHIEFS, AND THEIR DOMINION OVER THE PEOPLE -- THE BOUKA ISLAND -- THE - NEW HEBRIDES -- MODE OF GOVERNMENT, AND DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGE -- THE - INHABITANTS OF VATÉ -- CURIOUS DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- ORNAMENTS OF THE - HOUSES -- TAUNA AND ERRUMANGA -- TRADE IN SANDAL WOOD -- ANEITEUM AND - VANIKORO. - -Between New Guinea and the Fiji group lie the Solomon (or Salomon) -Islands. They were discovered, as far as we know, by Alvero de Mendana, -who touched upon them in the year 1567. Being desirous of inducing his -countrymen, who held in those days the chief place among sailors, to -visit and colonize so fertile a land, he concocted a pious fraud, and -called the group by the name of Solomon Islands, as being the Ophir -from which Solomon’s ships brought the vast quantities of gold with -which he adorned the Temple and his own palace. - -His scheme failed, inasmuch as, when he again went in search of the -islands, he could not find them, the imperfect astronomical instruments -of that day being far inferior to those of the present time, by means -of which a competent observer can tell within a few yards his exact -place on the earth. - -The natives of the Solomon Islands are so fierce and treacherous, that -comparatively little has as yet been learned about them. They have -displayed a great genius for lulling voyagers into a fancied security, -and then murdering and eating them; so that the Spaniards lost nothing -by Mendana’s inability to find the islands again. They contrived -lately to entrap a gentleman who visited their islands in his yacht, -and murdered him while he was on shore, shooting pigeons. They have -committed so many murders on seamen, and even captured so many vessels, -that the greatest precautions are now taken by those who visit their -shores. - -Perhaps the reader may wonder that any one should take the trouble of -visiting so inhospitable a place; but the fact is that the hawk’s-bill -turtle, so valued as supplying the tortoise-shell of commerce, is -plentiful on the coasts, and captured by the natives, who reserve the -shell for barter with European ships. - -When ships anchor off the coast, the natives put off in canoes; but -only a certain number are allowed to approach, the hammock nettings -being triced up so as to prevent the natives from boarding the vessel. -Only the principal chief is allowed to come on board, and through -him the bargains are made. These are very tedious, as the natives -will insist on haggling separately over each piece of tortoise-shell, -instead of selling the whole “head” at once, as is done at other -places. The usual articles of merchandise are employed in the trade, -such as glass bottles, beads, axes, cloth, knives, and similar objects. - -The natives are very dark, and may even be called black, with thick -and crisp hair. That they are cannibals has already been mentioned. -They are such inordinate lovers of human flesh that, according to the -accounts of some travellers, which may however have been exaggerated, -they make it their customary diet. It is evident, however, that this -statement must be somewhat overdrawn, as no people inhabiting a limited -country could make human flesh the chief article of diet without -gradual extermination. That they prefer it to all other food is likely -enough, and in this they only follow the example of the Papuans. -Mendana mentions that the chief of one of the islands sent him a -handsome present of a quarter of a boy, and that he gave great offence -to the natives by burying instead of eating it. - -They do certainly use great quantities of this horrible diet, and -one traveller mentions that, in visiting their houses, he has seen -human heads, legs, and arms hung from the rafters, just as joints of -meat are hung in a larder. The houses bear token in other ways of the -cannibalistic habits of the natives, being ornamented with skulls and -similar relics of bygone feasts, together with other ornaments. - -The Solomon Islanders are not handsome people, and do not add to -their beauty by their modes of adornment. Their inveterate use of -the betel-nut blackens their teeth, and their faces are disfigured -with streaks and patches of white paint, which has a horribly ghastly -appearance against the black skin. They are fond of wearing numerous -ornaments in their ears, the lobes of which are perforated, and so -distended that they can wear in them circular blocks of wood nine -inches in circumference. Their chief ornament is, however, an armlet -made from a large shell found on the reefs. Shells of sufficient size -for this purpose are extremely rare, and are prized even more than -whales’ teeth among the Fijians and neighboring people. Wars are often -caused by a struggle for the possession of a single armlet; while, in -comparison with so valuable an article, human life is looked upon as -utterly worthless. Very great chiefs and warriors wear several of these -rings on their arms; but they do so with the full knowledge that their -finery is as perilous as it is valuable, and that they are likely to be -murdered merely for the sake of their ornaments. - -The Solomon Islanders care little for clothing, their whole dress -being simply a piece of matting tied round the waist; and it is rather -a remarkable fact that they pursue the same art of staining the hair -yellow, white, or red, or discharging all color out of it, that is -practised by the Fijians. - -Warlike as well as fierce, they possess a variety of weapons; such as -clubs of different kinds, spears, bows and arrows. In order to guard -themselves against the missile weapons, they carry shields made of -rushes, woven so thickly and tightly together that they are able to -resist the arrows and to render the spears almost harmless. - -That they possess canoes may be inferred from the fact that they -inhabit islands of such diminutive size. These canoes are made in a -most ingenious manner, and are constructed in a mode that gives a clue -to the peculiar shape which is so often seen among the islands of -Polynesia. Both at the stem and stern the ends of the canoe are very -much raised. This structure is not only for ornament, though decoration -is freely used in it, but is principally intended for defence. When the -crew attack an enemy, or are attacked, they always take care to present -the bow or stern of the canoe to the foe, and thus are in a great -measure protected by the raised ends. - -As is the case with most of these oceanic peoples, the inhabitants of -the Solomon Islands profusely adorn the sides of their canoes with -carvings, feathers, and inlayings. For the last-mentioned purpose -white shells are liberally used, and tortoise-shell is also employed. -Sometimes these portions of the canoe are carved so as to resemble -the human face, the eyes being made of mother-of-pearl, the ears of -tortoise-shell, and the chin furnished with a long beard. - -In one of these canoes Captain Bouganville found a great quantity of -weapons and implements, such as spears, bows and arrows, shields, and -fishing nets. The shape of the shields was nearly oval, and the arrows -were tipped with sharp fish bones. Various articles of food were also -found in the boat, such as cocoa-nuts and other fruits, among which was -the somewhat startling object of a human jaw-bone partially cooked. - - * * * * * - -Among the same group of islands are New Ireland and New Britain, both -of which, by the way, seemed to have been named on the _lucus a non -lucendo_ principle, inasmuch as it is scarcely possible to find any -part of the world less like Ireland or Britain in general than these -little islands. - -In their dress and ornaments the inhabitants differ but little from -the Solomon Islanders, except that the chiefs wear circular ornaments -of pearl almost exactly like the dibbi-dibbi of North Australia. -Tortoise-shell is also used for the purpose. - -These tribes seem to be continually on the move, the warriors being -ordered by the chiefs from stations much like our own regiments at -home, and being accompanied by their wives and families. In their -various migrations the men are bound to look to the interests of their -families; and if they neglect to do so, the case is brought before a -council of chiefs, who investigate the matter. Should the accusation be -proved, the delinquent is condemned to run the gauntlet, a punishment -which is inflicted in exactly the same mode as has been employed in -Europe. - -All the inhabitants of the village, men, women, and children, are drawn -up in a double line, and each is furnished with a bundle of twigs -bound together like the birches of schools. The culprit is placed at -one end of this line, and at a signal from the chief he is obliged to -run through it a certain number of times, receiving a blow from every -one as he passes. Sharp and severe as is this law, it shows no small -amount of political wisdom, and lifts the people in a degree from mere -savage life. Among ordinary savages the man is everything and the women -and children nothing, and that in these remote islands they should be -placed under the protection of the government shows a considerable -advance toward civilization. There is, moreover, an ingenious -retributive justice in the mode of punishment. By deserting his family, -the man throws the burden of their maintenance on the community, and -it is, therefore, thought only fair that the punishment should also be -left to the community. - -The architecture of these people is good, and we shall presently see -an example of it. When a new village is to be built a large space is -cleared, in the middle of which is the council house, a large circular -edifice, supported on red pillars, and distinguished by having on the -roof a number of tall poles, each bearing on its point a human skull. -The floor is carpeted with fine mats, colored with turmeric, and -adorned with birds’ feathers woven into it. - -The dwelling-houses are made in a very different manner. The native -architect begins by digging a large square hole in the ground some -five feet deep, and over this pit he erects the house, which is rather -low, in consequence of the depth gained in the basement. The thatch is -of weeds, and is covered with a thick coating of clay, which serves -the double purpose of rendering the hut fire-proof and of keeping the -interior cool. - -The weapons of the warriors are much the same as those of the other -islands, but slings are also employed, and the spears are generally -tipped with sharp flint. Like most of the Papuans, the victorious party -eat the enemies whom they kill in battle. - -Owing to the character of these islanders, little is known of their -religion. That they have some form of worship is evident from the -fact that they make great wooden idols, sometimes ten or more feet -in height, and plant them in different parts of the country. The -illustration No. 2, on the 949th page, represents one of these idols. -To these idols offerings of food are constantly made; and, as such -offerings are never taken away, the odor of decomposing figs, fowls, -and fruit betrays the presence of the idol at a great distance. In one -of the islands, called Ysabel, the natives are said to worship snakes, -toads, and various reptiles. - - * * * * * - -The most eastward of this group, San Christoval, is about seventy miles -long and twenty wide. In No. 2, on page 963, is given a view taken in -Makira harbor, in order to show the ingenious houses which the natives -build for the protection of their canoes. As may be seen, the house -is capable of accumulating a considerable number of the beautifully -carved vessels, and is elaborately adorned, after the native fashion, -with idols in images, human skulls, tufts of feathers, and similar -ornaments. - - * * * * * - -The extremest of the group are those which are known by the name of the -Admiralty Islands. - -The natives of these islands make use of a sort of obsidian, which -they split into fragments and use as we use steel. For example, they -make razors of it, with which they shave every part of their bodies -excepting the head, on which the hair is allowed to grow, and is tied -up in a knot on the top of the head. The hair is often colored with red -ochre and oil. They use the same material as heads to their spears, -tying the head to the shaft with plaited string coated with gum. The -clothing of the Admiralty Islanders is very simple, the women wearing a -piece of matting tied round the waist, and the men nothing but a large -white shell. They have bracelets and armlets made of plaited fibre, and -a belt of similar material round the waist. Some of them make their -bracelets of large sea-ear shells, grinding out the middle and rounding -the edges; and ornaments of a similar character are hung in the ears, -which are often dragged down to such an extent that the lower tips of -the lobes almost rest on the shoulders. This enormous size is attained -at the cost of much trouble, an elastic hoop being constantly kept in -the aperture so as to keep it gradually distended. A few of the natives -also have the septum of the nose pierced, and hang upon it a string, -to the end of which are fastened teeth. The chiefs are distinguished -by a double row of little shells on the forehead, and seem to exercise -considerable authority over their inferiors. - -When Captain D’Entrecasteaux visited the place, his boats approached -the shore, whereon a number of natives were collected, and the captain -made signs of peace. A chief, distinguished by the insignia of rank -on his forehead, ordered one of the natives to swim to the boats with -some cocoa-nuts. “The fear of approaching persons of whose intentions -he was ignorant, made the islander, swimming and defenceless, hesitate -a moment. But the chief, who doubtless was little accustomed to have -his will disobeyed, did not allow him to reflect. Blows from a cudgel, -which he held in his hand, immediately succeeded his order, and -enforced instant obedience.... - -“By way of comforting the poor fellow, our people gave him some bits of -red stuff, a few nails, and a knife, with which he was greatly pleased. -No sooner had he returned to the island, than curiosity collected all -the rest around him, every one wishing to see our presents. Canoes were -immediately launched, many natives took to the water and swam, and in -a short time there was a great concourse round our boats. We were -surprised to see that neither the force of the surf nor of the breakers -discouraged them from the attempt. - -“There was another chief distinguished by the same ornaments as he who -has been already mentioned, and also by the blows which he inflicted -with his cudgel upon those to whom he gave his orders.” - -The canoes of these people are furnished with a double outrigger, only -one touching the water, and the other projecting at an equal distance -on the opposite side. They are connected by a platform, on which the -commander stands when the sail is lowered and laid on the second -outrigger. When the sail is hoisted, he stands on the place where -it had been laid. Each outrigger projects about eight feet from the -gunwale. The paddles are about six feet in length, and are furnished -with a broad blade, which is made separately from the handle, and -firmly lashed to it with cord. - -The sail is made of matting, and about thirteen feet square. The mast -is twenty feet in height, and when the canoe is to be pushed to its -full speed, the sail is hoisted diagonally, with one angle projecting a -yard above the top of the mast. When the natives desire to go slowly, -they only hoist a few feet of the sail, the rest of it lying in the -canoe; and by thus hoisting or lowering the sail they can regulate -their speed much as they like. When the sail is hoisted to its fullest -extent, the canoe can beat the swiftest sailing ships. The ordinary -length of a canoe is about thirty-two feet, and the extreme breadth is -only twenty-six inches. - -The Admiralty Islanders chew the pepper leaf, with the addition of -lime, which they keep in a little calabash, but do not seem to add the -cocoa-nut. Only the chiefs appear to practise this habit, probably on -account of the difficulty of obtaining the proper materials. - - * * * * * - -One of these islands, named BOUKA, was visited by Captain -D’Entrecasteaux in 1792. The natives are black, tall, powerful, and -quite naked. The face is rather broad and flat, the nose projects but -little, the mouth is large, and the lips peculiarly thin. They pluck -all the hair off the body, and only allow that of the head to grow, -sometimes powdering it with red chalk. Red and white paint are freely -used on their bodies, and their ears are pierced and loaded with large -shells, which drag them nearly to the shoulders. Round the waist they -wear a cord which passes round the body several times, and some of them -have a custom of binding the upper arm in a similar manner, placing -some flat pieces of wood between the arm and the ligature. - -These people are good canoe men, and, when they man their large war -canoes, exhibit a discipline which is hardly to be expected among -savages. Between every two paddlers on each side stands a warrior armed -with bow and arrows, while intermediate parties of warriors stand with -their faces toward the stern, so as to observe the enemy and fight -during a retreat. Two of the crew are told off to bale out the water, -which beats continually over the side of the canoe when the wind blows -freshly. - -The bow is remarkable for having the string coated with a sort of -resinous substance in order to preserve it, the middle of the cord -being skilfully wrapped with bark to guard it against injury from the -nock of the arrow. The arrows are made of two pieces, the head being -shaped from a hard and heavy wood, and the shaft being a reed. The -place where they are joined is strengthened by a ligature of bark. The -butt of the arrow is wrapped in the same manner to prevent it from -being split by the string. They use these weapons with much skill, and, -as was proved by Captain D’Entrecasteaux, are able to kill birds with -them. - -The natives were ready to part with their weapons in exchange for red -stuff, biscuits, bottles, and other commodities, but were rather prone -to cheat, agreeing to deliver a bow for a handkerchief, and, when they -had got the handkerchief, pretending that the bargain was not made for -a bow but for an arrow. The natives of Bouka Island, naked and savage -as they are, have some sort of civilization among themselves, as is -evident from the fact that they cultivate the cocoa-nut palm, large -plantations of which useful tree extend to the water-side along a great -portion of the coast. - - * * * * * - -Following the line of the Solomon Islands in a south-easterly -direction, we come upon another group of islands called the NEW -HEBRIDES, extending for some four hundred miles, and containing a -considerable number of islands of various sizes. They are perhaps best -known from the fact that one of them, called Errumanga, was the place -in which the celebrated missionary, John Williams, met with his death. -These islands attained importance in a secular point of view from the -fact that several of them produce sandal-wood, and therefore attract -to them a great number of trading vessels of different countries, with -whom a considerable commerce has been carried on. - -The islands are mostly of a volcanic nature, and present the usual -variations of such localities, some parts being rough, craggy, and -bare, while others are fertile and prolific to a degree that can -scarcely be conceived by those who have never seen tropical vegetation. -As is often the case with islands of no great size and divided from -each other by moderately wide channels, the tribes which inhabit them -differ considerably in their language and manners, and are in a -chronic state of feud with each other. They are just far enough apart -to have but rare and infrequent intercourse with each other, and so -gradually diverge into different customs, and they are not far enough -apart to isolate them, and confer upon them a nationality. - -We find this feeling in every one of the innumerable groups of islands -which stud the Pacific, and, as we shall soon see, it prevails even -among those groups which preserve the same language and customs. -In fact, among the Polynesians there is that very feeling of local -jealousy which prevails even in civilized countries, and which is, -though necessarily more limited, far more rancorous than the feelings -of enmity which prevail between mighty nations. - -One of the largest of these islands is VATÉ, sometimes called Sandwich -Island. This latter term should not be used, as it tends to cause -confusion between a single island of the New Hebrides and the great -group of the Sandwich Islands, which are inhabited by a totally -different race of men. To strangers Vaté is very unhealthy, but the -causes which produce malaria also produce a wonderful fertility of -vegetation. This island is about seventy miles in circumference, and is -remarkable for the thick growth of forests upon its lower limits, and -of verdure upon the higher portions which are not so well fitted for -trees. The natives seem to give some time and trouble to agriculture. - -The inhabitants are black of skin, but tall and well-formed, and their -dress in many points reminds the observer of the costume of several -African tribes. That of the men consists of a broad belt or wrapper of -matting wrought in patterns colored with red, white, and black. The -hair is generally gathered up into a bunch at the top of the head, -stained yellow, and adorned with a plume of feathers. - -As to ornaments, they are much like those which have already been -mentioned as belonging to the Solomon Islanders. The lobes of the ears -are always much distended, from the habit of wearing in them heavy -ornaments cut from white shells, or similar materials. The septum of -the nose is mostly pierced, and the aperture filled with a white stone. -Raised scars are made in the arms and chest, and arranged in definite -patterns. Armlets made of shells are used by these islanders. Their -figure and costume are well represented in the engraving No. 1, on the -973d page. - -The women are equally well made with the men, and the general fashion -of the dress is much the same. They wear, however, a curious addition -to the dress, which is very much like that of the Ovambo women of -Africa. Passing round the waist is a belt some seven inches wide, made -of plaited fibre woven into neat patterns. From this belt depends -in front a square apron of no great size, and behind is attached -a broad strip of the same plaited matting as that which faces the -belt. It descends half-way down the leg, and is finished off with a -fan-like fringe of plaited grass, some eighteen inches long, and of -proportionate width. The women, as well as the men, practise the custom -of making raised scars on their bodies. They differ from the men in the -mode of dressing the hair, keeping it cut closely to the head instead -of allowing it to grow to its full length and tying it up in a bunch. - -The weapons of these islanders are remarkable for the beauty of their -finish, the barbs of the arrows being neatly carved, and the junction -of the head and shaft being neatly ornamented with plaited grass and -feathers. Indeed, the arrows have a curious resemblance to those made -by some of the tribes of tropical America. - -Like the Solomon Islanders, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides have -large council chambers in their villages. Instead, however, of being -circular, they are generally made of considerable length, sometimes -measuring as much as a hundred feet from one end to the other. They are -entirely open on one side. For some reason which seems rather obscure, -they are adorned with bones of various animals, the particular species -from which they are taken not seeming to be of any consequence. For -example, in one of these houses may be seen bunches of bones taken -indiscriminately from pigs, fowls, and fishes, while the shells of -lobsters and other crustacea are mixed with them. It is believed that -human bones are not used for this purpose. - - * * * * * - -A curious contrast to these tribes is presented by the inhabitants -of another island called TANNA, who are certainly inferior to those -of Vaté in stature and general appearance, and are thought to be so -in point of intellect. They have a bad reputation, being said to be -treacherous and cruel. That they are also reputed to be cannibals is -no matter of wonder, inasmuch as they belong to the Papuan race. They -are said to rival the Fans of Africa in one respect, and to dig up the -bodies of the buried dead, in order to eat them. - -The island is volcanic, and the subterranean fires seem to aid the -already exuberant vegetation of the tropics, which in Tanna attains a -development that is almost incredible. - -The inhabitants of Tanna are as black as those of Vaté, but seem to -have no other points of resemblance. The men appear to think that -they are not black enough by nature, for they have a way of daubing -their sable countenances with black lead, and painting upon the black -groundwork sundry patterns in red ochre. The hair is frizzed out after -the ordinary Papuan type which is dyed a reddish dun color by means of -lime. - -[Illustration: (1.) MAN AND WOMAN OF NEW HEBRIDES. (See page 972.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) WOMAN AND CHILD OF VANIKORO. (See page 975.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) DAUGHTER OF TONGAN CHIEF. (See page 977.)] - - * * * * * - -We come now to Errumanga. It has kept up its traditional ferocity. -Not content with killing the first missionary who set his foot on -their shores, the people many years afterward murdered another -missionary and his wife. This second murder was owing to the priests, -who persuaded the people that an epidemic which had done much damage -among the natives was caused by the missionaries from a strange land. -The ignorant people readily believed this statement, and, wild with -the uncontrolled fury of the savage, they murdered both the accused -persons. The deed was scarcely done before the people repented of it, -and only the day after the murder, when the bodies were buried, the -natives stood round the grave overwhelmed with grief, the most sincere -mourner being the chief of the district. - -The murder of these people, unfortunate as it may seem, really paved -the way for others to follow in their footsteps; and, as is generally -the case with persecution, the cause only gained additional strength by -the attempts made to repress it by main force. - -At one time the inhabitants were held in such dread that the natives -were not allowed to come on board the ships, nor were the men permitted -to land. A small trade was carried on in sandal-wood, which the -natives carried to the boats by swimming through the surf, and being -necessarily unarmed, could be allowed to make their bargains without -suspicion of treachery. Although, therefore, the savage nature of the -inhabitants has occasionally broken out and showed itself in bloodshed, -the very fact that Europeans have been allowed to reside for any time -on the island shows a great improvement in the character of the natives. - - * * * * * - -The northernmost island of the group is ANEITEUM, one of the islands -which produce sandal-wood in great plenty. The natural ferocity -and suspicion of the natives has been overcome by the judicious -establishment and introduction of a factory, to which the sandal-wood -is taken by the natives, and from which it is sold to the ships, -which find here a store of this valuable wood always ready for them. -The chief market for the wood is found in China, where it is cut -into various articles of luxury with the customary patience which -characterizes the artists of that country. The success of this factory -shows that the best way of dealing with savages is to treat them -precisely as children are treated, and to employ in all dealings with -them an equal mixture of kindness and firmness, making allowances for -the different constitution of their minds and the influence of savage -habits upon their conduct; but at the same time to be firm almost to -severity, and never to permit an encroachment. The safest maxim in -dealing with savages is never to deceive and never to trust. - - * * * * * - -The inhabitants of MALICOLO differ considerably from those of the -islands which have been mentioned. While the natives of Vaté are -tall and finely made, those of Errumanga scarcely inferior to them, -and those of Tanna stout and powerful, though comparatively short -of stature, the inhabitants of Malicolo are small, ill-proportioned -people, ugly of face, and disfiguring themselves by wearing a belt -round the waist, drawn so tight that it gives them an hour-glass or -waspish aspect. - - * * * * * - -The reader may perhaps be aware that, in the year 1788, the vessels -_Boussole_ and _Astrolabe_, commanded by the celebrated voyager La -Pérouse, disappeared, and nothing more was heard of them. He was last -seen at Botany Bay, where he had arrived from Tonga. - -In 1791 an expedition, consisting of two vessels, the _Recherche_ -and the _Espérance_, was fitted out under the command of Captain -D’Entrecasteaux, and sent out in search of the missing vessels. The -expedition failed in its immediate object, though in the course of the -explorations some valuable discoveries were made. - -In 1792 D’Entrecasteaux’s vessels got among the New Hebrides, and found -themselves in the midst of coral reefs and shoals of which they knew -nothing, and which caused no small alarm. In consequence of the danger -of these reefs, the captain did not touch at all the islands which -were seen, but contented himself with naming them, and marking their -places on a chart. As it turned out, one of these islands, VANIKORO, -or Recherche Island, as D’Entrecasteaux named it, was the place on -which La Pérouse was wrecked, so that the expedition actually passed -within sight of the very spot which was the object of their voyage. -Indeed, D’Entrecasteaux practically completed the voyage which La -Pérouse began, and his narrative furnishes a necessary supplement to -that of the voyager in search of whom he sailed. It was not until some -forty years afterward that the relics were discovered which proved -beyond a doubt that Vanikoro was the place in which La Pérouse and his -companions perished. Vanikoro is sometimes called Pitt’s Island. An -illustration is given on the 973d page, which represents a woman of -Vanikoro, and her child, and is a type of the expression and features -of these islanders. - - - - -CHAPTER XCIX. - -TONGA. - -GOVERNMENT AND GRADATIONS OF RANK. - - - FRIENDLY RELATIONS BETWEEN TONGA AND FIJI -- THE ARMY OF OCCUPATION - -- GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE TONGANS -- THEIR DRESS -- THE GNATOO, - AND MODE OF WEARING IT -- MAKING THE GNATOO -- BEATING, JOINING, AND - PRINTING THE PIECES -- THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN GNATOO AND TAPPA -- - ORNAMENTS WORN BY THE TONGANS -- WHALE’S TEETH, AND THE VALUE SET - ON THEM -- FINOW AND THE TEETH -- DISTINCTIONS OF RANK -- SECULAR - AND RELIGIOUS RANK -- THE TOOI-TONGA, HIS ORIGIN AND PRIVILEGES -- - THE VEACHI -- THE HOW, OR KING, OFTEN INFERIOR IN RANK TO MANY OF - HIS CHIEFS -- THE EGI, OR NOBLES -- THE MATABOOLES, THEIR RANK AND - DUTIES -- THE MOOAS, OR GENTRY; AND THE TOOAS, OR COMMON PEOPLE - -- MATRIMONIAL ARRANGEMENTS BETWEEN PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT RANKS -- - TREATMENT OF WOMEN. - -Our readers may remember that, in the account of the Fiji Islands, it -was mentioned that there was one nation which was held by the Fijians -as free from their usual custom of killing and eating all visitors to -their coast. These people are the inhabitants of the Tongan group, -popularly known as the Friendly Islands. Owing to their courage in war -and superior intellect, they have performed toward the Fijians the same -part that has so often been played by more civilized people. On one or -two occasions they found the Fijian chiefs hard pressed by rebellion, -took the part of their hosts, crushed the rebel forces, and restored -the chiefs to power. - -A remarkable instance of this timely aid occurred as late as 1855. -Thakombau, of whom we have already heard, was in danger of losing his -life and throne together through a rebellion led by a chief named -Mara. Fortunately, he had previously given a magnificent canoe to the -Tongan king, who sailed over, according to custom, accompanied with -a large fleet, in order to receive the royal present with due honor. -He instantly led his forces against the rebels, stormed a fort called -Kamba which was held by them, took it, and utterly dispersed the enemy, -Mara himself only escaping by running over the sharp shells of the -reef, thereby nearly cutting his feet to pieces, and swimming to a -neighboring town on the coast. - -After this exploit, the Tongan chief followed up his blow by sailing -to the island of Taviuni, where another rebellion was raging in -consequence of the murder of the chief by his sons. He put an end to -this rebellion also, inquired which of the murdered chief’s other sons -had the best claim to his father’s rank, and installed him formally. -The vanquished rebels, finding that the Tongan leader was too strong -for them, tried to entrap him in an ambuscade, but only succeeded in -murdering one of his chiefs. The Tongans immediately landed on the -island, and avenged the death of their friends in a most terrible -manner. A large party of Tongan warriors was afterward left under the -command of a chief named Maafu, a relation of the king, and by means of -this force the rebels were effectually suppressed. - -As might be expected, the Tongans took advantage of their situation, -and enacted over again the fable of the deer, the horse, and the man. -Some four hundred of them generally remain in Fiji, and domineer over -the natives much like armies of occupation in other countries. A Tongan -warrior has not the least scruple in going to a strange village, -entering the house that pleases him best, and installing himself in the -best place with the simple words: “This part of the house is mine.” He -takes the best of the food, and, if he builds a canoe, merely acts as -foreman, making the Fijians do all the hard work. There is nothing -that the Tongans do, however, which so much incenses the natives as -their careless habit of shaking the bread-fruit trees in order to -procure the fruit, which ought always to be gathered by hand. - -It is said, and perhaps with reason, that the Tongans contemplate the -complete conquest of the Fijian group; and from their experience, -courage, and discipline, and the fear which they have contrived to -instil into the Fijians, there is little doubt that the attempt, if it -were to be made, would be a successful one. The Fijian warrior fights -on his own account, each man separately, while the Tongans act in -unison; so that the Fijians who have fought against them compare them -to the gods, against whom it is useless to struggle. - -As may be gathered from these particulars, the Tongans are a superior -race to the Fijian. They are, indeed, a different people altogether; -the Fijians belonging to the Papuan race, whereas the Tongans belong -to the Polynesian race, which does not possess the very crisp hair and -rough skin of the Papuans; and, as a rule, is much lighter in skin, -the complexions being often as white as that of many Europeans. They -are, on the whole a singularly handsome set of people, the beauty not -being limited to the men, as is the case with so many savage tribes, -but possessed equally, if not to a superior extent, by the women. The -portrait of a daughter of a Tongan chief, on the 973d page, will verify -this statement. - -The dress of both sexes is made of similar materials, but is -differently arranged. The fabric is called in the Tongan language -“gnatoo,” and is almost identical with the Fijian masi. It is made from -the bark of the same tree, and is beaten out in very similar fashion, -except perhaps that the Tongan women are more particular than those of -Fiji in the care and delicacy with which they beat out the bark with -their grooved mallets. The gnatoo varies somewhat in quality according -to the island in which it is made, that of Vavau being considered as -the finest. - -In putting on the gnatoo, there is nearly as much diversity as in the -arrangement of a Scotch plaid, and the mode in which it is arranged -serves to denote difference of rank. The most fashionable mode, which -is practised by the chiefs, is to wrap a portion of it round the loins -in such a manner that the folds allow fair play to the limbs, and then -to pass the remainder round the waist like a broad belt, and tuck the -ends under the belt in front of the body. The portion which forms the -belt is so arranged that it can be loosened at any moment and thrown -over the head and shoulder. This is always done when the wearer is -obliged to be abroad in the night time. - -The gnatoo of the men measures about eight feet in length, by six in -width. Under the gnatoo is a belt made of the same material. Women have -a larger piece of gnatoo than the men, and arrange it in folds which -are as graceful as those of antique art, and seem as likely to fall off -the person. This, however, is never the case, and, even if the gnatoo -were by any accident to slip, the women wear under it a small mat or -petticoat about a foot in depth. - -As this gnatoo plays so important a part in the clothing of the -Polynesians, its manufacture will now be described, the account being -taken from Mariner’s valuable history of the Tongans:--“A circular -incision being made round the tree near the root with a shell, deep -enough to penetrate the bark, the tree is broken off at that point, -which its slenderness readily admits of. When a number of them are thus -laid on the ground, they are left in the sun a couple of days to become -partially dry, so that the inner and outer bark may be stripped off -together, without danger of leaving any of the fibres behind. - -“The bark is then soaked in water for a day and a night, and scraped -carefully with shells for the purpose of removing the outer bark or -epidermis, which is thrown away. The inner bark is then rolled up -lengthwise, and soaked in water for another day. It now swells, becomes -tougher, and more capable of being beaten out into a fine texture. - -“Being thus far prepared, the operation of _too-too_, or beating -commences. This part of the work is performed by means of a mallet a -foot long and two inches thick, in the form of a parallelopipedon, two -opposite sides being grooved horizontally to the depth and breadth of -about a line, with intervals of a quarter of an inch. - -“The bark, which is from two to three feet long, and one to three -inches broad, is then laid on a beam of wood about six feet long and -nine inches in breadth and thickness, which is supported about an inch -from the ground by pieces of wood at each end, so as to allow of a -certain degree of vibration. Two or three women generally sit at the -same beam; each places her bark transversely upon the beam immediately -before her, and while she beats with her right hand, with her left she -moves it slowly to and fro, so that every part becomes beaten alike. -The grooved side of the mallet is used first, and the smooth side -afterward. - -“They generally beat alternately, and early in the morning, when the -air is calm and still, the beating of gnatoo in all the plantations -has a very pleasing effect. Some sounds being near at hand, and others -almost lost by the distance,--some a little more acute, and others more -grave,--and all with remarkable regularity, produce a remarkable effect -that is very agreeable, and not a little heightened by the singing of -the birds and the cheerful influence of the scene. When one hand is -fatigued, the mallet is dexterously transferred to the other, without -occasioning the smallest sensible delay. - -“In the course of about half an hour, it is brought to a sufficient -degree of thinness, being so much spread laterally as to be now -nearly square when unfolded; for it must be observed that they double -it several times during the process, by which means it spreads more -equally and is prevented from breaking. The bark thus prepared is -called _fetagi_, and is mostly put aside till they have a sufficient -quantity to go on at a future time with the second part of the -operation, which is called _cocanga_, or printing with _coca_. - -“When this is to be done, a number employ themselves in gathering the -berries of the _toe_, the pulp of which serves for paste (but the -mucilaginous substance of the mahoá root is sometimes substituted for -it); at the same time others are busy scraping off the soft bark of the -cocoa tree and the _toodi-tooi_ tree, either of which, when wrung out -without water yields a reddish-brown juice, to be used as a dye. - -“The stamp is made of the dried leaves of the _paoongo_ sewed together -so as to be of a sufficient size, and afterward embroidered, according -to various devices, with the wiry fibre of the cocoa-nut husk. Making -these stamps is another employment of the women, and mostly women of -rank. They are generally about two feet long, and a foot and a half -broad. They are tied on to the convex side of half cylinders of wood, -usually about six or eight feet long, to admit two or three similar -operations to go on at the same time. - -“The stamp being thus fixed, with the embroidered side uppermost, a -piece of the prepared bark is laid on it, and smeared over with a -folded piece of gnatoo dipped in one of the reddish-brown liquids -before mentioned, so that the whole surface of the prepared bark -becomes stained, but particularly those parts raised by the design in -the stamp. Another piece of gnatoo is now laid upon it, but not quite -so broad, which adheres by virtue of the mucilaginous quality in the -dye, and this in like manner is smeared over; then a third in the same -way. - -“The substance is now three layers in thickness. Others are then added -to increase it in length and breadth by pasting the edges of these over -the first, but not so as there shall be in any place more than three -folds, which is easily managed, as the margin of one layer falls short -of the margin of the one under it. - -“During the whole process each layer is stamped separately, so that -the pattern may be said to exist in the very substance of the gnatoo; -and when one portion is thus printed to the size of the stamp, the -material being moved farther on, the next portion, either in length or -breadth, becomes stamped, the pattern beginning close to the spot where -the other ended. Thus they go on printing and enlarging it to about six -feet in breadth, and generally about forty or fifty yards in length. It -is then carefully folded up and baked under ground, which causes the -dye to become rather dark, and more firmly fixed in the fibre; beside -which it deprives it of a peculiar smoky smell which belongs to the -coca. - -“When it has been thus exposed to heat for a few hours, it is spread -out on a grass plat, or on the sand of the seashore, and the finishing -operation of _toogi-hea_ commences, _i. e._ staining it in certain -places with the juice of the _hea_, which constitutes a brilliant red -varnish. This is done in straight lines along those places where the -edges of the printed portions join each other, and serves to conceal -the little irregularities there; also in sundry other places, in the -form of round spots, about an inch and a quarter in diameter. After -this the gnatoo is exposed one night to the dew, and the next day, -being dried in the sun, it is packed up in bales to be used when -required. When gnatoo is not printed or stained, it is called _tappa_.” - -Various ornaments are worn by both sexes among the Tongans, among -which may be enumerated a kind of creeper, with flowers at intervals -along the stem. This is passed round the neck or the waist, and has a -singularly graceful and becoming appearance. The most valued ornament -is, however, that which is made of the ivory of the whale’s teeth, so -cut as to resemble in miniature the tooth itself. They are of different -sizes, varying from one inch to four inches in length, and strung -together by a cord passing through a hole bored in their thick ends. - -These teeth are even more valued in Tonga than in Fiji, and a common -man would not dare to have one in his possession, knowing well that he -would assuredly lose his life on the very first occasion that offered -the slightest opportunity of an accusation. Once Finow, the King of -Tonga, was told of a whale which had been stranded on a little island -inhabited only by a man and his wife. When Finow reached the place he -found that the teeth had been removed, and ordered the man and woman -into custody on the charge of stealing them. Both denied that they -had more than two teeth, which they gave up, whereupon the man was -immediately killed with a club, and the woman threatened with a similar -fate. Under fear of this threat she produced two more teeth which she -had hidden, but, refusing to acknowledge that she knew of any others, -met with the same fate as her husband. Many years afterward the missing -teeth were discovered, the woman having buried them in the ground. -This anecdote shows the value in which whales’ teeth are held, the -king taking the trouble to go in person to claim them, and the woman -allowing herself to be killed rather than part with her treasures. - -[Illustration: (1.) INTERIOR OF A TONGAN HOUSE. (See page 981.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) BURIAL OF A LIVING KING. (See page 966.)] - -A good idea of the appearance of a Tongan woman of rank may be obtained -from the illustration No. 1, on the preceding page, which represents -the interior of a chief’s house, and part of his family. - -In the foreground is one of the odd wooden pillows which are so much -in vogue throughout Polynesia; while one of the most conspicuous -objects is a roll of narrow matting, which is used for the purpose of -surrounding men and women of high rank as they sit on the floor. Within -it is seated the chief’s wife, in the graceful attitude adopted by the -Tongans, exhibiting the simple and really elegant folds of the gnatoo -dress. The reader will observe the apparent looseness with which the -dress is put on, the folds lying so loosely that they seem ready to -slip every moment. They are, however, perfectly tight, and there is not -the least danger of their slipping. - -Within doors the children never wear any clothing until they are two -years old; but when they go out, their parents always wrap round them a -piece of gnatoo or tappa. The natives are exceedingly fastidious about -their dress, criticising every fold with minute care, and spending a -considerable time in arranging them. Even when bathing, they always -array themselves in a slight dress made for such occasions, going -aside for the purpose of exchanging the usual gnatoo for an apron of -leaves or matting. So disrespectful is utter nudity reckoned among the -Tongans, that if a man be obliged to undress near the spot where a -chief is buried, the leaf apron is worn while the dress is changed. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the various divisions of rank in Tonga, and the mode of -government. Ranks may be divided into two distinct orders, namely, the -religious and the civil. We must take them in this order, because among -the Tongans religious takes the precedence of civil rank. - -By far the greatest man in point of rank is the TOOI-TONGA. This word -literally signifies Chief of Tonga, and is given because the man who -bears it is the greatest man in Tonga, which is the chief of the whole -group of islands. The word does not represent a name, but a rank, the -family name being Fatagehi, and the rank passes downward by legitimate -descent. So great a man is the Tooi-tonga, that in his presence no man -may stand, but is obliged to sit down in the attitude of respect. Even -the king is not exempt from this law; and if he should happen to meet -the Tooi-tonga, he would have to squat down humbly until the great man -had passed by. - -The Tooi-tonga stands alone in many particulars, and, according to -our ideas, he has plenty of dignity, but very little comfort, leading -a life somewhat like that of the spiritual Emperor of Japan. He has -certainly one advantage over his fellows: he does not undergo the -operation of tattooing, because there is no one of sufficiently high -rank to draw the blood of so sacred a personage. He is married after -a manner peculiar to himself, is buried in a peculiar manner, and is -mourned in a peculiar manner. He is so sacred, that in speaking of him -another language is used, many phrases being reserved expressly for -the Tooi-tonga. These are probably relics of an ancient and nearly -lost language, as is the case with the incantations of the New Zealand -priests. - -The reason for this extraordinary veneration is, that the Tooi-tonga is -supposed to be a direct descendant of a chief god who was accustomed to -visit the islands; but whether his female ancestor was a goddess or a -native of earth is an open question with the Tongans. In spite of all -the veneration which is shown to him, the Tooi-tonga has very little -real power, and in this respect is far surpassed by the king, and -equalled by many of the nobles. - -There is another chief, the VEACHI, who is also supposed to have a -divine origin, and is therefore held in higher veneration than any of -the chiefs, but is inferior to the Tooi-tonga. It is true that in his -presence the king has to sit on the ground in the attitude of humility, -and that he is considered a being next in rank to the great Tooi-tonga -himself; but the other marks of veneration, such as a separate -language, and different modes of marriage, burial, and mourning, are -not paid to him; and in power he is equalled by many of the chiefs. - -Next in rank, but at a very great distance, come the priests. These men -receive their name from their capability of being inspired by certain -gods, and, except when actually inspired, have no special rank, and are -paid no honor except such as may belong to them as private individuals. -Mariner remarks that he never knew a case in which a priest was a -chief. The king occasionally becomes inspired, because there is one -god who cannot speak except by the royal mouth; but the king is not, -in consequence, considered as a priest. Neither are the Tooi-tonga and -Veachi considered as priests, nor is there any connexion between them -and the priesthood. - -Should, in an assembly, a priest become inspired, he is immediately -held in the highest veneration as long as the inspiration lasts, -because a god is supposed to be speaking through his lips. If, on such -an occasion, the king should be present, he immediately leaves his -place, and sits humbly among the spectators. Even the great Tooi-tonga -himself acts in the same manner, and, though the descendant of a god, -he retires before the actual presence of a divinity. - -So much for the spiritual rank, and we now pass to the temporal rank. - -The highest man in a secular point of view is the HOW, or king, who is -the most powerful of all the chiefs, and yet may be in point of rank -inferior to the poorest of his nobles, or EGIS. Rank is measured in -Tonga by relationship to the Tooi-tonga or Veachi, the relatives of the -former being held superior to those of the latter. The consequence is, -that the king may meet a poor man who has scarcely any power, and yet -who is so high in rank above the king that the latter must sit down -till his superior has passed. Should he not do so, or should he by any -accident touch anything that belonged to his superior, the tapu would -assume its sway, and he would not be permitted to feed himself with -his own hands until he had gone to his superior, and saluted him by -touching his feet. - -In consequence of these customs, the king avoids associating with -nobles who are his superior in rank, and they in their turn keep out -of his way as far as possible, so as not to humiliate him by making -him sit while they stand. Originally, the king was a descendant of the -Tooi-tonga, and thus was equally high in spiritual and temporal rank. -But when the throne was usurped by other families, the king still -retained the temporal power, though he yielded in spiritual rank to -others. - -Next to the king come the EGIS, or nobles. These are all relations of -the Tooi-tonga, the Veachi, or the king, kinship to the king being held -as conferring rank because he holds the reins of power. Rank descends -in Tonga, as in other Polynesian islands, through the female line, -so that all the children of an Egi woman possess the rank of Egi, no -matter who may be the father. - -After the nobles come the MATABOOLES, or councillors, who are the -companions and advisers of the chiefs, and take their rank from that -of the chief to whom they are attached. They are always the heads -of families, and are mostly men of mature age and experience, so -that their advice is highly valued. The eldest son of a Mataboole is -carefully trained to take his father’s place when he dies, and is -thoroughly versed in all the rites and ceremonies, the administration -of laws, and the many points of etiquette about which the Tongans are -so fastidious. He also learns all the traditionary records of his -people, and by the time that he is thirty years old or so is perfectly -acquainted with his profession. But until his father dies he has -no rank, and is merely one of the ordinary gentry, who will now be -described. - -Last of all those who possess any rank are the gentry, or MOOAS. -All the sons of Matabooles are Mooas, and act as assistants of the -Matabooles, aiding on great ceremonies in managing the dances, -distributing food, and so forth. Like their superiors, they attach -themselves to the service of some chief, and derive their relative -consequence from his rank. As a rule, the Mooas all profess some art, -such as canoe building, ivory carving, and superintending funeral -rites, in which three occupations the Matabooles also take part. They -also preside over the makers of stone coffins, the makers of nets, the -fishermen, and the architects, and all these employments are hereditary. - -Just as the children and brothers of Matabooles take the next lowest -rank, that of Mooa, so do those of Mooas take the next lowest rank, -and are considered as TOOAS, or plebeians. In this case, however, the -eldest son of a Mooa assumes the rank of his father after his death, -and is therefore more respected than his brothers, who are regarded -like younger sons among ourselves. The Tooas do all the menial work, -and act as cooks, barbers, tattooers, club-carvers, and so forth. The -two latter occupations, however, as requiring artistic skill, are also -practised by Mooas. - -It will be seen from this brief sketch how elaborate, and yet how -intelligible, is this system of the Tongans, even when complicated with -the double grades of spiritual and temporal rank. This respect for -rank is carried even into the privacy of home. If, for example, an Egi -woman marries a Mataboole, or a Mooa, she retains her original rank, -which is shared by all her children, so that both she and her children -are superior to the husband and father. He, on his part, has to play -a double _rôle_. He is master in his own house, and his wife submits -to him as implicitly as if he were of the same rank as herself. Yet -he acknowledges the superior rank both of his wife and children, and, -before he even ventures to feed himself with his own hands, he goes -through the ceremony of touching the feet of his wife or either of his -children, in order to free himself from the tapu. - -When the case is reversed, and a man of high rank marries a woman of -an inferior station, she does not rise to the rank of her husband, but -retains her original station, which is inherited by her children, who, -together with herself, have to touch the feet of the husband whenever -they eat. They imagine that if they did not do so a terrible sickness -would consume them. When Mariner lived among the Tongans, he did not -trouble himself about the tapu, much to the horror of the natives, who -expected that the offended gods would wreak their vengeance on him. -Finding that he suffered no harm, they accounted for the phenomenon by -the fact that he was a white man, and therefore had nothing to do with -the gods of the Tongans. - -In consequence of the strictness of this system, Finow, who was king -when Mariner lived among the Tongan islands, used to feel annoyed if -even a child of superior rank were brought near him, and used angrily -to order it to be taken away. Such conduct, however, would not be -thought right unless both parties were nearly equal in rank; and if, -for example, the Tooi-tonga’s child had been brought near the king, he -would at once have done homage after the customary fashion. - -Some very curious modifications of this custom prevail throughout -Tongan society. For example, any one may choose a foster-mother, even -though his own mother be alive, and he may choose her from any rank. -Generally her rank is inferior to that of her adopted son, but even -this connection between them does not earn for her any particular -respect. She would be much more honored as an attendant of a young -chief than as his foster-mother. - -So elaborate and yet simple a system implies a degree of refinement -which we could hardly expect among savages. In consonance with this -refinement is the treatment of women, who are by no means oppressed -and hard-worked slaves, as is the case with most savage nations. -Consequently the women possess a gentle freedom of demeanor and grace -of form which are never found among those people where women are merely -the drudges of the men. So long ago as 1777, Captain Cook noticed that -the women were much more delicately formed than the men, that they were -beautifully proportioned, and that the hands were so small and soft -that they would compare favorably with the finest examples in Europe -and America. Hard and constant labor, such as is usually the lot of -savage women, deteriorates the form greatly, as indeed we can see among -ourselves, by comparing together a high-bred lady and a field laborer. -The two hardly seem to belong to the same race, or scarcely to the same -sex. - -The Tongan women certainly do work, but they are not condemned to do it -all, the men taking the hard labor on themselves, and leaving the women -the lighter tasks, such as beating gnatoo, plaiting baskets, making -crockery, and the like. At the great dances, the women are not only -allowed to be present, but assist in them, taking as important a share -as the men, and infusing into the dance a really cultivated grace which -would not exist without them. - -The light-colored hue of the skin, which has already been mentioned, -is much more common among the women than the men, for the reason that -the better class of women take more care of themselves than the men; -and, though all classes live for the most part in the open air, the -wives and daughters of powerful and wealthy men are careful not to -expose themselves to the sun more than is absolutely necessary, so -that many of them, instead of being brown, are of a clear olive tint, -the effect of which is singularly beautiful when contrasted with their -dark clustering hair, their gnatoo garments, and the leaves and flowers -with which they adorn themselves, changing them several times daily. -Altogether, a Tongan chief looks, and is, a gentleman, and his wife a -lady. - - - - -CHAPTER C. - -TONGA--_Continued_. - -WAR AND CEREMONIES. - - - NATURAL MILDNESS OF THE TONGANS -- BOASTING DISCOURAGED -- WAR - APPARENTLY LEARNED FROM THE FIJIANS -- FINOW’S SPEECH TO HIS - SOLDIERS, AND A NEW DISCIPLINE -- FATE OF THE VANQUISHED -- THE - DROWNED CHIEFS -- CEREMONIES -- KAVA-DRINKING -- STRICT CODE OF - ETIQUETTE -- PREPARATION OF THE KAVA -- A GRACEFUL PERFORMANCE -- - DISTRIBUTION OF THE KAVA -- POINTS OF CEREMONY -- A TONGAN PLANTATION - -- SETTING THE YAMS -- CEREMONY OF INACHI -- THE POLE BEARERS AND - THEIR BURDEN -- THE YAM PILLARS -- LIFTING THE PIGS -- DISTRIBUTION - OF PROVISIONS, AND CONCLUSION OF THE CEREMONY -- TOW-TOW, AND ITS - OBJECT -- PRESENTATION OF THE OFFERING -- A GRAND SCRAMBLE -- BOXING - AND WRESTLING MATCHES -- GOOD-HUMORED COMBATANTS -- FIGHTS WITH CLUBS - -- THE SAMOAN AND TONGAN RULES. - -By nature the Tongans are gentle and kind-hearted, and present a most -curious mixture of mildness and courage. To judge by many traits of -character, they might be stigmatized as effeminate, while by others -they are shown to possess real courage, not merely the dashing and -boastful bravery which is, when analyzed, merely bravado, and which -is only maintained by the hope of gaining applause. The Tongan never -boasts of his own courage, nor applauds that of another. When he has -performed a deed of arms which would set a Fijian boasting for the rest -of his life, he retires quietly into the background and says nothing -about it. His king or chief may acknowledge it if they like, but he -will be silent on the subject, and never refer to it. - -For the same reason, he will not openly applaud a deed of arms done by -one of his fellows. He will regard the man with great respect, and show -by his demeanor the honor in which he holds him, but he will not speak -openly on the subject. Mariner relates an instance in which a young -warrior named Hali Api Api, who seems to have been the very model of -a gentleman, performed a notable deed of arms, equally remarkable for -courage and high-minded generosity. During a council, the king called -him out, and publicly thanked him for his conduct. The man blushed -deeply, as if ashamed at this public recognition of his services, -saluted the king, and retired to his place without saying a word. -Neither did he afterward refer either to his exploit or to the public -recognition of it. - -One warrior actually declared that he would go up to a loaded cannon -and throw his spear into it. He fulfilled his promise to the letter. -He ran up within ten or twelve yards of the gun, and, as the match was -applied, threw himself on the ground, so that the shot passed over -him. He then sprang up, and, in spite of the enemy’s weapons, hurled -his spear at the cannon, and struck it in the muzzle. Having performed -this feat, he quietly retired, and was never heard to refer to so -distinguished an act of courage, though he was greatly respected for it -by his countrymen. - -We need not wonder that such men should establish a moral influence -over the boastful but not warlike Fijians, and that the small colony -established in the Fiji group should virtually be its masters. Two -hundred years ago, the Tongan appears to have been ignorant of weapons -and warfare, and to have borrowed his first knowledge of both from -Fiji. Consequently, the Tongan weapons are practically those of Fiji, -modified somewhat according to the taste of the makers but evidently -derived from the same source. Captain Cook, who visited the islands -in 1777, remarks that the few clubs and spears which he saw among the -Tongans were of Fiji manufacture, or at least made after the Fiji -pattern. Yet by a sort of poetical justice, the Tongan has turned the -Fijian’s weapons against himself, and, by his superior intellect and -adventurous courage, has overcome the ferocious people of whom he was -formerly in dread. - -Since the introduction of fire-arms, the superiority of the Tongans has -made itself even more manifest, the Fijians having no idea of fighting -against men who did not run away when fired at, but rushed on in spite -of the weapons opposed to them. - -It is possible that the Tongans may have learned this mode of fighting -from Mariner and his companions. When the king Finow was about to make -war upon a neighboring island, he assembled the warriors and made them -an address, telling them that the system of warfare which had been -previously employed was a false one. He told them no longer to advance -or retreat according as they met with success or repulse, but to press -forward at all risks; and, even if a man saw the point of a spear at -his breast, he was not to flinch like a coward, but to press forward, -and at risk of his own life to kill his foe. He also instructed them in -the art of receiving the onset of the enemy with calmness, instead of -indulging in cries and gesticulations, telling them to seat themselves -on the ground as the enemy approached, as if perfectly unconcerned, and -not to stir until ordered, even if they threw spears or shot arrows. -But as soon as they got the word to advance they were to leap to -their feet, and charge without regard to consequences. The reader may -remember that this is exactly the strategy which was employed in Africa -by the great Kaffir chief Tchaka. - -It may easily be imagined how such a course of conduct would -disconcert their opponents, and the Fijians in particular, with whom -boasting and challenging took the place of valor. Emboldened by the -apparent weakness of the enemy, they would come on in great glee, -expecting to make an easy conquest, and then, just when they raised -the shout of victory, they found themselves suddenly attacked with a -disciplined fury which they had never been accustomed to meet, and were -consequently dispersed and almost annihilated before they could well -realize their position. - -Though tolerably mild toward their captives, the Tongans sometimes -display an unexpected ferocity. On one occasion, some of Finow’s men -surprised and captured four of the enemy, whom they imagined to belong -to a party who had annoyed them greatly by hanging on their track and -cutting off the stragglers. - -At first they wished to take the prisoners home and make an example of -them, but the chief of the party suggested that they would have all the -trouble of guarding them, and proposed to decapitate them, and take -their heads home. One of them objected to the proposal on the ground -that they had no knives, but another man, fertile in expedients, picked -up some oyster-shells that were lying about, and suggested that they -would answer the purpose. - -It was in vain that the victims protested their innocence, and begged -that at least they might be clubbed before their heads were cut off. -The conquerors coolly took off their dresses to prevent them being -stained with blood, and deliberately sawed off the heads of the -captives with their oyster-shells; beginning at the back of the neck, -and working their way gradually round. The reason for this course of -action seemed to be twofold--first, that they thought they might spoil -the heads by the club; and secondly, that as the heads must be cut off -at all events, clubbing the captives beforehand was taking needless -trouble. - -Indeed, the character of the Tongan presents a curious mixture of -mildness and cruelty, the latter being probably as much due to -thoughtlessness as to ferocity. Once when eighteen rebels had been -captured, Finow ordered them to be drowned. This punishment is -inflicted by taking the prisoners out to sea, bound hand and foot, -and towing some worthless canoes. When they are far enough from land, -the culprits are transferred to the canoes, which are then scuttled, -and left to sink. Care is taken that the holes made in the canoes are -small, so that they shall be as long as possible in sinking. - -On that occasion twelve of the prisoners begged to be clubbed instead -of drowned, and their request was granted. The young men divided the -prisoners among themselves, being anxious to take a lesson in clubbing -a human being, which would serve them when they came to make use of the -club against an enemy. The twelve were, accordingly, despatched with -the club, but the others, being tried warriors, scorned to ask a favor, -and were drowned. The leading chief among them employed the short time -which was left him in uttering maledictions against Finow and his -chiefs, and even when the water came up to his mouth, he threw back his -head for the purpose of uttering another curse. - - * * * * * - -We will now pass to a more pleasant subject, namely, the various -ceremonies in which the Tongan delights. Chief among these is the -drinking of kava, which forms an important part of every public -religious rite, and is often practised in private. Kava drinking is -known throughout the greater part of Polynesia; but as the best and -fullest account of it has been obtained from Mariner’s residence in -Tonga, a description of it has been reserved for the present occasion. -It must first be premised that the kava is made from the root of a -tree belonging to the pepper tribe, and known by the name of _Piper -methysticum_, _i. e._ the intoxicating pepper-tree. Disgusting as the -preparation of the kava may be to Europeans, it is held in such high -estimation by the Polynesians that it is never made or drunk without a -complicated ceremony, which is the same whether the party be a large or -a small one. - -The people being assembled, the man of highest rank takes his place -under the eaves of the house, sitting with his back to the house -and his face toward the _marly_, or open space in front, and having -a Mataboole on either side of him. Next to these Matabooles, who -undertake the arrangement of the festival, sit the nobles or chiefs of -highest rank, and next to them the lower chiefs, and so forth. They are -not, however, very particular about the precise order in which they -sit, distinctions of rank being marked by the order in which they are -served. - -This is the business of the presiding Matabooles, and as the -distinctions of rank are most tenaciously observed, it is evident that -the duties of a Mataboole are of a most difficult nature, and can only -be learned by long and constant practice. If the men sat according to -their rank, nothing would be easier than the task of serving them in -order. But it often happens that a man of high rank happens to come -late, and, as he is too polite to disturb those of lower rank who have -already taken their places, he sits below them, knowing that his rank -will be recognized at the proper time. - -It mostly happens, however, that when one of the presiding Matabooles -sees a man occupying a place much below that to which his rank entitles -him, he makes some one surrender his place to him, or even turns out -altogether a man who is seated in a high place, and puts the chief into -it. The people thus gradually extend themselves into a ring, sometimes -single, but often several ranks deep when the party is a large one, -every one of the members being a man of some recognized rank. Behind -those who form the bottom of the ring opposite the presiding chief, -sit the general public, who may be several thousand in number. It is -a remarkable fact, illustrating the rigid code of etiquette which -prevails among the Tongans, that no one can sit in the inner ring if -a superior relative be also in it; and, no matter how high may be his -rank, he must leave his place, and sit in the outer circle, if his -father or any superior relative enters the inner ring. - -This ring, which constitutes the essential kava party, is formed mostly -of the sons of chiefs and Matabooles, and it often happens that their -fathers, even if they be chiefs of the highest rank, will sit in the -outer ring, rather than disturb its arrangements. Even the son of the -king often adopts this plan, and assists in preparing the kava like any -of the other young men. - -Exactly opposite to the king is placed the kava bowl, and behind it -sits the man who is to prepare the drink. On either side of him sits an -assistant, one of whom carries a fan wherewith to drive away the flies, -and another takes charge of the water, which is kept in cocoa-nut -shells. The rank of the preparer is of no consequence. Sometimes he is -a Mooa or gentleman, and sometimes a mere cook; but, whoever he may be, -he is known to be able to perform his difficult task with sufficient -strength and elegance. - -All being ready, one of the presiding Matabooles sends for the kava -root, which is then scraped quite clean and cut up into small pieces. -These are handed to the young men or even to the young women present, -who masticate the root, contriving in some ingenious way to keep it -quite dry during the process. It is then wrapped in a leaf, and passed -to the preparer, who places it in the bowl, carefully lining the -interior with the balls of chewed root, so that the exact quantity can -be seen. - -When all the kava has been chewed and deposited, the preparer tilts -the bowl toward the presiding chief, who consults with his Matabooles, -and if he thinks there is not enough, orders the bowl to be covered -over, and sends for more kava, which is treated as before. Should -he be satisfied, the preparer kneads all the kava together, and the -Mataboole then calls for water, which is poured into the bowl until he -orders the man to stop. Next comes the order to put in the _fow_. This -is a bundle of very narrow strips of bark of a tree belonging to the -genus _hibiscus_, and it has been compared to the willow shavings that -are used in England to decorate fire-places in the summer time. The -assistant takes a quantity of this material, and lays it on the water, -spreading it carefully, so that it lies equally on the surface of the -liquid. Now begins the important part of the proceeding which tests the -power of the preparer. - -“In the first place, he extends his left hand to the farther side -of the bowl, with his fingers pointing downward and the palm toward -himself; he sinks that hand carefully down the side of the bowl, -carrying with it the edge of the _fow_; at the same time his right hand -is performing a similar operation at the side next to him, the fingers -pointing downward and the palm presenting outward. He does this slowly -from side to side, gradually descending deeper and deeper till his -fingers meet each other at the bottom, so that nearly the whole of the -fibres of the root are by these means enclosed in the _fow_, forming as -it were a roll of above two feet in length lying along the bottom from -side to side, the edges of the _fow_ meeting each other underneath. - -[Illustration: THE KAVA PARTY. (See page 989.)] - -“He now carefully rolls it over, so that the edges overlapping each -other, or rather intermingling, come uppermost. He next doubles in the -two ends and rolls it carefully over again, endeavoring to reduce it to -a narrower and firmer compass. He now brings it cautiously out of the -fluid, taking firm hold of it by the two ends, one in each hand (the -back of his hands being upward), and raising it breast high with his -arms considerably extended, he brings his right hand toward his breast, -moving it gradually onward; and whilst his left hand is coming round -toward his right shoulder, his right hand partially twisting the _fow_, -lays the end which it holds upon the left elbow, so that the _fow_ lies -thus extended upon that arm, one end being still grasped by the left -hand. - -“The right hand being at liberty is brought under the left fore-arm -(which still remains in the same situation), and carried outwardly -toward the left elbow, that it may again seize in that situation the -end of the _fow_. The right hand then describes a bold curve outwardly -from the chest, whilst the left comes across the chest, describing a -curve nearer to him and in the opposite direction, till at length the -left hand is extended from him and the right hand approaches to the -left shoulder, gradually twisting the _fow_ by the turn and flexures -principally of that wrist: this double motion is then retraced, but -in such a way (the left wrist now principally acting) that the _fow_, -instead of being untwisted, is still more twisted, and is at length -again placed on the left arm, while he takes a new and less constrained -hold. - -“Thus the hands and arms perform a variety of curves of the most -graceful description: the muscles both of the arms and chest are seen -rising as they are called into action, displaying what would be a fine -and uncommon subject of study for the painter: for no combinations of -animal action can develop the swell and play of the muscles with more -grace and better effect. - -“The degree of strength which he exerts when there is a large quantity -is very great, and the dexterity with which he accomplishes the whole -never fails to excite the attention and admiration of all present. -Every tongue is mute, and every eye is upon him, watching each motion -of his arms as they describe the various curvilinear lines essential -to the success of the operation. Sometimes the fibres of the _fow_ are -heard to crack with the increasing tension, yet the mass is seen whole -and entire, becoming more thin as it becomes more twisted, while the -infusion drains from it in a regularly decreasing quantity till at -length it denies a single drop.” - -The illustration on the preceding page represents this portion of the -ceremony. On the right hand is seen the presiding chief seated under -the eaves of the house, with a Mataboole on either side of him, and -just beyond him extends a portion of the inner ring. In front of the -chief sits the performer, who is wringing out the kava, and is just -about to change the grasp of his right hand, according to Mariner’s -description. On either side sit his assistants, both of whom are -engaged in fanning away the flies. - -Near them lie the cocoa-nut shells from which the water has been -poured. Beyond the inner ring are seen the outer rings and the general -population, who have come to witness the ceremony and get their chance -of a stray cup of kava or some food. - -When the _fow_ ceases to give out any more fluid, a second and third -are used in the same manner, so that not a particle of the root remains -in the liquid. Should more _fow_ or water be wanted, an order is given, -and twenty or thirty men rush off for it, going and returning at full -speed, as if running for their lives; and anything else that may be -wanted is fetched in the same manner. - -While the operator is going through his task, those who are in the -outer circle and cannot properly see him occupy themselves in making -cups from which the kava can be drunk. These cups are made of the -unexpanded leaves of the banana tree, cut up into squares of about nine -inches across. The cups are made in a most ingenious manner by plaiting -up the two ends and tying them with a fibre drawn from the stem of the -leaf. The Mataboole then orders provisions to be served out, which is -done in an orderly manner. To the general assembly this is the most -interesting part of the ceremony, for they have but little chance of -getting any kava, and it is very likely that they will have a share of -food, as the regular kava drinkers never eat more than a morsel or two -at these entertainments. - -The operator having done his part, now comes the test of the -Mataboole’s efficiency. The kava is to be distributed in precisely -the proper order, a slip in this respect being sure to give deep -offence. Should a visitor of rank be present, he gets the first cup, -the presiding Mataboole the second, and the presiding chief the third. -If, however, the kava be given by one of the guests, the donor always -has the first cup, unless there should be a visitor of superior rank to -himself, in which case the donor is ignored altogether, only having the -kava according to his rank. No person is allowed to have two cups from -the same bowl, but after all the inner circle and their relatives are -served, the remainder is given out to the people as far as it will go, -and a second bowl is prepared. It will be seen that, if the preparer be -a man of low rank, he stands a chance of never tasting the liquid which -he has so skilfully prepared. - -The second bowl is prepared in precisely the same way as the first, -except that the second presiding Mataboole gives the orders; and, if a -third or fourth bowl be ordered, they take the direction alternately. -When the second bowl is prepared, the cups are filled and handed round -in exactly the same order as before, so that those of high rank get -three or four cups, and those of lower rank only one, or perhaps none -at all. - -It is a point of etiquette that no chief ever visits the kava party -of an inferior chief, as in that case the latter would be obliged -to retire from the presidency and sit in the outer ring. When the -Tooi-tonga presides, no one presumes to sit within six feet of him; and -if perchance an inspired priest be present, he takes the presidency, -and the greatest chief, or even the king himself, is obliged to retire -into the outer ring on such occasions. A priest always presides at -religious ceremonies, and the kava party is held in front of the temple -dedicated to the particular god which they are about to consult. But in -some cases a god has no priest, and in those cases he is supposed to -preside in person, though invisibly, the president’s place being left -vacant for him. - -The reader will see from the foregoing account that kava is a luxury -practically confined to the higher classes. The great chiefs and -Matabooles drink it every day, either as presidents or members of the -inner ring. Those of lower rank obtain it occasionally; while the Tooas -seldom taste this luxury, except by taking the kava after it has been -wrung by the operator, and preparing it afresh. - -As the reader will see, it is impossible to separate the secular and -religious life of the Tongans. They are inextricably woven together, -and therefore must be described together. There are a vast number -of ceremonies in which these two elements are united, one or two of -which will be described, by way of sample of the rest. The first is -the festival of Ináchi, a feast of firstfruits, a ceremony which in -principle is found throughout the whole earth, though the details -necessarily differ. In the present case, the offering is made to the -Tooi-tonga, as being at once the descendant and representative of the -gods. - -About the latter end of July the ordinary yams are planted in the -ground; but those which are intended for the feast of Ináchi are of -a different kind, coming to maturity earlier, and are planted about -a month sooner. In an illustration on the next page we may see how -the yams are set in the ground, and may get a good idea of a Tongan -plantation. In the centre of the foreground is the chief to whom the -plantation belongs, accompanied by his little boy. As is usual with -men of rank in Tonga, he bears in his hand a short, many-barbed spear, -which may either be used as a walking staff or as a weapon. The former -is its normal use, but the chiefs sometimes find the advantage of -having with them a serviceable weapon. The point of the spear is -frequently armed with the barbed tail-bone of the sting-ray. When Finow -captured by craft the rebel chief whose death by drowning has already -been described, his chief difficulty was the bone-tipped spear which -the chief always carried with him, and of which he was temporarily -deprived by a stratagem. - -One of his laborers is talking to him, having in his hand the hoe -with which he has been making holes in the ground for the reception -of the yams. Behind him are more laborers, employed in cutting the -yams in pieces, and planting them in the holes. Just beyond the yam -plantation is a piece of ground stocked with sugar-canes; and beyond -the sugar-canes is the house of the chief, known by the superiority of -its architecture. The house is built near the sea-shore, and close to -the beach a canoe is seen hauled up on its support. - -The greater part of the illustration is occupied with the ingenious -spiked fence within which the storehouses and dwellings for the Tooas, -or peasants, are placed. As may be seen, it has no doors, but at -intervals the fence is only half the usual height and without spikes, -and is crossed by means of stiles, two of which are given in the -illustration, one to show the exterior and the other the interior of -the fence. Close to the further stile is a young tree, surrounded with -a fencing to the height of several feet, in order to guard it, while -growing, from the attacks of pigs and children. - -The open shed is one of the peasants’ houses, under which are seated -a number of women, employed in making mats; while some children are -playing and fowls feeding by them. Toward the further end of the -enclosure is shown one of the storehouses. - -As soon as the yams are ripe, the king sends a message to the -Tooi-tonga, asking him to fix a day for the ceremony, which is -generally settled to be on the tenth day after the request is made, so -that time may be given for notice to be sent to all the islands. The -day before the ceremony of Ináchi, the yams are dug up and ornamented -with scarlet streamers made of the inner membrane of the pandanus leaf. -These are in long and narrow strips, and are woven spirally over the -yams, first in one direction and then the other, so as to produce a -neat checkered pattern, and having the ends hanging loose. - -All through the night is heard the sound of the conch shell, and -until midnight the men and women answered each other in a song, the -men singing, “Rest, doing no work,” and the women responding, “Thou -shalt not work.” About midnight the song ceases; but it is resumed -at daybreak, and continues until about eight A. M., accompanied with -plenty of conch blowing. The prohibition of work is so imperative, that -the people are not even allowed to leave their houses, except for the -purpose of assisting in the ceremony. - -[Illustration: (1.) TONGAN PLANTATION. (See page 990.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CEREMONY OF INACHI. (See page 993.)] - -At eight A. M. the ceremony of Ináchi really begins, the people -crowding from different parts of the Tooi-tonga’s island toward the -capital town, and canoes approaching in all directions from other -islands. All are in their very best, with new clothes and ribbons; -while the men carry their most beautiful spears and clubs. Each party -carries the yams in baskets, which are taken to the _marly_, or large -central space of the village, and there laid down with great ceremony. -In the marly are ready laid a number of poles, eight or nine feet in -length, and four inches in diameter, and upon them the men sling the -yams, only one yam being hung to the middle of each pole. - -Meanwhile the great chiefs and Matabooles have gone to the grave of -the last Tooi-tonga, should it happen to be on the island, or, should -he have been buried on another island, the grave of any of his family -answers the purpose. They sit there in a semicircle before the grave, -their heads bowed and their hands clasped, waiting for the procession, -which presently arrives. - -First come two boys blowing conch shells, and advancing with a slow -and solemn step; and behind them come a vast number of men with the -yams. Each pole is carried by two men, one at each end, and, as they -walk, they sink at every step, as if overcome with the weight of their -burden. This is to signify that the yams are of such a size that the -bearers can hardly carry them, and is a sort of symbolized thanksgiving -to the gods for so fine a prospect of harvest. As the men come to the -grave, they lay the poles and yams on it, and seat themselves in order -before the grave, so that they form a line between the chiefs and the -yams. - -This part of the ceremony is shown in the lower illustration, on the -991st page. In the foreground are seated the chiefs and Matabooles, -with their clubs and spears, while the procession of pole bearers is -seen winding along from the far distance. Two of them have already -laid their yams and poles before the grave, and have seated themselves -between the grave and the circle of chiefs, while others are just -depositing their burdens on the same sacred spot. Standing by them are -the two boys who headed the procession, still blowing busily at their -conch-shell trumpets. In the distance, and on the left hand of the -illustration, may be seen the people seated in numbers on the ground. - -One of the Tooi-tonga’s Matabooles then sits between the pole bearers -and the grave and makes an oration, in which he gives thanks to the -gods for their bounty, and asks for a continuance of it to their -offspring, the Tooi-tonga. He then retires to his former place, the men -take up their poles, and after marching several times round the grave, -they return to the marly and again deposit their loads, this time -untying the yams from the poles, but leaving the colored streamers upon -them. - -Here the whole of the people seat themselves in a large circle, at -which the Tooi-tonga presides, even the king himself retiring, and -sitting in the back ranks. Next the remainder of the offerings are -brought forward, consisting of mats, gnatoo, dried fish, and various -kinds of food. These are divided by one of the Tooi-tonga’s Matabooles -into four equal parts. One of these goes to the gods, and is at once -taken away by the servants of the different priests, and the remainder -is shared by the Tooi-tonga and the king, the latter, although of -inferior rank, getting the larger portion, because he has four times -as many dependents to feed. The proceedings are wound up with the -kava drinking, which always accompanies such ceremonies. While the -infusion is being prepared, the presiding Mataboole makes a speech to -the people, explaining the right that has just been concluded, and -advising them to pay due honor to the gods and their representative the -Tooi-tonga. - - * * * * * - -When this great potentate dies, there is a most extravagant feast, -which often reduces the people to a state of semi-starvation for a -long time, and sometimes threatens an actual famine. In such a case, -the tapu is laid upon hogs, cocoa-nuts, and fowls for seven or eight -months, or even longer, during which time none but the great chiefs are -allowed to touch them. Two or three plantations are always exempted, -so that there may be a supply for the great chiefs and for the various -religious ceremonies. At the expiration of the stated period, if -the crops look well, and the pigs and fowls have increased in due -proportion, the tapu is taken off with very great ceremony. - -One of these ceremonies was seen by Mariner at the Hapai Islands, and -a very strange rite it turned out to be. It was held on two marlies, -one belonging to the Tooi-tonga and the other to the king. As if to -compensate for the limited diet of the previous month, food was piled -in abundance. On the Tooi-tonga’s marly were erected four square hollow -pillars, about four feet in diameter, and made of four poles connected -with matting. These were about fifty or sixty feet in height, and each -of them was crowned with a baked hog. - -The king’s marly, which was about a quarter of a mile from the other, -was equally well supplied with food, only in this case the yams were -placed in wooden cars or sledges, and nearly four hundred half-baked -hogs were laid on the ground. The king having arrived, and the signal -given for beginning the proceedings, the young chiefs and warriors -tried successively to lift the largest hog, and at last, when all had -failed, it was lifted by two men and taken to the other marly. “In the -meantime the trial was going on with the second hog, which, being also -found too heavy for one man, was carried away by two in like manner, -and so on with the third, fourth, &c., the largest being carried away -first, and the least last. - -“The second, third, fourth, &c., afforded more sport than the others, -as being a nearer counterbalance with a man’s strength. Sometimes he -had got it neatly upon his shoulder, when his greasy burden slipped -through his arms, and, in his endeavor to save it, brought him down -after it. It is an honor to attempt these things, and even the king -sometimes puts his hand to it.” - -The next part of the proceedings was the carrying twenty of the largest -hogs to the late Tooi-tonga’s grave, and leaving them there, while the -rest, together with the other provisions, were shared among the chiefs, -who in their turn distributed them to their followers, until every man -in the island gets a piece of pork and yam. The four great columns of -yams were given, one to the king, another to the Tooi-tonga, the third -to the Veachi and one or two of the very great chiefs, and the fourth -to the gods. The Tooi-tonga also took the cars of yams as a matter -of tacit though unacknowledged right. Kava drinking, dancing, and -wrestling concluded the ceremony; and as soon as the circle broke up, -the tapu was considered as annulled. - -The twenty large hogs which were laid on the grave were left there -for several days; but as soon as they showed signs of putridity, they -were cut up, and divided among all who chose to apply for a share of -the meat. By right they belonged to the chiefs, but as they were able -to procure fresh pork for themselves, they preferred to forego their -right, and divide the tainted meat among the people. - -The ceremony of Mo’ee-mo’ee, or taking off the tapu contracted by -touching a chief, has already been mentioned. The tapu is even -contracted by eating in the presence of a superior relation; but -there is a conventional way of getting rid of this tapu by simply -turning the back upon the superior, who is then considered as not -being ceremonially in the presence of the inferior. Should a man think -that he may have contracted the tapu unwittingly, he will not dare -to feed himself until he has gone to some chief, whose foot he takes -and presses it against his stomach. This rite is called the _Fota_, -or pressing. Any chief can take away the tapu contracted by touching -an equal or inferior, but has no power over that of a superior. -Consequently, no one but himself can take away the Tooi-tonga’s -tapu; and this proved so inconvenient that whenever the potentate -went from his house, he left behind him a consecrated bowl as his -representative, and this was held to be equally powerful in removing -the tapu. The Veachi adopted a similar plan. It is a remarkable fact -that kava is exempt from all tapu, so that if even the Tooi-tonga has -touched a piece of kava root, the lowest cook may chew it. - - * * * * * - -There is a ceremony which in principle somewhat resembles that of -Ináchi, though it is conducted after a very different manner. Just -as the Ináchi is an offering to the gods in general through the -Tooi-tonga, so is this ceremony, which is called the Tow-tow, a special -thanksgiving to Alo-Alo, the god of weather. It is begun in the early -part of November, when the yams are ripe, and is continued for some -three months, at intervals of eight or ten days. - -All the islands of Tonga are divided into three distinct portions, -namely, the northern division, or _Hahagi_, the southern division, -or _Hihifo_, and the middle division, or _Mooa_. Each of these -divisions has orders to prepare a certain amount of food, such as yams, -cocoa-nuts, and the like, and to bring them to the marly. The correct -mode of doing so is to bring them on sticks, so that each stick has -upon it seven or eight yams, or a bunch of plantains, or a quantity of -bananas. If sugar-canes form part of the offering, they are tied in -bundles of three or four in each: and all the offerings, no matter what -they may be, are piled up in three great heaps, one being erected by -the people of each district. - -This being done, and a few preliminary matches of boxing and wrestling -played, after about three hours a small procession appears, composed -of eight or ten men sent by the priest of Alo-Alo, and accompanied by -a young girl about eight or nine years old, who represents the god’s -wife. She is always the daughter of a chief, and generally of one of -the highest chiefs, and, during the eighty days of the ceremony, she -resides at the temple of Alo-Alo. She has nothing particular to do, -except presiding at one or two feasts and kava parties. - -The men are all dressed in mats, and have green leaves tied round -their necks. This is the dress of humility and sorrow, and is employed -in times of mourning for the dead and supplication for mercy. When -they have arrived, they seat themselves in a line, having in front -of them a great drum, which is kept for this special purpose. They -then offer their prayers to Alo-Alo, begging for propitious weather -and good crops, and after these prayers are concluded two of the -piles of provisions are carried off by the chiefs, and the third is -set aside for the gods. Suddenly the great drum is beaten, on which -a general dash is made at the pile of food, every one scrambling for -the provisions, and getting as much as he can. There is not the least -order in the scramble, and the scene is a most exciting one, the yams -being torn from the sticks, and the sticks smashed to pieces, while -the sugar-canes are broken up into fragments. Thus the gods are fed -vicariously. - -The women keep prudently out of the way during this struggle, and stand -aside to watch the chief and concluding ceremony. This is nothing more -than a general fight. The inhabitants of the island arrange themselves -in two divisions, one half fighting against the other. All engage in -this battle, the highest chiefs as well as the lowest cooks taking part -in it. There is no respect of persons, the king, or even the Tooi-tonga -himself, being assaulted without compunction, and handled as roughly as -any of the common people. - -Severe as is the fighting, it is all conducted with the greatest good -humor, and no one displays a sign of ill-temper at the injury which he -receives. If a man is knocked down, he gets up with a smile; if his -arm is broken, he retires from the battle and has it set, but he never -thinks of complaining. The same system is observed in the boxing and -wrestling matches of which the Tongans are so fond. - -In wrestling matches, for example, it is not thought polite for any -one man to challenge another; he ought to give a general challenge, by -striking with the right hand the bent elbow of the opposite arm. If the -challenge be accepted, the antagonists meet very leisurely, and take -care to fasten tightly the gnatoo belt that surrounds the waist. They -grasp the belt with a hand on each side, and endeavor to throw their -antagonist by lifting him from the ground and flinging him on his back. -The vanquished man rises and retires to his place among the spectators -without showing any displeasure. Only in one case did Mariner know a -man display ill-feeling at being beaten, and in that instance the man, -although a chief, was looked upon as an ill-bred fellow. - -The victor seats himself on the ground for a few seconds, and then -retires to his place, his friends belonging to his own side singing, -or rather chanting, a song of victory. After a short time he again -rises and offers another challenge, and if it be accepted by several -antagonists, he may select one from them. If they find that they are -equally matched, they leave off by mutual consent; and sometimes, if a -man encounters a chief much superior to him, he will generally yield -out of respect to the other’s rank. This only takes place in single -combat, not in the general fight of the Tow-tow festival. - -Boxing is conducted on similar principles of fair play. The challenger -proceeds into the middle of the ring, holding one arm stretched out in -front and the other behind, and advances sideways, changing sides at -every step. When the challenge is accepted, both combatants wrap a -piece of cord round their hands and proceed to blows, which are given -with great force and rapidity. When one is vanquished, he retires -with apparent unconcern to the ring, and sits to watch the combats of -others, knowing that to be vanquished is not considered a disgrace. -When the victor returns to his people, they welcome him, but do not -sing the chant of victory unless he has knocked his antagonist down. -Falling is on these occasions considered as equivalent to being killed -in real battle, and, in consequence, the song of victory is not sung -unless the antagonist has fallen to the ground. If a man be beaten in -wrestling, he may not wrestle a second time in the same day, though he -may box, and _vice versâ_. - -In the ceremony of Tow-tow, these scrambling, boxing, and wrestling -matches are carried on every tenth day, and are repeated eight times, -so as to make up the eighty days of the festival. After each battle, -those who have touched a superior chief come to be relieved of the tapu -which they have contracted by touching him. Even the Tooi-tonga, whose -nose has been flattened, his teeth knocked out, and his face pounded to -a jelly by a mere peasant, over whom he has supreme command of life and -death, performs the needful ceremony with perfect good humor. - -The illustration No. 1, on the 999th page, represents the concluding -scene of this ceremony. In the foreground are seen the two contending -parties, one of which is beginning to get the victory over the other. -In the centre of the illustration, and on the left, are the fragments -of the food-piles, with a few men still scrambling for them, and in the -distance the women are seated under the trees, watching the progress of -the fight. - -Fighting is not confined to the men, but is practised also by the -women, who on this occasion lay aside the ordinary gentleness and -mildness for which they are remarkable. When Captain Cook visited -Tonga, he was much surprised to see the girls step into the ring and -box with as much spirit and determination as had been shown by the men. -They do not, however, carry the combat to such extremes, and if one of -them does not speedily yield, the combatants are parted by the elder -women. Even the merest children box after a similar fashion, the little -girls knocking each other about with hearty good-will as long as they -are allowed to fight. - -On one occasion, Finow ordered that all the women who were seated as -spectators should engage in a general fight, after the manner of the -men. They seemed nothing loth, and all the women who lived on the -north of the island fought against those who lived on the south side. -Nearly fifteen hundred women engaged on each side, and fought with the -greatest courage for more than an hour, both parties contending with -such determination that neither could gain a foot of ground; and at -last Finow ordered them to desist, seeing that several ankles had been -sprained and limbs broken. - -Besides boxing and wrestling matches, the Tongans have club fights on -great occasions. As with the other matches, the combatants are divided -into two parties, one being seated opposite to the other, with a -considerable space of ground between them. - -When all is ready, a man jumps up, runs to the people of the opposite -side, and sits down in front of them, asking if any of them will fight -him. As in the boxing and wrestling matches, to challenge a particular -opponent is bad manners. If the challenge be accepted, the combatants -walk to the middle of the ring, each attended by his second, and then -settle whether they shall fight after the Tongan or Samoan manner. -The former mode does not allow a man to strike an antagonist after he -is knocked down, but only to flourish his club over him in token of -victory. By the latter mode he is allowed to beat the fallen man as -long as he shows signs of life. When the fight is over, the men on -the side of the victor chant their song of triumph, and the conqueror -advances to the king, sits down before him in token of respect, and -then rises and returns to his own party. On one of these occasions, the -young prince fought no less than fourteen battles, and was victorious -in every one of them. - - - - -CHAPTER CI. - -TONGA--_Concluded_. - -SICKNESS--BURIAL--GAMES. - - - SACRIFICE OF THE FINGER, AND MODE OF OPERATING -- SACRIFICE OF - CHILDREN -- CONSULTING THE GODS -- MODES OF INSPIRATION -- SACRIFICE - OF WIVES -- FINOW’S GOOD SENSE -- SUPPOSED CAUSES OF DEATH -- - FINOW’S FUNERAL -- CUTTING THE HEAD -- OPENING AND CLOSING THE VAULT - -- DRESSING THE GRAVE -- APPOINTMENT OF A SUCCESSOR -- CONCLUDING - CEREMONIES -- IDEAS OF RELIGION -- VARIOUS SPORTS AND GAMES -- RAT - SHOOTING AND BIRD CATCHING -- FINOW AND THE DECOY BIRD -- BALL PLAY - -- A DANGEROUS STAKE, AND HONORABLE PAYMENT -- THE LOVER’S CAVE, AND - A NATIVE LEGEND. - -As might be expected, various ceremonies take place with regard to -sickness and burial. - -If any one is ill, the inferior relations cut off a joint of the little -finger as an offering to the gods. Sometimes a whole joint is taken -off at once, but those who have many superior relations remove only a -portion, so that they may be able to offer the sacrifice several times. -In consequence of this superstition, there is scarcely a person in -Tonga who has not lost a considerable portion of the little finger of -one or both hands. - -The mode of amputating the finger is simple enough. It is laid upon a -flat block of wood, and the edge of a knife or axe, or even a sharp -stone, placed on it. A smart blow is given with a mallet, and the -stump, which bleeds but little in consequence of the nature of the -operation, is held over the smoke of fresh grass, so as to check any -after bleeding. No application is made to it, and in a week or two it -heals without trouble. The Tongans do not seem to fear this operation, -and even little children may be seen quarrelling with each other for -the honor of having it performed upon them. - -Should the illness take an unfavorable turn, instead of a mere finger, -a child is offered to the gods by being strangled. For example, when -Finow fell ill of the malady from which he died, and was apparently -sinking, his eldest son took a young child of the king’s from its -mother’s lap, strangled it, and offered it to the gods at various -consecrated houses. The people look with the greatest compassion on the -poor little victim, but think that it is right to sacrifice a little -child who at present is useless to the community, and may not live to -be of service, so that they may obtain in exchange the life of a chief -who is needed by his people. - -Such a sacrifice is sometimes made on other occasions, when the anger -of some god is to be averted. In Tonga there are several sacred places, -in which to spill blood is a sacrilege, so that they serve the purpose -of cities of refuge. Once a chief named Palavali was pursuing some -men, who ran for refuge to the nearest sacred spot. One of them was -just getting over the fence, when Palavali, in the heat of the moment, -struck him on the head, so that he fell dead within the enclosure. As -soon as he had done the deed he was filled with fear, and reported what -he had done to Finow, who consulted a priest. The priest, becoming -inspired, said that a child must be sacrificed to the gods, and the -chiefs, after holding a consultation, agreed that they should sacrifice -a child of one of their own number by a female attendant. Such children -are always selected, for two reasons; firstly, because the child of a -chief is held to be a worthy sacrifice, and secondly, because, as its -mother is of inferior rank, it could never live to be a chief. - -The mother, knowing the custom, took alarm, and hid the child, but it -was at last found by the men who were sent to search for it. The rest -must be told in Mariner’s words. “Its poor mother wanted to follow, but -was held back by those about her. On hearing its mother’s voice it -began to cry, but when it arrived at the fatal place of execution, it -was pleased and delighted with the band of gnatoo that was put round -its neck, and, looking up in the face of the man who was about to -destroy it, displayed in its beautiful countenance a smile of ineffable -pleasure. - -“Such a sight inspired pity in the heart of every one; but adoration -and fear of the gods was a sentiment superior to any other, and its -destroyer could not help exclaiming, as he put on the fatal bandage, ‘O -yaooé chi vale!’ (‘Poor little innocent!’) Two men then tightened the -cord by pulling at each end, and the guiltless and unsuspecting victim -was soon relieved of its painful struggles. The body was then placed -upon a sort of hand-barrow, supported upon the shoulders of four men, -and carried in a procession of priests, chiefs, and Matabooles clothed -in mats, with wreaths of green leaves round their necks. - -“In this manner it was conveyed to various houses consecrated to -different gods, before each of which it was placed on the ground, all -the company sitting behind it, except one priest, who sat beside it, -and prayed aloud to the god that he would be pleased to accept of this -sacrifice as an atonement for the heinous sacrilege committed, and that -punishment might accordingly be withheld from the people. After this -was done before all the consecrated houses in the fortress, the body -was given up to its relations, to be buried in the usual manner.” - -This particular case had a strange termination. Four or five days after -the sacrifice, Palavali went on a foraging excursion at the head of a -body of men who were not tried soldiers, and met with a smaller body of -real warriors. In a very short time Palavali’s men began to run, and -it was in vain that he tried to rally them. At last, in boldly facing -the enemy to set his men an example, he received four spears in his -body, and fell. This sight angered his men so much that they charged -the enemy, drove them back, and rescued their dying chief. They were -proceeding to draw out the spears, but he told them that it would be -useless, as the gods had doomed him for his sacrilege, and he must die. -His prognostication was correct, for he died half an hour after the -battle. - -When a priest is consulted on any subject--say, on the sickness of any -one--a carefully regulated ceremony is performed. On the previous night -a hog is killed and prepared, and taken to the place where the priest -lives, together with plantains, yams, and kava root. Next day they all -go to the patient’s house, and there seat themselves in order, the -priest taking his place just within the eaves, if the appointed spot -be a house. Opposite to the priest is the kava bowl, and around him -sit the Matabooles as usual; but on this occasion the chiefs always mix -with the people, or even sit behind them, thinking that such retiring -and humble behavior is pleasing to the gods. - -From the moment that all are seated, the god is supposed to take -possession of the priest, who sits silently with his hands clasped in -front of him, his head bowed, and his eyes bent on the ground. The -kava being prepared, the required questions are put to him. Sometimes -he answers them at once, but very often he remains in silence until -all the provisions are eaten and the kava drunk. When he does speak, -it is in a low, constrained voice, generally above its natural pitch, -the words being supposed to be the utterances of the god through him -without his volition. In some cases he is quite calm and quiet while -delivering his answers, but at others his face becomes inflamed, his -eyes seem ready to start from their sockets, tears pour from his eyes, -and his words issue in broken sobs and gasps. - -This paroxysm lasts for some time, and then gradually subsides. As it -is passing away, he takes up a club which is placed near him for the -purpose, gazes at it attentively, and then looks round, apparently -without seeing the object at which he looks--“his eyes are open, -but their sense is shut.” Suddenly he raises the club, and dashes -it violently on the ground, at which instant the god is supposed to -leave his votary, who immediately rises and leaves the place of honor, -retiring to the back of the ring among the people. The man of highest -rank present then takes the place of honor, and more kava is served. - -When a priest is consulted on behalf of a sick person, the inspiration -retains its hold as long as the patient is in his presence, and in some -cases the inspiration lasts for several days. If one priest cannot find -a cure, the patient is taken to another, and so on, until he either -recovers or dies. - -The illustration No. 2, on the next page, represents a consultation -of the priest respecting a sick child. In the foreground are the -provisions and the presents brought to the priest, and in the centre -is the kava bowl. On the right is the priest, seated in a state of -inspiration, with crossed hands and bowed head, listening to the -questions which are being put by the Mataboole. The mother of the -child is seen with the infant in her arms, and around are members of -her family, all wearing coarse mats instead of fine gnatoo, and having -round their necks the leaves which denote humility. - -Other persons beside chiefs become inspired, generally by the spirits -of those whom they had known in life. The eldest son of Finow, who -afterward succeeded to the throne, used to be inspired by a great chief -who had been murdered by his father and another chief. Mariner asked -him what were his feelings on such occasions, and he replied that he -felt restless and uncomfortable, and all over in a glow of heat, and -that his mind did not seem to be his own. When asked how he knew the -name of the spirit who then visited him, he answered that he could not -tell--he knew it intuitively, but could give no explanation. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE TOW-TOW. (See page 995.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CONSULTING A PRIEST. (See page 998.)] - -While Mariner was in the Tonga Islands, a young chief, remarkable for -his beauty, became inspired to such a degree that he fainted, and was -taken to the house of a priest, who told him that the spirit was that -of a young woman who had died two years before, and was now in Bolotoo -the Tonga heaven. She inspired him because she wished for him as a -husband in Bolotoo, and would soon take him there. The young chief -acknowledged the truth of the exposition, saying that for several -nights he had been visited in his sleep by a young woman, and had -suspected that she was the person who inspired him. Two days after he -was taken ill and died. Mariner was present when the priest gave his -explanation of the illness. - -Shortly before Mariner was at the Tonga Islands, a still graver form of -human sacrifice was practised than that of a child. - -When the Tooi-tonga died, his chief widow was strangled on the day of -the funeral, and buried in the same grave with him, just as is the case -in Fiji, whence in all probability, the Tongans borrowed the practice. -Comparatively short as was Mariner’s stay two Tooi-tongas died; but in -neither case was this terrible rite observed. In the one case there -happened to be no chief wife, all his wives being so equal in rank that -neither of them ruled the household; and, in consequence a selection -of a victim became impossible. In the second case the chief wife was -the daughter of Finow, who said openly, that if the husband were to -die first, his daughter should not be strangled, for that to destroy a -young and beautiful woman because her husband had died was inflicting -a double loss upon the community. As it happened, the Tooi-tonga did -not die until after the elder Finow was dead and had been succeeded by -his son, who not only carried out his father’s wishes on that subject, -but would not allow another Tooi-tonga to succeed; thus abolishing the -source of the only rank that was superior to him. - -The Tooi-tonga being abolished, it necessarily follows that the -ceremony of Ináchi was abolished too, and but for the fact of Mariner’s -enforced residence in Tonga, this curious and interesting ceremony -would have passed away without being known to European civilization. - -Mariner was present at the wedding of Finow’s daughter to the -Tooi-tonga, and describes it with some minuteness. It much resembled -a Fijian wedding, except in the costume of the bride, who was first -copiously anointed with cocoa-nut oil scented with sandal-wood, and -then arrayed in a vast number of the finest Samoan mats, which were -wrapped round her in such quantities that her arms were stuck out -almost horizontally from her body, and her legs were so much trammelled -that she could not sit down, but had to rest in a bent attitude upon -her attendants. - -She was eighteen at the time. Had it not been for the good sense of -Finow, Mariner would have seen within a very short time her wedding, -her murder, and her burial. The technical name for the ceremony of -strangling is Nawgía. - -We now come naturally to the subject of funerals, and will take as a -typical example the funeral of the elder Finow. - -Almost immediately after the death and burial of his favorite daughter, -a child about seven years of age, Finow fell ill, his malady having -been increased by the exertions which he made during the long ceremony -of the funeral. It was on this occasion that he ordered the women to -box in general combat. On the evening of that day Finow retired to a -small house that had just been built for him, and was seized with a -violent illness, which almost deprived him of the power of speech, -though not of intellect. He evidently knew that his end was at hand, -and continually muttered “My country! my country!” evidently feeling -that calamities might come on his land if he were suddenly taken away. - -A child was offered on behalf of him, which had already been selected, -but, by the time that the sacrificing party had come back to the house -where the king lay, he had lost both his speech and his consciousness, -and in a few minutes the great and wise Finow had departed this life. -When his death was ascertained, a curious ceremony was performed. The -body was carried to the Tooi-tonga’s house, and placed on the hole -in which the cooks were accustomed to light their fires. This was a -symbolical expression of humility and submission to the gods, the -cooking place being so degraded a spot that only the lowest Tooas would -condescend to touch it. - -Not only the king himself, but all those in his confidence, fully -believed that his death was caused by a god named Toobo Totai, to -whom he had prayed in vain for his daughter’s recovery. In revenge -for the negligence of the god, Finow had made arrangements for -killing his priest, and had been heard to say that if Toobo Totai -did not change his conduct, and exert himself a little more, his -priest should not live long. Finow’s sudden death put a stop to this -project, which was only known to one or two of his immediate friends. -It is not unlikely that the threatened priest may have heard of his -intended assassination, and saved himself by getting a dose of poison -administered to Finow at the funeral banquet. - -Finow was right in his prognostications of trouble, for no sooner was -his death known than a number of the principal chiefs of different -islands began to assemble their forces, with the intention of seizing -on the throne. His successor, however, inherited his father’s wisdom, -and took such precautions that the attempt of the conspirators was -quietly foiled. - -After the royal corpse was brought back from the Tooi-tonga’s dwelling, -it was laid on bales of gnatoo in the large conical house, which -was nearly filled with women, who kept up a continual lamentation, -led by his daughter, a beautiful girl of fifteen. Even by night the -lamentations went on, the house being lighted up with lamps made of -cocoa-nut shells half filled with cocoa-nut oil, which is only used on -such occasions; and on the following morning the people assembled on -the marly to take part in the obsequies of their late king, whom they -both loved and feared. Indeed, among savage nations, there is no love -toward a chief who is not thoroughly feared. - -By this time the faces of the principal mourners were scarcely -recognizable, being swollen and disfigured by the repeated blows which -they had inflicted on themselves as signs of sorrow. The chiefs and -Matabooles who were especially attached to the person or household -of the deceased king proceeded to inflict even severer injuries upon -themselves, using the club, or shell, or a sharp stone; and running -two or three at a time into the open space, while they cut their heads -with the clubs and shells so that the blood poured down their bodies in -streams; as they did so, they uttered a sort of dirge, some specimens -of which have been given by Mariner. The following is his translation -of the death chant and accompanying proceedings. - -“‘Finow, I know well your mind; you have departed to Bolotoo, and left -your people, under suspicion that I or some of those about you are -unfaithful; but where is the proof of infidelity? where is a single -instance of disrespect?’ Then inflicting violent blows and deep cuts -in the head with a club, stone, or knife, would again exclaim at -intervals, ‘Is not this a proof of my fidelity? does this not evince -loyalty and attachment to the memory of the departed warrior?’ Then -perhaps two or three would run on and endeavor to seize the same club, -saying with a furious tone of voice, ‘Behold, the land is torn with -strife, it is smitten to pieces, it is split by revolts; how my blood -boils; let us haste and die! I no longer wish to live: your death, -Finow, shall be mine. But why did I wish hitherto to live? it was for -you alone; it was in your service and defence only that I wish to -breathe; but now, alas! the country is ruined. Peace and happiness are -at an end; your death has insured ours: henceforth war and destruction -alone can prosper.’ - -“These speeches were accompanied with a wild and frantic agitation of -the body, whilst the parties cut and bruised their heads every two or -three words with the knife or club they held in their hands. Others, -somewhat more calm and moderate in their grief, would parade up and -down with rather a wild and agitated step, spinning and whirling the -club about, striking themselves with the edge of it two or three -times violently upon the top or back of the head, and then suddenly -stopping and looking steadfastly at the instrument spattered with -blood, exclaim, ‘Alas! my club, who could have said that you would have -done this kind office for me, and have enabled me thus to evince a -testimony of my respect to Finow? Never, no, never, can you again tear -open the brains of his enemies. Alas! what a great and mighty warrior -has fallen! Oh, Finow, cease to suspect my loyalty; be convinced -of my fidelity! But what absurdity am I talking! if I had appeared -treacherous in thy sight, I should have met the fate of those numerous -warriors who have fallen victims to your just revenge. But do not -think, Finow, that I reproach you; no, I wish only to convince you of -my innocence, for who that has thoughts of harming his chiefs shall -grow white-headed like me (an expression used by some of the old men)? -O cruel gods, to deprive us of our father, of our only hope, for whom -alone we wished to live. We have indeed other chiefs, but they are only -chiefs in rank, and not like you, alas! great and mighty in war.’” - -Such were their sentiments and conduct on this mournful occasion. Some, -more violent than others, cut their heads to the skull with such strong -and frequent blows, that they caused themselves to reel, producing -afterward a temporary loss of reason. It is difficult to say to what -length this extravagance would have been carried, particularly by one -old man, if the prince had not ordered Mr. Mariner to go up and take -away the club from him, as well as two others that were engaged at the -same time. It is customary on such occasions, when a man takes a club -from another, to use it himself in the same way about his own head; -but Mr. Mariner, being a foreigner, was not expected to do this: he -therefore went up, and, after some hesitation and struggle, secured -the clubs one after another, and returned with them to his seat, when, -after a while, they were taken by others, who used them in like manner. - -The next proceeding was to place the body of the dead king in the -grave, which was at some distance from the place where those wild -laments had been made. Having arrived at the spot, a small house was -speedily put together, the body was laid in it, and the whole house -was covered with coarse black gnatoo, the sign of mourning, which -passed over the top of the house, and hung from the eaves to the -ground, so as entirely to conceal it. - -Here another set of lamentations took place, while a number of men were -employed in opening the grave. All great families bury their dead, not -merely in the ground, but in a solid vault, about eight feet long by -six wide, and eight deep. It is made of six enormous stones, the upper -one, which forms the cover, being necessarily larger than the others. -For the convenience of raising it when required, the upper stone does -not fit quite closely upon the lower, some smaller stones being placed -between them at one end. - -After digging some ten feet deep, the men came to the vault, and, -having cleared away the earth, they passed a rope under the end of the -stone cover, and by the united force of nearly two hundred men raised -it on end. Several bodies were already in the grave. Two of them, which -had been buried for full forty years, were dried and nearly perfect; -while others, which had not been buried nearly so long, were reduced -to a few bones. In some cases the vault is lined with the gnatoo on -which the body rested, while in others it becomes the property of the -presiding Mataboole. - -All being ready, the body of Finow was handed down into the vault, -still lying on the gnatoo, and the body of his daughter, at whose -funeral he was seized with illness, was buried by his side. The stone -was then let down with a great shout, and the head-cutting and maiming -began afresh. The next ceremony was that of collecting sand for the -decoration of the grave. - -The whole company formed themselves in single line, the women going -first, and proceeded to the back of the island, singing loudly to warn -stragglers of their presence. For any one not actually engaged in a -funeral to be seen on the road is held as so great an insult that -any ordinary man would lose his life. Even if the king himself saw -a similar procession advancing, he would hide himself until it had -passed. Remaining on his feet, though it might not actually cost him -his life, would probably be so bitterly remembered that he might lose -his throne. As soon as the funeral party arrived at the place where the -sand was found, they all set to work at making baskets out of leaves, -which they suspended from sticks and carried on their shoulders. By the -time that they reached the grave, it was nearly filled up with earth, -and the remainder was filled with sand, which was carefully and neatly -smoothed. - -Next came a very curious custom, that of burning the cheeks. The -mourners, clothed in mats and green leaves, set fire to little rolls -of bark, and pressed them against each cheek-bone, so as to raise a -circular blister. This is then rubbed with the juice of an astringent -berry, which causes the wound to bleed, and the blood is smeared over -the cheeks. The friction is repeated daily for twenty days, so that an -indelible scar is the natural result. - -The day after the burial a ceremony took place by which the young -prince was installed in his father’s place, and invested with his -father’s name. Finow was the name of the reigning family; but, -according to custom, no one but the actual king was allowed to bear it. -Sometimes, as a mark of especial favor, he allowed it to be borne by a -relation, but always in conjunction with some other name. The name by -which the young prince had previously been called was Moegnagnongo. - -The ceremony was begun by a kava party, at which the young prince -presided. The two first cups having been filled and drunk, the third -was due to the president. The Mataboole who directed the proceedings -said, while all eyes were fixed on the prince, “Give it to FINOW,” thus -acknowledging him as the king of Tonga. The young king displayed not -the least emotion on being called by the new name, as that would have -been thought beneath his dignity, but took the cup as quietly as if he -had been called by the name of Finow all his life. - -Rites similar to those which have been described went on for nineteen -days, and on the twentieth the concluding ceremony was performed. All -the relations of the deceased king, together with those who had taken -part in the funeral, went to the back of the island, and procured a -great quantity of flat pebbles, mostly white, but having a few black -among them. These they carried to the grave, and strewed completely -over the grave in the form of an oval, each pebble being laid by the -side of the other. The black pebbles were laid upon the white ones. - -Dances, wrestling matches, and head-cutting then took place, in which -latter rite the fishermen of the late king distinguished themselves -in a very curious manner. Into each cheek they thrust three arrows, -the points of which passed into the mouth. The shafts of the arrows -were brought over the shoulders, and to each pair was tied another -arrow across the shoulders, so as to make a triangle. Equipped in this -extraordinary manner, they walked round the grave, and, not satisfied -with this proof of their devotion to their late master, they cut their -heads with their paddles, and pinched up the skin of their breasts, -thrusting a spear through the fold. A grand wrestling match ended this -complicated series of ceremonies. - -At the burial of one great chief, who was assassinated while walking -with the king (apparently with his connivance), a very curious -variation of the ceremony took place. As soon as the body had been -lowered into the vault, one of the assassins, a man of exceptional -strength and stature, advanced toward the grave, and, brandishing his -club, avowed himself as the murderer, and challenged any friend of the -deceased chief to fight him. - -The challenge was not accepted, and, although one of the wives of -the murdered man did her best to arouse the family to vengeance, she -could only succeed in inducing them to erect a strong fortress, in -which they hoped to bid defiance to Finow. The king, however, was too -wise to allow such a standing menace to remain, started off with four -thousand warriors, and reduced the disaffected chiefs to obedience. In -storming the fort, the challenging chief distinguished himself by his -deeds of arms. Though wounded in the breast with a five-barbed spear, -he broke off the shaft, scaled alone the enemy’s fortress, knocked -out a man’s brains with his club, and made good his escape. As he -retreated, however, he received another spear in his back, and died on -the following day. It is remarkable that in this battle nearly all the -assassins perished. - -The religious system of the Tongans is tolerably simple. They believe -that there are several orders of gods, just as there are several ranks -of men. The principal gods are self-existent and eternal; but the -second order of gods are the souls of deceased chiefs and Matabooles. -All of noble blood have souls, and take rank in Bolotoo, or Paradise, -not according to their moral merit, but according to the rank which -they held in the world. Matabooles become ministers to the gods, just -as they were ministers to the chiefs; but they are not powerful enough -to inspire priests. There is also a class of mischievous gods, who are, -fortunately, much less powerful than the benevolent deities. - -As to the Mooas, or middle class, the learned are rather doubtful -whether they go to Bolotoo, or whether they have souls. But that the -Tooas, or peasantry, have no souls, there is not the slightest doubt, -and that they can go to Bolotoo is therefore impossible. - -With regard to Bolotoo, or Paradise, the Tongans believe it to be an -island somewhere to the north-west of Tonga. It is a most beautiful -place, full of the choicest fruits and the most lovely flowers. Pigs -are plentiful, and never die unless they are killed to supply food for -the gods, in which case another hog comes into existence to supply -the place of the one that was killed. So, when a fruit or a flower is -plucked, another immediately takes its place. These particulars are -learned from some Tongan voyagers, who were returning from Fiji, but -were driven out of their reckoning by a storm. At last they were blown -to a lovely island, on which they succeeded in landing. There was -abundance of fruit, but their hands could not grasp it. They walked -through the trunks of trees, and through the walls of houses as if they -were mere shadows; while some of the inhabitants walked through their -own bodies in a similar manner. Then they found they were at Bolotoo. -The gods told them to go home at once, and promised them a favorable -wind. They reached Tonga in safety, but all died soon afterward, the -air of Bolotoo not suiting mere mortals. - - * * * * * - -It has already been mentioned that the religious and secular lives -of the Tongans are so blended together that it is very difficult to -separate them, and that even their amusements partake somewhat of -the religious character. There are, however, one or two of their -games which partake but slightly of this element, and which are -yet characteristic of the natives. One of these sports is called -Fanna-kalai, and is a very ingenious mode of bird catching by means of -decoys. - -In order to practise this amusement, the sportsman furnishes himself -with a bow and arrows, goes into the woods, and there ensconces himself -within a large wicker cage covered with green leaves, so that the -inmate may not be seen, but having plenty of openings through which -the arrows can be aimed. By his side he has a small cage, in which is -kept a hen bird, and on the top of the large cage the cock bird is tied -by the leg. When properly trained, these birds continue calling to -each other, and thus attract numbers of their own species, which fall -victims to the arrows. - -Well-trained birds are exceedingly valuable, and one chief has been -known to make war upon another for the sake of procuring an especially -fine bird. Indeed, the Tongans look on these birds much as sportsmen of -the olden times looked on their falcons. To each pair of birds there -is a keeper, whose whole business it is to attend to and train them. -He is careful to teach the cock bird to flap its wings as it calls to -its mate, and to utter its notes loudly, so that they may be taken as -a challenge to other birds to come and fight him. The bird keepers -have almost unlimited powers, as nothing is allowed to interfere with -the welfare of their charge. Even when a famine visits a district, the -birds must not starve. The keeper forages for the birds, and if he -sees a fine bunch of plantains, he is allowed to put the tapu on it by -sticking a reed in the tree, after which the proprietor dares not touch -the fruit which he has saved for himself and his family. He may starve, -but the birds must be fed. - -As may be imagined, the keepers attend to their own interests as -well as those of the birds, and are great pests to the neighborhood, -fleecing the people without mercy. Now and then they go a little too -far in their insolence, and a complaint is laid against them, in which -case the man seldom escapes without a severe beating. - -In order to show the enormous value of these birds, Mariner tells a -story respecting the elder Finow. The chief of Hihifo possessed a bird -which he had himself trained, and which was the best that ever was -known. Finow heard of this bird, and sent a commissioner to Hihifo in -order to treat with the chief for the purchase of it. This the owner -declined to do, saying that not only had he an affection for the bird, -which he had himself trained, but he had sustained many wars made on -him by neighboring chiefs who wanted to get the bird--many lives had -been lost, and he felt his honor involved in keeping it. However, he -intrusted the ambassador with another pair of birds, very nearly as -good, and asked him to present them to Finow. - -The king tried the birds next day, and was so delighted with their -performance that he was the more anxious to obtain the bird which -was even superior to them. He therefore prepared a present, which -according to the Tongan ideas of that day was of almost incalculable -value, comprising, beside whales’ teeth, gnatoo, kava, and other native -productions, several iron bolts, a quantity of beads, a looking-glass, -a grindstone, and some axes, all of which had been procured from -Europe, and most of them from the vessel in which Mariner had been -wrecked. Seeing that Finow was determined to have the bird, and that he -would probably make war if again refused, the chief wisely accepted the -present, and sent the desired prize with a polite message. - -As this sport is necessarily a very expensive one, it can only be -practised by the king and very great chiefs, even the lesser chiefs -being unable to bear the cost. There is another sport which is limited -to chiefs and Matabooles. This is Fanna-gooma, or rat shooting, and is -conducted as follows. Two chiefs take the command of two parties who -intend to shoot rats, and arrange the preliminaries, _i. e._ settling -the course which they mean to take, the number of shooters on each -side, and so forth. On the appointed day, they go to some place which -has been previously fixed upon, each being provided with his bow and -two arrows. - -These arrows are six feet in length, and made of a reed headed with -hard wood. They are most beautifully made, the heads being smooth and -polished with the greatest care, and the junction of the head and shaft -guarded with plaited sinnet. In some of these weapons in my collection, -the sinnet is scarcely broader than sewing silk, and is laid on with -a perfection that is scarcely credible. After the sinnet is finished -off, a slight coating of transparent varnish is laid over it, so as to -bind the plait more firmly together, and to give it an uniform polish. -In some arrows there are several similar belts of plaited sinnet. No -feather is needed, as they are never aimed at any distance, and their -great length is requisite to allow them to go straight through the -bushes among which the rats lurk. - -The bow is about the same length as the arrows, and not very powerful, -so that the aim may not be disturbed by the effect of drawing it. - -When they are ready to start, a couple of attendants are sent forward, -who take in their mouths some roasted cocoa-nut, which they chew, -and spit the fragments on either side of the path. If they come to a -cross-road, they plant in it an upright reed, by means of which a tapu -is laid on the path, in order to prevent any one from passing along and -disturbing the rats. No one ever disregards this tapu. Even if one of -the greatest chiefs come toward it, he will stop at a distance and sit -down until the sportsmen have passed, while an inferior chief would to -a certainty be clubbed for his insolence if he were to break the tapu. - -When the party start, they arrange themselves in the following manner. -They walk in Indian file along the path, the leading chief of one party -going first, followed by the leading chief of the other side. Then come -the men of next rank on either side, and so on alternately. Except the -leading man, no one may shoot at a rat that is in front of him, though -he may do so if it be on either side, or behind him. As soon as any -one has shot his arrow, he changes places with the man behind him, no -matter whether the shot be successful or not, so that each in turn has -his chance of becoming the leading man, and so getting a double chance -of a rat. Every sportsman has an attendant who follows the party, and, -as soon as his master has discharged an arrow, picks it up and returns -it to him. - -In order to attract their game, the sportsmen imitate the squeaking of -a rat, which often has the effect of bringing them out of their holes, -and if a rat should run away instead of waiting to be shot, one or two -of them, with a sharp percussion of the tongue, utter another sound, -which has the effect of making the rat stop and sit up to listen. The -party that shoots ten rats first wins the game. Birds of any kind are -counted as rats. - -These two sports are necessarily restricted to chiefs, on account of -the expense in one case and the power of the tapu in the other, but -there is another which is played only by chiefs and Matabooles, being -restricted to them by etiquette and not by necessity. - -The two players sit opposite each other, and one of them makes one -of three movements with his right hand, _i. e._ presenting the open -palm, the closed fist or the extended forefinger. His antagonist -endeavors to imitate the movements, but if he can succeed in making -five without being imitated, he wins a point, and marks it by laying -down a little piece of stick. Should the antagonist be successful, he -asks of the other player what were the preceding movements, their order -and the reason for each of them. If his opponent should fail to give -the correct answer, he loses a point, but if he succeeds, the game is -continued. - -The skill lies not in seeing and imitating the various movements, which -are made so rapidly that an inexperienced eye cannot detect one of -them, but in remembering the movements made by the antagonist, and in -giving a feigned explanation of each. This explanation must be made -according to the laws of the game, and alters with every variation -in the order of the movements, so that considerable readiness and -ingenuity are needed in order to invent on the spur of the moment -an explanation according to the laws of the game. The chiefs are -exceedingly fond of this game, and, while playing it, work themselves -up to a wonderful pitch of excitement. The lower orders play a game -somewhat similar to this, except that no discussion about the moves is -allowable, and the intellectual element is therefore wanting. - -There are many other games that are common to all ranks. One of these -is called Tolo. A piece of soft wood, nine inches in diameter, is -fastened to the top of a post of harder wood about five or six feet -high, and the game consists in throwing a heavy spear so that it shall -stick in the soft wood. Six or eight persons play on each side, every -player being allowed three throws. Another game with spears somewhat -resembles the djerid, and consists in hurling blunted spears at each -other. - -The Tongans are singularly dexterous of hand. They excel in ball play, -and have a game which consists in playing with five balls, which are -thrown from one hand to the other, so as to keep four balls always in -the air. They sing a song at the same time, each cadence coinciding -with the transfer of the balls from one hand to the other, and for -every verse that they can finish without a mistake they score one -point. They have also a game very much resembling our cup and ball. - -Another game in which dexterity of hand is needed is called Lafo. A mat -is laid on the ground, and the players throw beans on it, each trying -to knock off those of his antagonist. This game has a sort of celebrity -from having been connected with one of the few acts of cannibalism -attributed to the Tongans. During a severe famine, two daughters of a -chief played a game of lafo with two young warriors. If the men won, -they were to have half the yam, but if they lost, they were still to -have half the yam, but were obliged to go out, kill an enemy, and -divide his body with the girls. They lost the game, ate their yam, and -waited until night for the fulfilment of their promise. After dark -they stole out, and hid themselves near the fortress of the enemy. As -they had anticipated, in the early morning one of the men came out to -fetch salt water, and passed near the spot where they lay in ambush. -They struck him down with their clubs, and at the risk of their lives -brought his body off to the spot where the girls lived. If in any -of these games there should be a dispute, the men settle it by an -extemporized wrestling match, and the women by spinning a cocoa-nut. - -Being islanders, they are very familiar with the water, and practise -the well-known sport of surf swimming. This sport will be described -when we come to treat of the Sandwich Islands. They have another -aquatic sport peculiar to themselves. Two posts are driven into the bed -of the sea, about seventy yards apart, a spot being chosen where the -water is about ten feet deep. Each player takes in his hands a large -stone, jumps into the water by one post, and tries to carry it to the -other post by running along the bottom. The chief difficulty is to -pursue a straight course, as at such a distance the winning post is not -visible through the water. - -While Mr. Mariner was at the Tonga Islands, he took part in an -amusement which derived its origin from a love legend. He accompanied -Finow to a small island called Hoonga, and, on walking down to the -sea-shore, he saw his companions bathing near a great rock, and was -startled to find that they one after the other dived into the water and -did not come up again. Just as the last was preparing to dive, he asked -the meaning of this astonishing proceeding, and was told to follow, and -he would be taken to a place where he had never been before, and where -Finow and his Matabooles were then assembled. - -He then dived into the water, and Mr. Mariner followed him, guided by -the light reflected from his heels. Passing through an aperture in the -base of the rock which has just been mentioned, he rose to the surface -of the water and found himself in a cavern. At first he could see -nothing, but he could distinguish the voices of Finow and his other -friends; and after a while became so accustomed to the dim light that -he could just manage to see that he was in a vast stalactitic cavern. - -As the only light which entered it was reflected from the bottom of -the water, and exceedingly dim, he dived out again, wrapped up his -loaded pistol in a quantity of gnatoo, directed a servant to prepare a -torch in the same manner, and dived back again By means of the pistol -he lighted the torch, and probably for the first time since it was -formed, the cavern was illuminated. It was about forty feet wide and -as many high, and ran off at one side into two galleries. Its roof -was covered with stalactites hanging in the fantastic patterns which -they are apt to assume. The story which was told him respecting the -discovery of this cavern is quite a romance of savage life. - -Many years ago a young chief of Vavaoo discovered the cavern by -accident, while diving after turtles, but took care to keep the -discovery to himself, as he thought he should find it useful in case -he was detected in a plot against the principal chief of the island, -a man of cruel and tyrannous disposition. Another chief had the same -intentions, and was organizing a revolt, when he was betrayed by one of -his own followers, and condemned to be drowned, together with the whole -of his family. It so happened that he had a very beautiful daughter -whom the young chief had long loved, but to whom he dared not speak, -knowing her to be betrothed to a man of higher rank than himself. - -When, however, he found that her life was to be sacrificed, he -contrived to make his way to her in the evening, told her of the fate -which was in reserve for her, and offered to save her. The girl at once -consented, and the two stole gently to the seaside, where a little -canoe was drawn up. On their way to Hoonga the young chief told the -girl of this place of retreat, and as soon as the day broke took her -into the cavern. He was not long in finding out that the affection was -mutual, but that the fact of her being betrothed to another had caused -her to avoid him. - -She remained in this cavern for two months, during which her young -husband brought her the finest mats and gnatoo, the best food, and -everything which constitutes Tongan luxury. He was, however, forced to -spend a considerable part of his time at Vavaoo, lest the tyrannical -chief should suspect him, and he was naturally anxious to take his wife -to some place where they could live together in safety. - -Accordingly, he called together his subordinate chiefs and Matabooles, -and told them to prepare for a voyage to the Fiji Islands, accompanied -with their wives and families. This expedition was kept secret lest the -tyrant should put a stop to it. Just as they started, one of the chiefs -advised him to take a Tongan wife with him, but he declined to do so, -saying that he should find one by the way. They took his reply for a -joke, and set sail toward Hoonga. When they neared the shores of the -island, he told his men to wait while he went into the sea to fetch a -wife, and, leaping into the sea from the side of the canoe which was -farthest from the shore, he dived and disappeared. - -After waiting for a while the people began to be seriously alarmed, -thinking that he must have met with some accident, or that a shark had -caught him. Suddenly, while they were debating as to the best course -to be pursued, he appeared on the surface of the water, accompanied by -a beautiful young female, whom he took into the canoe. At first his -people were terribly frightened, thinking that she was a goddess; but, -when they recognized her features, they took her for an apparition, -believing that she had been drowned together with the rest of her -family. The young chief arrived safely at the Fiji Islands, where -he lived for two years; and at the expiration of that time, hearing -that the tyrant of Vavaoo was dead, he returned to his native island, -bringing with him his strangely rescued wife. - -The facts of this story show that the cave must have some opening -which admits the outer air, as otherwise no one could have lived in -it so long. Even granting that the time of the girl’s residence was -exaggerated, Mr. Mariner found that the air was perfectly fresh and -sweet after Finow and his friends had remained in it for several hours, -and a torch had been burned in it besides. - -The island in which this extraordinary cavern is found is rather -venerated by the Tongans as being the origin of their group of islands. -Tongaloa, the god of arts and inventions, let down a fishing-line from -the sky into the sea, when he suddenly felt his hook caught. He hauled -up his line, thinking that from the resistance he had caught a very -large fish. It turned out, however, that the hook had got itself fixed -in the bed of the sea, and as the god continued to haul he drew up the -Tonga islands. They would have been much larger, only the line broke, -and the islands were left imperfect. - -Mr. Mariner learned that the hook by which the Tonga islands had -been drawn from the bed of the sea was kept in the custody of the -Tooi-tonga, but had been burned, together with the house, about thirty -years before. It was about six inches long, and from the description -was one of the ordinary fishhooks of the country. Mariner asked why it -did not break when hauling up so enormous a weight, and was told that -it was a god’s hook, and therefore could not break. Being asked how it -happened that the line, which was also the property of a god, broke, -his interlocutor declined to pursue the subject any further, saying -that so he had been told, and that there was no necessity for further -inquiries. - - - - -CHAPTER CII. - -SAMOA, OR THE NAVIGATORS’ ISLANDS. - -APPEARANCE--CHARACTER--DRESS--MANUFACTURES. - - - POSITION OF THE GROUP, AND DERIVATION OF THE NAME -- GENERAL - APPEARANCE OF THE PEOPLE -- THEIR CHARACTER FOR GENTLENESS, - HOSPITALITY, HONESTY, AND COURTESY -- CARRYING A MISSIONARY AND HIS - FAMILY -- AFFECTION FOR CHILDREN -- DRESS OF THE SAMOANS -- THE - TATTOO A PARTIAL SUBSTITUTE FOR DRESS -- MODE OF TATTOOING -- TIME - OCCUPIED IN COMPLETING THE OPERATION -- THE FINE MATS OF SAMOA -- - WIG MAKING -- FEATHER HEADDRESSES -- DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- DANCING - COSTUME -- ADVICE TO FAA-SAMOA -- MODE OF DRESSING THE HAIR -- - TREATMENT OF WOMEN -- MODE OF MAKING CLOTH -- THE PROFESSIONAL AND - HEREDITARY MANUFACTURER. - -North of the Tongan group, and a little to the eastward, lie the -NAVIGATORS’ ISLANDS, more property called by their native name of -SAMOA, or HAMOA. The former of these names was given to them by -Bougainville, in consequence of the skilful seamanship of the natives. -There are eight islands comprehended in this group, the largest of -which is Savaii. - -As is often the case among these island groups, no single king or head -chief is recognized, each island having its own ruler; under whom are -subordinate chiefs of different ranks. This mode of government is so -similar to that of the Tongans that we need not expend any time upon it. - -The Samoans are a fine race of people, much exceeding the English -in average stature, and peculiarly well made. Their skin is smooth, -soft, and a warm reddish-brown in color, and the hair, though copious, -possesses none of that woolliness which distinguishes the hair of the -Papuan races, but is long, straight, and, in a few cases, possesses a -slight wave. Naturally there is but little beard, and the Samoan takes -a pride in extirpating every sign of a hair upon his chin. He is quiet, -composed, and stately in manner, so that in all things he presents a -bold contrast to the black, harsh-skinned Fijian, with his frizzed and -woolly hair, his copious beard, and his quick, restless, suspicious -manner. - -Being savages, the Samoans have many of the imperfections which -necessarily accompany savage life, but at the same time they approach -nearer to the “noble savage” of the poet than most races of men. They -are hospitable, affectionate, honest, and courteous, and have well -been described as a nation of gentlemen. Toward strangers they display -a liberality which contrasts greatly with the cruel and bloodthirsty -customs of the Papuan tribes. The Fijians, for example, do all in -their power to repel strangers from their shores, either driving them -off, or killing and eating them. The Samoans, on the contrary, welcome -strangers, allot to them their best houses, give them the best food, -and make them feel that they are honored guests. - -They are singularly affectionate in their disposition, and as parents -are rather too fond of their children. As a rule, a Samoan parent -cannot bear to thwart a child, and allows it to do what it likes. In -consequence of this absence of discipline, many a child dies through -the mistaken kindness of its parents, who have allowed it to eat food -that was unsuitable to it, or to engage in games for which it had not -sufficient strength. - -The honesty of the Samoans is really wonderful. When a number of them -were on board of an English vessel, they scrupulously refrained from -stealing. Property which to them was equivalent to unbounded wealth -lay within reach of their hands, but not even a nail or a needle was -touched. In one instance, an European vessel went ashore on the rocks. -The whole of its cargo was at the mercy of the Samoans, but not a -man went on board of the vessel, and the whole of the property was -reserved for the rightful owners. There are many civilized countries -where the vessel would have been ransacked within an hour of her -striking on the rocks. - -Once when a great chief, named Malietoa, went on board an English -vessel, accompanied by a younger brother, he examined everything with -great attention, but asked for nothing, only requesting the white men -to come on shore and visit him. This they did, bringing with them a -present of axes, mirrors, beads, knives, scissors, needles, and similar -articles. When the present was offered, Malietoa took up each article -separately, laid it on his head, and returned thanks for it, and after -he had gone through the whole of the present in detail, he made a -complimentary speech, in which he thanked the donors for the entire -gift. His brother, to whom a similar present had been offered, at first -refused to take the basket, priceless as were its contents, but passed -it on to his elder brother, saying that he would take whatever his -brother did not happen to want. - -“At the close of this important and interesting interview, Malietoa -informed his people, who had been gazing with wonder upon the novel -proceedings, that a large quantity of valuable property had been given -to him, and that the English chiefs, to whom he was indebted for it, -would want something to eat on their return. ‘For,’ said he, ‘there are -no pigs running about upon the sea, neither is there any bread-fruit -growing there.’ Upon hearing this, the whole company instantly rose and -scampered away; and in about an hour they returned, bringing with them -fifteen pigs of various sizes, with a large quantity of bread-fruit, -yams, and other vegetables, the whole of which the chief presented to -us.” This extract, from the journal of Mr. Williams, the well-known -missionary, gives a good idea of the hospitable nature of the people. - -Courtesy is, among the Samoans, reckoned as one of the duties of life. -They address each other by titles of honor, and it is considered as an -essential point of etiquette that, when one man addresses another, he -should use a title rather higher than that to which his interlocutor -has any claim. Should he be ignorant of the rank of the person whom he -addresses, he uses the term chief, as a safe one. - -The earlier voyagers have all been struck with the Samoans, whose -gentle demeanor, perfect honesty, scrupulous cleanliness, graceful -costume, gigantic stature, and polished manners, made a strong -impression upon them. When Messrs. Williams and Barth visited these -islands, they were received in the most hospitable manner. As they went -on shore, the former happened to mention that he was tired, when a -young chief addressed a few words to the people, and in a moment the -visitor was lifted off the ground by a number of gigantic young men, -who seized him, “some by the legs, and others by the arms, one placing -his hand under my body, another, unable to obtain so large a space, -poking a finger against me; and thus, sprawling at full length upon -their extended arms and hands, I was carried a distance of half a mile, -and deposited safely in the presence of the chief and his principal -wife.” - -Several children were on board, and were carried off by the natives in -great glee. One or two of them were missing for several hours, causing -their parents great anxiety. However, they were all brought back in -safety, their absence being due merely to the exuberant hospitality of -the Samoans. The natives were so delighted at their good fortune in -having the charge of a white child that they could not make up their -minds to restore it to its parents, but took it home, killed and baked -a pig and other food, feasted the child to the fullest extent, and -then, having kept it as long as they dared, restored it to its parents. -This anecdote carries out the statement already made, that the Samoans -are exceedingly fond of children. Mr. Pritchard mentions that on one -occasion, when he was witnessing a native dance, which is a performance -requiring the greatest exertion, the chief’s wife sat as a spectator, -with two fine twin children in her lap. The chief, engaged as he was in -the absorbing amusement of the dance, could not keep himself away from -his children, but every now and then left the dance to caress them. The -mothers nurse their children for several years, and a child of five or -six years old may often be seen to pull away its younger brother or -sister and take its place. - - * * * * * - -The dress of the Samoans varies considerably, according to the rank -of the individual and the occasion on which it is assumed. The usual -dress of the men is a sort of small apron, about a foot square, made of -the green leaves of the _Dracæna_ tree, but on occasions of ceremony -they generally wear a flowing robe called the lava-lava. This is made -of bark cloth, and is beautifully fine and soft, the Samoans excelling -in such manufactures, which will presently be described. This robe is -gathered round the waist into folds, and reaches down to the ankles. - -Small as may be the ordinary dress of the Samoan men, they always seem -to be fully dressed, in consequence of the tattooing with which they -are carefully decorated. Even to European eyes the tattooing conveys -the same impression, and has been mistaken for a dress by some of -the early voyagers, who described the people as being clothed from -the waist downward, with fringed lace “made of a silken stuff, and -artificially wrought.” - -The reader will remember that the New Zealanders tattoo no part of the -body except the hips, and that even in that case a semblance of dress -is produced. The Samoans tattoo the whole of the body from the hips to -the knees, covering the skin so completely with the pattern that it -looks at a little distance exactly as if the man were wearing a tight -pair of ornamental drawers. - -Even European eyes become so accustomed to the tattoo that they are -rather shocked at its absence; and, according to Mr. Pritchard, an -untattooed Samoan does in truth look unmanly, looks even naked, by the -side of one who is tattooed. So completely is this feeling realized -by the natives that chiefs who have arrived at middle age frequently -undergo the process of tattooing a second time, in order to renew the -patterns, as they become dim and uncertain by lapse of years; for, -though indelible, the tattoo does fade in the course of years, as I can -testify from personal experience. When a very young boy, I read of the -custom of tattooing, and must needs try it on my own arm. I did not -do much of it, but the whole arm swelled up to the shoulder, and was -useless for some time. At first the marks were bright blue, clear and -well-defined, but now the blue is of dull indigo, and the outline very -undecided. - -The production of this elaborate decoration is a work of considerable -time, the operation being, in the first place, too painful to be -continued for any long time; and, in the second, it is apt to cause -so much disturbance in the general system that the result would be -fatal if the whole were executed at once. The operation is generally -performed in company, a number of young men keeping company with the -son of the chief. When, for example, a chief’s son arrives at the -proper age, _i. e._ about eighteen, all the lads of his tribe assemble -to partake with him of the tattoo, which is to transform them from boys -into men. - -There is quite a ceremony, or rather a series of ceremonies, for the -occasion. The tattooer or Matai, is a man of great influence, and his -services have to be requested in regular form, accompanied by a present -of fine mats. His acceptance of the mats ratifies the bargain, though -no regular charge is made. On the appointed day, the lads and their -friends meet in a house set apart for the ceremony, and more mats are -presented to the Matai. Should the youth be wealthy, he sometimes gives -a canoe. The friends of the lads are also bound to supply provisions as -long as the operation lasts. - -The tools are simple enough, being a set of five “combs” and a little -mallet. The combs are made of human bone, and are an inch and a half -in length, varying in width from the eighth of an inch to an inch, and -looking very much like little bone adzes with the edges cut into a -number of teeth. These blades are attached to handles about six inches -in length. The pigment which is introduced into the wounds is made from -the ashes of the cocoa-nut. - -All being ready, the young chief lies on his face in front of the -operator, and lays his head in the lap of his sister or some other -female relation, while three or four young women hold his legs, and -sing at the tops of their voices, in order to drown any groans or -cries that he may utter. This is done out of consideration for his -reputation, as it is thought unworthy of the state of manhood to utter -a sound. Still the pain is so intense that the lads often do utter -groans, and now and then actually yell with the pain. In one or two -instances they have been so utterly overcome with the agony that, after -they have been released they have not dared to submit themselves again -to the operation, in which case they are despised for life as cowards. - -Having traced out his pattern, the operator begins his work, driving -the teeth of the comb through the skin by sharp and rapid taps of the -mallet; there is an art even in holding this instrument, the handle -of which passes under the thumb and over the fore-finger, and is used -with wonderful rapidity and regularity. “The rapidity with which the -Matai works his fingers,” writes Mr. Pritchard, “the precision with -which he moves the instrument and punctures exactly the right spot, -and the regularity of tapping with the mallet, are astounding.” By -the side of the patient are placed several assistants, furnished with -strips of white masi, whose duty it is to wipe away the blood as it -flows from the punctures of the comb, and to leave the skin clear for -the operator. Between every two or three strokes the toothed end of the -comb is dipped into the pigment, which is mixed with water. - -The pattern is in its main elements alike throughout all the Samoan -Islands; but there are usually slight variations which denote the -island in which the man lives, and others which mark the family to -which he belongs. Sometimes, after a man has slain an enemy, he will -make an addition which corresponds to a grant of arms among ourselves. -The form of some animal is the ordinary pattern for such a badge of -honor. - -About an hour is occupied in executing a patch of tattoo not quite -three inches square, and when this is done, the lad rises and another -takes his place. In a week or so, the turn of the first lad comes -round again, and so the process is continued for three or four months, -according to the number of the patients, not more than five being -operated on in a single day. When the pattern is about half completed, -the Matai has another present; but the great payment is only made when -the last finishing touch is put to the work. Should the Matai feel -dissatisfied with his fees, he will not go on with the work, and, as an -unfinished tattoo is thought to be most disgraceful, the friends of the -youths get together what property they can, and make up the deficiency. - -[Illustration: (1.) TATTOOING DAY IN SAMOA. (See page 1013.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CLOTH MAKING. (See page 1016.)] - -During the time engaged in the operation, the patients look most -miserable beings, the wounded parts swollen and inflamed, and -displaying as yet none of the elegant pattern which has been traced -on them. The lads hobble about in all sorts of contorted attitudes, -fanning away the flies with flappers made of white masi, and doing -all in their power to alleviate the pain. At last, however, comes the -reward of all their sufferings. As soon as the wounds are healed, -their friends get up a grand dance. As the costume of the male dancers -is nothing but the little apron of leaves which has been already -mentioned, the pattern of the tattooing is freely displayed; and the -lads, now admitted among the men, think themselves well repaid for -their former sufferings by the honor and glory of being ranked as men, -and by the admiration of the opposite sex. - -An illustration on the preceding page represents the process of -tattooing. In the centre is lying the patient with his head in his -sister’s lap, and his legs held by her companions, who are singing, -in order to cover his groans, should he utter any. Near him are two -assistants with their white masi cloths, and at his side kneels the -operator, busily at work with his mallet and comb. The little vessel -of pigment is by his side. Ranged round the wall of the house are the -young men who are waiting their turn. Painful as is the operation, and -expensive as it is, involving not only the fees to the operator, but -a constant supply of provisions, all the lads look forward to it with -the greatest anxiety, knowing that they will never be considered as men -unless they can show a complete tattoo. - -Both men and women wear mats, called in the native language “je-tonga.” -One of these mats is in my collection, and is a beautiful piece of -work. It is made of very narrow strips of leaf scraped thin, each -strip being about the fifteenth of an inch in width. These are plaited -together with beautiful regularity, and the whole is edged with a very -fine and almost silken fringe of the same material. - -Some of these mats are decorated with the red feathers of the parrot -tribe, and increase in their value by age, being handed down to -successive generations, and having legends attached to them. My own -specimen has been adorned in a way which doubtless was very imposing -to a Samoan eye, though not to that of an European. The native maker -had evidently treasured up some scraps of English calico, and some blue -and yellow paper such as is used for wrapping parcels. These treasures -she has fastened to the mat, to which they give a most ludicrous -appearance. - -Samoan chiefs, when full dressed for war or state, may be known at a -great distance by the splendid headdress which they wear. In the first -place, they increase the apparent size of their heads by enormous wigs -made of their own hair, which is suffered to grow long for this express -purpose. When it has attained sufficient length, it is cut off, and is -stained red, and frizzed out, until it assumes as large dimensions as -the woolly head of a Papuan. They also wear great plumes of feathers, -sometimes towering to the height of nearly two feet above their heads; -so that the height of a Samoan chief, measured from the top of his -plume, is not far from nine feet. - -One of these headdresses in my collection is made of a vast number of -feathers, tied by the stems in little bundles, and carefully arranged -so that they shall droop evenly. There are about ten feathers in each -bundle. These tufts are arranged closely together in circles composed -of leaf stems and cocoa-nut fibre, and there are four of these circlets -placed one over the other, so that several hundred feather tufts are -employed for this single dress. The maker has ingeniously, though -ignorantly, copied the peacock, the egret, and other birds which -are furnished with trains. In them, the tail feathers are short and -stiff, so as to allow the long train of feathers to droop gracefully -over them. In a similar manner, the Samoan artificer has employed the -shortest and stiffest feathers in the lower-most circlet, while in the -uppermost are placed the longest and most slender plumes. The headdress -is really very handsome, and even when worn by an European gives a most -martial aspect to the countenance, especially when the war mat is worn, -and the huge Samoan club carried on the shoulder. - -The dress of the women is made of the same material as that of the -men, but differently arranged. Their work costume is a petticoat of -_Dracæna_ leaves, but instead of being, like that of the men, a mere -short apron, it is much longer, and completely surrounds the body. On -occasions of state or ceremony, however, they wear lava-lavas of siapo -like those of the men, only put on rather differently, and of much -larger size. A woman of rank will often have this garment so long that -it trails on the ground far behind her. - -Captain Hood, in describing an entertainment given in honor of the -white visitors, writes as follows. After the men had danced “a -number of girls entered, who went through a somewhat similar set of -evolutions, with infinite exactness and grace. It may seem incredible -to our fair sisters in England, that a young lady arranged in no other -garment but a mat tied round her waist should look handsomely dressed; -but could they see these Samoan belles enter the circle in their full -evening costume, with their coronets of nautilus shell and scarlet -hibiscus, and their necklaces of red and yellow flowers, I believe they -would admit that their appearance is highly imposing. - -“Some wore beautifully plaited fine mats, which are so highly prized -that they cost more than a rich silk or satin dress. Others had white -shaggy dresses, made from the inner fibres of the hibiscus, the -amplitude of which would satisfy the most extensive patronesses of -crinoline, and indulged in trains equalling in length that worn by -those dames of England in former days, while their carriage and air -plainly showed that, whatever we might think, they felt themselves -superior beings.” To judge from the photographed portraits of these -Samoan beauties, Captain Hood is perfectly right; they not only look -well dressed, but, if anything, over dressed. - -That this opinion was not a rare one is evident from Mr. Williams’s -account of Samoa, which he visited more than thirty years before -Captain Hood. The missionaries’ wives had endeavored to persuade the -Samoan women to wrap their abundant mantles over the whole of the -body, but without success. On the contrary, the Samoan belles in their -turn tried to convince the white visitors that it would be much better -for them to _faa Samoa_, _i. e._ to do in Samoa as the Samoans do. -Garments that covered the whole of the body might do well enough in -the white woman’s country, but when they came to Samoa they ought to -dress themselves like the Samoans, tie a shaggy mat round the waist, -coquettishly looped up on one side, and anoint themselves with scented -oil and color themselves with turmeric; wear a flower on the head -instead of a bonnet, and a necklace of flowers by way of a bodice. -Thus accoutred, they might _faa-riaria_, _i. e._ strut about in the -consciousness of being well dressed, and certain of admiration. There -is much to be said on both sides of the question. - -The women wear their hair differently from the men, generally cutting -it rather short, and combing it back. It is then powdered with fine -lime made of burning coal, which has the effect of staining it of a -reddish purple hue, which is thought to be the most fashionable color. -After this is done, a Samoan belle merely twists a wreath of scarlet -hibiscus flowers among the hair. In both sexes great pains are taken -about the hair, and in order to promote its growth in after years the -head is kept shaved in childhood, the boys having a single lock of hair -on one side, and the girls one on either side. - -There is a slight distinction of dressing the hair in the different -islands of the Samoan group. In some of them the women separate the -hair into multitudinous ringlets, each bound with cocoa-nut fibre, and -cut square at the bottom, much like the ancient Assyrian fashion. As -if to carry out the resemblance still further, the men preserve their -beards, and dress them almost exactly like those of the figures on the -Nineveh marbles. - -In bodily form the women are by no means equal to the men, the latter -being truly magnificent specimens of humanity, while the former are -rather short, and stoutly made, with features that are pleasing in -expression, but have otherwise little beauty. They are as well treated -as in Tonga, and are not expected to do hard work. In fact, the men -seem to take a pride in assisting the weaker sex. Mr. Pritchard writes -on this subject as follows:--“We saw several women sitting quietly in -their canoe, whilst their cavaliers swam alongside, towing them through -the surf, not because they are at all less at home in the water than -their husbands and brothers, as we saw this afternoon, when a large -number of girls were alongside, who were as often swimming about, -laughing and talking, for about half-an-hour at a time in the water, or -sitting in their boats, which they are constantly upsetting.” - -When the husband of a Samoan wife dies, his widow is not sacrificed at -his funeral, but is usually taken by his brother, after the ancient -Jewish custom. It is remarkable, by the way, that many of the Mosaic -laws still exist in full force among the Samoans. In time of war no -male captives are taken, all being killed. Their female relatives, -whether wives or sisters, are considered as the property of the -victors, and mostly become their wives. Thus it often happens that -women are related to both sides, and, as they are by courtesy allowed -to visit their relatives, all the designs of one side are speedily -told to the other. So, whenever the principal chief prepares any plan -of action, some of the women who have relations on the opposite side, -immediately go off and tell them about the proposed movements. Still, -the Samoans seem to make it a matter of honor not to take advantage of -this knowledge, and to allow the enemy to execute his movements without -interruption. - -The women seem quite at their ease in warfare, and mostly accompany -their husbands to the wars, in order to supply them with necessaries, -and to nurse them if they should be wounded. Mr. Pritchard says that he -has seen them in the heat of action, carrying water to the wounded, and -seeming to care less for the thickly flying bullets than the warriors -themselves. - - * * * * * - -Before passing to another subject, we will complete our notices of -dress. The reader may remember that on page 977 was given a full -account of the various processes by which the inner bark of the paper -mulberry is made into garments. The Samoans employ the same method as -the Tongans, but are even more careful in the manufacture of the cloth, -which is in great request throughout many parts of Polynesia, and can -be recognized at once by a skilful eye. - -The women are the sole manufacturers, and are wonderfully skilful and -patient over their work. In the first place, for the finest cloth they -always employ very young trees, not more than fourteen to fifteen -months old, and only two or three inches in diameter. They begin their -work by cutting down the trees, peeling off the bark, and steeping -it for eight and forty hours in water, so as to enable the rough -outer bark to be removed from the thin and delicate inner bark. The -well-known “bass,” with which gardeners tie up flowers, is a familiar -instance of “_liber_,” or inner bark, procured from the lime tree. By -constant beating, this substance becomes greatly increased in width -and reduced in thickness, and, like gold leaf, it can be beaten out to -almost any extent. - -As the strips of bark are only ten or twelve inches wide, a number -of them are united by overlapping the edges and putting between them -arrow-root dissolved in water. The united pieces, while still wet, are -again beaten, and after a while the two pieces become incorporated into -one, and all signs of the junction disappear. - -When a piece of sufficient size is made, printing and staining are the -next processes. The dyes are generally of three kinds, red, brown, and -yellow. The two first tints are obtained from clays, and the third from -the ever useful turmeric. The women who make and print the cloth do -not prepare the dyes, that being a separate occupation, and in these -islands the different professions are strictly limited to certain -families, just as is the case with the castes in India. The printing is -done on exactly the same principle that is employed in rubbing brasses -in this country. The pattern is made by fastening the flexible ribs of -the cocoa-nut leaf on a board. When the ribs are quite hard and dry the -cloth is stretched over them, and the dye rubbed over it with a stiff -brush, so that it only adheres to those parts of the cloth which press -against the raised pattern below. For patterns of a larger description -a softer bark is used, which holds a quantity of color. - -There are in my collection several specimens of Samoan bark cloth; one -is very fine, pure white, six feet long, by two wide, and ornamented -with a fine fringe all round it. Another is thicker and stronger, being -made of four layers of bark, one placed upon the other. In some places -the junction has not been completed, and the different layers are quite -distinct. It measures rather more than seven feet in length and three -feet ten inches in width. It has a deep-colored border about eighteen -inches in width, composed of a diamond pattern impressed upon a number -of perpendicular parallel lines and dots. This border is a light red -in color, and upon it are several circles of dark brown. Circles of -a similar kind are scattered over the uncolored portion of the robe, -which is of a creamy yellow hue. - -The third specimen is still thicker, and larger. It is seven feet -square, and has been completely covered on the outside with the clay -pigment, which has been put on so thickly as to make the fabric -comparatively stiff. Two broad bands of deep black are drawn across -it so as to divide it into three equal portions, and in each division -are four patterns also drawn in black, very much resembling the “broad -arrow” used in the government mark of England. - -In the second illustration on page 1012 are shown the successive -processes of converting the bark into cloth. In the foreground and at -the right hand are seen some women kneeling in the stream, engaged -in scraping the _liber_ to free it from every particle of the outer -bark. One woman is examining a piece against the light, to see whether -it is quite clean. Behind them, and toward the left centre of the -illustration are more women, some of them beating and scraping the -bark with the square mallets which have been already described when -treating of Tonga, and another is busily employed in joining two pieces -with arrow-root. Just above them is another woman engaged in the more -skilful part of the manufacture, _i. e._ printing by rubbing dye over -the cloth when laid on the pattern board, and one or two of the boards -themselves are given, in order to show the cocoa-nut leaf pattern upon -them. In the distance, the other women are seen hanging the still wet -cloth up to dry. - - - - -CHAPTER CIII. - -SAMOA, OR THE NAVIGATORS’ ISLANDS--_Continued_. - -WAR. - - - CAUSES OF WAR IN SAMOA -- THE MALO, AND STRUGGLES FOR ITS POSSESSION - -- THE CHIEF’S VENGEANCE -- FIRE-ARMS PREVENTIVE OF WAR -- SAMOAN - WEAPONS -- THE CLUBS -- PATTERNS OF CLUBS THROUGHOUT POLYNESIA -- - STRANGE MODE OF USING THE SPEAR -- THE SHARK-TOOTH GAUNTLETS -- - SUITS OF ARMOR -- GETTING TOGETHER AN ARMY, AND MODE OF FIGHTING -- - UNPLEASANT POSITION OF NEUTRALS -- THE SEA-FIGHT -- DISTINGUISHING - PENNANTS -- THE DEFIANCE BEFORE BATTLE -- TROPHIES OF WAR, AND - ELATION OF THE VICTOR -- DISPOSAL OF THE BODIES -- THE HEAD PILE -- - SINGLE COMBAT BETWEEN CHIEFS -- SAMOAN LAW -- PUNISHMENT FOR MURDER - AND LESSER OFFENCES -- CANNIBALISM -- NATIVE LAWYERS -- THE PLAINTIFF - DEFEATED WITH HIS OWN WEAPONS. - -It was mentioned on page 1014, that women when captured in war become -the absolute property of those who take them; we will therefore -devote a short space to warfare among the Samoans, omitting those -characteristics in which it resembles war among the other Polynesian -tribes, which have already been described. - -The causes of war may mostly be reduced to four; namely, the desire of -political supremacy, disputed succession to chieftainship, revenge for -the murder of a chief, and infringement of the strange marriage laws of -the Samoans. - -The first of these causes is always rankling. Each island is divided -into several districts, and when one begins to show signs of special -prosperity, another is sure to take umbrage at it and go to war in -order to secure the “Malo,” or political supremacy. One example of such -a war occurred only a few years ago in the island of Apolo. - -Manono, one of the three districts into which it is divided, held the -supremacy, and the chiefs felt indignant because another district, -Aâna, was prospering under the teaching of the missionaries. The chiefs -of Manono therefore began to oppress Aâna by making continual demands -of property and food. Still, in spite of their exactions, the district -would persist in flourishing; it made and sold more cocoa-nut oil, and -sold it for more hatchets, calico, and other European treasures, than -the other districts. The Manono chiefs were naturally indignant that -when they went to a subject district they found it better cultivated -and richer than their own, and construed the inferiority which they -could not but feel into an intentional insult on the part of Aâna. So -they proclaimed the people of Aâna to be rebels, and made war against -them. - -Such a cause of war, absurd as it may be, and subversive of all real -progress, is intelligible, and to be explained by the petty jealousies -of human nature, which is too prone to feel itself personally hurt -at the prosperity of another. Vengeance for a murdered chief is -intelligible, and so is a war for succession; but the last cause needs -some explanation. - -By the laws of Samoa, a woman once a wife is always a wife, even though -she may be put away by her husband. The Samoan chiefs claim the right -of marrying as many wives as they choose, and putting them away as -often as they like. Indeed, a man often marries a girl merely for the -sake of her dower of mats and other property. But even after he has -put away a wife, he still considers her as his own chattel; and if any -other chief takes her to his house, war is at once declared against -him. It is a curious fact that the original husband cares nothing -about the morality of the wife whom he has put away, but only for the -insult offered to himself by taking his property. Such cast-off wives -mostly attach themselves to the Fala-tele, or visiting house, leading -most immoral lives, and may do so without incurring any resentment -from their former husband. But let them marry another, and vengeance -immediately follows the insult. - -[Illustration: MANGAIAN SPEAR. (See page 1034.) - -_Head larger_ - -_Full length in proportion to head_] - -[Illustration: ADZE MAGNIFIED. (See page 1033.)] - -[Illustration: SUIT OF ARMOR. (See page 1019.)] - -[Illustration: SAMOAN CLUB. (See page 1019.)] - -[Illustration: MANGAIAN PADDLES (See page 1033.)] - -Before the introduction of fire-arms, the principal weapons of Samoa -were the spear and the club. The older chiefs have a rooted objection -to the musket, and, like Hotspur’s fop, have not been particularly -willing to take the field since that “villanous saltpetre” has come -into vogue. Muskets, say they, are weapons for boys; clubs for men. -They have some reason to complain of the bullets, which, as they say, -do not know chiefs, because their towering headdresses make them so -conspicuous that they afford excellent marks to the enemy; and if by -chance one of their opponents should have even a moderate notion of -taking aim, their chance of coming safely out of the battle would be a -very small one. - -The clubs used in Samoa are remarkable for the excellence of their -make, and the polish and finish with which the native carver loves to -ornament them. Some of them are short, used for one hand, and made just -like the steel maces of European chivalry. Others are almost exactly -like the club No. 1, figured on page 949. The example which is given -in the illustration entitled “Club,” on page 1018, is drawn from a -specimen in my collection, and belonged to the same chief who owned the -war mat and feather headdress which have been described. It is five -feet in length, and very heavy, so that none but a very powerful man -can use it. As it has seen much work, it has been battered about, the -wood of the head cracked, and the carving defaced. I have therefore had -it drawn as it was when new. - -As a rule the clubs of Tonga, Samoa, Fiji, and other Polynesian groups -can hardly be definitely referred to any one of them. The commerce -which passes between them has caused an interchange of weapons as -well as of peaceful commodities, so that the two distinct races which -inhabit Fiji and the Tongan and Samoan group use weapons which are -almost identical. Thus the serrated club which has just been mentioned -is equally used in New Guinea, Fiji, and Samoa, the pattern having been -found a convenient one, and so transmitted from one island to the other. - -The spears, again, have a great similitude, and are armed with barbs, -the best being tipped with the tail-bone of the sting-ray. In former -days, when a warrior had pierced an enemy with his spear, he tried to -lift him from the ground upon it; and if he were unable to do so, he -was generally assisted by several of his comrades, who all thrust their -spears into his body, lifted him in the air, and bore him aloft in -triumph, not caring whether he were alive or dead. - -One weapon, however, seems to be peculiar to Samoa, and has been -mentioned by Mariner. It consists of a pair of gauntlets made of -cocoa-nut fibre, on the inside of which are fixed several rows of -sharks’ teeth, set edgewise. In fact, this weapon is made exactly on -the principle of the terrible “tiger-claw” of India, and is intended -for the purpose of ripping up an adversary, the abdomen being the part -that is always attacked, both by the Samoan and the Hindoo. - -One chief, who was of gigantic dimensions, even for a Samoan, -always fought with these terrible gauntlets. He used them, however, -in a different manner, and disdained to tear open the body of his -antagonist. As all the points of the teeth are directed backward, it -is impossible for any one who is grasped by these gauntlets to tear -himself away. The gigantic chief was accustomed to rush at one of the -enemy, seize him with his gauntleted hand, fling him on his face, place -one foot on the small of his back, grasp him by the head and bend -him forcibly upward so as to break his spine. This was his mode of -dealing with able-bodied men. If, however, he seized a small man, he -merely threw the victim across his knee, broke his back, and flung his -dying foe on the ground. The illustration on page 1025 is taken from a -beautiful specimen in the collection of the United Service Museum. - -In order to guard themselves against these weapons, the Samoan warriors -gird themselves with a very broad and thick belt, made of cocoa-nut -fibre, wide enough to reach from the arm to the hip. It is not quite -long enough to encircle the body, but is worn mostly on the left side, -that being the side most exposed to the enemy. - -One of these belts, in my collection, is two feet nine inches in -length, so that when fastened round the waist it leaves a considerable -portion of the right side exposed. It is made by taking a number of -plaited cords, and passing them over two sticks, so that all the cords -are parallel to each other. They are then bound firmly together by -strings of twisted fibre, which pass under and over each alternately, -and make a very strong armor, through which the dreaded sharks’ teeth -cannot make their way. - -Sometimes the Samoan warrior seems to have been mistrustful of the -efficacy of the belt, and to have feared the effects of the shark’s -teeth on his naked arms and legs. There is in the collection of the -United Service Museum a complete suit of armor, most ingeniously made -out of fibre, and so formed as to cover the greater part of the body -and limbs. It is in two portions, the upper being put on as a coat, -and the lower as trousers. By the sides of the armor, on p. 1018, are -two small sketches, showing on an enlarged scale the patterns of the -plaiting. - -There is no definite army among the Samoans, each man being considered -as a soldier, and having his weapons always at hand. He is liable at -any time to be called out by his chief, and, as a rule, he troubles -himself very little about the cause of the war, only concerning himself -to fight in the train of his chief. The Samoans are a brave race, and, -if properly led and taught the veriest rudiments of discipline, would -make good soldiers. As it is, however, no Samoan warrior fights with -the knowledge that his movements are directed in accordance with a -definite plan, or that he will be supported by others. He does not feel -himself a simple unit among many, but has to look out for himself, to -select his own adversary, to advance when he thinks he can do so with -advantage, to run away when he feels himself getting into undue peril. - -Whenever a few Samoans have put themselves under the guidance of a -white man, they have always repelled their foes. In one such case, -twenty men drove off a body of five hundred enemies, flushed with -success and bloodshed. Both parties were armed with muskets, but the -regular though insignificant volleys of the twenty men so completely -disorganized the five hundred undisciplined foes, that the latter dared -not attack the little stone wall, five feet high and twenty-five yards -long, behind which the defenders were lying. - -Had the latter been left to their own devices, they would have fired -all their pieces at once, and been left with unloaded muskets at the -mercy of their foes. But being taught always to keep half their muskets -loaded, they had always a volley ready for their enemies, who were -utterly discomfited at their reception, and at last were only too glad -to escape as they best could, with the loss of many men. - -The position of a neutral is not at all a pleasant one in Samoa, as, in -case either side should appear to be likely to win the day, those of -the losing side who happen to be friendly with the unfortunate neutral -make a point of stripping him of all his property, to prevent it from -falling into the hands of the enemy. Those Europeans who know the -native customs always erect barricades whenever war parties come near -them, knowing that they stand in equal danger from friends or foes. - -When a chief decides on going to war, he calls out all the warriors -in his district. Though there is no real discipline of the soldiers, -there is at all events some semblance of order in their arrangement. -Each town has its definite place, and the inhabitants would resent -any attempt on the part of another town to take the place which they -consider as their own. The most honorable post is in front, and, though -it is a post of danger, it is so honorable that if a man belonging to -any town privileged to lead the war were placed in the rear, he would -probably desert to the enemy. In fact, a vast amount of desertion -does take place, and by means of the deserters and the women, both -parties know tolerably well the designs of their antagonists. The idea -of conceiving, maturing a plan, keeping it secret, and then suddenly -acting on it, seems never to have entered the mind of the Samoan chiefs. - -Though the vanguard is the post of danger as well as of honor, it is -greatly coveted, for it is also the post of profit both in peace and -war. The inhabitants of the privileged towns claim the largest share -at the feasts, and generally rule the district in which they live. As -all the Samoans dress much alike and speak the same language, they are -obliged to wear a sort of uniform, by which they shall know friends -from foes. In the case of warriors, the hair is dressed in some strange -way, or a white shell is hung round the neck, or a strip of cloth tied -round the arm, these symbols being changed every three or four days, in -order to prevent the enemy from imitating them. - -When canoes unite under one leader, they hang out symbols of a similar -character, such as bunches of leaves, strips of matting, or even a -sort of flag made of native matting, and having painted on it the rude -figure of some animal, such as a pig, a dog, or a bird. True to the -independent nature of Samoan warriors, the two men who respectively -command the land and the sea forces never think of consulting together, -and acting in concert together, but each does what he thinks best on -the spur of the moment. In the case already mentioned, where twenty -Aâna men repulsed five hundred of the Savaiis, the latter might have -been cut off to a man. While they were kept in check by the twenty -disciplined warriors, a fleet of Aâna canoes appeared off the shore; -and, if the commander had only landed his men, a most thorough example -would have been made of the invaders. But he had nothing to do with the -land force, and so allowed the enemy to escape without even attempting -to stop them. - -The student of anthropology always finds that human nature is much the -same in different parts of the earth, and that manners and customs -wonderfully resemble each other in principle, though they may be -modified in detail by the accident of time and place. It has already -been mentioned that many of the Samoan laws are identical with those -given by Moses, though there is no possibility that any geographical -connection could ever have taken place between Polynesia and Sinai. - -Warfare is carried on at the present day in Samoa just as the -scriptures tell us it used to be in Palestine and Syria, and as Homer -tells us it was waged on the plains of Troy. When two opposing bodies -meet, the leaders challenge and abuse each other in good set terms, -each boasting of his own prowess, depreciating that of the adversary, -and threatening after he has killed his enemy to dishonor his corpse -in some way. Thus, we find that when David had accepted the challenge -of Goliath, before they proceeded to action they reviled each other, -Goliath threatening to give David’s flesh unto the “fowls of the air -and the beasts of the field,” and David retorting in almost the same -words, but adding that he would do the same by the bodies of the whole -army. - -Thus, in the old Homeric story, where Ulysses flings his spear at -Socus, he uses almost exactly the same formula of words:-- - - “Ah, wretch! no father shall thy corpse compose, - Thy dying eye no tender mother close; - But hungry birds shall tear those balls away, - And hovering vultures scream around their prey.” - -Thus, the Fijian warrior defies his enemy in words before he proceeds -to blows, threatening to bake and eat his body and make a drinking-cup -of his scull. Thus, the Samoan war parties always think it necessary -to pause and defy each other in words before they proceed to blows. -For example, when the Manono and Aâna men fought in the struggle which -has just been described, they exchanged threats and injurious epithets -wonderfully like the “winged words” of the Homeric warriors, the -sentiment being identical, though the imagery is necessarily different. -The illustration No. 1, on page 1027, shows these Samoan warriors -exchanging defiance with their foes. - -“You banana-eating Manono men, be your throats consumed by Moso.” - -“Ye cocoa-nut eating Aâna men, be your tongues wasted.” - -“Where is that Savii pig that comes to his death?” - -“Roast that Atua king who is about to die by my spear;” and so on _ad -infinitum_. - -These war parties afford excellent opportunities of studying the dress -and ornaments of the Samoans. It is thought a point of honor with them, -as with the American Indians, to go into action in the fullest dress -and decorated with every ornament that can be procured, so that the -headdress and general accoutrements of a chief when engaged in war are -sure to be the best examples that can be seen. - -The proceedings that take place after a battle are well described by -Mr. Pritchard. “After a fight, the heads of the slain warriors are -paraded in presence of the assembled chiefs and people, when the heroes -are individually thanked, and their general prowess and daring publicly -acknowledged. The excitement of the successful warrior is intense, -as he passes before the chiefs with his bleeding trophy, capering in -the most fantastic evolutions, with blackened face and oiled body, -throwing his club high in the air, and catching it behind his back or -between his legs; sometimes himself carrying his dead enemy’s head, -sometimes dancing round a comrade who carries it for him, all the while -shouting in his loudest voice, ‘Ou te mau tangata! Ou te mau tangata!’ -(‘I have my man, I have my man!’)” - -To a young Samoan this is the realization of his highest ambition, to -be thus publicly thanked by the chief for slaying an enemy in mortal -combat, as he careers before his comrades with the reeking head of his -foe in one hand, and his club in the other. - -“Then, again, when the war is over, and he returns to his village, to -hear his companions rehearse the exploit, and the girls pronounce him -‘toa’ _i. e._ brave; then it is you see in their very perfection the -complacent dignity and latent pride that lurk within that brown-skinned -islander. As he assumes an air of unconscious disregard of the praises -his deeds evoke, you see the sublime and the ludicrous neatly blending, -when he turns to the girls, and mildly exclaims, ‘Funa mai si rului!’ -(‘Woman, hand me a cigar.’) This modest little order is at once pretty -and pert, dignified and careless, when it falls from the lips of a hero -or a beau. And proud is the girl who hands it to him; she has but one -ambition then, to become his wife, even with the certainty of being -cast off in less than a month for another. - -“After the heads have been paraded before the chiefs, they are piled -up in the malae, or open space in the centre of the town, the head -of the greatest chief slain being placed uppermost. If among the -visitors there are any relatives of the slain, they claim the heads -and bury them, or send them back to the comrades of the deceased. The -unclaimed heads are buried together in the malae. Any bodies that may -be recognized are also buried by their friends, while those who have no -relations among the visitors are left to rot and make food for the dogs. - -“The relations are careful to bury the bodies they identify, lest -their spirits should haunt them or wander about the field of battle, -disconsolate and mournful, lamenting the fate which left their bodies -to rot or to be eaten by the dogs. I have often heard the natives say, -‘Hear that spirit moaning, I am cold! I am cold!’ when a stormy night -has thrown its darkness and poured its torrents of rain and gusts of -wind over the battle-field. It was vain to tell them that the noise -they heard was merely the creaking boughs or the pelting rain; to them -it was nothing else than the spirit of the unburied dead enemy.” - -The feelings of vanity are so acute in a Samoan warrior that he will -do almost anything to procure applause at these meetings after a -battle. One man who had failed to kill an enemy was greatly annoyed -with himself at having missed the public applause which he had hoped -to gain, and hit upon another mode of obtaining a sort of celebrity. -He cut off the great toes of a dead enemy whose head had already been -taken, and with these toes in his mouth paraded before the chiefs as if -he had taken a head. Finding that this novel act excited admiration, he -became so excited that he ate the toes, even without cooking them, in -the presence of all the people. - -Such an act as this might induce the reader to suppose that the -Samoans, like many Polynesians, are cannibals. In the ordinary sense of -the word, they are not so. After a battle they will sometimes cook and -eat a human body, but this is done as an act of disgrace, and not as -a gratification of the appetite. In one instance, a young woman whose -father had been killed in battle obtained a scalp that had belonged to -the enemy. She first burned it to ashes, then beat it to powder, and -scattered the dust on the fire over which she cooked her provisions. - -After a decisive battle, the chiefs of the beaten side come humbly -before their victorious antagonists, carrying firewood, stones and -pieces of bamboo. They lay their burdens before the principal chief, -and prostrate themselves on the ground, lying there in silence. -Should, as is generally the case, the victors be willing to accept the -submission, the prostrate chiefs are told to rise and return home; but -if they should not be satisfied, the men are clubbed where they lie, -while the people whom they represent suffer all the horrors of savage -warfare. - -The firewood, stones, and bamboo are considered as emblems of the -utterly abject state to which the bearers have been reduced. The -stones, being the material with which the native ovens are made, -signify that those who deposit them at the feet of the victors give -themselves up to be baked and eaten by the conquerors. The firewood -represents the material with which the ovens are heated, and the bamboo -serves as a double symbol. In the first place, the knives with which -the Samoans cut up their food were always made of bamboo before the -use of iron was introduced by Europeans; and in the second place, -the instruments by which torture was inflicted on prisoners by cruel -captors were made of the same material. - -When the conquered party are pardoned, they enter the house of the -chief, kiss his feet, and present him with fine mats, bark cloth, food, -and similar property. This ceremony is called Ifonga, and is sometimes -employed on other occasions. For example, during the war between Manono -and Aâna, two of the most influential chiefs of the latter party took -umbrage at some slight, either real or fancied, and deserted to the -enemy. Desertion of this nature is quite a common event in Samoan -warfare, inasmuch as the chiefs are almost entirely independent of -each other, and are bound together by the slightest of ties. In fact, -the condition of these islanders much resembles that of the Scottish -Highlanders in the old times, when it was hardly possible to wage a -regular war on account of the rival jealousies of the different chiefs, -besides the internal dissensions among the members of each clan. - -Besides, as in the old Scottish clans, there is no discipline by which -even the men are bound together. Each man serves as long as he chooses, -and no longer. If he thinks himself slighted, or if his crops at home -have to be got in, he has no hesitation in shouldering his club, and -going off to his own village; nor is there any law by which he can -be punished for so doing. In the war to which we are now alluding, a -vast number of the Savaii allies of Manono had gone off to their own -plantations. - -In order to carry out the principle of obtaining the Malo, or -sovereignty, it was necessary that the deserters should do homage -to Manono, and be replaced in state in their homes, which they were -supposed to hold under Manono as vassals in charge. If they could take -possession without being attacked by the opposing party, they were -supposed to have asserted their rights. - -Accordingly, a great ceremony was projected. The Manono chiefs recalled -all the allies who had escaped from the war, ostensibly to look after -their plantations, but in reality because they had a strong objection -to bullets, and summoned them to bring the produce of their plantations -to a great “fono,” or discussion. Accordingly, they all came back, -allured by the prospect of the feast which accompanies such a “fono.” -The two deserting chiefs were introduced to the assembly, and went -through the ceremony of Ifonga as a matter of form. Next they had to -be safely installed in their own villages. With one of them this was a -comparatively easy matter, as the whole district was deserted. So the -chief was taken there in triumph, escorted by thirty or forty canoes, -and formally installed in his own domains, as vassal to Manono, and -therefore acknowledging the right of Malo to belong to that district. -He had no followers with him, and in a day or two he left the place -and returned to Manono. Still, the transaction had been completed, the -time during which he held his domain not being of any importance. The -reader may be glad to know that this chief suffered the usual fate of -renegades, being received at first with great ceremony, and made much -of, and afterward sinking into utter obscurity. - -As to the other chief, there was a difficulty respecting the -installation. It so happened that, he having been one of the most -influential leaders, all the united forces of the two districts, Aâna -and Atua, were encamped in and about the place, and if he had been -taken there he would not only have been attacked, but the invading -party would probably have been repelled by the united forces of the -other two districts. So, after much deliberation, it was determined -that he should be installed at a convenient season, but that the -precise time for performing the ceremony need not for the present be -fixed upon. - -Sometimes a couple of chiefs quarrel, and, instead of going to war, -fight it out themselves with their clubs. They display great dexterity -in fencing and guarding, as well as striking, and are watched intently -by the spectators. They are usually parted before they do any serious -harm to each other, because in case either were killed, or even -seriously injured, a war of vengeance would be the inevitable result. - - * * * * * - -Comparatively little is known of the native laws of Samoa, which, like -all similar institutions, are always on the change, and of late years -have been almost forgotten by reason of the presence of Europeans in -the islands. We find, however, from several travellers, especially -from those who have lived among the Samoans as missionaries, that a -tolerably well-defined code of laws is recognized, and administered by -the chief and his councillors. - -Murder, for example, was punishable by death; and this was so well -known that when one man murdered another, he and all his family -generally fled to another district, where they were sure of protection. -It was necessary that all the family should accompany the murderer, -because the relatives of the slain man might wreak their vengeance -upon any relation of the murderer. Practically, the punishment for -murder resolved itself into a heavy fine. The fugitive necessarily -left behind him his plantations, his house, and other property, all -of which was seized by the chief. Sometimes the whole of the property -was confiscated, the house burned down, the plantation devastated, and -a message sent to the murderer that he might never return to his own -village. Generally, however, this extreme punishment was commuted for -a heavy fine, part of which consisted in giving a feast to the entire -village. - -Damaging a fruit tree was held to be a crime deserving of heavy -punishment; and so was speaking disrespectfully to a chief, destroying -a fence, or behaving rudely to strangers. For several offences the -Samoans had a curiously graduated scale of punishments. Sometimes, when -the offence was a light one, the offender was sentenced to seat himself -in front of the chief and his council, and take five bites of a cruelly -pungent root. Sometimes he was obliged to toss and catch a certain -number of times one of the prickly sea-urchins, which are covered with -slender spikes, as sharp as needles and as brittle as glass. Sometimes -he had to beat his head with sharp stones until his face was covered -with blood. - -These punishments were usually inflicted, but there was a severe set -of penalties for graver offences. In some cases the offender was hung -by the feet to the branch of a tree, or stripped of all his clothes, -and set in the burning rays of the mid-day sun. One of the severest, -as well as most degrading punishments consisted in taking a pole cut -from a very prickly tree, tying together the culprit’s feet and hands, -slinging him on the pole as pigs are slung when they are being taken to -the oven, and carrying him to the house or village against which he had -offended. - -The degrading part of this punishment consisted in likening the -offender to a pig going to the oven. It is always held as a deep insult -to a Samoan to compare him to a pig; while the very idea of being baked -in the oven is most repulsive to the feelings of the people, who have -the same contempt for any of the processes of cookery that prevails -throughout New Zealand, Fiji, and Tonga. So utterly humiliating is this -punishment, that when the culprit is laid helpless at the feet of those -whom he has injured he is almost invariably released and forgiven, -the extreme degradation being accepted as an atonement for almost any -offence, no matter how heinous. This is the reason why the ceremony of -Ifonga is considered as so degrading. - -Indeed, it is in consequence of this feeling that cannibalism is -occasionally practised, though, as has already been mentioned, it -exists in a very modified form. Formerly, the women always attended -upon the warriors for the sake of obtaining the bodies of the slain -foes, which they dragged out of the field, and then cooked, by way -of expressing the utmost contempt for them. The priests used also to -accompany the warriors, and pray to the gods for success. They had good -reason for wishing for victory, as their portion of the food was only -the hands of the slain warriors, and as long as the struggle lasted -they were not allowed to eat any other food except these hands. The -priests of the losing side have sometimes been obliged to fast for -several days in succession. - -When the body of a chief was carried off to the oven, great rejoicings -were made, and every one was expected to eat a piece of it, no matter -how small. On such occasions, even the women and little children had -a share, the question being frequently asked whether all have tasted. -Sometimes, when a captive has been taken alive, the Samoans have been -known to tie him up to a tree, dig a hole in front of him, line it with -stones, heat it before his eyes, and then throw him into it. - -According to the accounts of the natives, wars were formerly much more -common than is now the case, the musket having almost driven the club -and spear out of the field, and rendering useless the strength and -skill of the warriors, who prided themselves on their dexterity of -handling their weapons. How well they fence with the club has already -been described, and that they were equally efficient in the use of the -spear is evident from an anecdote told by Mr. Williams. - -A chief named Matetau had come on board an English vessel, and -the captain, wishing to test the skill of his visitor, painted on -the foresail a ring about four or five inches in diameter, and -asked Matetau to throw his spear at it. The chief retired to the -quarter-deck, about eighty feet from the mark, poised his spear for -a moment, and sent it through the middle of the ring. Warriors thus -skilful in the use of their weapons might well feel indignant at the -introduction of fire-arms, which equalize the weak and the strong, and -enable a mere boy only just tattooed to kill the greatest chief. - -When cases are brought before the council for adjudication, both -plaintiff and defendant exhibit the greatest ingenuity in stating -their case, and are wonderfully fertile in inventing new arguments. -The Samoan litigant is as slippery as an eel, and no sooner has he -found one post untenable than he has contrived to glide away from it -and establish himself in another. Mr. Pritchard gives a very amusing -instance of this characteristic of the Samoan. - -The property of an English resident, who was popularly called “Monkey -Jack,” had been wantonly destroyed, and the injured man referred the -case to the council. As at that time two ships of war arrived, the -matter was by common consent referred to the senior officer, and the -plaintiff, accompanied by his friends, proceeded to the spot. The -chiefs were convened, and, though they could not deny that the property -had been destroyed, they put forward a series of excuses for refusing -to pay any indemnity. - -Firstly, they said that the plaintiff had joined the enemy, and that -they were therefore entitled to wage war on him. This accusation being -refuted, they shifted their ground from the man to his wife, saying -that she was related to the enemy, and that her husband necessarily -partook of the relationship. Fortunately, the woman happened to be -related equally to both sides, so that the defendants had to abandon -that plea. - -Their next count was, that the destruction of the property was -accidental, and that therefore the owner had no claim on them. As their -own previous admissions contradicted them, there was no difficulty in -disposing of this allegation. Their next line of defence was a very -ludicrous one, and showed that they were nearly brought to bay. It so -happened that “Monkey Jack” was something of an armorer, and used to -repair for the natives the muskets which their rough hands had damaged. -His opponents suddenly recollected this and turned it to account, -saying that his charges for repairs were so much heavier to them than -to the enemy, that in self-defence they had taken his property in -compensation. Evidence was brought that his charges were always the -same to any natives, no matter to which party they belonged, and so the -defendants were again beaten. - -Like wise men, however, they had reserved their weightiest argument -to the last. It has already been mentioned that in time of war either -party has no scruple in destroying or confiscating the property of -a friend, on the plea that it is better for them to have the use of -the property than for the enemy to take it. The defendants brought -forward an argument based on this custom, saying that they only acted -in accordance with national custom, and that they had destroyed the -property of the plaintiff, in order to keep it out of the hands of the -enemy. - -This was by far the most formidable argument they could have employed, -but “Monkey Jack” was as clever as his opponents, and replied with -crushing effect, that for several weeks the opposite party had been -able, if they had desired to do so, to destroy all his property, but -had refrained from touching it. - -When the chiefs saw that they had met with men more skilful than -themselves in argument, they were sadly perplexed, and some of the -younger chiefs hit on a mode by which they thought that they might -escape from paying the indemnity. They agreed quietly to surround the -spot where the captain and the consul were sitting, and suddenly carry -them off, and retain them as hostages until the indemnity should be -given up. Fortunately, Mr. Pritchard detected their plot, and contrived -to slip back to the boats, where he arranged a counter plot. - -Before very long, the Samoans surrounded the place where the intended -captives were sitting, and, just as they were about to seize them, Mr. -Pritchard called out to them, and showed them that they were covered by -the levelled muskets of the sailors and marines, who had accompanied -the captain and the consul to the spot. Knowing that, unlike -themselves, the English warriors had an inconvenient habit of hitting -when they fired, the Samoan chiefs acknowledged themselves conquered, -and agreed to pay the indemnity. - -Another case, much more petty, was a very ludicrous one, the Samoan -absolutely granting himself to be defeated by the logic of his -opponent. - -There was a certain West Indian negro, who had taken up his residence -in Samoa, and had attained in a neighboring tribe the rank of chief, -together with the name of Paunga. A native chief, named Toe-tangata -(called, for brevity’s sake, Toe), had a dog, which was in the habit -of stealing from Paunga’s house. The latter had often complained to -the owner of the animal, but without success, and at last, as the dog -continued to steal, Paunga shot it. Now in Samoa to insult a chief’s -dog is to insult the owner, and so Toe considered himself to have been -shot by Paunga. - -The case was at last referred to the captain of an English man-of-war, -but Paunga refused to appear, saying that he was a Samoan chief, and -not under the jurisdiction of a foreigner. A file of armed marines -was at once sent for Paunga, who ingeniously took advantage of the -proceeding, placing himself at their head, and telling the people that -they might now see that he was a chief among the white people as well -as among natives, and had his guard of honor, without which he would -not have stirred out of the house. - -Both being before the captain, Toe made his complaint, and was -instantly crushed by Paunga’s reply. He admitted that the property of -a chief was identical with the owner. Consequently, when Toe’s dog ate -Paunga’s food, he, Toe, ate Paunga. Therefore, when Paunga shot Toe in -the person of his dog, he only balanced the account, and neither party -had grounds of complaint against the other. - -[Illustration: SHARK-TOOTH GAUNTLET. (See page 1019.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CIV. - -SAMOA, OR THE NAVIGATORS’ ISLANDS--_Concluded_. - -AMUSEMENTS--MARRIAGE--ARCHITECTURE. - - - SAMOAN AMUSEMENTS -- PIGEON CATCHING -- THE DECOY BIRDS, AND MODE OF - USING THEM -- TRAINING THE BIRDS -- FISHING: THE NET AND THE LINE - -- DARING MODE OF SHARK CATCHING -- A BOLD FISHERMAN -- CURIOUS - ACCIDENTS TO THE DIVERS: THE SHARK AND THE CORAL -- THE BOAR HUNT - -- A DANGEROUS FOE -- SAMOAN COOKERY -- THE PALOLO -- ITS CURIOUS - APPEARANCE, MODE IN CAPTURE, AND WAY OF COOKING IT -- MARRIAGE - IN SAMOA -- CEREMONIES IN THE MARRIAGE OF A CHIEF -- THE WEDDING - FEAST AND DANCES -- SAMOAN ARCHITECTURE -- DIVISION OF THE HOUSE BY - MOSQUITO CURTAINS. - -The amusements of the Samoans are in many respects identical with -those of other Polynesians, and therefore only those will be described -wherein is anything characteristic of these islanders. One of the -principal sports is pigeon shooting, which is carried on in certain -parts of the wood expressly prepared for it. The principle on which the -sport is followed much resembles that of the rat shooting practised -by the Tongans. Several chiefs agree to go off on a pigeon-catching -expedition, and at the appointed time the fowling ground is cleared -of bush, a large circle is marked out by stones, and just outside the -circle are made a number of ambushes, formed from leaves and branches, -which are cut fresh daily. - -The sport is preluded by a drink of kava, and when this indispensable -preliminary is over, the chiefs repair to their stations, each having a -net and a trained bird. The net is small, and is fixed to the end of a -bamboo, thirty or even forty feet in length. The bird is perched on a -stick near its master, and is attached to its perch by a string forty -or fifty yards in length. - -At a given signal, the birds are thrown into the air, and, following -the instructions they have received, wheel round and round for some -little time. The wild pigeons see them from a distance, and fancying -from their movements that they are hovering over food, fly to join -them. As they wheel to and fro with the decoy birds, the chiefs raise -their nets and dexterously capture them. He who takes the greatest -number of pigeons wins the game, and receives from each of the other -players a stake which has been previously fixed upon. Generally the -stakes consist of food or kava roots, and in such cases the winner -practically gains nothing but the honor of winning the game, as the -food is cooked and distributed by the winner to all his companions, and -the kava is converted into drink. - -These bird-catching parties last for a very long time, the players -sometimes remaining on the spot for a month. Huts are consequently -run up around the open space on which the birds are flown. The second -engraving on the next page illustrates this sport very accurately. - -The decoy birds are most carefully trained, the object of the trainer -being to make them rise at the word of command, fly to the end of the -string, wheel round in graceful circles for some time, and then return -to the perch. When a bird will remain on the wing for five minutes and -return to its perch at its master’s call, it is considered as having -been highly trained, and is held in great estimation. The natives may -be often seen engaged in training the birds in the open space in the -centre of the village. The birds are encouraged in their flight by a -peculiar mode of jerking the string. - -[Illustration: (1.) SAMOAN WARRIORS EXCHANGING DEFIANCE. (See page -1021.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) PIGEON CATCHING BY SAMOANS. (See page 1026.)] - -Fishing is a very favorite amusement with the Samoans, who display a -wonderful amount of skill and often of courage in their sport. The -latter quality is chiefly brought into play when the natives are -occupied in shark fishing. Whenever a great feast is to be held, the -fishermen go off in search of sharks, the flesh of this fish being one -of the principal dainties of Samoa. The fishermen go off in canoes, -each canoe being manned by two or three fishermen, who are supplied -with a strong rope, having a noose at one end and a quantity of animal -offal. - -Going to the edge of the lagoon, where the sharks lie under shelter of -the rocks, the men throw the offal overboard, for the double purpose -of attracting and gorging the sharks. They then peer into the water, -and when one of the fishermen sees a shark lazily stretching itself on -the sand that lies under the overhanging rocks, he lets himself very -quietly into the sea, dives down with the rope in his hand, slips the -noose over the shark’s tail, and rises to the surface. As soon as he -gets into the boat, the men drag the shark out of his retreat, and -haul away until the creature’s tail is raised out of the sea, when it -becomes nearly helpless. A sudden jerk brings it into the canoe, where -it is instantly killed. - -Sometimes the shark lies in a deep submarine cave, with only its -head out of the opening. The Samoan fisherman, however, is not to be -baffled by this attitude, but dives down to the shark, and taps it -gently on the head. The fish, replete with food, feels annoyed at the -interruption, and turns round, exposing as it does so its tail to the -daring fisherman, who slips the noose over it in a moment. - -One young man, mentioned by Mr. Pritchard, was celebrated for his -daring in this sport. He disdained assistance, and used to go out alone -in a little canoe, dropping bait overboard in order to attract the -sharks, and throwing his noosed rope over their tails. On one occasion -the rope broke, but the brave fellow had no idea of losing both shark -and rope. He leaped overboard among all the sharks, seized the rope, -scrambled into his canoe again, and, after a long and severe struggle, -succeeded in killing his shark and towing it ashore. - -Sometimes the hook is used in shark fishing. The fishermen bait a hook, -carry it out in a canoe in twelve feet or so of water, and bring the -line back to land. Before very long a shark is nearly sure to seize the -bait; and when the fish is fairly hooked, several men haul at the rope -and drag the shark into shallow water, where it is allowed to flounce -about until it is exhausted, and is then killed without difficulty. - -Such a sport as this is necessarily attended with much danger, but the -Samoan fisherman is nearly as much at home in the water as the shark -itself, and treats his dangerous game with the same easy indifference -which a Spanish matador displays toward a furious bull. Accidents -certainly do happen in both cases, but they are the exception, and not -the rule. - -Another of their amusements which is dangerous is pig hunting. As the -swine are allowed to run loose in the woods, they have reverted to -their wild modes of life, and are sly, swift, active, and ferocious. -It is thought a point of honor for a chief to challenge a wild boar, -and to receive no assistance except in case of extreme need. The hunter -is armed with his knife and tomahawk, or sometimes with a whale spade, -which makes a very formidable weapon if the edges are kept sharp. - -To kill one of the animals is no easy task. In the first place, a wild -boar is so quick that nothing but the greatest activity can save the -hunter from its tusks; and were the fight to take place on an open -plain instead of among trees, behind which the hunter can jump when -hard pressed, the beast might probably get the better of the man. Then -the boar is wonderfully tenacious of life, and has a skin so tough that -a sharp weapon and a strong arm are needed to inflict a mortal wound. -Even when the animal has fallen, and is apparently dead, an experienced -hunter always drives his knife into its throat, as boars have an -awkward way of suddenly reviving, leaping on their legs, and dashing -through their foes into the bush. - -The sows are even more dangerous antagonists than the boars. They are, -as a rule, lighter, thinner, and more active, and, although they have -no long tusks wherewith to rip up their foes, they can bite as sharply -and as quickly as wolves. Indeed, were it not for the dogs which are -trained to boar-hunting, and are wonderfully courageous and skilful, -though very ugly and most unpromising to the eye, they would seldom be -brought to bay. - -Mr. Pritchard gives an account of an adventure of his own with a boar, -which gives an excellent idea of the ferocity, cunning, and activity -of the animals. The boar had actually received two rifle bullets in -his left shoulder, inflicting wounds which would have disabled, if not -killed, most animals, but seemed only to irritate the boar by the pain. - -“The fury of the beast was intense, with its two wounds and the -worrying of the dogs. He stood grinding his teeth and frothing at the -mouth, looking first at one and then at another of us, as if measuring -an antagonist for fight. The chief suggested that one of us should -tackle him, while the others looked on without interfering. Of course I -had to claim the _privilege_ to do so after such a challenge; though, -in truth, this being the first boar I had ever encountered, I felt as -if I had somewhat rashly undertaken the combat, for, even with his -two wounds, I fancied he might possibly hold out longer than myself, -and, if I failed to kill him, the failure would be fine sport for my -comrades, and not soon forgotten in their jokes. - -“However, I stepped out in front of the infuriated beast, and no sooner -was I there than he was there too--quite promptly enough, I thought. He -made a furious charge at me, which I received with the butt end of my -rifle, trying to throw him over on his wounded side, but ineffectually. -A second time he came at me, and a second time I checked him. As he -drew up for the third charge, his long bristles standing on end, -grinding his tusks and tossing the froth from his huge mouth, I drew my -tomahawk. On he came, swifter than ever; the tomahawk fell deep into -the thick part of his neck, and my boy Atamu did the rest with his long -knife. - -“It was rather hot work, for these boars have immense strength and no -little dogged pluck, and their skins are so tough that often a spear -will break short off without leaving even a mark where it struck.” - -The same boar had previously forced the writer to employ rather a -ludicrous manœuvre. He had fired at the shoulder of the animal, -thinking that, if the bullet did not reach the heart, it would at all -events disable him. But the boar made at him almost as it received the -shot, and sprang on him so quickly that he was forced to jump over its -head upon its back, and roll off toward the nearest tree. The smaller -pigs are killed in a different manner. The dogs are trained to catch -them by the ears, shoulders, and tail, and when the hunters come up -they place a stick across the animal’s throat, and press it down until -the pig is dead. - -As to the cookery of the Samoans, there is little to distinguish it -from that of the Tongans and other Polynesians of the same race. They -have a great abundance of dishes, being able to produce almost as great -a variety in that respect as the Fijians, and many of their dishes are -extremely palatable to an European. Vegetables form the staple of the -Samoan’s food, and of those he has abundant choice. Putting aside those -vegetables which have been imported from Europe, he has yams, taro, -bananas, bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, and plantains. Sometimes these are -cooked separately and sometimes mixed, in order to produce a compound -more palatable to native taste. As a rule, the simpler specimens of -Samoan cookery please even the English palate, but when the native -cooks dress compound dishes the natives are generally the only persons -who can eat them. - -For instance, there is nothing better in its way than the young -cocoa-nut, which is entirely different from the hard, indigestible -state in which we see it in England. But when the milk is poured out, -its place is supplied with salt water, and the contents allowed to -become putrid, the compound is offensive to more senses than one. Some -of their compounds are, however, excellent. Such is a sort of pudding -made by pouring the juice of cocoa-nuts over bananas, and baking them -together. Even the very young kernel of the cocoa-nut makes a very rich -dish when baked. - -The strangest diet of the Samoans is the annelid called the Palolo -(_Palolo viridis_). Mr. Pritchard gives an excellent account of this -curious being and the mode of cooking it. - -It appears only in certain strictly defined and very limited localities -in each group (_i. e._ in Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa); a month earlier, -about the first week in November, in Samoa than in the two other -groups. It rises directly from the bottom of the sea to the surface, -appearing first about four o’clock in the morning, and continuing to -increase in number, until about half an hour after sunrise, when it -begins to dissolve, and gradually disappears. By eight o’clock not a -trace of the palolo remains in the sea. They look just like so many -worms, from an inch to a yard in length, showing every conceivable -color as they wriggle about, and are soft to the touch. - -“The time of their appearance is calculated by the old men of the -various tribes, and is known by the sun, moon, and stars having a -particular bearing to each other. A month before the great appearance, -a few are found in each of the localities where they rise. Parties go -out in their canoes to watch for this first appearance, for by it the -calculation as to the second and great appearance is verified. - -“When that time comes, whole villages, men, women, and children, -crowd the scene; by two o’clock the sea is covered with canoes, the -outriggers getting foul and breaking adrift without distracting the -attention, as by four o’clock all are busied scooping up the palolos -and pouring them into baskets made for the occasion. The noise and -excitement from four to six o’clock is something astonishing, and -the scrambling most amusing. And when, with canoes landed, the crowd -disperses, the next thing is to prepare the ovens to cook the palolos, -which are merely wrapped in bread-fruit leaves. They are sent round -with much formality to friends at a distance, and sometimes kept three -or four weeks by being occasionally warmed in an oven. - -“I never could muster courage to do more than merely taste them, so -repulsive is their very appearance as they roll and coil together, -though Englishmen and even English women there are who eat them, and -professedly with a relish, for which I suppose one cannot but accept -their word. One lady in particular there is, as described by Dr. -Seeman, a ‘strong-minded individual,’ who eats palolo with a remarkable -gusto. I think she will not be deprived of her fancy dish by many of -her visitors.” - -There has been much discussion about the palolo, many persons having -doubted whether it was ever an annelid, and believing the worms to be -mere strings of spawn. The question has, however, been settled, and -there is an elaborate paper on the palolo in the “Transactions of the -Linnæan Society,” vol. xxii. p. 237. - -The worm is allied to the well-known Nereids, several species of which -are so plentiful on our own shores. It is flattish, about the sixth -of an inch in width, and consists of a vast number of segments. The -entire specimen has never been secured, so delicate and fragile is -the creature, and it is with the greatest difficulty that a head can -be discovered. Among the specimens first sent to the British Museum, -not a single head could be found, and among a large bottle full of -palolo collected expressly for scientific purposes, only one head was -discovered. The head is a little narrower than the joints which compose -the neck, and is furnished with two little eyes on the upper surface, -between which are placed three tentacles, of which the middle is the -longest. - -The normal color of the annelid is green, and it is remarkable for the -regularly dotted appearance of the back, one black dot being placed -on the middle of each segment. So regularly does the palolo make -its appearance, that among the Fiji group the months of October and -November are known by the names of the Little Palolo and Great Palolo, -the former being the month in which it is first seen, and the second -that in which it makes its grand appearance. - - * * * * * - -Marriages in Samoa are conducted much like those of Tonga, the latter -group of islands having borrowed many of the Samoan customs. It is -thought rather below the dignity of a chief to court a wife for -himself, and that office is generally undertaken by his friends, who -praise him in the most unmeasured terms, and do all in their power to -induce the girl to yield. When her consent has been given, the chief -sends property to her father, and receives in return fine mats and -other articles, this exchange being considered as the betrothal. - -On the day of marriage, the bride, well anointed with oil, colored with -turmeric, and dressed in large quantities of the finest mats, is placed -in the malae, or open space in the centre of the village, attended by -her young friends, who are arrayed in all the gorgeousness of savage -finery, with wreaths of flowers and nautilus shells on their heads. She -is also accompanied by the two duennas who have had charge of her, and -who chant her praises and extol her virtue. The object of this public -assembly is to prove whether the girl be worthy to be the wife of a -chief. Should the verdict be in her favor, she is presented to the -people as the chief’s wife, and, amid their acclamations, is taken into -the house by her duennas and attendants. Should, as is very seldom the -case, the verdict be adverse, all the male members of her family, even -her fathers and brothers, rush on her with their clubs and kill her on -the spot, in order to take away the disgrace which she has brought on -her house. - -After the bride has been led away there is a grand dance. This differs -somewhat from the dances which are usually seen among the Polynesians. -The spectators being seated in a circle round a cleared space, and -keeping up a monotonous chant, the men first enter the circle, led by -a young chief, and clothed merely in the little leaf apron, so as to -show off the tattoo to the best advantage. Their leader goes through a -vast number of steps, sometimes leaping high in the air, and sometimes -executing movements of a slower and more graceful character, while -every step is watched and criticised as it is danced by the leader and -imitated by his followers. After the men have danced for some time they -retire, and a number of girls enter, who go through evolutions of a -similar character, and afterward both men and women dance together. - - * * * * * - -The houses of the Samoans are all built on the same model. They are -very conservative in some of their ideas, and follow implicitly the -plan which was adopted by the chief who, according to their traditions, -first built a dwelling. At a distance, the appearance of the house has -been compared to a large mushroom. - -The first process is, to make a large platform of rough stones, covered -with gravel, extending some twenty feet on every side beyond the walls -of the house. In the centre are planted three posts, standing about -twenty-five feet out of the ground. Upon these central posts are -supported the rafters of the roof, one end of each rafter being fixed -to them, and the other end to the tops of short posts about four feet -high, which form, or rather which do duty for, the walls of the house. -Real walls there are none, but at night the space between the posts is -closed by blinds made of plaited cocoa-nut leaves. The whole framework -of the roof is made in several sections, so that it can be removed. - -The thatch is made of the leaves of the sugar-cane, nailed by the women -to reeds with spikes made of the ribs of the cocoa-nut leaves. About -four thousand leaves are required for thatching a house, and they are -lashed carefully with cocoa-nut fibre. - -The floor of the house is strewn with very fine gravel and covered with -mats. There are no separate chambers, but at night the house is divided -into a number of sleeping places by means of the mosquito curtains -which are attached to the central post, and let down when required. It -is a point of etiquette that all guests should be supplied with clean -mats. The pillow used in Samoa is like that of Fiji, and is nothing -more than a stick supported on a foot at each end. - - - - -CHAPTER CV. - -HERVEY AND KINGSMILL ISLANDS. - -APPEARANCE--WEAPONS--GOVERNMENT. - - - POSITION OF THE HERVEY ISLANDS -- FIERCE AND TREACHEROUS NATURE OF - THE INHABITANTS -- THE CHIEF MOUROOA, AND HIS VISIT TO THE SHIP - -- SKILL IN CARVING -- THEIR BEAUTIFUL PADDLES AND CANOES -- THE - MANGAIAN ADZE: ITS CARVED HANDLE AND STONE HEAD -- THE MANY-BARBED - SPEAR -- THE CLUB AND SLING -- THE FOUR RANKS IN BATTLE -- FEROCITY - OF THE WOMEN -- FEUDS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES -- A MANGAIAN HOUSE - -- FOOD -- PROCURING AND COOKING IT -- A RAT HUNT -- IDOLS OF - THE MANGAIANS -- THE KINGSMILL ISLANDERS -- LOCALITY AND GENERAL - DESCRIPTION OF THE KINGSMILL ISLANDS -- APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- - ARCHITECTURE -- DRESS AND TATTOOING -- WARLIKE NATURE -- THE TERRIBLE - WEAPONS OF THESE ISLANDS -- THE SWORD AND SPEAR -- MODE OF GOVERNMENT - -- BURIAL OF A DEAD CHIEF. - -Eastward of Samoa, and rather southward, lie the Hervey, or Cook’s -Islands. The group includes seven islands, the principal of which is -Rarotonga, an island between thirty and forty miles in circumference. -This island is remarkable for the lofty mountains of the interior, -and round it extends a large reef of coral. Some of the islands are -entirely coral, and all of them are surrounded by the dangerous coral -reefs, at which the coral “insects” are still working. - -In general appearance the people bear much resemblance to the Samoans, -but seem to be of a more warlike and ferocious character. Indeed, so -quarrelsome and bloodthirsty are the natives of this group, that when -Mr. Williams visited Hervey’s Island he found that only sixty of the -population survived, and a few years later they were reduced to five -men, three women, and some children, and these were on the point of -fighting among themselves, in order to ascertain which should be king. - -One of the principal islands of this group, namely, Mangaia, was -discovered by Captain Cook in March 1777. The natives were very -unwilling to come on board the vessel, but at last two men put off in -a canoe, their curiosity overcoming their terror. The name of one of -them was Mourooa, and he was distinguishable by a large scar on his -forehead, the result of a wound received in battle. - -“Mourooa,” writes Captain Cook, “was lusty and well-made, but not very -tall. His features were agreeable, and his disposition seemingly no -less so, for he made several droll gesticulations, which indicated both -good nature and a share of humor. He also made others which seemed -of a serious kind, and repeated some words with a devout air before -he ventured to lay hold of the rope at the ship’s stern; which was -probably to recommend himself to the protection of some divinity. - -“His color was nearly of the same cast common to the most southern -Europeans. The other man was not so handsome. Both of them had strong, -straight hair, of a jet color, tied together on the crown of the head -with a bit of cloth. They wore such girdles as we perceived about those -on shore, and we found they wore a substance made from the _Morus -papyrifera_, in the same manner as at the other islands of this ocean. -It was glazed, like the sort used by the natives of the Friendly -Islands, but the cloth on their heads was white, like that which is -found at Otaheite. - -“They had on a kind of sandal made of a grassy substance interwoven, -which we also observed were worn by those who stood upon the beach, -and, as we supposed, intended to defend their feet against the rough -coral rock. Their beards were long; and the inside of their arms, from -the shoulder to the elbow, and some other parts, were punctured or -tattooed, after the manner of the inhabitants of almost all the other -islands in the South Sea. The lobe of their ears was pierced, or rather -slit, and to such a length that one of them stuck there a knife and -some beads which he had received from us; and the same person had two -polished pearl-shells and a bunch of human hair loosely twisted hanging -about his neck, which was the only ornament we observed.” - -After some time, Mourooa ventured on board the ship, but seemed very -uneasy at his position, his feelings of curiosity being overcome by -those of alarm at finding himself in so gigantic a vessel. He showed -little curiosity about the ship and the various objects which it -contained, but the sight of a goat entirely drove out of his mind any -emotion except wonder, he never having seen so large an animal. He -wanted to know what _bird_ it could be, and, as soon as he could get -ashore, he was seen narrating to the people the wonders which he had -seen on board the great canoe. - -All the Hervey Islanders are gifted with a natural appreciation of art, -and the inhabitants of Mangaia seem to be pre-eminent in this respect. -They lavish the most minute and elaborate carving on various objects, -the handles of tools and the paddles seeming to be their favorite -subjects. The beautiful paddle which is shown on the 1018th page, is -drawn from a specimen in my own collection. It is nearly four feet -in length, and the blade is eleven inches wide in the broadest part. -The pattern is given as well as can be done, considering the minute -elaboration of the original. The opposite face of the blade is even -more carefully decorated, and perhaps with a more artistic design. The -squared shaft of the paddle is covered with carving, as is also the -peculiarly shaped handle. - -Another paddle is made in a similar manner, except that the shaft is -rounded instead of squared, and decorated at the handle with a row of -ornaments which seem to be conventional imitations of the human face -(see fig. 2). The wood of which these paddles are made is light, though -strong and elastic; and, as the implement is sometimes used as a club, -both these last-mentioned characteristics are needed. - -Captain Cook noticed the peculiar shape of these paddles, though -he does not appear to have handled them, or to have examined them -carefully. “The canoe they came in (which was the only one we saw) was -not above ten feet long and very narrow, but both strong and neatly -made. The fore-part had a board fastened over it and projecting out, -so as to prevent the sea from getting in on plunging ... but it had an -upright stern about five feet high, like some in new Zealand, and the -upper part of this stern-post was forked. The lower part of the canoe -was of white wood, but the upper was black, and their paddles made of -wood of the same color, not above three feet long, broad at one end and -blunted.” - -Another paddle was brought to England by the late Admiral Young, and -presented to me by his daughter. It is not so large as the specimens -which have been just described, but is the most delicately carved -specimen I have ever seen. The wood of which it is made is a very rich -dark brown, and takes a high polish, so that the effect of the carving -is peculiarly good. The blade is covered with a vast number of stars, -wonderfully well carved, seeing that the native maker had no compasses -by which to take his measurement, and that his only tools were sharks’ -teeth and bits of stone. The maker has spared no pains over this trophy -of his skill, and, as if to show his own fertility of invention, he -has not covered the whole of the shaft with the same pattern, as is -the case with the two paddles that have just been described, but has -changed the pattern every few inches. I have also a much smaller and -shorter paddle, not quite three feet in length, which is made with -equal care, but which is not intended so much for use in propelling -boats as for ornament in dancing. - -The love of ornamentation is displayed in all their manufactures, which -are decorated in a manner equally elaborate and artistic. Even their -drinking cups, which are made from cocoa-nut shells, are covered with -carved patterns of a nature similar to those of the paddles. - -The reader will remark that many Polynesians adorn with carving the -handles of their tools and weapons, examples of which have been given -in the preceding pages. The Hervey Islanders, however, leave no portion -of the implement without carving, and, in many instances sacrifice -utility to ornament. This is generally the case with the adze handles, -many of which are so extremely ornamental that it is not easy to see -how they can be useful. - -The specimen which is represented on page 1018 (adze magnified), -is a good example of such an adze. The lower part of the handle is -completely hollow, the native manufacturer having contrived to cut -away the wood through the intervals between the upright pillars. As -these intervals are not quite the third of an inch in width, the labor -of removing the interior of the handle must have been very great, and -the work exceedingly tedious. Even with European tools it would be a -difficult piece of workmanship, and its difficulty is greatly enhanced -by the fact that the native who carved it had nothing but a sharp -stone or a shark’s tooth lashed to a handle by way of a knife. This -particular specimen has been in England for many years, and must have -been made before the introduction of European tools among the natives. - -The head of the adze is made of stone, and is lashed to the handle in a -way exactly like that which is employed by the New Zealanders, except -that it is far more elaborate. As if desirous of giving himself as much -trouble as possible, the maker has employed the finest plaited sinnet, -not wider than packthread and quite flat, and has laid it on the tool -in a manner so elaborate that to give a proper idea of it the artist -must have occupied an entire page with his drawing. Suffice it to say -that the illustration gives a good general idea of the mode in which -the head is lashed to the handle. The sinnet is laid as regularly as if -wound by machinery, and the native artist has contrived to produce the -most extraordinary effects with it, throwing the various portions into -a simulated perspective, and making the lashing look as if there were -four distinct layers, one above another. - -Between the stone of the adze head and the wood of the handle is placed -a piece of very strong tappa cloth, which seems to have been laid on -while wet, so that the bands of sinnet have pressed it well together, -and aided in strengthening the junction. The end of this tappa is seen -projecting on the upper part of the head, just where it is joined to -the handle. That such an implement as this should have been intended -for use seems most unlikely, and I believe that it has only been -constructed as a sample of the maker’s skill. Sometimes adzes of a -similar character are made, the handles of which are from four to five -feet long, and carved with a pierced pattern throughout their entire -length, so that they could not have been intended for hard work. - -A similar elaborate ornamentation is found upon the Hervey Islanders’ -spears, one of which is shown in the illustration entitled “Spear,” on -the 1018th page. - -The spear, which is in my collection, is rather more than ten feet in -length, and beautifully made. The shaft is very straight, very slender, -and highly polished, but without any carving; indeed, it is so slight -that it could not bear any pattern to be carved upon it. The ornament -is therefore confined to the many-barbed head, which is a beautiful -specimen of savage art. - -By referring to the illustration, the reader will see that just -below the first set of barbs the wood of the spear swells into a -slightly oval form. This portion of the head is covered with carving, -necessarily very shallow, but sufficient for ornament. Between the -various sets of barbs the spear is wrapped with very narrow strips of -some reed, which is highly polished and of a bright yellow color, so -that the contrast between the dark wood of the barbs and the shining -yellow of the wrapping is very striking. In spite of the large size of -the head, the spear is well balanced, the length of the slender and -elastic shaft acting as a counterpoise; and altogether the weapon is -as formidable as it is elegant. - -Their clubs are ornamented in a similar manner. Mr. Williams describes -one of a very curious form. It was carved like the club, fig. 1, on -page 949, but was bent nearly at right angles, rather beyond the -junction of the handle with the head, and was ornamented with a great -bunch of long and slender feathers. Slings of great length and power -are used by these people. - -According to the accounts of this missionary, the inhabitants of -Mangaia can use their weapons with great skill and courage. They do not -try to hide behind trees and bushes, and take their foes by surprise, -but boldly meet them in the open field. When two parties meet, they -form themselves into four lines. The warriors who compose the first -row are armed with the long spears which have just been described, the -second rank carry clubs, the third are furnished with slings, and the -fourth rank is composed of the women, who carry additional weapons, in -case the men should be disarmed, together with a supply of small stones -for the slingers. This arrangement of forces is represented in the -battle scene given on the opposite page. - -Sometimes the women take an active part in the fray. One young chief -told Mr. Williams that in one battle he was fiercely assailed by the -wife of his antagonist. He told her to desist, as he had not come to -fight with women. However, she would not listen to him, and exclaiming, -“If you kill my husband, what shall I do?” flung a stone at him, which -struck him to the ground. Had it not been for the prompt assistance of -his own people, who came to the rescue, he would assuredly have lost -his life through this woman’s fury. - -The people are apt to be ferocious in battle, and Mr. Williams mentions -that several of his converts forgot the maxims of Christianity in the -excitement of battle, and killed their vanquished enemies in spite -of their entreaties for mercy. In all probability, these people were -carrying out some feeling of vengeance, according to the custom of -these islands. - -Throughout the greater part of Polynesia the friends or relatives of -the murdered man are bound to avenge his death by killing the murderer, -if they can secure him, or at all events by killing one of his family. -The family of the victim then retaliate in their turn, so that when a -man goes into battle he mostly has a number of feuds on his hands. Like -the Corsican Vendetta, if such a feud cannot be carried out in a man’s -lifetime, he bequeaths it to his son, so that it may be carried on for -any number of generations. - -This savage custom has stood greatly in the way of the missionaries. -They found no very great difficulty in persuading the people that to -harbor malice against another, who might be totally innocent, was -exceedingly wrong, and that they ought to abandon the feud. But the -new converts argued that it was very unfair to demand that they should -abandon their feuds against others while the feuds against themselves -were still in operation. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE BATTLE. (See page 1034.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) VILLAGE IN THE KINGSMILL ISLANDS. (See page -1038.)] - -In their architecture the Mangaians display the same love of carving -which has already been mentioned. Mr. Williams thus describes a -building which had been erected for him, and which was large enough to -hold sixteen hundred persons:-- - -“It was a fine building, of an oval shape, about one hundred and twenty -feet in length. The large posts which supported the roof (eight in -number), the ridge-pole, and the rafters were most beautifully carved, -and tastefully colored with various native preparations. - -“It is impossible, however, so to describe them as to enable the -reader to form a correct idea of their appearance, or of the taste and -ingenuity displayed in their execution. These posts were twenty-five -feet high, and from twelve to eighteen inches square, and when -we considered the tools with which the work was done, which were -principally old nails, pieces of iron hoop, and a few chisels, we were -amazed both at the patience and skill of the carvers. The effect on -entering the place was very striking.” - -On the shores of this island fish appear to be less plentiful than is -generally the case, and the inhabitants are obliged to have resort to -various modes of procuring and preserving food. For example, when they -have caught a large quantity of flying fish, they do not eat them at -once, but dry them in wood smoke, much as herrings are cured among -ourselves. They have an ingenious method of catching these fish by -night. The boatmen go out in their double canoes, supplied with torches -and large ring nets fastened to the end of handles ten or twelve feet -long. They stamp on their canoes so as to make a noise, which is -communicated to the water and alarms the fish, and at the same time -wave their torches about. According to their instinct, the flying fish -dart out of the water toward the light, and are easily captured in the -nets. - -Rats form a most valued portion of their diet. When the missionaries -first visited Mangaia, the natives were so fond of this food that -they measured all other kinds of diet by comparison with rats’ flesh. -Indeed, the flesh of these animals is far better than is generally -supposed. Several English rat-catchers have learned by practical -experience the value of rat’s flesh, which is said by those who have -tried it to be equal to that of the squirrel and better than that of -the rabbit. The Mangaians caught the rats by digging a hole in the -ground, and throwing bait into it. When a sufficient number had entered -the hole, a net was thrown over the mouth of it, and the inmates -easily secured. - - * * * * * - -In RAROTONGA, another island of this group, the rats swarmed in such -numbers that they were not only a nuisance, but an absolute pest; and, -if it had not been for the pigs which were introduced by the Europeans, -and allowed to run wild, the rats would probably have driven the -natives out of their villages. At every meal one or two persons were -detailed for the sole purpose of keeping the rats from the provisions. -When the people sat down in their houses the rats ran over them, and -when they lay down to rest the rats had made a settlement in their bed. - -At last warfare was declared against the rats, and a number of baskets -were made to contain the bodies of the slain, each basket being five or -six feet in length. The inhabitants then armed themselves with sticks, -and in an hour no less than thirty of these great baskets were filled -with dead rats. Even then no diminution seemed to have taken place -among these pests. Next, the missionaries tried the introduction of -cats, and with some success, but the most fortunate introduction that -was made was that of the pig. These animals were brought to Rarotonga -for the purpose of supplying the sailors with meat which should -supersede the flesh of the rat, and the pigs repaid their introducers -by eating every rat which came across them. - -When the natives were converted to Christianity, they consulted the -missionaries, wishing to know whether the flesh of rats was unlawful -food for Christians. They evidently asked this question because they -saw that their teachers abstained from these animals. The missionaries -returned a very judicious answer to this question, by saying that -in their own country rats were not eaten, because the white man had -a repugnance to them, but that there was nothing unlawful in eating -them, and that the Mangaians might do as they pleased. The people were -satisfied with this answer, and contented themselves with passing a law -that all Christians should catch and cook their rats on Saturdays, so -as to avoid working on the Sunday. - -The idols of the Hervey Islanders are very odd-looking things, and -would scarcely be recognized as objects of worship. It might naturally -be imagined that if these people bestow such pains upon their weapons -and implements, they would at least take equal pains with their gods. -Yet the gods of the Hervey Islanders are the rudest possible specimens -of native workmanship. They consist principally of a staff about -sixteen or seventeen feet in length, the upper part of which is carved -into a rude representation of a human head. On the staff are laid a few -red feathers and a string of beads, which are called the soul of the -god. Round the staff and the beads is wrapped a vast quantity of native -cloth, so as to form a slightly conical roll about a yard in diameter, -and ten feet in length. One of these idols is placed at the bow of -every canoe, and whenever the natives are out on a fishing excursion -they always make offerings to this strange deity. - - -THE KINGSMILL ISLANDS. - -North-west of the Samoans is a group known by the name of Kingsmill -Islands. It consists of about fifteen islands, all of coral, and all -lying very low, so that they might easily escape the attention of -voyagers. As is always the case with coral islands, the navigation -among them is very dangerous. They are mostly very long in proportion -to their width, the largest of the group, called Taputeonea or Drummond -Island, being nearly forty miles in length, and in many places not a -mile in width. - -The inhabitants of these islands have a character for ferocity which is -not often to be found among this race of Polynesians, and are said to -be lower in the human scale than any whom we have hitherto described. -Those of one of the group, called Pitt Island, are said to be less -liable to this charge than any other, being quiet, peaceable, and not -so perpetually at war as is the case with the inhabitants of the other -islands. - -Their color is approaching nearer to black than that of the inhabitants -of Tonga and Samoa, and the people are of more moderate stature than -those of the latter group of islands. They are well made and slender, -and have black and glossy though rather fine hair. The mouth is large, -but has nothing of the negro character about it and the teeth are kept -very white. The nose is mostly aquiline, and the hair of the beard and -moustache black, and by no means coarse. - -It is rather remarkable that the people of Pitt Island are not only -more quiet and peaceable than their neighbors, but are also of a -lighter hue, approaching in this respect the naturally peaceful though -courageous inhabitants of Tonga. Their faces are oval and neatly -rounded, and their features delicate. It may be that they have been -modified by the mixture with the Samoans or Tongans, who have been -blown out of their course by gales, landed on the island, and gradually -became absorbed in the community. - -Architecture among the Kingsmill Islands is rather distinguished for -strength and massiveness than for beauty, the natives preferring to -employ their artistic powers on smaller objects, such as swords, -spears, and similar articles. The houses vary much in size and form -according to their uses. For example, the ordinary dwelling-house of -the Kingsmill Islanders consists of two stories, the upper part being -used as a sleeping-house, and the lower entirely open. In fact, the -houses of the Kingsmill Islands are exactly similar in principle to -those of Nicobar, which have been described on page 903. - -Some of the houses wherein the chiefs sit and talk among themselves -and receive visitors are mere sheds, being nothing more than roofs -supported on poles. As is usually the case in Polynesia, there is in -every village a central council house, in which the people assemble on -stated occasions. It is of enormous dimensions, having a lofty roof -thatched with leaves and lined with matting. Several examples of their -houses are illustrated on the 1035th page, and the reader will see that -the lower part affords a complete and yet an airy refuge from the sun -in the heat of the day, while the upper part, which is too hot to be -comfortable during the daytime, forms comfortable sleeping-rooms at -night. - -Dress varies much according to the particular island. Tattooing is -practised by both sexes, but the women are far less decorated than the -men, the lines being very fine and far apart. The men are tattooed -at the age of twenty, the process being always left in the hands of -professional tattooers, who, as in other islands of Polynesia, are paid -according to the celebrity which they have attained, in some cases -obtaining very large fees. They dress chiefly in mats made of the -pandanus leaf cut into narrow strips, and dyed brown and yellow. These -strips are plaited together in a very ingenious fashion so as to form -diamond or square patterns. A small cape, worn, in poncho fashion, with -a slit in the middle, through which the head passes, is worn over the -neck, and a conical cap of pandanus leaf is worn on the head. - -The dress of the women consists of a petticoat of leaf-strips reaching -from the waist to the knees, and fastened by a thin rope, sometimes -five or six hundred feet in length, made of human hair. On the rope are -strung at intervals beads made of cocoa-nut and shells, ground so as to -fit closely together, and strung alternately so as to form a contrast -between the white shell and the dark cocoa-nut. - - * * * * * - -It has already been mentioned that the Kingsmill Islanders are a -warlike people. War, indeed, seems to be their chief business, and -indeed their whole thoughts appear to be given to fighting. Even their -principal amusement is of a combatant character. There is nothing -which delights the Kingsmill Islanders so much as cock fighting, and -large groups of the people may be seen seated in a circle, eagerly -watching the progress of the combat which is taking place in the midst. -Cock fighting is largely practised in many other countries, but is -almost invariably accompanied by betting. The Malays, for example, -are passionately fond of the sport, and wager whole fortunes upon it. -Betting, however, has no charms for the Kingsmill Islander, whose -martial soul is utterly absorbed in the fight, and does not require the -additional excitement of betting. - -This being the nature of the people, it is natural that their weapons -should be of a formidable character. They are indeed exactly suitable -to the fierce and bloodthirsty people by whom they are made. Instead -of contenting himself with a club or a spear, the Kingsmill Islander -must needs arm his weapons with sharks’ teeth, which cut like so many -lancets. - -The spears and swords which are shown on the 1041st page are drawn -from specimens in my collection, and are admirable examples of these -extraordinary weapons. - -For want of a better word, we must use the name of sword for these -weapons, as they are constructed with edges, and are meant more for -striking than thrusting. I have often wondered that in none of these -weapons that I have seen is the point tipped with a sharp bone, such as -that of the sting-ray, or even with a shark’s tooth. Perhaps they are -formidable enough even for these ferocious islanders, as the reader may -easily infer by looking at the illustration. By the side of each figure -is a specimen of the shark’s tooth drawn on an enlarged scale, partly -to show the nature of the tooth itself, and partly to exhibit the -principal methods by which it is fastened in its place. - -On referring to these illustrations, the reader will see that the -teeth are not merely sharply edged and pointed, but that their edges -are finely and regularly serrated, so that their cutting power is -greatly increased. Indeed, the weapons armed with these teeth have -such a facility of inflicting wounds that they must be handled with -the greatest caution. I have cut myself more than once with them, and -visitors who insist upon handling them generally suffer for their -curiosity. - -Although these teeth are fastened to the blade of the weapon on the -same principle, the makers vary the detail according to their own -convenience. In the weapon represented in fig. 1, a slit runs along -each edge, into which the bases of the teeth fit rather tightly. A hole -is bored through the tooth, and a corresponding one through the edge -of the sword, and each tooth is fixed in its place by a piece of fine -sinnet passed repeatedly through the holes, drawn tight, and neatly -finished off. A plaited loop of broad sinnet serves to suspend the -weapon round the wrist, and a piece of the hard, ivory-like skate-skin -holds it in its place. - -The next, fig. 2, shows a much more elaborate weapon, which, instead of -consisting of a single piece, has one central blade and three auxiliary -blades. Moreover, as the reader may see by carefully examining the -illustration, there are four rows of teeth instead of two on each -blade, and the teeth are larger and more deeply serrated than those of -the other weapon. In this case the maker has most ingeniously contrived -to spare himself the trouble of making a fresh tie for every tooth, -which, as upwards of two hundred teeth are employed, would have been a -very tedious business. - -Firstly, he has shaped the wooden blades with four bold ridges, and cut -a slight groove along each ridge, so as to keep the teeth straight. -Instead of troubling himself to bore holes in the sword as well as -in the tooth, he has laid along the edges of each groove a strip of -elastic wood obtained from the rib of the palm leaf, which is as hard -and elastic as whalebone. The sinnet has then been passed through the -holes in the teeth, and over all them palm-leaf strips, so that one -piece of sinnet serves to fasten four teeth. As in the other case, -the sinnet is exceedingly fine, and is passed several times round -the sword. It is observable that in this weapon the teeth have been -most carefully selected and graduated, the largest and longest being -near the handle, and diminishing equally to the point, where they are -comparatively small. - -The auxiliary blades diverge more than is shown in the illustration, -and it is hardly possible to imagine a more formidable weapon, -especially when employed against the naked skin of a savage. In actual -warfare the Kingsmill Islander has a mode of protecting himself, which -will be presently mentioned; but in a sudden skirmish or a quarrel -the sword would be used with terrible effect. As may be inferred from -its shape, it is not merely used as a striking weapon, but is driven -violently backward and forward against the body of the antagonist, one -or more of the blades being sure to take effect somewhere. - -The next sword, fig. 3, has the teeth fixed exactly in the same manner -as those of the many-bladed sword, as may be seen by reference to -the single tooth, where is seen not only the tooth but the strips of -leaf stem between which it is placed, and the mode of fastening off -the sinnet. The wooden blade of this weapon is quite unlike that of -the others, being marked with a rich black graining, to which the -glittering white teeth form an admirable contrast. - -The last of these swords, fig. 4, is remarkable for the cross-guard. I -cannot but think that the maker must have seen an European sword with -a cross-guard, and made his own in imitation of it. Otherwise, without -the least idea of the object of a guard, it is not easy to see why he -should have armed the guard with teeth, especially in the centre, or -where they come against the handle, and must be quite ineffectual. - -The Kingsmill Islanders do not restrict the sharks’ teeth to the -swords, but also use them as armature to their spears. One of these -spears, also in my collection, is fifteen feet in length, and about -as formidable a weapon as can well be imagined. It is made of a very -light wood, so that it may be wielded more easily, and at the butt is -nearly as thick as a man’s wrist, tapering gradually to the point. The -butt is unarmed, and rounded for about four feet, so as to act as a -handle, but from this point to the tip it is rather flattened, like the -sword blades, for the more convenient reception of the teeth, which -are fixed along each edge nearly to the point of the weapon. The teeth -are fastened by means of the leaf ribs. In order to render it a more -dangerous weapon, it is furnished with three projections, also armed -with teeth, and made exactly like the auxiliary blades of the sword, -though much smaller. - -This remarkable spear is shown in the illustration No. 2, on the next -page, accompanied by sections and a portion drawn on a larger scale, -so as to show the mode of its construction. Fig. _a_ represents the -method in which the teeth are fastened to the weapon by the sinnet -passing through the hole in the teeth and bound down by the cross -loop under the little strips of wood. At fig. _b_ is a section of the -spear, showing the oval shape of the weapon, and the mode in which the -teeth are supported by the wooden strips at each side. It is worthy -of notice, that if the jaw of a saw-fish were to be cut through the -section would present a wonderfully similar appearance. - -In order to show more clearly the source whence the natives obtain such -vast numbers of sharks’ teeth, I have introduced a drawing of a shark’s -mouth on same page, taken from a specimen in my collection. The reader -will see that the jaws are furnished with row after row of teeth, all -lying upon each other, except the outer teeth, and constructed so that -when one tooth is broken or falls out of the jaw, another takes its -place. - -In the jaw which is here figured, the teeth lie in five rows, and -altogether there are three hundred of them--largest toward the middle -of the jaw, and becoming gradually smaller toward the angles of the -mouth. The native, therefore, has no difficulty either in procuring the -requisite number of teeth, or in selecting them of the requisite shape -and dimensions. - -That they may look more imposing in battle, the chiefs wear a cap made -of the skin of the diodon, or porcupine fish, which, when inflated, is -covered with sharp spikes projecting in every direction, and upon this -cap is fixed a bunch of feathers. Both sexes fight in battle, and both -are killed indiscriminately, women and children being slaughtered as -well as the warriors. - -The chiefs, of whom mention has just been made, are the principal -persons in the islands. With one exception, there is no chief who is -looked upon as a king, ruling over subordinate chiefs, each being -independent of the other. Government is carried on by a council of -chiefs, the eldest taking the first place, and the others being -reckoned by seniority. To this council are referred crimes of great -importance, while those of lesser moment are left to be punished by -the offended person and the relatives. The solitary exception to the -independence of the chiefs is in the three islands Apamama, Nanouki, -and Koria, which are governed by the chief of Apamama. - -Each chief has a mark peculiar to himself, and when a stranger arrives, -and can place himself under the protection of a chief, he receives the -mark of his protector. The symbol is a very simple one, and consists of -a patch on the forehead, made of some colored paint, and a stripe drawn -down the middle of the face as far as the chin. Next in rank to the -chiefs come the land-holders, and the slaves form the third and last -division of the people. - -In order to accommodate the council of chiefs and the people in their -public assemblies, there is in every village a central town-house, -called the Mariapa. It is built very much after the fashion of the -Samoan houses, having an enormous arched roof, and the walls being -composed of posts and matting. It might be thought from their warlike -and ferocious character that the Kingsmill Islanders are cannibals. -Such, however, is not the case. It is very true that in some instances -portions of a human body have been eaten. For example, if a celebrated -warrior is killed, the victors sometimes cook the body, and each eats -a small portion of it. This however is done, not from any predilection -for human flesh, but from a feeling of revenge, and probably from -some underlying notion that those who partake of such food also add -to themselves a portion of the courage which once animated the body. -Animated by the same spirit, they preserve the skulls of such warriors, -and use them as drinking vessels. - -The skulls of the dead are always preserved by their friends, provided -that they have died natural deaths, or their bodies been recovered in -battle. The body is first laid out on mats for eight days, being every -day washed, oiled, and laid out in the sunshine at noon, while the -friends mourn, dance, and sing praises of the dead. The body is then -buried for a time, and lastly, the skull is removed, cleaned, oiled, -and stowed away. Each family preserve the skulls of their ancestors, -and, occasionally, bring them out, oil them afresh, wreathe them -with flowers, and set food before them. When a family change their -residence, they take the skulls with them. - -[Illustration: (1.) SHARK’S JAW. (See page 1040.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) SHARK TOOTH SPEAR. (See page 1040.) - -SHARKS TEETH - -ENLARGED PIECE OF SPEAR - -SECTION - -SECTION] - -[Illustration: (3.) SWORDS OF KINGSMILL ISLANDERS. (See page 1039.) - -SHARKS TOOTH - -SECTION] - -In one portion of the Kingsmill group, Pitt Island, or Makin, there -exists the most extraordinary funeral ceremony in the world. The body -is washed, oiled, exposed to the sun, and wailed over, as already -related. But, after the first wailing, it is laid on a new mat spread -over a great oblong plate or tray made of tortoise-shell sewed -together. A number of persons seat themselves opposite each other on -the floor of the house, and support the plate on their knees as long -as they are able. When they are tired, they are relieved by others, -and thus the body is borne by friends and relations for two years, the -bearers relieving each other at intervals. During this time a fire is -kept burning in the house, and is never extinguished night or day. - -After the two years have expired, the head is removed, and the skull -cleaned and preserved, as has been already mentioned, and not until -that time are the bones wrapped up in mats and buried. The place where -the warriors have been interred is marked with three stones. - - - - -CHAPTER CVI. - -THE MARQUESAS ISLANDS. - -DRESS--AMUSEMENTS--WAR--BURIAL. - - - ORIGIN OF THE NAME -- APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- THEIR DRESS -- - THE ELABORATE TATTOO OF THE MEN -- DIFFERENCE IN STATURE BETWEEN - THE SEXES -- CARE OF COMPLEXION -- A BLEACHING PROCESS -- A MAN IN - FULL DRESS -- MODES OF WEARING THE HAIR -- THE CHIEF’S NECKLACE -- - CLOSE SHAVING -- PECULIAR HEADDRESS -- METHOD OF OBTAINING FEATHERS - -- ARCHITECTURE IN THE MARQUESAS -- AMUSEMENTS -- DANCING AND - STILT-WALKING -- THE AMPHITHEATRE OR PAHOOA -- WAR -- TROPHIES OF - VICTORY -- MODE OF WARFARE -- DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY -- ETIQUETTE OF - WAR -- REPLACING A PRISONER -- CANOES AND FISHING -- FLY-FISHING IN - THE MARQUESAS -- BURIAL CUSTOMS. - -We now come to that very interesting group of islands called the -MARQUESAS, or MENDANA ISLANDS. Both these names derive their origin -from the Spanish navigator Mendâna, who discovered them nearly two -hundred years ago. The discoverer named them Los Marquesas de Mendoça, -in compliment to the then Viceroy of Peru, and by many succeeding -voyagers the islands have been called by the name of their discoverer. - -The character of the islands is rather peculiar, and very picturesque. -They are craggy, mountainous, and volcanic, having exceedingly lofty -peaks in the centre, which look at a distance as if they were the ruins -of vast buildings. Being situated near the equator, their temperature -is warm, and, as at the same time they are well watered, the vegetation -is peculiarly luxuriant. Like most of the Polynesian Islands, the -Marquesas are surrounded with coral reefs; but these are not so large -as is generally the case, so that, although the navigation among them -is not so difficult as in many islands, the ships do not find that -protection from storms which is afforded by the great coral reefs of -other islands. - -The inhabitants are splendid specimens of humanity, the men being -remarkable for their gigantic size, great strength, and fine shape, -which emulates those of the ancient Greek statues. One of the chiefs -was measured carefully, and was found to be six feet eight inches in -height, and said that he knew another chief who was at least a foot -taller than himself. - -In general they wear but little raiment, a slight piece of bark cloth -round the waist being the only garment which they think needful, the -place of clothing being supplied by the tattoo. There are many nations -where this decoration is worn; but there are no people on the face of -the earth who carry it out so fully as do the Marquesans, every part -of their bodies, even to the crown of the head and the fingers and -toes, being covered with the pattern. The “Tattooed chiefs” on the -opposite page illustrate the extent to which the Marquesans carry this -custom. This extreme elaboration is only to be found in the men, the -women contenting themselves with a bracelet or two tattooed on their -arms, and a few similar ornaments here and there. A very interesting -description of the tattooing of the Marquesans is given in Langsdorff’s -“Travels.”-- - -“Sometimes a rich islander will, either from generosity, ostentation, -or love to his wife, make a feast in honor of her when she has a -bracelet tattooed round her arm, or perhaps her ear ornamented. A hog -is then killed, and the friends of both sexes are invited to partake of -it, the occasion of the feast being made known to them. It is expected -that the same courtesy should be returned in case of the wife of any of -the guests being punctured. This is one of the few occasions on which -women are allowed to eat hog’s flesh. - -[Illustration: (1.) TATTOOED MARQUESAN CHIEFS. (See page 1048.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CHIEF’S HAND. (See page 1047.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) NECK ORNAMENT. (See page 1048.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) MARQUESAN CHIEF. (See page 1049.)] - -“If, in a very dry year, bread-fruit, hogs, roots, and other -provisions, become scarce, any one who has a good stock of them (which -commonly happens to the chief), in order to distribute the stores, -keeps open table for a certain time to an appointed number of poor -artists, who are bound to give in return some strokes of the tattoo to -all who choose to come for it. By virtue of a tapu, all these brethren -are engaged to support each other, if in future some happen to be in -need while the others are in affluence. - -“The same person may be a member of several of these societies; but, -according to what we could learn, a portion must always be given to -the priest, or magician, as he is called, even if he be not a member. -In a time of scarcity, also, many of the people who have been tattooed -in this way unite as an absolute troop of banditti, and share equally -among each other all that they can plunder or kill. - -“The figures with which the body is tattooed are chosen with great -care, and appropriate ornaments are selected for the different parts. -They consist partly of animals, partly of other objects which have -some reference to the manners and customs of the islands; and every -figure has here, as in the Friendly Islands, its particular name. Upon -an accurate examination, curved lines, diamonds, and other designs are -often distinguishable between rows of punctures, which resemble very -much the ornaments called _à la Grecque_. - -“The most perfect symmetry is observed over the whole body. The head -of a man is tattooed in every part; the breast is commonly ornamented -with a figure resembling a shield; on the arms and thighs are strips -sometimes broader, sometimes narrower, in such directions that these -people might be very well presumed to have studied anatomy, and to be -acquainted with the course and dimensions of the muscles. - -“Upon the back is a large cross, which begins at the neck and ends with -the last vertebra. In the front of the thigh are often figures which -seem intended to represent the human face. On each side of the calf -of the leg is an oval figure, which produces a very good effect. The -whole, in fact, displays much taste and discrimination. Some of the -tenderest parts of the body--the eyelids, for example--are the only -parts not tattooed.” - -As may be seen by the illustration No. 2 on the 1046th page, even the -hands are tattooed with the same minute care that is bestowed on the -body. Each finger has its own pattern, so that the hand looks as if -enclosed in a very tight-fitting glove. The reader will notice the -great length of the nails. Among the Marquesans, as among the Chinese, -very long nails are esteemed as a mark of rank, being a proof that the -wearer is not obliged to do any hard work. - -This elaborate ornamentation answers the purpose of dress, and is -considered as such. Indeed, it would be useless to undergo so much -pain, and to pay the operator such costly fees, if the tattooing were -to be hidden by clothing. The men, therefore, wear nothing but a slight -cloth round their waists, and the women of rank a similar garment, with -the addition of a larger piece which they throw over their bodies to -keep off the darkening rays of the sun. - -Few phenomena struck the earlier travellers more than the difference -in appearance and stature between the men and the women; and the same -writer who has just been quoted remarks more than once that it was -difficult to believe that the undersized, stumpy, awkward women could -have been the parents of the magnificent, gigantic, and graceful men. -There is, however, a great distinction between the women of rank and -those of the lower orders. As was afterward discovered, the better -class of women, who for some time kept themselves aloof from the -strangers, being well developed, and of a fair complexion, about which -they were very careful, enveloped themselves in their bark cloths, and -never ventured into the sunshine without holding over their heads a -bunch of leaves by way of parasol. - -So careful are they of their complexions, that if they find themselves -getting sunburnt they have a mode of bleaching themselves again, which -they adopt before all great ceremonies, though at the cost of much time -and trouble. They take the sap of three trees, with which they anoint -the whole body. The immediate effect of the mixture is to dye the skin -of a deep black. The pigment is allowed to remain on the skin for six -days, during which time the woman remains within the house. At the -expiration of that time she bathes, when all the black dye comes off, -and the skin is left beautifully fair. - -A woman who has just undergone this process, and who has dressed -herself in all her native finery, is a very striking object, her -body being gracefully enveloped in bark cloth, her hair adorned with -flowers, and her fair skin almost without ornament except upon the -feet, hands, and arms, which appear as if she were wearing boots, -gloves, and bracelets. - -The mode of tattooing is almost exactly like that of the Samoan -islanders, except that the “comb” is made of the wing-bone of the -tropic bird. The operation is always conducted in certain houses -belonging to the professional tattooers, who lay on these buildings a -tapu, which renders them unapproachable by women. As is the case in -Samoa, the best tattooers are men of great importance, and are paid -highly for their services, a Marquesan thinking that he is bound to -be liberal toward a man to whom he is indebted for the charms which -he values so highly. These men gain their skill by practising on the -lower orders, who are too poor to pay for being tattooed, and who would -rather wear a bad tattoo than none at all. A considerable amount is -generally exacted at each operation, which lasts from three to six -months; and so elaborate is the process, that a really complete tattoo -can hardly be finished until the man is thirty years old. - -By the time that the last piece of tattoo is executed, the first -generally begins to fade, and if the man is rich enough he has the -pattern renewed. Some men have been tattooed three times, and, as the -patterns cannot be made to coincide precisely with each other, the -result is that the whole skin becomes nearly as dark as that of a -negro. In this state it is greatly admired, not because the effect is -agreeable to the eye, but because it is an indubitable mark of wealth. -The pigment used in the tattooing is the well-known aleurita, or candle -nut, burned to a fine charcoal and mixed with water. - -The ornaments worn by the men are more imposing than those of -the women. In the first place, they allow the hair to grow to a -considerable length, and dispose of it in various ways. For a number of -years it is tied in a bunch on the top of the head; but when the man is -rich enough to be entirely tattooed, he shaves all the head with the -exception of a patch at each side, in order to allow the pattern of -the tattoo to be extended over his head. In such a case, the tuft of -hair at each side is still suffered to grow long, but is twisted into a -conical form, so as to make a sort of horn projecting outward over each -temple. Examples of this curious mode of wearing the hair may be seen -in the illustration No. 1, on page 1046. - -Sometimes a man may be seen wearing the whole of his hair in curled -ringlets. Such men are cultivating a crop for sale, as the Marquesans -are very fond of decorating with these ringlets the handles of their -spears and clubs, and of making them into ornamental figures which are -worn on the ankles. The most valued of these decorations are long white -human beards, which are grown for the express purpose, and sold at a -very high price. The purchaser uses them either as plumes for his head -or as ornamental appendages to his conch-shell trumpet. One of these -beards is now always reckoned as equivalent in value to a musket, and -before fire-arms were introduced was estimated at an equally high rate. - -The ear ornaments of the Marquesan men are very curious. An univalve -shell, of a dead-white color, is cut into a circular shape, and filled -with a sort of cement made of the resin and wood of the bread-fruit -tree. Into this cement is pressed an ivory stem, carved with figures -in relief, so that the whole ornament looks like a very large white -headed nail. The stem is pushed through a hole in the lobe of the -ear, so that the head of the nail projects forward, as seen in the -right-hand figure of “tattooed chiefs” on page 1046. The name of the -ornament is “taiana.” - -Ornaments made of whales’ teeth are as fashionable among the Marquesans -as among the Polynesians, and are worn by the chiefs suspended round -their necks. Wooden ornaments bleached white are also used, and -others are cut from shells. One ornament of which they are very fond -is made from wood, wax, and seeds. It is in the form of a horseshoe, -the framework being made of wood, which is thickly covered with wax. -Into this are pressed the pretty black and scarlet seeds of the _Abrus -precatorius_, arranged in rows radiating to the circumference. One of -these ornaments is shown in the illustration No. 3, on the same page -and is drawn from a specimen in my collection. It measures eight inches -in diameter, and is slightly concave on the outside, and convex on -the inside. Very great pains have been taken in arranging the seeds; -they are placed in a regular series of double rows, the black portion -of each seed being pressed into the wax, so that only the brilliant -scarlet portion is visible. Upward of eight hundred beads have been -used in making this ornament, so that the trouble which is taken by the -natives is very great. - -Some of the chiefs wear a very curious ornament, which seems to take -the place of the hair which they shave from their own heads, and is -nothing more than a large bunch of hair cut from the head of a wife. -As a rule, the Marquesan removes all hair from the body, except from -the head, only one or two of the very old men allowing a few straggling -hairs on the chin. - -In Langsdorff’s travels an amusing incident occurred, illustrative of -that feeling. In those days close shaving was the custom in Europe, so -that when the officers went on shore they were found to have conformed -to the fashion of the islands. They were talking very amicably -together, when suddenly a chief stared intently into the face of one -of the officers, and, with horror depicted in his features, rushed -forward, and grasped him tightly. The officer naturally thought that -he was going to be murdered; but the fact was, that the Marquesan had -actually discovered a hair on his face, and was going to pull it out -with his shell tweezers. - -When they wish to be considered as wearing full dress, the better class -of men wear a most elaborate cap, made of fibre, feathers, and shells. -First, a broad fillet is plaited from cocoa-nut fibre, so as to pass -round the forehead, after the manner of a cap without a crown. On -the centre of this fillet is fixed a large plate of mother-o’-pearl, -decorated with carving. In the middle of this plate is fixed a smaller -but similarly shaded plate of tortoise-shell, and in the middle of -that a still smaller disc of pearl shell. Some headdresses have three -of these ornaments, as is the case with that which is figured in the -Marquesan chief on the 1046th page. - -In the fillet are also fastened a number of feathers, either from the -tail of the cock or from that of the tropic bird, so that when the -fillet is bound on the forehead the feathers will stand upright. The -feathers of the tropic bird are greatly prized by the natives, who use -them for various ornaments, and display great ingenuity in procuring -them. Instead of killing the birds, and so stopping the supply of -feathers, they steal upon them when they are asleep, and dexterously -twitch out the two long tail-feathers. In process of time the feathers -grow again, and so the supply is kept up. I mention the custom because -it is contrary to the recklessness respecting the future which is -usually found among savages. - -The houses of the Marquesans are rather peculiar, especially those of -the better kind. The native builder begins with making a platform of -large stones, many of them being so enormous that ten or twelve men are -required to move them. This platform is from ten to eleven feet high, -and about thirty feet long by twelve wide. Upon this is erected the -house, which is built with the back very much higher than the front, -so that the roof slopes considerably, the back being perhaps twelve -or more feet in height, and the front only five feet. The door is -naturally small, and no one can enter without stooping. The walls at -the end are no higher than that of the front, so that a considerable -portion of each end is left open. As, however, the climate of the -Marquesas is so equable, this is rather an advantage than otherwise. - -The interior of the house is divided into two portions, one of which is -left bare, with no covering to the stony floor, while the other part -is considered as the dwelling-place, and the floor is covered with -mats. The walls are also covered with matting. Near the back wall is -the strangely made family bed. Two horizontal poles are placed about -six feet apart, and a foot or so from the ground, and the space between -them is filled with dry grass covered with mats. The sleepers lie on -the mats, resting the back of their heads on one pole, and their feet -on the other, and pass the night in this position, which seems to have -been invented for the purpose of making the sleepers as uncomfortable -as possible. Round the walls are hung the weapons and implements of the -owner, such as spears, clubs, stilts, drums, slings, axes, and similar -articles. The houses are always placed near trees, so that they may -have the advantage of shade. - -The Marquesans have a curious custom of erecting small and highly -decorated buildings in honor of the children of great chiefs. These -buildings are considered as acknowledgments of the legitimacy of -the children; and if they were omitted, the parents would consider -themselves insulted. They are protected by tapu, and after they are -made are not repaired, but allowed to decay. Dr. Bennett, in his -“Whaling Voyage round the Globe,” thus describes those edifices:-- - -“This compliment had been paid to Eutiti’s daughter at Vaitahú a few -weeks before our arrival. It consisted of two small huts, neatly built -with peeled hibiscus rods, which were covered with white tappa (bark -cloth) and stained cocoa-nut sinnet. The interior was occupied by many -of the same rods ranged vertically, graduated in height, and entwined -with bunches of herbs. The face of the building was ornamented by a few -boards, painted with mystic figures in black and red. - -“The white and delicate appearance of the hibiscus rods, the fluttering -pennants of fine tappa, and the various gaudy hues employed, gave the -entire edifice a fantastic and imposing appearance. A low stone wall -enclosed the two huts, and within its precincts were several bundles of -cocoa-nut leaves placed upright, and intended to represent the tutelary -deities of the spot. A striking edifice of the same description had -been erected in honor of Eutiti’s son at Anamaihai, the territory of -his guardian. It differed from that dedicated to his sister in being -placed on an elevated stone platform, as well as in having a long -wicker basket placed at the entrance.” - -In every village there is a sort of amphitheatre, in which the dancing -and similar amusements are conducted. For this purpose the natives -choose a sheltered and level spot, surrounded on all sides with rising -banks. The middle of the amphitheatre is carefully smoothed and covered -with mats, and the rising banks serve as seats for the spectators. - -When a dance is to be performed, the mats are laid afresh, and a large -amount of food is prepared. The spectators take the food with them, -and, seated on the banks, remain there throughout the greater part of -the day. The dances are not very graceful, consisting principally of -jumping, without moving from the same spot. Various ornaments are used -by the dancers, the most curious of which are the finger-rings, which -are made of plaited fibre, adorned with the long tail-feathers of the -tropic bird. When women dance they are not allowed to wear clothing of -any description, and this for a curious reason. None dance except those -whose husbands or brothers have been killed in war or taken prisoners, -and the absence of clothing is accepted as an expression of sorrow on -their part, and of vengeance on the part of the spectators. - -They have several other amusements, which are conducted in this -theatre, or _pahooa_, as it is called. The Marquesans are most -accomplished stilt-walkers, and go through performances which would -excite the envy of any professional acrobat. One of the games in which -they most delight is a race on stilts, in which each performer tries, -not only to distance his opponents, but to cross their course and upset -them. They are such adepts at this pastime that they walk over the -rough stones of the house platform with ease and security. - - * * * * * - -If the reader will refer to the portrait of the Marquesan chief, he -will see that the head is not only decorated with the feather fillet, -but is also covered with a veil that falls on either side of the face. -This is a mark of war, and is worn when chiefs go into battle. The -Marquesans do not use the bow and arrow, but they throw spears, sling -stones, and use clubs. The slings are made of plaited grass, and are -very powerful, often exceeding five feet in length, and carrying stones -of a considerable size. The spears are generally about ten feet long, -and the clubs are carved out of hard wood, which is made harder by -burying the weapons for a considerable time in the mud. - -They are fierce in war, and are never satisfied until they have gained -a trophy of victory. When a Marquesan kills an enemy, he cuts off the -head of his fallen antagonist, tears open the skull, and eats the -brain. He then cleans the skull very carefully, adorns it with tufts of -bristles, and slings it by a cord to his girdle. When he goes to battle -again he always carries this trophy with him, partly on account of the -respect in which it is held by his comrades, and partly in order to -strike awe into the enemy by the sight of so redoubtable a warrior. - -According to most travellers, the Marquesans are a quarrelsome people -among themselves, and much addicted to making raids in each other’s -districts. These districts are generally divided from each other by -natural boundaries, such as mountain-spurs and ridges, many of which -are of enormous height, and so steep and precipitous as to be almost -inaccessible. The worst part of their mode of warfare is not the -cruelty exercised on the vanquished warriors, but on the destruction to -property, and the distress indicted on non-combatants. - -When one chief intends to make war upon another, he tries to steal by -night into the district of his enemy, and silently damages all the -bread-fruit and cocoa-nut trees he can find. The former are stripped -of their bark, and, though their vitality is so great that they are -not absolutely killed by the injury, they bear no more fruit for five -years, and thus the whole population are deprived of an essential -article of diet, and for a long time are reduced to great straits for -want of food. - -The cocoa-nut trees are killed after a different manner. The destroyer -walks up the tree after the mode employed by these islanders; namely, -by applying the palms of his hands to either side of the trunk, and -so ascending the tree in monkey fashion. He then bruises with a stone -the central shoot, or “cabbage” of the palm, and descends the tree, -knowing that it must soon die. The reason for the fatal nature of -the injury is, that the tree is an endogenous one, and consequently -the destruction of the central bud involves the death of the tree. -Sometimes the tree is killed in another way, a sea-slug (_bèche-demer_) -being laid at the root of the “cabbage,” killing the tree as it decays. - -Quarrelsome as they are and cruel to the persons and property of the -vanquished, they have yet some slight etiquette in war, one rule of -which is so curious that it must be given in the relator’s own words:-- - -“_June 18._--Captain Riggs of the _General Gates_, just arrived from -the Marquesas, informs us that he has had a narrow escape of his life -there. At the island of Nukahiva, as he was attempting to go on shore, -a native chief, assisted by a posse of dependants, seized and carried -him off, stripped him of his clothing, and then presented him to the -king, an infirm old man, who took him under his protection. That -protection, however, could have little availed him, for the sovereign -had not power to set the prisoner at liberty unless a suitable ransom -were paid for him. - -“The captors first demanded five muskets and five barrels of gunpowder, -which being agreed to, they rose in their violent extortion, and -required more; and this also being conceded, they still refused to -liberate him unless their rapacity was still further gratified. The -captain then resolutely stood out, and insisted on being set at -liberty, at the same time having but small hopes of obtaining it, or -any other issue of his captivity except to be killed and eaten by these -cannibals, some of whom had conspired to spear him, but the king’s -authority restrained their violence. - -“At length, however, the terms of ransom being settled, he was ordered -to be released; but here an unexpected difficulty arose. The law of the -land requires that whoever captures another on board of a boat must, -when the prisoner is at liberty, carry him down to the water again, and -reinstate him in the same situation as he was found. This the cowardly -and treacherous chief, who had readily acted the part of kidnapper, was -unwilling to do, lest he should be shot from the ship. The obligation, -however, being indispensable, he obtained the captain’s assurance -that no harm should be attempted against him, and then performed the -ungracious office. When Captain Riggs had reached his vessel, the -natives on the shore gave three hideous howls, which were returned by -three hearty cheers of the crew.” - -Finding that their captive had been so profitable to them, the natives -tried boldly to take the ship, and displayed equal ingenuity and daring -in their attempt. On the same evening a native was detected in trying -to cut the cable, and was shot for his temerity. Finding that an open -assault of this kind was useless, the natives, who are wonderful -divers, swam off to the ship, carrying with them a rope, one end of -which they fastened to the rudder, well under the water, the other end -being carried ashore. Fortunately this trick was discovered in time -to save the ship, and, had not the rope been seen, the natives would -have waited until the vessel weighed anchor, and then have dragged her -ashore. - -In the above narrative the Marquesans are described as cannibals. It -is, however, very doubtful whether they can be justly charged with this -revolting custom. - - * * * * * - -The canoes of the Marquesans are furnished with outriggers, after the -custom of all Polynesia, and are well-built and swift vessels. They -have, besides the outrigger, a small stage projecting over the stem, -on which the steersman stands when the vessel is under sail. The bow -of the canoe is much turned up in front, probably for the purpose of -acting as a defence to the rowers, when advancing against an enemy. - -They are very skilful in the fishing art, both with line and net. They -have different modes of using both these implements. When they fish -with the line, they sometimes bait the hook, pass the line over the -side, and angle in the mode adopted in this country. But when they fish -for the albacore, they employ a totally different method, which bears -some resemblance to fly fishing, except that the bait is not made to -represent an insect, but a fish. - -A very ingenious imitation of a flying fish is made by cutting the -shape of the fish out of a mother-of-pearl shell, and inserting a long -tuft of hog’s bristles at either side to represent the wing fins, and -another at the extremity to do duty for the tail. This is armed with -a hook, and fastened to one end of a line, the other end of which is -attached to the top of a long bamboo rod planted in the stern of the -canoe. Sail is hoisted, and the vessel is driven over the waves at full -speed, the sham flying-fish leaping and bounding through the air in a -manner that wonderfully resembles the action of the living fish. The -albacore naturally takes the bait for a real fish, leaps at it, and is -caught before it has time to discover the imposition. - -Net fishing is carried on in several modes, but the most curious and -perhaps the most sportsmanlike plan is that which compels the fisherman -to pursue his occupation under water. He takes with him a hand-net and -a stick about two feet in length, jumps into the water, and dives among -the coral, holding his net over the nooks and crevices with one hand, -while with the stick he drives the fish out of their hiding places into -the net. - -By this mode of fishing great numbers are captured, but the fisherman -is always exposed to two dangers. In the first place, there is a chance -that a shark may come up unobserved, and carry off a limb, even if it -does not kill the man. The Marquesans are such excellent swimmers that -they care little for a shark as long as they can see him, and it is -only when the terrible fish darts unexpectedly out of a hiding place -that they know any real fear. - -Sometimes a rather strange circumstance occasions the death of the -diver. It has already been mentioned that up to the time when a man can -afford to have his head tattooed he wears his hair very long, and tied -up in a knot on the crown of his head. Before going into the water, -the natives untie the fillet, and allow the hair to float down their -backs. It has occasionally happened that a diver, who has thus prepared -himself, finds, when he tries to rise to the surface of the water, -that his long floating hair has become entangled in the branching -coral; and, as he has already remained under water nearly as long as -his breath will last, he is sometimes drowned before he has time to -extricate himself. - -When a Marquesan dies a natural death, his relatives make great -preparation for his funeral, including the usual accompaniment of -feasting. They send for a “tana,” or priest, who makes a long oration -over the corpse, which is then delivered to the relatives, who have -a long and disagreeable task before them. They first wash the body -thoroughly, and then rub it with cocoa-nut oil, laying it in the sun, -and turning it continually. Several times daily the corpse is newly -anointed, until at last the combined effects of the sun and oil reduce -it to a mummy. Wrapped in cloth, it is laid on a bier, and deposited in -the cemetery. - -Each district has its cemetery or “morai,” which is adorned with -gigantic human figures carved in wood, and similar decorations. It is -surrounded by a wall, and held in great respect by the inhabitants of -its district. Unfortunately, the inhabitants of other districts hold it -in no respect at all, and, when war is declared, try to steal out of -the morai the body of any man of rank. When, therefore, war seems to be -imminent, the bodies are carried away and hidden, or sometimes buried. -A similar custom prevails in many parts of Polynesia, and Mr. Williams -mentions an instance where a man climbed an apparently inaccessible -precipice with a corpse lashed to his back, placed the body on a lofty -shelf, and descended in safety. - - - - -CHAPTER CVII. - -NIUE, OR SAVAGE ISLAND. - -ORIGIN--COSTUME--LAWS--BURIAL. - - - REASON FOR THE NAME OF THE ISLAND -- SINGULAR LEGEND -- THE SAILOR - AMONG THE SAVAGES -- APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- A SAVAGE WAR DANCE - -- MODE OF DRESSING THE HAIR -- COSTUME OF THE MEN -- A CURIOUS - WEAPON -- PRESUMED ORIGIN OF THE SAVAGE ISLANDERS -- DEFEAT OF THE - TONGANS -- CODE OF LAWS AND PUNISHMENTS -- CANOE MAKING -- SAILING -- - NIUAN ARCHITECTURE -- DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. - -Between the Hervey and the Tongan groups, there lies an island which -was called by Captain Cook “SAVAGE ISLAND,” on account of the behavior -of the natives, who not only declined his overtures of peace, but -attacked him “like so many wild boars.” The native name of the island -is Niue. - -This ferocity of theirs is due to an ancient custom of putting to death -all strangers who land on their shores, a fate from which even their -own people do not escape, if they have been absent for any length of -time. The history of this strange people has of late years become -better known, owing to the exertions of the missionaries, who have -discovered that fear rather than ferocity was the cause of this savage -custom. They had an idea that their island was naturally free from -disease, and that all ailments were brought by foreigners, and they in -consequence had a law that all foreigners should be killed as soon as -they could be captured. - -On one occasion a native teacher narrowly escaped death in consequence -of his absence. He was obliged to exert all his powers of eloquence -to persuade his countrymen to spare him for a time, so that he might -keep himself far away from their residence, and purify himself by the -healthy air of Niue. - -When Mr. Williams visited the island, he contrived to induce two lads -to go off with him for the purpose of being instructed. They were at -first very miserable on board, and howled incessantly for the first few -days, thinking that the white sailors were cannibals and that they were -only carried off to be fattened and eaten. Finding, however, that the -sailors were eating pork, and not human flesh, they became reconciled -to their lot, and were even pleased at the prospect of seeing new -lands. These lads were taken to Raietea, and, having been educated -for their task, were sent home again. Unfortunately, soon after their -arrival, an epidemic disease spread over the island, and the natives, -naturally attributing it to the two travellers, killed them both. - -The first white man who landed there since the time of Cook met with a -singular fate. A ship was lying off the island, and bartering with the -natives. Just as the ship got under weigh, the master flung one of the -sailors overboard among the savages, who took him on shore, and held a -great debate as to the course to be pursued. Some were for keeping up -the old custom, and killing him, but others argued that the man had not -landed of his own free will, and that he ought not to be liable to the -usual penalty, even though salt water was in his eye--this being the -mark of a shipwreck. - -After a vast amount of discussion they agreed to a compromise, put him -into a canoe, gave him a quantity of bananas and cocoa-nuts, and sent -him out to sea. The man contrived to slip on shore again without being -seen, and, after hiding in caves for some days, he succeeded in getting -on board a whaler that was passing near the island. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE WAR DANCE OF THE NIUANS. (See page 1055.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) PRESENTING THE CLOTH. (See page 1060.)] - -The appearance of the natives as they were before the missionaries came -to them was anything but prepossessing. Mr. Williams gives a graphic -account of an old chief who was induced, after much trouble, to come -on board. “His appearance was truly terrific. He was about sixty years -of age, his person tall, his cheek-bones raised and prominent, and his -countenance most forbidding. His whole body was smeared with charcoal, -his hair and beard were long and gray, and the latter, plaited and -twisted together, hung from his mouth like so many rat’s tails. He wore -no clothing except a narrow strip of cloth round his loins, for the -purpose of passing a spear through, or any other article he might wish -to carry. - -“On reaching the deck the old man was most frantic in his -gesticulations, leaping about from place to place, and using the -most vociferous exclamations at everything he saw. All attempts at -conversation with him were entirely useless, as we could not persuade -him to stand still for a single second. Our natives attempted to clothe -him, by fastening round his person a piece of native cloth, but, -tearing it off in a rage, he threw it upon deck, and, stamping upon it -exclaimed, ‘Am I a woman, that I should be encumbered with that stuff?’ - -“He then proceeded to give us a specimen of a war dance, which he -commenced by poising and quivering his spear, running to and fro, -leaping and vociferating, as though possessed by the spirit of -wildness. Then he distorted his features most horribly by extending his -mouth, gnashing his teeth, and forcing his eyes almost out of their -sockets. At length he concluded this exhibition by thrusting the whole -of his long grey beard into his mouth, and gnawing it with the most -savage vengeance. During the whole of the performance he kept up a -loud and hideous howl.” On the preceding page the artist has given the -reader an illustration of this singular war dance of the Niuans. - -These islanders do not use the tattoo, though they are fond of -decorating their bodies with paint. Those who come on board European -vessels are delighted to be adorned with streaks and spots of red and -green paint, especially the latter, which is a novelty to them, and -for which they are willing to pay highly. At a little distance, they -look much as if they were suffering from some cutaneous disease, but -a closer inspection shows that their appearance is partly due to the -salt of the sea crystallizing on their oiled bodies, and partly to the -multitudinous flies which settle upon them. - -The hair is sometimes seen very short and sometimes very long, and this -is the case with both sexes. They allow it to grow to a considerable -length, and when it is a foot or eighteen inches long, they cut it -off, and plait it into thin bands which are worn round the waist. The -men prize these ornaments highly, and Captain Hood thinks that the -love-locks are exchanged, and are valued accordingly. The younger men -do not wear their beards, but the elders suffer them to grow to a -great length, plait them, and adorn them with pieces of oyster or clam -shell. They know the art of coloring the hair a yellowish red by the -application of lime. - -As to dress, the men think it quite needless, and wear nothing but the -belt round the waist. Some, however, wear a very small apron, only ten -or twelve inches square, and this is considered rather in the light of -ornament than of dress. They are of moderate stature, rather under than -over the middle height, thus forming a strong contrast to the gigantic -Marquesans and Samoans. The natural color of the skin is a clear brown, -and their limbs are round and well shaped. - -In weapons, they use the spear, the club, and the bow, all made well -and neatly. They do not seem to invade other islands, and their warfare -is therefore waged mostly among themselves. It seems rather strange -that in an island only thirty miles in circumference war should exist, -but in Niue, the usual Polynesian custom exists of dividing an island -into several districts, among which is perpetual feud. - -They use a very curious weapon. On their island are a number of caves -in the coral limestone, similar in character to that which has been -described in page 1006, though not approached in the same curious -manner. From the roof hang vast numbers of stalactites, from which -water continually drops. Indeed, the natives owe their fresh water -almost entirely to these caves, and since the missionaries came to -reside among them have learned to collect it by digging wells in the -caves, into which the water flows, and so insure a certain instead of a -precarious supply. The floor of the caves is covered with stalagmitic -masses, and from these the natives make oval balls about the size of -cricket balls, which they hurl from the hand with wonderful force and -accuracy, not using the sling, as is the case with so many Polynesian -tribes. Specimens of these balls are in the Christy collection. - -These caves are evidently due to the character of the island, which is -partly coral and partly volcanic, the coral having been upheaved by -volcanic force, leaving the surface fissured and broken by the sudden -violence of the shock. The native legend respecting the origin of -the island points to the same conclusion. They state that the island -was raised to its present elevation by two of their ancestors, named -Hananaki and Fao, who swam there from Tonga, and found the island only -just above the waves. They stamped twice upon it, the first stamp -elevating the island to its present height, and the second clothing -it with trees and plants. They made wives for themselves out of the -Ti tree, and so the island became peopled. We may easily see in this -tradition a record of the two facts that the island was elevated -suddenly from the sea, and that the inhabitants are not aborigines, -but emigrants from some other part of Polynesia, probably from Tonga. -Though they believe themselves to be derived from this origin, they -have been subject to invasion from the restless and daring Tongans, -whom they repulsed by an ingenious stratagem. The Tongans, possessed of -far better weapons and better disciplined than the Niue islanders, and -being equally courageous, were rapidly completing the conquest of the -island, when the natives took advantage of the peculiar formation of -their country. - -The reader will remember that Niue is rocky, and covered with deep and -narrow clefts, the result of the upheaval which elevated the island -above the sea. Across one of these the Niuans laid small branches, -which they covered with banana and cocoa-nut leaves, and then strewed -over all a slight covering of earth, which they arranged so as to look -exactly like the surrounding soil. They then executed a sham retreat, -and slipped round to the further side of the chasm, so that the -Tongans, flushed with victory, rushed on their retreating enemies with -yells of triumph, and a great number of the foremost and best warriors -were hurled down to the bottom of the cavern. Before the survivors -could recover from their surprise, an attack was made upon them in -overwhelming numbers, and of the whole Tongan expedition not a man -escaped alive. - -It was formerly thought that the Niuans were cannibals, but, as far as -can be ascertained, the natives have never eaten human flesh. They do -not even care for animal food of any kind; and, though at the present -time they have pigs in abundance, they use them almost entirely for the -market to European ships, contenting themselves with bananas, yams, -taro, and fish. Strangely enough, they have not imported into Niue the -custom of kava drinking, and they stand almost alone in their non-use -of tobacco. - -Polygamy is still practised among the inhabitants of Niue, though it -is fast dying out under the influence of the missionaries, who have -further conferred a vast boon on the people by their discouragement -of infanticide, which at one time prevailed to a terrible extent. The -mere check which they have placed on this custom has already raised the -number of the population by more than three hundred--a considerable -increase when the small size of the island is taken into consideration. - -Even before the missionaries came, a tolerably comprehensive and just -code of laws was in existence, so that the Niuans were in reality much -less savage than many of their neighbors, and the missionaries had -a better ground to work on than in other islands of more promising -aspect. Their standard of morality was much higher than is usually the -case among savages, infidelity among women being severely punished. So -great was their horror of this crime that illegitimate children were -always thrown into the sea until the missionaries taught the people -that, though the parents might be liable to punishment, the innocent -children ought not to suffer. - -Their punishment consisted generally in deprivation of food. For -example, for some offences, the criminal was tied to a post, and -allowed no food except bitter and acrid fruits, while for more serious -offences he is lashed hand and foot to a bamboo for a considerable -length of time, only sufficient food being given to save him from -actually dying of starvation. For these punishments the missionaries -have induced the natives to substitute forced labor in well sinking, -road making, and other useful works. - -The Niuans are good canoe-makers, constructing their vessels -very neatly, and ornamenting them with devices in shells and -mother-of-pearl. They manage these canoes well, and as a rule are -excellent swimmers. There are, however, some families living in the -interior of the island who, although they can be barely four miles -from the sea, have never visited it, and are greatly despised by their -neighbors because they can neither swim nor sail a canoe. - -The native architecture is not particularly good, but it has been -much improved by the instructions of the Samoan teachers, who have -instructed the Niuans in their own mode of building houses, upon -which the Niuans have engrafted their own mode of adornment, so that -altogether the effect of a modern Niuan house is quaint, and at the -same time artistic. The natives seem to be wonderfully quick at -learning, and have even acquired the use of the pen, so that a Niuan -can now be scarcely better pleased than by the gift of a pencil and a -supply of white paper. - -Nothing shows the wonderful advance that these people have made more -than the fact that they have not only utterly discarded their old habit -of murdering foreigners, but that they display the greatest eagerness -to be taken as sailors on board European ships. They contrive to -smuggle themselves on board without the knowledge of the captain and -crew; and whereas in former times it was scarcely possible to induce a -Niuan to venture on board an European ship, the difficulty is now, to -find a mode of keeping them out of the vessels. - -The method of disposing of the dead is twofold. When one mode is -followed, the body is laid on a bier and left in the woods until -all the flesh has decayed, when the bones are removed to the family -burying-place, which is usually a cave in the limestone rock. When the -other method is employed, the body is laid in a canoe, and sent adrift -in the sea to go wherever the wind and tides may carry it. - - - - -CHAPTER CVIII. - -THE SOCIETY ISLANDS. - -APPEARANCE, DRESS, AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS. - - - DISCOVERY OF THE ISLANDS, AND REASONS FOR THEIR NAMES -- THE ISLAND - OF TAHITI OR OTAHEITE -- CONFORMATION AND CLIMATE OF TAHITI -- THEIR - EFFECT UPON THE INHABITANTS -- EFFEMINATE APPEARANCE OF THE MEN, - AND BEAUTY OF THE WOMEN -- SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE SEXES -- GENERAL - MODE OF LIFE IN TAHITI -- SEPARATE TABLES FOR THE MEN AND WOMEN -- - POMARÉ’S CRUCIAL TEST, AND ITS RESULTS UPON IDOLATRY -- DRESS OF - THE SOCIETY ISLANDERS -- MODES OF WEARING THE HAIR -- TATTOOING IN - TAHITI -- MEANS EMPLOYED BY THE MISSIONARIES TO ABOLISH THE PRACTICE - -- HOSPITALITY OF THE TAHITANS -- MODE OF MAKING PRESENTS -- SOCIAL - USE OF PRESENTS -- THE BAKED PIG AND THE CLOTH -- DISTINCTIONS OF - RANK -- REASONS FOR OMAI’S FAILURE -- EXTERNAL INDICATIONS OF RANK -- - DEPORTMENT OF TAHITANS TOWARD THEIR SOVEREIGN -- AMUSEMENTS OF THE - TAHITANS -- THEIR SONGS AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS -- SURF RIDING -- - BOXING AND WRESTLING MATCHES. - -This interesting group of islands was originally discovered in 1605 by -De Quiros, and has derived the name of the Society Islands from the -liberality of the Royal Society, which, in 1767, sent an expedition -under Captain Cook for the purpose of observing the transit of Venus -over the sun. There are many islands of this group, the best known of -which is TAHITI, or OTAIIEITE, as the word was given in Cook’s Voyages. -This island forms one of a portion of the group which is distinguished -by the name of the Georgian Islands, in honor of George III. - -Tahiti is singularly picturesque when viewed from the sea, in -consequence of its mountainous character, the island being so filled -with lofty peaks and crags that the only way of reaching the interior -is by following the courses of the valleys. Sometimes the rocks shoot -up into sharp and spire-like peaks, sometimes they run for miles in -perpendicular precipices, several thousand feet in height; sometimes -they are scarped and angular like gigantic fortresses, sometimes they -are cleft into ravines of terrible depth, and sometimes they are -scooped out into hollows like the craters of extinct volcanoes. - -Down these craggy steeps dash torrents that fertilize the soil, and so -equably genial is the temperature that every shelf and ledge is covered -with luxuriant foliage and gorgeous flowers. Tahiti indeed, as has been -well said, is the gem of the Pacific. Our business, however, lies not -so much with the island as with its inhabitants--not the semi-civilized -people of the present day, but the uncivilized people of 1769, when -Captain Cook visited them. In the following description, we will take -Tahiti as the typical island of the Society group, merely introducing -the lesser islands by way of illustration of the manners and customs -which pervaded the whole group. - -In consequence of the superior fertility of Tahiti, and the consequent -supply of food without the need of labor, the Tahitans are more plump -and rounded of form than are the inhabitants of most other Polynesian -islands. In the case of the men, the fair skin and plump rounded forms -give them an effeminate appearance, and the earlier voyagers have all -noticed the strong contrast between the dark, nervous, and muscular -frames of the Tongan men, and the fair, smooth limbs and bodies of the -Tahitans. The men, too, wear their hair long, and, if it were not that -they permit the beard to grow to some length, they would well deserve -the epithet of effeminate. - -Not only is this smoothness and fairness one of their distinguishing -marks, but they also are characterized by a sort of languor in their -movements and timidity in their carriage, very unlike the demeanor of -the bold and warlike Tongans and Samoans. “This observation,” writes -Captain Cook, “is fully verified in their boxing and wrestling, which -may be called little better than the feeble efforts of children, if -compared to the vigor with which those exercises are performed at the -Friendly Islands.” - -They are so careful of their complexion that when they think their -skins are becoming darkened by exposure to the sun, they have a mode -of bleaching themselves. Captain Cook merely mentions that they remain -within doors for a month or two, wear great quantities of clothing, and -eat nothing but bread-fruit, this diet being supposed by them to have a -strong bleaching power. It is probable, however, that besides the diet -and the confinement within the house, they also employ some preparation -similar to that which is used by the Marquesan women under similar -circumstances. - -The Tahitans place such reliance on the effect of food on complexion, -that they believe themselves to change the hue of their skins several -times in the year, owing to the kind of food on which, owing to the -change of season, they are obliged to live. They do not, however, like -many nations, think that corpulence is a mark of rank and wealth. - -That fairness of skin and roundness of form which detract from the -manly beauty of the male sex only add to the feminine charms of the -women, who are far more beautiful even than those of Tonga, while -they infinitely surpass the short, thickset women of the Marquesans. -A Tahitan woman would be reckoned beautiful even among Europeans, the -skin being fairer than that of many a Spanish girl, and the large full -eyes and rich hair having a fascination peculiar to themselves, a charm -which many travellers have endeavored to describe, and all, according -to their own statements, have failed to convey in words. - -Yet the lot of the Tongan women is far superior to that of the Tahitan. -As we have already seen, the woman of Tonga is by no means the mere -slave of the despotic husband, but is often his true helpmeet and best -adviser. Among the Tahitans, however, we find that the effeminate, -smooth-limbed, long-haired, fair-skinned man, who would not abide the -charge of a Tongan boy, is a very tyrant at home, having no idea that -women can be anything but chattels, and beating his wives, his dogs, or -his pigs, with equal disregard of their feelings. - -The women are not allowed to eat of various kinds of food, as they -would offend the gods by so doing, and it is a remarkable coincidence -that the gods do not permit the women to eat exactly those articles -of food which the man likes best, such, for example, as turtle, and -certain kinds of fish and plantain. - -Neither are the women allowed to eat with their husbands, but take -their meals in a separate part of the house. This prohibition is the -more galling because, in a well-to-do Tahitan’s family, eating goes -on all day with very short intervals. The family breakfast at eight, -and have a first dinner or luncheon at eleven. Thus invigorated, they -are able to wait until two, when they take their first dinner. This -is followed by a second dinner at five and supper at eight, after -which they retire to rest. But as it is manifestly impossible to go -without food for twelve hours, they awake at two, take another meal, or -“rere-supper,” and sleep again until daybreak. - -As to the turtle, a certain sort of sanctity is attached to it. When -one of these reptiles is caught, it is always sent to the king, who, -however, does not cook so sacred a creature in his own house, but sends -it to the temple, where it is offered to the idol. It is cooked in the -marae, or sacred enclosure, and, after a portion has been taken by the -priest for the idol, the remainder is sent back to the king. Unless -this offering were made, the offender would immediately suffer from the -vengeance of the offended god. - -This custom was exploded by Pomaré about 1820. The king had long -believed that the idols were nothing more than images, and that the -gods were but human inventions, and determined to try the subject by -a crucial test. He waited until his subjects had caught a turtle, -and sent it to him according to the custom of the island. Instead of -sending it to the marae, he had the turtle taken to his own kitchen and -cooked there. It was then served up, and his whole household sat down -with him to partake of it. No one, however, except the king, had the -courage to eat a mouthful, and even Pomaré himself was in a state of -nervous trepidation, and had very little appetite when he came to apply -his test. However, he was a man of great moral courage, and though he -could not eat much of the royal dainty, he ate enough to bring down -upon him the wrath of the god. - -Finding that no harm happened to him, he convened an assembly of the -chiefs, and narrated the whole of the circumstances, telling them -they were free to act as they liked, but that for his part he abjured -idolatry from that time. The consequence was, that of their own accord -the people voluntarily abandoned their idols, and either gave them to -the missionaries, used them as seats, or put them in the fire with -which food is cooked, the last proceeding being the very depth of -degradation. - -One of these raids on the idols was conducted after a very curious -manner. - -When the converts had reached the temple in which were deposited the -idols that they had so long worshipped, their hearts failed them, and -not a man dared to enter the house and lay his hands on the sacred -images. They bethought themselves, however, of trying the effect of -fire-arms, with which they were furnished, and, in the presence of the -terrified population, made ready to fire upon the idols. After calling -upon the images, warning them that they were about to be fired upon, -and calling upon them to avenge themselves if they could, they fired a -volley into the house. Finding that no harm ensued, they advanced more -boldly, and burned down the temple together with its occupants. - -A curious instance of courage similar to that of Pomaré occurred at the -island of Rurutu. A native teacher recommended at a public assembly -that a feast should be held, and that the king, his chiefs, his people, -and their wives should together partake of turtle and pork, both these -articles of diet being prohibited to women in Rurutu. The test was -accepted, and the party assembled, having by a curious coincidence -selected ignorantly a piece of ground sacred to Oro, the vengeful god -of war. That any one should eat on so sacred a spot would have been -sufficient to draw upon the delinquents the full terrors of Oro’s -anger; but that men and women should eat together on the spot, and -that women should absolutely eat both turtle and pork, were enormities -almost too great to be conceived. - -The feast took place, and, as writes Mr. Bennett, “when the Rurutuans -saw that, they said, ‘No doubt they will die for this trespass on -the sacred ground,’ and looked earnestly, expecting some one to have -swollen or fallen down dead suddenly; but after they had looked for a -considerable time and saw no one come, they changed their minds, and -said, ‘Surely theirs is the truth; but perhaps the god will come in the -night and kill them: we will wait and see.’ - -“One man actually went in the night to the wife of the chief Auüra, -who also ate a part of a hog or turtle on the sacred spot, and said, -‘Are you still alive?’ When the morning arrived, and the Rurutuans -found that no harm had happened to any of them, they became exceedingly -disgusted at their having been deceived so long by the evil spirit.” - - * * * * * - -Like many other Polynesians, the Tahitans are of fair complexions, and -very well made. Both men and women are good-looking, and many of the -latter may be called beautiful, their graceful robe of bark cloth, -and the flowers with which they love to entwine their hair setting -off their charms in an admirable manner. It is rather strange, by the -way, that the women of Eimeo, one of this group, are very inferior to -those of the other islands, being darker, of lower stature, and not so -graceful, and, as Captain Cook remarked, if a handsome woman were seen -at Eimeo, she was sure to have come from another island. - -The men dress in rather a variable manner. All wear the primitive -garment of Polynesia, namely, a piece of bark cloth passed round the -waist, then through the legs, and the end tucked into the girdle. Over -this garment many wear a sort of mantle made of finer cloth, gathered -neatly round the waist, and sometimes flowing over their shoulders; -while others wear the _tiputa_, or _tibuta_, a garment made in poncho -fashion, with a hole in the middle through which the head passes, and -hanging down in front and behind, but open at the sides. This garment -is found in a very great number of Polynesian islands, the material -and the form varying according to the locality. The bark cloth is made -exactly after the fashion employed in Tonga and Samoa. - -Both sexes usually cut their hair short, and sometimes crop it so -closely at the crown of the head that it looks as if shaven. They -anoint their locks freely with scented cocoa-nut oil, or with a -resinous gum, which gives it a moist and glossy appearance, and causes -it to retain the shape into which it is twisted. Beside the flowers -worn in the hair and ears, and the garlands twisted round the head, -the women wear a very elegant and striking ornament. They take the -very young stipe of the cocoa-nut palm, peel it into long strips, and -dry it. When properly prepared, it is of a glossy, pure white, looking -much like white satin ribbon, and is worn twisted into rosettes and -similar ornaments. The normal color of the hair is mostly black, but in -some cases it takes a lighter and reddish hue. In children it is often -light, but assumes a dark hue in the course of a few years. - -The Tahitans think that the shape of the head is much improved by -being flattened at the back. Accordingly, the mothers have a way of -supporting their children during infancy by the heels and back of the -head, and, as they think that the shape of the nose can be improved by -art, they continually squeeze and press it with the hand while it is -tender and plastic. - -Tattooing was once much esteemed, and the operation was performed by -means of a comb and mallet, as has been described when treating of -Samoa. Professional artists executed the tattoo, and were accustomed -to travel about the islands, remaining for some months at each spot, -and being paid highly for each lad whom they decorated. The face was -almost invariably left untouched; the bust, legs, arms, and even hands -being covered with the graceful patterns. The women also employed the -same decoration, but in a less degree, wearing the tattoo mostly on the -arms, ankles, and feet, the latter being tattooed nearly half-way to -the knees, so that at a little distance the woman looked as if she were -wearing boots or socks fitting tightly to the skin. The missionaries, -however, discouraged the tattoo, which by degrees came to be accepted -as a mark of a revolutionary spirit, and rendered the offender liable -to punishment. - -Mr. Bennett mentions two instances where old men were tattooed on the -face as well as the body, one of them being a man who had been the high -priest of the god Oro, the Polynesian Mars, who was worshipped with -every accessory of bloodshed and cruelty. This deity, together with -other objects of Tahitan worship, will be presently described. - -The means that were employed to put an end to the practice of tattooing -were of a very severe and rather despotic character, It was found -that ordinary punishments were of little avail in checking a practice -so much in consonance with the feelings and habits of the natives. -Even after they had submitted themselves to the laws which the white -colonists introduced, they could scarcely bring themselves to obey -the edict which forbade the tattoo, and evaded it on every possible -pretext. They would even voyage to another island, nominally on -mercantile affairs, but in reality for the purpose of being tattooed -while out of the reach of the white men and their laws. - -As to the punishment which ensued, the delinquents cared little about -it--the allotted task of road making or well digging was completed -in time, whereas the decoration of the tattoo lasted throughout -life. After trying to check the practice by various penal laws, the -new legislators hit upon a plan described by themselves as merely -disfiguring the pattern made by the tattoo. Dr. Bennett, however, -uses more forcible terms. “The ancient practice of tattooing the skin -is gradually declining amongst the Society Islanders generally. The -missionaries have been much opposed to the custom, and among the laws -framed for these islands was one which made tattooing criminal; but -this has since been repealed, or continues in force only in the islands -of Huahine, Raiatea, and Tahaa. - -“When viewed in connection with the habits of the natives, tattooing -is not, certainly, so innocent a display of savage finery as most -Europeans imagine it to be; nevertheless, we felt much regret, not -unmingled with indignation, when we beheld, in the house of the royal -chief of Raiatea, a native woman of naturally agreeable features, -disfigured by an extensive patch of charcoal embedded in her cheek--a -punishment inflicted upon her by the judges for having slightly -tattooed herself. While we were regarding this spectacle a second -female showed us her hand, which afforded a similar instance of -judicial severity.” - -The various figures employed by the Tahitans have each a separate name, -and these figures are imprinted not only upon the skin, but upon the -bark cloth garments of both sexes. - -The Tahitans are naturally a hospitable people, and have invented a -complete code of etiquette for making presents, the most curious of -which is that which is employed in giving bark cloth. Captain Cook’s -description of this custom is very interesting. It is also illustrated -on the 1054th page. “I went with Otoo to his father’s house, where I -found some people employed in dressing two girls with a prodigious -quantity of fine cloth, after a very singular fashion. The one end of -each piece of cloth, of which there were a good many, was held up over -the heads of the girls, while the remainder was wrapped round their -bodies, under the arm-pits. Then the upper ends were let fall, and hung -down in folds to the ground, one over the other, so as to bear some -resemblance to a circular hoop-petticoat. - -“Afterward, round the outside of all were wrapped several pieces of -differently colored cloth, which considerably increased the size, so -that it was not less than five or six yards in circuit, and the weight -of this singular attire was as much as the poor girls could support. To -each were hung two _taames_ or breastplates, by way of enlivening the -whole, and giving it a picturesque appearance. Thus equipped, they were -conducted on board the ship, together with several hogs and a quantity -of fruit, which, with the cloth, was a present to me from Otoo’s father. - -“Persons of either sex, dressed in this manner, are called _atee_, but -I believe it is never practised except when large presents of cloth are -to be made. At least, I never saw it practised on any other occasion; -nor, indeed, had I ever such a present before; but both Captain Clarke -and I had cloth given to us afterward, thus wrapped round the bearers.” - -These cloths are mostly put on the bearers by laying the end of the -cloth on the ground. The girl then lies down on the end of the piece, -holds it tightly to her body, and rolls over and over, until she has -wound herself up in all the cloth that she is intended to present. -When the bearers are taken into the presence of the chief to whom the -offering is made, they reverse the process, and unroll themselves, by -revolving on the floor in the contrary direction. - -Food is presented in another way. The donor sends his servants with the -hogs, bread-fruit, and other provisions, to the house of the person -to whom the present is made. They do not enter the house, but simply -spread leaves on the ground, lay the provisions on them, and then -return to their master. The donor then enters the house, and calls upon -his friend to come out and look at the present that has been brought -for him. The latter signifies his acceptance by ordering his servants -to carry the food within his house, but utters no thanks. - -In most of these cases, it is expected that a present of equal value -should be returned, and, if the recipient should be a wealthy man, he -would be thought rather shabby if his return present were not rather -more valuable. In consequence of this theory, Captain Cook found that -when he purchased provisions he got them much more cheaply than when -they were presented to him. - -In these islands is found the widely spread practice of selecting -friends from strangers. When a ship arrives, each of the officers and -crew is selected by a native as his particular friend, and during -the time of the vessel’s stay is placed under his charge. Every day, -the “apoa” or friend will come on board with his present of cooked -bread-fruit and other provisions; and should his visitor go on shore, -he takes care that all possible necessaries, and even luxuries, shall -be provided for him. It is assumed that when the visitor departs he -will in his turn make a present; but there have been many instances -where the natives have been so grateful for some kindness that they -have refused to accept anything in return for their hospitality. - -One very graceful mode of giving presents is by offering them in the -name of a child. In this case, whenever provisions are sent, they are -always accompanied by the child, who is supposed to present them, and -to whom all returns are made. - -There is a custom--once very prevalent but now become nearly if not -wholly extinct--which is evidently based on the same principle. When -a man is in want of something which he cannot obtain, such as a new -house, or a quantity of cloth, he bakes a pig, and sends it by his -friends to all the population of the place. The bearers offer the -pig, and mention at the same time the needs of the owner. All those -who partake of it, even though they eat but a mouthful, thereby bind -themselves to share in assisting the petitioner, either in building the -house or in making the cloth. - -Mr. Bennett mentions one instance, where a man wanted thirty-six yards -of cloth, and sent a pig after the usual fashion. No one, however, -would touch it, and the poor man would have gone without his cloth -had not the queen taken compassion on him. She ordered the bearers to -leave the pig in her house, thereby assuming to herself alone the task -of providing the cloth. A number of women who saw the proceeding, felt -rather ashamed that the queen should be left to perform the task alone, -so they went into the house, ate the pig, and made the desired cloth. - -Among the Society Islands, the distinctions of rank are jealously -insisted upon, and no one can command any respect unless he be in the -possession of some acknowledged rank. Ignorance of this characteristic -was the real cause of Omai’s failure. Most of my readers are aware that -this man, the first Polynesian who had ever visited England, was a -native of Raietea, one of the Society Islands, and that he was brought -to England for the purpose of being educated, so that he might act as a -missionary both of Christianity and civilization in his native country. - -In Captain Cook’s third voyage, Omai was taken back again, after he had -been loaded with presents of various kinds. It was found, however, that -all that he really cared for was the possession of weapons, especially -fire-arms, by means of which he might make himself master of the -island. He had several muskets and pistols, together with ammunition, -but Captain Cook remarked in his journal that he fancied Omai would be -happier without the fire-arms than with them, and expresses a doubt -whether he would not have been happier still if he had never been -removed from his island. - -The result justified these anticipations. No one, except the lower -orders, would have anything to do with a man of no rank, and the -nobles, who led public opinion, would not even look at him as he -paraded up and down, clad in the suit of armor which had been presented -to him with more generosity than prudence. In fact, they felt that his -possession of all these treasures was a slight upon themselves, and the -natural result was that Omai was soon fleeced of all his property, and -speedily sank back again into his original barbarism and idolatry. - -Tenacious as they are of their rank, the Tahitan nobles show but few -external marks of it. Even at the present day, although they have -obtained considerable wealth from trade, and though implicit deference -is paid to them by their own people, the chiefs, as a rule, dress and -fare no better than the generality of their subjects. The fact is, -that every person’s rank is so well known, that there is no necessity -for indicating it by outward show or luxurious habits, which would -only serve to bring upon them the contemptuous epithet of _fahié_, or -conceited. - -In illustration of this principle, Mr. Bennett remarks in his “Whaling -Voyage round the Globe,” that it was “usual to see the Queen Aimata -clad in a loose cotton gown, bare-headed and bare-footed, mingling with -natives of every class. Her meals, too, are equally unostentatious, the -bread-fruit, poë, cocoa-nuts, and baked pig, intended for her food, -being placed on a layer of fresh leaves spread on the ground; while -the partaking party display, by the use of their fingers, a thorough -contempt for the modern innovation of knives and forks, in the use of -which, however, they are perfectly well versed.” This visit to Tahiti -was made in 1834. - -Nothing, perhaps, shows the innate respect for rank more than the -conduct of the Tahitans toward their queen. Personally she was not in -the least respected, nor indeed did she deserve respect. Being the -only daughter of Pomaré II., and deriving from her birth the title -of Pomaré Vahine, by which she was better known than by the name of -Aimata, she became queen in 1827, on the death of her infant brother. -Her conduct as queen was at first of the most unqueenly kind. She -resisted to the utmost the attempts that were being made to improve the -moral condition of the people, and did her best, both by precept and -example, to bring back the state of unrestrained licentiousness which -had reigned through the land. Yet, in spite of her conduct, the respect -for her rank was in no way diminished, and, as has been seen, she could -be on familiar terms with the lowest of her subjects without derogating -from her dignity. - - * * * * * - -The amusements of the Tahitans are much like those of other -Polynesians, and therefore need but little description. The Tahitans -are fond of singing, and possess good voices and ears, so that they -have been apt pupils in European music. As a rule, however, they prefer -singing the air, or at most a first and second, the more elaborate -movements of concerted music scarcely pleasing them. They excel in -keeping time, and exhibit this capacity not only in their songs but in -their dances. The native mode of singing is not pleasing to an English -ear, being of a monotonous character, nasal in tone, and full of abrupt -transitions from the highest to the lowest notes. - -The native songs are mostly on two subjects, namely, love and war, -the former predominating, as is likely to be the case from the quiet -and peaceable character of the people. Sometimes their songs assume -a more patriotic cast, and set forth the praises of their island -home, the beauty of its scenery, and the fertility of its soil. The -singers are usually women, whose sweet voices render pleasing even the -nasal intonations. The men sing but seldom, and when they do exert -their voices, they almost invariably use the harsh native mode of -vocalization. - -Their musical instruments are but few. They have of course the drum, -with which they accompany their songs and dances, not by beating it -violently after the African style of drumming, but gently tapping -it with the fingers. The drums are of different sizes, and are all -cylindrical, and very long in proportion to their diameter. Like -many other uncivilized people, they display a great fondness for the -Jews’ harp, partly because it is easy to play, and partly because it -reproduces to some extent the peculiar intervals of savage music. - -The chief native instrument that is capable of producing different -notes is a sort of flageolet or “hoe,” which produces a low, deep tone, -something like the “drone” of the bag-pipe. The native musician can -tune his instrument in a very simple manner. The mouth-piece is split -longitudinally, so that the pieces vibrate like those of any “reed” -instrument. Surrounding the mouth-piece is a ring of soft wood, and by -pushing this forward, or driving it back, the performer can tune his -instrument with some nicety, the former movement producing a sharp, and -the latter a graver tone. - -The hoe is seldom played alone, and is generally used as an -accompaniment to the native dances. The performers, after tuning -their instruments, sit in a circle, pressed closely together, and, -bending forward so that their heads are bowed over their knees, play -in admirable time, though as much praise can scarcely be given to the -melody. - -Following the instincts of the savage nature, the Tahitans are -passionately fond of cock-fighting, and amusements of a similar -character. Some of them are of a more harmless character. One of the -most manly and graceful of these amusements closely resembles the surf -swimming of the Sandwich Islanders, and is thus described by Captain -Cook:-- - -“Neither were they strangers to the soothing effects produced by -particular sorts of motion, which in some cases seem to allay any -perturbation of mind with as much success as music. Of this I met with -a remarkable instance. For on walking one day about Matavai Point, -where our tents were erected, I saw a man paddling in a small canoe -so swiftly, and looking about with such eagerness on each side, as to -command all my attention. - -“At first I imagined that he had stolen something from one of the -ships, and was pursued, but on waiting patiently saw him repeat his -amusement. He went out from the shore till he was near the place where -the swell begins to take its rise; and watching its first motion very -attentively, paddled before it with great quickness till he found that -it overtook him, and had acquired sufficient force to carry his canoe -before it without passing underneath. He then sat motionless, and was -carried along at the same swift rate as the wave, till it landed him -upon the beach, when he started out, emptied his canoe, and went in -search of another swell. - -“I could not help concluding that this man felt the most supreme -pleasure while he was driven on so fast and so smoothly by the sea, -especially as, though the tents and ships were so near, he did not -seem in the least to envy, or even to take any notice of the crowds of -his countrymen collected to view them as objects which were rare and -curious. - -“During my stay, two or three of the natives came up, who seemed to -share his felicity, and always called out when there was an appearance -of a favorable swell, as he sometimes missed it by his back being -turned and looking about for it. By this I understood that this -exercise, which is called _chorooe_, was frequent amongst them, and -they have probably more amusements of this sort, which afforded them at -least as much pleasure as skating, which is the only one of ours with -whose effects I could compare it.” - -Like the Tongans and Samoans, these people are fond of boxing and -wrestling matches, not only as spectators, but actors. They do not, -however, enter into them with the spirit and courage displayed by -the more hardy islanders, and there is little doubt that a boxer or -wrestler of Tonga would scarcely be able to find a worthy opponent in -the Society Islands. - -Of these two sports, the Society Islanders much prefer wrestling, -boxing being thought rather too rough an amusement, and being apt -to leave unpleasant marks on the face of the vanquished combatant. -Wrestling, however, is much more common, and is conducted after the -following manner. - -The intending combatants first went to the temples of their special -gods, and laid offerings before them, asking for their assistance in -the approaching struggle. They then proceeded to the spot selected -for the sports, which had always a smooth surface, sometimes covered -with grass and sometimes with sand. A circle of thirty or forty feet -in diameter was left clear for the competitors, and around it sat the -spectators, the inhabitants of the island or district on one side, -and the visitors on the other. All being ready, the combatants enter -the arena, wearing nothing but the simple girdle, and mostly having -well anointed their bodies and limbs with cocoa-nut oil. The mode of -challenge and wrestling has been so well described by Mr. Ellis that I -prefer to give his own words:-- - -“The fame of a celebrated wrestler was usually spread throughout -the islands, and those who were considered good wrestlers, priding -themselves on their strength or skill, were desirous of engaging only -with those they regarded as their equals. Hence when a chief was -expected in whose train were any distinguished wrestlers, those among -the adherents of the chief by whom the party were to be entertained who -wished to engage, were accustomed to send a challenge previous to their -arrival. - -“If this, which was called _tipaopao_, had been the case, when they -entered the ring they closed at once without ceremony. But if no such -arrangement had been made, the wrestlers of one party, or perhaps their -champion, walked round and across the ring, having the left arm bent -with the hand on the breast, and, striking the right hand violently -against the left, and the left against the side, produced a loud hollow -sound, which was challenging any one to a trial of skill. The strokes -on the arm were sometimes so violent as not only to bruise the flesh, -but to cause the blood to gush out. - -“When the challenge was accepted the antagonists closed, and the -most intense interest was manifested by the parties to which they -respectively belonged. They grasped each other by the shoulders, and -exerted all their strength and art each to throw his rival. This was -all that was requisite; and although they generally grappled with each -other, this was not necessary according to the rules of the game. - -“Mape, a stout and rather active though not a large man, who was often -in my house at Eimeo, was a famous wrestler. He was seen in the ring -once with a remarkably tall heavy man, who was his antagonist; they had -grappled and separated, when Mape walked carelessly toward his rival, -and, on approaching him, instead of stretching out his arms as was -expected, he ran the crown of his head with all his might against the -temple of his antagonist, and laid him flat on the earth. - -“The most perfect silence was observed during the struggle, but as soon -as one was thrown the scene was instantly changed; the vanquished was -scarcely stretched on the sand when a shout of exultation arose from -the victor’s friends. Their drums struck up; the women and children -danced in triumph over the fallen wrestler, and sung in derision of -the opposite party. These were neither silent nor unmoved spectators, -but immediately commenced a most deafening noise, partly in honor of -their own clan or tribe, but chiefly to neutralize the triumph of the -victors. It is not easy to imagine the scenes that must often have been -presented at one of these wrestling matches, when not less than four or -five thousand persons, dressed in their best apparel, and exhibiting -every variety of costume and brilliancy of color, were under the -influence of excitement. One party were drumming, dancing, and singing, -in all the pride of victory and the menace of defiance; while, to -increase the din and confusion, the other party were equally vociferous -in reciting the achievements of the vanquished, or predicting the -shortness of his rival’s triumph. When the contest was at an end, -victor and vanquished once more repaired to the idol temple, and -renewed their offerings of young plantain trees. - -“Although wrestling was practised principally by the men, it was not -confined to them. Often when they had done, the women contended, -sometimes with each other, and occasionally with men. Persons of the -highest rank often engaged in this sport; and the sister of the queen -has been seen wearing nearly the same clothing the wrestlers wore, -covered all over with sand, and wrestling with a young chief in the -midst of the ring, round which thousands of the queen’s subjects were -assembled.” - - - - -CHAPTER CIX. - -THE SOCIETY ISLANDS--_Continued_. - -RELIGION. - - - RELIGION OF THE SOCIETY ISLANDS -- THEIR IDOLS -- PARALLEL BETWEEN - THE IDOLATRY OF MODERN POLYNESIA AND ANCIENT SYRIA -- ORO, THE GOD - OF WAR -- EXTENT OF HIS WORSHIP -- LEGEND OF A SHELL -- ORO’S MARAE, - OR TEMPLE -- THE HUMAN SACRIFICE -- HIRO, THE GOD OF THIEVES -- HIS - WORSHIP AND APOTHEOSIS -- TANE, THE CHIEF GOD OF HUAHINE -- HIS MARAE - AND HIS BED -- DRESSING TANE -- THE TREES AROUND HIS MARAE -- HIS - UNFORTUNATE TAIL -- HIS HIGH PRIEST -- AN INGENIOUS EVASION -- TANE’S - HALF-WAY HOUSE -- TANE AVERSE TO BLOODSHED, BUT NEEDING THE SACRIFICE - OF LIFE -- TANE’S STONE CANOE -- THE SHARK GOD, AND HIS WATER TEMPLE - -- APOTHEOSIS OF A LIVING MAN -- SINGULAR PERFORMANCE OF THE INSPIRED - PRIESTS -- MOVABLE SHRINES. - -We now come to the somewhat complicated subject of the religious belief -of the Society Islanders. It is not an easy subject, involving, as it -does, a great variety of national customs, including the all-pervading -tapu, the burial of the dead, and the human sacrifices which accompany -a funeral or are offered on great occasions. We will begin with a brief -account of the religious system of these islanders, as far as it is -possible to reduce to a system a subject so obscure in itself, and so -little understood by the first travellers, who alone would be likely to -witness and gain information about the various religious ceremonies. - -As might be expected from these islanders, their religion is pure -idolatry, or rather, it consists in the worship of certain images which -are conventionally accepted as visible representatives of the invisible -deities. The idols are of two different kinds, the one being rude -imitations of the human figure, and the other, certain combinations -of cloth, sinnet, and feathers, rolled round sticks, not having the -slightest similitude to the human form, or being recognizable as idols -except by those who understand their signification. The human figures -are held as being inferior to other idols, and are considered in much -the same light as the Lares and Penates of the ancient Romans. They are -called by the name of Tu, and are supposed to belong to some particular -family which is taken under their protection. - -The other gods are, in the ideas of the natives, possessed of far more -extensive powers, sometimes being supposed to watch over particular -districts, or even particular islands. There are gods of the valleys -and gods of the hills, exactly as we read was the belief of the Syrians -nearly three thousand years ago: when Ahab had repulsed Benhadad, “the -servants of the king of Syria said unto him, their gods are gods of the -hills, therefore they were stronger than we; but let us fight against -them in the plain, and surely we shall be stronger than they.” (1 Kings -xx. 23.) - -Fully believing in the protection which these deities are able to -extend over their worshippers, it is no matter of wonder that the -latter consider that they have a right to the good offices of their -gods, and complain bitterly when anything goes wrong with them. So, -if a god has been worshipped in some locality, and the ground becomes -barren, or the cocoa-nut trees do not produce their full amount of -fruit, or the district is devastated by war, the people think that -their god is not doing his duty by them, and so they depose him, and -take another in his place. - -Although these gods are in a manner limited in their scope, many of -them are acknowledged throughout the whole of the group of islands; and -the chief, because the most dreaded, of them is Oro, the god of war. - -This terrible deity is held in the greatest awe by his worshippers, and -at one time was feared throughout the whole of the islands. His name -was associated with sundry localities, and with many objects, so that -his dreaded name was continually in the mouth of the people. There was -even a small species of scallop shell which was held in such fear that -not a native would dare to touch it. It was called tupe (pronounced -_toopeh_), and was said to be the special property of Oro. When a -man died, and was to be converted into a spirit, the body had to be -entirely consumed. This was done by Oro, who scraped the flesh from the -bones with a tupe shell, and thus ate the body. - -The subsequent career of the spirit was rather peculiar. After issuing -from Oro in its new form, it betook itself to a great lake in Raiatea, -round which is a belt of trees, which from some cause are quite flat -at the top, presenting a level surface like a leafy platform. On this -place the newly enfranchised spirits danced and feasted, and after they -had passed through that stage of their existence, they were transformed -into cockroaches. - -In Huahine there was an enormous marae, or sacred enclosure, dedicated -to Oro. It was a hundred and fifty-six feet long by eighteen wide, and -was built by a fence made of flat slabs of coral-rock placed on their -edges, and the intervals between them filled in with earth. One of -these blocks of stone measured nine feet by ten, so that the labor of -cutting them and conveying them to such a distance from the sea must -have been enormous. - -On this platform a smaller one was erected, so as to leave a space -of about four feet in width, and within this upper story were laid -the bones of the many victims that had been slain in the worship of -the god. The temple itself, called Fare no Oro, or the House of Oro, -was quite a small building, eight feet long by six wide, and a little -beyond this was the square stone on which the priest stood when about -to offer a sacrifice, a higher stone behind it answering as a seat -whereon the priest might rest himself when wearied. - -Small as was this house, it had been the scene of many human -sacrifices, and even its erection cost a number of lives, every post -having been driven into the ground through a human body. Besides these -victims, others had been sacrificed on many occasions, fourteen of whom -were enumerated by an old man who had once officiated as the priest of -Oro. When the chief of the island became converted to Christianity, -this man tried to conceal the idol which he had so long worshipped, -and to save it from destruction, hid it in a hole in the rock. The -chief, however, very rightly feared that if the idol were allowed to -remain its worship might revive, and accordingly insisted upon its -destruction. Besides the priest who offered the sacrifice, Oro had -another officer, whose special duty it was to kill the victims. He was -officially termed the Mau-buna, or Pig-owner, a human body killed for -sacrifice being named a “long pig.” When the victim was pointed out to -him, the Mau-buna, having a round stone concealed in his hand, found -an opportunity, of getting behind him, and, with a single blow, struck -him senseless to the ground, where the murder was completed. He then -packed the body in a basket of cocoa-nut leaves, and delivered it to -the priest. - -Next to Oro was Hiro, the Polynesian Mercury, or god of thieves. He -was originally a man, but was elevated to the society of the gods in -consequence of his wonderful deeds on earth, the chief of which seems -to have been his daring in taking the image of Oro and flinging it to -the ground with impunity. - -The worship of Hiro extended through all ranks, from the highest chief -to the lowest cook, and his votaries always asked for his help when -they went on a plundering expedition, and promised him a share of the -spoil. This promise they always performed, but as they were careful -not to define the amount of booty which was to belong to the god, they -contrived practically to have it all to themselves. For example, a -thief would go out pig stealing, and promise Hiro a share of the stolen -pork. Accordingly, if he had been successful, he would take home his -ill-gotten booty, bake it, break off an inch of the tail, and go with -it to the shrine of Hiro, where he would offer it with as much ceremony -as if it had been half the pig, and at the same time beg the god not to -divulge the theft of a votary who had kept his promise. - -The natives are quite dexterous enough in the thieving way to be worthy -of the protection of this god, having the most ingenious modes of -stealing the goods of another. For example, if the objects are small, a -hook is fastened to the end of a long bamboo, and the coveted article -is slily withdrawn by the actual thief while a confederate directs the -attention of the victim elsewhere. Sometimes the hook is tied to a -line, and the thief literally angles for the property. - -The apotheosis of Hiro was a very remarkable one. After his life of -theft, rapine, and murder, in which he did not spare even the temples -of the gods, and had, as we have seen, the hardihood to fling Oro’s -image on the floor, and roll on it as if he had conquered Oro in -wrestling, he was thought to have been so superhumanly wicked that he -must have been a god. Accordingly, his skull was placed in a huge marae -which he himself had erected, while his hair was put into an image of -Oro, and both buried together, this act constituting the apotheosis. -When Messrs. Bennett and Tyerman were at the Society Islands, this -skull was still in existence, but it disappeared, together with the -idols and other relics of the old religions. - -The next god is Tane (pronounced _tahneh_), who was worshipped over a -considerable range of country, and was in one or two islands considered -as their supreme god. Such was the case with Huahine, in which Tane had -a marae or malae of gigantic dimensions. I may here remark that in most -Polynesian dialects the letters _r_ and _l_ are interchangeable, so -that marae and malae are, in fact, the same word. - -This marae is a hundred and twenty-four feet in length by sixteen in -breadth, and is composed, like the marae of Oro, of two stories, the -last being nearly ten feet in height, and built of coral blocks, some -of which are ten feet in width, and correspondingly long and thick, so -that their weight is enormous. As the marae is about a hundred yards -from the shore, a prodigious amount of labor must have been expended -in getting these huge stones out of the sea and fixing them in their -places. The upper story is barely a yard in height, and has at each end -an upright stone six feet high. - -In the middle of the principal part is the idol’s bed, which he -occupies once annually, and in which he ought to feel comfortable, as -it is twenty-four feet long by thirteen wide. It is built, like the -marae, of stone and earth, and is only eighteen inches high. This is -a very ancient structure, as is shown by the trees that surround and -spread their arms over it. Near the bed is a small house about twelve -feet by six, in which rests the god Tane, together with lesser gods, -each of whom is set over a district. - -Tane himself--burned in 1817--was carved out of a great block of wood, -and was about as large as a tall man. He was not remarkable for an -elegant shape, having no neck and no legs, the body terminating in a -cone. The head was furnished with apologies for eyes, mouth, nose, and -ears, and the whole was covered with sinnet. - -Once in every year, Tane had a new dress, and was invested with great -solemnity. He was brought out of his house by his priest and laid on -his bed, having four lesser gods on either side of him. The chiefs of -the district stood each in front of his own god, and the priests stood -round Tane as being the great god of them all. The old garments were -then removed, and examination made into the interior of the idol, which -was hollow, and contained various objects, such as scarlet feathers, -beads, bracelets, and other valuables. Those that began to look shabby -were removed, and others inserted to take their place, and the idols -were then invested in their new robes. - -Meanwhile, a vast amount of kava was prepared--the natives saying that -it was equal in cubic measure to the marae--and a scene of drunken -debauch took place, lasting for several days, even the priests being -so intoxicated that they were unable to stand while performing their -duties, but had to chant their incantations while lying on the ground. -This stage of the idol-dressing is represented in the fine engraving on -the opposite page. At the expiration of the three days a special god -called Moorai was produced and stripped, and, as soon as his garments -were removed, violent rain showers fell, as a signal for all the idols -to be removed to their respective houses. The greatest care was taken -that no woman should witness this ceremony, and if a female of any age -had been detected coming within a certain distance of the marae, she -would be at once killed, and even her father, husband, or brother, -would have been among the first to strike her down. - -The trees which decorated this marae are the banyans (_Ficus Indica_), -one of which is described by Mr. Bennett as being seventy feet in girth -at the principal stem, and throwing out vast horizontal branches, each -of which is supported by a root which looks more like the trunk than -the root of a tree. “More than forty of these we counted, standing like -a family of earth-born giants about their enormous parent. A circle -drawn round all these auxiliary stems measured a hundred and thirty-two -feet in circumference, while a circle embracing the utmost verge of -their lateral ramification was not less than four hundred and twenty -feet. - -“The upper stories (if such we may call them) of this multiform -tree presented yet more singular combination of interesting and -intertwisting boughs, like Gothic arches, circles, and colonnades, -propped as by magic in mid-air. These were occasionally massy or light, -and everywhere richly embellished with foliage, through which the -flickering sunshine gleamed in long rays that lost themselves in the -immensity of the interior labyrinth, or danced in bright spots upon -the ground black with the shadows of hundreds of branches, rising tier -above tier, and spreading range above range, aloft and around.” - -This tree was one of the places in which the bodies of human beings -were offered, being packed in leaf baskets and hung to the branches. -One branch, which was hugely thick and strong, and ran horizontally -at a small height from the ground, was pointed out as the principal -gibbet, on which human sacrifices, thousands in number, have been -offered century after century. - -Tane, all powerful though he was, labored under one disadvantage. He -had a very long tail, and whenever he wished to leave his house, rise -into the air, and dart through the sky on some errand of mischief, he -was restrained by his long tail, which was sure to become entangled -in some object, which from that time became sacred to the god. For -example, the magnificent tree which has just been described was -several times the means of detaining Tane on earth, and the several -branches round which his tail was twisted became tapu at once. On one -side of his house there was a large stone, which had become sacred in -consequence of having arrested the flight of the god. - -[Illustration: SOCIETY ISLANDERS DRESSING THE IDOLS. (See page 1066.)] - -This idea of the long and streaming tail has evidently been derived -from meteors and comets, which are supposed to be the gods passing -through the air, and whenever a native saw one of them, he always threw -off his upper garments, and raised a shout in honor of the passing god. -Mr. Bennett suggests that the permanent tail attached to Tane is in all -probability a commemoration of some very magnificent comet with a tail -measuring eighty or ninety degrees in length. - -So sacred was the idol that everything which was touched by it became -tapu, and might not be touched by profane hands. There was only one man -who was allowed to carry it, and he was called from his office, “Te amo -attua,” _i. e._ the god-bearer. His task was not an easy one, and his -office, though it caused him to be viewed with nearly as much reverence -as the god of whom he was the special servant, must have deprived -him of many comforts. The god-bearer was not even allowed to climb a -cocoa-nut tree, because, if he did so, the tree would be so sacred that -no one might ascend it after him; indeed, every action of his life was -fenced about with some similar restriction. He could not marry, as, in -the first place, no woman could be deserving of the honor, and, in the -second place, he would be defiled and unfitted for his office if he -were to take any woman to wife. - -A celibate life does not seem to us to entail such self-denial as -seems to be implied by the prominence given to the celibacy of the -god-bearer, who appears to have been the only bachelor in the whole -group of islands. But among most savage nations a man’s wealth and -consequence are regulated by the number of his wives, who do all the -work of the household, and in fact keep their husband in idleness. - -The house in which the god lived was a small hut elevated on posts -twenty feet high, and there were no means of access except by climbing -one of these posts. The god-bearer, therefore, had no easy task in -climbing up these posts with the great wooden image fastened to his -back. - -In the illustration on the 1084th page we see the chief priest of -Tane--the god-bearer--ascending the pole of the sacred house, with the -unwieldy idol slung on his back. A gust of wind has risen, and has -wafted Tane’s long tail into the air, so that it has been entangled in -a neighboring tree. One of the principal priests is running to ascend -the tree and free the god’s tail, and from that time the tree will be -tapu, and no one of lower rank than the priest who freed the tail will -be allowed to ascend the tree. - -Sometimes Tane paid a visit to a marae at some distance, and when -he did so, his bearer was naturally fatigued with the weight of his -burden. It was, however, thought derogatory to the character of the god -to say that his bearer could by any possibility be tired of carrying -him, and so, by an ingenious evasion, the god himself was thought to -be fatigued with the journey, and was laid to rest for a while on a -flat stone about half a mile from the sacred tree. This stone was tapu -to women, and if a woman had sat upon it, or even touched it with her -finger, she would have been at once killed. - -The stone was not a large one, being only four feet long, one foot -broad, and nine inches thick. It is a singular fact that this sacred -stone, which had so often been the witness of idolatrous rites, -should also have witnessed the destruction of the idol to whom it was -consecrated. After Christianity had been fairly established in the -island, the chief men who adhered to the worship of Tane made war -upon the Christians, who repelled them, so that they were obliged to -bring out their idol and lay him on the sacred stone. The two bodies -of warriors met face to face close to the idol, and the struggle was -about to commence when the chief of the Christians made a speech to -the enemy, laying before them the distinctions between idolatry and -Christianity, and recommended peace instead of war. - -His voice prevailed, and those who came to fight against the Christians -renounced their idols, and, as a proof of their sincerity, they built -a large fire on the spot, threw Tane into it, and then held a great -feast, at which the men and women ate together. They then proceeded to -Tane’s house, burned it down, and dismantled his great marae. - -The feathers attached to these idols and placed within their hollow -bodies are mostly the two long tail-feathers of the tropic bird, white -and broad toward the base, and narrow and scarlet for the remainder -of their length. When the gods are newly dressed, it is considered -a meritorious act for any one to present fresh feathers in lieu of -those which have been deteriorated by age. After the old garments are -unrolled, the feathers are placed inside the image, and a corresponding -number of old feathers taken out and presented to the devotee, who -values them beyond all things, as partaking of the sanctity which -surrounds the original idol. These feathers are then carefully wrapped -with sinnet, so as to cover them, with the exception of a little -portion of both ends, and they are then laid before the idol, while -the priest recites a prayer, in which he beseeches the god to transfer -his sanctity to these feathers, which from that moment become minor -gods. - -The happy devotee has already provided himself with bamboo tubes, in -each of which he places one of the feathers, and from which he never -takes them except to pray to them. Sometimes he has a smaller idol -made, and places the feathers within it; but in this case, he has to -take the new idol to be laid before the original one, so that the -transfer of sanctity may be guaranteed to them. This mode of honoring -the sacred feathers is usually employed when the devotee has enjoyed -some piece of good fortune after he has received them, and in most -cases he not only encloses them in a new idol, but builds a small -temple in which that idol lives. - -Formerly, when animals were brought to be sacrificed to Tane, no blood -was shed, but they were laid upon a stone and strangled by pressing -their necks between two sticks. Food of all kinds was presented to him, -part of which he was supposed to consume himself, part was taken by the -priests, and the remainder was consumed by the worshippers. All first -fruits went to Tane, a peasant being supposed to offer him two of the -earliest fruits, while a _raatira_ or gentleman offered ten, and the -chiefs still more, according to their rank and wealth. - -Not very far from the sacred stone was a marae containing a very sacred -object, no less, in fact, than a piece of Tane’s own canoe. According -to the people, it was a very miraculous canoe, for it was made of -stone, and yet floated as well as if it were made of wood. In proof of -this statement, they placed the fragment in water, where it floated, as -it was likely to do, being nothing more than a piece of pumice stone. -No one knew where the stone had been obtained, but they said that there -were more pieces in different parts of the island. - -Besides the idol gods, there are gods which are symbolized by living -creatures, of which the shark is the chief, being worshipped for the -same reason that crocodiles and venomous serpents are worshipped in -some parts of the world, viz. on account of its destructive powers. Mr. -Bennett saw a large marae which had been consecrated to a shark god -on account of a miraculous event which was said to have happened some -time previously. In one particular spot the ground begun to shake and -tremble, and, as the people were flying in terror, the ground opened, -and a huge shark forced his head through the cleft in the soil. - -The formation of the maraes has already been mentioned. Some time -before Mr. Bennett arrived at the place, a shark had contrived to -force its way through the sand into the marae, which was situated -on the shore of the lagoon. The water flowed in with the fish, and -the natives, feeling delighted that their god had actually come to -take possession of his temple, blocked up the passage by which he had -entered, cleared out the marae, and kept the shark in it for the rest -of his life, feeding him abundantly with fish and meat. - -Indeed, in one bay the sharks were regularly fed by the priests, and -the consequence was that they became quite familiar, and would swim to -the beach to be fed with fish and pork. They would also accompany the -canoes, knowing well that the natives always threw overboard some of -the fish which they had caught, for the sake of propitiating the shark -gods. The latter, however, were so little sensible of the kindness -bestowed upon them, that had one of their worshippers fallen overboard -they would have eaten him, in spite of all his propitiatory offerings. - -Sometimes a living man has been elected to the rank of a god, and -worshipped as such during his lifetime. This was done at Raiatea, the -king, Tamatoa, having been reckoned among the gods by means of a series -of ceremonies which might have been very appropriate in assigning him -a place among the very worst and vilest of demons, but were singularly -unsuitable to an apotheosis. After this ceremony, the king was -consulted as an oracle, prayers and sacrifices were offered to him, and -he was treated as reverently as if he had been Tane himself. - -It is a most remarkable fact that Tamatoa became a Christian in -his later life, and afforded most valuable information respecting -the religious belief of the Society Islanders. He corroborated, as -having been an eye-witness, the accounts that have been given of the -astonishing deeds done by the heathen priests while in a state of -inspiration. They have been seen to dash their hands against the ground -with such violence that they imbedded the whole arm up to the shoulder. -Captain Henry, the son of one of the missionaries, states that he has -seen one of these priests plunge his arm into the solid earth as if it -were water, and that he would perform the feat on any ground wherever -he chanced to be. - -“The infuriated priest, on that occasion, foamed at the mouth, -distorted his eyeballs, convulsed his limbs, and uttered the most -hideous shrieks and howlings. After he had seemingly buried his arm -like a spear stuck suddenly in the ground, he held it there for a -considerable time; then, drawing it out uninjured, he rushed toward the -shore, and, laying hold upon a large canoe, which ordinarily required -three or four men to launch, he shoved it before him with apparent -ease, and sent it adrift. - -“He afterward threw himself into the sea, wallowed about in it, and -kept his head under water for a long time. When this act of the -tragical pantomime was finished, he sat among the waves, and delivered -his prophecies in very figurative and hyperbolical language, at the -same time sufficiently ambiguous to be fulfilled in one of two senses, -whatever might happen.” - -Portable shrines of the gods were once used in the Society Islands, but -so complete and rapid has been the demolition of everything connected -with idolatry, that Mr. Bennett, who was eye-witness of many idolatrous -practices, was only able to procure one specimen, which is now in the -museum of the London Missionary Society. - -In form it resembles a house, with sloping roof, and is about a yard -in length. It is supported on four short legs, and underneath there -is a round hole through which the idol was passed into its shrine, a -door exactly fitting and closing the aperture. The idol which was in -this shrine represented a female god greatly venerated by the people, -because she was so very mischievous, and had killed thousands of -people, gaining from her bloodthirsty propensities the name of Tii -Vahine, or Queen Tii. The idol is a horribly repulsive example of the -ugliness with which savages invariably invest their deities. - -The shrine, with the idol within it, was hidden in a rock cave by -priests of Tii Vahine when idolatry was overthrown by Christianity, and -was not discovered for a considerable time, when it was brought from -its place of concealment and sold. - - - - -CHAPTER CX. - -THE SOCIETY ISLANDS--_Continued_. - -HISTORY--WAR--FUNERALS--LEGENDS. - - - THE PRIESTS THE HISTORIANS OF THE SOCIETY ISLANDS -- THE MARO, OR - KING’S ROBE, AND ITS HISTORICAL VALUE -- THE HEREDITARY TITLE OF THE - KING -- THE KING’S BEARER -- ARCHITECTURE IN THE SOCIETY ISLANDS -- - TAHITAN WARFARE -- RETENTIVE MEMORY, AND ITS USE IN WAR -- BEHAVIOR - OF THE VICTORS TOWARD THE VANQUISHED -- NAVAL BATTLES AND MANŒUVRES - -- MILITARY ETIQUETTE -- HUMAN SACRIFICE BEFORE BATTLES -- CAPTAIN - COOK’S ACCOUNT OF THE CEREMONY -- FUNERALS AMONG THE TAHITANS -- - EMBALMING OF A CHIEF’S BODY -- STRANGE DRESS OF THE CHIEF MOURNER -- - THE AREOI SOCIETY, AND THE INFLUENCE WHICH IT EXERTED ON THIS GROUP - OF ISLANDS -- LEGENDARY TALES OF THE AREOIS. - -The priests performed the office of historians as well as of -hierophants, every chief of consequence having in his household at -least one of these men, who made it his business to chant on all great -occasions the most important events which had happened in the country, -and especially those which affected the family of his patron. Not -only did he relate those events of which he had been a witness, but -he also sang of the deeds of past days, the records of which had been -transmitted to him by his predecessors. - -The priests were, therefore, the only historians of the Society -Islands; and, indeed, there was no other mode of delivering to each -succeeding generation the traditions of the past. As, however, much -of their accuracy depended on the memory of the historian, and as -that memory was likely to fade by age, it naturally followed that the -history of earlier times was considerably modified by each succeeding -narrator. Tamatoa was himself a well-known chronicler, and could repeat -a wonderful number of narratives, in which fact and fiction were mixed -together in a manner that exactly resembled the semi-mythic history of -ancient Greece and Rome. - -These chroniclers, though they were unable to write, were not without -some means whereby they could refresh their memories. Chief of these -was the Maro, the sacred scarf of royalty. The word “Maro” signifies -the simple girdle which the men wear by way of clothing, but that of -the king is called, by way of pre-eminence, THE MARO; and, like the -crown of an emperor, is only worn when the kingly rank is conferred. -When not in use, it is rolled up in native cloth so as to make a large -bundle, and is only untied when it is wanted. When Captain Cook saw -it he described it as being fifteen feet long, but when Mr. Bennett -was in the Society Islands it measured twenty-one feet in length, the -additional measurement being due to the coronation of successive kings. -It is only six inches in width, and when worn is rolled round the body, -so that the end flows far behind on the ground. It is covered with the -precious red feathers, and to it is attached the needle with which it -is worked. So sacred is the maro thought to be, that, according to the -ideas of the natives, whenever a new stitch was taken the event was -marked by peals of thunder. - -The maro was never intended to be finished, but, according to the -original projection, would receive an addition at the coronation of -every new king, so that it would continue to increase in length as long -as the kingly succession was kept up. In several respects it bears a -great resemblance to the Bayeux tapestry. It is very long in proportion -to its width, and the patterns described upon it are records of the -time when the maro was woven, and act as aids to the memory of the -professional historians, who celebrate in their songs the deeds of past -days. - -The manufacture of the maro was stopped in a very curious manner. After -Tamatoa became a Christian, he was so horrified at the unspeakable -iniquity of the ceremonies that took place at each lengthening of -the maro that he determined to destroy the maro itself. Fortunately, -instead of destroying it, he gave it up to his teachers, and it was -sent, together with many specimens of the idolatrous arts of Polynesia, -to the museum of the London Missionary Society. I may here mention that -Tamatoa is the hereditary name of the king, like the Pharaoh of Egypt -and the Finow of Tonga. - -All the kings, or rather the principal chiefs, have the greatest -idea of their dignity, and are regarded by their subjects almost as -demigods. Like some of the African royalties, they are carried on men’s -shoulders when they travel from one place to another by land, and when -they go by sea they are said to fly and not to sail. There is a special -language for the king, whose canoe is called the Rainbow, and whose -house is termed the Cloud of Heaven. No one is allowed to stand above -him: and this idea is so strongly impressed upon him that a great chief -dislikes going into the cabin of an European ship, lest an inferior -should tread on the deck over his head. The king even claims authority -over the language. We speak in England familiarly of the king or -queen’s English. In the Society Islands the language really does belong -to the king, who invents and alters words according to his own caprice, -and even strikes out of the language those words which he does not -happen to like. - -The power of the king being so absolute, it might be imagined that -the house in which he lived would be far superior to those of his -subjects. His power is, however, more real than apparent, and though -he has despotic authority, he is lodged, clothed, and fed, scarcely -better than any of his subjects, and not in the least better than -the chiefs. His house is built in the same manner and of the same -materials as those of his subjects. It is certainly larger, because it -has to accommodate more persons; but in other respects it is in no way -superior. - -The houses of the Society Islands are, indeed, little more than -thatched roofs supported on pillars about seven or eight feet in -height, the pillars tapering from the base to the top, and not being -quite upright, but sloping a little inward. The floor is generally -covered with grass and mats, while to the rafters of the roof are hung -baskets, bundles of cloth, and other property. - - * * * * * - -Warfare among the Society Islands differs little from the mode which -is practised in many other parts of Polynesia, and therefore does not -require a lengthened notice. - -Formerly, when their weapons were the spear, the club, and the sling, -the wars used to be very protracted and caused much bloodshed, but the -later introduction of fire-arms has had its usual effect, and not only -reduced the number of wars but the loss of life in battle. - -Some of their spears were dreadful weapons, the worst of which seems to -have been a sort of trident, something like an eel spear. The head of -it was armed with three bones from the tail of the sting-ray. They were -not fastened to the head of the spear, but only slipped into sockets, -just tightly enough to hold them. When an enemy was struck with either -of these points, it became detached from the spear, and, in consequence -of its peculiarly barbed edges, kept working its way deeper and deeper -into the body, so that certain death was the result of a wound with one -of these spears. - -The natives of the Society Islands also used the bone of the sting-ray -for secret assassination. They watched the intended victim while he -slept, and, by gently touching him with a feather, made him turn about -until he was in a favorable position. The fatal dagger was then struck -into the body, and the assassin made his escape, being sure that the -wound must sooner or later be mortal. - -The peculiar character of the people shows itself in other ways. -They are most tenacious of memory in everything that has a personal -interest to them, and are equally unwilling to forget an injury or a -benefit. They will cherish a life-long vengeance against any one who -has offended them, so that one man has been known to follow another -from year to year, from one island to another, with the certainty and -tenacity of the bloodhound, and never to cease from his quest until -he has avenged himself upon his enemy. There is, however, a redeeming -point in this trait of character, namely, that although it is mostly -exercised for evil purposes, it sometimes takes the opposite course. -Mr. Bennett mentions that on one occasion, after a battle, a chief of -the victorious side knew that among the flying enemy was a man who had -shown a kindness to him in a former war. Knowing the fate that would -befall the man if he fell into the hands of the victors, he followed -on the track of the fugitive, and after seeking his friend from cover -to cover, and from bush to bush, he at last discovered him, took him -to his own house, kept him there for a time, and then dismissed him in -safety. - -Cruelty toward the vanquished is one of the invariable accompaniments -of savage warfare, and we cannot expect to find that the Society -Islanders are more free from it than others. The only cannibalism of -which they are guilty is in connection with war, and even on those -occasions the victorious party only eat a small portion of the dead -adversary’s body, in accordance with custom, and do not feast upon -human flesh, as many of the Polynesians do. - -They are, however, on some occasions very cruel to the captured or -wounded enemies, absolutely tearing them to pieces by degrees, and -taking care to avoid the vital parts, so as to prolong the agony of -the sufferer as much as possible. Even Pomaré, before he became a -Christian, was guilty of many abominable atrocities. He has been known -to take the children of vanquished chiefs, run sinnet cords through -the backs of their necks, and drag them about until they died of the -torture. - -Even when the enemy was dead, the victors could not be content -without insulting the senseless corpse. “When a combatant had slain a -distinguished adversary,” writes Mr. Bennett, “after the fray was over, -the perishing carcass was left upon the field for a day or two. It was -then dragged to the marae, when the victor and his friends would stand -over it, and exult in the most savage manner over the corrupted mass. - -“Each taking a fibrous wand of cocoa-nut leaf, tough as whalebone, in -his hand, to employ as a drumstick, they would beat the body with these -till they were weary; saying to it, ‘Aha! we have you now; your tongue -fills your mouth, your eyes stand out of your head, and your face is -swollen; so would it have been with us, had you prevailed.’ Then, after -a pause, they would renew their impotent stripes and not less impotent -taunts. ‘Now you are dead, you will no more plague us. We are revenged -upon you; and so you would have revenged yourself on us, if you had -been the strongest in battle.’ Again: ‘Aha! you will drink no more -kava; you will kill no more men; you will disembowel no more of our -wives and daughters. As we use you, you would have used us; but we are -the conquerors, and we have our vengeance.’ - -“When they had tired themselves, and beaten the flesh of the corpse to -a mummy, they broke the arms above the elbows, placed flowers within -the hands, and, fastening a rope about the neck, they suspended the -mangled remains on a tree, and danced with fiend-like exultation about -it, laughing and shouting as the wind blew the dislocated limbs and the -rent muscles to and fro.” - -The canoe fights show some skill in manœuvres. The war canoes are -double, with a platform laid across the bars, forming a sort of stage, -on which the warriors stand to fight. The movements of the canoes are -directed by one man, who tries to take the adversary at a disadvantage, -and orders the vessel to advance or retreat as he thinks best, while -the warriors are dancing on the platform, and exciting themselves to -rage by frantic shouts, brandishing club and spear, and exchanging -defiances with the enemy when near enough. As soon as one of them can -take the other favorably, the canoes close, and the warriors from one -try to board the other and kill its defenders. - -The reserves receive and take care of the wounded, laying them in -the bottom of the canoe, where they are safe from the weapons of the -enemy, and in their turn take the place of those who are disabled, so -that a constant succession of fresh warriors is continually coming to -the front. When at last one party gets the better of the other, those -of the vanquished side who are able to use their limbs leap overboard -and try to save themselves by swimming. They have, indeed, no other -alternative, for no quarter is ever given or expected, and if the -lives of the vanquished be spared at the time, it is only that the -unfortunate men may be tortured to death next day. - -When Captain Cook visited the Society Islands, he found that all the -decisive battles were fought by water, and that such a thing as a great -battle on land was never thought of. Indeed, the chief strength of -these insular people lies in their canoes, and in a sea fight a great -number of them were usually engaged. In such a sea fight, whenever one -party found themselves being worsted, they immediately made for the -beach, drew their canoes ashore, jumped out, and made the best of their -way to the hills, where they concealed themselves during the day, and -at night slipped off to their own homes. - -When a pitched battle of this kind is determined upon, it is fought out -very fairly, and becomes a sort of general tournament. The two opposing -chiefs arrange with each other as to the time and place for the battle. -The whole of the day and night preceding the battle are occupied by -both parties in feasting and dancing, evidently on the principle -that, if they are to be killed on the morrow, they may as well enjoy -themselves while they can. Before daybreak the canoes are launched and -made ready for battle, and with the dawn the fight commences. - -After the engagement is over, and the vanquished have run away, the -victors go in great triumph to the maraes, where they return thanks to -their gods, and offer to them the dead, the wounded, and the prisoners -whom they have taken. The chief of the conquered party then opens -negotiations with his successful opponent, and a treaty is arranged, -in which peace is restored on certain conditions. These are often very -hard, and force the vanquished to give up large tracts of land as well -as to pay heavy fines in property. Sometimes a whole district changes -masters, and, in one or two cases, an entire island has been added to -the conquerors. - - * * * * * - -As human sacrifices have several times been mentioned, it will be as -well to describe the circumstances under which they take place. We have -already seen that in times of war the captured enemies are offered to -the idols. There is a sort of excuse for this act, the idea being -that, as the captives had sought the lives of the worshippers of the -gods, their own lives should be sacrificed to them as an atonement for -their presumption. - -There are, however, other occasions on which such sacrifices are -offered, and where the victim is selected by the chief and killed -in cold blood. If, for example, the king or principal chief of an -island or district should project a war against another, he generally -sacrifices a man to his god in order to bespeak his aid against the -enemy. One of these sacrifices was seen by Captain Cook in 1777. He did -not witness the actual murder of the victim, who was killed, as usual, -unawares, by a blow from a stone, but saw the body as it was prepared -for offering, and was present at the curious ceremony which accompanied -the sacrifice. - -It appeared that Towha, the chief of his district, intended to make -war against the island of Eimeo, and sent a message to his friend and -relative Otoo that he had sacrificed a man, and wished for Otoo’s -presence when the body was offered at the great marae of Attahooroo. -Having previously doubted whether the usually mild and gentle Tahitans -would really offer human sacrifices, Captain Cook asked permission to -accompany Otoo, and accordingly went with him to the marae. The party -accordingly embarked in their canoes, taking with them a miserable, -half-starved dog, which was to form part of the sacrifice. - -When they arrived at the landing-place, they found the body of the -slain man already there, lying in a canoe which was half in and half -out of the water, just in front of the marae. Otoo, his visitors, and -the chiefs halted about ten yards from the body, while the rest of the -people looked on from a distance. - -“The ceremonies now began. One of the priests’ attendants brought a -young plantain tree, and laid it down before Otoo. Another approached -with a small tuft of red feathers, twisted on some fibres of the -cocoa-nut husk, with which he touched one of the king’s feet, and then -retired with it to his companions. - -“One of the priests, seated at the marae, facing those that were upon -the beach, now began a long prayer; and, at certain times, sent down -young plantain trees, which were laid upon the sacrifice. During this -prayer a man, who stood by the officiating priest, held in his hand two -bundles, seemingly of cloth. In one of them, as we afterward found, was -the royal maro; and the other, if I may be allowed the expression, was -the ark of the Eatooa (_i. e._ the Atua, or god). As soon as the prayer -was ended, the priests at the marae, with their attendants, went and -sat down with those upon the beach, carrying with them the two bundles. - -“Here they renewed their prayers; during which the plantain trees were -taken, one by one, at different times, from off the sacrifice, which -was partly wrapped up in cocoa leaves and small branches. It was now -taken out of the canoe and laid upon the beach, with the feet to the -sea. The priests placed themselves around it, some sitting and others -standing; and one or more of them repeated sentences for about ten -minutes. The dead body was now uncovered by removing the leaves and -branches, and laid in a parallel direction by the sea-shore. - -“One of the priests then, standing at the feet of it, pronounced a long -prayer, in which he was at times joined by the others; each holding in -his hand a tuft of red feathers. In the course of this prayer some hair -was pulled off the head of the sacrifice, and the left eye taken out; -both which were presented to Otoo, wrapped up in a green leaf. He did -not, however, touch it, but gave to the man who presented it the tuft -of feathers which he had received from Towha. This, with the hair and -eye, was carried back to the priests. - -“Soon after, Otoo sent to them another piece of feathers, which he had -given me in the morning to keep in my pocket. During some part of this -last ceremony, a kingfisher making a noise in the trees, Otoo turned to -me, saying, ‘That is the Eatooa,’ and seemed to look upon it as a good -omen. - -“The body was then carried a little way, with its head toward the -marae, and laid under a tree, near which were fixed three broad thin -pieces of wood, differently but rudely carved. The bundles of cloth -were laid on a part of the marae; and the tufts of red feathers were -placed at the feet of the sacrifice, round which the priests took their -stations; and we were now allowed to go as near as we pleased. - -“He who seemed to be the chief priest sat at a small distance, and -spoke for a quarter of an hour, but with different tones and gestures; -so that he seemed often to expostulate with the dead person--to whom he -constantly addressed himself--and sometimes asked several questions, -seemingly with respect to the propriety of his having been killed. At -other times he made several demands, as if the deceased either now had -power himself, or interest with the divinity, to engage him to comply -with such requests. Amongst which, we understood, he asked him to -deliver Eimeo, Maheine its chief, the hogs, women, and other things of -the island, into their hands,--which was indeed the express intention -of the sacrifice. He then chanted a prayer, which lasted near half an -hour, in a whining, melancholy tone, accompanied by two other priests, -and in which Potatau and some others joined. In the course of this -prayer some more hair was plucked by a priest from the head of the -corpse, and put upon one of the bundles. - -“After this, the chief priest prayed alone, holding in his hand the -feathers which came from Towha. When he had finished, he gave them to -another, who prayed in like manner. Then all the tufts of feathers were -laid upon the bundles of cloth; which closed the ceremony at this place. - -“The corpse was then carried up to the most conspicuous part of the -marae, with the feathers, the two bundles of cloth, and the drums, the -last of which beat slowly. The feathers and bundles were laid against -the pile of stones, and the corpse at the foot of them. The priests -having again seated themselves round it, renewed their prayers, while -some of the attendants dug a hole about two feet deep, into which they -threw the unhappy victim, and covered it over with earth and stones. -While they were putting him into the grave a boy squeaked aloud, and -Omai said to me that it was the Eatooa. - -“During this time, a fire having been made, the dog before mentioned -was produced, and killed, by twisting his neck, and suffocating him. -The hair was singed off, and the entrails taken out and thrown into -the fire, where they were left to consume. But the heart, liver, and -kidneys were only roasted, by being laid on hot stones for a few -minutes; and the body of the dog, after being besmeared with the blood, -which had been collected in a cocoa-nut shell, and dried over the fire, -was with the liver, &c., carried and laid down before the priests, who -sat praying round the grave. - -“They continued their ejaculations over the dog for some time, while -two men at intervals beat on two drums very loud, and a boy screamed as -before in a loud shrill voice three different times. This, as we were -told, was to invite the Eatooa to feast on the banquet that they had -prepared for him. As soon as the priests had ended their prayers, the -carcass of the dog with what belonged to it were laid on a _whatta_, -or scaffold, about six feet high, that stood close by, on which lay -the remains of two other dogs, and of two pigs, which had lately been -sacrificed, and at this time emitted an intolerable stench. This kept -us at a greater distance than would otherwise have been required of -us; for after the victim was removed from the seaside toward the marae -we were allowed to approach as near as we pleased. Indeed, after that, -neither seriousness nor attention were much observed by the spectators. -When the dog was put upon the whatta, the priests and attendants gave a -kind of shout, which closed the ceremonies for the present.” - -The scene is well represented in illustration No. 1, on the opposite -page. In the foreground is the canoe, in which lies the body of the -slain victim, attended by two priests; while just above it on the shore -is the dog that is intended to furnish the second portion of the -offering. Just in front of the house are two platforms, on the taller -of which lie the dogs and pigs that have already been sacrificed, and -on the lower lies the embalmed body of the late king, which is brought -out for inspection. In front of the bier are the drummers performing on -their elaborately carved instruments. A portion of the marae is seen -on the left hand of the illustration, and on it lie the skulls of the -human sacrifices that have been offered on various occasions. - -Next day the ceremonies were resumed; more pigs were killed, some gifts -were laid upon the movable house in which the Atua (or god) was carried -about, and a young plantain tree was plucked up and laid at the feet of -the king. - -The mysterious bundles of cloth which had been laid on the marae were -then unrolled, and out of one of them was taken the sacred maro, or -royal girdle, which has already been described. It was remarkable for -the fact that a portion of the scarlet feathers with which the maro is -decorated were sewed upon an English pennant which had been hoisted by -Captain Wallis when he landed on the island, and left flying when he -left it. The second bundle contained the idol to whom the sacrifices -were made. - -Another hog was then killed, and the entrails inspected, exactly after -the manner employed by the old Roman augurs; and the ceremony ended -with rolling up the Atua, together with a number of scarlet feathers, -in the bundle of cloth from which it had been taken. - -At the funerals of very great men human sacrifices are often made, -and near the large whattas, or platforms, on which the pigs and other -provisions are offered, there are numbers of human skulls, each a relic -of a human sacrifice. The only redeeming point about these sacrifices -is, that the victim is quite unconscious of his fate. He is struck to -the ground suddenly by an assassin who comes stealthily upon him, and -never feels the real bitterness of death, namely, the dread of the -coming fate. - -The bodies of great chiefs undergo a process by which they are -preserved for a considerable time. Captain Cook saw the corpse of a -chief who had been dead for several months, and whose body had suffered -scarcely any apparent change. There was a slight contraction of the -muscles and sinking of the eyes, but the body was otherwise perfect; -and when the attendants on the corpse unrolled the cloth in which it -was enveloped, the limbs were found to be nearly as pliant as in life. - -This result is obtained by removing the whole of the interior of the -body, supplying its place with cloth soaked in cocoa-nut oil, and -anointing the whole body repeatedly with the same substance. The bodies -are exposed to public view for some time; but the embalming only -postpones the process of decay, and, sooner or later, decomposition -does its work. At first the body is exposed for several hours daily, -provided that there be no rain; but by degrees it is only shown at -intervals, and at last is scarcely ever exhibited, except by request. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE HUMAN SACRIFICE. (See page 1076.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CORPSE AND CHIEF MOURNER. (See page 1079.)] - -There is a special building, called a _tupapau_, in which the bodies of -chiefs are exhibited when lying in state. First, there is a tolerably -large house, with a palisade around it, and within this house is the -tupapau itself. It is made exactly like the little pent-houses that are -built upon the larger canoes, and is profusely decorated with scarlet -feathers, cloth, and other precious ornaments. Two men are attached -to the tupapau, who watch over it night and day, attend to the proper -arrangement of the cloth and feathers, receive the offerings of fruit -and provisions that are constantly made, and prevent intruders from -venturing within the palisades. - -The second illustration on the 1077th page exhibits the manner in -which the bodies of ordinary chiefs are laid out under the protection -of a covered shed, as well as the extraordinary dress worn by the -chief mourner. The dress is composed in the most ingenious manner of -mother-of-pearl shell, feathers, bark cloth, and similar materials, and -has a peculiarly startling appearance from the contrast between the -glittering white of the pearl-shell and the dark feathers with which -the shell is surrounded. Several of these extraordinary dresses have -been brought to England, and may be seen in different collections. - - * * * * * - -Before leaving the Society Islands, it will be necessary to mention an -extraordinary institution that in former times prevailed among them. It -consisted of a society called the “Areois.” They were worshippers of -the god Oro; and though they formed a single confraternity throughout -all the Society group, each island furnished its own members. - -Some writers have likened the society to that of Freemasonry; but no -two institutions can be more utterly opposed than those of the Masonic -and the Areoi societies--the one insisting on monotheism, while the -other is based on idolatry; the one being an universal, and the other a -local society; the one inculcating morality, and the other being formed -for the express purpose of throwing aside the small relics of morality -possessed by a native Polynesian. - -It is not improbable, however, that on its first foundation the Areoi -society possessed something of a religious nature. When Areois who -had been converted to Christianity managed to shake off the dread -with which they contemplated any reference to the mysteries of their -society, they all agreed in the main points, though differing in -details. - -In the first place, the Areois believed in the immortality of the soul, -and in the existence of a heaven suited to their own characters. Those -who rose to high rank in the Areoi society were believed, after their -death, to hold corresponding rank in their heaven, which they called -by the name of Rohutu-noa-noa, or Fragrant Paradise. All those who -entered were restored to the vigor and bloom of youth, no matter what -might be their age; and in almost every respect the resemblance between -the Polynesian Rohutu and the Mohammedan Paradise is close and almost -startling. - -The method by which this Paradise was to be gained was most -extraordinary. Fanatics of an ordinary turn of mind believe that -everlasting happiness hereafter is to be gained by self-denial and -mortification of the body during the present life. The Areois, with -an almost sublime audacity, held precisely the opposite view, and -proclaimed both by words and deeds that a life of eternal enjoyment -in the next world was to be obtained by leading a life of unbridled -license in the present world. - -In order to carry out this theory to the fullest extent, the Areois -formed themselves into a society, and travelled about from one island -to another, disseminating their peculiar opinions wherever they went, -and gaining fresh recruits to their number in each island. On one -occasion Captain Cook saw seventy canoes filled with Areois set off -on an expedition to the different islands. Wherever they landed, they -proceeded to the nearest marae, and offered a sacrifice of a sucking -pig to the god who presided over it, this sacrifice being in the first -place a thank-offering to the god for their safe landing, and in the -next a notification that they wanted pigs for themselves. - -Partly on account of the terror inspired by their numbers and -unanimity, and partly on account of the spread of their very -intelligible doctrines, the invitation always met with an immediate -response, and great numbers of pigs, together with vegetable food, -cloth, kava, and other luxuries were produced. A great feast was then -held, during which the peculiar doctrines of the society were carried -out to the full, and a scene ensued such as cannot be described. - -Among the worst of their doctrines was that which declared them all -to be celibates, because the god Oro was unmarried. Consequently, the -existence of children among them could not be recognized, and as soon -as a child was born, it was murdered, and the fact of its existence -ignored. By a similarly convenient fiction, all Areois were presumed to -be in the full vigor of human life. Consequently, the possibility of -age and debility was ignored, and in order to prove the non-existence -of either senility or sickness, any old or sick person was quietly -buried alive. The victims were never apprized of their fate, as is the -case in Fiji, but a grave was dug surreptitiously, the sick person was -decoyed to it on some pretence or other, dropped into the grave, the -earth flung on him, and stamped down almost before he had time for a -remonstrance. - -Sometimes, when provisions ran short, the Areois had a very strange -method of supplying themselves. A party of them, led by some chief, -whose rank was known by the marks tattooed on his body, would visit a -house where they saw evidences of prosperity, and look about until they -came on a little boy--an easy matter enough in a country where polygamy -is practised. They would then take the child, and go through various -ceremonies, by which they represented him as having been raised to -kingly rank. - -They would then simulate the utmost deference to the new king, place -him on an elevated seat, prostrate themselves before him, and appeal -to him as though he really held the kingly rank. “We are come to the -king’s house, poor, naked, and hungry. We need raiment--give us that -piece of cloth. We need food--give us that pig.” Accordingly, the -father of the child was forced to fall in with their humor, and, in -return for the honor conferred upon his house, to give them whatever -they demanded. - -The only redeeming point of the Areois was their value in keeping up -the old historical records of the islands. The food and clothing which -they obtained from the various people were repaid by the dramatic -performances and recitations which they gave, and which debased as -they were by the licentious element which permeated every section -of the society, performed toward their local history the same part -which the ancient mysteries performed toward the Christian religion. -The Polynesians being unable to read or write, and having no mode of -recording historical events except by tradition, these performances -rendered as it were history visible, and enacted before the eyes of the -illiterate people the deeds of days long gone by. - -Sometimes the story was that of a celebrated ancestor, much on a par -with the semi-mythical legends of ancient European and Asiatic history, -and sometimes it took a graver cast, and narrated the deeds and powers -of the native gods. For example, the legend of Taroa, the father of -gods and men, was somewhat as follows:-- - -In ages long gone by, Taroa existed only in the form of a vast egg, and -hung high in the firmament, inclosing in the shell the sun, moon, and -stars. After floating in ether for ages, he thrust his hands through -the shell, so that the light of the sun burst upon the universe and -illumined the earth beneath him. And the earth was then small as it lay -beneath him. Then Taroa saw the sands of the sea, and cried to them, -“Sands, come up to me, and be my companions.” But the sands replied, -“We belong to the earth and sea, O Taroa, and may not leave them. Come -thou down to us.” Then he saw the rocks and cliffs, and cried to them, -“Rocks come up to me, and be my companions.” But the rocks replied, “We -are rooted in the earth, O Taroa, and may not leave it. Come thou to -us.” - -Then Taroa descended, and cast off his shell, which immediately added -itself to the ground, and the earth was increased to its present -dimensions, while the sun and moon shone above. Long did Taroa live on -the earth which he peopled with men and women; and at last the time -came when he should depart from it. He transformed himself into a large -canoe, which was filled with islanders, when a great storm arose, and -suddenly the canoe was filled with blood. The islanders with their -calabashes baled out the blood, which ran to the east and west of the -sea; and ever afterward the blood of Taroa is seen in the clouds which -accompany the rising and setting sun, and, as of old tinges the waves -with red. - -When the canoe came to land, it was but the skeleton of Taroa, which -was laid on the ground with its face downward, and from that time -all the houses of the gods have been built on the model of Taroa’s -skeleton, the thatched roofs representing the backbone and the posts -the ribs. - -Legends such as these are often transmitted from one reciter to -another, and recited verbatim, being merely illustrated and exemplified -by such poetical digressions as the mind of the narrator may suggest. -With others, on the contrary, the orator has only the mere skeleton, -and tells the story in the manner that seems him best. - - - - -CHAPTER CXI. - -THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. - -CLIMATE--DRESS--ORNAMENTS--WOMEN. - - - LOCALITY OF THE GROUP -- CONFORMATION AND CLIMATE OF HAWAII -- - APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF THE MEN -- FEATHER MANTLES AND HELMETS -- - SINGULAR RESEMBLANCE TO CLASSIC MODELS -- APPEARANCE OF THE WOMEN -- - A HAWAIIAN BEAUTY -- DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- MODES OF WEARING THE HAIR - -- BRACELETS AND OTHER ORNAMENTS -- FONDNESS FOR PIGS AND DOGS -- - OCCUPATIONS OF THE WOMEN -- HOSPITALITY TO STRANGERS -- FISH PONDS, - AND MODE OF MAKING THEM -- TREATMENT OF WOMEN -- SEMI-AMPHIBIOUS - NATURE OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDERS -- INGENIOUS METHOD OF OBTAINING - SOUNDINGS. - -Considerably to the northward of the Society Islands lie the SANDWICH -ISLANDS, so called by Captain Cook, in honor of the Earl of Sandwich. -The entire group consists of eight inhabited islands, and a few which -are too barren and rocky to maintain human beings. The largest and most -important of them is HAWAII, or Owhyhee, as the word is spelt in Cook’s -“Voyages.” It was on the shore of a bay on the western side of this -island that Captain Cook was killed in 1779. Owing to the interchange -of the letters _l_ and _r_, which is so prevalent among the Polynesian -languages, the name of this bay is sometimes spelt as Karakakooa, and -sometimes as Kealakekua. - -The capital city of the Sandwich Islands is not situated in Hawaii, but -in Oahu, or Woahu, one of the smaller islands, and is called Honolulu. -It rightly deserves the name of a city, because it is the seat of a -bishopric. The climate of the Sandwich Islands is said to be the most -charming in the world. The variation is exceedingly trifling, as near -the sea the temperature is below that of sultry English summer-time, -while on the coldest winter’s day the thermometer never sinks below -62° Fahr. Owing, however, to the mountainous nature of these islands, -any one may live throughout the year in almost exactly the same -temperature, by ascending into a cooler atmosphere when the weather is -too hot, and descending into the warmer strata during the months of -winter. - -Adhering to the principle which has been followed in this work, I -shall say but little of the present Europeanized condition of the -natives of these islands, and confine myself as far as possible to the -manners and customs of the people as they were before the white men had -introduced their own mode of civilization. Even at the present day, -however, the old savage character continually shows itself, and among -the very people who seem to be most completely under the influence of -civilization the original old heathenism exhibits itself when they are -off their guard, or when they think themselves out of the ken of white -men. It will be understood, therefore, that although the present tense -may be used in the following pages, all descriptions apply to them as -they were originally, and not to them as they are at the present day. - - * * * * * - -The men are tall, active and powerful, and in color are of an olive -brown, the precise depth of tint varying much according to the exposure -to the sun, so that the skins of the chiefs are much lighter than those -of the commonalty. The hair is jet black, and not in the least woolly, -being sometimes quite straight, and sometimes wavy. The face is mostly -wide, and is a very handsome one, the only fault in it being a tendency -to width across the nostrils. - -The men all wear the maro or malo, _i. e._ the slight girdle of cloth -which has already been mentioned, and having this, they consider -themselves dressed for all purposes of decency. They also have a tappa, -or bark-cloth garment, which is twisted round the waist, and falls -below the knees, while the better class wear also a sort of mantle, to -shelter their skin from the darkening sunbeams. - -The great chiefs have also mantles made of a sort of network, into -each mesh of which are interwoven the feathers of various birds, the -most precious of them being that which supplies the yellow feathers. -This is a little bird called _Melithreptes pacifica_. It is one of the -honey-birds, and under each wing there is a single yellow feather, one -inch in length. The late king, Kamehameha, had a cloak made of these -feathers alone. It was four feet long, and eleven feet wide at the -bottom. No less than nine successive kings died before this priceless -mantle was finished. - -The headdress of the chiefs is of so graceful and classical a form as -absolutely to startle the spectator. It is a helmet made of wicker-work -and covered with feathers, the shape being exactly that of the ancient -Grecian helmet even to the elevated crest which runs over the top. -One of these beautiful helmets is shown on the 1097th page. It is not -intended as a protection for the head, the material being too fragile -for such a purpose, but is simply a badge of rank and wealth. Mostly -they are covered with scarlet and yellow feathers, disposed in bold -bands or belts, and the wealth of the wearer may be known by the -proportion which the yellow and scarlet feathers bear to each other. - -Examples of these beautiful ornaments may be seen in several museums, -where it is to be hoped that they will be kept from the destructive -moths and beetles, inasmuch as they form the sole memorials of a time -now passed away. - -The birds which furnish these feathers are eagerly sought by -the Sandwich Islanders, who have the same love of scarlet that -distinguishes not only all Polynesians but all savages and children. -The birds are usually caught by means of a tenacious substance much -resembling our birdlime, and used in a similar manner by being smeared -on twigs and poles, to which the birds are attracted by means of baits. - -The natural taste in color is as good as that which displays itself in -form, and although the brightest and most boldly contrasting colors -are used by the Sandwich Islanders, they are used with such admirable -judgment that they do not look gaudy, or even obtrusive. - -The women, when young, are singularly beautiful, and retain their -good looks longer than is usual among Polynesians. Like the other -sex, however, they generally attain to great size in their latter -years, those of the better sort being remarkable for their enormous -corpulence. This development is probably owing, like that of the Kaffir -chiefs, to the great quantity of porridge which they are continually -eating. When young, however, they are exceedingly beautiful, their -features having a peculiar charm of their own, and their forms being -like those of the ancient Grecian statues. An American traveller, -writing under the _nom de plume_ of Haöle, _i. e._ foreigner, gives a -most animated description of a native girl, in his interesting work on -the Sandwich Islands, showing that the partial civilization to which -the natives have been subjected has not destroyed their beauty of -features nor symmetry of form. - -“In truth to nature, it may be safely asserted that beauty is not -confined merely to the saloon of the monarch, nor to the tapestried -chambers of the patrician. It is more frequently found amid the lowlier -walks of life, on the desert, or the distant isle of the ocean. In this -instance I wish to be understood as speaking of physical beauty only. -On leaving the shore-road to ascend the mountains for Halawa, I met -just such a specimen as has often driven men mad, and whose possession -has many a time paved the way to the subversion of empire on the part -of monarchs. - -“She was rather above the medium size of American women. Her finely -chiselled chin, nose, and forehead were singularly Grecian. Her -beautifully moulded neck and shoulders, looked as though they might -have been borrowed from Juno. The development of her entire form was -as perfect as nature could make it. She was arrayed in a single loose -robe, beneath which a pretty little nude foot was just peeping out. Her -hair and eyebrows were as glossy as a raven’s wing. Around her head -was carelessly twined a wreath of the beautiful native _ohelo_ flowers -(_Gaultheria penduliflorum_). Her lips seemed fragrant with the odor -of countless and untiring kisses. Her complexion was much fairer than -the fairest of her countrywomen, and I was forced into the conclusion -that she was the offshoot of some white father who had trampled on -the seventh precept in the Decalogue, or taken to his embrace, by the -marriage relation, some good-looking Hawaiian woman. - -“But her eyes! I never shall forget those eyes! They retained -something that spoke of an affection so deep, a spiritual existence so -intense, a dreamy enchantment so inexpressibly beautiful, that they -reminded one of the beautiful Greek girl Myrrha, in Byron’s tragedy of -‘Sardanapalus,’ whose love clung to the old monarch when the flame of -the funeral pile formed their winding sheet. - -“In no former period of my life had I ever raised my hat in the -presence of beauty, but at this moment, and in such a presence, I _took -it off_. I was entirely fascinated, charmed, spell-bound now. I stopped -my horse; and there I sat, to take a fuller glance at the fair reality. -And the girl stopped, and returned the glance, while a smile parted her -lips, and partially revealed a set of teeth as white as snow, and of -matchless perfection. I felt that smile to be an unsafe atmosphere for -the nerves of a bachelor; so I bowed, replaced my hat, and passed on my -way, feeling fully assured that nothing but the chisel of Praxiteles -could have copied her exquisite charms. And as I gently moved past her, -she exclaimed, in the vocabulary of her country ‘Love to you.’” - -[Illustration: (1.) IDOL TANE RETURNING HOME. (See page 1069.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) SANDWICH ISLAND WOMEN AND PIG. (See page 1085.)] - -The same writer mentions in several other places the beauty of the -young girls whom he saw in Hawaii. There was no reason for the surmise -that the girl who impressed him so deeply was a half-caste, because, as -has already been mentioned, people of the better class are much fairer -than those of lower rank, and are scarcely so dark as the inhabitants -of Southern Europe. - -The dress of the Sandwich Islands women is much like that of the -Tongans, and consists essentially of a wrapper of bark cloth passing -round the waist and falling below the knees. It is often arranged so -that the end may be thrown over the shoulders, and many of the better -class of women have a separate piece of cloth which is used as a -mantle. When young they wear no clothing at all. - -The methods of wearing the hair are somewhat various. The women -generally cut it behind, but allow it to grow to its full length on -the rest of the head. The men sometimes divide the hair into a number -of locks, and plait or twist each lock into a sort of tail about the -thickness of a man’s finger. These tails are allowed to grow to their -full length, and stream for some distance down the back. The length of -tail seems to be much valued among these people, who are in the habit -of adding to their length by supplementary additions of hair woven into -their own locks. The hair is often stained of a reddish color by the -use of lime, as is done in Fiji and other parts of Polynesia. Sometimes -the men shave the whole of the hair on either side of the head, leaving -only one crest of long hair to run from the forehead to the nape of the -neck, just like the crests of the feather helmets. - -Captain Cook remarks that the Sandwich Islanders stand almost alone -among Polynesians in refusing to perforate their ears, and that -they have no idea of wearing ornaments in them. They are fond of -ornaments, some of which are worth a brief description. They have a -sort of necklace made of black cord, doubled forty or fifty times, and -supporting a piece of wood, shell, or bone cut into the form of a broad -hook. Necklaces made of small shells strung together are also common, -as are also necklaces of dried flowers. - -Bracelets of various kinds are valued by the women. Some of these -ornaments are made of hog’s teeth placed side by side, with the concave -parts outward, and joined by a string running through the middle. Some -of these bracelets are made entirely of the long curved tusks of boars, -and are really handsome ornaments. Others are formed from pieces of -black wood, fastened together in a similar manner, and being variegated -by small pieces of hog’s teeth let into them. - -The men sometimes wear on their heads tufts of feathers tied to slight -sticks. The most valuable of these plumes are those which are made -of the tail-feathers of the tropic bird. Others, which are not so -valuable, are made of white dog’s hair. The sticks are sometimes two -feet in length. - -Tattooing is but slightly practised among the Sandwich Islanders, -though some of them have the arms and chest decorated with lines and -figures tolerably well executed. - -Like many of the Polynesians, the Sandwich Islanders have an absurd -liking for pigs and dogs, carrying them about and feeding them when -young, as if they had been children. Even when the animals attain -their full growth, they are petted to no small extent. The “Haöle” -narrates an amusing example of the extreme tenderness which the -Hawaiian women evince for these animals, and the artist has represented -the description in engraving No. 2, on the preceding page. He was -travelling through the island, and noticed a group of women sitting -under the shade of a pandanus tree, and surrounding something in which -they seemed to be greatly interested. On coming closer, he found that -the object of their attention was an enormous hog. - -The women were taking it to market, a task which usually devolves -upon them, and had to drive the animal for a considerable distance -over lofty mountains, a task which could not occupy them less than -thirty-six hours. To produce the hog in good condition was evidently -their principal object, and they would therefore hurry it as little as -possible, coax it along, rather than drive it, by day, and sleep by its -side at night. It so happened that the day was a very warm one, and the -hog, which was in very good condition, was oppressed with its own fat, -with the heat and the fatigue of the journey. Accordingly, the women -had led their charge to a shady spot, taken off their only garments, -soaked them in water, and spread them over the panting animal, which -uttered occasional grunts of satisfaction at the coolness caused by the -wet garments, and the continual fanning which the women kept up with -leaves. - -When the pig is of smaller size, and the market is near at hand, so -that there is no danger the animal may get out of condition, a much -simpler plan is followed, the legs of the pig being tied together, and -a pole run between them, which is lifted on the shoulders of two or -four men, according to the weight of the animal. - -Although the Sandwich Islanders will eat dogs, pigs, and cats too, -when they can afford themselves the luxury, they are so fond of them -while living that a man will sooner resent an injury done to his dog -or pig than to his child. When travelling, accompanied by their dogs, -they treat the animals just like children, taking them in their arms, -and carrying them over any rough or muddy places, lest perchance the -poor animals should hurt or soil their feet. It is possible that this -extraordinary predilection may arise from the fact that none of these -animals are indigenous, but have been introduced by Europeans. - -It will be seen that the women do not spend their lives in idleness. -Indeed, though they are not treated with the harshness that too often -falls to the lot of women in uncivilized countries, they do a very -fair share of the work. The cooking, for example, is entirely their -business, and they are as great adepts at procuring as at cooking food. -For example, if a stranger should call at the house of a native, the -wife is sure to come out, pass her hand over him, and inquire whether -he is hungry. Should he reply in the affirmative, she or another girl -runs out to one of the fish ponds, launches a small canoe, and in a -very short space of time she has caught some fish, broiled them, cooked -some taro, and laid them on plantain leaves before the guest. - -These fish ponds are very common in Hawaii, and are mostly made by the -women. They are formed by taking advantage of the coral beach, which -has numerous small bays or inlets with comparatively narrow mouths. -Across the mouths of these bays the natives pile pieces of coral rock -so as to prevent any fish from escaping. They are deepened as occasion -may require, and it is not an uncommon thing to see a number of women -up to their waists in mud and water busily employed in cleaning out -a fish pond, and evidently enjoying the work rather than thinking it -a hardship. While they are thus at work on land, their husbands and -brothers are equally hard at work on sea, catching the fish which are -to be transferred to the pond. - -The natives rely much for their supplies of food on these ponds, as -fish forms a considerable portion of their diet, pork and fowls being -too expensive to be considered anything but luxuries, and only to be -eaten constantly by the rich. The ponds vary much in size, but are -generally of considerable dimensions. Few of them cover less than an -acre of ground, while others are a hundred times as large. One or two -of the largest are very ancient, and may be considered as historical -monuments, the coral blocks which shut them off from the sea being of -such enormous size as to tell of the time when the kings or principal -chiefs were absolute, and could command any amount of human labor. - -Even at the present time the natives rely much on their fish ponds for -their supplies of food, and the size of the pond is an invariable test -of the rank and wealth of the owner. They are watched as carefully as -game preserves in our own country, and suffer as much from poachers, -who, however, seldom escape detection. - -While, therefore, the women do their share of the work, their life is -by no means a laborious one, because there is so little work to be -done. The taro patch has to be prepared and cultivated, but this is -not a very laborious task; the fish ponds have to be made and left -in order, the cooking has to be done, and the bark cloth to be made. -Of all these tasks the second is the hardest, and this is rather -considered as an amusement than a labor, the women being so amphibious -in their habits that to spend half the day in mud and water is no -hardship to them, as is seen by the merry talk and laughter that -accompany the work. - -Mr. Bennett mentions one instance in which a woman was badly treated -by her husband. Being in a state of intoxication, he ordered her to -carry him on her back up one of the precipices with which these islands -abound. In spite of the almost perpendicular rocks, which are in that -spot so steep that the white visitors could barely climb up them -without any burden at all, the woman undertook the task, and succeeded -in reaching the summit in safety. - -The semi-amphibious nature of the Sandwich Islanders has already been -mentioned. The mode in which both sexes turn their aquatic powers -into a means of amusement will be presently described, but we are now -dealing with the work done by the women, and not with their amusements. -There is a salt-water lake called Loki Nomilu, which was said by the -natives to be the handiwork of the terrible fire-goddess Pele, who dug -deep into the ground in search of fresh water, but was baffled by the -sea finding a subterranean entrance, although the lake is many yards -from the shore. Being angry with the sea for its misconduct she took -her departure, and took up her abode in the crater of the great volcano -of Hawaii, which is called by her name. There is little doubt that -the lake in question is itself the crater of an extinct volcano. The -“Haöle” went to visit this extraordinary lake, and gives the following -account of the mode by which its actual depth was ascertained:-- - -“Having been informed that this lake was fathomless, I felt only more -solicitous to test the mystery. There were no means, however, on the -premises; and, two women excepted, the little village was temporarily -deserted. There were several canoes on the shore, but the lake was -much disturbed by a heavy north wind, so that they would have been -rendered nearly useless. But I felt as though I could not abandon the -expedition. The gentleman who accompanied me thither informed the women -of my object in coming, and assured them I was extremely anxious to -know the depth of the water in that lake, and that we would wait until -some of the men returned from their fishing excursion. - -“But one of them soon provided a remedy. She proposed swimming into -the lake with a sounding-line to make the required measurement. Our -remonstrance against such a measure was in vain, for she resolutely -assured us it would be not only an easy performance, but afford her -much satisfaction to have an opportunity of serving me. She procured a -piece of wili-wili wood, exceedingly light, about six feet long, and -as many inches in diameter. This she insisted on carrying to the north -end of the lake, where, under the lee of the high hills, she launched -the log of wood. After wading in until it was deep enough to swim, she -placed the log firmly under her chest, keeping it there with one hand, -and retaining the sounding-line with the other. In this position she -struck down the lake, stopping at short intervals to let down the line, -which she knotted at the surface of the water every time she found the -bottom. This done, she would gather up her line, replace her log, and -resume her course. And she pursued this plan until her task was done. - -“It would be superfluous to say that this feat excited our admiration, -or that we compensated her for her pains. It was the most novel -expedition I had ever seen; nor could I fully realize it until I -remembered that in these islands, as in other parts of Polynesia, and -in the Caribbean Sea, the women and girls are the best swimmers. The -Hawaiians are almost amphibious. Volumes might be written detailing -their extraordinary feats in the water. It is owing to their frequent -bathing that many of the women of Polynesia display such an exquisite -_contour_.” - -The woman who performed the feat was the mother of nine children, all -of whom were living--an extraordinary event in the life of an Hawaiian -woman, so many children perishing either by neglect, disease, or -intentional violence. - - - - -CHAPTER CXII. - -THE SANDWICH ISLANDS--_Concluded_. - -WAR--SPORT--RELIGION. - - - WEAPONS OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDERS -- KAMEHAMEHA AND THE SPEARS -- - TWO KINDS OF SLINGS -- THE WOODEN DAGGER OR PAHÚA -- THE KNIFE FOR - CUTTING UP THE BODIES OF SLAIN ENEMIES -- THE WAR MAT AND ITS USES - -- THE TOOTH BREASTPLATE -- SUPPOSED CANNIBALISM OF THE SANDWICH - ISLANDERS -- VARIOUS GAMES -- SURF SWIMMING -- CHILDREN AND THE WATER - -- MASKED PADDLERS -- BALL PLAY -- CUP AND BALL -- THE HIDDEN STONE - -- A BOXING MATCH IN THE SANDWICH ISLANDS -- SLEDGING AND ITS DANGERS - -- RELIGION OF HAWAII -- FEATHER AND WOODEN IDOLS. - -Some of the weapons used by the Sandwich Islanders are rather curious. - -In the first place they have the spear, which is made of a chestnut -colored wood, which takes a high polish, and is usually barbed at -the point and brought to a flattened point at the butt. They are -exceedingly skilful in the use of this weapon, not only in throwing -it, but in warding off the weapons that are flung at them. Kamehameha, -the well-known king or chief, was celebrated for his skill with the -spear. He used to stand with a spear in his right hand in front of six -men, also armed with spears. At a given signal they flung their spears -simultaneously at him, when he used to strike three aside with the -spear in his right hand, and catch the other three in his left hand. -Illustration No. 1, on the next page, shows the king performing this -dangerous and remarkable feat. - -These spears, which are intended to be thrown, are from six to eight -feet in length, and are made to fly straight by being tapered gradually -from the head to the butt. There is another kind of spear, which is -used as a pike. This is from twelve to fifteen feet in length, and is -not barbed. - -The sling is another of the Sandwich weapons. It is of considerable -length, and the receptacle for the stone is made of plaited matting. -The stones are oval in shape, and are ground down for the express -purpose, so that the slingers evidently possess much accuracy of aim. -There is a modification of the sling, the use of which seems to be -forgotten at the present day, and even in Captain Cook’s time was far -from universal. The stone is cut of an oval shape, with a groove round -it, much like a lady’s tatting-needle, and the cord is passed round -the groove with a half-hitch, so that when the end of the sling is -liberated the stone flies off. Some of these stones obtained by Captain -Cook were made of hæmatite, or blood-stone, and were very heavy, -weighing at least a pound. It was rather curious that, although there -was little difficulty in purchasing the stones, which must have cost -much trouble in making, it was not possible to persuade the natives to -part with the cord by which they were flung. - -Another of their weapons is the dagger, or _pahúa_, as the natives call -it. The material of which it is made is a very hard wood, something -like ebony, and it is shaped much like the ordinary steel dagger, -except that it has no guard. It is about two feet in length, and is -secured to the wrist by a cord passing through a hole at the end of the -handle. Some of these daggers are still larger, and double-pointed, -being held in the middle like the antelope-horn daggers of India. This -weapon has a mournful interest from the fact that when Captain Cook was -murdered his body was pierced with innumerable wounds mostly made by -wooden daggers, though one of the natives had a dagger made of iron, -which they snatched from each other’s hands in their eagerness to -inflict fresh wounds. - -[Illustration: (1.) KAMEHAMEHA AND THE SPEARS. (See page 1088.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) MASKED ROWERS. (See page 1095.)] - -On some occasions the Sandwich Islanders employ a weapon which much -resembles the merai of the New Zealanders. It is a battledoor-shaped -piece of wood, armed with shark’s teeth round the edges. Its primary -use is that of a knife, and it is employed in cutting to pieces -the bodies of foes that are slain in battle. Still, though it was -originally intended as an implement and not as a weapon, it is of -so formidable a character that it is often employed in the latter -capacity. As far as can be ascertained, this knife is considered to be -especially devoted to the one object of cutting up human bodies, and is -never employed in any meaner work. - -As to clubs, they are of various shapes, the natives having no special -form, but carving them into any device that may suit them best, and -using different kinds of wood for the purpose. - -The defensive armor of the Sandwich Islanders is generally a thick mat, -which is worn in time of war, and is sufficiently strong to save the -wearer from the thrust of a spear or the stroke of a dagger, and can -even greatly deaden the blow of a sling stone. - -When Captain Cook was killed, the man who precipitated the attack was -wearing his war mat, and, on threatening Captain Cook with a dagger in -one hand and a stone in the other, the captain was obliged to fire at -him in self-defence. Not wishing to kill, but only to wound and terrify -his adversary, he fired a charge of shot, which was resisted by the -war mat, so that the man escaped unhurt, his impunity encouraging the -natives to proceed with their attack. Had Captain Cook fired the other -barrel, which was loaded with ball, against which the war mat would -have been no protection, it is probable that the natives would have -been deterred from their attack, and that Captain Cook might have lived -to complete the voyage of discovery. - -One of the most curious examples of defensive armor is a breastplate -made entirely of teeth, so arranged that they overlap each other just -like the plates of scale armor. One of these curious breastplates is in -the United Service Museum. Teeth hung in a similar fashion are employed -as castanets, and are hung to the legs of dancers. - -Warfare as originally practised by the Sandwich Islanders was scarcely -deserving of the name, being little more than a series of desultory -skirmishes. They usually began by practising in earnest the skill in -avoiding spears which has already been mentioned as exhibited in sport. -When the opposing parties met, one of the chiefs, clad in his feather -helmet and cloak, advanced in front of his own men, totally unarmed, -having nothing in his hand but a fan, and challenging the enemy to -throw their spears at him. This they did, and by means of wonderful -agility in leaping, stooping, and twisting his body, when the weapons -could not be struck aside by the fan or caught in the left hand, he -often contrived to escape with his life. - -Though it was a piece of military etiquette that he should take -no weapon into the field, he was at liberty to hurl back at his -adversaries any of the spears which he could catch. Should one of the -enemy’s spears bring him to the ground, or should he be successful -in killing an adversary, there was an immediate struggle for the -possession of the dead body, which is looked upon much as is a flag -among ourselves, to be defended or captured at all risks, even of life. - -This statement naturally brings us to the disposal of the bodies of the -slain, and to the practice of cannibalism. That the latter practice -existed to a certain degree cannot be denied, but it is equally certain -that the practice was always exceptional, and that it was followed -rather as a portion of military etiquette than as a means of indulging -the appetite. As may be imagined, the higher the rank of a slain man -the greater the desire to eat a portion, however small of his flesh; -and this theory will account for the fact that the remains of Captain -Cook which were rescued from the natives bore evident marks of fire. - -It has often happened that cannibalism has been thought to exist -on the strength of native evidence, which has afterward been found -to have been misunderstood. A remarkable instance of such an error -occurs in the account of Captain Cook’s voyages. In vol. ii. p. 209, -there is an account of a native who was observed to carry with him a -very small parcel carefully tied up with string. After resisting many -solicitations, he allowed it to be opened, when there appeared a small -piece of flesh about two inches long, “which to all appearance had been -dried, but was now wet with salt water.” On being further pressed on -the subject, the man admitted that it was human flesh, and, pointing to -his own stomach, indicated the portion of the body from which it had -been cut. - -Nothing could be clearer than this account, but in vol. iii. p. 133, -the whole of this evidence is shown to be utterly untrustworthy. It -seems that almost every Sandwich Islander was in the habit of carrying -about with him a small piece of hog’s flesh very highly salted, which -he was accustomed to nibble occasionally as a delicacy, or by way -of sauce when eating vegetable food. By pointing to his stomach the -man merely used the conventional sign expressing the excellence of -the food; and as to his statement that the flesh was that of a human -being, he was so eagerly and closely questioned that, being a mere -lad of sixteen or seventeen, he gave an affirmative answer to leading -questions. As far as we can see, the Polynesian race is not given to -cannibalism, while the Papuans are devoted to it. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the various games with which the Sandwich Islanders -amuse themselves. Chief among them is the sport of surf-swimming. This -is practised in several of the islands of Polynesia, but in none is it -carried out to such perfection as in the Sandwich group. The following -spirited account of this sport is given in Captain Cook’s Voyages:-- - -“Swimming is not only a necessary art, in which both the men and women -are more expert than any people we had hitherto seen, but a favorite -diversion amongst them. One particular mode in which they sometimes -amused themselves with this exercise in Karakakooa Bay, appeared to us -most perilous and extraordinary, and well deserving a distinct relation. - -“The surf, which breaks on the coast round the bay, extends to the -distance of about one hundred and fifty yards from the shore, within -which space the surges of the sea, accumulating from the shallowness -of the water, are dashed against the beach with prodigious violence. -Whenever from stormy weather, or any extraordinary swell at sea, the -impetuosity of the surf is increased to its utmost height, they choose -that time for this amusement, which is performed in the following -manner:-- - -“Twenty or thirty of the natives, taking each a long narrow board, -rounded at the ends, set out together from the shore. The first wave -they meet they plunge under, and, suffering it to roll over them, rise -again beyond it, and make the best of their way by swimming out into -the sea. The second wave is encountered in the same manner with the -first; the great difficulty consisting in seizing the proper moment of -diving under it, which, if missed, the person is caught by the surf, -and driven back again with great violence; and all his dexterity is -then required to prevent himself from being dashed against the rocks. -As soon as they have gained, by these repeated efforts, the smooth -water beyond the surf, they lay themselves at length on their board, -and prepare for their return. As the surf consists of a number of -waves, of which every third is remarked to be always much larger than -the others, and to flow higher on the shore, the rest breaking in -the intermediate space, their first object is to place themselves on -the summit of the largest surge, by which they are driven along with -amazing rapidity toward the shore. - -“If by mistake they should place themselves on one of the smaller -waves, which breaks up before they reach the land, or should not be -able to keep their plank in a proper direction on the top of the swell, -they are left exposed to the fury of the next, and, to avoid it, are -obliged again to dive and regain the place from which they set out. - -“Those who succeed in their object of reaching the shore have still -the greatest danger to encounter. The coast being guarded by a chain -of rocks, with here and there a small opening between them, they are -obliged to steer their board through one of these, or, in case of -failure, to quit it before they reach the rocks, and, plunging under -the wave, make the best of their way back again. This is reckoned very -disgraceful, and is also attended with the loss of the board, which I -have often seen, with great terror, dashed to pieces at the very moment -the islander quitted it. The boldness and address with which we saw -them perform these difficult and dangerous manœuvres was altogether -astonishing, and is scarcely to be credited.” - -These swimmers used often to pass nearly a mile seaward, in order to -enjoy the rapid motion of their return as long as possible. Both sexes -and all ranks unite in it, and even the very chiefs themselves, who -have attained to the corpulency which they so much admire, join in the -game of surf-swimming with the meanest of their subjects. Some of the -performers attain to a wonderful degree of skill, and, not content -with lying on the board, sit, kneel, and even stand on it as they are -hurled shoreward by the giant waves. The boards are of various sizes, -according to the age and stature of the owner. For adults they are -about six feet in length. They are slightly convex on both sides, and -are kept very smooth--all surf-swimmers cherishing a pride in the -condition of their boards, and taking care to keep them well polished -and continually rubbed with cocoa-nut oil. The artist has finely -represented on the following page the marvellous conquest of the sea by -these islanders. - -Such utter mastery of the waves can only be obtained by familiarity -with the water from earliest childhood. A Sandwich Island child -can swim as soon as it can walk, if not sooner, the mothers taking -them from the breast, laying them on the surface of the water and -encouraging them to kick about as if lying on their mats ashore. One -writer mentions his encounter with an object which he took to be a -very large frog, but which turned out to be a Kanaka (_i. e._ Sandwich -Island) baby, which was lying on its back and disporting itself quite -at its ease. - -Indeed, in the mind of a Sandwich Islander there seems to be no -connection between the ideas of water and danger, neither does it enter -his imagination that any human being is unable to swim. Consequently, -there have been several instances where white men have fallen into -the water and have been almost drowned, though in the presence of the -natives, simply because the idea that any one could be endangered by -falling into the water never occurred to them. - -[Illustration: SURF SWIMMING BY SANDWICH ISLANDERS. (See page 1092.)] - -They are equally skilful in managing their canoes, and have a -curious mode of extracting amusement out of them. A number of men -will sometimes paddle a canoe after dressing themselves up in a most -ludicrous fashion. They take large empty gourds, and put them over -their heads, after cutting holes in them corresponding with the eyes -and nose, so that the effect is not at all unlike that of a turnip -lantern. To the upper part of the gourd is attached a bunch of slender -green twigs, which look at a little distance like a plume of feathers, -and to the lower part are suspended a number of narrow strips of cloth, -looking like a long beard. Their appearance is shown in illustration -No. 2, on the 1089th page. - -In every case where these masks were worn, the wearers seemed -exceedingly jovial, laughing, shouting, and playing all kinds of -antics. It was suggested that these masks were in fact helmets, used -to protect the wearers against the stones slung by their adversaries; -but the whole demeanor of those who wore them was so completely that of -mere masqueraders that the helmet theory seems quite untenable. - -Ball play is a favorite sport with the Sandwich Islanders, and is -carried on with infinite variations. Like the Tongans, they can play -with five balls at once, throwing them from hand to hand, so that four -of them are always in the air. The balls are extemporized on the spot, -being made of green leaves rolled together, and bound with string. - -They have a modification of this game, which very much resembles our -cup and ball. They take a wooden stick, or handle, about a foot or -eighteen inches long, and through one end of it they pass a peg of hard -wood, some three inches in length, so that an inch or more projects on -either side. They bring both ends of the peg to a sharp point, and the -toy is then ready. Throwing up the ball with the left hand, they catch -it on one of the pointed ends of the peg, and then jerk it into the -air, and catch it again, reversing the stick so as to catch it upon the -other end of the peg. This game they will keep up for a very long time -without missing ball once. - -Another amusement is very popular. Two players sit opposite each other, -one having a stone and a piece of bark cloth, and the other a stick. -The first player takes the bark cloth, spreads it on the ground, and -with his right hand crumples it up into folds, while with the other he -deposits the stone under the cloth. The peculiar character of the cloth -causes the folds and wrinkles to remain unaltered, just as would be the -case if a piece of thin paper were treated in the same way. The other -player carefully examines the cloth, endeavoring to discover the spot -under which the stone is concealed, and, when he has made up his mind, -strikes at the stone with his stick. Should he hit it, he wins a large -stake from his opponent; but in the very likely event of missing it he -forfeits a small stake to the adversary. Great interest is taken in the -game by the spectators, and heavy bets are laid on the two players. - -They have many athletic amusements, such as bowls, spear throwing, -stick darting, and similar sports and occasionally engage in the -rougher sport of boxing. As may be seen from Captain Cook’s account, -this sport is not carried on with such fury and pertinacity as in -Tonga, the victory being gained on comparatively easy terms:-- - -“As we had not yet seen anything of their sports or athletic exercises, -the natives, at the request of some of our officers, entertained us -this evening with a boxing match. These games were much inferior, as -well in point of solemnity and magnificence as in the skill and powers -of the combatants, to what we had seen exhibited at the Friendly -Islands; yet, as they differed in some particulars it may not be -improper to give a short account of them. - -“We found a vast concourse of people assembled on a level spot of -ground, at a little distance from our tents. A long space was left -vacant in the midst of them, at the upper end of which sat the judges, -under three standards, from which hung slips of cloth of various -colors, the skins of two wild geese, a few small birds, and bunches of -feathers. - -“When the sports were ready to begin, the signal was given by the -judges, and immediately two combatants appeared. They came forward -slowly, lifting up their feet very high behind, and drawing their hand -along the soles. As they approached, they frequently eyed each other -from head to foot in a contemptuous manner, casting several arch looks -at the spectators, straining their muscles, and using a variety of -affected gestures. Being advanced within reach of each other, they -stood with both arms held out straight before their faces, at which -part all their blows were aimed. They struck, in what appeared to our -eyes an awkward manner, with a full swing of the arm; made no attempt -to parry, but eluded their adversary’s attack by an inclination of the -body or by retreating. - -“The battle was quickly decided; for if either of them was knocked -down, or even fell by accident, he was considered as vanquished, and -the victor expressed his triumph by a variety of gestures, which -usually excited, as was intended, a loud laugh among the spectators. He -then waited for a second antagonist, and, if again victorious, for a -third, till he was at last in his turn defeated. - -“A singular rule observed in these combats is, that whilst any two -are preparing to fight, a third person may step in, and choose either -of them for his antagonist, when the other is obliged to withdraw. -Sometimes three or four followed each other in this manner before -the match was settled. When the combat proved longer than usual, or -appeared too unequal, one of the chiefs stepped in, and ended it -by putting a stick between the combatants. The same good humor was -preserved throughout which we before so much admired in the Friendly -Islanders. As these games were given at our desire we found it was -universally expected that we should have borne our part in them; but -our people, though much pressed by the natives, turned a deaf ear -to their challenge, remembering full well the blows they got at the -Friendly Islands.” - -A sport which was formerly in great vogue in the Sandwich Islands is -sledging, the sloping sides of the mountain ranges being pressed into -the service of the players. The game is called _holua_, and is played -in the following manner:-- - -Each player is furnished with a sledge, made of two narrow runners, -varying from seven to eighteen feet in length, three inches deep, and -rounded off at one end, just like the steel runner of a skate. These -are placed side by side, not parallel, but slightly diverging, the -space between the runners being about two inches at the tips, and five -inches at the other end. They are connected together with cross-pieces -of wood, and mostly covered with strong matting. The native name for -the sledge is _papa_. In order to prepare a path on which the sledge -can travel, the natives cut a narrow and shallow trench from the top of -the mountain to the base, and even carry it for a mile or more on level -ground. Before the sport is begun, the trench is laid with grass so as -to make the path easier. - -When the players have assembled at the top of the mountain, one of them -takes the sledge in his hands, holding it in front of him, retreats a -few paces, and then runs forward with all his speed, flings himself -head foremost into the trench, and glides down it at a terrific pace, -resting on his sledge. The rapidity with which a well-managed sledge -will dash down the trench, is absolutely fearful, the incline being -often at an angle of forty-five degrees. The art of balancing the -narrow sledge is a very difficult one, and if a player should chance -to lean too much to one side, or should guide his sledge out of the -trench, it is scarcely possible for him to escape with his life. The -sledge flies to pieces in a moment, the rider is hurled high in the -air, and goes rolling down the steep hill, without any means of guiding -or stopping himself. - -The winner in this game is the player who travels the farthest along -the trench, and so fascinating is the sport, that the natives have -been known to stake the whole of their property on their skill. They -staked their houses, their lands, their fruit trees, and their crops. -Husbands staked their wives and children, and wives staked themselves. -And after they had lost all that they had, or were likely to have, they -staked their very bones, to be used after death in making fish hooks -and arrow heads. - - * * * * * - -The religion of the Sandwich Islanders resembles so closely that of the -Polynesians that little need be said about it. What worship they have -is extorted by fear, and, in accordance with this principle, they make -their idols as ugly as possible. There is a certain character about the -idols of the Sandwich Islands which, like the carving of New Zealand, -cannot be mistaken. - -In order to show how completely this character is impressed upon -the workmanship, I introduce upon the following page two specimens, -one from the British Museum, and the other from my own collection. -The former of these, No. 1, is made, like the feather helmets, of -wicker-work, and is very much larger than any human head and neck. It -is covered with the red and yellow feathers which have already been -mentioned, and, from the mere price of the material, must have been, in -the days in which it was made, a most costly and precious object. - -The eyes are made of mother-of-pearl, and in the centre of each is set -a black bead by way of pupil. The enormous teeth which beset the open -mouth are simply the fangs, or canine teeth, of dogs. The top of the -head is furnished with a crest, just like that of the feather helmet. -In spite of the rudeness of form, the image possesses a certain force -and vigor, which shows that the native who made it had some modicum of -artistic power, which in this case expresses itself in outline, just as -in the case of the feather cloak it is exemplified in color. - -By way of contrast with this idol, we will now look at another specimen -(No. 2, on same page), in which the artist has been obliged to renounce -color, and trust entirely to outline; and it cannot be said that he -has been unsuccessful. The head and body of this image are cut out of -a white and very light wood, and have been covered with bark cloth. -This cloth has been stained black, and the native artist has contrived -to apply it with such perfection of manipulation that it fits closely -to all the inequalities of the carving, and cannot even be seen until -specially pointed out. - -The head and neck are separate from the trunk, and carved out of a -single piece of wood; and even the bold crest and its supporting rays -are cut out of the same piece of wood. The teeth of the upper jaw are -those of a human being; but those of the lower jaw are simply a row -of the palatine teeth of some large fish, and are sixteen in number. -They are flanked at each angle of the mouth by a human tooth. After -the teeth have been inserted into the wood, the bark cloth has been -applied, and is turned in at the roots of the teeth, so as to represent -the gums. The eyes are simply oval pieces of mother-of-pearl. - -[Illustration: SANDWICH ISLAND HELMET. (See page 1082.)] - -[Illustration: (1.) FEATHER IDOL. (See page 1096.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) WOODEN IDOL. (See page 1096.) - - _Top Human teeth._ - _Lower Fish teeth._ - _Mouth larger._] - -It is rather remarkable that the strip of cloth which runs over the -crest has not been stained black, like that which covers the head, -face, and neck, but is nearly white, and of much stronger and coarser -texture. The skill with which the maker has applied the cloth to the -wood is really admirable. He has evidently soaked it until it was quite -soft and tender, and by means of careful stretching and pressing has -“coaxed” it over the various irregularities--such as the nose, eyes, -and mouth--so that it fits as closely as if it were the real skin. - -The neck is small, narrow, and scarcely worthy of the name, being in -fact little more than a large peg, by which the head may be attached to -the body when needed. In consequence of this arrangement, the position -of the head can be altered at will, and the variety of expression -gained by so simple an arrangement is scarcely credible. - -The body of the idol is made of the same light wood as the head, and -is also covered with the black bark cloth. There is a socket between -the shoulders, into which the neck fits loosely. The arms are nothing -more than bundles of rushes or reeds, tied with cloth; and each hand -is furnished with six fingers, probably as a symbol of extraordinary -power. The fingers are merely dogs’ teeth, the whiteness of which -presents a curious contrast with the black head and body. There are no -legs, nor even any indication of legs, the body being little more than -a block of wood, with a hole at the top for the insertion of the neck, -and a smaller hole at each shoulder for the insertion of the arms. - -Whatever artistic power the maker possessed has been given to the head, -and it must be acknowledged that he has carried out his idea most -vigorously. The long dress worn by this idol is not stained black, like -that which covers the face, head, and body, but is white, and without -even a pattern. - -For this interesting specimen I am indebted to E. Randell, Esq., who -has furnished me with many of the objects which have been figured in -this work. - - - - -CHAPTER CXIII. - -THE CAROLINE ARCHIPELAGO. - -DRESS--ARCHITECTURE--AMUSEMENTS--WAR. - - - DISCOVERY AND NAMING OF THE ISLANDS -- THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT -- - THE MARSHALL AND GILBERT GROUPS -- INHABITANTS OF ROMANZOFF ISLAND - -- THE ISLAND OF BORNABI AND ITS INHABITANTS -- TATTOOING AND HAIR - DRESSING -- A MAN OF FASHION IN BORNABI -- ARCHITECTURE AND ANCIENT - RUINS -- LOVE OF COAST -- THE PELEW ISLANDS -- SHIPWRECK OF CAPTAIN - WILSON -- COMPLEXION AND GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- THE - TATTOO -- CURIOUS COMBINATION OF NAKEDNESS AND MODESTY -- USE OF THE - BETEL-NUT -- THE RUPACKS AND THE BONE BRACELET -- MODE OF INVESTITURE - -- SPEAR THROWING -- MODE OF CONDUCTING SEA FIGHTS -- ARCHITECTURE OF - THE PELEW ISLANDS -- MANUFACTURE OF DOMESTIC IMPLEMENTS -- DANCE OF - THE WARRIORS -- IDEA OF RELIGION -- A FUNERAL IN THE PELEW ISLANDS -- - STORY OF LEE BOO. - -Passing in a south-westerly direction from the Sandwich Islands we come -to a very large group called the Caroline Archipelago. These islands -were discovered--as far as is known--in 1526, by the Portuguese, who -in those days were the most enterprising navigators in the world. -About fifty years afterward they were visited by Drake, but they did -not receive the name by which they are known until more than a hundred -years after Drake’s voyage, when they were named by the Spanish the -Carolines, in honor of Charles the Second, the then king of Spain. - -These islands extend over a very considerable geographical range, a -space of some fifty degrees intervening between the most easterly and -westerly of them. Owing to the extensive range of these islands, there -is considerable difference between the manners and customs of these -natives, and even between their form and complexion. We will therefore -take as examples some of the easterly, central, and western islands. - - * * * * * - -The most easterly of the group are those which are called the Marshall -and Gilbert Islands, the former being those of the north and the latter -those of the south. They are sometimes divided into the Eastern and -Western Islands, the former being the Radick and the latter the Ralick -chain, each group comprising about fifteen or sixteen islands. - -These islands are all low in the water, being mostly of coralline -structure, so that they are not visible from any great distance. In -consequence of their lowness, they seem to have escaped the observation -of voyagers until 1788, when they were discovered by Marshall and -Gilbert, after whom they were named. As is usual in coral islands, -the soil is but shallow, having been formed by the decomposition of -vegetable matter thrown on the coral reefs by the waves. The vegetation -is therefore scanty, and is mostly confined to bananas, cocoa-nut -trees, bread-fruit--all of which thrive best on a low situation near -water. - -As a sample of the Marshall Islanders, I give a portrait of a man and -woman of Romanzoff Island, on the next page. They are a rather fine -race, taller than the generality of the Caroline Islanders, and possess -tolerably good features. They use the tattoo with some profusion, both -sexes appearing to be equally addicted to it. They are better clothed -than many Polynesians, the men wearing a short mat round their waists, -and the women being clad in a very fine and neatly-made mat, falling -nearly to the feet. The hair is long, and naturally curling, and is -worn long by both sexes. Earrings are in great request, and some of -them, as may be seen by reference to the illustration, are enormously -large. - -[Illustration: (1.) ROMANZOFF ISLANDERS. (See page 1100.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) DYAK WARRIOR AND DUSUM. (See page 1112.)] - -From the structure of the island, it is evident that the present -inhabitants are not aborigines, but came from other islands at no very -remote period. They have kept up the nautical spirit to which they owe -their presence on the island, and make long voyages from one island to -another. Their canoes are well made, and are built of bread-fruit wood. - -BORNABI is one of the largest and most important of these islands, -being about seventy miles in circumference, and having a sufficient -variety of soil to be very fertile. Instead of being as low-lying as -some of these islands, it is of volcanic origin, shooting up to a -considerable height in the middle, and surrounded by flat coral reefs. - -In consequence of this structure, it affords excellent harborage, and -has become a great place of resort for whaling vessels. Like some -parts of America within the same zone, and having a somewhat similar -contour, the island is a very wet one, so that the combined heat and -moisture produce a wonderful fertility of vegetation. Even on the -higher parts of the island, the fresh water nourishes various trees -and shrubs, while on the coast the mangrove, which delights in salt -water, absolutely grows into the sea, and, by its interlacing roots and -branches forms a barrier which cannot be penetrated except through the -apertures made by the mouths of rivers and creeks. - -The inhabitants are of a fair average stature, the men being about five -feet eight inches high, while the women are much shorter. They are, -however, well proportioned, and not stumpy or clumsy, as is too often -the case with the women of uncivilized races. - -Like the Romanzoff Islanders, they tattoo themselves liberally, and -both sexes wear their black hair very long, keeping it well oiled and -carefully dressed, and, in the case of people of rank, adorning it -with wreaths of flowers. They have the same odd passion for turmeric -which is found in the Polynesian races generally, anointing themselves -profusely with it, and thereby converting their naturally pleasing -copper color into a repulsive yellow. - -The men dress themselves very carefully, a Bornabi man of fashion -spending a vast amount of time on his costume. He must not exhibit -a vestige of hair on his face, but must painfully pluck out each -individual hair by means of forceps made of a couple of cockle-shells, -or a piece of tortoise-shell bent double. He must wear at least six -aprons, one over the other. These aprons are made of strips of the -cocoa-nut leaf bleached white and about two feet in length. He must -have round his waist a belt or sash made of banana fibre, and dyed -scarlet and yellow. He must have his necklaces, his head-band, and his -scarlet tassels in his ears; and he finishes off his costume by a sort -of parasol or sunshade made of leaves, which he ties round his head so -as to preserve the face from the sun. - -This elaborate toilet must be made several times daily, as every native -bathes, oils, and paints his skin yellow at least three times every -day. The dress of the women bears some resemblance to that of the men, -except that, in lieu of the series of apron fringes they wear bark -cloth fastened round the waist and reaching to the knee. - -In architecture the people of Bornabi are superior to the generality -of Polynesians. Like the Marquesans, they begin by building a platform -of stones, some four or five feet in height, and upon this they erect -the framework of the edifice. The spaces between the upright timbers -are filled in with wicker-work, in which are left certain apertures -that answer the purpose of windows. The floor is covered with the same -kind of wicker-work, except a small space in the centre, in which the -fireplace is made. The roof is thatched neatly with pandanus leaves. -In all these particulars there is little distinction between the -architecture of Bornabi and that of many other islands. The chief point -of difference lies, however, in the fact that the timbers are squared, -and that, instead of being merely lashed together, they are fastened by -tenon and mortise. - -It seems probable that the superiority of their architecture, more -especially in the squaring of beams and the use of the mortise, is due -not so much to themselves as to the remembrance of buildings erected -by white men several centuries ago. Near one of the harbors are some -ruined buildings, which are evidently not of savage architecture. They -are built of cut stones, which have been imported from some other -country, and are arranged in streets, looking as if they had formed -a portion of a fortification. It has been conjectured that these -buildings were the work of the Spanish buccaneers, who used, some -centuries ago, to range these seas, and would have found such a harbor -and fort invaluable to them. - -As far as is known, the inhabitants of Bornabi keep almost entirely -to the coast, and never visit the interior. It is certain that the -cultivated grounds only extend for a very little distance inland, -and, as all the energy of these islanders naturally takes a seaward -direction, it is very probable that the natives speak truth when they -say that they have never even visited the centre of their island. - - -THE PELEW ISLANDS. - -The westernmost group of the Carolines is known by the name of the -Pelew or Pallou Islands. They were discovered, in 1543, by Villabolos, -but have been made known to us principally by means of Captain H. -Wilson, who was wrecked there in 1783. The group consists of about -twenty small islands, which are surrounded by a reef. - -The inhabitants are of a dark copper color, well made, tall, and -remarkable for their stately gait. They employ the tattoo in rather a -curious manner, pricking the patterns thickly on their legs from the -ankles to a few inches above the knees, so that they look as if their -legs were darker in color than the rest of their bodies. They are -cleanly in their habits, bathing frequently, and rubbing themselves -with cocoa-nut oil, so as to give a soft and glossy appearance to the -skin. - -The hair of the head is fine and black, and is worn long by both sexes, -being rolled up in a peculiar fashion close to the back of the head. -That of the face and chin is mostly removed, being plucked out by -tweezers, only a few men, remarkable for the strength and thickness of -their beards, allowing them to grow. The men wear no clothing, not even -the king himself having the least vestige of raiment, the tattoo being -supposed to answer the purpose of dress. - -So unacquainted with real clothing were they when Captain Wilson -visited them, that they were utterly perplexed at the garments of the -white men, lifting up the flaps of the coats, pinching the sleeves, and -then comparing them with their own naked limbs, evidently fancying that -these mysterious objects were the skin peculiar to the white man. They -also took the blue veins on the seamen’s wrists for lines of tattooing, -and asked to be allowed to see the whole of the arm, in order to find -out whether the blue lines were continued beyond the wrist. - -In spite, however, of the absence of dress the deportment of the sexes -toward each other is perfectly modest. For example, the men and women -will not bathe at the same spot, nor even go near a bathing-place of -the opposite sex unless it be deserted. If a man is forced to pass -near a women’s bathing-place, he is obliged, when he comes within a -stipulated distance, to give a loud shout; and, if it be answered by a -female voice, he must either pass by a circuitous route, or turn back -and wait until the women have left the spot. - -Their features are tolerably good, the nose rather prominent, and the -mouth moderately large. They would look a tolerably handsome people -but for their custom of chewing the betel-nut, which stains the mouth -red and the teeth black. The chiefs and all the principal men are so -devoted to the betel that they always carry with them a little basket -containing the nuts, and a small bamboo vessel in which they keep the -quicklime which is mixed with the betel when chewed. - -Although they care nothing for dress, and comparatively little for -ornament, the very great chiefs wear one decoration which is prized by -them much as is the Garter in England, or the Golden Fleece in Spain. -This is a bone bracelet, worn on the left wrist and denoting the very -highest rank next to that of the king himself. Those who are privileged -to wear it are called Rupacks, and, as will presently be seen, the rank -is not necessarily hereditary, but is conferred at the pleasure of the -king. - -It seems strange to us that distinctions of rank should be thus sharply -defined among a people like the Pelew Islanders, and that “naked -savages” should have their various gradations of social position. That -a definite scale of rank should exist at all is an evidence of some -civilization, and that so complete a system should be found among these -islanders appears a perfect enigma to those who have been accustomed to -associate clothing and civilization as inseparable conditions. Yet here -we have the singular fact that there is a distinct division of ranks -into king, nobles, gentry, and peasantry; and that, although these -ranks are perfectly well defined and acknowledged, not a man, from the -almost despotic king to the lowest subject, wears the slightest article -of clothing. - -Not only are these distinctions jealously observed, but we find also -that the nobles are divided into several ranks, as is the case in -civilized lands, and that the highest rank is denoted by a symbolical -badge. This badge is conferred only by the sovereign himself, and the -investiture with the Rupack’s bone is conducted with a ceremonious -solemnity that denotes the estimation in which it is held. So deeply -are the Rupacks attached to this symbol of their rank, that a rebel -Rupack, who had made war against the king, and was taken alive, -resisted every attempt to deprive him of his bracelet, and did not part -with it until he had sacrificed his life in its defence. In shape the -bone bears a curious resemblance to the open jaws of a skate, and is -probably made on that model. - -The mode of investiture is a very ceremonious one, and is illustrated -on the following page. The Rupacks are assembled together in a sort -of chapter of their order, and the Rupack elect is seated at a little -distance from them. The king, or a Rupack appointed by him, then takes -the bracelet, and directs the candidate to throw a stone as far as he -can. This is done in order to ascertain which hand he habitually uses, -so that if he be a right-handed man the bracelet goes on the left -wrist, and if a left-handed man on the right wrist. - -[Illustration: (1.) INVESTITURE OF THE RUPACK. (See page 1104.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE WARRIORS’ DANCE. (See page 1108.)] - -A string is then tied to each finger of the hand; the strings are -passed through the bracelet, which, together with the hand, is -plentifully anointed with cocoa-nut oil. The principal Rupack then -places himself behind the candidate, and holds him firmly by the -shoulders, while another hauls at the strings. The king, in the -meantime, squeezes together the fingers of the hand, and by degrees -draws the bracelet firmly on the wrist, he then makes a speech to the -new Rupack, telling him to polish the bracelet daily, and keep it -bright; never to suffer its honor to be tarnished, and never to part -from it but with his life. - -Captain Wilson, who was himself invested with the Rupack’s bone, writes -thus of the ceremony and its object:--“This mark of distinction is -given and received in these regions as a reward of valor and fidelity, -and held out as the prize of merit. - -“In this light such public honors were originally considered, and -still ought to be so, in every state, from Pelew to Britain. And while -they continue to be thus regarded they will operate on the human -passions--excite emulation, inspire courage, promote virtue, and -challenge respect. The decoration, indeed, derives all its splendor -from the combined ideas of the mind whilst viewing it; and the -imagination is equally impressed with the same sentiment, whether the -badge of honor be a strip of velvet tied round the knee, a tuft of -riband and a cross dangling at the button-hole, a star embroidered on -the coat, or a _bone_ upon the arm.” - -He might have added that the intrinsic value of the decoration bears -no comparison with the honor which it denotes, and that the bone of -the naked Pelew Islander, the laurel or parsley crown of the ancient -warrior, or the Victoria Cross of the modern hero, are alike valueless -and priceless. It is remarkable that the king does not wear the bone, -so that he has no external sign to distinguish him from the meanest -peasant. - -The Pelew Islanders are not a very warlike people, and their weapons -are, therefore, simple and few. They have two kinds of spears, one used -as a missile, and the other as a pike. The missile spear is thrown by -a very remarkable instrument, reminding the observer of the Australian -wummerah, or throw-stick. - -It consists of a piece of wood about two feet in length, and having a -notch at one end. When the warrior wishes to throw his spear, he places -the butt in the notch of the throwing-stick, and with his left hand -bends the elastic bamboo shaft until it is nearly doubled. The hold -of the left hand is then loosed; and the spear projects itself to a -considerable distance by means of its own elasticity. To an European -nothing can be more awkward than this mode of throwing the spear; but -the Pelew Islanders can send the weapon to a considerable distance, and -aim it well besides. - -Even without the aid of the throwing-stick, they are no mean adepts at -hurling the spear. When Lee Boo, the son of the king, was at Canton, -some gentlemen who were skilled in spear throwing asked him to exhibit -the manner in which his own people managed the weapon. He took the -spear, and, not thinking that it was to be thrown, merely quivered and -poised it according to the usual preliminaries. He was then requested -to throw it at a gauze cage, with a bird painted on it. The cage was -at such a distance that the gentlemen could seldom strike it. Lee Boo, -however, took up the spear carelessly, poised it for a moment, hurled -it, and not only hit the cage, but struck the bird through the head. - -The Rupacks mostly carry swords and daggers. The former are made of -a very heavy wood, and nearly three feet in length. They are inlaid -with pieces of white shell, and are strong and heavy enough to kill a -man with a single blow. The daggers are made of the tail-bone of the -sting-ray, and, when not in use, are carried in a sheath made of a -single joint of bamboo, just as is the case with the small knives of -Borneo. - -Land battles are seldom fought in these islands, the natives trusting -chiefly to their canoes, which are of large size and well built. Their -hulls are cut out of tree trunks, and then are carved, painted, and -inlaid with the patient care which distinguishes savage art. When the -king goes out in state, the canoes are further adorned with bunches -of shells, strung on cords and hung to the bows and stern-posts. The -out-rigger is used, and the sails are of the “latine” form. Despite, -however, of the care bestowed upon their vessels, the Pelew Islanders -are not good sailors, and seldom venture outside the chain of reefs -which encircle their group of islands. Even within it when the sea ran -at all high, they would not venture into their canoes. - -In consequence of their mode of fighting, the capture of an enemy’s -canoe is thought of much more consequence than the slaughter of his -soldiers, and is looked upon much in the same light as we consider the -capture of an enemy’s gun or flag. Therefore when one party finds that -the battle is going against them, they turn their canoes landward, and -drive them ashore with all their might, and, if possible, drag them -so high on the beach that they cannot be floated without exposing the -invaders to almost certain death. - -The principal tool used in making the canoe is the adze, or axe. In -form the weapon is almost identical with the Polynesian adzes which -have been already described in this work. The blade is made of the -thick and strong shell of the giant clam, and the most curious point of -the instrument is that the head revolves in a groove, so that it can -be used as an adze or an axe at pleasure. The Dyak boat builder has a -precisely similar instrument, as will be seen in the course of a few -pages. - -Their smaller tools and implements--such as stone knives, comb, and -string--they carry in the basket which holds their betel; and as they -have no dress, and consequently no pockets, a man never walks to any -distance from his home without carrying the basket with him. - -The architecture of the Pelew Islanders is very good. The houses are -raised about three feet from the ground by means of stone posts, upon -which are laid the beams which support the flooring and side-posts. -The walls are made of thick matting, which extends from post to post, -and the floors are generally of plank, having an inch or so of space -between the boards. Sometimes they are made of split bamboos, which -become polished and very slippery by the constant tread of naked feet. - -Each house has in the centre its fireplace, sunk lower than the -flooring, and formed of stones and earth. The fire is kept burning all -night, not for the purpose of warmth, but that the smoke may fill the -house, and drive away mosquitoes. When the house is a very large one, -and employed for the general use, there are two fireplaces, one at each -end. Along the sides of the house are arranged certain apertures which -answer equally the purposes of windows or doors, and are furnished with -sliding shutters, by which they can be closed at pleasure. Each of -these apertures is furnished with stepping stones, by means of which -the inhabitants can enter or leave the house without having to clamber -from the ground to the raised floor. The large houses are employed for -public uses, the councils being held in front of them, or the people -assembling in them for social talk, in which the women bear their full -share. Some of these houses are from sixty to eighty feet in length. - -Being a cleanly people, the Pelew Islanders keep their houses neatly -swept, the broom being a bundle of cocoa-nut husks tied together. The -vessels which contain fresh water are simply joints of the bamboo, the -open ends of which are furnished with a sort of spout or lip, by means -of which the water can be poured without danger of being spilt. - -The cooking vessels are made of earthenware, and are mostly of an oval -shape. They are not, however, very good potters, their pots and pans -being rather fragile, and so badly burnt that the natives dare not put -them at once on the fire, but set them first at a little distance, and, -as they become warmer, bring them nearer, turning them continually, so -as to heat each part equally. - -When Captain Wilson was at the Pelew Islands, the king had a vessel -of which he was very proud. It was carved out of a block of wood, -plentifully inlaid with pieces of white shell, and, when the cover -was upon it, formed a tolerably fair representation of a bird. This -vessel held about nine gallons, and on occasions of great ceremony, was -brought out and filled with sweet drink for the use of the king and his -Rupacks. - -Of the amusements of the Pelew Islanders Captain Wilson says little, -and gives but a brief description of the very odd dance in which they -delight. This description will be better understood by reference to -the illustration on the 1105th page. “In the evening our people were -entertained with a dance of the warriors, who were just then returned, -which was performed in the following manner:-- - -“The dancers have a quantity of plantain leaves brought to them, which -they split and shiver into the form of ribands. These they twine and -fix round their heads, wrists, waists, ankles, and knees; and the -leaves being of a yellowish hue, so prepared, have not an inelegant -effect when applied to their dark copper skin. They make also bunches -or tassels of the same, which they hold in their hands. - -“When drawn out, they form themselves into circles of two or three -deep, one within another. In general, an elderly man amongst -them begins in a very solemn tone something like a song, or long -sentence--for our countrymen could not discriminate which it was--and -when he comes to a pause, or what we should call the end of a stanza, -a chorus is struck up, and the dancers all join in concert, still -continuing their figure. - -“Their dancing does not so much consist in capering or agility as -in a particular method they have of balancing themselves, and this -frequently very low sideways, singing together all the while; during -which they will flatten their circles, so as to bring themselves face -to face to each other, lifting up the tassels they hold in their hands, -and giving them a clashing or tremulous motion. After this there will -be a sudden pause, and an exclamation from every one of ‘_Weel!_’ Then -a new sentence or stanza is repeated, and danced to as before, and the -same ceremony continued till every man who is engaged in the dance has -in his turn had his repetition and chorus.” - -As far as was ascertained by Captain Wilson, the Pelew Islanders have -some notions of religion, and certainly believed in a life after death. -They had several superstitions, one of which was that the wood of a -certain tree was unlucky, and always brought harm wherever it was -used. When Captain Wilson was building his new vessel, he used some -planks of this tree, much to the dismay of the king, Abba Thulle, who -begged him to remove them. Captain Wilson explained to him that as -in his own country any kind of suitable wood was employed for ship -building without producing disastrous results, the same impunity was -to be expected in the Pelew Islands. As it happened, shortly after the -obnoxious planks had been inserted, one of the carpenters fell from -the side of the vessel, and hurt himself severely, thus confirming the -natives in their belief. - -Their funeral ceremonies are very short and simple, and even in one -instance witnessed by Captain Wilson, when the son of the principal -chief was buried, there was scarcely any ceremony. The corpse was -wrapped up in mats, and borne by four men on a bier, no men except -the actual bearers attending. A number of women followed the bier, -and poured out loud lamentations as they walked. When they arrived at -the place of burial, the body was laid in the grave, and the earth -immediately filled in by the four bearers, while the women knelt round, -and renewed their lamentations, marking as if they would tear up the -body from the ground. - -Next day, however, Raa Kook, the father of the deceased, went to the -burial-place, and performed a curious ceremony. He took two _old_ -cocoa-nuts (young nuts being always gathered for consumption) and some -red ochre, with which he drew transverse stripes across the nuts. He -then laid the painted nuts by his side, and repeated, in an undertone, -some words which were supposed to be an incantation or prayer of -some kind. A bundle of betel leaves was treated in the same way, and -the whole were then delivered to an old woman, who went with them -toward the grave; but the precise termination of the ceremony was not -ascertained. - - * * * * * - -On page 1107 mention was made of Lee Boo. As this young man was the -first Pelew Islander who ever visited England, and was besides a very -remarkable character, I will conclude this account with a short memoir -of him. - -He was the second son of the king, Abba Thulle, who was no common -man, and well deserving of the power which he held. He possessed -great energy, wonderful liberality of mind, and an innate nobility -of disposition. The visit of the white men taught him their infinite -superiority, and when Captain Wilson had built his new ship, and was -about to start, Abba Thulle begged him to take Lee Boo to England, -to have him instructed in the arts of civilization, and to send him -back again so that he might be the teacher of his future people. The -request was granted, and Lee Boo accompanied Captain Wilson to England, -where he lived for five months, winning the esteem and affection of -all whom he met, by his intelligent, modest, and affectionate nature. -Unfortunately for his father’s hopes, he was attacked with small-pox, -of which he died, his last wish being that all presents that been given -him should be sent to his father. He died on Dec. 27, 1784, and was -buried in Rotherhithe Church, where a tomb was erected to his memory by -the India Company. - - - - -CHAPTER CXIV. - -BORNEO. - -THE DYAKS, THEIR APPEARANCE AND DRESS. - - - SUPPOSED ORIGIN OF THE DYAKS -- NUMBER OF TRIBES -- THE SEA AND - LAND DYAKS -- GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- TATTOOING MOST - PREVALENT AMONG THE LEAST CIVILIZED TRIBES -- DRESS AND ORNAMENT - -- EXTRAORDINARY EARRINGS -- FILING AND BLACKENING THE TEETH -- A - DYAK WARRIOR IN FULL DRESS -- A DUSUM WARRIOR IN ORDINARY COSTUME -- - THE ILLINOAN PIRATES, THEIR ARMAMENTS AND FEROCITY -- A SAGHAI DYAK - AND HIS STRANGE HEADDRESS -- STRENGTH AND ACTIVITY OF THE DYAKS -- - “BATANG” WALKING -- AN OBLIGING DYAK -- THEIR ABILITY TO PENETRATE - JUNGLES -- THE CHAWAT AND SARONG -- A DYAK DANDY -- DRESS OF THE - WOMEN -- THE BEDANG AND SLEEVELESS JACKET -- THE BEAUTIFUL HAIR OF - DYAK WOMEN -- THE METALLIC BODICES -- A SAIBAS GIRL IN FULL DRESS -- - DYAK BELLS -- TREATMENT OF THE WOMEN. - -With the exception of Australia, which may take rank as a continent, -BORNEO is the largest island in the world. It is situated in the -tropics, the equator passing nearly through the centre of it, and forms -the centre of the Indian Archipelago. - -Until late years, scarcely anything was known of Borneo; but since the -late Sir James Brooke accomplished his wonderful series of exploits -against the piratical tribes that infested the coast for more than -a thousand miles, and destroyed all commerce, the country has been -tolerably explored, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants -investigated. Following the plan on which this work has been formed, -we will only concern ourselves about the natives of Borneo who live -to a degree the life of savages, and only possess that amount of -civilization which is compatible with savage existence. - - * * * * * - -Putting aside the Malay Mahometans who have settled in Borneo, we -may roughly divide the native tribes into the Land and Sea Dyaks. -The former of these divisions seldom go to sea, either for piracy or -trade, and in this respect are very different from the Sea Dyaks, whose -existence is essentially a naval one. - -Mr. Brooke believes that the Land Dyaks have emigrated from a country -in which they would be brought in contact with Hindooism, inasmuch as -they possess sundry relics of that religion. “The remains of Hindooism -found among them, such as stone-shaped bulls and other stone utensils, -and the refusal among them to touch the flesh of cattle or deer--and -so particular are they that they will fine a man for even spilling the -blood of these animals on their premises; the name of their deity being -Juwata--these testifying points support a fair conjecture that they -must have gained a fair notion of Hindoo worship from people coming -into the Kapuas River from the island of Java, which is only distant -from some of the outstretching points of Borneo two hundred miles, and -fair winds generally prevail between.” - -In confirmation of this opinion, Mr. Brooke mentions that the -expression, “in the days of the Hindoos,” was formerly employed when -any ancient date was signified. There are about nine or ten branches of -the Land Dyaks, each of which branches is divided into a considerable -number of tribes. It is impossible to give the names and description -of the individual tribes on account of their fluctuating character. -The people are continually shifting their place in search of new lands -for cultivation, and the result is that they quarrel with each other, -fight, are dispersed, and thus form new tribes in the spots on which -they settle. - -It is thought that their number does not exceed forty thousand, many -tribes of which have never been near the sea. - -Next come the Sea Dyaks, a fairer, a finer, and a more interesting -people. They are about three times as numerous as the Land Dyaks, -and are at the present day much what the old sea-kings were in days -gone by. They are essentially a nation of rovers, living by piracy, -and carrying out to the fullest extent the abominable practice of -head-hunting, of which we shall see something in the course of a few -pages. - -They are taller than the Land Dyaks, who seldom exceed five feet six -inches in height, and much fairer in complexion. The skin of the Land -Dyak is brown, whereas that of the Sea Dyak is many shades lighter, and -has been compared to the color of a new saddle--a hue which admirably -suits the well-developed forms of these people. They are very proud of -their complexion, and the women are fond of an excuse for throwing off -the jackets which they wear, in order to exhibit their smooth satiny -skins, polished and shining as if of new bronze. - -Their various customs in peace and war will be described in their -proper places, and we will content ourselves at present with their -appearance and dress. - -The Dyaks, as a rule, are nearly beardless, and have a cast of -countenance which might almost be called effeminate. Occasionally, -however, a man does possess a few hairs on his upper lip, of which he -is inordinately proud, and one or two instances have been known where a -man has possessed a well-developed beard. - -Tattooing is practised among many of the tribes, and prevails in -inverse ratio to their civilization, those who are furthest from -civilization being most profusely tattooed, and those who are brought -in contact with it having almost entirely abandoned the practice. The -men of some tribes are nearly covered with tattooed patterns, while -those of other tribes have stars on their breasts and armlets and -bracelets on their legs and arms. The Kanowit Dyaks, who belong to the -great Malanau tribe, are tattooed from the breast to the knees with a -pattern that has the effect of scale armor, and many of them tattoo -their chins and chests so as to look as if they had real beards and -moustaches. The tattoo of the women is often more elaborate than that -of the men, as we shall presently see. - -It is worthy of notice that, as a rule, the Sea Dyaks do not use the -tattoo. They have an idea that it is a sign of cowardice, and are -very much surprised that English sailors, whose courage they can but -respect, will allow themselves to be tattooed with the anchors, true -lovers’ knots, ships in full sail, entwined initials, and other figures -with which a British sailor loves to disfigure himself. In consequence -of this feeling many verbal skirmishes have been waged between the Sea -Dyaks and the English seamen. The tribes among whom tattooing reaches -its greatest development are mostly those of the Malaccan division, -such as the Kanowits, who are mightily despised by the regular Land -and Sea Dyaks, and are only tolerated by them as being the means of -affording a constant supply of heads. - -The Dyaks are exceedingly fertile in their invention of ear ornaments. -Most savages content themselves with making one hole in the lobe of the -ear, and often enlarge it so that a man’s hand could be passed through -the orifice. But the Dyaks go much further in their ideas of adornment. - -In common with other savages, they make an enormous hole in the lobe of -the ear, increase it by inserting a series of gradually enlarged plugs, -and drag it down as far as the shoulder by hanging leaden weights to -it. But they also bore a series of holes all round the edge of the ear, -and fill them with various ornaments. The favorite plan is, to have a -series of brass rings, and to insert them in the holes of the ear, the -smallest being at the top, and the lowest, which is large enough to be -a bracelet, at the bottom. This decoration prevails chiefly among the -Sea Dyaks, and there is a sort of proverb which warns the hearer to -beware of a man who wears many earrings. - -Often the Dyaks do not content themselves with wearing rings in their -ears, but fill the apertures with such a miscellany of objects that -they have been described as “châtelaines,” rather than earrings. One -young man, the son of a chief, wore only one large ring in each ear, -but from this ring depended a number of brass chains, to which were -suspended various ornaments. To one ear were thus hung two boar’s -tusks, one alligator’s tooth, part of a hornbill’s beak, three small -brass rings, and two little bells. - -Many of the men wear one large earring in the lobe, and bore a hole -in the top of the ear, through which is passed a canine tooth of the -tiger-cat. - -These ornaments are only worn when the Dyak puts on his dress of -ceremony, and at other times the holes in the ears are kept from -closing by plugs of wood. And, as the effect of the brass is always to -cause ulcerating sores, the ordinary appearance of a Dyak’s ears is -not very pleasing. Some of them have a curious fashion of boring one -hole at the top of the ear and another at the bottom, and tying to it -a brass plate, to which are suspended the jingling ornaments of which -these savages are so fond. - -The Dyaks are so fully impressed with the idea that nature is meant to -be improved by art, that they cannot even allow their teeth to retain -their natural shape and color. As a general rule, the men file their -front teeth into sharp points, while others improve upon nature still -farther by scooping out the front face of each tooth and rendering it -concave. - -Having thus rendered the shape of the tooth as unlike its natural -form as possible, the next process is evidently to change the color -as completely as the shape, and to turn them from white to black. The -habit of betel-eating has much to do with the darkening of the teeth, -but besides, there is a mode by which the Dyaks deliberately stain -their teeth black. The method by which the dye is produced and applied -is well told by Mr. Boyle, in his “Adventures among the Dyaks”:-- - -“We made inquiries about the means employed for blackening the teeth, -a custom which is universal in the far East. The old medicine man was -finally persuaded to show us the process, and very curious it appeared. - -“He produced from his stores a piece of dry wood of the kind called -sinka: this was set on fire, and held over the blade of a parang (or -sword), on which a few drops of water had been poured. As the stick -blazed, a black sap oozed from it, and dropped upon the metal, where it -mingled with the water, and in a few moments formed a pool of thick, -jetty liquid. With this the teeth are stained in childhood, and one -application, we are told, will suffice to preserve them black for ever, -nor are there any means of removing the color. - -“The process seems peculiar, because the wood from which exuded the sap -appears to be as dry as dust, and because the dye will not affect any -substance except the teeth, not even bone or horn. This is the more -curious since some of the Malays file the enamel carefully from their -teeth before applying the sinka. Many, indeed, file them to a point -as sharp as a needle, as do some of the Dyak tribes.” The reader will -remember that several of the West African tribes file their teeth in -like manner. - -Illustration No. 2, on the 1101st page, represents two Dyak warriors, -one in full costume, and the other a Dusum Dyak in ordinary dress. The -former of these men carries in his right hand the sumpitan, with its -spear head, and the other rests on his wooden shield covered with tufts -of human hair. His parang-ihlang or war sword is on his left side, with -its tufts of human hair depending from the handle. His ankles, legs, -and arms are covered with multitudes of brass rings, he wears a sort -of jacket formed from the skin of the orang-outan, and on his head is -a kind of coronal made from the feathers of the Argus pheasant. This -figure is taken from a photograph. - -The next figure represents a man in ordinary costume. He belongs to the -tribe of Dusums, who live on the northern coast of Borneo, and who wear -less clothing than any of the tribes of the island, their whole dress -consisting of the chawat and a number of large metal rings round their -necks and hips. The Dusum warriors wear their hair long, merely bound -with a piece of cotton cloth, and their spears are as simple as their -clothing, being nothing more than a metal head lashed to a shaft of -bamboo. - -In order to show at a glance the appearance of various tribes of -Borneans, two more Dyaks are represented in the engraving No. 1 on the -following page. The left-hand figure represents an Illinoan pirate. -These men are found at Tampassook or Tampasuk as the name is sometimes -spelt, a place on the north-western coast of Borneo, not very much -above the island of Labuan. - -The Illinoans possess many large and formidable war boats, which are -armed in the bows with a very long gun, and have, after the fashion -of Bornean boats, an upper deck, which serves as a platform for the -combatants and a shelter for the rowers, who sit beneath. There is a -small cabin astern for the captain, about the size of a dog kennel, but -the boats have no other sleeping accommodation. - -The paddles with which the rowers propel the vessel are shaped rather -curiously, looking at a distance like mere sticks with flat discs of -wood fastened to their ends. The boats are steered by an oar rudder at -the starboard side of the stern, and each is furnished with a mast and -huge sail, which can be raised in a few minutes, and struck in almost -as many seconds. Although the Illinoans are wealthy tribes, and possess -quantities of fire-arms, they are rather afraid to use these weapons, -and trust in preference to the spear and parang. - -The Illinoans were instrumental in the murder of two native chiefs who -were friendly to the English, and who had been suspected of aiding the -cession of Labuan. One of them, named Bud-ruddeen, a man of celebrity -as a warrior, did not fall unavenged. When the enemy approached, he -retired to his house, together with his favorite wife and his sister, -neither of whom would leave him. By the aid of his followers, he fought -desperately to the very last, until nearly all his men were killed, and -he himself was dangerously wounded. - -He then retired with his wife and sister into an inner chamber, while -the enemy crowded into the house in search of him, and then, firing -his pistol into a barrel of gunpowder which he had placed there in -readiness, blew to pieces himself, his two relatives, and his enemies. - -The other figure represents a Saghai Dyak. - -This tribe lives on the south-eastern coast of Borneo, and is -remarkable for the superb costumes of the men, who have about them -an air of barbaric splendor, which they are exceedingly fond of -displaying. Wearing, in common with all Dyaks, the chawat or waist -cloth, they take a pride in adorning themselves with short tunics made -of tiger or leopard skin, or rich and embroidered cloth; while on their -heads they wear magnificent caps made of monkey-skin, and decorated -with the beautiful feathers of the Argus pheasant, two of the largest -feathers being placed so that one droops over each ear. All these Dyaks -have a very singular profile, in consequence of their habit of filing -the teeth and so reducing their bulk, those who have concave teeth -presenting the most curious outline. - -[Illustration: (1.) ILLINOAN PIRATE AND SAGHAI DYAK. (See page 1112.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) DYAK WOMEN. (See page 1118.)] - -Comparatively slight and feeble as the Dyaks look by the side of the -stalwart and muscular European, their strength is really wonderful, and -enables them to perform tasks which the powerful white man could not -by any possibility achieve. On a journey, when an European has fallen -from sheer fatigue, a Dyak has taken the burden with which the fallen -man was laden, and added it to his own, without seeming to display -any particular sense of having increased his own labor; and when the -stranger, in spite of the relief, has lain down in absolute inability -to move, a little wiry Dyak has picked him up, put him on his back, and -proceeded on his journey with perfect ease. - -The Dyaks are in the habit of crossing the swamps with which Borneo -abounds by means of primitive bridges, called batangs. These are the -very simplest form in which the principle of the bridge can be carried -out. If the reader wishes to obtain a correct idea of a batang, he can -do so easily enough. Two bamboo poles are driven into the ground so as -to cross one another near the top, like an X with the lower limbs much -developed. They are then lashed together at the intersection, just like -the supports between which a modern rope dancer stretches his cord. -At about thirty feet distance, another pair of poles are fixed in a -similar way, and a horizontal bamboo laid upon them. - -In fact, the whole apparatus looks just like a rope dancer’s apparatus, -a bamboo taking the place of the rope. Beyond the second supports -others are added and connected by horizontal bamboos as far as the -marsh extends; and so fond are the natives of these very primitive -bridges that they will make them a mile or more in length, and extend -them over gorges of terrible depth. - -To tread these extraordinary bridges is a task that would tax the -powers of a professional rope dancer, and yet a Dyak has been known to -take a heavy white man on his back, and carry him a mile or more over -these slippery batangs, when, in many places, a false step would be -certain destruction for both. He does not seem at all fatigued by this -extraordinary feat of muscular power, but rather has a sort of boyish -exultation in his strength, and a decided delight that he is able at -all events in one respect to prove himself the superior of the white -man, whom he regards with the most profound respect as a being of -supernatural wisdom and power. - -The Dyaks are able, in some astonishing manner, to penetrate with -comparative ease through jungles which are absolutely impervious to -Europeans. One of these men, while on the march with some English -soldiers, exhibited his strength in a very unexpected manner. The path -was a terrible one, all up and down steep and slippery hills, so that -the Chinese coolies who accompanied the party first threw away their -rice, and lastly sat down and wept like children. The English sergeant, -a veteran, accustomed to hard marching both in China and India, broke -down at the first hill, and declared his inability to move another step -under the load which he carried. Mr. Brooke, who was in command of -the party, asked one of the Dyaks to carry the sergeant’s burden, and -promised him an additional piece of tobacco. - -The man was delighted with the proposal, and accepted it. He was -already carrying food for three weeks, his whole store of clothes, one -twelve-pound shot, two twelve-pound cartridges, a double-barrelled gun, -a hundred rounds of ball cartridge, and his own heavy sword and spear. -Such a load as this, which would be almost too great even for a man -walking on good roads, seemed a mere trifle to the agile Dyak, who went -lightly and easily up and down paths which the foreigners could hardly -traverse even without having to carry anything except their own weight. - -So little, indeed, was he incommoded, that he strapped the whole of the -sergeant’s kit on his back, and walked off as easily as if the whole -load were but a feather weight. No one who has not actually traversed -those paths can form an idea of the miseries attending the journey. -The paths themselves are bad enough, but, in addition to the terribly -severe labor of walking, the traveller has to endure mosquitoes, -sandflies, intense heat at mid-day, and intense cold at night, thirst, -wet, and every imaginable discomfort. - -Yet the native seems quite easy in the journey, and gets over the -ground in a manner that is absolutely exasperating to the Europeans -who accompany him. He is able to push his way through prickly thickets -and morasses in a way which seems almost impenetrable. Indeed, he says -himself that it is impenetrable, and that he achieves these feats -by means of certain charms which he carries about with him. On one -occasion it happened that at the end of a hard five hours’ journey, a -number of sketching materials and other necessaries had been forgotten, -and a Dyak was sent to the boats to fetch them, being promised a -pocket-knife for his trouble. He started about two P. M. and arrived -with the parcels before sunset, having thus, in addition to his first -journey with the travellers, and the heavy parcels which he had to -carry, twice traversed the distance which had occupied them five hours -in the transit. - -When questioned about the manner in which he performed the journey, he -said that it was owing to the virtues of a charm which he carried, and -which he produced. It was a small misshapen horn, which he said that -he had cut from the head of an antelope, and that its fellow horn was -brass. He further offered to sell it for fifteen dollars, averring that -its powers were unfailing, and that even any one who borrowed it was -able to traverse the country at the same speed which he had exhibited. - -The ordinary dress of the men is simple enough, consisting merely -of the “chawat,” or slight strip of cloth, which is twisted round -the loins in such a manner that one end falls in front and the other -behind. The chawat is often very gaily colored. Sometimes the Dyak -wears a sarong, or short petticoat of cotton cloth, which reaches -from the waist to a little above the knees. It is simply a strip of -cloth, with the two ends sewed together, and is almost large enough to -encircle two ordinary men. When it is put on the wearer steps into it, -draws it up to his waist, pulls it out in front as far as it will go -and then doubles back the fold and turns the edges inward, in such a -manner that it is held tight in its place, while the folds caused by -its large diameter allow the limbs full play. - -One of these chawats in my collection is woven in a sort of plaid -pattern, the ground hue being a bright and rather peculiar red, and the -cross-lines being nearly white. The texture is rather coarse, and the -whole fabric has a stiffness which is characteristic of native fabrics -made of this material. - -Those young men who are proud of their personal appearance, and are -able to afford the expense do not content themselves with the plain -chawat, but adorn it with all kinds of strange decorations. One of -these young dandies is well described by Mr. Boyle:--“The young man -did not dress in Malay trousers like his father, probably because one -pair alone of such articles existed in the house; but his chawat was -parti-colored, and his ornaments numerous. He was about five feet four -inches in height, very fair complexioned, and his face, though Tartar -like in character, had a pleasant expression. From the elbow to the -knuckles, both his arms were covered with rings of brass, and above -the joint were two broad armlets of snowy shells, which contrasted -admirably with his yellow-brown skin. - -“But the marvel and glory of his array hung behind. To the end of his -chawat was attached a long network of agate beads and bugles, which -jingled merrily whenever he moved. Round his neck were strings of -bright beads, and his knees were encircled by brazen wire. A profusion -of dried scalps fluttered from the parang by his side; and in walking -before us through the sunny glades of the jungle, his brazen gauntlet -flashing in the light, and his beads of agate tinkling behind, he -presented the very ideal of a barbaric dandy.” - -One chief, desirous of outdoing his fellows, had taken a gong -and beaten it out into a belt of solid metal a foot in width. In -consequence of the extraordinary value which the Dyaks set upon gongs, -this belt was a mark of wealth which no one could venture to challenge. -Beside the chawat, the well-to-do man wears a sort of shawl mantle, -much like a Scotch plaid, and capable of being disposed after as many -different fashions. They display great taste in the graceful folds -which they give to it, and seem to take a pride in the variety which -they can produce by the different modes of folding this simple garment. - - * * * * * - -The women dress in a manner somewhat like that of the men; but, in -lieu of the sarong, they mostly wear a rather longer petticoat, called -a bedang. When obliged to go out in the sun, they also wear a jacket, -without sleeves and open in front; but as this jacket hides the glossy -brown skin on which they pride themselves, they generally lay it aside -when in the house. - -In youth they are remarkable for their slender and graceful forms; but, -unfortunately, after a woman has passed the age of twenty, she begins -to deteriorate, and at thirty is an old woman. The face is pleasing -in expression, despite of the artificial means whereby the women do -their best to make themselves hideous. The eyes are black, clear, and -expressive, and the lashes singularly long. The nose is rather disposed -to turn upward than downward, and the mouth is terribly disfigured with -the continual chewing of betel and the mode in which the teeth are -filed and blackened. - -The chief point in a Dyak woman’s beauty is her hair, which is black, -wonderfully thick, and shining, and so long that when allowed to flow -over the back it nearly touches the ground. Of this ornament the women -are inordinately vain, and, when engaged in conversation, are fond of -flinging their shining tresses from side to side by coquettish tossings -of the head. Unfortunately, the fever which is so prevalent in many -parts of Borneo has the effect of bringing off all the hair, so that -many a young girl is thus deprived of her chief ornament. - -The women belonging to some of the tribes wear a most singular bodice, -composed of bark and bamboo, and kept together by successive rings of -brass wire, which form a strong and weighty bodice, to the lower part -of which is attached the bedang, or petticoat. - -Mr. Boyle seems to have taken a strong aversion to these bodices. “When -a Dyak lover attempts to pass a tender arm round his sweetheart’s -waist, instead of the soft flesh, he finds himself clasping a cuirass -of solid metal. Nor is this all; for fashion ordains that the Dyak -heiress shall invest her available means in the purchase of long -gauntlets of twisted brass wire, reaching from the knuckles to the -elbow; and if, in her turn, she encircles her lover’s neck with a -responsive arm, the wretched man finds himself clasped by a horrible -fetter, which draws a little bit of his flesh between each of its -links, and pinches him fearfully. For these reasons, caresses are not -common among Dyak lovers; after all, perhaps, they are only a habit. - -“But, apart from their inconvenience, these brazen ornaments are -decidedly tasteful and pretty. The ordinary color of a Dyak girl, when -she does not stain her body with turmeric, is a dull brownish yellow, -and the sparkling brass rings are a great relief to this complexion. -They are not removed at night, nor, in fact, during the wearer’s -lifetime, unless she outgrow them.” - -More than once the possession of these strange ornaments has proved -fatal to the wearer, the woman having fallen overboard from a canoe, -and drowned by the enormous weight of her brass ornaments. In some -parts of Borneo the girls are not content with their brass bodices, -bracelets, and anklets, but must needs encircle their throats with the -same material. They take a long piece of stout brass wire, and twist it -spirally round their necks, so that the lower part of the coil rests on -the shoulders, and the upper part comes just under the chin, causing -the wearer to hold her head upright, and having a most inelegant and -awkward effect. - -The Kayan women are exceedingly fond of a peculiar bead which is of -several colors, looking as if it were a black bead into which pieces of -green, yellow, blue, and gray material had been carefully let. A rich -woman will sometimes wear several strings of such beads just above the -hips. The different strings are connected with each other so as to form -a single ornament. For one such hip-lace (as Mr. St. John calls it) -a woman has given property equal to thirty-five pounds of our money; -and the same woman had several others for which she had given scarcely -less, together with a great number of inferior value. - -The Kayan women carry the tattoo to a great extent, and follow exactly -the same plan as the Samoan warriors, _i. e._ being completely tattooed -from the waist to the knees. They are very fond of this ornament, and -are apt to wear their dress open at the side so as to exhibit it. When -the women bathe, they think that the tattoo is quite sufficient dress, -and at a little distance they really look as if they were wearing -short trousers. - -As has been already mentioned, the Sea Dyaks do not, as a rule, care -for the tattoo, and in this respect the women follow the example of the -men. They are, however, equally fond of ornament with their sisters of -the land, and adorn themselves with most scrupulous care on festive -occasions. Mr. Boyle gives an animated description of the gala-dress -worn by the Saibas Dyak girls and women during a great feast given by -the chief. - -“Meanwhile the female portion of the community had been preparing -for their part in the proceedings. At this moment they came from the -interior of the house, and the stately magnificence of their appearance -showed that time and labor had not been spared in arraying themselves -for this great occasion. From the neck to the hips they were covered -over with large agate beads; string of them was heaped on string, till -many of the women were cuirassed an inch thick in solid stone before -and behind. - -“Upon their heads was placed a piece of bead-embroidered cloth, in -which were arranged thin skewers of painted wood about five inches -long: there were about twenty of these bits of wood disposed about -their heads, and each was attached to the other by strings of brilliant -glass beads. Five or six of these many-colored loops hung from each -skewer, and they were entwined into a graceful network. The effect was -very pretty, though barbarous, and the solemnity of the ceremonies was -much enhanced by the stately uprightness which the women were compelled -to observe in moving, on peril of disarrangement of this delicate -structure.” - -They also wear conical hats, made of split rattan. These hats are very -light, and last for a wonderful time. A specimen was presented to me by -a lady who had worn it for four years, and had certainly not treated -it with any consideration. Yet it is as strong and good as ever, and -the colors are as fresh and bright as when the hat was first made. -The rattan has been split into very narrow strips, and stained red, -yellow, and black, while some of the strips have had the natural color -discharged, so as to make them nearly white. - -The hat is fixed on the head by a broad loop of plaited palm leaf, -which is fastened to the side. Hats made on this principle are -prevalent throughout the whole Archipelago. - -Among the ornaments which are worn by the Dyaks are the little bells -which have already been mentioned as forming part of the appendages of -an earring. These ornaments called “garunongs,” and mostly worn by the -women on the edges of the bedang or petticoat, are almost exactly like -our hawk-bells, being nothing more than little hollow spheres of brass -or bronze about the size of a boy’s playing marble, with a small metal -ball in the interior by way of a clapper, and a moderately wide slit -at the bottom. To some of the bells the remarkable beads are attached. -These bells keep up a musical chime or jingle as the wearer walks, and -are therefore used in dances and on great occasions. - -The general treatment of the Dyak women is good. They certainly have to -work hard, but so have their husbands, and, as we shall presently see, -they are not the abject slaves such as are too often found among savage -nations, but maintain their share of influence in the family, and are -perfectly capable of assisting themselves when the occasion requires -it. They are accustomed to work in the fields, and the universal -chopping-knife or parang is seldom out of their hands. The constant use -of this weapon hardens their hands and often deforms the fingers. - -When they come home from their work in the field, they have the -heaviest portion of their work before them, their evening task being -the husking and winnowing of the rice for supper and for the meals of -the following day. The rice is first pounded in large troughs by means -of long and heavy wooden poles, which are held perpendicularly, lifted -up, and then allowed to fall on the grain, and, as a rule each trough -occupies three women, who work for about half an hour. This pounding -separates the husk from the grain, and the next process is to winnow -the rice by means of a shovel and a fan. - -The evening meal is then cooked and eaten, the children fed, the bronze -dishes put away, and then the women can sit quietly in the veranda, and -eat their betel in peace. Although this mode of life seems rather hard, -and the husbands appear to be acting harshly toward their partners in -letting them work in this manner while they sit in their houses, chew -betel, and talk over the gossip of the day, there is really a very fair -reciprocity of labor. While the wives have been working in the fields, -the husbands have been fishing, and in so doing have repeatedly exposed -their lives to danger, the rollers being at certain seasons of the year -exceedingly dangerous. At Mukah, as at other places, the wives insist -upon being furnished with fish by their husbands, and, in case the men -should come home unsuccessful, the women fasten their doors and bar -them out. Indeed, so long as the marriage holds good, the relation of -husband and wife seems to be conducted in a manner similar to that -which is so graphically depicted by Scott in his “Antiquary.” - -In order to show the appearance of the Dyak women in their ordinary -and gala costumes, two figures are introduced into illustration No. -2 on page 1113. One represents a Dyak girl before arraying herself -in the mass of ornaments with which she loves to decorate herself on -festivals. She wears, as usual, the bedang, or petticoat, which, if she -be of ordinary condition, is made of cotton, but if she be rich, of -silk. It is twisted round the waist in the manner practised by the men, -but, in addition, is fastened to the brass belts which surround her -waist. Her long glossy hair is flowing to the full extent, before the -owner gathers up its massive tresses preparatory to adorning her head -with the complicated decorations, of full dress. - -The other figure represents her as she appears in all the glory of full -gala costume. As far as absolute dress goes, she wears no more than -she did before, the only alteration being that her bedang is the best -which she has, and is sometimes beautifully embroidered. On her arms -are several thick rings of brass, and the singularly uncomfortable -brass gauntlet extends from the wrist to the elbow. Her neck and bust -are nearly covered with the heavy agate beads, and on her head is the -complicated cap, with its curious arrangement of wooden spikes and -glass beads. - - - - -CHAPTER CXV. - -BORNEO--_Continued_. - -WAR. - - - DYAK WEAPONS -- THE SUMPITAN, OR BLOW GUN -- CONSTRUCTION OF THE - WEAPON -- THE INLAID OR METAL BUTT -- THE SPEAR HEAD, OR BAYONET -- - THE SUMPIT ARROW -- THE UPAS POISON AND ITS EFFECTS -- DESCRIPTION OF - THE TREE -- THE QUIVER -- THE PARANG, OR SWORD, AND ITS VARIETIES -- - THE PARANG-LATOK, AND ITS CURIOUS HANDLE -- POWER OF ITS BLOW -- TWO - BLOWS OF AN EXECUTIONER -- THE PARANG-IHLANG: ITS CURIOUSLY FORMED - BLADE -- AN AWKWARD WEAPON -- POWER OF THE PARANG-IHLANG, AND ITS - VALUE -- THE SHEATH AND ITS ADDITIONAL KNIFE -- DOUBLE-EDGED PARANG, - WITH CHARMS -- A SINGULAR ORNAMENT -- THE KRIS AND ITS VARIETIES -- - ITS WAVED AND LAMINATED BLADE -- EFFECT OF THE LIME JUICE -- THE - EXECUTIONER’S KRIS. - -We now come to the subject of Warfare, which forms perhaps the most -important branch of Dyak history. Whether the Dyaks belong to the -Land or Sea division, they are always warlike, though the latter are -fiercer, perhaps braver, and certainly more enterprising than the -former. In order to understand the system by which they wage war, we -must first examine their weapons. I will take that which is the most -characteristic; namely, the sumpitan, or blow gun. - -We have here a weapon, the like of which we have not seen in any -country that we have hitherto investigated; namely, an instrument by -means of which missiles are projected by means of compressed air. The -principle on which the sumpitan acts is precisely similar to that of -fire-arms, though the propelling power is obtained in a different -and more simple manner. In fact, the sumpitan is nothing but the -“pea-shooter” of boys, very much enlarged, and carrying an arrow -instead of a pea or clay ball. - -This curious weapon is about eight feet in length, and not quite an -inch in diameter, and is bored with the greatest accuracy, a task that -occupies a very long time, the wood being very hard, and the interior -of the sumpitan smooth and even polished. It is not always made of -the same wood, the specimens in my own collection being of different -material, one of very dark and the other of very light wood. The -surface is of equal thickness from end to end, and, as it generally -has to enact the part of a spear as well as of a sumpitan, it is very -strong and heavy. - -One of these weapons, brought to England by the late Admiral Young, -is of a beautiful colored wood, and is beautifully inlaid, both -at the butt and the point, with metal. The last few inches of the -butt are entirely made of metal, the weight of which causes the -weapon to balance itself easily when held to the lips. The pattern -of the inlaying may be seen in fig. 1, of the illustration entitled -“Sumpitans,” on the 1122nd page. - -The other sumpitan, fig. 2, is of a very dark, almost black wood, which -is brightly polished on the exterior as well as in the interior, and is -not inlaid. The butt, however, is encased with brass for five inches, -the brass being very thick and heavy at the end, and deeply ridged, -so as to look at a little distance as if it were a spiral brass wire -coiled round the butt of the sumpitan. - -At the tip of this weapon is a spear head, very thick, broad, and -strong, sharply edged and pointed, and decorated with engraved patterns -after the manner employed by Dyak smiths. It is firmly bound to the -sumpitan by brass wire or rattan, and is an exact analogue of the -bayonet, the spear head being fastened to the side of the weapon, and -not interfering with the flight of the missile. The bore of the weapon -is very small, not quite half an inch in diameter, and it is really -wonderful that the maker could contrive to hollow it with the perfect -precision which is necessary for the accurate flight of the arrow. - -We next come to the missile which is projected through the sumpitan. -This is a very tiny arrow, made of the thorn of the sago palm, about -seven or eight inches long, equally thick from base to point, and not -thicker than a large steel knitting-needle. In order to make it fit the -bore so that it can be propelled by the breath, it is furnished at the -butt with a conical piece of pith or soft wood, so that it exactly fits -the bore. In some of the arrows, the cone is hollow, and a few of them -are furnished with wing-like appendages along the shaft. As a rule, -however, the solid cone is in most general use. - -These arrows are so small that the wound which they inflict is in -itself insignificant, and would not be sufficient to kill any animal -larger than a rat. They are, however, converted into weapons of the -most formidable character by being smeared at the tip with poison -obtained from the upas-tree. - -The reader is probably aware of the many tales that are told of this -tree--how that it poisons the country for a mile round, and how that -the deadly juice can only be obtained by means of condemned criminals, -who earn their pardon in case they can bring off a bottle of the juice. -Even in more recent days the upas-tree has not lost all its legends, -and many persons still believe that actual contact with the tree or its -leaves produces a sensation of faintness. This, however, is not the -case; neither is the actual juice of the tree so deadly as is supposed. - -A wound made by an arrow poisoned with upas juice is sure to be fatal, -provided that the poison be quite fresh; but it loses its power very -rapidly, and after it has been exposed to the air for two hours it is -useless, and must be renewed. When fresh, it is fatal in a very short -time, as was found by Mr. Johnson, who led an attack on the Kanowit -Dyaks in 1859. He lost thirty men in the attack, every one of them -being killed by the tiny sumpit arrow, and not one having a mark on -him, except the little wound made by the arrow’s point. - -Should the poison have been exposed to the air, the wounded man has a -chance of recovery; and it has been found that a large dose of spirits, -sucking the wound, and keeping the sufferer continually in motion will -generally overcome the virulence of the poison. Indeed, the sumpit -arrow seems to have much the same effect as the bite of the cobra, and -the treatment which is efficacious for the snake bite answers equally -well for the arrow wound. - -The juice of the upas-tree is procured simply by boring a hole in the -trunk, from which the juice issues in a white, cream-like state. It -is received in little flasks made of bamboo, which are closed in the -most careful manner, in order to exclude the air. One of these flasks -in my possession is five inches in length, and about half an inch in -diameter. One end is naturally closed by a knot, and the other is -sealed with the most scrupulous care. First, a plug of soft wood has -been inserted into the end, after the manner of a cork. Over the plug -a lump of beeswax has been firmly kneaded, and over the wax a piece of -membrane has been tied when wet. Although the upas juice is white when -it first issues from the tree, it speedily becomes black when exposed -to the air. - -The upas-tree is called scientifically _Antiaris toxicaria_, and it -belongs to the natural order _Astocarpeæ_, the best known species of -which order is the well-known bread-fruit tree. All the plants of -this order produce a white milky juice, which is always acrid and -deleterious, and in many instances is exceedingly poisonous. Yet those -parts of the plant, such as the fruit, in which the milk is replaced -by sugar in the process of ripening, are not only harmless, but even -nutritious. The tree grows to a considerable size, and the bark of the -trunk has a reddish hue. - -The reader will at once understand how formidable is this weapon. It -is greatly to be dreaded even when the Dyak warriors are met in open -battle, and in naval engagements the showers of poisoned arrows that -are continually shot through the port-holes render the gunners’ task -a most unpleasant one. But the sumpitan is much more to be dreaded -by land than by sea; and when it is employed in bush warfare, the -boldest soldier shrinks from the encounter. The Dyak who wields it lies -hidden in the thick foliage, sure that, even in case of discovery, he -can glide through the tangled thickets into a place of security. The -sumpitan makes no report, and gives out no smoke as an indication of -its position, but the deadly arrow flies silently on its errand, and -the only intimation of the presence of an adversary is the slight tap -with which the arrow strikes its mark. - -The only disadvantage of the sumpitan is that its range is a short -one, the light arrow being seldom used at a distance exceeding forty -yards, though a man who is accustomed to its use can propel an arrow -for seventy or eighty yards. At this distance, however, it is not to -be dreaded, as its force is so expended that it can scarcely break the -human skin. Some of these arrows have their heads made of the barbed -bone of the sting-ray, which snaps off at a touch, and remains in the -wound if the man tries to draw out the weapon. Others have separate -heads made of wood, which become detached as soon as the shaft is -pulled. The native name of the head is _jowing_. - -[Illustration: (3.) PARANG IHLANG. (See page 1124.)] - -[Illustration: (1.) PARANG LATOK. (See page 1123.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) DYAK SUMPITANS. (See page 1119.)] - -The Dyak generally carries thirty or forty of these arrows in a -peculiar-shaped quiver. It is made of the ever useful bamboo, and is -furnished with an appendage by which it can be stuck into the belt and -carried at the side. This appendage is made of hard wood, and is lashed -to the quiver by a broad belt of rattan, most beautifully plaited. The -quiver is closed by a conical wooden cover, which is always secured by -a string so that it shall not be lost. Some of the Dyak quivers are -highly polished, covered with carvings, and are almost to be ranked -with works of art. Many of these quivers have an inner case or lining -of dried skin or membrane, so as to exclude the air, and preserve the -poison of the arrow as long as possible. - -When the Dyak uses the sumpitan, he holds the mouthpiece to his lips -between the two first fingers of his left hand, while with his right he -supports and aims the heavy weapon, which requires a strong as well as -a practised man to direct it steadily. - - * * * * * - -The weapon which comes next in importance to the sumpitan is the -parang or sword, of which there are several varieties. The Dyaks -pride themselves greatly on their swords, and the excellence of their -workmanship is so great that they have good reason for pride. Their -forges are of excellent quality, and some of the tribes are able not -only to forge their own weapons but to smelt their own iron. - -The commonest of all the Dyak weapons is the sword called parang-latok, -which is carried by every man and nearly every woman. It is used not -only as a sword, but as an axe, and is indifferently employed for -cutting through the jungle or cutting down the enemy. The shape of this -sword is very peculiar, as may be seen from illustration No. 1, on the -preceding page, which represents a specimen in my collection. - -The blade is formed after a very curious pattern. Toward the hilt it -is squared, and is in fact nothing but a square bar of steel nearly -half an inch in thickness, and three quarters of an inch in width. From -the hilt to the point the blade becomes gradually wider and thinner, -so that the broad point, two inches in width, contains just the same -amount of metal as the half-inch square hilt. It is evident that the -sword is first forged into a square bar of equable size, and is then -beaten out flatter and flatter toward the point. - -The illustration shows that the blade of the sword is bent at a -considerable angle toward the hilt. This curious shape, awkward as it -is to an unaccustomed hand, forms the principal value of the sword. -When the parang-latok is used for cutting down branches or chopping a -path through the jungle, it is grasped at the squared portion of the -blade, and is used just as we use the common bill-hook in this country. -But when the object which is to be chopped lies on the ground, the -parang is held by the handle, so that the angular shape allows the -blade to be used with full force. It is the habit of holding the parang -by the squared portion of the blade, that disfigures and even deforms -the fingers of the women, as has already been mentioned on page 1118. - -The ordinary parangs have no attempt at ornament upon them, but those -of better construction are covered with patterns engraved upon the -blade, of which we shall see some examples. - -In war, this sword is a most formidable weapon. It is so heavy, -weighing on an average two pounds, that a blow from it is sufficient -to crush the skull or break the limb of a man, and, even if it had -no edge, it would equal in efficacy the merai of the New Zealander. -But the parang-latok has a very sharp edge, which is kept in the best -order, and, when a blow is delivered with it, the very form of the -weapon causes it to make the terrible “drawing cut,” the blade being -drawn through the wound nearly from hilt to point. In consequence of -this peculiarity, the wounds made by the parang-latok are very severe, -and the natives pride themselves greatly on the depth of the wound -which they can inflict. - -One of the modes by which they try their skill is killing a pig with a -single blow of a parang-latok, a good swordsman being able to sever the -animal completely, and to drive the point of his weapon into the earth. -If the reader has been accustomed to use the sword, he will see that to -strike downward at an object so near the ground is by no means an easy -task. - -When an English swordsman performs the feat of severing a sheep at a -single blow, he has several advantages which are denied to the Dyak. -In the first place, the sheep is already dead, so that he can take his -aim in quiet, whereas the pig is alive, so that the Dyak must aim his -blow as he can. Then the sheep has been skinned and cleaned, so that -the sword has not so much resistance to overcome. Lastly, the sheep -is suspended, so that the swordsman can use the most effective blow, -namely, “Cut 6,” _i. e._ a sweeping, horizontal cut from left to right, -which can be delivered with the full swing of the arm. - -Were it not for the peculiar form of the parang-latok the feat of -severing a pig could not be accomplished, but the angular shape of -the blade and its gradually increasing width combine the power of the -drawing cut with the chopping force gained by the weight of the weapon. - -The sheath of this parang is neatly made of two flat pieces of wood, -neatly hollowed inside to receive the blade, and bound together in -the most elaborate manner by a series of belts, twelve or fourteen in -number. These belts are made of very narrow strips of dark rattan, and -are twined into an endless four-plait. In my own specimen, there are -thirteen of these belts. Attached to the upper end of the sheath is the -cord by which the weapon is hung to the side. This cord is doubled, is -made of scarlet and yellow cotton plaited square, and is ornamented at -the ends with two large tassels, the strings of which are yellow tipped -with scarlet tufts. - -The parang-latok is more a Malayan than a Dyak weapon, but it is in -favor with the Dyaks, and, as has been mentioned, has come into general -use. - -The Malays use it in execution, and are able to decapitate a man at a -single blow, the executioner standing at his side and a little behind -him. On one occasion, an executioner, who was distinguished for the -skill with which he wielded a very heavy parang which he possessed, -stood between two criminals as they knelt on the ground, and with a -right and left hand blow struck off both their heads. The same man, who -was one of the police, being annoyed by the howling of some dogs in the -street, rushed out with his parang, and with one blow cut in two the -first animal which he met. - -We now come to another weapon, the parang-ihlang, which is one of the -most extraordinary swords in the world, and more troublesome and even -dangerous to strangers than can well be conceived. This is a smaller, -shorter, and lighter weapon than the parang-latok. From point to hilt -it measures nineteen inches, and in extreme breadth of blade is rather -under an inch and a half. It weighs rather less than one pound six -ounces, and altogether appears to be quite insignificant when compared -with the parang-latok. We shall see, however, that in the hands of an -experienced swordsman it is even superior to that weapon on account of -a strange peculiarity in construction. The general shape of the blade -of the parang-ihlang can be seen in illustration No. 3, on page 1122. -It is very thick and heavy toward the hilt, where it is nearly squared, -like the parang-latok, but becomes gradually thinner toward the point, -which is finished off in a series of scooped patterns that look at a -little distance as if the sword had been broken. The back is quite -straight, and along it and on either side of the blade is a series of -small patterns engraved with much neatness and freedom of execution. - -But the most remarkable thing about the blade is, that instead of being -nearly flat as are European sword blades, it is convex on one side, and -concave on the other, as is shown at the section, fig. 5. Owing to this -form, it can only be used for two cuts, one downward and one upward; -and if used in the wrong direction, it flies off at an angle, and is -nearly certain to inflict a wound on the man who wields it. These -swords are made either for the right or left hand, so that a man who is -not acquainted with the peculiarities of any parang is afraid to use -it without a careful trial, lest he should make the wrong cut with it, -and so wound himself. - -Small and insignificant as this weapon looks, it is capable of -inflicting the most dreadful wounds, the peculiar concavity of the -blade aiding it in a most remarkable manner. Like the parang-latok, it -is used as a chopper as well as a sword, and in experienced hands is a -most effective tool. One man, described by Mr. Brooke, was a celebrated -swordsman, and has been known to sever at a single blow a log of -tolerably hard wood as thick as a man’s leg. - -Even English officers have been so much impressed with the value of -this weapon, that they have only carried the regulation sword for show, -preferring the parang-ihlang for use. The Sea Dyaks, who have been -already mentioned as essentially warriors, prefer this sword to any -other weapon, though the real inventors and principal makers of it are -the Kayans, who belong to the Malanau division of the Land Dyaks. As -a rule, the ordinary Land Dyaks use the parang-ihlang but little, and -when they do use it are apt to hurt themselves. Mr. Boyle mentions an -instance where the eldest son of a chief had cut himself seriously on -both shins through his incautious use of this weapon. - -“The finest parangs,” writes Mr. Boyle, “or those esteemed so, are -found in the graves of Kayan warriors, which are consequently rifled by -Dyaks and Malays on every possible occasion. I have one, purchased at -Kennowit, which I was told had been obtained from a sepulchre, three -hundred years old--a rather improbable assertion, though I believe the -weapon was really found in a Kayan grave, for it was strangely stained -and rusted when I bought it.” - -The Dyaks are very proud of the quality of their blades, and hold -even the best European steel in utter contempt. It is said that their -swords are made of old files, which are imported in large quantities; -but, whatever may be the material, the temper of their blades is -marvellously excellent. These parangs not only take a razor-like -edge, but are exceedingly tough, and when used for bush-work beat the -very best English implements. Mr. Boyle remarks, that whereas his own -hunting-knives, which professed to be the finest steel possible, broke -and gapped, the Dyak parangs were not in the least injured. - -Such a blade as has been described is exceedingly valuable, even in -its own country, and one of the best quality cannot be purchased under -ten pounds sterling. It may be easily imagined that when a Dyak is -fortunate enough to possess one of these valuable blades he will not be -content with an ordinary handle and sheath, but will lavish upon his -weapon all the powers of his native art. The handle, instead of being -of simple wood, is of bone, carved deeply and boldly into patterns, and -is always bent at right angles to the line of the blade. It is further -ornamented by sundry tufts of human hair, dyed of various colors, -of which deep red, yellow, and green are the favorites. The hilt is -generally bound with brass wire, and, for a small-handed race like the -Dyaks, affords an excellent hold. An European generally finds that the -narrow handle is very awkward and cramped, and is not sufficient for -his grasp. - -The scabbard of this weapon is covered with ornaments. Instead of being -a plain and simple sheath, like that of the parang-latok, it is made of -a hard wood, of a dark, rich, mahogany color, which takes a very high -polish. This is carved in elaborate and really artistic patterns, the -carving being confined to the front of the scabbard. - -In the middle, just under the carved part, is a piece of fur, and below -the fur is a tuft of human hair dyed red. In most cases of swords made -by uncivilized races, there is some danger to the hand in drawing them, -the edge of the sword being apt to project between the two flat pieces -of which the sheath is made. In order, however, to guard against such -an accident, the maker of the parang-ihlang places a piece of rattan -against each edge of the scabbard, so that the blade cannot by any -possibility cut the fingers, even if the hand should grasp the sheath. -The various parts of this sheath are bound together by six belts of -plaited rattan and three belts of brass wire, plaited most beautifully, -in that form which is known to sailors as the Turk’s head. - -The belt by which the sword is attached to the wearer is made of -rattan, cut into very narrow strips and plaited into thongs, three -of which thongs are again plaited together to form the belt. On the -opposite side of the scabbard is a second sheath, of the same length as -that to which it is fastened, but small and cylindrical. This sheath is -made of red and yellow cloth, is lined with bark, and is intended for -the reception of a knife which is peculiar to the Dyaks. One of these -knives maybe seen at fig. 3, in the illustration of the parang on page -1129. The handle of this knife is made of the same hard wood as that -of which the sheath is formed. It is nearly cylindrical, about half an -inch in diameter, and fourteen inches in length, the blade being short, -pointed, and barely two inches in length. This curious knife is used by -the Dyaks for splitting rattan, and similar purposes, the long handle -being held under the left arm, while the rattan is drawn with both -hands, across the edge of the blade. - -The natives are singularly averse to parting with this knife. They -will sell the sword, if a sufficient price be offered, but will always -endeavor surreptitiously to withdraw the knife, so that, out of many -parangs which have been brought to Europe, comparatively few have the -knife attached to them. In one specimen in my collection, the weapon -appears to be quite perfect, but, on withdrawing the knife from its -sheath, it is seen that the Dyak has cleverly substituted a bladeless -handle for the real knife. - -Both the weapons which have been described were presented to me by C. -T. C. Grant, Esq. - -There is also in my collection a third kind of parang, which at first -sight looks almost exactly like the old Roman sword. It is thick, -massive, weighty, and at first sight looks more like an ancient than -a modern weapon. On a closer examination, however, the peculiar Dyak -workmanship is evident. Though it is not like the preceding weapon, -convex on one side, and concave on the other, the two sides are -entirely distinct. The blade is double-edged, very thick in the middle, -and sloped off rather abruptly to the edge on either side. - -The handle is only made of wood, but is profusely decorated with human -hair of different colors and considerable length, and it is bound with -a broad belt of plaited rattan. The sheath for the knife is entirely -made of bark, and the knife itself is shown at fig. 2. Like the -scabbard of the parang-ihlang already described, that of this weapon is -richly carved, and adorned with fur and long tufts of human hair. - -The belt by which it is suspended is made of rattan split very fine, -and plaited so as to form a strap nearly an inch in width, and the -sixth of an inch in thickness. It is rounded at the edges, and at the -upper part it is ingeniously separated into two portions, so as to form -a loop. - -The chief peculiarity of this weapon lies in the number of charms -which are attached to it. First come two teeth, and then there is -a beautifully plaited little case, something like the cocoon of an -insect, containing several little pieces of wood. Next comes a small -bag of netted string, about an inch and a half in length, in which is a -stone, and then come three little flattish baskets, with covers, which -are empty. Fastened to the belt by several thongs is a curiously shaped -piece of wood which I believe to be used for sharpening the edges of -the sword, and to the end of the sheath is hung by a string of beads -a feather, the quill of which has been carefully wrapped with red and -black string. - -This weapon is in all ways a most formidable one, and to European -travellers is by far the best for practical purposes. The handle is -rather larger than is the case with either of the preceding weapons; -the blade has not that curvature which renders it so perilous a weapon -in unpractised hands; it is double-edged, and either edge can be used -with equal facility; and lastly, it possesses a point, which is not -the case with the other forms of the sword. - -One Dyak chief had an ornament attached to his sword of which he was -exceedingly proud. It was an enormous tuft of hair, being nothing more -nor less than the pigtails of ten Chinese whom he had killed, and whose -hair he had fastened to the scabbard of his sword. This ornament must -have been singularly inconvenient to him. There is in my collection an -average specimen of a Chinese pigtail. It weighs nine ounces, so that -the weight of the ten must rather exceed five pounds and a half, while -the length is five feet, so that ten tufts of hair, each five feet in -length, must have given the wearer an infinity of trouble as he walked. - - * * * * * - -The reader will already have noticed how the various forms of sword -are used alike by the Malays and the Dyak tribes. There is another -weapon, which, though strictly a Malay invention, is used by the Dyaks, -and indeed, with some variations, throughout the whole of the Malay -Archipelago. It is called the kris, sometimes, but wrongly, spelt -_creese_, and is so common that any ordinary collection of weapons is -sure to contain several specimens of the kris. It is remarkable for -three points. In the first place, the handle is not set in a line with -the blade, as in ordinary daggers, but is bent at a right angle; next, -the blade is almost always waved in form, like the flaming sword with -which the old painters armed the angels who kept the gates of Paradise; -and thirdly, the blade is never smooth, but dull, rough, and indented -with curved grooves much resembling in form the marks on a “browned” -gun-barrel. By referring to the illustration “Kris” on page 1129, the -reader will better understand its peculiarities. - -There are few weapons which vary more in value, or in which the price -set upon them is so apparently excessive. A first-rate blade, even -without the handle and sheath, will cost from eighteen to twenty -pounds, and an ordinary one can scarcely be purchased under two pounds. -They have by no means the appearance of being valuable weapons, the -steel of the blade being not only rough and corroded, but looking as if -it were composed of successive laminæ which are on the point of being -separated. This effect is produced by steeping the blade in lime juice, -thus causing a partial corrosion of the metal, which is made of small -pieces of steel twisted and welded together in such a manner as to -produce exceeding toughness. - -One of these weapons in my collection is worn away almost to a mere -ribbon of steel by the action of the acid, and, strange as it may seem, -weapons of this kind, which look much as if they were mere pieces of -rusty iron-hooping, are the most valued by connoisseurs. The length of -grain in this weapon is wonderful, the corrosion of the lime juice -showing it in the most perfect manner. The long grooves can be traced -from one end of the blade to the other, following the waved form of the -narrower portion, and curling round in the wider part near the hilt, -as if the whole of the blade had been forged out of steel wires laid -parallel to each other and then welded together. - -The lime juice takes off from the edge that razor-like smoothness which -is so much admired in European blades, and gives it a ragged, saw-like -appearance that is peculiar to the instrument. This edge, however, is a -terrible one for penetration into human flesh, and answers the purpose -even better than a plain and sharp edge could do. - -The form of the kris is sufficient to tell the reader the mode of -handling it, the weapon being thrust forward just as a man points with -his extended forefinger, and not grasped according to the conventional -ideas of painters. Spaniards, who are proverbially expert in the use of -their long knives, hold and use them in nearly the same manner, laying -the extended forefinger along the blade as a guide, and thrusting -forward instead of striking downward. The average length of a kris -blade is about a foot, but some are nearly as long as ordinary swords, -while others are only six or seven inches in length. - -Very great pride is taken in an old family kris, the owner regarding -it with a veneration that is almost superstitious. Generally, the -handle is quite plain, but the more wealthy have it made of gold, and -encrusted with precious stones. This weapon is seldom used in war. It -is carried more as the symbol of a gentleman than as a weapon to be -used in actual fight, and plays the part that the sword used to play in -the last century. - -The kris is much used in executions, the weapon being one made -expressly for the purpose, quite straight, thin, and narrow. In all -cases it is used in the same manner, though there are some variations -in detail. Generally, the man who is to suffer walks quietly and -unbound to a chair, in which he seats himself, mostly solacing his -last moments by chewing the betel-nut. His arms are then extended, and -held by two men, while the executioner, standing behind him, places -the point of the kris just above the left collar-bone, and strikes it -downward into the heart, so that death is instantaneous. - -In some places the execution kris is very narrow, thin, and sharp on -both edges, like a lancet. The executioner takes a small tuft of cotton -wool, and twists it lightly round the blade of the kris, just above -the point. He then holds the cotton wool between the finger and thumb -of his left hand, so as to keep the kris upright. After placing the -point of the weapon on the right spot above the left collar-bone, he -drives it downward into the heart with his right hand, and the man is -dead. Still holding the cotton wool between the finger and thumb, he -draws out the kris, and, as the point is withdrawn, presses the cotton -wool into the small wound which it has made, so that the weapon is -quite clean and bright, and not a drop of blood is allowed to be seen. -There is no doubt that this mode of execution is as certain, swift and -merciful as any that can be devised. It is equal in these respects -to the guillotine, and has the great advantage of being absolutely -bloodless, and requiring no scaffold or visible apparatus. A traveller -might pass within two yards of the fatal spot, and not know that -anything out of the ordinary way was being done. - -Some of these weapons have been used for many successive generations, -and are highly prized, some being valued at sums which to Europeans -seem almost fabulous. One of these execution krises was shown at the -Great Exhibition in London, but was lost, together with many other -weapons of great value. - -The spear is a weapon much favored by many Dyak tribes, but little -employed by others, the spear head at the end of the sumpitan answering -every practical purpose. In fact it is used, like the club of the Fiji -Islander, as a summons to battle, and serves the same purpose as the -fiery cross of the Scotch Highlands. This symbol is instantaneously -obeyed, and, as it runs through a country with almost magical speed, -a chief can raise a large force within a very short time. On one -occasion, during the rajahship of Sir James Brooke, an incipient -rebellion was ingeniously stopped by finding the “calling-out spear” -as it lay hidden in a canoe, and taking possession of it. The people -strenuously denied that such an article ever existed; but when it was -taken from its hiding-place, the projected rising instantly collapsed. - - - - -CHAPTER CXVI. - -BORNEO--_Continued_. - -WAR--_Concluded_. - - - THE BORNEAN SHIELD, ITS USUAL SHAPE AND DECORATIONS -- MODE OF USING - IT -- A CURIOUS SHIELD IN MY COLLECTION -- HEAD HUNTING AND ITS - ACCOMPANYING HORRORS -- OBJECTS OF SIR JAMES BROOKE’S MISSION -- HIS - MODE OF SUPPRESSING THE PRACTICE -- “OPENING MOURNING” -- THE FISH - SPEARING AND THE FEAST -- VALUE OF HEADS -- TREACHERY AND CUNNING -- - THE BAFFLED HEAD HUNTERS -- DYEING AND PRESERVING THE HEADS -- THE - HEAD HOUSES -- COURAGE IN WAR -- STORMING A NATIVE FORT -- A NAVAL - BATTLE -- TRAPS AND PITFALLS -- MAKING PEACE. - -By way of defensive weapons, the Dyaks use the shield, which is made -of wood, and is generally of an oblong form. Like the parang, it is -decorated with various ornaments, the chief of which are hair, beads, -and feathers. The hair is made into flat tufts, and fastened at regular -intervals all over the shield, as is seen in an illustration at the -foot of next page, which represents a fine specimen in the magnificent -collection of the late Mr. Christy. In the centre of this shield there -is a rude and evidently conventional representation of the human face, -the eye being circular, of very great size, and painted white in the -centre. At the top and bottom of the shield are similar figures, but of -smaller size. Some shields, which are now very seldom seen, have the -entire human form painted on them, the legs issuing from the chest, -and the neck being entirely dispensed with. The tufts of hair on this -shield are black. - -The mode of using the shield and sword is shown in their sword dances, -and Mr. Brooke, who had great experience in the Dyak weapons, gives -the following opinion of their value:--Sword dances with shields were -going on. Each tribe has a peculiar step and code of its own; but as an -attack and defence in earnest they all seemed to be equally ridiculous. - -“However, in the event of an opponent using a shield, I feel convinced -that an European could not stand against them, as they are able to -crouch their bodies entirely behind it, and can spring immediately from -such an attitude behind it without losing their balance. But without a -shield a man with a rapier would be more than a match for any of them, -unless, as is possible, a heavy Dyak weapon were to cut a light sword -in two. This, however, no dexterous fencer would be likely to allow, -and, after the first blow from a heavy weapon had fallen, the opponent -would be at the mercy of a light swordsman.” - -With due respect to the opinion of so competent an authority, I cannot -but think that, even when furnished with this shield, the Dyak ought -not to overcome a good fencer. The very fact that he is obliged to hold -his shield before him, and consequently to stand either with his left -side or at least his breast fronting his adversary, shows that he can -have but a very short reach with his weapon, while his opponent, armed -with a small sword, and using only the point, can remain entirely out -of reach of the parang’s edge, while he himself is within easy distance -of the Dyak, and ready to bring in the fatal point of his weapon at the -slightest opening made by his opponent. - -The reader may remember that the parang described on page 1125 has -attached to it, among other ornaments, a single feather. This feather -has been taken from the rhinoceros hornbill, a bird which the Dyaks -hold in much respect, and which they will not eat, however hungry they -may be. The quill feathers of the wing and tail are black, with a band -of white, and by both Malays and Dyaks they are thought to possess -certain virtues, and are used as talismans. The bird is considered to -be an emblem of war, and for this reason the sword sheaths, shields, -and cloaks worn in war time are decorated with its feathers; and the -huge horny beak of the bird is scraped thin, polished, and made into -earrings. - -[Illustration: (1.) DYAK KRIS (See page 1126.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) BORNESE SHIELD. (See page 1131.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) PARANG WITH CHARMS. (See page 1125.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) SPEAR. (See page 1132.)] - -[Illustration: (5.) DYAK SHIELD (See page 1128.)] - -I insert also on page 1129, a figure of a shield in my collection, -which I believe to be of Bornean make, the materials and mode of -employing them being evidently Bornean. In shape it exactly resembles -the small shields used by horsemen in the early age of English history, -and, small as it is, it forms a very efficient defence. It is twenty -inches in length, and thirteen inches in width, and it is wielded by -means of a separate handle, firmly lashed to the body of the shield -by strips of rattan. The characteristic feature of the shield is the -manner in which it is built up of a number of pieces, the whole, though -merely bound together by rattan, being as firm as if it were cut out of -one piece of wood. - -If the reader will look at figure 2, which shows the back of the -shield, he will see that it is made of four flat pieces of wood, which -are laid side by side. These pieces are of a lightish colored wood, -and are but slightly smoothed. The handle is cut from a separate piece -of wood, which runs the whole length of the shield. As is usual with -Bornean weapons, the handle is much too small for the grasp of an -European. - -The front of the shield is made of a single flat piece of wood, to -which the others are lashed, or rather sewed, by means of rattan -passing through holes. In order to hold all these cross-pieces more -firmly together, a deep groove has been cut in a thick rattan, which -has been bound round the shield so as to receive the edges of the -wood in the groove, and has been sewed to them by rattan at regular -intervals. - -The shield is further strengthened by an upright piece of wood, which -runs along the front, and to which the handle at the back is lashed -by rattan, so that the handle and the corresponding piece in front -actually strengthen the shield instead of being a strain upon it. -The materials have been chosen with the eye for color which the Dyak -usually possesses. The thin flat wooden plate which forms the front of -the shield is nearly black, the central piece is yellowish white, and -the rattans with which it is edged and sewed are of a bright yellow. -The weight of the shield is exactly a pound and a half. Besides the -centre ornament on the front, a section of the shield is also given, -so as to show the form of the handle, and the slight curvature of the -whole implement. - -The perpetual feuds that rage among the Dyak tribes are mostly caused -by the practice of “head hunting,” which is exactly analogous to the -scalp hunting propensities of the North American tribes. Mr. Boyle -has sketched the outlines of this horrid custom in a few nervous -words, which will afterward be examined in detail. “The great tribes -of Sakarrang and Saribas have never been more than nominally subject -to the Malays of Kuching or Bruni, and Sir James Brooke is the first -master whom they have really obeyed. Every year a cloud of murderous -pirates issued from their rivers and swept the adjacent coasts. No man -was safe by reason of his poverty or insignificance, for human heads -were the booty sought by these rovers, and not wealth alone. Villages -were attacked in the dead of the night, and every adult cut off; the -women and grown girls were frequently slaughtered with the men, and -children alone were preserved to be the slaves of the conquerors. - -“Never was warfare so terrible as this. Head hunting, a fashion of -comparatively modern growth, became a mania, which spread like a -horrible disease over the whole land. No longer were the trophies -regarded as proofs of individual valor; they became the indiscriminate -property of the clan, and were valued for their number alone. Murder -lurked in the jungle and on the river; the aged of the people were -no longer safe among their own kindred, and corpses were secretly -disinterred to increase the grisly store. - -“Superstition soon added its ready impulse to the general movement. The -aged warrior could not rest in his grave till his relations had taken -a head in his name; the maiden disdained the weak-hearted suitor whose -hand was not yet stained with some cowardly murder. - -“Bitterly did the Malay Pangerans of Kuching regret the folly which had -disseminated this frenzy. They themselves had fostered the bloodthirsty -superstition in furtherance of their political ends, but it had grown -beyond their control, and the country was one red field of battle -and murder. Pretexts for war were neither sought nor expected; the -possession of a human head, no matter how obtained, was the sole -happiness coveted throughout the land.” - -It was in order to stop this terrible custom that Sir James Brooke -undertook his rule. The sultan of Bruni, in despair at the state of -things, and utterly unable to check the increasing rage for head -hunting, ceded the territory to him, hoping that the Englishman, -with his small forces, would succeed where he himself with all -his soldiers had failed. Although these tribes were nominally his -subjects, they never thought of obeying him, and the only sign of -their subjection was a small tribute very irregularly paid. The sultan -was right in his conjecture, and we know how the Englishman, with his -steady, unflinching rule, succeeded in abolishing head hunting as an -acknowledged practice, and, by his system of inflicting heavy fines -on any one who took a head, gradually and steadily put an end to -the practice. For several years the Dyaks could not understand the -prohibition, and the English rajah and his officers were continually -pestered with requests from Dyaks to be allowed to go and take heads. -An old man, for example, had lost his wife, and begged piteously to be -allowed to take just one head, so that she might rest quietly in her -grave. Then a young man would come, who had been rejected by a Dyak -damsel, lay his case before the authorities, and beseech them to permit -him to take a head, and so to win the hand of the disdainful lady. One -man, after meeting with the usual refusal, proposed a compromise, and -asked whether he might not go and take the head of a Pakarran, because -Pakarrans really could not be considered as men. In fact, as Mr. -Brooke well remarks, the Dyaks behaved just like children crying after -sugar-plums. No plan could have been devised which was more effective -than that which was carried out by the English rajah. Whenever a party -of Dyaks started surreptitiously off on a head hunting expedition, a -force was always despatched after them, in order to cut them off and -bring them to justice, when they were fined heavily. If they succeeded -in procuring heads, their trophies were taken away from them, and they -were fined still more heavily. Those who refused to submit to the -punishment were declared to be enemies to the government, and their -houses were burnt down. Dyaks of more peaceful tribes were always -employed in such expeditions, as, owing to the feuds which had existed -for so long, they had been exasperated by the numerous murders which -had been perpetrated by the more warlike tribes. The English rule, -unlike that of the Malay sultan, was irrespective of persons, and the -highest chiefs were punished as swiftly and surely as the lowest of -the people. On one occasion, a quarrel arose between two parties of -Dyaks, one of which, commanded by a chief named Jannah, was entirely -in the wrong, having first trespassed on the property of the other -party, and then got up a quarrel because they had hurt themselves -against the spiked bamboos, which were planted by way of fences. In the -fight that ensued Jannah himself shot the other chief; but he gained -little by his act. As soon as the facts were known, Mr. Brooke sent a -large force against him, and he was fined nearly two hundred pounds. -He and his party took to the bush, but they were soon starved out, -and had to submit. The other chiefs were delighted at the result, and -were accustomed ever afterward to check those who wished to go head -hunting by telling them to remember Jannah and his two hundred pounds. -It is rather curious that this high-handed proceeding inspired Jannah -with the greatest respect and affection for Mr. Brooke, for whom he -afterward entertained a sincere friendship. He asserted that the three -years subsequent to this episode in his life had been marked by very -much better harvests than he had before obtained from his land, and -attributed his prosperity to his friendship for the white man. - -One ingenious portion of the system was, that a large share of the -fines was distributed among chiefs who had abstained from head-hunting. -This plan had a double effect; it proved to the Dyaks that they were -not fined for the benefit of the English, and it induced them to be -always on the look-out for those who were going to hunt after heads. - - * * * * * - -It has been mentioned that the heads are wanted to “open the mourning” -after the death of any person. This phrase requires some little -explanation. When a chief loses a relative, he closes some stream -during the time of mourning. This is done by driving spears into the -bank, on either side, and fastening bamboos to them across the stream. -No one is allowed to pass this obstruction until the mourning is over, -an event which cannot take place, according to Dyak custom, until a -head had been obtained. - -When he has brought home the required trophy, he leaves it at the head -house to be prepared, while he makes ready for the feast with which a -new head is received. He takes some plants, the juice of which has a -stupifying quality, pounds them, and throws them into the river. The -fish come floating to the surface, and are then captured by means of -barbed spears, which are flung at them from the bank. The spears are -very light, their shafts being made of bamboo, so that they always -float, and enable the thrower to recover both the spear and the fish -which it has struck. The spears and poles which closed the stream are -removed in order to allow the fishermen to use their weapons, and thus, -by the arrival of the coveted head, the stream is again thrown open. - -One of these fish spears is shown on page 1129. It is five feet in -length, and the shaft, which is three-quarters of an inch in diameter, -is made of hollow bamboo, and is exceedingly light. The four prongs -are made of iron, and very slightly barbed. Owing to the manner in -which they are lashed to the shaft, they are very elastic, so that -their slight barbs are perfectly capable of retaining the fish. With -the natural love of ornament which distinguishes the Dyaks, the owner -of this spear has decorated it with several broad belts of split -rattan, plaited in a very artistic manner. One was placed just below -the head of the spear, another was placed at the centre of gravity, so -as to guide the hand at once to the “balance” of the weapon, and the -third was near the butt. Of the three, however, only the central belt -remained when the spear reached me. - -Owing to the enormous demand for heads, quantity rather than quality -was the chief requisite, so that at the time when Sir James Brooke -undertook the task of putting down the practice of head hunting, no -practical distinction was made between the head of a stalwart warrior -and that of a tender girl. A head was a head; the body to which it -belonged was of no consequence. - -The rage for heads was so great that in one head house an Englishman, -who happened to know something of comparative anatomy, espied a head -which seemed scarcely human, and which, on examination, turned out to -be that of an orang-outan. The proprietors of the head house at first -indignantly denied that any imposture had been practised, and adhered -to the human origin of the head. At last, however, they were obliged to -yield to a certain degree, but they only said that the head in question -was that of an Antu or goblin, which had infested the village for a -considerable time, and had at last been killed. - -One exception was made in the value of these trophies, the head of a -white man being beyond all price, and being so valued that a Dyak who -had obtained one would not place it in the common head house, but would -build a special house to contain it. One of these Dyak warriors was -seen exposing himself to great danger in his anxiety to secure a white -man’s head. A boatman had been killed, and one of the Dyak murderers -was observed dragging up the hill the body of the slain man, hacking -with his knife at the neck so as to secure the head, regardless of the -fact that he was likely to be shot in the endeavor. - -As the possession of a head is the height of a Dyak’s ambition, it is -not extraordinary that the natives should use all their powers of force -or craft to secure the trophy. One example of treachery is narrated by -Mr. Brooke (the present Rajah). - -“Five years ago the Saribas Malays were living at the mouth of their -river, and, with very few exceptions, were hostile to us. Still they -were on friendly terms so far as gaining trade, and making use of -the merchandise they could only get by communication with Sarawak. A -party of five people, three men and two women, left Sakarrang to go to -Saribas for the purpose of meeting some of their relatives. After they -had been absent a considerable time, the news was brought back that -they had been beheaded by Dyaks in the river. - -“It happened thus: They met a boat’s crew of Dyaks while in Saribas, -and spoke together, saying they were traders, and were also seeking -for fish. When the Malays were leaving Saribas to return, the Dyak -boat followed in their wake, entered this river together, and on the -following day proceeded to carry out their sly and murderous design. - -“In the morning they offered their swords for sale, and sold or -exchanged one, suffering the Malays to make an exceedingly profitable -bargain. They then proposed fishing with a hand net on the mud bank, -and persuaded a Malay named Limin (who was well known, and considered a -brave man) to separate from the others and cast the net. This was done, -and for some time they were successful in bagging fish, and were going -further and further from the boats. - -“At length the net fouled on a stump at the bottom, and one of the -Dyaks immediately took off his sword and dived down, as poor Limin -thought, to clear it, but, instead of doing so, the wily rascal twisted -it firmly round and round, came up to take breath, and then again -dived, and again twisted it in various ways round the stumps; he then -rose, and said he could not clear it, but asked Limin to try. Limin -unsuspectingly took off his sword, dived, and, on approaching the -surface breathless, the two Dyaks struck and decapitated him without a -sound. They then took his head and returned to their boat. - -“A third Malay was persuaded to administer some cure to a Dyak’s foot, -which was bleeding slightly. While the Malay was leaning over and -looking to the wound, one of them chopped off his head from behind. -After this, the woman was decapitated. They lost one head, which -tumbled into the water, but the other four, with all the property -belonging to the Malay party, were taken and carried away to Sadok.” - -On another occasion, a party of Dyaks in a canoe met a boat containing -a man, his wife, and their young daughter. They stopped the boat, and -offered betel-nut for sale. As soon as they came within reach, they -drew their swords, struck off the woman’s head, and took the girl -prisoner, but the father had just time to jump overboard and swim -ashore. - -This occurred in the Saribas River, and, strangely enough, the -murderer, whose name was Sadji, nearly came in contact with Mr. Brooke, -who had gone out expressly to check his head hunting propensities. Mr. -Brooke passed him on the river, but, not being acquainted with him, -did not arrest him. This, as was afterward learned, was fortunate for -Sadji sat in the boat with his sword drawn, and if the captive girl had -called for help, or if the English had shown any signs of arresting -him, he would have struck off her head, jumped with it into the river, -swum ashore, and escaped together with his followers through the jungle. - -The same author gives another example of head hunting, which is a -curious mixture of the terrible and the ludicrous. A young man named -Achang was brought before Mr. Brooke in irons. He was only nineteen -years of age, and yet he had gray hair, the natural color having -vanished in consequence of his troubles. Some time previously, he had -fallen in love with a young Dyak girl, who spurned all his advances -because he had never taken a head, and so proved himself to be a -warrior. She was evidently a girl of energy, for she proposed that he -should go to the Saribas fort, and take the head of Bakir, the Dyak -chief, or of the Tuan Hassan, _i. e._ Mr. Watson. - -Being thus pressed, Achang, with another lad of his own age, set -off for the fort, and on the way suffered the usual drawbacks of -bad birds, bad dreams, and missing the path, so that when they came -within sight of the fort they thought they had better change their -plans. They determined on going to a Chinaman’s house under pretext of -purchasing his goods, and taking his head while he was off his guard. -When well cooked and dried, one head would do as well as another, and -they thought that they would have no difficulty in passing off the -Chinaman’s head for that of the white man. - -Accordingly, they went to a Chinaman’s house, had their supper with -him very amicably, and then retired to rest, after agreeing that -at midnight they would strike the fatal blow. Now it happened that -Achang overslept himself, and his friend thought that he might as well -take advantage of his drowsiness, and secure the head for himself. -Accordingly, at midnight, hideous yells were heard from the Chinaman’s -house, and when the people rushed into the room, they found the -unfortunate owner with his face gashed all down one side, the Dyak -youth having missed his blow in his haste. The actual perpetrator -escaped, but Achang was found still fast asleep, and was instantly put -in irons. - -Next day he was brought down to Sakarrang, with a chain round his -waist, and on the way he was followed by a body of Dyaks, who were -trying to bribe his keepers to let them take his head. They actually -held an auction for his head as they went along, each bidding higher -than the other, and the horrors of that twelve-mile march were such -that the poor lad became gray before the next morning. - -After all, Achang was really a most gentle and innocent lad, and was -only following the habits of his country in obeying the behests of his -mistress. He was kept in irons for about a month, and then released, -after which he attached himself to the service of the white men, worked -in the garden, and, as the saying is, made himself generally useful. - -The heads are subjected to a sort of drying process, called “cooking,” -which is tolerably effectual, but is far inferior to that which is -employed by the New Zealanders, and, for a considerable time after the -heads are cooked, they are very offensive to European nostrils, though -Dyaks seem to be quite unconscious of the evil odor. They are always -kept in the pangarangs, or head houses, which are very unlike the -ordinary dwelling-houses of the Dyaks. A very good account of a head -house is given by Mr. F. S. Marryat:-- - -“We were escorted, through a crowd of wandering Dyaks, to a house in -the centre of the village, which was very different in construction -from the others. It was perfectly round, and well ventilated by -numerous port-holes in the roof, which was pointed. We ascended to the -room above by means of a rough ladder, and when we entered, we were -rather taken aback by finding that we were in the head house, as it is -termed, and that the beams were lined with human heads, all hanging by -a small line passed through the top of the skull. - -“They were painted in the most fantastic and hideous manner. Pieces -of wood painted to imitate the eyes were inserted in the sockets, and -added not a little to their ghastly, grinning appearance. The strangest -part of the story, and which added very much to the effect of the -scene, was, that these skulls were perpetually moving to and fro, and -knocking against each other. This, I presume, was occasioned by the -different currents of air blowing in at the port-holes cut in the roof; -but what with their continual motion, their nodding their chins when -they hit each other, and their grinning teeth, they really appeared to -be endowed with new life, and to be a very merry set of fellows. - -“However, whatever might be the first impression occasioned by this -very unusual sight, it very soon wore off, and we amused ourselves with -their motions, which were not life, as Byron says; and in the course -of the day we succeeded in making a very excellent dinner in company -with these gentlemen, although we were none of us sufficiently Don -Giovannistic to invite our friends above to supper.” - -These head houses are, as we have just seen, the places wherein guests -are received, and we can therefore understand that the natives of any -village would have a pride in showing to their visitors the trophies -won by themselves. One of these houses scantily furnished with heads -would be held as a scandal to the village, so that the three emotions -of pride, love, and sorrow have all their effect in aiding the custom -of head hunting. - -In these head houses, the unmarried men of the village sleep. The -reason for this custom is two-fold. In the first place, the bachelors -are kept out of mischief; and in the next, they are always ready with -their arms at hand to turn out in defence of the village should it be -attacked. In such expeditions, the head house is always the central -object of attack, and by having the young warriors at hand the Dyaks -ensure the security of their cherished trophies. - -Some of the horrors of the head hunting custom are well described by -Mr. St. John:--“About thirteen years ago, I heard the Natuna people -give an account of a horrible transaction that took place in one of -their islands. A party of Saribas Dyaks were cruising about among the -little isles near, and had destroyed several women and many fishermen, -when they were observed, toward evening, creeping into a deep and -narrow inlet to remain during the night. - -“The islanders quietly assembled and surprised their enemies, killing -all but seven, who were taken prisoners--six men and one lad. The -former they roasted over a slow fire, and they declared that the bold -fellows died without uttering a cry of pain, but defying them to the -last; the lad, who stood trembling by, uncertain of his fate, was sent -back to the coast, with a message to his countrymen that, if ever they -came there again, they would all be treated in the same way. This -fearful warning was sufficient to deter their seeking heads again in -that direction. - -“Parties of two and three sometimes went away for months on an inland -incursion, taking nothing with them but salt wrapped up in their -waist-cloths, with which they seasoned the young shoots and leaves, and -palm cabbages found in the forests; and when they returned home, they -were as thin as scare-crows. - -“It is this kind of cat-like warfare which causes them to be formidable -enemies both to the Chinese and the Malays, who never felt themselves -safe from a Dyak enemy. They have been known to keep watch in a well -up to their chins in water, with a covering of a few leaves over their -heads, to endeavor to cut off the first person who might come to draw -water. At night they would drift down on a log, and cut the rattan -cable of trading prahus, while others of their party would keep watch -on the bank, knowing well where the stream would take the boat ashore; -and when aground they kill the men and plunder the goods.” - -In war Dyaks have often proved themselves to be valiant soldiers. Mr. -Brooke relates that when he was attacking the fort of a hostile chief -having with him a mixed force of Malays and Dyaks, the latter were; by -far the better soldiers. The former advanced to thirty or forty yards -of the house, _i. e._ just beyond the range of the Sumpitan arrows, -which were being blown from the fort, and ensconced themselves behind -trees and stumps, where they could fire without exposing themselves -to the deadly darts. The Dyaks, however, dashed boldly at the house, -clambering up the posts on which it was built, carrying their weapons -with them, hacking at the breaches which had previously been made with -shot, and trying to force their way into the fort. - -At last, one Dyak succeeded in getting into the house, and remained -there for about five minutes, when he was obliged to retreat and slide -to the ground down the post. After much fighting, the Dyaks managed to -set fire to the building at both ends, thus forcing the inmates to rush -out among their enemies. Scarcely any of them escaped, some perishing -in the flames, others being badly wounded, and the rest being taken -prisoners. - -The victorious Dyaks were mad with excitement, and rushed about with -furious shouts, carrying heads in their hands, and insensible to the -wounds which many of them had received. One lad came yelling by, having -a head in one hand, and with the other holding on one side of his face. -An enemy’s sword had nearly sliced off the whole of that side of his -face, but he was almost unconscious of the fact, and his excitement -prevented him from feeling any pain. In a few minutes, however, he -fainted from loss of blood, and, in spite of the terrible wound which -he had received, eventually recovered. - -Sometimes the Dyaks are exceedingly cruel to their captives, not being -content with merely taking their heads, but killing them slowly by -torture. Generally, however, the competition for heads is so keen that -a man who has overcome an enemy has no time for torturing him, and is -obliged to content himself with getting off the head as fast as he can. - -Some of these forts are most perilous places to attack. The approaches -are guarded with “ranjows,” _i. e._ slips of bamboo sharpened at the -end and stuck in the ground. Ranjows are troublesome enough on open -ground, but when they are stuck among leaves, grass, and herbage, they -become terrible weapons, and impede very effectually the advance of the -attacking force. - -Then the Dyaks set various ingenious traps. They place bent bows near -the path, so constructed that as soon as a man comes opposite them, the -string is liberated, and an arrow is tolerably sure to transfix both -his legs. Sometimes they bend a young tree down, and lay a javelin, -so that when the tree is freed, it strikes the end of the javelin and -urges it onward with terrific violence, just like the mangonel of olden -times. They dig numberless pitfalls of no very great size in depth, but -each having a sharp bamboo stuck upright in the centre, so that any on -who falls into the pit must inevitably be impaled. - -The forts themselves have been much modified since the introduction of -fire-arms, the stockades which surround them being made of the hardest -wood, about two feet in thickness, and capable of resisting the fire of -any small arms. In fact, nothing but artillery is of much use against -one of these forts. Many of them are furnished with a sally-port -through which, when the place becomes untenable, the defenders quietly -escape, just as is done with the pahs of New Zealand. - -The Sea Dyaks, as their name implies, are a maritime set of tribes, -and fight chiefly in canoes. They have some ideas of tactics, and can -arrange their canoes in regular array when they meet with an enemy. One -of their favorite tactics is to conceal some of their larger boats, -and then to send some small and badly-manned canoes forward to attack -the enemy. They are, of course, soon repulsed, and obliged to retreat. -The enemy, thinking himself victorious, follows them exultingly, and, -as soon as he passes the spot where the larger canoes are hidden, -he is attacked by them in the rear, while the smaller canoes, which -have acted as decoys, turn and join in the onslaught. The rivers are -almost invariably chosen for this kind of attack, the overhanging -branches of trees and the dense foliage of the bank affording excellent -hiding-places for the canoes. An illustration of a “Canoe fight” is -given on page 1139. - -When peace is declared, or when people desire to renew friendship to -each other, they declare themselves friends by a ceremony which is -identical in principle with that which is practised in many parts of -Africa, each of the contracting parties partaking of the blood of the -other. Sometimes the blood is actually drunk, but generally it is taken -by mixing it with tobacco and smoking it. Mr. St. John, in his “Forests -of the Far East,” describes this ceremony with much force:-- - -“Siñganding sent on board to request me to become his brother by -going through the sacred custom of imbibing each other’s blood. I say -imbibing, because it is either mixed with water and drunk, or else it -is placed within a native cigar, and drawn in with the smoke. I agreed -to do so, and the following day was fixed for the ceremony, which is -called Berbiang by the Kayans, Bersabibah by the Borneans. - -“I landed with our party of Malays, and after a preliminary talk, to -give time for the population to assemble, the affair commenced. We -sat in the broad veranda of a long house, surrounded by hundreds of -men, women, and children, all looking eagerly at the white stranger who -was about to enter their tribe. Stripping my left arm, Kum-Lia took a -small piece of wood shaped like a knife-blade, and, slightly piercing -the skin, brought the blood to the surface; this he carefully scraped -off. Then one of my Malays drew blood in the same way from Siñganding, -and a small cigarette being produced, the blood on the wooden blade was -spread on the tobacco. - -“A chief then arose, and, walking to an open place, looked forth -upon the river, and invoked their god and all the spirits of good -and evil to be witness of this tie of brotherhood. The cigarette was -then lighted, and each of us took several puffs, and the ceremony was -concluded. I was glad to find that they had chosen the form of inhaling -the blood in smoke, as to have swallowed even a drop would have been -unpleasant, though the disgust would only arise from the imagination. - -“They sometimes vary the custom, though the variation may be confined -to the Kiniahs, who live further up the river, and are intermarried -with the Kayans. There a pig is brought and placed between the two who -are to be joined in brotherhood. A chief offers an invocation to the -gods, and marks with a lighted brand the pig’s shoulder. The beast is -then killed, and, after an exchange of jackets, a sword is thrust into -the wound, and the two are marked with the blood of the pig.” - -The stranger thus admitted into membership with the Kayans is called -Niau, or friend, and in some cases the experiment proves to be -successful. Generally, however, the honor, such as it is, is greater -than the profit, the Kayans assuming that their newly-admitted member -ought to make plenty of rich presents to his tribe, in order to show -his sense of the privileges that have been conferred upon him. - - - - -CHAPTER CXVII. - -BORNEO--_Continued_. - -SOCIAL LIFE. - - - MARRIAGE AMONG THE DYAKS -- COURTSHIP, ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION -- A - SIBUYAN WEDDING -- CURIOUS DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS -- PRIDE OF BIRTH - -- STATE OF MORALITY -- FACILITIES OF DIVORCE -- JEALOUSY, AND ITS - RESULTS -- HOW TO TREAT A RIVAL -- FORBIDDEN DEGREES -- SPORTS AND - GAMES -- BEE HUNTING -- THE BORNEAN SWING -- TRIALS OF STRENGTH AND - EQUILIBRIUM -- TRICKS WITH STRING -- COCK FIGHTING -- THE SWORD DANCE - -- A DYAK WAR DANCE WITH HEADS -- THE CAT-O’-NINE TAILS -- DYAK - FESTIVALS -- STRANGE COOKERY -- THE DURIAN FRUIT -- THE NATIONAL - DRINK, ITS ODOR AND TASTE -- HABIT OF INTOXICATION -- A DYAK CIRCE -- - STOUT DRINKERS AND STRONG HEADS -- THE FORCE OF RIDICULE. - -Passing from war to peace, we will begin with marriage as practised -among the Dyaks. - -In some parts of the country marriage is a very simple business, the -two parties living together as long as they like each other, and -separating if either feels dissatisfied. In any case, as we shall see, -the facilities for divorce are extreme, and the bonds of matrimony are -worn with marvellous looseness. - -The reader cannot but have remembered the singular coincidence that -often exists between customs of savage and of civilized life. - -Among the Sinambau Dyaks there is a mode of courtship which still -prevails in some parts of Europe, though it is generally falling into -disuse. A young Sinambau Dyak, when struck with the charms of a girl, -shows his preference in various ways, such as helping her in her daily -labor, carrying home her load of wood for her, and making her such -presents as are in his power to give. - -After he has carried on these attentions for some time, he thinks -that he may proceed to a more explicit declaration. At night, when -the family is supposed to be asleep, he quietly slides back the bolt -of the door, steals to the spot where his beloved is sleeping under -her mosquito curtains, and gently awakes her. He always brings with -him an abundant supply of betel-nut and sirih leaf, and the two -sit talking together throughout the greater part of the night. It -cannot be expected that the parents of the girl, who sleep in the -same room, should be wholly ignorant of the proceeding, but they are -conventionally supposed to be so, and if they approve of the young man -they take no notice, while if they do not, they use their influence -with the girl to induce her to dismiss him. - -The mode of rejection is in keeping with the rest of the proceedings. -Should the girl dislike the too adventurous suitor, she declines -accepting the betel-nut, and merely asks him to blow up the fire or -light the lamp, a request which is tantamount to instant dismissal. - -When the marriage takes place a feast is made, and then the parties are -made man and wife without any more ceremony. It is very seldom that the -young couple begin housekeeping on their own account, and, as a general -rule, the bridegroom enters the household of his father-in-law, or, at -all events, of some of his wife’s relations, and so becomes one of the -family, laboring for the common stock, and taking his share when the -head of the household dies. Occasionally this plan is reversed, and -when the bride is one of a large family of brothers and sisters, or if -the bridegroom is the sole support of his parents, she accompanies her -husband, and becomes part of his household. - -The ceremony of marriage among the Sibuyan Dyaks of Lundu is worthy -of notice. The artist has given an admirable representation of this -unique ceremony on the following page. Two bars of iron are laid on the -ground in the spot appointed for the ceremony, and the young couple -are brought from opposite ends of the village. The first part of the -ceremony consists in seating them on the bars of iron, as token that -the blessings of their married life are to be as strong as iron. The -priest gives to each of the pair a cigar and some betel-nut and sirih -leaf, which they hold in their hand until the next part of the ceremony -is completed. Taking two fowls in his hands, the priest waves them -over the heads of the couple, and, in the course of a long address, -invokes every blessing upon them. He then solemnly knocks their heads -together three times, after which the bridegroom places the betel-nut -in the mouth of his bride, and inserts the cheroot between her lips, -she afterward doing the same by him, this ceremony being the public -acknowledgment of accepting each other as husband and wife. - -After they have thus declared their acceptance of each other, the fowls -are killed, and their blood received in two cups, the color of the -blood being carefully inspected by the priest, and its hue being held -as an omen of the future well-being or misery of the newly married -pair. One of the feasts which will presently be described closes the -ceremonies. - -It has already been mentioned that in most cases the bridegroom enters -the family of his wife. But in any case he is bound to honor the father -of his wife even above his own father. The young husband may never even -pronounce the name of his father-in-law, he may not eat from the same -dish, drink from the same cup, or rest on the same mat. - -Among another tribe of Dyaks, the Balaus of Lingga, the ceremonies -of marriage are rather different. By way of a propitiatory offering, -the mother of the bridegroom gives to the relatives of the bride some -domestic utensil, such as a plate or a basin, and three days afterward -the very simple ceremony is performed. - -The bridegroom’s mother takes a quantity of the areca-nut prepared for -chewing, divides it into three portions, places them in a basket, and -sets them on a sort of altar in front of the bride’s house. The friends -of both parties then assemble, and chew the nuts while they discuss the -future prospects of the young couple, and they decide as to the amount -of fine which the husband shall pay to his wife in case he separates -from her after she is a mother, or when she is likely to be so. In -fact, in their own rough-and-ready way, these Dyaks have contrived to -organize a tolerably complete code of marriage settlements, which, -in consequence of the very easy system of divorce, is absolutely -necessary for the protection of the women. - -These Sea Dyaks of Lingga have, in common with all the sea tribes, -the greatest pride of birth; and if a girl were to listen to the -addresses of a man of much inferior rank, her parents would prohibit -the match. In one such case the two lovers fled into the jungle, -poisoned themselves with the juice of the tuba plant, and were found -dead next morning in each other’s arms. So full are they of their -family pride, that they look upon any mixture of their noble blood as a -dire disgrace, and this is carried to so great an extent that, although -within their own degree their morals are of the laxest order, the men -would scorn an intrigue with a woman of low condition. - -The Dyaks of Sibuyan are remarkable for the superiority of their morals -when compared with the generality of the Dyak tribes, believing that -immorality is an offence against the higher powers, and that, if a -girl becomes a mother before she is married, she angers the deities -of the tribe, who show their wrath by visitations upon the whole of -the tribe. If, therefore, such a case be discovered, both the erring -lovers are heavily fined, and a pig is sacrificed in order to avert the -anger of the offended deities. Nor do the delinquents always escape -the fine even after the sacrifice of the pig, for every one who was -smitten with sickness, or met with an accident, within a month of the -sacrifice, has a claim on them for damages, as having been the cause -of the misfortune, while, if any one has died, the survivors claim -compensation for the loss of their relative. - -The reader will remember that the young people of both sexes live -with their parents, contributing their labor to the common stock, and -being therefore incapable of possessing property of their own. In -consequence of this arrangement, the fines which are levied upon the -lovers practically fall upon the parents, who therefore take care to -look after their daughters, while the young men are partly kept out of -mischief by being obliged to sleep together at the head house. - -The Dyaks of the Batang Lupar are more lax in their notion of morality -than the Sibuyans, and it is seldom that a girl is married until she -is likely to become a mother. When this is the case, the lover marries -her as a matter of course, but in those cases where a man denies his -complicity, and the girl is unable to prove it, she is so bitterly -scorned and reproached by her kindred that she generally runs away from -the village. Some such delinquents have been known to take poison in -order to escape the contempt of their relatives and acquaintances. They -are thought to have brought such a disgrace on their family, that the -parents sacrifice a pig to the higher powers, and wash the door of the -house with its blood, in order to propitiate the offended deities. - -[Illustration: (1.) A CANOE FIGHT. (See page 1136.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) A DYAK WEDDING. (See page 1138.)] - -When the pair are married, they almost invariably remain faithful to -each other. There is, however, small credit to them for it, inasmuch -as they can be divorced on the slightest pretext. An evil omen in the -night, such as a “bad bird,” will frighten both parties so much that -they will separate by mutual consent on the next day. Mr. St. John -mentions that many men and women are married seven or eight times -before they finally fix upon a partner with whom they mean to spend the -rest of their lives, and as an example of the exceeding facility for -divorce which exists among the Dyaks, states that he saw a young girl -of seventeen who had already had three husbands. - -Still, it is very seldom that married couples part after they are -parents; and if they do so, the family of the women expect a heavy -fine from the fickle husband. Now and then, a married pair are really -so attached to each other that they do not like to part, even when -they hear the voice of a “bad bird.” In such a case they avert the -anger of the superior powers by sacrificing a pig, and are then able -to remain together without fear. It often happens that a man and wife -quarrel, and divorce themselves. After a while, however, they begin to -think that they have made a mistake, and are allowed to renew their -matrimonial relations without any ceremony or fresh rites of marriage. - -Mr. St. John mentions a curious case of jealousy after a divorce, and -its consequences. - -The Pañgeran Mumein took a Murout girl, and paid her father as a -marriage portion a heavy weight of brass guns--a curious sort of -currency which is much valued by the Dyaks, and perfectly useless for -any practical purposes. He left her for some time, and then, after -she had borne him a child, repudiated her, telling her father that he -did not want her any more, unless she liked to follow him to Brunei. -This, however, the girl refused to do, so the Pañgeran made her father -refund the brass guns, and besides pay a fine of double the amount, as -a penalty for not allowing the girl to go to Brunei, where he meant to -have sold her as a slave. The father paid the fine, and was told that -the girl might then go where she liked, and marry whom she chose, as -was only just after the previous event. - -Accordingly, some little time afterward, she did marry one of her -countrymen, whereupon the Pañgeran flew into a fit of jealousy, and -ordered the head man or Orang-Kaya of the village to seize them and -bring them to him. The Orang-Kaya was afraid, and hid himself, so that -the Pañgeran had to employ the Bisayas, who captured the husband and -brought him to their employer. The unfortunate man was then tied up to -the Orang-Kaya’s landing place, and the Pañgeran cut him to pieces with -his own hand, finishing by making a present of his head to the Gadong -Murut Dyaks. Having thus wreaked his vengeance on the man who excited -his jealousy, he allowed the girl and her father to go unharmed. Dyak -history is full of similar tales. - -Jealousy is by no means confined to the men, the women being far more -jealous of the men than they of their wives, and with good reason. -There is a tacit law that, whenever a wife detects her husband in -flirting, she may beat her rival to her heart’s content, provided that -she use nothing except a stick, and, if the woman be married, her -husband may beat the disturber of his domestic peace, if he can. The -usual result of discovery in such cases is, that the man goes off into -the bush under the pretext of head hunting, and stays there until he -thinks his wife’s anger has cooled down. If he is fortunate enough to -return with a head, his success as a warrior ensures a condonation for -his shortcomings as a husband. - -The Dyaks have a code of forbidden degrees for marriages, differing -slightly in the various tribes, but tolerably uniform on the whole. -Marriage with first cousins is not permitted, they being looked upon as -brother and sister; neither, as a general rule, is an uncle allowed to -marry his niece. To this latter rule, however, there are exceptions. -Marriage with a deceased wife’s sister is almost universally permitted, -and, in fact, encouraged, provided that the parents of the woman -approve of the match, because in that case all the children belong to -one family. - - * * * * * - -Of sport, as we understand the word, the Dyaks have no idea, though -they possess all the capabilities for it, being active, daring, and -quick sighted. All these characteristics are shown in the mode by which -they supply themselves with honey. They do not keep hives in or near -their houses, but seldom fail to see a bees’ nest in a tree, though the -unaccustomed eyes of an European can see nothing of the bees at the -great height at which the nests are usually found. - -Sometimes the stem of the tree rises for a hundred feet without a -branch, and is from fifteen to twenty-five feet in circumference. The -Dyaks, however, ascend such a tree with ease. They bore holes in the -trunk of the tree as high as they can reach, and drive into them wooden -pegs rather more than a foot in length. A stout rattan or a bamboo is -then driven into the ground, and the ends of the wooden pegs are lashed -to it so as to form a sort of ladder, of which the bamboo forms one -side, and the trunk of the tree the other. On this slender ladder they -ascend, drive in more pegs, and lash them to the bamboo, adding one -bamboo after another until the nest is reached. - -Nothing looks more insecure than this primitive ladder, which sways -fearfully as the man ascends, the rattan lashings cracking and -creaking as if the whole structure were coming to pieces. It is, -however, perfectly adapted for its purpose, and, armed with a flaming -torch, the almost naked Dyak ascends, and fearlessly takes the nest, -which he lowers down by means of a rattan. - -The nest is generally attacked at night, the Dyaks saying the bees -always fly after the sparks that fall from the torch, believing them -to be the enemy that is disturbing the nest, the man himself escaping -unhurt. Some of the tribes have another plan, and before they ascend -the tree light beneath it a large fire in which they throw a quantity -of green branches. The smoke from these branches drives the bees out -of their nest, and stupefies them for a time, so that the combs can be -taken without danger. - -Of games which are, in fact, an imitation of war, the Dyaks are equally -ignorant, and, although so warlike a people, they do not wrestle, -nor box, nor race. It would be expected that a people who trust so -much to the sword would exercise with sham weapons, for the purpose -of accustoming themselves to the proper management of the sword and -shield. This, however, they never do, thinking that all such exercises -are unlucky. - -They have one game which somewhat resembles our swing, but which -partakes in some degree of the nature of a religious ceremony. A -strong derrick is erected some forty or fifty feet high, and to this -is suspended a stout single rattan, which reaches within a few feet of -the ground. The derrick is strengthened by rattan stays lashed to a -neighboring tree. The end of the rattan is formed into a large loop. - -At some distance from the derrick, just where the end of the rattan -describes its circle, a slight bamboo stage is erected. One of the -swingers mounts on the stage, draws the rattan to him by means of -a string, places his foot in the loop, and swings off with as much -impetus as he can give himself. As he returns, another leaps on the -swing, and sometimes two at a time will do so, until ten or twelve are -all swinging away at the same time. Of course, they cannot all put -their feet in the loop, but content themselves with clinging to the -arms and legs of those who have done so. As they swing, they strike up -a monotonous song, which sounds like a dirge. It is, however, merely an -invocation to the deities for a plentiful harvest and a good fishing -season. As may be imagined, they often get bad falls from those swings. - -The boys and youths have a game which is familiar to all gymnasts. -The two competitors sit opposite each other on the ground, the soles -of their feet being placed in contact. They then grasp a short stick, -and each tries to pull the other on his face or to raise him off the -ground. There is also a game which bears a close resemblance to our -“prisoners’ base,” twenty or thirty players joining in the game; and -there is another game, which is very much like the “cock fighting” of -English school-boys. The players stand on one foot, holding the other -foot in one hand and try to upset each other, or at least to make their -antagonists put both feet to the ground. - -In “cat’s cradle” they are wonderful proficients. Mr. Wallace thought -that he could instruct them in the game but found that they knew much -more about it than he did. They were acquainted with all the mysteries -of the English modification of the game, and produced a vast number of -additional changes from the string. Indeed, the Dyaks can do almost -anything with a piece of string, and they could well instruct our own -conjurors in this branch of legerdemain. - -Cock fighting is an amusement of which the Dyaks are very fond, though -they do not indulge in that amusement with the reckless enthusiasm of -the Malays. Mr. St. John writes of the birds used for this purpose: -“We did not see more than a few of these birds in Dyak houses, but -since they are usually kept, when not in training or exercise, closely -wrapped in linen bands and hung on nails in a dry place, they might -easily escape our notice. - -“Not having the fear of police magistrates and Humane Society -prosecutions before our eyes, we assisted at one or two brief combats, -evidently mere trial matches to assist the calculations of the -‘bookmakers,’ by testing each bird’s pluck and skill. When this object -was attained by a few minutes’ struggle, held with much secrecy in -the veranda by the gray light of early morning, the cocks were picked -up before any injury was inflicted, and carefully swathed in their -bandages, from the midst of which they soothed their ruffled feelings -with an occasional crow of defiance.” - -Allusion has already been made to the feasts held by the Dyaks on -several occasions, and it is only on such festivities that the men -ever use their weapons in sham fight. Even in those cases, they do not -so employ them by way of practising themselves, but merely because -they form part of the movements of the dance. In one of these dances, -described by Mr. Keppel, two swords are laid on a mat in the middle of -the room, and two men advance toward them from opposite sides, waving -their arms, revolving on their toes, and performing various manœuvres -with their legs. - -As soon as they come to the mat, they suddenly stoop, seize the swords, -and go through the movements of actual combat, crossing swords, -advancing, retiring, cutting at each other, kneeling at one moment as -if to collect force, and then springing up with renewed energy. Both -dancers have previously studied and practised the various movements, -each of which they make simultaneously. - -Sometimes the sword dance is performed with the shield as well as the -sword, and of this dance Mr. Marryat has written so graphic an account -that his own words must be used. The guests were asked if they wished -for a specimen of the war dance. - -“Having expressed our wishes in the affirmative, the music struck up; -it consisted of gongs and tom-toms. The Malay gong, which the Dyaks -also make use of, is like the Javanese, thick with a broad rim, and -very different from the gong of the Chinese. Instead of the clanging -noise of the latter, it gives out a muffled sound of a deep tone. The -gong and tom-tom are used by the Dyaks and Malays in war, and for -signals at night, and the Dyaks procure them from the Malays. I said -that the music struck up, for, rude as the instruments were, they -modulate the sound, and keep time so admirably, that it was anything -but inharmonious. - -“A space was now cleared in the centre of the house, and two of the -oldest warriors stepped into it. They were dressed in turbans, long -loose jackets, sashes round their waists descending to their feet, and -small bells were attached to their ankles. They commenced by first -shaking hands with the rajah, and then with all the Europeans present, -thereby giving us to understand, as was explained to us, that the dance -was to be considered only as a spectacle, and not to be taken in its -literal sense, as preparatory to an attack upon us, a view of the case -in which we fully coincided with them. - -“This ceremony being over, they rushed into the centre and gave a most -unearthly scream, then poising themselves on one foot they described -a circle with the other, at the same time extending their arms like -the wings of a bird, and then meeting their hands, clapping them and -keeping time with the music. After a little while the music became -louder, and suddenly our ears were pierced with the whole of the -natives present joining in the hideous war cry. Then the motions and -the screams of the dancers became more violent, and everything was -working up to a state of excitement by which even we were influenced. - -“Suddenly a very unpleasant odor pervaded the room, already too warm -from the numbers it contained. Involuntarily we held our noses, -wondering what might be the cause, when we perceived that one of the -warriors had stepped into the centre, and suspended round the shoulders -of each dancer a human head in a wide-meshed basket of rattan. These -heads had been taken in the late Sakarran business, and were therefore -but a fortnight old. They were encased in a wide network of rattan, and -were ornamented with beads. Their stench was intolerable, although, -as we discovered upon after-examination, when they were suspended -against the wall, they had been partially baked, and were quite black. -The teeth and hair were quite perfect, the features somewhat shrunk, -and they were altogether very fair specimens of pickled heads; but our -worthy friends required a lesson from the New Zealanders in the art of -preserving. - -“The appearance of the heads was a sign for the music to play louder, -for the war cry of the natives to be more energetic, and for the -screams of the dancers to be more piercing. Their motions now became -more rapid, and the excitement in proportion. Their eyes glistened -with unwonted brightness, the perspiration dropped down their faces; -and thus did yelling, dancing, gongs, and tom-toms become more rapid -and more violent every minute, till the dancing warriors were ready -to drop. A farewell yell, with emphasis, was given by the surrounding -warriors; immediately the music ceased, the dancers disappeared, and -the tumultuous excitement and noise were succeeded by a dead silence. - -“Such was the excitement communicated, that when it was all over we -ourselves remained for some time panting to recover our breath. Again -we lighted our cheroots, and smoked for awhile the pipe of peace. - -“A quarter of an hour elapsed, and the preparations were made for -another martial dance. This was performed by two of the Rajah’s sons, -the same young men I have previously made mention of. They came forward -each having on his arm one of the large Dyak shields, and in the -centre of the cleared space were two long swords lying on the floor. -The ceremony of shaking hands, as described, preparatory to the former -dance, was gone through; the music then struck up, and they entered the -arena. - -“At first they confined themselves to evolutions of defence, springing -from one side to the other with wonderful quickness, keeping their -shields in front of them, falling on one knee, and performing various -feats of agility. After a short time, they each seized a sword and -then the display was very remarkable, and proved what ugly customers -they must be in single conflict. Blows in every direction, feints of -every description, were made by both, but invariably received upon -the shield. Cumbrous as these shields were, no opening was left; -retreating, pursuing, dodging, and striking, the body was never exposed. - -“Occasionally, during this performance, the war cry was given by the -surrounding warriors, but the combatants held their peace; in fact, -they could not afford to open their mouths, lest an opening should be -made. It was a most masterly performance, and we were delighted with -it.” - -A rather curious dance was witnessed by Mr. Boyle at a feast of which -an account will presently be given. First two chiefs each took a -sword, and began a maniacal sort of dance, which was intended to be -very imposing, but only succeeded in being very ludicrous, owing to the -fact that both were too much intoxicated to preserve their balance, -and, being of opposite tempers in their cups, one was merry and the -other was sulky. - -After this performance was over, a tall chief stepped forward with a -whip, much like a cat-o’-nine-tails, another produced a human head, and -the two began to chase each other round the veranda of the building. -Presently, the chief with the head stopped, and with one foot in the -air began to pirouette slowly, while he swung the head backward and -forward, the chief with the whip lashing vigorously at the spectators, -and laughing derisively at each cut. - -After a while these performers became too tired to proceed without -refreshment, and their place was taken by four or five others carrying -blocks of wood having a feather at each end. The foreign guests took -these objects to represent canoes, but were told that they were -rhinoceros hornbills, and were thought by all competent judges to be -fine works of art. Suddenly a number of gongs were beaten, and over the -mass of human beings arose swords, heads, rhinoceros hornbills, and -cat-o’-nine-tails in profusion, the Dyaks being for the time half mad -with excitement. - -It was remarkable that in this wild scene no harm was done, no blow -was struck in anger, and no quarrel took place. Decorum was maintained -throughout the whole of the festival, though not one of the revellers -was sober, and then, as Mr. Boyle remarks, “a scene which, according to -all precedent, should have been disgusting, turned out to be pleasantly -amusing.” - -This feast was a very good example of a Dyak revel. It was given by the -chief Gasing, who was gorgeously attired for the occasion in an old -consular uniform coat, covered with gold lace, the top of a dragoon’s -helmet tied on his head with a handkerchief, a brass regimental -breastplate on his forehead, and a plated tureen cover on his breast. -This tureen cover, by the way, was the most valued of Gasing’s -possessions, and one which was madly envied by all the neighboring -chiefs. Being a tall, thin man, the effect of his naked, lean, yellow -legs, appearing from beneath all this splendor, was remarkable. - -He had prepared his long house carefully for the festival. He had -erected a bamboo railing on the edge of the veranda, as a necessary -precaution against accidents, for the veranda was at a considerable -height from the ground, and the guests are all expected to be very -unsteady on their feet, even if they can stand at all. From the top -of the rail to the eaves of the veranda he had thrown a quantity of -cloths, so as to allow the chiefs who sat under them to be sheltered -from the rays of the sun. - -For this festival Gasing had been making preparations for months past, -half-starving himself in order to collect the requisite amount of -provisions, and being likely to find himself rather deeply in debt -before the preparations were completed. Unfortunately for the English -guests, the smell of Dyak cookery is anything but agreeable, and one of -their favorite articles of food, the fruit called the durian, exhales -a most intolerable odor, so that, if they had not been furnished with -plenty of tobacco, they would have been obliged to retire from the -scene. - -The Dyaks roast fowls without removing the feathers, tear them joint -from joint, and so eat them. They have a most extraordinary liking for -viands in a nearly putrid state, such as fish or molluscs in a very -advanced state of decomposition, eggs black from age, and rotten fruit, -the chief being the durian, which smells like all the other dishes -put together, but with a sort of peculiar fragrance of its own. Even -foreigners have learned to like the durian, but they have not found -that it acclimatizes them to the bad eggs, burnt feathers, and very -high fish. - -This very remarkable fruit is about as large as a cocoa-nut, slightly -oval, and is covered with a thick, tough skin, armed with sharp, short, -and stout spines, the bases of which touch each other. The skin is so -strong, that even when it falls, as it always does when ripe, from a -considerable height, it does not break, and the spines are so sharp -and hard, that, if a durian falls on a man, it inflicts a very severe -wound, and causes great loss of blood. - -When possible it is eaten fresh, as it falls ripe from the tree, but -it is often cooked while still green, and, when especially plentiful, -is preserved in jars by means of salt. In this state its natural odor -is very greatly increased, and the very opening of a jar of preserved -durians is enough to drive a stranger to the country out of the room. - -Mr. Wallace gives a very interesting account of the durian, mentioning -that, although for some time the odor of the fruit completely deterred -him from tasting it, he once found a ripe durian just fallen from the -tree, overcame his repugnance to the fruit, tried it, ate it, and -became from that moment a confirmed durian eater. The following passage -contains his description of the peculiar flavor of the durian:-- - -“The five cells are satiny white within, and are each filled with an -oval mass of cream-colored pulp, embedded in which are two or three -seeds about the size of chestnuts. This pulp is the eatable part, and -its consistence and flavor are indescribable. A rich, butter-like -custard, highly flavored with almonds, gives the best general idea of -it, but intermingled with it come wafts of flavor that call to mind -cream cheese, onion sauce, brown sherry, and other incongruities. - -“Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing -else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acid, nor -sweet, nor juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, -for it is perfect as it is. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, -and the more you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop. In -fact, to eat durians is a new sensation, worth a voyage to the East to -experience.” - -Mr. Wallace, in summing up the merits of the various fruits with which -we are acquainted, says that if he had to fix on two only, which would -represent the very perfection of flavor and refreshing qualities, he -would choose the durian and the orange, which he terms the king and -queen of fruits. - -Their national drink, called “tuak,” is worthily matched with the -viands. It is in color like thin milk, and its odor has been forcibly -compared to that of five hundred negroes drunk in a slave-pen. The same -traveller, having fortified his palate with the strongest tobacco, -drank some of the liquid in honor of his host, and gives a very vivid -description of its flavor. When first taken into the mouth, it gives -the idea of cocoa-nut milk gone very sour, and holding in solution -a considerable quantity of brown sugar and old cheese. When it is -swallowed, the victim is conscious of a suffocating sensation, as if -the liquid were thickened with starch and a great quantity of the -strongest cayenne pepper, the general effect produced on the novice -being comparable to nothing but a very bad attack of sea sickness. - -Strange to say, this abominable liquid retains the strongest hold on -three millions of human beings, who can conceive no greater luxury than -the privilege of drinking it without stint. At their feasts it is kept -in huge bathing jars, and is handed about in all kinds of vessels, -which are continually emptied and sent back to be replenished, so that -a continual stream of full and empty vessels passes from and to the -large jars. - -Even if the warriors who are invited to the festival were to feel -inclined to sobriety, they would be forced to drink by the women, -who seem to think themselves bound to make every man completely -intoxicated. “No Delilah of Europe better knows her power to make -a fool of a strong man than one of these Dyak syrens, nor is more -inclined to exert her fascinations. - -“The presence of the female element was soon felt in the noise and -confusion, which absolutely seemed to increase. Several of the girls -were so charming as to excuse the infatuation of their victims, and I -need scarcely say that the prettiest were the most culpable. But ugly -or beautiful, old or young, all instantly employed their most cunning -arts in enticing the bravest and most famous warriors to drink and -drink again. - -“We saw a little beauty seat herself lovingly beside a tall fellow with -a simple face and honest eyes, whom she coaxed to toast her from a -large jar which she offered to his lips, until he fairly fell backward -upon the floor. This satisfactory conclusion attained, his tormentor, -who, we heard, was affianced to him, ran screaming with laughter to -bring seven other wretches as mischievous as herself to jeer at the -vanquished lover. Raising her hopes to sport of a higher order, she -shortly after brought her jar to the spot where we sat, in the hope, no -doubt, of beguiling the white men into the same condition as her other -admirers; but in Europe we are accustomed to run the gauntlet of more -dangerous fascinations, and she relinquished the attempt in despair.” - -Mr. St. John mentions that the men are in no way behind the women in -their efforts to seduce their guests to intoxication, and it is their -greatest pride to have as much tuak drunk as possible, to drink their -own share and remain comparatively sober, while all their guests are -laid prostrate and insensible. In fact, if we substitute punch and port -for tuak, and an open veranda for a closed dining-room, there is little -difference between the hospitality of the present Dyak chief and that -of the average English squire of the last century. - -A chief, for example, who prides himself on his strong head, will sit -before a huge jar of tuak, and pledge every one around. For every one -whom he serves he drinks one cup himself, and it is his ambition to -keep his seat after all his companions are insensible. Of course, it is -impossible that any man can drink an equal amount with ten or twelve -others, and it is most likely that he forces the tuak on them so fast -that they are soon rendered incapable of seeing whether their host -drinks or not. They are very proud of being fresh on the following -morning, and boast that although their guests, who belonged to another -tribe, had severe headaches, they themselves suffered nothing at all. - -It is partly by means of appealing to this pride that the girls are -able to make the men drink to the extent which has been mentioned, -and they derive so much amusement from exercising their power that -they lose no opportunity that falls in their way, and essay their -blandishments even when there is no definite feast. - -Once, when Mr. St. John had travelled from the Sibuyan Dyaks to the -Bukars, he and his guides were received, as usual, in the head house. -While the English guests were making their toilet, two young Dyak girls -came very gently up the ladder and slipped into the chamber. Now the -head house is, as the reader may remember, the bachelors’ hall, and -consequently the girls had no business there. So, pretending not to see -them, the white men proceeded with their toilets, and quietly watched -their proceedings. - -The two girls, after glancing cautiously at the strangers, and thinking -themselves unobserved, made their way to the Dyak guides, each having -in her hands a vast bowl of fresh tuak, which they offered to the -visitors. The young men, knowing their object, declined to drink, -and thereby drew on themselves a battery of mixed blandishments and -reproaches. Above all, they were entreated not to inflict on the girls -the shame of refusing their gift, and making them take it back, to be -laughed at by all their friends. - -Cajolery, honied words, and caresses having been resisted, they tried -the effect of ridicule, and their taunts succeeded where their coaxings -failed. “What!” said they, “are the Sibuyans so weak-headed as to be -afraid of drinking Bukar tuak?” This touched the visitors on a very -tender point. The Sibuyans specially pride themselves on the strength -of their heads and of their tuak, and a refusal to drink was thus made -tantamount to a confession of inferiority in both respects. So they -raised the huge bowls to their lips, and were allowed no peace until -they had drained the last drops, when their tempters ran away laughing, -knowing that in a very short time their two victims would be senseless. - -It is a most extraordinary thing that the Dyak women, most of whom -do not drink at all, and very few drink even moderately, take such a -delight in forcing the men into intoxication. The young girls are the -most successful temptresses. They take advantage of their youth and -beauty, and employ all their fascinations to inveigle the men into -drinking. No man is safe from them. - -Their brothers, friends, and even their betrothed, fall, as we have -seen, victims to their blandishments. They will make up to perfect -strangers, get up a flirtation, and lavish all their enchantments upon -them like Circe of old, until they have reduced their helpless admirers -to a state little better than that of the mythological swine. Even -after the men have sunk on the ground, and are incapable of raising -the cup to their lips, the women think their task not quite completed, -and pour the tuak down the throats of the helpless men. In the “Dyak -Feast,” which the artist has so finely drawn on the opposite page, the -appeal and dresses of these Eastern syrens are illustrated. - -Yet, although on such occasions they give themselves over to utter -drunkenness, the Dyaks are a sober race, and except at these feasts, -or when beset by women, they are singularly temperate, the betel-nut -supplying the place of all intoxicating liquor. - -[Illustration: A DYAK FEAST. (See pages 1145, 1146.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXVIII. - -BORNEO--_Continued_. - -ARCHITECTURE--MANUFACTURES. - - - AERIAL HOUSES -- THE LONG HOUSE AND ITS ARRANGEMENTS -- THE - ORANG-KAYA’S ROOM -- STRUCTURE OF THE FLOORING -- REASONS FOR THE - DYAK ARCHITECTURE -- THE NIPA PALM AND ITS USES -- THE ATAPS -- SALT - AND SUGAR MANUFACTURE -- ERECTION OF THE FIRST POST -- VARIOUS MODES - OF PROCURING FIRE -- CONSTRUCTION OF THE DYAK BRIDGE -- A NARROW - ESCAPE -- MANUFACTURES -- THE ADZE AXE OF THE DYAKS -- ITS ANALOGY - WITH THE BANYAI AXE -- SMELTING AND FORGING IRON -- BASKET MAKING -- - THE DYAK MAT -- SPLITTING THE RATTAN -- THE BORNEAN KNIFE, AND MODE - OF USING IT -- THE SACRED JARS AND THEIR PROPERTIES. - -The architecture of the Dyaks is very peculiar. The reader may find a -Dyak village represented on page 1153. - -In the first place, the houses are all built on posts, some of them -twenty feet in height, and the mode of access to them is by climbing -up a notched pole, which answers the purpose of a ladder. The chief -dwelling in every village, and indeed practically the village itself, -is the long house, which is of wonderfully large dimensions. One of -these houses, measured by Mr. St. John, was more than five hundred and -thirty feet long, and was inhabited by nearly five hundred people. - -Throughout the entire length of the house runs the broad veranda or -common room, which is open to all the members, and at the side are -rooms partitioned off for the different families, as many as sixty or -seventy such rooms being sometimes seen in one long house. Although the -veranda is common ground to all the tribe, and in it the members go -through their various sedentary occupations, each family occupies by -tacit consent the portion of the veranda opposite their own rooms. - -These rooms are strictly private, and none except the members of the -family, or their intimate friends, would think of entering them. The -chief or Orang-kaya of the long house has a much larger room than the -others, and the space in front of his room is considered to be devoted -to the use of the lesser chiefs and councillors, and, although free to -all the inhabitants, is frequented almost entirely by the old men and -warriors of known courage. - -One of the rooms inhabited by the Orang-kaya was visited by Mr. Boyle, -and was not an attractive apartment. On each side of the entrance there -was a piece of furniture somewhat resembling an old English plate-rack, -upon the lower shelf of which was placed a flat stone. In spite of the -heat, which was terrific, a large fire was burning on the stone, and on -the range above were wood, rice, pots, and other utensils. There was no -chimney to the house, but a sort of flap in the roof was lifted up, and -kept open by a notched stick. This flap answered both for window and -chimney, and when it was closed the room was in total darkness, beside -being at once filled with smoke. - -The height of the chamber was barely seven feet, and the space was -rendered still more limited by the weapons, girdles, mats, mosquito -curtains, strings of boars’ tusks, aprons, and other property, that -hung from the rafters. The sides were adorned with a quantity of -English and Dutch crockery, each piece being in a separate rattan -basket and suspended from the wall. The house being an old one, the -smell was abominable; and the Orang-kaya’s chamber was, on the whole, a -singularly uncomfortable residence. - -A number of fire-places, varying according to the population of the -house, are arranged along the veranda, and, as a general rule, one of -the primitive ladders already mentioned is placed at either end, so -that when a visitor enters the house, he sees throughout its entire -length, the range of his eye being only interrupted by the posts, which -after supporting the floor pass upward and serve also to support the -roof. Outside this veranda extends another, called the outer veranda. -It has no roof, and is exposed to the blazing sunbeams. It is used, not -as a habitation, but as a kind of storehouse and drying ground. - -As the flooring is made of bamboo, the Dyaks can easily, if they -choose, keep the interior of their rooms clean. This, however, they -seldom choose to do, limiting their cleanliness to the simple process -of sweeping any offal through the floor so as to fall under the house. -They never think of removing it after it has fallen, so that by degrees -the heaps of refuse become higher and higher, and gradually diminish -the distance between the floor of the house and the soil beneath. In -some of the older houses, these heaps of rubbish have increased to such -an extent that when the pigs are grubbing in them their backs touch the -bamboo flooring of the house. - -The reason for building the Dyak houses on piles are several, the chief -being that such a house acts as a fort in case of attack. The custom of -building on piles is universal, but only those tribes that are liable -to invasion employ piles of the height which have been mentioned. This -mode of architecture also protects the inhabitants from floods and from -the intrusion of reptiles. The Dyaks do not use the bow and arrow, and -before they learned the use of fire-arms, a house built on piles some -twenty or thirty feet in height made a very secure fort, which could -not be fired, and which exposed the storming party to certain and heavy -loss. Even since the English have taken up their residence in Borneo, -some of these houses, belonging to revolted chiefs, have given great -trouble before they could be taken, artillery appearing to be the only -weapon to which they at once succumb. - -The piles are made of the hardest iron-wood, and are very thick, much -thicker than is needed for the support of the house. The reason for -this strength and thickness is, that in case of attack, the assailing -party dash under the house, protecting themselves from missiles by a -canoe which they turn keel upward, and hold over their heads while they -chop at the posts, so as to bring the house and its defenders down -together. If the posts are but moderately stout, they will sometimes -succeed; but if they are very thick and strong, the defenders can -remove part of the floor, and throw on the attacking party weights -sufficiently heavy to break through their roof and kill them. - -It is probable that the custom of building houses on piles is partly -derived from the Malay fashion of erecting buildings over the water. -The Dyaks copied this plan, and became so used to it that when they -built inland they still continued the practice. The same theory -accounts for the habit already mentioned of throwing all kinds of offal -through the open bamboo flooring. This custom was cleanly enough when -the houses were built over the water, but became a source of utter -pollution when they were erected on land, and the offal was allowed to -accumulate below, undisturbed except by the dogs and pigs. - -Most of these houses are built rather high up the rivers, especially -upon the tributary streams; and booms, composed of bamboos and rattans, -are fastened across the stream below them, so as to hinder the advance -of the enemy’s canoes. The thatch, as well as a considerable portion -of the material, is obtained from the nipa palm, a tree which to the -Borneans is almost a necessity of existence, and supplies a vast number -of their wants. It grows in large numbers at the water’s edge; its huge -leaves, fifteen or twenty feet in length, projecting like the fronds of -vast ferns. - -When dried, the leaves are woven into a sort of matted fabric -called “ataps,” which is used sometimes as thatch, sometimes as the -indispensable covering of boats, and sometimes even as walls of houses, -the mats being fastened from post to post. By the use of these ataps -certain portions of the roof can be raised on sticks in trap-door -fashion, so as to answer the double purpose of admitting light and -securing ventilation. - -Various other mats are made of the nipa palm leaf, and so are hats -and similar articles. The entire leaf is often used in canoes as an -extemporized sail, the leaf being fastened upright, and driving the -boat onward at a very fair pace. Besides these uses the nipa leaves, -when young, are dressed as vegetables, and are both agreeable and -nutritious, and the fine inner leaves, when dried, are rolled round -tobacco so as to form cigars. - -From the root and stem a coarse sugar is made, which is used for all -general purposes; for, although the sugar-cane grows magnificently in -Borneo, the natives only consider it in the light of a sweetmeat. It -seems rather strange that sugar and salt should be extracted from the -same plant, but such is really the case, and salt-making is one of the -principal occupations of some of the tribes. - -They gather great quantities of the nipa root, and burn them. The ashes -are then swept together, and thrown into shallow pans half filled -with water, so that the salt is dissolved and remains in the water, -while the charcoal and woody particles float at the surface, and can -be skimmed off. When the water is clear, the pans are placed over the -fire and the water driven off by evaporation, after which the salt, -which remains on the bottom and sides of the pans, is scraped off. It -is of a coarse and decidedly bitter character, but it is much liked by -the natives, and even the European settlers soon become accustomed to -it. Salt is imported largely from Siam, but the Borneans prefer that -of their own manufacture for home use, reserving the Siamese salt for -preserving fish. - -The nipa and the mangrove grow in similar localities and on the same -streams, and are useful to those who are engaged in ascending rivers, -as they know that the water is always shallow where the mangrove grows, -and deep near the nipa. - -In the olden times, when a long house was projected, the erection of -the first post was always accompanied by a human sacrifice, precisely -as has been mentioned of several other parts of the world. Mr. St. John -saw one of these houses where a human sacrifice had been made. A deep -hole was dug in the ground, and the huge post, which, as the reader may -remember, is cut from the trunk of the hardest and heaviest wood which -can be found, was suspended over it by rattan lashings. A girl was laid -at the bottom of the hole, and at a given signal the lashings were cut, -permitting the post to drop into the hole, and crush the girl to atoms. - -The same traveller saw a ceremony among the Quop Dyaks, which showed -that the principle of sacrifice still remained, though the victim was -of a different character. The builder wanted to raise a flag-staff -near his house, and proceeded on exactly the same plan. The excavation -was made, the pole was suspended by a rattan, but, instead of a human -being, a fowl was bound and laid at the bottom of the hole, so as to be -crushed to death when the lashings were cut. - -These houses are often approached by bridges, which are very curious -structures, so apparently fragile that they seem unable to sustain the -weight of a human being, and of so slight a character that to traverse -them seems to imply the skill of a rope dancer. As these houses are -often built on the side of a steep hill, a pole is laid from the -platform to the hill, and, if it be a tolerably long one, supported by -several rattan ropes fastened to trees. A very slight bamboo handrail -is fastened a little above it, and the bridge is considered as complete. - -One of these simple bridges is shown in illustration No. 2, on the -1153d page, which gives a good idea of the height of the house and its -general style of architecture. Near the foreground is a man engaged -in making fire by means of twirling one stick upon another, precisely -as is done by the Kaffirs and other savage tribes. There is, however, -one improvement on the usual mode. Instead of merely causing a pointed -stick to revolve upon another, the Dyaks use instead of the lower stick -a thick slab of very dry wood, with a deep groove cut on one side of -it, and a small hole on the other, bored down to the groove. - -When the Dyak wishes to procure fire, he places the wooden slab on the -ground with the groove undermost, and inserts his pointed stick in the -little hole and twirls it rapidly between his hands. The revolution -of the stick soon causes a current of air to pass through the groove, -and in consequence the fire is rapidly blown up as soon as the wood is -heated to the proper extent. In consequence of this arrangement, much -labor is saved, as the firemaker is not obliged to stop at intervals -to blow upon the just kindled dust which collects in the little hole -around the firestick. Some tribes merely cut two cross grooves on the -lower piece of wood, and insert the point of the firestick at their -intersection. - -The Saribas and Sakarrang Dyaks have a very remarkable instrument for -obtaining fire, called by them “besi-api.” It consists of a metal tube, -about three inches in length, with a piston working nearly air-tight in -it. A piece of dry stuff by way of tinder is introduced into the tube, -the piston rod is slapped smartly down and withdrawn with a jerk, when -the tinder is seen to be on fire. Europeans find that to manage the -besi-api is as difficult a task as to procure fire by two sticks. The -reader may remember that a machine of similar construction is sold at -the philosophical instrument makers, and that a piece of German tinder -is lighted by the sudden compression of the air. - -Another form of the besi-api is thus described by Mr. Boyle:--“Among -some of the Dyak tribes there is a manner of striking fire much more -extraordinary. The instrument used is a slender cube of lead, which -fits tightly in a case of bamboo. The top of the cube is hollowed -into a cup, and when fire is required this cup is filled with tinder, -the leaden piston is held upright in the left hand, the bamboo case -is thrust sharply down over it, as quickly withdrawn, and the tinder -is found to be lighted. The natives say that no metal but lead will -produce the effect.” - -The same traveller gives an account of another mode of obtaining -fire:--“Another interesting phenomenon these natives showed us, which, -though no doubt easily explained on scientific principles, appeared -very remarkable. As we sat in the veranda my cheroot went out, and I -asked one of the Dyaks squatted at our side to give me a light. - -“He took from his box of bamboo a piece of pitcher and a little -tinder; put the latter upon the pitcher and held it under his thumb, -struck sharply against the bamboo, and instantly offered me the tinder -lighted. Several times subsequently we watched them obtain fire by this -means, but failed to make out a reasonable theory for the result.” - -Even rivers are bridged over in the same simple, but really efficacious -manner, as the approaches to the houses. The mountain streams alternate -greatly in depth and rapidity, and it is no uncommon occurrence for -a heavy rain to raise a river some forty feet in its deep and rocky -channel, and even after a single heavy shower the fords are rendered -impassable. In consequence of this uncertainty, the Dyaks throw across -the chasms such bridges as are described by Mr. St. John:-- - -“How light and elegant do these suspension-bridges look! One, in -particular, I will attempt to describe. It was a broad part of the -stream, and two fine old trees hung over the water opposite to each -other. Long bamboos lashed together formed the main portion, and were -fastened by smaller ones to the branches above; railings on either side -were added to give greater strength and security, yet the whole affair -appeared so flimsy, and was so far above the stream, that when we saw a -woman and child pass over it we drew our breath until they were safe on -the other side. And yet we knew that they were secure. - -“I have often passed over them myself; they are of the width of one -bamboo, but the side railings give one confidence. Accidents do happen -from carelessly allowing the rattan lashings to rot. Once, when pressed -for time, I was passing rapidly across with many men following close -behind me, when it began to sway most unpleasantly, and crack! crack! -was heard as several of the supports gave way. Most of my men were -fortunately not near the centre, and relieved the bridge of their -weight by clinging to the branches, otherwise those who were with me in -the middle would have been precipitated on the rocks below. After that, -we always passed singly over such neglected bridges.” - - * * * * * - -The domestic manufactures of the Dyaks are of a very high order, and -display a wonderful amount of artistic taste. The mode of building -canoes has already been mentioned, but the principal tool of the -canoe maker is too curious to be passed over. The implement in -question is singularly ingenious, combining within itself a number of -qualifications. The general appearance of it can be seen by reference -to the illustration, which is drawn from a specimen presented to me by -C. T. C. Grant, Esq. - -It is apparently a most insignificant tool, hardly worthy the hands -of a child; and yet, when wielded by a Dyak, it produces the most -remarkable results. The handle is only ten inches in length, and the -blade measures barely an inch and a quarter across the widest part. The -handle is made of two portions, united with a strong lashing of rattan, -backed up by cement, The lower portion, which is curved exactly like -the hilts of the Dyak swords, is made of a soft and light wood, while -the upper part, which carries the head, is made of a hard, strong, and -moderately elastic wood. - -[Illustration: ADZE-AXE.] - -The head is made of iron, mostly imported, and is in all probability -formed on the model of a stone implement that was formerly in use. As -the reader may see, it is fastened to the wood by rattan, exactly as -the stone heads of the Polynesian axes are held in their places by -lashings of plaited sinnet. - -But here the resemblance ends. The head of the Polynesian axe is -immovable, whereas the essence of the Bornean axe is that the head can -be shifted at will, by taking it out of the rattan lashing, reversing -and replacing it, so that it forms an axe or an adze, as the user -desires. The reader may remember that the Banyai tribe of Southern -Africa have an axe made on a similar principle, though in their case -the reversal is accomplished by cutting holes at right angles to each -other, through which the shank of the iron head can be passed. (See p. -364, figs. 4, 5.) - -With this tiny instrument the Dyaks not only shape their planks, but -cut down the largest trees with a rapidity that an English workman -could scarcely equal, in spite of the superiority of his axe. They have -a very curious method of clearing away timber from a space of ground. -They first cut away all the underwood with their parangs, or choppers, -and then, with their little axes, cut the larger trees rather more -than half through, leaving the largest to the last. This tree is then -felled, and, as all the trees are bound together with rattans and other -creepers, it brings down all the others in its fall. - -[Illustration: (1.) A DYAK VILLAGE. (See page 1149.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) A DYAK HOUSE. (See page 1151.)] - -Although the iron which the Dyaks use is mostly imported, they are -capable of smelting their own metal by a very simple process. By way of -a crucible, they dig a small pit in the ground, and perforate the sides -with holes, through which currents of air can be passed by means of the -native bellows. Charcoal is first placed in the pit, and then the ore, -well broken, is laid on the charcoal; and so the Dyak workmen proceed -to fill the pit with alternate layers of charcoal and ore. A light -is then introduced by means of a hole, the bellows are worked, and -in a short time the metal is smelted. Although each man is generally -capable of making his own tools on a pinch, there is generally a man -in each village who is a professional blacksmith, and makes his living -by forging spear heads and parang blades, as well as by keeping the -weapons of the villagers in repair. - -The basket work of the Dyaks is exceedingly good, color as well as form -being studied in the manufacture. The basket called tambok is made of -the nipa palm leaf, cut into strips not quite the twelfth of an inch -wide, and stained alternately yellow and red. These are interwoven so -as to produce a considerable variety of pattern, somewhat resembling -that which is used in the sarongs and other woven fabrics. These -patterns are nearly all combinations of the square, the zigzag, and the -diamond; the last form, however, being nothing more than the square -turned diagonally. - -Although made in cylindrical form, the tambok is slightly squared by -means of four strips of hard red wood, which are tightly fastened to -the basket by rattan lashing. The bottom of the basket is squared in -a similar manner, so as to flatten it and enable it to stand upright, -and is defended by thicker strips of wood than those which run up the -sides. The lid is guarded by two cross-strips of wood, and both the lid -and the top of the basket are strengthened by two similar strips bound -firmly round their edges. This basket is exceedingly light, elastic, -strong, easily carried, and fully warrants the estimation in which it -is held. Tamboks are made of almost all sizes, and are extensively used -by the Dyaks, the Malays, and the European colonists. - -Mats of various kinds are made by this ingenious people. One of these -mats, which is in my possession, is a wonderful specimen of Dyak work. -It is nine feet long and five wide, and is made of rattan, cut into -very narrow strips--not wider, indeed, than those of the enlarged -patterns of the tambok basket. These strips are interwoven with such -skill as to form an intricate and artistic pattern. The centre of the -mat is occupied by a number of spiral patterns, two inches in diameter, -the spiral being produced by extensions of the zigzag already mentioned. - -Around the spirals are three distinct borders, each with a definite -pattern, and the whole is edged by a sort of selvage, which gives -strength to the fabric, and prevents it from being torn. This kind -of mat is exceedingly durable, the specimen in question having been -long used in Borneo, then brought over to England, and employed as a -floor-cloth; and, although cut in one or two places by chair-legs, is -on the whole as firm as when it was made. As the rattan has not been -dyed, the color of the mat is a pale yellow; but the pattern comes out -with wonderful distinctness, just as is the case with good English -table linen. - -Like all uncivilized people, the Dyaks never hurry themselves about -their manufactures. Time is no object to them; there is none of the -competition which hurries European workmen through life. The women, -who make these beautiful mats, go about their work in a very leisurely -way, interweaving the slender rattan strips with infinite care, and -certainly producing work that is thorough and sound. - -The rattan is split in rather a curious manner. On account of the -direction and length of its fibre, it will split almost _ad infinitum_ -into perfectly straight strips of very great length, so that the only -difficulty is to cut the slips of precisely the same width. The knives -with which this task is performed are rather peculiar. One of them has -already been described on page 1125, as an appendage to the Bornean -sword; but there is another which is so remarkable that it deserves a -separate description. - -The handle is bent at an angle like that of the parang-latok, described -and figured on the page to which reference was just made. In order to -produce this effect, the handle is made of two pieces of wood, the ends -of which are bevelled off, so that when they are placed together they -produce the angular form which is desired. The two pieces are fitted -very neatly together, and the joint is strengthened by a thick coating -of cement. The handle is further ornamented by having a long piece of -brass wire coiled tightly round it, and is finished off at the end with -the same kind of cement as that which is used at the joint. - -Not only does the handle resemble that of the parang, but there is a -great resemblance between the blades of the sword and the knife. The -blade of this knife has been forged out of a square bar of steel, which -has been first flattened, and then beaten out into the slightly curved -form which is so largely used throughout the whole of this part of the -world. - -As is the case with the sword knife already described, this implement -is used by putting the handle under the left arm and holding the blade -firmly in front of the body, while both hands are at liberty to press -the end of the rattan against the edge of the knife, and so to split -it into as many strips as are needed. In spite of the comparative -roughness of the manufacture, which dispenses with a finish and -polish, the knife can take a very fine edge; and my own specimen, after -having suffered rather rough usage, is so sharp that I have just mended -a pen with it, and cut a piece of note paper edgewise. The blade of -this knife is eleven inches in length. - -In order to preserve the sharpness of the edge, the Dyak carries the -knife in a sheath made simply of a small joint of bamboo, closed at the -lower end of the natural knot, and carefully wrapped at each end with -rattan to prevent it from splitting. - -The cotton fabrics are entirely made by the women, from the preparation -of the thread to the weaving of the stuff. They beat out the cotton -with small sticks, and, by means of a rude sort of wheel, spin it -out into thread very rapidly. They cannot compete with the English -manufacturer in fineness of thread, but in durability there is no -comparison between the two, the Dyak thread being stronger than -that made in England, and the dye with which it is stained being so -permanent that no fabric wears so well as that which is of native -manufacture. - -Although we can hardly rank the Dyak jars among native manufactures, -they play so important a part in the domestic life of these tribes that -they cannot be passed over without some notice. - -The Dyaks have no real currency, and can scarcely be made to understand -it. They perfectly comprehend direct barter, but the secondary barter -by means of a circulating medium is, as a rule, beyond an ordinary -Dyak. He will take some goods to the market for the purpose of -exchanging them for some article which he wants; but he has no idea -of selling his goods for money, and buying with that money the needed -article. - -The reader may remember that brass guns have already been mentioned -as a sort of currency. These are nothing more or less than cannon of -various sizes, which are valued by weight, and form a sort of standard -by which prices are measured, like the English pound or the French -franc. They are bored to carry balls from one to two pounds weight, -and, though regarded chiefly in the light of money, are serviceable -weapons, and can throw a ball to a considerable distance. There is an -advantage about this kind of currency. It is not easily stolen, and -outside the chiefs’ houses may be seen rows of brass guns lying on the -ground unmounted and owing their safety to their weight. - -There is also a second standard of value among the Dyaks. This is the -Jar, an institution which, I believe, is unique. These jars are of -earthenware, and as far as can be judged by appearance, must have been -of Chinese manufacture. They are of different descriptions, and vary -greatly in value. The commonest jars, called Naga or Dragon jars, are -worth about seven or eight pounds, and derive their name from figures -of dragons rudely scrawled on them. They are about two feet in height. -The Rusa jar, which is next higher in value, is worth from ten to -fifteen pounds, according to its quality, and is known by the figures -of the Rusa deer which are drawn upon it. - -But the most costly is the Gusi, which is worth almost any sum that -the owner chooses to demand for it. The Gusi jar is neither large -nor pretty. It is of a dark olive green color, and about two feet in -height. These jars are very scarce, and are considered as being worth -on an average about five hundred pounds. Seven or eight hundred pounds -have been paid for a Gusi jar, and there have been one or two so -valuable that many thousands pounds have been offered and refused for -them. - -Mr. St. John mentions a jar of this kind belonging to the Sultan of -Brunei, which derived its chief value from the fact that it spoke on -certain great occasions. For example, the Sultan declared that on the -night before his wife died the jar uttered hollow moaning sounds, and -that it never failed to apprize him of any coming misfortune by wailing -pitifully. This jar is kept in the women’s apartments, and is always -covered with gold brocade, except when wanted for consultation, or -to exhibit its medicinal properties. Water poured into a Gusi jar is -thought by the Dyaks and by the Malays to be the best possible medicine -for all kinds of diseases, and, when sprinkled over the fields, to be -a certain means of procuring a good crop. As the people are willing -to pay highly for this medicated water, there is some reason for the -enormous cost of these jars. - -One of them is said to possess a quality which belongs to itself. It -increased everything that was put into it. If, for example, it were -half filled with rice in the evening it would be nearly full in the -morning; and if water was poured into it, a few hours would increase -the depth of water by several inches. It is remarkable that the art of -making these jars is lost. The Chinese, admirable imitators as they -are, have always failed when they have endeavored to palm off upon a -Dyak a jar manufactured by themselves. - - - - -CHAPTER CXIX. - -BORNEO--_Concluded_. - -RELIGION--OMENS--FUNERALS. - - - THE STATE OF RELIGION AMONG THE DYAKS -- THEIR BELIEF IN A SUPREME - BEING -- THE VARIOUS SUBORDINATE GODS -- THE ANTUS, AND THEIR FORMS - -- CATCHING A RUNAWAY SOUL -- THE BUAU AND HIS NATURE -- ORIGIN OF - LAND LEECHES -- CHARMS, AND THEIR VALUE -- OMENS -- THE GOOD AND - EVIL BIRDS -- A SIMPLE CAUSE OF DIVORCE -- THE ENCHANTED LEAF -- THE - ORDEALS OF DIVING, BOILING WATER, SALT, AND SNAILS -- THE ENCHANTED - WATER -- A CURIOUS CEREMONY -- DYAK FUNERALS -- THE OFFICE OF SEXTON. - -The religion of the Dyaks is a very difficult subject, as the people -themselves seem to have an exceedingly vague idea of it, and to be -rather unwilling to impart the little knowledge which they have. It is -tolerably clear that they have an idea of a Supreme Being, whom they -call by different names, according to their tribes; the Sea Dyaks, -for example, calling him Batara, and the land Dyaks Tapa. Next to the -Supreme, by whom mankind was created, were some very powerful though -inferior deities, such as Tenabi, who made the earth and the lower -animals; Iang, who taught religion to the Dyaks, and still inspires -them with holiness; and Jirong, the lord of life and death. - -Besides those chief deities there are innumerable Antus or minor -gods, which correspond in some degree to the fauns and satyrs of -the ancients. They are called by many names, and as, according to -Dyak ideas, there is scarcely a square rod of forest that does not -contain its Antu, the people live as it were in a world peopled with -supernatural beings. Some of them even declare that they have seen the -Antus, the chief distinction of whom seems to be that they have no -heads, the neck being terminated in a sharp point. They are capable of -assuming the form of a human being or of any animal at will, but always -without heads, so that they can be at once recognized. - -The story of one of these Antu-seers is a very strange one. He declared -that he saw a squirrel in a tree, threw a spear at it, and brought it -to the ground. When he went to pick it up, it suddenly rose, faced him, -and changed itself into a dog. The dog walked a few paces, changed -again into a human being, and sat slowly down on the trunk of a fallen -tree. The body of the spectre was parti-colored, and instead of a head -it had a pointed neck. - -The Dyak ran off in terror, and was immediately smitten with a violent -fever, his soul having been drawn from the body by the Antu, and about -to journey toward the spirit world. The doctor, however, went off to -the spot where the Antu appeared, captured the fugitive soul, brought -it back, and restored it to the body by means of the invisible hole in -the head through which the Antu had summoned it. Next morning the fever -was gone, and the man was quite well. - -They tell another story of one of these inimical beings, who are -supposed to be ghosts of persons killed in battle, and called Buaus. A -Buau pounced upon a woman named Temunyan during her husband’s absence, -carried her off, and by his magic arts fixed her against a rock from -which she could not move. When the husband returned, he went in search -of his wife, and, having found her, concocted a scheme by which the -Buau was induced to release her. By stratagem the husband contrived to -destroy the Buau, and took his wife home. - -She had, however, scarcely reached her home when she gave birth to a -horrible being, of which the Buau was the father. Her husband instantly -chopped it into a thousand pieces with his parang, and flung it into -the jungle, when each fragment took life, and assumed the blood-sucking -character of the demon parent. And thus the Buau was the original -parent of land-leeches. - -In order to propitiate these beings, the Dyaks are in the habit of -making offerings of food, drink, and flowers to them before they -undertake any great task, mostly putting the food into dishes or -baskets, and laying it in the jungle for the use of the Antus. - -Satisfied apparently with the multitude of their deities, the Dyaks -possess no idols, a fact which is really remarkable, as showing the -character of their minds. Charms, however, they have in plenty, and -place the greatest reliance on them. Some charms are credited as -rendering the wearer invulnerable, and it is likely that those attached -to the parang described on page 1125 are of that character. - -Mr. St. John mentions an amusing example of the value set upon -these charms. There was a chief of very high rank, who possessed -some exceedingly potent charms, which had been in his family for -many generations, and had been handed down from father to son. They -consisted of two round pebbles, one flat pebble, a little stone which -had been found in a banana, and some sand. All these valuables were -sewed up together and fastened to a string, by which they could be -attached to the waist in times of peril. - -Unfortunately, the chief lent these charms to a man who lost them, and -was sued by the aggrieved owner before the English court. He gained his -case, but was nearly as much dissatisfied with the court as with the -defendant, inasmuch as he estimated the value of the charms at a Rusa -jar, _i. e._ about thirty dollars, or seven pounds, whereas the value -set on them by the court, and paid by the defendant, was fivepence. - -Allusion has been already made to the birds on which the Dyaks so much -rely as omens. These are three in number, the Kushah, the Kariak, and -the Katupung. When a Dyak is about to start on an expedition, he goes -to the place near the village where the feasting sheds are built, and -there waits until he hears the cry of one of these birds. Should either -the kushah or the katupung cry in the front, or on either side, and not -be answered, the omen is bad, and the man gives up his expedition. It -is a good sign, however, if the bird should first cry on one side and -then be answered on the other. The most important bird is the kariak. -If the cry of the kariak be heard on the right, the omen is good; if on -the left, it is doubtful. But if the cry be heard behind the diviner, -the omen is as bad as it can be, and portends at least sickness, if not -death. - -The Dyaks scarcely engage in any undertaking without consulting the -birds, whom they believe to be half Dyaks, all birds having proceeded -from the union of an Antu with a Dyak woman. - -Mr. Brooke, in treating of this subject, has the following forcible -remarks:--“Some of our party of Dyaks had proceeded, but most were yet -behind, and will be sweeping down for the next week or more. Many go -through the forms of their forefathers in listening to the sounds of -omens; but the ceremony is now very curtailed, compared with what it -was a few years ago, when I have known a chief live in a hut for six -weeks, partly waiting for the twittering of birds to be in a proper -direction, and partly detained by his followers. Besides, the whole way -in advancing, their dreams are religiously interpreted and adhered to; -but, as in all such matters, interpretations are liable to a double -construction. The finale is, that inclination, or often fear, is most -powerful. A fearful heart produces a disagreeable dream, or a bad omen -in imagined sounds from birds or deer, and this always makes a force -return. But they often loiter about so long, that the enemy gains -intelligence of their intended attack, and is on the alert. - -“However absurdly these omens lead the human race, they steadily -continue to follow and believe in such practices. Faith predominates, -and hugs huge wonders, and tenaciously lives in the minds of the -ignorant. Some of the Dyaks are somewhat shaken in the belief in -hereditary omens, and a few follow the Malay custom of using a -particular day, which has a strange effect on European imaginations. -The white man who commands the force is supposed to have an express -bird and lucky charm to guide him onward; and to these the Dyaks trust -considerably. ‘You are our bird, we follow you.’ I well know the names, -and can distinguish the sounds of their birds, and the different hands -on which the good and bad omens are interpreted. - -“The effect of these signs on myself was often very marked, and no Dyak -could feel an adverse omen more than myself when away in the jungle, -surrounded by these superstitious people. Still, I could sympathize -with the multitude, and the difficulty lay in the question, whether any -influence would be sufficient to counteract such phantoms. It must not -be thought I ever attempted to lead the Dyaks to believe that I was the -owner of charms and such absurdities, which could not have lasted above -a season, and could never be successful for a length of time. A maias’ -(orang-outan’s) head was hanging in my room, and this they thought to -be my director to successful expeditions.” - -The cries of various animals are all interpreted by the Dyaks, those -which have evil significations far outnumbering the good-omened cries. -The worst of all omens is the cry of a deer, which will make a Dyak -abandon any project on which he is engaged, no matter how deeply his -heart may be set on it. - -On one occasion, a Dyak had married a young girl for whom he had a -very strong attachment, which was returned. On the third day after -the marriage, the English missionary entered the head house and was -surprised to see the young husband sitting in it hard at work on some -brass wire. This was a very strong circumstance, as the head house is -tenanted only by the bachelors. The missionary naturally asked him -what he was doing there, and what had become of his wife, to which he -answered sorrowfully that he had no wife, a deer having cried on the -preceding night, so that they were obliged to dissolve the marriage at -once. - -“But,” said his interrogator, “are you not sorry for this?” - -“Very sorry!” - -“What are you doing with the wire?” - -“Making ornaments for the girl whom I want for my new wife.” - -It seems that the belief in the Antus is so ingrained in the minds of -the Dyaks, that whenever any one meets with an accident, some Antu or -other is presumed to have been the author of the injury, and to require -appeasal. Mr. Brooke mentions that he once found the leaf of a palm -tree folded in a peculiar manner, lying near his house. This was an -offering to the Antu, because a man had fallen down there and injured -himself. - -The leaf was supposed to be possessed by the Antu, who would avenge -himself if his leaf were disturbed by causing the arm of the offender -to swell. However, Mr. Brooke picked up the leaf and threw it away, and -within two days his arm became swollen and inflamed, and remained in -that state for nearly a fortnight afterward. - -In connection with this subject must be mentioned the ordeals by -which disputes are often settled. These are of various kinds, but the -favorite plan is the ordeal of diving. The two disputants are taken to -the river and wade into the water up to the chin. At a given signal -they plunge beneath the surface, and the one who can remain longest -under water wins the case. There was a very curious instance of such -an ordeal where the honor of a family was involved. The daughter of a -chief was found to have disgraced herself, and laid the blame upon a -young man of rank. He, however, utterly contradicted her story, and at -last the dispute was brought to an end by the ordeal of diving. The -young chief won his cause, and the result was that the offending girl -had to leave the village, and her father was deserted by his followers, -so that he was also obliged to seek another home. - -Then there is the salt ordeal. Each litigant is provided with a lump -of salt of precisely the same weight, and he whose salt retains its -shape longest in water is held to be the winner. There is also the -boiling-water test, which is exactly the same as that which was -practised in England in former days, the hand being dipped into the hot -liquid, and coming out uninjured if the appellant be innocent. Lastly, -there is the snail ordeal. Each party takes a snail and puts it on a -plate, and lime juice is poured over them, when the snail that first -moves is considered to have indicated that its owner is in the wrong. - -The reader may remember that the Dyaks are in the habit of purchasing -water that has been poured into the sacred jars, and sprinkling it over -their fields by way of ensuring fertility. They believe that water -which has touched the person of a white man will have the same effect, -especially if he be a man of some rank. So as soon as English officers -arrive at a Dyak village, the natives have a custom of seizing them, -pulling off their shoes and stockings, and washing their feet, the -water being preserved as an infallible charm for promoting the growth -of their crops. - -They carry this principle to an extent which to us seems exceedingly -disgusting. Long bamboos filled with dressed rice are brought to the -visitors, who are requested to spit in them. The rice thus medicated is -distributed among the assembled crowd, who press eagerly round, each -attempting to secure a portion of the health-giving food. Some of the -more cunning among the people try to secure a second and some a third -supply, and Mr. St. John mentions an instance when one horrid old woman -managed to be helped six times. - -The same traveller mentions that the blood of fowls is thought to -be a very powerful charm, and the Dyaks have a ceremony connected -with the shedding of blood which is almost identical with the Jewish -Passover. (See Exod. xii. 22.) A festival had been given in honor of -the visitors. Their feet had been washed, and the water put aside. -Their rice had been duly medicated, and the Orang-kaya began some -curious ceremonies, flinging rice out of the windows, and accompanying -the act with a prayer for fertility to the fields and prosperity to -the village. He was evidently repeating a well-learned lesson, and -it was ascertained that the words which he used were not understood -by himself, so that we find among the Dyaks the relics of an expired -language, the few remnants of which are preserved by religion, just as -is the case with the inhabitants of New Zealand and other islands. - -This portion of the ceremony being ended a sort of sacred dance was -performed, the Orang-kaya and the elders going successively to the -white visitors, passing their hands over their arms, and going off in a -slow, measured tread, “moving their arms and hands in unison with their -feet until they reached the end of the house, and came back to where -we sat. Then came another pressure of the palm, a few more passes to -draw virtue out of us, another yell, and off they went again--at one -time there were at least a hundred dancing. - -“For three nights we had had little sleep, on account of these -ceremonies, but at length, notwithstanding clash of gong and beat of -drum, we sank back in our beds, and were soon fast asleep. In perhaps a -couple of hours I awoke, my companion was still sleeping uneasily, the -din was deafening, and I sat up to look around. - -“Unfortunate moment! I was instantly seized by the hands of two -priests, and led up to the Orang-kaya, who was himself cutting a fowl’s -throat. He wanted Captain Brooke to perform the following ceremony, but -I objected to his being awakened, and offered to do it for him. I was -taken to the very end of the house, and the bleeding fowl put in my -hands. Holding him by his legs I had to strike the lintel of the doors, -sprinkling a little blood over each. When this was over, I had to wave -the fowl over the heads of the women and wish them fertility; over the -children, and wish them health; over all the people, and wish them -prosperity; out of the window, and invoke good crops for them.” - - * * * * * - -Funerals among the Dyaks differ slightly in the various tribes. The -common people are buried or even burned with scarcely any ceremony, -but the bodies of chiefs and their relatives are treated with a whole -series of rites. - -As soon as a chief dies, the corpse is dressed in his finest clothes, -every ornament that he possessed is hung upon him, and his favorite -swords and other weapons are laid by his side. The body is then placed -on an elevated platform, and is watched and tended as if the dead man -were still alive, food, drink, tobacco, and sirih being continually -offered him, and the air kept cool by constant fanning. The men -assemble on one side of the corpse, and the women on the other, and -romp with each other as if the occasion were of a joyful rather than a -sorrowful character. These games are continued until the corpse is far -gone in decomposition, when it is placed in a coffin made of a hollowed -tree trunk, and buried in a grave which must not be more than five feet -deep. - -Knowing the customs of the people, the Malays are apt to rifle the -graves of dead chiefs, for the sake of obtaining the swords and other -valuables that are buried with them. Formerly, after the body was laid -in the grave, the sword, a jar or two, clothes, ornaments, and a female -slave were placed in a canoe, the woman being firmly chained to it. -When the tide was ebbing the boat was sent adrift, and was supposed -to supply the spirit of the departed with all the goods that were on -board. This custom, however, has been long discontinued, as the Dyaks -found that the canoe and its contents almost invariably fell into the -hands of the Malays, who thus procured slaves without paying for them, -and enriched themselves besides with the swords, gold, and clothing. - -The sexton’s office is hereditary, and whenever the line fails the -Dyaks have great difficulty in finding some one who will not only take -the office upon himself, but must also entail it upon his descendants. -The office, however, is a very lucrative one, varying from a rupee -to two dollars, a sum of money which can procure for a Dyak all the -necessaries and most of the luxuries of life for several weeks. - -The Kayan Dyaks do not bury their dead, but place the body in a very -stout coffin made of a hollowed tree, and elevate it on two stout -carved posts, with woodwork projecting from each corner, like the roofs -of Siamese houses. - - - - -CHAPTER CXX. - -TIERRA DEL FUEGO. - -APPEARANCE--ARCHITECTURE--MANUFACTURES. - - - POSITION OF THE COUNTRY AND SIGNIFICATION OF THE NAME -- CONFORMATION - OF THE LAND AND ITS ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE -- APPEARANCE OF THE - FUEGIANS -- ERRONEOUS IDEAS CONCERNING THEM -- COLOR, COSTUME, AND - MODE OF WEARING THE HAIR -- INDIFFERENCE TO DRESS -- PAINT AND - ORNAMENTS -- FUEGIAN ARCHITECTURE -- THE POINTED AND ROUNDED HUTS - -- THE SPEAR AND ITS HEAD -- BOWS AND ARROWS -- STONE THROWING -- - WONDERFUL STRENGTH OF THE FUEGIANS -- SKILL WITH THE SLING -- STUDY - OF PARTICULAR WEAPONS -- FOOD OF THE FUEGIANS -- ANGLING WITHOUT - HOOKS -- THE DOGS, FISHERS AND BIRD CATCHERS -- THE DOG RESPECTED - BY THE FUEGIANS -- CANNIBALISM -- THE TREE FUNGUS -- CANOES -- THE - LARGE AND SMALL CANOES, AND THEIR USES -- SHIFTING QUARTERS AND - TRANSPORTING CANOES -- COOKERY -- GENERAL TEMPERAMENT OF THE FUEGIANS - -- JEMMY BUTTON -- FUEGIAN GOVERNMENT. - -At the extreme southern point of America is a large island, or rather -a collection of islands separated by very narrow armlets of the sea. -It is separated from the mainland by the strange tortuous Magellan’s -Strait, which is in no place wide enough to permit a ship to be out of -sight of land, and in some points is exceedingly narrow. As Magellan -sailed through this channel by night, he saw that the southern shore -was studded with innumerable fires, and he therefore called the country -TIERRA DEL FUEGO, or Land of Fire. These fires were probably beacons -lighted by the natives in order to warn each other of the approach of -strangers, to whom the Fuegians have at times evinced the most bitter -hostility, while at others they have been kind and hospitable in their -way. - -The country is a singularly unpromising one, and Tierra del Fuego on -the south and the Esquimaux country on the north seem to be exactly the -lands in which human beings could not live. Yet both are populated, -and the natives of both extremities of this vast continent are fully -impressed with the superiority of their country over all others. - -Tierra del Fuego is, as its proximity to the South Pole infers, a -miserably cold country, and even in the summer time the place is so -cold that in comparison England would seem to be quite a tropical -island. In consequence of this extreme cold neither animal nor -vegetable life can be luxuriant. The forests are small, and the trees -short, stumpy, and ceasing to exist at all at some fifteen hundred feet -above the level of the sea. There is a sort of evergreen beech (_Fagus -betuloides_). - -There is only one redeeming point in the climate of Tierra del Fuego. -The mosquito that haunts alike the hottest and coldest countries, and -equally a terror in tropical and Arctic America, cannot live in Tierra -del Fuego, the damp, as well as the cold, being fatal to it. Indeed, -there are very few insects in this strange land, and reptiles are -altogether absent. - -Absence of vegetable life naturally results in absence of animal life, -the herbivorous animals being starved out for want of their proper -food, and the carnivora being equally unable to live, as finding no -animals on which to feed. Man being omnivorous, has a slightly better -chance of living, but even he could not multiply and fill the country -when food is so limited, provided he were limited to the land, but, as -he is master of the waters as well as of the earth, he can draw his -living from the sea and rivers when the land refuses to supply him with -food. Such is the case with the Fuegians, who are essentially people -of the sea and its shore, and who draw nearly the whole of their -subsistence from its waters, as we shall see in a future page. - -Perhaps in consequence of the scantiness, the irregularity, and the -quality of their food, the Fuegians are a very short race of men, often -shorter than the average Bosjesman of Southern Africa, and even lower -in the social scale. They ought not to be called dwarfs, as is too -often the case, their bodies being tolerably proportioned, and their -figures not stunted, but simply smaller than the average of Europeans, -while the muscular development of the upper part of the body is really -wonderful. As a rule, the average height of the Fuegian men is about -five feet, and that of the women four feet six inches. In some parts -of the islands there are natives of much larger size, but these are -evidently immigrants from the adjacent country of Patagonia, where -the stature is as much above the average of Europeans as that of the -Fuegians is below it. - -The color of the natives is a dark coppery brown, the reddish hue being -only perceptible in spots where they happen accidentally to be clean. -The limbs are generally slight, so that the knees and elbows seem to -be disproportionately large, and their heads are covered with masses -of black hair, that possesses no curl, and falls in long, wild tangled -locks over their shoulders. The men are almost entirely beardless. - -An illustration on the opposite page of a Fuegian man and woman gives -a correct representation of the ugliness of feature and want of -intelligence which characterize this people. - -Both sexes allow their hair to run to its full length, except over -the forehead, where it is roughly cut with a shell to prevent it -from falling into the eyes. The people have a strange superstitious -reverence for hair, and that portion which is cut off is deposited in a -basket, and afterward carefully disposed of. Once, when the captain had -snipped off a little hair from a Fuegian’s head, he found that he had -given great offence, and was obliged to restore the severed hair and -put away the scissors before the angry feelings of the native could be -smoothed. On another occasion, the only mode of pacifying the offended -native was by restoring the lock of hair, together with a similar lock -from the head of the white man. The cut hair is generally burned. - -Captain King’s account of the Fuegian women is not attractive. - -“The hair of the women is longer, less coarse, and certainly cleaner -than that of the men. It is combed with the jaw of a porpoise, but -neither plaited nor tied; and none is cut away, except from over their -eyes. They are short, with bodies largely out of proportion to their -height; their features, especially those of the old, are scarcely less -disagreeable than the repulsive ones of the men. About four feet and -some inches is the stature of these she-Fuegians, by courtesy called -women. They never walk upright; a stooping posture and awkward movement -is their natural gait. They may be fit mates for such uncouth men; but -to civilized people their appearance is disgusting. Very few exceptions -were noticed. - -“The color of the women is similar to that of the men. As they are just -as much exposed, and do harder work, this is a natural consequence. -Besides, while children they run about quite naked, picking up -shell-fish, carrying wood, or bringing water. In the color of the -older people there is a tinge of yellow, which is not noticed in the -middle-aged or young.” - -As is the case with many savage tribes, the teeth of the Fuegians are -ground down to an almost flat surface. This is most conspicuous in the -front teeth. There is little apparent distinction between the canine -and the incisor teeth, both being ground down to such an extent that -the only remains of the enamel are on the sides, and, as Captain King -graphically remarks, “the front teeth are solid, and often flat-topped -like those of a horse eight years old ... the interior substance of -each tooth is then seen as plainly in proportion to its size as that of -a horse.” - -The mouth is large, and very coarsely formed, and as there is not a -vestige of beard its full ugliness is shown to the best advantage. - -One of the strangest phenomena connected with the Fuegians is their -lack of clothing. In a climate so cold that in the middle of summer -people have been frozen to death at no great elevation above the level -of the sea, it might well be imagined that the natives would follow the -same course as that adopted by the Esquimaux, and make for themselves -garments out of the thickest and warmest furs that can be procured. - -They might do so if they chose. In some parts of their country they -have the thick-woolled guanaco (probably an importation from the -mainland), and in others are deer and foxes, not to mention the dogs -which they keep in a domesticated state. Besides, there are few furs -warmer than those of the seal, and seals of various kinds abound on the -Fuegian coasts, some, such as the sea-lion, being of very large size. -Then there are various water birds, whose skins would make dresses -equally light and warm, such as the penguin, the duck, the albatross, -and the like. - -[Illustration: (1.) FUEGIANS. (See page 1162.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) PATAGONIANS. (See page 1173.)] - -It is evident, therefore, that if the Fuegian is not warmly and thickly -clothed, it is not from want of material, and that he is naked not -from necessity but choice. And he chooses nudity, neither sex wearing -any description of clothes except a piece of seal or deer skin about -eighteen inches square hung over one shoulder. No other covering is -worn except this patch of skin, which is shifted about from one side -of the body to the other according to the direction of the wind, the -Fuegian appearing to be perfectly indifferent to frost, rain, or snow. -For example, a Fuegian mother has been seen with her child in her arms, -wearing nothing but the little patch of seal-skin on the windward side, -and yet standing unconcernedly in the snow, which not only fell on -her naked shoulder, but was heaped between her child and her breast, -neither mother nor infant seeming to be more than ordinarily cold. -During mild weather, or when the Fuegian is paddling or otherwise -engaged in work, he thinks that even the piece of seal-skin is too much -for him, and throws it off. - -Though careless about clothing, he is not indifferent to ornament, and -decorates his copper-colored body in various ways. He uses paint in -profusion, generally laying on a white ground made of a chalky clay, -and drawing patterns upon it of black or dull brick-red. The black is -simply charcoal reduced to powder. He likes necklaces, which are mostly -white, and are made of the teeth of fishes and seals, or of pieces of -bone. Ornaments of the same character are worn upon the wrists and -ankles, so that, although the Fuegian has no clothes, he has plenty of -savage jewelry. - -Both sexes keep their long, straggling locks out of their eyes by -means of a small fillet made of sinews, or the hair of the guanaco, -twined round the forehead. Feathers and similar ornaments are stuck -into this fillet; but if they be white, the spectator must be on his -guard, for white down and feathers on the head are signs of war. Red, -on the contrary, denotes peace; so that these people entirely reverse -the symbolism of color which is accepted almost over the entire world. -Sometimes a native may be seen so covered with black paint that the -coppery color of the skin is entirely lost, and the complexion is as -black as that of a negro. This is a sign of mourning, and is used on -the death of a relation or friend. - -The houses of the Fuegians are as simple as their dress, and -practically are little but rude shelters from the wind. Any boy can -make a Fuegian house in half an hour. He has only to cut a number -of long branches, sharpen the thicker ends, and stick them into the -ground, so as to occupy seven-eighths or so of a circle. Let him then -tie the sticks together at the top, and the framework of the house is -completed. The walls and roof are made by twisting smaller boughs among -the uprights and throwing long coarse grass on them, and the entire -furniture of the hut is comprised in a few armfuls of the same grass -thrown on the ground. - -The opening at the side is always made in the direction opposite the -wind, and there is no attempt at a door; so that, in fact, as has been -said, the Fuegian’s only idea of a house is a shelter from the wind, so -that the natives have no idea of a home or even of a dwelling-place. -This is the form of hut used by the Tekeenika tribes of south-eastern -Fuegia. A Fuegian settlement, with houses and surrounding scenery, is -well represented on the 1169th page. - -That which is generally employed in other parts of Fuegia is even -more simple. It is barely half the height of the Tekeenika hut, and -looks something like a large bee-hive. It seldom, if ever, exceeds -five feet in height, but, as the earth is scraped away within, another -foot in height is given to the interior. It is made simply by digging -a circular hole a foot or so in depth, planting green boughs around -the excavation, bending them over, and tying their tops together. Upon -this rude framework are fastened bunches of grass, sheets of bark, and -skins; so that, on the whole, a habitation is formed which is equal -in point of accommodation to a gipsy’s tent. These huts vary much in -diameter, though not in height; for, while a number of huts are from -four to five feet in height, their diameter will vary from six to -twenty feet. - -The Fuegians are a quarrelsome people, and the different tribes are -constantly at war with each other; and, although they can scarcely -be divided into definite tribes, the spirit of local jealousy is -sufficiently strong within them to keep the inhabitants of one -district at perpetual feud with those of another. The conformation of -the country aids this feeling of jealousy, the land being divided by -numerous ravines, armlets of the sea, and precipitous mountains; but, -fortunately for the Fuegians, this very structure prevents destruction -in war, although it encourages the ill-feeling which leads to war; and -the battles of the Fuegians are, at the best, nothing but detached -skirmishes, without producing the least political effect. - -Their weapons are the bow and arrow, the spear, and the sling. These -weapons are primarily intended for hunting, and are much more used for -killing seals, guanacos, deer, fish, and birds than in slaying men. -In the use of them the Fuegians are wonderfully expert. Capt. Parker -Snow mentions a case where a number of Fuegians had assembled in their -canoes round his vessel. A large fish happened to pass, whereupon the -natives instantly speared it, and pitched it on board the ship. - -The shafts of the spears sometimes reach the length of ten feet, and, -instead of being rounded, as is mostly the case with spear shafts, -are octagonal. The heads are made of bone, about seven inches in -length, and have a single barb about four inches from the point. The -Patagonians use a very similar weapon, as we shall presently see. -There is another kind of spear head, which has a whole row of small -barbs down one side. This weapon is used as a javelin, and is thrown -with great force and accuracy, the native grasping it near the middle, -poising for a moment, so as to look along it, and then hurling it. - -The bow and arrow are mostly used for killing birds, the arrows being -made of hard wood, about two feet long. They are headed with pieces of -flint or obsidian, which are merely stuck in a notch at the end of the -arrow, so that, when the shaft is withdrawn, the head remains in the -wound. The bow is strung with twisted sinews. Birds are also killed by -stones, some thrown by hand, and others with the sling, the wonderful -strength of these strange people enabling them to use their missiles -with terrible effect. - -Although not tall, the Fuegians are very thick-set and enormously -powerful. One of them, named by the sailors York Minster, was a match -in point of muscular strength for any two of the men belonging to the -ship. The women are as strong as the men. On one occasion, when three -Fuegians, a man and two women, had treacherously attacked a white -sailor, and were trying to beat out his brains with stones, they were -interrupted, and the sailor rescued. The man was shot. One of the women -tried to conceal herself under the bank, and the other was seized -by the captain and his coxswain, who tried to pinion her arms. She -struggled and fought so stoutly that they could scarcely achieve their -object, and had no idea that they were contending with a woman until -they heard some one announce the sex of their captive. As to the other -woman, who was the oldest of the party, she clung so tightly to the -bank that two of the strongest sailors could scarcely remove her. - -The fate of the man was very curious, and illustrates the reckless, not -to say senseless, courage of these people. He was mortally wounded, -and fell back for a moment, allowing the maltreated sailor to escape. -However, he instantly recovered himself, and, snatching stones from the -bed of the stream in which he was standing, began to hurl them with -astounding force and quickness. He used both hands, and flung stones -with such truth of aim that the first struck the master, smashed his -powder-horn to pieces, and nearly knocked him down. The two next were -hurled at the heads of the nearest seamen, who just escaped by stooping -as the missiles were thrown. All this passed in a second or two, and -with an attempt to hurl a fourth stone the man fell dead. - -Some time before this event the sailors had been astonished at the -stone-throwing powers of the Fuegians, who nearly struck them with -stones thrown by hand when they thought themselves even beyond musket -shot. They generally carry a store of pebbles ready for use in the -corner of their little skin mantles. - -The sling is made of a cup of seal or guanaco skin, to which are -attached two cords similar in material to the bow-strings, thus -combining apparent delicacy with great strength. The cords of the -sling are more than three feet in length. The skill which the Fuegians -possess with this weapon is worthy of the reputation attained by -the Balearic islanders. Captain King has seen them strike with a -sling-stone a cap placed on a stump at fifty or sixty yards’ distance, -and on one occasion he witnessed a really wonderful display of -dexterity. He asked a Fuegian to show him the use of the weapon. The -man immediately picked up a stone about as large as a pigeon’s egg, -placed it in the sling, and pointed to a canoe as his mark. He then -turned his back, and flung the stone in exactly the opposite direction, -so that it struck the trunk of a tree, and rebounded to the canoe. The -men seem to think the sling a necessity of life, and it is very seldom -that a Fuegian is seen without it either hung over his neck or tied -round his waist. - -It is rather a curious fact that the Fuegians always devote themselves -to one particular weapon. One, for example, will be pre-eminent in the -use of the bow, another will excel in throwing stones with the hand, -and a third will give all his energies to the sling. Yet, although each -man selects some particular arm in the use of which he excels, they all -are tolerable masters of the other weapons, and it sometimes happens -that a Fuegian crosses over to the Patagonian coast, procures the -singular weapon called the “bolas,” of which the reader will learn more -presently, and becomes almost as expert in its use as the man from whom -he obtained it. - - * * * * * - -As for the food of the Fuegians, it is, as I have already mentioned, -chiefly drawn from the sea. He is an excellent fisherman, and manages -to capture his prey without even a hook. He ties a bait on the end of -the line, dangles it before the fish, and gradually coaxes it toward -the surface of the water. He then allows it to bite, and, before it -can detach its teeth from the bait, jerks it out of the water with -his right hand, while with the left he catches or strikes it into the -canoe. It is evident that by this manner of angling it is impossible to -catch fish of any great size. As soon as he has caught the fish, the -Fuegian opens it by the simple plan of biting a piece out of its under -surface, cleans it, and hangs it on a stick. - -Molluscs, especially the mussels and limpets which are found on the -sea-shores, form a very considerable portion of the Fuegian’s diet; and -it is a curious fact that these natives never throw the empty shells -about, but carefully lay them in heaps. They are especially careful -not to throw them back into the sea, thinking that the molluscs would -take warning by seeing the shells of their comrades, and would forsake -the coast. Every woman is furnished with a short pointed stick of hard -wood, with which she knocks the limpets off the rocks. - -There is a very large species of mussel found on these shores, which -is particularly useful to the Fuegian, who employs its shell as a -knife. These tools are made in a very simple manner. The Fuegian first -knocks off the original edge of the shell, which is brittle and rather -fragile, and, by grinding it against the rocks, produces a new edge, -which is sharp enough to cut wood and even bone. - -By means of the spear and arrows, the Fuegian contrives even to capture -seals and sea-otters, but the pursuit in which he shows his greatest -ingenuity is the capture of fish by means of dogs. These dogs are -little, fox-like looking dogs, which appear utterly incapable of aiding -their masters in hunting. Yet they are singularly intelligent in their -own way, and have learned a most curious fashion of taking fish. When -a shoal of fish approaches the land, the dogs swim out and enclose -them, splashing and diving until they drive the shoal into a net, or -into some creek when the water is sufficiently shallow for the spear -and arrow to be used. The dogs are also taught to catch the birds while -sleeping. They creep up to the birds quietly, pounce upon them, carry -them to their masters, and return for more, and all so silently that -the birds around are not disturbed. - -These animals are regarded with very mingled feelings. The Fuegian -neglects them and illtreats them, scarcely ever taking the trouble to -feed them, so that if they depended on the food given them by their -masters they would starve. However, their aquatic training gives them -the power of foraging for themselves, and, when not required by their -masters, they can catch fish on their own account. They are odd, sharp -nosed, bushy tailed animals, with large, pointed, erect ears, and -usually with dark rough hair, though a few among them have the fur -nearly white. They are watchful and faithful to their masters, and the -sight of a stranger, much more of a clothed stranger, sets them barking -furiously. - -Although the Fuegian neglects his dog, he has a great respect and -even affection for the animal. It often happens that the mussels and -limpets fail, that the weather is too tempestuous for fishing, and that -in consequence the people are reduced to the brink of starvation. It -might be presumed that, having their dogs at hand, they would avail -themselves of so obvious a source of food. This, however, they never -do, except when reduced to the last extremity, and, instead of eating -their dogs, they eat their old women, who, as they think, are worn out -and can do no good, while the dogs, if suffered to live, will assist in -catching fish and guanacos. - -When they have determined on killing an old woman, they put a quantity -of green wood on their fire, so as to cause a thick, suffocating smoke, -and in this smoke they hold the poor creature’s head until she is -stifled. Unless there is very great distress, the women eat the upper -part of the victim and the men the lower, the trunk being thrown into -the sea. - -Several species of echinus, or sea urchins, are eaten by the Fuegians, -who dive for them and bring them to the surface, in spite of the sharp -prickles with which the entire surface is beset. - -The Fuegian’s great feast, however, takes place when a whale is -stranded on the shore. All the people within reach flock to the spot, -while fleets of canoes surround the stranded monster, and its body -is covered with little copper-colored men carving away the blubber -with their shell knives. Each cuts as much as he can get, and when he -has torn and carved off a large piece of blubber, he makes a hole in -the middle, puts his head through the aperture, and thus leaves his -hands free to carry more of the dainty food. Besides this animal food, -the Fuegian eats a remarkable kind of fungus, which is found on the -antarctic beech, the tree which has already been mentioned. Mr. Webster -gives the following description of it:-- - -“The antarctic beech is the common and prevailing tree. It is an -elegant evergreen. It grows to the height of thirty or forty feet, -with a girth of from three to five feet, and sometimes, doubling these -dimensions, it forms a majestic tree. In December it puts forth a -profusion of blossoms, with anthers of bright pink, large and pendent. -This evergreen beech frequently has round the upper part of the trunk, -or on some of the larger branches, large clusters of globular fungi of -a bright orange color. Each fungus is about the size of a small apple, -of a soft pulpy nature, with a smooth yellow skin. As it approaches -maturity it becomes cellular and latticed on its surface, and when it -drops from the tree, dries, and shrivels into a brown mass resembling a -morel. - -“The Fuegians eat this fungus with avidity. The gelatinous mass is -pale, without taste or odor; at the part in contact with the tree -are two germs or processes. From twenty to thirty of these fungi are -clustered together, and encircle the tree. They form a very conspicuous -object, and wherever they are attached they produce a hard knot, or -woody tumor, of considerable density. I did not observe them on any -other tree than the evergreen beech.” - -Passing so much of his time on the sea, the Fuegian needs a boat of -some kind, and, debased as he is in many points, he is capable of -constructing a vessel that answers every purpose he requires. There -are several kinds of Fuegian canoes. The simplest form is made of the -bark of a sort of birch, and is in fact formed much like the primitive -canoes of the Australians. It is a single sheet of bark stripped from -the tree, and tied firmly together at each end. Several sticks placed -crosswise in the middle serve to keep it open; and if any part has a -tendency to bulge in the opposite direction, a skin thong is passed -across the boat and keeps it in shape. The ends of the canoe, as well -as any cracks or holes in the bark, are caulked with dry rushes and a -pitchy resin procured from trees. - -Like the Australian, the Fuegian carries fire in these tiny canoes, -placing a lump of clay in the bottom of the boat, building the fire -on it, and so being able to remain at sea for a considerable time, -cooking and eating the fish as fast as he catches them. Such a boat -as this, however, is too frail to be taken far from land, or indeed -to be used at all when the weather is tempestuous. Moreover, it only -holds one or two persons, and is therefore unfitted for many purposes -for which a Fuegian requires a canoe. A much larger and better kind of -canoe is therefore made, which has the useful property of being made -in separate parts so that the canoe can be taken to pieces, and the -various portions carried overland to any spot where the canoe may be -wanted. Such a vessel as this is about fifteen feet in length and a -yard in width, and, being very buoyant, is capable of holding a whole -family, together with their house, and weapons, and utensils. It is -considerably raised both at the bow and the stern, and the various -pieces of which it is made are sewed together with thongs of raw hide. - -The very character of a Fuegian’s life shows that he must, to a -certain degree, be a nomad. He never cultivates the soil, he never -builds a real house, he never stores up food for the future, and so it -necessarily follows that when he has eaten all the mussels, limpets, -oysters, and fungi in one spot, he must move to another. And, the -demands of hunger being imperious, he cannot wait, but, even if the -weather be too stormy to allow him to take his canoe from one part of -the coast to another, he is still forced to go, and has therefore hit -upon the ingenious plan of taking his canoe to pieces, and making the -journey by land and not by sea. An illustration on the following page -shows him shifting quarters. - -All he has to do in this case is to unlace the hide thongs that lash -the canoe together, take it to pieces, and give each piece to some -member of the family to carry, the strongest taking the most cumbrous -pieces, such as the side and bottom planks, while the smaller portions -are borne by the children. When the snow lies deep, the smaller canoe -is generally used as a sledge, on which the heavier articles are -placed. As to the hut, in some cases the Fuegians carry the upright -rods with them; but they often do not trouble themselves with the -burden, but leave the hut to perish, and cut down fresh sticks when -they arrive at the spot on which they mean to settle for a time. - -The Fuegians are good fire makers, and do not go through the -troublesome process of rubbing two sticks upon each other. They have -learned the value of iron pyrites (the same mineral which was used in -the “wheel-lock” fire-arm of Elizabeth’s time), and obtain it from the -mountains of their islands. The tinder is made either of a dried fungus -or moss, and when the pyrites and a pebble are struck together by a -skilful hand, a spark is produced of sufficient intensity to set fire -to the tinder. As soon as the spark has taken hold of the tinder, the -Fuegian blows it until it spreads, and then wraps it up in a ball of -dry grass. He rapidly whirls the grass ball round his head, when the -dry foliage bursts into flames, and the fire is complete. - -Still, the process of fire making is not a very easy one, and the -Fuegians never use their pyrites except when forced to do so, -preferring to keep a fire always lighted, and to carry a firestick with -them when they travel. Fire is, indeed, a necessary of life to the -Fuegians, not so much for cooking as for warming purposes. Those who -have visited them say that the natives always look cold and shivering, -as indeed they are likely to do, considering that they wear no clothes, -and that even in their houses they can but obtain a very partial -shelter from the elements. - -Their cookery is of the rudest description, and generally consists in -putting the food into the hot ashes, and allowing it to remain there -until it is sufficiently done for their taste--or, in other words, -until it is fairly warmed through. Cooking in vessels of any kind is -unknown to them, and the first lessons given them in cooking mussels in -a tin pan were scarcely more successful than those in sewing, when the -women invariably made a hole in the stuff with the needle, pulled the -thread out of the eye, and then insinuated it through the hole made by -the needle. They were repeatedly taught the use of the eye in carrying -the thread, but to little purpose, as they invariably returned to the -old fashion which they had learned with a fish-bone and fibre of sinew. - -[Illustration: (1.) A FUEGIAN SETTLEMENT. (See page 1165.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) FUEGIANS SHIFTING QUARTERS. (See page 1168.)] - -Though so constantly in the water, the Fuegians have not the most -distant idea of washing themselves. Such a notion never occurs to -them, and when Europeans first came among them, the sight of a man -washing his face seemed to them so irresistibly ludicrous that they -burst into shouts of laughter. In consequence of this utter neglect -of cleanliness, and the habit of bedaubing themselves with grease and -clay, they are very offensive to the nostrils, and any one who wishes -to cultivate an acquaintance with them must make up his mind to a -singular variety of evil odors. Moreover, they swarm with parasites, -and, as they will persist in demonstrating friendly feelings by -embracing their guest with a succession of violently affectionate hugs, -the cautious visitor provides himself either with an oil-skin suit, or -with some very old clothes, which he can give away to the natives as -soon as he regains his vessel. - -Although the Fuegians are often ill-disposed toward strangers, and -indeed have murdered many boats’ crews, Captain Parker Snow contrived -to be on very friendly terms with them, going on shore and visiting -them in their huts, so as to place himself entirely in their power, -and allowing them to come on board his ship. He was fortunate in -obtaining the services of a native, called Jemmy Button, who had been -partially educated in England, with the hope that he might civilize -his countrymen. However, as mostly happened in such cases, he was soon -stripped of all his goods; and when Captain Snow visited Tierra del -Fuego, twenty-three years afterward, he found Jemmy Button as naked and -dirty as any of his countrymen, as were his wife and daughter. - -The man, however, retained much of his knowledge of English, a few -words of which he had engrafted upon his native language. When first -he arrived on board, the English words came with difficulty; but -he soon recovered his fluency, and had not forgotten his manners, -touching his forehead as he stepped on the quarter-deck, and making -his bow in sailor fashion when he addressed the captain, to the entire -consternation of the sailors, who could not understand an absolutely -naked savage speaking English, and being as well-mannered as themselves. - -The faculty of acquiring language is singularly developed in the -Fuegian. Generally, the inhabitants of one country find great -difficulty in mastering the pronunciation, and especially the -intonation, of a foreign land; but a Fuegian can repeat almost any -sentence after hearing it once, though of course he has not the -slightest idea of its meaning. - -A very absurd example of this curious facility of tongue occurred to -some sailors who went ashore, and taught the natives to drink coffee. -One of the Fuegians, after drinking his coffee, contrived to conceal -the tin pot, with the intention of stealing it. The sailor demanded the -restoration of his property, and was greatly annoyed that every word -which he uttered was instantly repeated by the Fuegian. Thinking at -last, that the man must be mocking him, and forgetting for the instant -that he did not understand one word of English, the sailor assumed a -menacing attitude, and bawled out, “You copper-colored rascal, where -is my tin pot?” The Fuegian, nowise disconcerted, assumed precisely -the same attitude, and exclaimed in exactly the same manner, “You -copper-colored rascal, where is my tin pot?” As it turned out, “the -copper-colored rascal” had the pot tucked under his arm. - -The natives evidently seemed to think that their white visitors were -very foolish for failing to comprehend their language, and tried to -make them understand by bawling at the top of their voice. On one or -two occasions, when a number of them came on board, they much annoyed -Captain Snow by the noise which they made, until a bright thought -struck him. He snatched up a speaking trumpet, and bellowed at his -visitors through it with such a stunning effect that their voices -dropped into respectful silence, and they began to laugh at the manner -in which they had been out-bawled by a single man. - -As far as can be ascertained, the Fuegians have no form of government. -They live in small communities, not worthy of the name of tribes, and -having no particular leader, except that the oldest man among them, -so long as he retains his strength, is looked up to as a sort of -authority. Their ideas of religion appear to be as ill-defined as those -of government, the only representative of religion being the conjuror, -who, however, exercises but very slight influence upon his fellow -countrymen. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXI. - -THE PATAGONIANS. - -APPEARANCE--WEAPONS--HORSEMANSHIP. - - - POSITION OF PATAGONIA -- STATURE OF THE INHABITANTS -- SIGNIFICATION - OF THE NAME -- HORSE FURNITURE -- THE STIRRUP AND BOOT -- AN - INGENIOUS SPUR -- THE GIRTH AND ITS CONSTRUCTION -- PRIMITIVE BUCKLES - -- THE BRIDLE AND ITS ACCOMPANYING WHIP -- THE PATAGONIAN AND SPANISH - BITS -- SIZE AND STRENGTH OF THEIR HORSES -- HORSE-RACING -- THE - BOLAS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION, AND DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF FORM -- WAR IN - PATAGONIA -- THE SPARE HORSES AND THEIR USE -- THE RETURN FROM BATTLE - -- A HUNTING EXPEDITION -- CHASING THE GUANACO -- A TERRIFIED HERD -- - THE DISADVANTAGE OF CURIOSITY -- DECOY GUANACOS -- PARTRIDGE CATCHING - -- THE POWER OF FASCINATION. - -Separated from Tierra del Fuego by a strait so narrow that in certain -spots human beings might converse across the water, is the land called -Patagonia. - -It derives this now familiar title from a nickname given to the -inhabitants by Magellan’s sailors. As we shall presently see when -treating of their costume, the Patagonians wear a sort of gaiter to -protect their ankles against thorns. These gaiters are made of the -furry skin of the guanaco, the long hair spreading out on either side -of the foot. The sailors, ever ready to ridicule any custom new to -them, remarked this conspicuous part of the dress, and nicknamed the -natives Patagones, _i. e._ duck-feet, a name which has ever since -adhered to them, and even been applied to their country. - -The narrow armlet of sea, to which reference has been made, divides two -lands utterly opposed to each other, and inhabited by people totally -distinct in appearance and habits. Tierra del Fuego has scarcely -a level spot in it, but is composed of even set ravines clothed -with trees, and precipitous, snow-clad mountains. Patagonia, on the -contrary, abounds in vast level plains, unfertile and without a tree on -them. - -The human inhabitants of these countries are as different as the lands -themselves, the Fuegians being below the average height, and the -Patagonians above it. Yet, just as the Fuegian is not such an absolute -dwarf, as has often been stated, the Patagonian is not such an absolute -giant, a regiment of English Lifeguards being as tall as an equal -number of Patagonians. It is true that if a Patagonian regiment of -picked men were raised they would overtop even the Guardsmen, but the -old tales about an average of seven or even eight feet are unworthy of -credit. Some of the older voyagers even attribute to the Patagonians -a much loftier stature, saying that some of them were twelve feet -in height, and that when one of them stood with his legs apart, an -ordinary man could walk between them without stooping. - -The color of the Patagonians is somewhat like that of the Fuegians, -being a dark copper brown, the reddish hue coming out well on any -part of the skin that happens to be less dirty than others. The hair -is coarse, long and black, and is allowed to hang loosely about their -faces, being merely kept out of their eyes by a small fillet of guanaco -hair. There is scarcely any eyebrow, a deficiency which always gives an -unpleasant expression to the eyes, and indeed, even in the old men, the -face is almost devoid of hair. The face is roundish, the width being -increased by the great projection of the cheek-bones, and the chin is -rather broad and prominent. The small, restless eyes, are black, as -is the hair, and rather hidden under the prominent brows. The nose is -narrow between the eyes, but the nostrils are broad and fleshy. The -mouth is large, and the lips rather thick, but altogether the face -is not a bad one. The illustration on the 1163d page, of a Patagonian -man and woman furnishes a striking contrast with the Fuegians, their -neighbors. - -The dress of the Patagonians is simple, but sufficient, and in this -respect they form a great contrast to the absolutely naked Fuegians -of the opposite shores. The chief part of the costume consists of a -large mantle made of guanaco skins. The guanaco is, as the reader may -possibly be aware, one of the llama tribe, and is about the size of a -deer. It is covered with a thick woolly coat, the long hair of which is -valuable, not only to the Patagonians, but to Europeans, by whom it is -made into various fabrics. - -It is very plentiful in this country, fortunately for the Patagonians, -to whom the guanaco is the very staff of life, the creature that -supplies him with food, clothes, and dwelling. Sometimes it is seen in -great droves of several hundreds in number, but it generally associates -in smaller herds of twenty or thirty individuals. It is a shy animal, -as well it may be, considering the many foes that are always ready -to fall upon it; and as it is swift as well as shy, great skill is -required in capturing it, as will presently be seen. - -The guanaco-skin mantle is very large, and when folded round the body -and clasped by the arms, falls as low as the feet; and when a tall -Patagonian is seen in this mantle, which adds apparently to his height, -he presents a very imposing appearance. Generally, the mantle is -confined round the waist by a belt, so that when the wearer chooses, he -can throw off the upper part of it, his hands remaining at liberty for -action. Under the mantle he wears a small apron. - -Next come the curious gaiters, which have been already mentioned. At -first sight they look like boots reaching from the knee downward, but -when examined more closely, they are seen to be devoid of sole, having -only a strap that passes under the middle of the foot, so that the heel -and toes and great part of the sole are left unprotected. The reason of -this structure is, that the Patagonian is nearly always on horseback, -and the toe is made to project beyond the gaiter in order to be placed -in the stirrup, which is very small and triangular. - -As the Patagonians are so devoted to horsemanship no sketch of -this people would be adequate without an account of their horse -accoutrements. I have a complete set in my possession. The saddle is -made of four pieces of wood, firmly lashed together with raw-hide -thongs, and both the front and back of the saddle are alike. From the -sides depend the stirrups, which are appended to leathern thongs, and -are made in a very simple manner. A hole is made at each end of a -stout leathern strap, and a short piece of stick about half an inch -in diameter is thrust through them, being retained in its place by a -groove near each end. The strap being attached by its middle to the -thongs which act as stirrup-leathers, the article is complete. - -As the space between the grooves is rather less than three inches, it -necessarily follows that the Patagonian horseman can only insert his -great toe in the stirrup. This, however, is sufficient hold for him, as -he is an admirable though careless looking rider, the greater part of -his life, from childhood upward, having been spent on horseback. - -The spur is as primitive as the stirrup, and exactly resembles in -principle the prick-spurs of the ancient knights. It consists of two -pieces of stick, exactly like those employed for the stirrups, and two -short straps of cowhide. A hole is made at each end of the strap, and -the sticks are pushed through them, being held in their places, like -those of the stirrups, by a groove cut half an inch from their ends, so -that the two sticks are held parallel to each other. - -To the upper ends of each stick a leathern thong is applied, and these -thongs, being tied over the instep, hold the spur in its place. At -the other ends of the sticks holes are bored, into each of which a -sharp iron spike is inserted. In my own specimen, the maker has been -economical of his iron, and has only inserted spikes in one of the -sticks, so that when the spurs are worn with the spiked stick inward, -they are quite as effective as if both sticks were armed. Still, the -hole for the reception of the spikes has been bored in all the sticks, -and there is no doubt that the Patagonian who made the spurs would have -inserted the spikes at some time or other. - -The spur is worn as follows: The armed sticks come on either side of -the foot, the strap which is next to the spiked ends goes round the -heel, the other strap passes under the hollow of the foot, and the -hide thongs are tied over the instep. Such a spur as this is not only -an effective but a cruel instrument, really as bad as the huge metal -spurs, with rowels four inches in diameter, which the Gauchos wear. It -is impossible to see this simple form of spur without recalling the old -story of “Sandford and Merton,” and referring to the adventure of Tommy -Merton, who, on being forbidden to use spurs, stuck pins into the heels -of his boots, and was run away with in consequence. - -The girth is a singularly ingenious piece of work. The strength of the -girth itself is prodigious. At first sight it looks as if it were a -single broad belt of leather, but a nearer inspection shows that it is -made of twenty-two separate cords, each about the eighth of an inch in -thickness, laid side by side, and united at intervals by several rows -of similar cords of strings. Each of these cords is made of two strands -of raw hide, probably that of guanaco, and looks as strong as ordinary -catgut. Buckles are unknown to the Patagonian, who has invented in -their stead a mode of tightening the girth by passing straps through -holes, hauling upon them, and fastening off the ends. - -The bit and bridle are equally ingenious. It consists of a squared -bar of iron four and a half inches long, the ends of which are passed -through holes in doubled pieces of hide, and hammered when cold into a -sort of rivet-like shape, so as to retain the leather in its place. To -the lower part of the leathers are attached a couple of stout thongs, -which are passed under the lower jaw of the horse, and then tied, so -that they keep the bit in its place, and at the same time act as a sort -of curb. - -To the upper part of the leathers are fixed the long plaited thongs -which are used as reins, and which seem strong enough to hold an -elephant, much more a horse. The Patagonian uses no separate whip, but -has a long double strap of stout hide, which is fixed to the junction -of the reins, so that there is no danger of losing it. - -This is the ordinary bit of a Patagonian hunter, but those who can -obtain it like to use the cruel Spanish bit, which they fit up in their -own way with thongs of plaited hide. One of these bits is shown in -illustration No. 4 on the following page. The principal distinguishing -point about these bits is the large iron ring, which passes over -the horse’s jaw, and gives to the rider a leverage so powerful that -he could break the jaw of any horse without making any very great -exertion. By the use of this bit, the horse is soon taught to stop -almost suddenly, to wheel in a very limited area, and to perform the -various evolutions which are needed in carrying out the pursuit in -which the Patagonian depends for much of his livelihood. - -The reins which are attached to this bit are of enormous strength, -and are plaited in a square form, so that no amount of pulling which -any horse could accomplish would endanger them. The whip is attached -to these reins like that of the last mentioned apparatus, but is more -severe, thicker, and heavier, and is made of a long and broad belt of -hide, cut into four strips, which are plaited together, flat and narrow -strips about four inches long answering as the lash. It will be seen -that the Patagonian is by no means merciful to his beast, but that he -uses a bit, spur, and whip which are, though so simple in appearance, -more severe in practice than those which have a far more formidable -aspect. - -The horses which he rides are descended from those which were -introduced by the Spaniards, and which have multiplied so rapidly as -almost to deserve the name of indigenous animals. They are of no great -size, being under fifteen hands high, and belonging to that well-known -mustang breed which is more celebrated for strength and endurance than -for aspect, qualities which are indispensable in an animal that has to -carry so heavy a rider after creatures so fleet as the guanaco or the -rhea. - -The Patagonians are fond of racing, but never make their courses longer -than a quarter of a mile. The reason for these short races is, that -their horses are not required to run for any length of time at full -speed, but to make quick and sudden dashes, so as to enable the rider -to reach his prey, and hurl the singular missiles with which he is -armed. - -There is yet an article needed to complete the equipment of a -Patagonian. This is the celebrated “bolas,” a weapon which looks almost -contemptible, but in practised hands is exceptionably formidable. It -consists of two or sometimes three balls at the end of hide thongs. The -form most in use is that which is represented in illustration No. 3 on -the next page. The native name for the two-ball bolas is _somai_, and -that for the three-ball weapon is _achico_. - -The first point in making the bolas is to procure the proper balls, and -the second to prepare the proper rope to which they are fastened. The -ordinary balls are made of stone, and are nearly as large as cricket -balls. They are made by the women, who pass much of their time in -supplying the men with these necessaries of life. To cut and grind -one of these stones is a good day’s work, even for an accomplished -workwoman. - -A still more valuable ball is made of iron, which has the advantage of -being so much heavier than stone that the ball is considerably smaller, -and therefore experiences less resistance from the air, a quality which -is of the first consequence in a missile weapon. The most valuable are -those which are made of copper, as is the case with the specimen from -which the illustration is taken. Each of these balls weighs eighteen -ounces, in spite of its small size, so that the weapon is a very -formidable one. - -The thong to which the balls are attached is nine feet in length, -and is made in the following manner: two pairs of thongs of raw -hide are cut, and, while they are still fresh and wet, each pair is -twisted together so as to form a two-stranded rope. These ropes are -again twisted into one, so that the aggregate strength of the four is -enormous. - -Round each of the balls is then laid a circular piece of guanaco hide, -with holes bored all round the edge. The ends of the thongs being -passed through the holes and laced tightly, the raw hide is drawn -over the balls, and encloses them in a sort of pocket, as is seen by -the enlarged figure in the illustration. This specimen is one of the -three-ball weapons. In this case a third thong five feet six inches -in length has been twisted, one end fastened to a ball, and the other -interlaced with the strands of the first thong exactly at its centre. -We have now the three-ball bolas, which is made in such a manner that, -when the thongs are grasped at their points of junction, two of the -balls hang at equal depths from the hand, and the third is just a foot -below them. - -[Illustration: (1.) STIRRUPS AND SPURS. (See page 1196.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) LASSOS. (See page 1197.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) PATAGONIAN BOLAS. (See page 1174.) - -_leather plait_] - -[Illustration: (4.) SPANISH BIT AND PATAGONIAN FITTINGS. (See page -1174.)] - -The bolas is to the Patagonian what the kris is to the Malay, the -boomerang to the Australian, the lasso to the Gaucho, the club to the -Fijian, and the bow to the Andamaner. From early childhood upward no -Patagonian is without this weapon, which seems to him an absolute -necessity of existence. Generally he carries it twisted round his -waist, like an officer’s sash of the olden days, the balls dangling at -the side like the tassels of the sash. - -It is, however, coiled on the body with such consummate skill that -it can be cast loose with a turn of the hand, the eye being fixed on -the object of attack, and in a moment the Patagonian is fully armed. -Putting aside warfare, which in Patagonia is scarcely known, the -tribes, or rather the families, not being strong enough to wage real -war upon each other, the so-called battles are unworthy of any name -except that of skirmishes, which among themselves seem to do no great -harm, however formidable they may be to opponents who happen to be -unacquainted with the mode of fighting practised by the Patagonians. - -For example, a dozen trained riflemen, on foot, who could thoroughly -depend on each other, would overmatch ten times their number of mounted -Patagonians, who, every whit as brave as themselves, are ignorant of -discipline, and fight every man for his own hand. - -Let the riflemen once allow the Patagonians to come within thirty -yards, and they would be annihilated; but as long as the foe could be -kept out of throwing distance, they are comparatively harmless. - -When a Patagonian intends to attack either a human enemy, or some -animal of chase, or even, as often happens, some wild beast or bird, -he slips the ever-ready bolas from his waist, grasps the thongs at -their point of union, drives his primitive spurs into the flanks of his -rough-coated steed, and dashes off at full gallop, whirling the bolas -round his head by a dexterous movement of his flexible wrist. - -As soon as he comes within throwing distance, which materially varies -according to the strength of the thrower and the structure of the -bolas, he hurls his singular weapon with unerring skill. No sooner -does it leave his hand than the centrifugal force causes the balls to -diverge, and they fly round and round in the air with a motion exactly -resembling that which an English street acrobat imparts to a couple -of padded balls at the ends of a string, when he wants to clear the -ground. - -Urged by the stalwart arm of the Patagonian, the bolas flies straight -to its mark, and no sooner does it strike it, than the impetus -communicated to the balls causes the thongs to twist round the -unfortunate victim, and bring him at once to a halt. Indeed, should -a man be struck by the bolas, he may congratulate himself if in -three minutes afterwards he finds himself alive, neither having been -strangled by the cords twisting round his neck, nor brained by the -heavy balls coming in contact with his skull. - -The skill which the Patagonians attain is really marvellous. At any -distance short of fifty yards a victim marked is a victim slain. So -terrific is the gripe of the bolas thong, that Europeans who have been -struck with it have been found to suffer from weals as well marked as -if they had been made by the stroke of a “cow-hide” whip upon the bare -flesh. - -An excellent description of the various kinds of bolas is given by -Captain King:-- - -“Sometimes two balls, each of which has a cord about a yard in length, -are fastened to the thong of the larger set. This is to entangle -the victim more effectually. They do not try to strike objects with -these balls, but endeavor to throw them so that the thong shall hit a -prominent part; and then, of course, the balls swing round in different -directions, and the thongs become so ‘laid up’ (or twisted), that -struggling only makes the captive more secure. - -“They can throw them so dexterously as to fasten a man to his horse, or -catch a horse without harming him. If an animal is to be caught without -being thrown down suddenly--an inevitable consequence of these balls -swinging round his legs while at full speed--a _somai_ is thrown upon -his neck. The two balls hang down, and perplex him so much by dangling -about his fore-legs that his speed is much checked, and another set of -balls or a lasso may be used to secure without throwing him down. The -lasso is not much used, so adroit, are they with the balls. - -“A formidable missile weapon is the single ball, called by the -Spaniards ‘bola perdida.’ This is similar to the other in size and -substance, but attached to a slighter rope about a yard long. Whirling -this ball, about a pound in weight, with the utmost swiftness around -their heads, they dash it at their adversary with almost the force of -a shot. At close quarters it is used, with a shorter scope of cord, as -an efficient head-breaker. Several of these original and not trifling -offensive weapons are kept in readiness by each individual, and many -a Spaniard, armed with steel and gunpowder, has acknowledged their -effect.” - -The raids which are dignified by the name of warfare are more for -plunder than conquest, inasmuch as the Patagonian cares nothing for -territory, of which he has enough and to spare, and almost nothing for -military fame. Sometimes he wants plunder; sometimes he means to make a -hunting expedition into a district held by another tribe; and sometimes -he prepares a short campaign against an inimical tribe in revenge for a -real or fancied insult. - -When preparing for such an excursion, or while expecting the attack of -another tribe, the Patagonians keep themselves in constant preparation -for war. They put on three of their thickest mantles in order to deaden -the blow of the bolas, or withstand the point of the spear and arrow. -These mantles are not wrapped round them in the ordinary fashion of -peace, but are worn like ponchos, the head being thrust through a hole -in the middle. The innermost mantle is of guanaco skin, with the hairy -side inward, while the others are simple leather, without hair, the -place of which is taken by paint. Their heads are guarded by conical -caps, made of hide, and often adorned by a tuft of feathers from the -rhea. - -Those who are wealthy enough purchase a sort of armor composed of a -thick hide tunic, with a high collar and short sleeves, and a hat or -helmet made of double bull’s hide. This garment is very heavy and -clumsy, but it will resist every weapon except bullets, and will make -even the blow of the “bola perdida” fall harmless. Those who are too -poor to possess a horse, and are obliged to fight on foot, carry -shields made of several layers of hide sewed together. - -Sometimes they come unexpectedly upon enemies, and a skirmish is the -immediate result. In this case they mostly fling aside their cumbrous -mantles, and fight without any clothing except the girdle and their -spurs. When they make expeditions against inimical districts, they -take spare horses with them, one of which is intended to bear the -plunder as they return, and to take its share in carrying the warrior -to battle. As soon as the Patagonian finds that his weight is beginning -to tell upon the horse which he rides, he vaults upon the other without -checking them in their gallop, and thus makes sure of a fresh and -unwearied horse upon going into action. The second horse is afterward -used for the conveyance of slaves, skins, weapons, and other booty. - -As they return, they fling off the cumbrous armor of coats and mantles, -and ride, according to their fashion, naked to the waist, the innermost -mantle being retained in its place by a leathern thong, which acts as -a belt. In some of these expeditions a whole troop of loose horses is -driven in front of the warriors, and when a man feels his own horse -becoming wearied, he rides alongside one of the loose horses, shifts -the bit, and leaps on the fresh animal, not troubling himself about the -saddle. - -When the Patagonian goes out hunting, he carries no weapon except the -bolas and a knife, the latter being considered rather as a tool than -a weapon. Should he see a herd of guanacos, he makes silently toward -them, imitating the cry of the young one in distress, and doing all -in his power to attract the animals. Anything very strange is sure to -attract them, just as it attracts cows, which are horribly afraid of -the new object, but, victims of a sort of fascination, are led nearer -and nearer by a spirit of curiosity, for which they pay with their -lives. When a small herd--say six or eight--of guanacos is seen, they -can generally be enticed within range of the bolas by a hunter on foot, -who steals as near them as he can manage to do without alarming them, -and then plays various antics, such as lying on his back and kicking -his legs in the air, tying a strip of hide or a bunch of feathers to a -stick, and waving it about. The inquisitive creatures seem unable to -resist the promptings of their curiosity, and, though they are really -afraid of the strange object, come closer and closer, until the hunter -is able to hurl the terrible bolas at them. - -When, however, the herd is a large one, the guanacos are much more -timid, and, until the introduction of the horse, the Patagonians could -seldom do much with them. Now, however, the possession of the horse, -together with their knowledge of the guanaco’s disposition, enables -them to capture and kill great numbers of the animals. - -In this mode of chase the Patagonians make use of two characteristics -which belong to the guanaco. In the first place, it is a hill-loving -animal, and when pursued, or even afraid of pursuit, leaves the plains -and makes for some eminence. Like all gregarious animals, the guanacos -invariably have sentinels posted on the most elevated points, and trust -their safety to their watchfulness, the squeal of alarm being instantly -followed by the flight of the herd. Knowing this peculiarity, the -hunters are sure that if a herd of guanacos be in the plain, and a hill -be near them, the animals will be almost certain to take to it. - -The second characteristic is, that the guanacos, when thrown into -confusion, entirely lose their presence of mind, running a few steps in -one way and then a few steps in another, being quite unable to fix upon -any definite plan of escape. - -A large party of hunters, sometimes nearly a hundred in number, arm -themselves with their long, light, cane-shafted spears, called chuzos, -summon their dogs, and set off toward the spot where a herd of guanacos -is known to be. Having fixed upon some grassy hill, half of the hunters -push forward and take up a position on the further side, while the -others drive the guanacos gently toward their well-known grazing -place. - -[Illustration: PATAGONIANS HUNTING GAME. (See page 1181.)] - -As soon as the animals are fairly on the hill, the hunters spread out -so as to enclose them in a semicircle, and then dash forward, driving -the herd up the hill. The detached band on the other side, as soon as -they hear the shouts, spread themselves out in a similar manner, the -two bodies completely surrounding the hill, so that when the guanacos -reach the summit they find themselves environed by enemies. - -After the usual custom in such cases, the guanacos lose all presence -of mind, some running one way, some another, mutually hindering each -other’s escape, so that the hunters are able to pierce with their long -spears the finest animals, and thus secure in a very short space of -time so great a number, that they are amply supplied with skins and -meat. - -Although they carry the spear on these occasions, they are not without -the bolas, it being used for capturing the young guanacos, which are -kept in a domesticated state like sheep. Now and then a guanaco, which -possesses more sense than its comrades, takes a line of its own, and -dashes through the circle of its enemies. Still it has but little -chance of escaping, for round the circle of horsemen there is another -circle of men on foot, accompanied by dogs. As soon as a guanaco breaks -through the first circle, it is instantly seized by the dogs, which -terrify it to such an extent that it is unable to move, and neither -tries to escape nor resist. - -On the preceding page is a spirited engraving which represents -Patagonian scenery, and the natives in their favorite pursuit of -hunting game. The hot chase, the flying bolas, the bewildered guanacos -are vividly pictured. - -The young guanacos which have been mentioned as being domesticated are -not solely intended to furnish food, or even bred merely for the sake -of their skins. They are employed for the sake of decoying the adult -animals. Taking the young guanaco to the feeding grounds, the hunter -ties it to a bush, and then conceals himself behind it. By imitating -the mother’s cry, he induces the captive to utter the plaintive -bleating sound by which a young one calls for its mother. This is a -sound which the adult guanacos cannot resist, and as soon as they come -within twenty yards or so of the bush, the bolas is launched, and the -animal at which it is aimed falls to the ground, enveloped in the fatal -coils. - -The power of the bolas is eminently shown in the chase of the rhea, or -American ostrich. This bird is as swift and wary as the true African -ostrich, and, but for the bolas, the hunters would scarcely be able to -secure it. In the chase of this bird the Patagonians employ the same -device which is used in capturing the guanacos. They know that the rhea -shares with the guanaco the tendency to become confused and uncertain -in its movements when it is pressed simultaneously from opposite -directions. They therefore try to surround the herd and converge upon -it, or, at all events, two or three of them attack it from opposite -quarters, driving it first one way and then another, so that the bird -becomes so perplexed that it cannot make up its mind to run in one -direction, and escape its foes by its superior speed, but allows them -to come within range of the bolas, when its fate is sealed. - -The hunters also know that, in common with all the ostrich tribe, and, -indeed, with many wild animal of chase, the rhea always runs against -the wind. It is therefore easy for them to ascertain the direction -which the bird will take, and by sending two or three horsemen -several miles windward the retreat of the bird is easily cut off. The -Patagonian can even kill the little cavies with the bolas, so accurate -is his aim. - -The reader may easily imagine that such a weapon as this would be -serviceable in warfare. When the Patagonian uses it in battle, he does -not always fling it, apparently because he does not like to deprive -himself of his weapon. Sometimes he dashes alongside of a foe, and -throws one of the balls at him, just as if he were throwing a stone, -retaining the other ball in his hand, so as to recover the weapon after -the blow has sped. When the Patagonian carries the three-ball bolas, -which has already been described, he uses the third ball, which, as may -be remembered, is attached to the longest thong, as an English robber -uses his “life-preserver,” or an American his “slung-shot.” - -Another mode of procuring game is practised by the Patagonians, and is -identical with that which is used by the North Africans in taking the -partridge, the South Africans in killing the bustard, as well as by the -inhabitants of other parts of the earth. There is a sort of partridge -which is common on the plains, and is called the Pampas partridge. Its -scientific name is _Nothuria major_. The weapon, or rather implement, -required for this sport is a very simple one. It is nothing more than a -light reed, some eight feet in length, at the end of which is a noose -composed of a strip cut from the side of a long feather. This noose -has sufficient pliability to be drawn tight when pulled and sufficient -elasticity to keep itself open. - -Furnished with this implement, the Patagonian looks out for a partridge -on the ground and, when he finds one, begins riding round and round -it in an ever decreasing circle. The bird is much perplexed by this -conduct, and, instead of flying away, it simply crouches closely to the -ground. By degrees, the young hunter--this sport being only practised -by boys--comes so close to the bird that he slips the noose over its -neck, and, before it can spread its wings for flight, jerks it into the -air. - -An expert bird catcher will secure three or four birds in an hour by -this curious mode of hunting, which may be pursued on foot as well as -on horseback. The only drawback to it lies in the very limited time -during which it can be attempted. It has been found that, if the shadow -of the hunter should fall upon the partridge, the bird seems to shake -off the strange feeling which paralyzes its energies, and flies away -before it can be captured. Consequently, the sport can only be pursued -so long as the sun is toward the meridian; and as soon as the shadows -lengthen sufficiently to throw them on the bird, the young hunter -abandons his sport. All practical naturalists are aware of the alarm -caused by a shadow falling on some animal which they are watching or -trying to capture; and entomologists in particular have learned that, -to approach most insects, it is necessary to keep the insect between -themselves and the sun. - -As to the strange sort of fascination which forces the bird to crouch -instead of flying away, it exists in very many birds, of which the -domestic poultry or any of the common cage-birds are familiar examples. -Any one who is accustomed to deal with these birds can take one, stand -it or lay it on a table, go away, and return after an absence of hours, -knowing that the bird will not dare to move. During the time that I -kept and bred canaries, I used to free them from the dreaded red mite -by sprinkling insect powder under their feathers, laying them on a -piece of paper covered with insect powder, and leaving them there for -an hour or two, until the powder had destroyed all the parasites. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXIII. - -THE PATAGONIANS--_Concluded_. - -DOMESTIC LIFE. - - - PATAGONIAN MARRIAGE -- APPEAL OF A SUITOR -- REJECTION OF THE - OFFER, AND RESULT OF THE NEGOTIATION -- CURIOUS MODE OF SMOKING - -- PRESCRIPTION FOR A SICK CHILD -- PATAGONIANS AT HOME -- NATIVE - COOKERY -- PATAGONIAN ARCHITECTURE -- TREATMENT OF WOMEN, CHILDREN, - AND SLAVES -- MODE OF GOVERNMENT -- POWER OF THE CACIQUE -- NOTIONS - OF RELIGION -- OFFERINGS AND LIBATIONS -- FUNERALS IN PATAGONIA -- - SECLUSION OF WIDOWS -- VISITS OF CONDOLENCE. - -We will now glance at the domestic life of the Patagonians, if the word -“domestic” can be rightly applied to people who have no settled home or -_domus_. - -How marriage is conducted among them is described by Captain Bourne, -who was kept a prisoner for a considerable time, and had every -opportunity of studying their manners and customs. It appeared that -in the house of the chief to whom he belonged there was a daughter--a -widow, with a young child. One evening, the tramp of many feet was -heard on the outside of the hut, together with the mutterings of -voices. Presently, one voice was heard louder than the rest, evidently -addressed to some one within the hut. It was the voice of a suitor -come to ask the hand of the young widow. The chief scornfully refused -the offer, saying that he was not worthy to be her husband, having no -horses or other property. The man admitted that at the present time he -did not happen to have any horses, but that he was a remarkably good -thief, and that, if the lady would only accept him, he would steal -horses, catch guanacos, and give her plenty of grease. - -These overtures being rejected as contemptuously as the last, the -suitor addressed himself to the lady, who was very willing to accept -him, and entirely yielded when he repeatedly promised to bring home -plenty of grease for her. She then besought her father to listen to the -suitor’s application, but was angrily refused. Her mother then tried -to pacify the angry father, saying that the young man might fulfil his -promises, catch plenty of horses, and become a great chief. - -This was too much for the old man. He jumped up in a towering passion, -seized the cradle in which his little grandchild was lying, flung it -out of the hut, snatched up every article which his daughter possessed, -threw them after the cradle, and then ordered her to follow her goods. -This was exactly what she wanted; so, accompanied by her mother, she -left the hut, and was joined by her intended husband. - -A curious mode of smoking is practised among the Patagonians, which -somewhat resembles that which is used by the Damaras, as recorded on a -preceding page. - -When one of these smoking parties is organized, the guests -assemble together, sometimes in a hut, and sometimes in the open -air. They gravely seat themselves in a circle, round a vessel of -water,--sometimes an ox-horn stuck in the ground, and sometimes a sort -of basin made of raw hide. All being assembled, one of them takes a -stone pipe, and fills it with a mixture of tobacco and the shavings of -some yellow wood. - -The pipe being prepared, all the company lie flat on their faces, with -their mantles drawn up to the top of their heads. The pipe is then -lighted and passed round, each drawing into his lungs as much smoke -as he can swallow, and retains it as long as he can exist without -breathing. As soon as the smoke is expelled, the men begin a series of -groanings and gruntings, which become louder and louder, until they -are absolutely deafening. By degrees they die away; and when quiet -has been restored, each takes a draught of water, sits silently for a -space, and then slowly rises and moves away. - -Captain Bourne is of opinion that this ceremony has in it something -of a religious element. The groaning and grunting might be due to -the tobacco, or the substance which is mixed with it, but the sounds -seemed to him to be louder and more emphatic than they would have been -if entirely involuntary; and the breathings, writhings, and other -accompaniments, the profound gravity, and the abstinence from speech, -all appeared to have some religious signification. - -The same traveller gives a very amusing account of a visit paid by -a Patagonian physician to the hut of a chief. The party were just -preparing to shift their quarters, after the Patagonian fashion, when -one of the daughters came in, carrying a child who was crying loudly, -and who was supposed in consequence to be very ill. The journey was -stopped, and a messenger despatched for the wise man, who soon came, -and brought with him his magic medicines, rolled up in two pieces of -skin. - -These were laid on the ground, and the doctor squatted by the side of -them, fixing a steady gaze on the child, who presently ceased crying. -Encouraged by this success, the wise man ordered a clay plaster to be -applied. This was done. Some yellow clay was brought, moistened until -it was like paint, and with this substance the child was anointed from -head to foot. The clay seemed to have but little good effect, for the -child began to cry as badly as ever. - -The two mysterious packages were now untied, and out of one the doctor -took a bunch of rhea sinews, and from the other a rattle. The doctor -then fingered all the sinews successively, muttering something in a -very low tone of voice, and after he had muttered for some five minutes -or so, he seized his rattle and shook it violently. He next sat in -front of the patient, and stared at him as he had done before. After an -interval of silent staring, he turned to the chief and asked whether he -did not think that the child was better. A nod and a grunt expressed -assent, and the mother on being asked the same question gave a similar -response. - -The same process was then repeated--the silent stare, the painting with -clay, the lingering of the sinews, the muttering of inaudible words, -the shaking of the rattle, and the concluding stare. The treatment -of the patient was then considered to be complete. The chief gave -the doctor two pipefuls of tobacco by way of fee. This was received -gratefully by the man of skill, who gave his rattle a final shake by -way of expressing his appreciation of the chief’s liberality, and went -his way. As soon as he had gone, the child resumed its crying, but -the parents were satisfied that it was better, and, as Captain Bourne -testifies, it soon became quite composed, and throve well afterward. - -The general mode of life among the Patagonians is not particularly -alluring to persons of civilized habits, if we may judge from the -graphic picture drawn by Captain Bourne:-- - -“A few dry sticks and a bunch of dry grass were brought; mine host drew -from a convenient repository a brass tinder-box with a stone and a -piece of steel, and soon produced a blaze that brilliantly illuminated -the scene. By its light I was enabled to survey the first specimen of -Patagonian architecture that had blessed my vision. It was constructed -in a ‘pointed’ style, though not very aspiring, consisting of a row of -stakes about eight feet high, each terminating in a crutch or fork, -with a pole laid across them; two parallel rows of stakes on either -side about two feet high, with similar terminations and a similar -horizontal fixture; and a covering composed of skins of the guanaco -sewed together with the sinews of the ostrich, the only thread used by -the people. This covering is thrown over the framework and fastened by -stakes driven through it into the ground. For purposes of ventilation, -some interstices are left; but these again are half closed by skins -attached to the outside, so that the air from without and the smoke -from within (in default of a chimney) must insinuate themselves through -these apertures in great quantities. - -“In truth, my first survey was rather hurried; the first cheerful gleam -had scarcely set my eyes on the look-out, when I was fain to shut -them against an intolerable smoke. In no long time I felt as bacon, -if conscious, might be supposed to feel in the process of curing. No -lapse of time was sufficient to reconcile the eyes, nostrils, and lungs -to the nuisance. Often have I been more than half strangled by it, -and compelled to lie with my face to the ground as the only endurable -position. ‘Talk that is worse than a smoky house’ must be something out -of date, or Shakespeare’s imagination never comprehended anything so -detestable as a Patagonian hut. The chief and his numerous household, -however, seemed to enjoy immense satisfaction, and jabbered and grunted -and played their antics and exchanged grimaces as complacently as if -they breathed a highly exhilarating atmosphere. - -“My meditations and observations were shortly interrupted by -preparations for a meal. The chiefs better-half--or rather fifth-part, -for he had four wives--superintended the culinary operations, which -were as rude and simple as the hut where they were carried on. And now -my fancy began to conjure up visions of the beef, fowls, and eggs, the -promise of which had lured my men from the boat, had proved stronger -than suggestions of prudence, and had made me a prisoner. But these -dainties, if they existed anywhere within the chief’s jurisdiction, -were just at present reserved. - -“The old hag threw down from the top of one of the stakes that -supported the tent the quarter of some animal, whether dog or guanaco -was past imagining. She slashed right and left with an old copper -knife with might and main, till it was divided into several pieces. -Then taking a number of crotched sticks about two feet long, and -sharpened at the points, she inserted the forked ends into pieces -of the meat, and drove the opposite points into the ground near the -fire, which, though sufficient to smoke and comfortably warm the mess, -was too feeble to roast it. At all events, time was too precious, or -their unsophisticated appetites were too craving, to wait for such an -operation, and the raw morsels were quickly snatched from the smoke, -torn into bits by their dirty hands, and thrown upon the ground before -us. - -“The Indians seized them with avidity, and tossed a bit to me; but what -could I do with it? I should have no appetite for the dinner of an -alderman at such a time and place, but as for tasting meat that came in -such a questionable shape, there was no bringing my teeth or resolution -to it. While eyeing it with ill-suppressed disgust, I observed the -savages, like a horde of half-starved dogs, devouring their portions -with the greatest relish, seizing the fragment with their fine white -teeth, giving every sign of enjoyment, except what one is accustomed to -see in human beings. - -“The old chief remarked the slight I was putting upon his hospitality. -‘Why don’t you eat, man? This meat very good to eat--very good to eat. -Eat, man, eat.’ - -“Seeing him so much excited, and not knowing what deeds might follow -his words if I refused, I thought it expedient to try to ‘eat what -was set before me, asking no questions,’--thinking, moreover, that if -there were any evil spirit in it that the fire had failed to expel, it -could not possibly have resisted the smoke. So, being sorely divided -between aversion to the strange flesh and fear of showing it, I forced -a morsel into my mouth. Its taste was by no means as offensive as its -appearance, and I swallowed it with less disgust than I had feared. -This was my first meal with the savages, and a sample of many others, -though better viands afterward varied their monotony now and then.” - -It is most probable that the meat which was so rapidly cooked and eaten -was that of the guanaco. The Patagonians are in no way fastidious as to -their diet, and eat almost every animal which they kill, whether it be -guanaco, rhea, or cavy. They have a repugnance to the flesh of dogs, -though they cannot, like the Fuegians, be accused of eating the flesh -of human beings rather than that of dogs. - -Their chief dainty is the flesh of a young mare, and it is rather -curious that these strange people will not, if they can help -themselves, eat that of a horse, unless it be disabled by an accident. -They are fond of the fat of mares and rheas, separating it from the -flesh by boiling, and pouring it into bladders, much as lard is treated -in this country. Yet the fat obtained from the guanaco is not stored -like that of the mare and rhea, but is eaten raw. As is the case with -the Fuegians, the Patagonians obtain a considerable amount of food -from the seashore, great quantities of limpets, mussels, and similar -creatures being gathered by the women and children. - -Besides animal food, vegetables are consumed, though rather sparingly, -by the Patagonians. Two roots form part of their ordinary diet. One is -called “tus,” and looks something like a yam or potato. It is bulbous, -and when cleaned and properly cooked bears a strong resemblance to -a baked potato. The second root is called “chalas,” and is a long, -slender root, scarcely so thick as an ordinary pencil. - -It is rather remarkable that the Patagonians do not seem to have -invented any intoxicating drink. They soon learn to appreciate rum and -other spirits, and will intoxicate themselves whenever they can procure -the means, but they obtain all fermented and distilled liquors from the -white traders, and not from their own manufacture. They have a sort of -cooling drink made of the juice of barberries mixed with water, but it -is drunk in its natural state, and is not fermented. - -The dwellings of the Patagonians are worthy of a brief description, -inasmuch as they show the distinction between the Patagonian and -Fuegian ideas of architecture. The reader will remember that the -principal portion of the Fuegian hut consists of sticks and branches, -whereas the Patagonian only uses the sticks and poles by way of a -framework whereupon he can spread his tent of skins. - -These huts, called by the Spanish “toldos,” and by the Patagonians -“cows,” are of variable dimensions. Generally they are little more -than sloping sheds, six or seven feet high in front, and only two -feet high at the back. The length of each toldo is about twelve feet, -and its width about nine feet. As east winds are hardly ever known -in Patagonia, the opening of the hut is always to the east, the skin -covering of this simple tent being impervious to wind and rain. A -Patagonian village, showing the form of these huts, is represented on -the 1187th page. - -This is the ordinary kind of dwelling, but in some places a much -larger description of hut is erected for the chief or the medicine -man. These houses are gabled, being eight feet or so in height in the -middle, and sloping on either side to the wall, which is five feet or -so in height. Huts of this kind are nearly square, their depth rather -exceeding their length. - -The sleeping accommodation of these habitations is very simple, and -consists of skins, which are spread on the floor. Other skins rolled up -are laid along the side of the hut, and serve as pillows, the children -lying in a corner by themselves, and the dogs sleeping at the feet of -their owners. Those children who are unable to walk are laid in simple -cradles made of square pieces of guanaco skin, hung hammockwise by four -ends to the rafters of the hut. - -During the daytime the infants are kept, or rather packed, in cradles -made of flat pieces of board, over which some pliable sticks are -bent in a semicircular form. The child is placed between two pieces -of guanaco skin, fastened in the cradle, and can then be carried -about without trouble. Even when the family is shifting quarters, the -cradle can be hung on the saddle-bow of the mother’s horse, the little -occupant being perfectly contented with its situation. - -It might seem from this statement that children are treated with -neglect. Such, however, is not the case, the Patagonians being -remarkable for their parental affection, and being much more inclined -to spoil their children by over-indulgence than to behave unkindly -toward them. Indeed, when a Patagonian chief wishes to change his -quarters, and the people do not wish to part with him, they take one of -his children, indulge it in every way, and declare that he must leave -it behind him. The affectionate parent cannot bring himself either to -leave his child, or to deprive it of the society of those who are kind -to it, and in consequence he remains with his people. - -The condition of the women is a very tolerable one. They certainly have -to work hard all their lives unless their husband be rich enough to -purchase slaves, or be fortunate enough to procure them by a raid on -some other tribe. Many such slaves are obtained from the Fuegians, who -do not scruple even to sell their own relatives when they can procure -a good price for them. Even the wives of the chief men are not exempt -from labor unless their husbands happen to possess slaves. - -Generally the wives are faithful to their husbands, but there are -cases where the woman has thought herself ill-treated, and has betaken -herself to another protector. Should he be an inferior, the aggrieved -husband makes him pay for his offence; but if a superior, he is obliged -to put up with his loss. Generally, however, the husband and wife live -happily together, and the husband thinks it a point of honor to take -his wife’s part if she should fall into a dispute, no matter whether -she be right or wrong. He will scold her severely in private, and -even inflict corporal punishment on her, for involving him in such a -dispute, but he will make a point of upholding her in public. - -The mode of punishment of the Patagonians is rather variable, but -is generally a modification of the patriarchal system. The heads of -families or tribes possess hereditary rank, and take the lead in all -important events of peace or war. Their power is, however, not very -great, and they are not able to raise taxes, nor enforce compulsory -labor without payment. These chiefs, or caciques, as they are termed, -can, if they choose, refuse the rank, and many do so, preferring to -become subjects of some other cacique to the trouble and responsibility -which accompany the post. - -According to Falkner, “the cacique has the power of protecting as -many as apply to him; of composing or silencing any difference; or -delivering over the offending party to be punished with death, without -being accountable for it. In these respects his will is the law. He is -generally too apt to take bribes, delivering up his vassals, and even -his relations, when well paid for it. - -“According to his orders the Indians encamp, march, or travel from one -place to another to hunt or to make war. He frequently summons them to -his tent, and harangues them upon their behavior, the exigencies of the -time, the injuries they have received, the measures to be taken, &c. In -these harangues he always extols his own prowess and personal merit. -When eloquent he is greatly esteemed; and when a cacique is not endowed -with that accomplishment, he generally has an orator who supplies his -place.” - -The religion of the Patagonian is a polytheism, the natives believing -that there are great numbers of deities, some good and some evil. Each -family is under the guardianship of one of the good deities, and all -the members of that family join him when they die. Beside these gods -there are subordinate demons, good to their own friends, but bad toward -all others, so that on the whole the bad predominates in them. They are -called by the name of Valichu. - -Yet among some of the Patagonian tribes there is even an approach to -personal religion. It has been thought that the Patagonians are totally -destitute of such religion. This, however, is certainly not the case, -as even our limited knowledge of these people, their language, and -their habits shows that, even though they may not possess any definite -system of religion, they are still impressed with the idea of some -Being infinitely greater than themselves, who knows everything that -they do. Thus they believe in an omniscient Being; and such a belief as -this, limited and imperfect though it may be, is yet a step toward true -religion. - -[Illustration: (1.) PATAGONIAN VILLAGE. (See page 1185.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) PATAGONIAN BURIAL GROUND. (See page 1189.)] - -To this unknown Being they return thanks when they have obtained a -supply of food after long famine, so that we find them acknowledging -that the great Being, who knows all their deeds, watches over them, and -is the Giver of all good things. When, for example, they have procured -a seal after having been half-starved for months, they assemble round -a fire, and the oldest man present cuts for each person a piece of -the seal, uttering over each portion a sort of prayer, and looking -upward in devotion to the unseen God, who had sent them meat in their -need. Undisciplined as are the Patagonians, totally unaccustomed to -self-denial, and mad with hunger, not one of them will touch the food -until this invocation has been repeated. - -The mode of burial among the Patagonians varies in detail according -to the particular tribe, but there is a general resemblance in the -ceremonies throughout the country. When a man dies, his body is wrapped -in his best mantle, placed on his favorite horse, and conveyed to the -place of burial, where a square pit has already been dug, some six feet -in depth and two or three feet in width. In this pit the body of the -deceased is placed in a sitting position, his bolas, spears, and other -property laid beside him, and the pit is then covered with branches, -on which a quantity of earth is thrown. The horse is next sacrificed. -It is held at the grave by one man, while another kills it by a blow -on the head from the bolas, and the skin is then removed, stuffed, -and supported at the grave on four posts. At the grave of a cacique -four horses are sacrificed. The clothing which is not buried with -the deceased is burned, and a feast on the body of the horse closes -the proceedings. On page 1187 the reader may find an engraving of a -Patagonian burial ground. - -The widows are obliged to remain in a state of the strictest privacy -for an entire year, keeping themselves within their huts, never mixing -in society, and not even showing themselves unless absolutely obliged -to do so. They must blacken themselves with soot, and not eat the flesh -of the guanaco, the mare, or the rhea. Should a woman break the rule of -seclusion, and be detected in an intrigue, she would at once lose her -life at the hands of her dead husband’s relations. - -Among some of the tribes the tomb is periodically opened, and the -skeleton of the deceased, which has been prepared with the greatest -care, is washed and clothed in new robes. This office belongs to an -old matron, who is specially selected for the task, which becomes in -process of time a long and tedious one, as the warriors are placed side -by side in the grave, each year gradually adding to the number of those -who have to be washed and clothed annually. - -Among some of the tribes the skeletons are prepared by laying the -bodies on platforms woven from canes and twigs, and during the time -that is occupied in cleaning and bleaching the skeleton the platform -is guarded by the friends of the dead man, draped in long mantles, and -bearing spears or staves with which they strike the ground, while they -sing mournful strains in order to drive away the Valichus or spirits, -who may possibly be well disposed toward the dead man, but are more -likely to be unfriendly. - -Should the deceased have been a wealthy man, many visits of condolence -are paid to the relatives, the mourners weeping loudly, and pricking -their arms and legs with thorns in order to prove their affection by -the effusion of their blood. For these tokens of respect they are -rewarded with beads, brass ornaments, and other presents; and it need -scarcely be said that the sorrow felt for the deceased and the sympathy -excited for his friends depend very much on the amount of property at -the disposal of the relatives. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXIV. - -THE ARAUCANIANS. - -DRESS--ETIQUETTE--GOVERNMENT. - - - DIVISION OF THE NATION INTO TRIBES -- THE MAPUCHÉS -- PECULIAR - STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD -- THE CHERIPA, PONCHO, AND BOOTS -- MODE OF - SHAVING -- DRESSING THE HAIR -- THE “PULLING HAIR” FIGHT -- DRESS OF - THE WOMEN -- THE ENORMOUS BREASTPIN -- SINGULAR USE OF THIMBLES -- - ELABORATE HEADDRESS -- PAINT -- EXHIBITION OF FEMALE VANITY -- DRESS - OF THE CHILDREN -- ARCHITECTURE OF THE ARAUCANIANS -- THE CHIEF’S - HOUSE AND ITS FURNITURE -- LONG HOUSE OF THE MAPUCHÉS -- NUMBER OF - FIRES -- CODE OF ETIQUETTE -- THE SPEECH OF CEREMONY -- VALUE OF - ORATORY -- DEMAND OF TRIBUTE -- MODE OF GOVERNMENT -- THE GRAND TOQUI - -- THE COUNCILS OF PEACE AND WAR. - -Passing northward from Patagonia, and taking a westerly direction, -we come to the ARAUCANIAN nation. This title was given to them by -the Spaniards, just as was the name of Patagonians to their southern -neighbors, and, although it is an incorrect one, it has been accepted -for so many years that it cannot be conveniently exchanged for the more -correct designation. - -The aborigines of Chili and a part of the territory now occupied by -the Argentine Republic were formerly one great people, extending over -a very considerable portion of the land, and necessarily modified -in manners and customs by the influence of climate and geographical -position. Their general title was Alapu-ché, or People of the Land, but -they were separated into three great divisions, namely, Pehuen-ché, or -People of the East; Mara-ché, or People of the West; and Huili-ché, or -Far-off People, being those nearest to the Patagonians. Passing over -the wars with the Spaniards, as foreign to the object of this work, -we will describe the Mapuchés, or People of the Country, as they call -themselves. - - * * * * * - -These people are rather below the middle height, strong, thick-set, -broad-chested, and much inferior in point of form to the North American -tribes. The head is narrow, and low in front, broad and high behind, -and the back of the head falls in almost a direct line with the nape of -the neck, a peculiarity by which an Araucanian may almost invariably be -distinguished. The foot is as remarkable as the head. It is very short -and broad, and rises straight from the toes to the ankle with scarcely -any curve, so as to produce a very high but very clumsy looking instep. - -The ordinary dress of the Mapuché men is mostly composed of two -garments, namely, the “cheripa” (pronounced _chĕreepah_) and the -poncho. The cheripa is a sort of compromise between a kilt and -trousers. It is a piece of stuff, mostly cotton, which is fastened -to the back of a girdle, passed between the legs, drawn up in front -there, and tucked then into the girdle. The poncho is nothing but a -large circular piece of stuff, with a hole in the centre, through which -the head passes. It is exactly similar in principle to the cloak of -Polynesia, and is at once a primitive, efficient, and graceful robe, -assuming with every change of attitude folds which delight the eye of -an artist. - -Beside the poncho and cheripa, the Mapuché generally wears a pair -of boots, similar to those of the Patagonians, and made of similar -materials, the skin from the hind legs of a horse being drawn over the -foot while still fresh, so that it moulds itself to the leg of the -wearer. As with the Patagonians, it is open in front, so as to allow -the two first toes to pass through and grasp the small triangular -stirrup. The elaborate horse-accoutrements in which the Mapuchés -delight will be described when we come to the manners and customs of -the people. Men of rank wear woollen bracelets and anklets as marks of -their superior position. - -Like most of the Araucanian tribes, the Mapuchés have but little beard, -and what they have they eradicate after the usual fashion of savages, -plucking out the individual hairs instead of shaving. Mr. R. E. Smith -had the opportunity of seeing the operation performed:--“At one house -where we stopped I saw an Indian, who at first sight seemed to be a -white man, from the fact that his beard was grown as though unshaven -for a week. He looked red and blotched, and was continually raising -his hand to some part of his face, wearing all the while an expression -of patient endurance. A close scrutiny showed that he was engaged in -shaving. - -“These Indians pull out or nip off the beard with small steel tweezers. -This instrument was originally, as the Mapuché name signifies, a -clam shell, but, by intercourse with the whites, they have been able -to procure a more elegant article. Every dandy carries his tweezers -hanging from his neck, and at leisure moments amuses himself by -smoothing his face to the taste of his painted mistress. The arguments -they use in defence of their treatment of the beard are precisely those -used by shavelings the world over.” - -They do not content themselves with merely removing the hair from the -chin, cheeks, and upper lip, but pull out the eyelashes and eyebrows, -substituting instead of the latter a slender curved line of black -paint. They say that the presence of the eyelashes hinders them in the -pursuit of bee hunting, a sport of which they are very fond, and on -which they pride themselves greatly. Some of the younger warriors have -allowed a very slight fringe of hair to remain on the upper lip, but -the older chiefs think that it is an innovation on the ancient customs, -and discountenance it as far as they can. - -The hair of the head is cut short at the top, but is allowed to grow -long at the sides, in order that it may be easily grasped, just as the -North American tribes leave one long lock on the crown of the head so -as to assist the enemy who slays them in getting off the scalp. - -When two lads quarrel, they settle the dispute with a fight, which is -conducted, not by blows with the fist or with a weapon, but by pulling -the hair. “Let us pull hair, if you are not afraid,” cries one of the -disputants to the other. The challenge is never refused. Off goes the -poncho, if they happen to be wearing it, the cheripa is tucked tightly -into the belt, the combatants allow each other to take a fair grasp of -the long locks, and the struggle begins. Each tries to twist the head -of his opponent so as to bring him to the ground, and when he has once -fallen, they loosen their grasp, rub the backs of their heads, take -a fresh grasp, and repeat the struggle until one of them yields. The -combat over, all animosity vanishes, and they are good friends again. - -The dress of the women is, like that of the men, composed of two -garments, though they are differently put on. One is an enlarged -cheripa, and made of the same material. It is first wrapped round -the body close under the arms, and then pinned together over each -shoulder, so that the arms are left bare. It is confined at the waist -by a very broad belt, and falls nearly to the ankle. This alone is a -very sufficient dress, but over it is thrown a second piece of stuff -which acts as a shawl or mantle, being fastened in front with a pin -having a most enormously flat head, about the size of a cheese plate. -Sometimes the head is globular, but the flat form is the favorite, and -it is adorned with engraved figures. The cloth is mostly of native -manufacture, and is either black or a very dark indigo blue. - -Like that of the men, the hair of the women is divided into two long -tails, one of which hangs over each shoulder. The tails are wound round -with spiral strings of blue beads, and their ends are connected by a -string of twelve or fourteen brass thimbles, which hang side by side, -like a peal of bells. Besides these ornaments, the women wear a sort of -cap, made entirely of beads, and falling over the back of the head as -far as the shoulders. Its lower edge is decorated with a row of brass -thimbles, like that which connects the two queues of the hair. This -elaborate headdress is only worn on great occasions, while ordinarily -the queues are wound round the head, the two ends projecting in front -like horns, a fillet, usually studded with beads, being employed to -keep the hair in its place. These peculiarities of dress are shown in -the illustration of a Mapuché family on page 1201. - -Ornaments are worn according to the wealth of the owners. Strings of -beads, silver dollars, and brass thimbles are hung in profusion round -the neck, which is further decorated with a collar made of leather and -inlaid with silver. Wide bracelets and anklets are also worn, similar -to those of the men, but made of variously colored beads instead of -wool. - -Paint is worn by both sexes, but chiefly by the women, and is anything -but ornamental. It is invariably of two colors, red and black, which -are mixed with grease, so that they can be applied and removed at -pleasure. The usual plan is to have a broad red belt from ear to -ear, taking in the cheeks, eyelids, and nose, the lower edge of the -belt being sometimes edged and scalloped with black. The eyelids and -lashes are also edged with black, and a thin line of the same hue -takes the place of the eyebrows, which are all removed except a very -fine row of hairs in the centre. Some of the women further decorate -their faces by spots of black paint. The women are exceedingly proud of -these ornaments; and an amusing instance of their vanity is related by -Mr. Smith:--“Our conversation turned upon female dress; and, without -intending any disparagement to our fair entertainers, we compared them -to the women whom we had seen at the house of Chancay. The women, who -were at work near by, did not understand half-a-dozen words of Spanish; -but, with that intuitive perception which belongs to the sex, they were -not long in discovering that our conversation related to themselves and -their dresses. - -“Immediately they held a council of war; and, entering the house, -they presently returned, each with a bag of trinkets. There were -coverings for the head and breast, composed of strings of beads of all -colors and designs, with brass thimbles and silver coins. There were -rings and pendants for ears and nose; bracelets and anklets, collars -and breastpins of colossal proportions. These were held up for our -admiration; and that we might more fully realize their wealth, the -ladies proceeded to deck themselves with all their finery. They were at -the same time jabbering at the top of their lungs, praising their own -superiority to all other women, and appealing to us for a confirmation -of their own good opinions. - -“Finally, the belle of the lot, having ornamented her head, breast, and -arms to their fullest capacity, stepped in advance of the others, and, -raising her dress as high as the knee, displayed to our astonished gaze -a remarkably well-rounded piece of flesh and blood. Patting the calf -with honest pride, and turning it about for our inspection, she hung it -round with beads, adjusted the many-colored anklets, and, snapping her -fingers contemptuously, poured out a perfect torrent of Mapuché. - -“Unfortunately, there was no one near to interpret this language; but -from her action, and the frequent repetition of the name ‘Chancay,’ we -gathered her meaning to be pretty much that, in whatever else the wives -of Chancay might excel, she would defy them or any one else to produce -a finer leg than the one in question.” - -The dress of the children is simple enough. As long as they are -infants, and not able to walk, they are tightly rolled up in bandages, -so as to be unable to move. In this helpless condition they are put -into bamboo cradles, and hung up on pegs driven into the walls of the -house, or laid in baskets suspended from the roof, so that they can -be swung about by a cord tied to the cradle. The infants are perfect -models of behavior, never crying, and allowing themselves to be hung -on pegs without betraying any signs of life, except the movement of the -eyes. As soon as they can walk, they are allowed to run about without -the incumbrance of any clothing, which is not worn until they become -boys and girls of seven or eight years old. - -The architecture of the Araucanians is very simple, but differs -slightly according to the district, and the position of the owner of -the house. The ordinary house of a common man is a mere hut, built -of wicker-work, about twelve feet by ten, carelessly made, and ill -calculated to withstand the elements. On a wet day the rain pours -into the hut on all sides, a circumstance which has its advantages to -counterbalance its discomforts. On rainy days all cooking has to be -done within the house, which would be absolutely unbearable if the -apertures which let the rain in did not let the smoke out. At night, -moreover, these huts are overcrowded with sleepers. - -In one of these huts there were three rude bedsteads, for the -accommodation of two married couples and a pair of grown-up girls, -while on the ground lay sixteen or seventeen young men and children, -packed together like herrings in a barrel. Moreover, a whole troop of -dogs came sneaking into the house as soon as the inmates closed their -eyes; so that within this limited space some thirty living beings were -contained during the night. It is evident that, if the hut had been -weather-proof, the whole party would have been suffocated before the -morning. - -A better kind of habitation, visited by Mr. Smith, deserved the name -of house. It was rectangular instead of rounded, and measured thirty -feet in length by fifteen in breadth. In the middle of the roof was a -hole, by way of chimney, the fire being made directly beneath it. There -was no window, the hole and the door being the only apertures for the -admission of light and air. - -There was only one room, though a sort of loft was made in the roof. -This was used as a storehouse, where sacks of beans and similar -luxuries were kept. As might be supposed, the whole upper part of -the house was thickly encrusted with soot. One of the corners was -partitioned off with a sort of wicker-work wall, and served as a -granary, in which the wheat was stored. - -From the sooty, cobwebbed rafters hung bunches of maize, pumpkins, -joints of meat, nets full of potatoes, strings of capsicum pods, and -similar articles; while earthenware pots, dishes, and spears were -scattered in profusion over the floor. In the middle of all these -articles hung two long lances, with their points toward the door; but, -although their heads were protected by being stuck into lumps of fat, -they were rusty, and had evidently been long out of use. - -Two of the corners were occupied with the ordinary bedstead of the -country, _i. e._ a framework of cane, with a bull’s hide stretched -tightly over it; and near the beds hung the stock of finery belonging -to the owner, namely, spurs, stirrups, and bits, all of solid silver, -belonging to the men, and breastpins, necklaces, earrings, strings of -thimbles, and other adornments of the women. The usual basket cradle, -containing a swathed baby, was suspended from one of the rafters. - -The house of a cacique, or chief, is very much larger than either of -those which have been described, and somewhat resembles the “long -house” of Borneo. One of these houses, belonging to a cacique named -Ayllal, looked at a distance something between a very long boat and a -haystack. Its height was about fifteen feet, its width thirty, and its -length about one hundred and forty. - -The middle of the house was common to all the inhabitants, but the -sides were partitioned off so as to form a series of chambers, each of -which belonged to a married son of the proprietor, or to one of his own -wives. In cases where the family is not a very large one, each wife has -her own fireplace; but when the number of families under one roof is -considerable, one fire is common to two or three of them. In Ayllal’s -house there were six fireplaces, and over each was a hole in the roof. -The fireplaces are nothing more than a few stones, so arranged that -the pots can be kept clear of the burning wood; and, as the ashes are -allowed to accumulate where they fall, or to be blown about by every -current of air, it is evident that the interior of such a house is not -a model of cleanliness. - -In consequence of the custom of appropriating a separate fire to each -wife, the one is conventionally accepted as a metaphor for the other. -It is not considered polite to ask a man how many wives he has, but -etiquette permits any one to ask another how many fires he burns. In -front of the door hangs a cross-bar, beyond which no one ventures to -pass without a special invitation, unless he be an inmate of the house, -or an intimate friend of the family. - -The Mapuchés exhibit in perfection that curious mixture of the savage -and the gentleman that is so often found among uncivilized people. They -have a most elaborate code of etiquette, which to a stranger is often -irksome, on account of the time which is consumed in going through the -requisite formalities. When two persons meet, it is necessary that they -should go through a set course of complimentary remarks, the omission -of which, except between relatives or very intimate friends, would be -held as an unpardonable offence. Let us take Mr. E. R. Smith’s account -of the ceremonial:-- - -“If the guest be a stranger, the host begins by addressing him with -‘I do not know you, brother,’ or ‘I have never seen you before.’ -Thereupon the stranger mentions his own name and residence, and goes -on to ask the host about himself, his health, and that of his father, -mother, wives, and children; about his lands, crops, cattle, and -flocks: the chiefs of the district, the neighbors, _their_ wives, -children, crops, &c., are next inquired about; and whether there have -been any disturbances, diseases, deaths, or accidents. - -“If the responses given are favorable, the questioner goes on to -express his happiness, and moralizes to the effect that health, wealth, -and friendship are great blessings, for which God should be thanked. -If, on the contrary, the answers should convey bad news, he condoles -with the afflicted, and philosophizes that misfortunes should be borne -with equanimity, since men cannot always avoid evil. The guest having -finished, the host commences in turn to ask all the same questions, -making such comments as the answers received may demand. - -“This formality occupies ten or fifteen minutes. The questions and -answers are recited (by rote) in a low monotonous voice, with a -sing-song tone, not unlike the saying of the rosary or the chanting -of friars. At the end of each sentence, if the last word end with a -vowel, the voice is raised to a shout; but should the final letter be a -consonant, it is rounded off with a nasal grunt. The listener expresses -his satisfaction occasionally by a sound between a grunt and a groan, -or indicates surprise by a long-drawn “_Hué!_” With these exceptions, -he never interrupts until the speaker has given notice, by a peculiar -cadence of the voice, that he has said his say. During this palaver, -the speakers often do not look at each other, and frequently even sit -with their backs turned to one another.” - -As soon as etiquette has been satisfied by these formalities, the -speakers assume their ordinary tone of voice, and converse freely on -subjects respecting which they really take an interest. - -Oratory is highly valued by the Mapuchés, and should a young man have -some power of speech, and train it into eloquence, he is on the high -road to distinction, and will probably end by becoming a chief, though -originally of inferior rank. Such young men are always eagerly sought -by the chiefs as their messengers, inasmuch as etiquette requires that -such messengers should not only possess a retentive memory, so as to -insure, the transmission of the message correctly, but should also be -fluent of speech and choice of diction, the latter being a point in -which the Mapuchés are exceedingly fastidious. - -A young man who shows himself to be a proficient in these three -requisites is sure to be taken into the service of an important chief, -and indeed he knows his own value too well to damage his prospects by -serving any except a man of very high rank. Acting as messenger, he -practically becomes a sort of ambassador, on whom the reputation of -his principal is reflected, and by associating with the chief men, and -speaking at their assemblies, he soon gains for himself that importance -which was formerly only accorded to his official capacity. Men of this -stamp have frequently become the masters of those whom they formerly -served, their abilities having raised them to their appropriate station. - -To a stranger the eloquence of these men is utterly unintelligible. -They deliver their message in a sort of monotone, varied with -inflections, but without the least spirit or action. In fact, they very -much resemble schoolboys reciting a piece of poetry which they have -learned by rote without taking the trouble to understand it. Yet the -Mapuchés are held entranced during the delivery of such a discourse -by an accomplished orator, the purity of whose diction excites the -respectful admiration of his hearers. - -Etiquette is so highly valued among the Araucanians that on one -occasion an English gentleman nearly lost his life by neglecting a -ceremonial. It seems that every chief, no matter how petty may be his -domain, expects that every stranger who passes through his territory -shall pay him a tribute. The amount of the tribute is of little -consequence, so that something is given as an acknowledgment of rank. - -Being new to the country, the gentleman in question was passing through -the territory of a chief, when he was stopped and asked for tribute, -a demand which he refused to pay, on the ground that he was only a -traveller and not a trader. Thereupon a young man leaped into a cabin, -brought out a trumpet made of a horn, and blew a blast upon it. The -signal was answered in all directions, and from every side there poured -in a number of mounted and armed warriors. The traveller was not -daunted, in spite of the martial array, cocked his pistols, and awaited -the attack, when his guide ran up to him, and begged him to give them -something, _if it were only a pocket-handkerchief_. - -The traveller saw at once, from the smallness of the suggested present, -that it was a mere question of etiquette, and munificently presented -the chief with a jack-knife. Enmity at once gave way to enthusiastic -friendship. The old chief was quite overcome by the splendor of the -gift, swore eternal friendship with the traveller, and sent a guard of -honor to accompany him for several miles on his way. - - * * * * * - -We naturally come to the mode of government employed by the Araucanians. - -The four great divisions are subdivided into provinces, and these into -smaller districts, each of which is presided over by a chief, who -exercises a kind of patriarchal authority over his clansmen. He is -the judge and arbiter of the clan, and there is no appeal from his -decision. Yet he levies no taxes, and cannot force even the lowest of -his people to work for him. He can require the services of the men for -war or for business of state, but there his authority ends. No land can -be sold except by the chief, to whom it is by a sort of legal fiction -supposed to belong, and even he cannot sell it to any except a native -Araucanian, under penalty of death. - -All these chiefs, or caciques, as they are often called, are considered -to be equals in point of rank, and independent of each other, though -one is chosen on account of his personal abilities to be the head chief -of the district, but merely as _primus inter pares_. The office of -chief is generally but not always hereditary. It mostly descends to -the eldest son, but the actual holder of the office may bequeath it -even to one who belongs to another family. Should a chief die without -sons, brother, or a recognized successor, the people have the power of -electing a chief for themselves, and it is on such occasions as these -that the eloquent messengers lately described find their opportunity of -being raised to the rank of cacique. - -Up to this point the details of the government are simple enough. We -now have to consider a most singular arrangement, unlike that of any -other known nation. From the head chiefs of the various districts one -is chosen as the Toqui, or head of the province, and these Toquis form -the supreme council by whom the affairs of the nation are managed. From -among them one is selected as president of the council, and is called -by a title which signifies the Grand Toqui. He is the highest personage -in the state. He can summon councils whenever he sees occasion, he -watches over the welfare of the state, lays before his colleagues any -information that he considers important, and on special occasions he -can act on his own authority. - -When Mr. E. R. Smith travelled in Araucania, the Grand Toqui was an old -chief named Mañin, who seems to have been worthy of the position which -he held. Mañin Hueno (“the Grass of Heaven”), as he was called by his -compatriots, or Mañin Bueno (“Mañin the Good”), as the Chilenos termed -him, was a very old man, his age being estimated as falling little -short of a century, though his general bearing was such that he might -have been taken for little more than sixty. His long black hair was but -slightly sprinkled with silver, his eye retained its brightness, and -his mien its uprightness; and though his many years had diminished his -strength, they had not affected his intellect. - -He was held in the very highest respect, as indeed was due to his -acknowledged wisdom, by means of which war had many a time been -averted. Yet he was not a rich man, and in point of wealth the greater -number of the lesser chiefs were far richer than Mañin Hueno. His only -marks of wealth were the solid silver horse accoutrements--but even -these were not worth fifty pounds of our money; while his apparel was -of the simplest kind, a red and yellow handkerchief tied round his head -being the most costly article of his apparel. - -When a council of Toquis is assembled, the members generally endeavor -to outshine each other in the magnificence of their appointments; -and after the day’s labor is over, they join in a general debauch, -which sometimes lasts for the whole of the next day, and prevents -the councillors from resuming their business until they have become -sufficiently sober. - -Now comes the curious part of Araucanian government. The Supreme -Council treats only of the internal management of the nation, and is -technically called the Council of Peace. As soon as war is declared, -the Council of Peace falls into abeyance, and its place is taken by -the Council of War. This is headed by the Toqui of War, who, as long -as the war lasts, has unlimited power, except over life. He appoints -the officers, settles the number of warriors required, orders a -conscription to be set in operation in each district, and lays upon -each cacique the duty of levying a certain number of men, and raising a -certain amount of supplies. As soon as peace is concluded, he and all -his council retire from office, and the Council of Peace reassumes its -sway. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXV. - -THE ARAUCANIANS--_Continued_. - -DOMESTIC LIFE. - - - LOVE OF THE HORSE -- THE STIRRUP, BIT, AND SPUR OF THE ARAUCANIANS - -- MODE OF FASTENING THE SPUR ON THE HEEL -- TRAINING OF THE HORSES - -- VALUE OF THE HORSE ACCOUTREMENTS -- HATRED OF SHAMS -- LOVE FOR - SILVER AND CARELESSNESS OF GOLD -- HOW THE ARAUCANIANS RIDE -- THE - BOLAS OR LAQUI, AND THE LASSO -- MODE OF MAKING AND THROWING THE - LASSO -- CAPTURE OF A SAVAGE BULL -- COURAGE OF THE ARAUCANIANS -- - THEIR SUCCESSFUL STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY -- CAREER OF A YOUNG HERO - -- MARRIAGE AMONG THE ARAUCANIANS -- ABDUCTION OF THE BRIDE -- - RECONCILIATION WITH THE PARENTS -- ARAUCANIAN COOKERY -- PREPARING - NACHI, CHICA, AND MUDAI -- THRESHING CORN. - -We now come to the ordinary life of the Araucanians. - -Like the American tribes in general, they have become wonderful adepts -in the use of the horse, the climate, the natives, and the horse -seeming to agree with each other in a way which is really remarkable, -considering that the animal is of comparatively late introduction into -America. Unlike the Patagonians, they pride themselves on the massive -solidity of the accoutrements with which they bedizen their horses; -and, although they care little about the individual animals, and are -rather hard masters to them, they bedeck the horses in the most lavish -manner. - -Their saddles are made very much after the fashion employed by the -Patagonians, being little more than rude wooden frames. A few skins are -laid on the back of the horse, the saddle is placed on them, a saddle -cloth of thick leather is thrown over it, and the whole apparatus -is complete. The bridle is made, like that of the Patagonians, of -twisted hide, or sometimes of a number of strips of horse-skin plaited -together, a few threads of silver being mingled with them. The bit -is generally the ordinary Spanish bit, with its cruelly powerful -arrangement of curb and ring. - -The stirrups are generally nothing more than a piece of cane twisted -into a triangular form, and hung to the saddle by leathern cords; but -the wealthy Araucanians pride themselves in having these articles of -solid silver. The shape of these stirrups varies in some degree, the -usual form resembling that of the English stirrup, but very much larger -and heavier, the sides being from one to two inches wide, and pierced -in ornamental patterns, while the cross-bar on which the foot rests is -fully two inches in width. - -The form of stirrup to which they are most partial resembles the -other, as far as the side pieces are concerned; but the foot-bar is -developed into a large plate of silver, which comes over the front of -the stirrup, and protects the toes and instep from the thorns which are -plentiful in the country. The back of this plate projects behind in a -sharp point, which is used as a spur. - -About the spurs themselves the Araucanian is very fastidious. They are -of enormous size, and armed with rowels measuring from two to three -inches in diameter, and sometimes even exceeding that measurement. It -may be imagined that spurs of this size, which are exceedingly weighty, -must be buckled on the feet very tightly, so as to keep them in their -places. - -This, however, is not the case. On the contrary, the strap by which -they are fastened is quite loose, so that when the wearer walks the -rowels trail on the ground, and when he is mounted they hang nearly -perpendicularly from his heels. The Araucanian cares little for the -impediment in walking, as he never walks twenty yards if he can help -himself; while the position of the spurs when he is mounted is a real -necessity. An illustration of stirrups and spurs is given on the 1175th -page. - -The horses are never more than half trained. They are taught to wheel -within a very small circle, to stop suddenly and throw themselves on -their haunches, and to dash off at full gallop; but that is the extent -of their accomplishments. Many of them are young, spirited, and nervous -steeds, and if, in the course of the struggles for victory which they -occasionally attempt, the spurs were to come against their sides, they -would be greatly alarmed, and their struggles would only be increased. -But as the spurs hang down almost below the rider’s feet, they swing -clear of the horse’s flanks, while at any time, if they are needed -for use, the wearer has only to bend his feet, which brings them into -position. - -The Araucanians have a very wholesome contempt for shams, and will -have nothing that has any pretence about it. The poorest peasant, who -can only afford an iron spur, or possibly not even a spur of any kind, -would scorn to wear either spur or stirrups of plated metal, or of any -imitation of silver, however good. - -They are so fastidious in this matter that they will not use articles -that have been made abroad; and even if a spur is made of solid silver -in imitation of their own patterns, they will be nearly certain to -reject it, the workmanship being sure to betray itself to their -experienced eyes. A high polish always excites their suspicions, -inasmuch as the native artificers are incapable of imparting it. All -these articles are made from the silver currency of the country, and -the wealthy Araucanian always carries with him a pair of balances, and -a number of dollars which serve as standard weights. - -It may be imagined that the purchase of a pair of spurs or stirrups is -a matter of importance with these people. The buyer sits in silence on -the ground, takes the spurs, and examines every part with the minutest -attention, scrutinizing every joint, smelling the metal, tasting it, -and ringing it, in order to judge whether it has been debased by the -mixture of any inferior material. Not only spurs and stirrups, but -pendants for the bridle, and ornaments for the headstalls and saddles, -are made of silver; so that the accoutrements of a wealthy Araucanian -will sometimes be worth a hundred and fifty pounds, merely as silver, -without regard to the value of the workmanship. - -The men who make these highly prized ornaments use the very rudest of -tools, and their workshops are but rough hovels, quite out of keeping -with the barbaric magnificence of their wares. Sometimes the artificer -makes the ornaments for sale; but in the case of large articles, such -as spurs or stirrups, which weigh several pounds, and consume a great -number of dollars, he prefers to wait for the order, and make the -required article out of the bag of dollars with which it is accompanied. - -It is remarkable that the Araucanians, fond as they are of silver, will -have nothing to do with gold. Besides these horse accoutrements, they -wear earrings, breastpins, and other ornaments of silver, but none of -gold. Some travellers think that their reason for the rejection of gold -is their wish to conceal its presence in the country from the knowledge -of the foreigner, remembering that it was the cause of the disastrous -war with the Spanish invader. The real cause is, probably, that it -cannot be procured in sufficient quantities without more labor than -they choose to bestow, and that they have not learned to work gold as -they do silver. - -The Araucanians are admirable riders, though their seat would not -please an European riding master. They depend entirely on balance -for retaining their seat, and seem rather to hang on the horse’s -back than to hold by any grip of the knee. Indeed, a stranger to the -country always thinks that an Araucanian rider is on the point of -being thrown, so loose is his seat, whereas the very idea that he can -by any possibility be thrown never enters his mind. He and his horse -seem one being, actuated by one mind. A traveller once saw a horse take -fright, and leap sideways from the object of terror. He thought that -the rider must be flung by the suddenness of the movement; but, to all -appearance, the man took fright and shied at the same moment with his -horse. - -The Araucanians use the bolas in common with their southern neighbors, -the Patagonians, and are never seen without the “laqui,” as they term -the weapon, hanging at their waists. Some of them have a way of leaving -one of the balls without its covering of leather, saying that the -covered bolas is used when they fight with friends, but the bare bolas -when they fight with an enemy. - -They also use the lasso, that terrible weapon which extends over -so vast a territory, and which supersedes the bolas as it proceeds -northward. - -This terrible weapon is simple enough in principle, being nothing more -than a leathern rope, forty feet in length, with a noose at the end. -As, however, the construction is rather ingenious, I have given an -illustration on the 1175th page, taken from specimens in my possession. -Fig. 1 shows the lasso coiled through the strap by which it is attached -to the saddle of the rider. It is made of a number of thongs of raw -hide, plaited into a round rope, about three-eighths of an inch -in diameter; so that, although it appears very slender, it really -possesses enormous strength, and an elephant could scarcely break it. -This part of the rope is shown at fig. 5. - -For the last ten feet of its length the rope is much thicker, is -composed of more strips of hide, and is plaited into a square form. At -the extreme end the various strands are plaited round an iron ring, as -seen at fig. 4. Through this ring the lasso passes, so as to form a -running noose. The change from the round to the square plait is seen at -fig. 3, and fig. 2 shows the peculiar knot which keeps the lasso from -slipping from the saddle. - -Fig. 6 shows the end of another sort of lasso, made of the silk-grass -fibre, _i. e._ the long fibres from the leaves of a species of agave. -These fibres are wonderfully strong, and the lasso is remarkable, -not only for its strength, but its elasticity. Instead of an iron -ring being placed at the end, the rope is brought round so as to form -a loop, the interior of which is lined with stout leather, and the -exterior adorned with colored wools. - -When the lasso is to be used, the thrower takes the ring in his left -hand, and the lasso in the right, and separates his arms so as to make -a running noose nearly six feet in length. Grasping the ring and the -cord with his left hand, he slips his right hand along the rope so as -to double it, and there holds it. When he throws it, he whirls it round -his head until the noose becomes quite circular, and then hurls it at -the object, throwing after it the remainder of the rope, which has -hung in coils on his left arm. As it passes through the air, the noose -becomes gradually smaller, so that the thrower can always graduate the -diameter of the noose to the object which it is intended to secure. - -The skill with which they fling this noose is wonderful, as may be seen -from Mr. Smith’s account of a struggle with an infuriated bull:-- - -“The capture of a particular animal from a herd, within a range of -pasture utterly unbounded except by mountains and rivers, is often -difficult, and gives rise to many exciting cases and ludicrous scenes. -Even when taken, the captives are not easy of management, their -attachment for old associates manifesting itself in frequent attempts -to return. - -“One particular bull gave great trouble. He was a noble fellow, of -spotless white,--such an one as bore the beautiful Europa through the -waters of the Phœnician deep, or such an one as might be worshipped on -the shores of the Ganges. - -“After a long time he was lassoed, and the horseman, who had literally -taken the bull by the horns, started off complacently to lead him -to the place of gathering. But his bullship did not take the going -as a matter of course; for, with a mad bellow, he charged upon his -captor, who, seeing a very formidable pair of horns dashing toward -him, started at full gallop, still holding fast the lasso, which he in -vain tried to keep taut. The horse was jaded, and old Whitey was fast -gaining. Another Indian bounded forward, and, dexterously throwing his -lasso, caught the unoccupied horn, bringing up the prisoner with a -round turn. - -“The bull was not yet conquered. After plunging, pawing, bellowing, -and tossing for a while, he changed his tactics. Making a rush and a -feint at one of his annoyers, he wheeled about suddenly, and nearly -succeeded in catching the other on his horns. Things were becoming -more complicated than ever, when, as the infuriated animal stood head -down, with his tail stuck out at an angle of fifty-five degrees, a -third horseman came to the attack, and, whirling his lasso with a jerk, -caught the caudal extremity in a running knot. - -“Thus the two men at the sides were safe, provided that the man behind -kept his lasso strained. But a question in the rule of three now arose. -If three men catch a bull, one by each horn, and one by the tail, and -all pull in different directions, which way can the bull go? - -“No one seemed able to work out the answer; but Katrilas was a man -ready for all emergencies, and, dismounting, he started to the -assistance of his companions, armed with a long lance and an old -poncho. Running before the bull, he threw the poncho on the ground, -a few paces in front, the man behind slackened a little, and the -bellowing captive made a desperate plunge at the red cloth. A jerk on -the tail stopped further progress, till Katrilas, picking up the poncho -on the tip of the lance, tossed it several yards in advance. There was -another slackening, another plunge, another jerk, and so on, until the -‘critter’ was brought to the desired spot. - -“The next trouble was to loose the captive. Sundry scientific pulls -brought him to the ground, and Katrilas, springing forward, stripped -the lassos from his horns. But another remained on the tail. That no -one would venture to untie, for the bull had risen, and stood glaring -frantically around. An Indian, unsheathing his long knife, ran full -tilt at the extended tail, and with one blow severed the greater part -of that useful member from the body. - -“The last was literally the ‘unkindest cut of all.’ The poor brute was -fairly conquered. He stood with head hanging, eyes glaring, the tongue -lolling from his frothing mouth, his once spotless coat defiled with -foam and dirt, while the drip, drip, drip, of the warm blood upon his -heels rendered the abjectness of his misery complete.” - -That the Araucanians are a courageous race is evident from their -struggles with the Spaniards. Though vanquished again and again by -the superior arms and discipline of the Spaniards, they were never -conquered, and when repulsed, only retired to gather fresh forces. -Toqui after Toqui fell in the struggle, the most remarkable of these -warriors being a mere youth named Lautaro, who was unanimously elected -to the post in consequence of his conduct when the Araucanians attacked -the Spaniards at Tucapel. He was a captive and a servant in the family -of Valdivia, when the place was attacked. The Spanish musketry told -so terribly upon the Araucanians, that they were on the point of -retreating, when Lautaro dashed forward, rallied his countrymen, and -led them to the attack with such spirit that the whole Spanish force -was destroyed with the exception of two, who escaped to Concepcion with -the news of the defeat. Valdivia himself was captured, and it is said -that Lautaro desired to save the life of his former master, when an old -chief seized an axe and dashed out the brains of the captive general. - -Foreseeing that General F. de Villa Gran, who was at Concepcion, would -march at once to avenge the destruction of Tucapel, Lautaro assembled -the troops, pushed forward, and concealed half of them in the sides -of a defile through which the road led, while the other half were -also concealed at the summit of the mountain. The battle began in the -defile, and, after causing great destruction among the enemy, the -Araucanians had to retire. - -Fancying that the enemy were beaten, the Spaniards pressed on, and -arriving wearied at the summit, found a second and fresh army opposed -to them. They fought with the utmost courage, and their artillery -nearly turned the day in their favor, when Lautaro told off one of his -bravest officers with orders to capture the cannon, while he attacked -Villa Gran on the flank. So furiously was the charge made, that the -guns were taken, and the Spaniards had to retreat, Villa Gran barely -escaping with his life. - -When they entered the pass through which they had come, they found the -outlet blocked with fallen trees, and the sides filled with warriors, -whom the far-seeing Lautaro had despatched for that purpose at the -beginning of the conflict. The slaughter was terrific, and only a few -of the Spaniards escaped, led by Villa Gran, who at last forced his way -through the barriers. - -Lautaro showed his splendid generalship, by pushing on at once to the -headquarters at Concepcion, which he took, pillaged, and burned. Orders -were received from Lima to rebuild Concepcion, and no sooner was it -done than Lautaro captured and burned it again. He then conceived the -bold project of attacking Santiago itself, and in a wonderfully short -time appeared before the place. - -Here he committed his only error in generalship. He had to pass -through the territory of the Purumancians, who had become allies -of the Spaniards, thinking them invincible. Lautaro should have -remembered that the late defeats must have altered the opinions of the -Purumancians, who could have been easily induced to act against their -former allies. But his indignation at their treachery was so great, -that he stopped to ravage their territory and destroy their crops. - -Villa Gran, who was then the governor of Santiago, knew his enemy -well, and employed the time in fortifying the city, which would have -fallen at once had Lautaro pushed on without stopping to punish his -traitorous countrymen. Three times Villa Gran sent a force against the -Araucanians, the last being commanded by his own son, but all were -routed and driven back. - -At last Villa Gran, stung by these repeated defeats, determined himself -to conduct an expedition against his foes, and with a mixed force of -Spaniards and Purumancians came stealthily upon the Araucanian camp. -Born general though he was, Lautaro did not know the use of outposts, -and the consequence was, that Villa Gran surprised his camp, and as he -rushed to the front to rally his followers, he was pierced by a dart -flung by one of the Purumancians, and fell dead on the spot. - -Thus fell Lautaro, a youth worthy to be named with the greatest heroes -of antiquity. Chosen commander at the age of seventeen, he opposed for -two years the best soldiers of Europe, armed with infinitely superior -weapons, and accustomed to military discipline. Though a mere boy, he -displayed a military skill and a fertility of resource worthy of the -most accomplished generals, and by sheer force of intellect and courage -won every battle except that in which he fell. - -A nation which could produce men such as Lautaro, or the troops who -fought and conquered under his command, is evidently capable of great -things, and, at all events, worthy of the liberty which it won from the -Spaniards, and which has never again been threatened. - - * * * * * - -Marriage among the Araucanians is an odd mixture of ceremonies. -Theoretically, the bridegroom is supposed to steal his wife against her -own will and in opposition to the wishes of her parents; practically, -he buys her from her parents, who have long looked upon their daughter -as a valuable article, to be sold to the first purchaser who will give -a sufficient price. - -Sometimes the match is one of affection, the two young people -understanding each other perfectly well. Music is the usual mode by -which an Araucanian expresses his feelings, and the usual instrument is -the jews-harp. The Mapuché lover is never seen without his jews-harp -hanging from his neck, tied upon a little block of wood to prevent it -from being injured, and decorated with strings of many-colored beads. -Furnished with this indispensable instrument, the lover seats himself -at a little distance from the object of his choice, and produces a -series of most dolorous sounds, his glances and gestures denoting the -individual for whom they are meant. - -After a little while, the lover thinks that he had better proceed to -the marriage. Should he be a wealthy man, he has no trouble in the -matter; but if not, he goes among his friends and asks contributions -from them. One gives an ox, another a horse, another a pair of silver -spurs, and so on. It is a point of honor to make these contributions, -and equally so to return them at some time or other, even if the -intending bridegroom has to wait until in his turn he can sell his -eldest girl. - -The next process is, that the friends of the young man assemble, all -mounted on their best horses, and proceed in a body to the house of -the girl’s father. Five or six of the best speakers dismount and ask -permission for the marriage, extolling to the utmost the merits of the -bridegroom, and expatiating on the happiness of his daughter in being -married to such a man. The father, treating the matter as gravely as if -he had not done exactly the same thing himself, makes a speech in his -turn. - -All this ceremony is intended to give time to the young man to hunt -for his intended bride, and, until he has found her, they will go on -with their speeches. As soon as the young man discovers the girl, he -seizes her and drags her to the door, while on her part she screams and -shrieks for protection. At the sound of her voice all the women turn -out, armed with sticks, stones, and any other weapons which come to -hand, and rush to her help. The friends of the bridegroom in their turn -run to help their friend, and for some time there is a furious combat, -none of the men escaping without some sharp bruises, and the girl -screaming at the top of her voice. - -At last the bridegroom dashes at the girl, seizes her as he can, by -the hand, the hair, or the heels, as the case may be, drags her to -his horse, leaps on its back, pulls her up after him, and dashes off -at full speed, followed by his friends. The relatives of the girl -go off in pursuit, but are constantly checked by the friends of the -bridegroom, who keep them back until he has dashed into the forest with -his bride. They halt at the skirts of the forest, wait until the sounds -of the girl’s screams and the galloping of the horse have died away, -and then disperse. This Araucanian ceremony of marriage is represented -on the following page. - -The young couple are now left alone until they emerge from the wood -on the second day after the abduction, when they are supposed to be -man and wife. That all the fighting and screaming are a mere farce is -evident from the fact that, if a man should offer himself who is not -acceptable to the parents of the girl, and should proceed to carry her -off, one of her relatives blows the horn of alarm, as has already been -mentioned, and all the _male_ relations turn out and drive off the -intruder. Sometimes, however, he succeeds in gaining the bush before he -is caught, and in that case the marriage holds good. - -Some few days after the marriage, the friends call on the newly-married -couple, and bring the contributions which they had promised. The -whole party then proceed to the house of the girl’s father, and offer -him these goods, which are taken as if they were merely offerings, -and not the price for which the girl was sold. Being satisfied with -the presents, he expresses himself pleased with the marriage, and -congratulates the young couple and their friends. - -But the mother is not so easily to be satisfied. With her it is a point -of honor that she is _not_ satisfied, but, on the contrary, is highly -outraged at the abduction of her child. So she will neither speak to -nor look at the bridegroom, but sits down with her back turned to him. - -Now comes a difficult point. She is bound, in accordance with the -laws of hospitality, to entertain the guests, and as the offending -son-in-law is the most important person, he must be consulted first. -So she addresses the bride, “My daughter, ask your husband if he -is hungry.” The conversation thus begun is carried on in a similar -manner, and ends with an entertainment on which the mother of the -bride exhausts all her culinary knowledge. Sometimes the husband never -addresses his mother-in-law for years, except with her back turned to -him, or with a fence intervening between them. The reader may remember -that a similar custom is followed by the Kaffir tribes of Southern -Africa. See page 88. - - * * * * * - -The cookery of the Araucanians is at first anything but agreeable to -European taste. - -Mutton is largely consumed in the country, and is killed, dressed, and -cooked in a speedy and simple manner. The sheep being hung by its hind -legs to a tree, its throat is cut, and the blood is received into a -bowl and mixed with salt, in which state it is thought to be a very -great delicacy. The sheep is then opened, and the whole of the interior -removed to be cleaned and cooked, this being held as the best part of -the animal. The skin is then removed, the body is split along the spine -from head to tail, and each half is transfixed with a stick, and set -over the fire. - -The greatest delicacy, however, that can be placed before a guest is -called “nachi.” The mode of preparing this dish is a good example -of the total disregard of inflicting pain which is common to all -uncivilized people. - -[Illustration: (1.) ARAUCANIAN MARRIAGE. (See page 1200.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) MAPUCHÉ FAMILY. (See page 1191.)] - -A sheep is hung up by the fore-legs, a quantity of cayenne pepper and -salt is mixed in a bowl, and the throat of the sheep is cut so as to -open the windpipe, down which the operator stuffs the salt and pepper -as fast as he can. He then draws out the jugular vein, cuts it, and -turns the end into the severed windpipe, down which the blood flows, -so as to mix with the pepper and salt, and carry them into the lungs. -The unfortunate sheep swells up and dies in horrible agony, which is -totally disregarded by the spectators, not from intentional cruelty, -but utter want of thought. The sheep is then opened, and the lungs are -found distended with a mixture of salt, pepper, and blood. This is the -nachi, which is served up by being cut in slices and handed to the -guests while still warm. - -There are two national drinks, namely, chica and mudai. The former is -a sort of cider, and prepared as follows. A sheepskin is laid on the -ground, with the woolly side downward, and a ponchoful of green apples -is emptied on it. Two or three men sit round it armed with switches, -with which they beat the apples, and in a short time convert them into -a pulp. Water is next poured upon them, and the chica is ready for use. -The men take up large handfuls of the pulp, and squeeze them into jars, -this being all the preparation which the chica receives. - -This drink is at first hated by foreigners, and afterward liked by -them. See, for example, two extracts from the journal of the same -traveller. “After riding for a long time in the hot sun without meeting -any running stream, we spied a farmhouse in the distance, and, going to -it asked for a glass of water. - -“‘There is not a drop of water within a mile of the house,’ said an -old woman who came to the door, ‘but we can give you some _chica de -manzanos_ (cider) that is very nice,’ producing at the word a huge -glass of a green, muddy liquid. To call it vinegar would be too high -a compliment, and to add that it was flavored with gall would convey -no adequate idea of this abominable stuff, which had been made from -the very greenest of green apples. One mouthful sufficed for me, and -my first impressions of chica de manzanos were not favorable; but our -guide tossed it off with infinite relish.” - -This description was written immediately after entering the country for -the first time. Here is another description of the same liquid. After -describing the mode of its manufacture, he proceeds to say: “Such cider -is somewhat coffee colored, and rather sour, but I soon became fond of -it, especially with the addition of a little toasted meal, which makes -it much more palatable.” - -Mudai is a drink which resembles almost exactly the kava of Polynesia, -and is prepared in the same manner, meal being substituted for the kava -root. A bushel or so of wheat is slowly boiled for several hours, after -which the decoction is strained off and set to cool. In order to hasten -fermentation, a quantity of meal is masticated and added to the liquid. -The effect is very rapid, and when fermentation has fairly begun, the -mudai is fit for use, and is strained off into jars. It has a muddy -look, but possesses a pleasant and slightly acid flavor, which is very -agreeable in a hot country if the mode of preparation be not known. - -Wheat is prepared in a rather peculiar, not to say poetical and -romantic, manner. The sickle is not employed, but the ears are plucked -by hand. The wheat gatherers separate themselves into pairs, a young -man and a girl taking a basket between them, and walking slowly through -the cornfield. As they pass along, they gather the ears, rubbing them -on the back of their companion’s hand, so that the ripe grains fall -into the basket. They accompany the light toil with songs, which mostly -treat of love, and as the tendency of each pair is naturally to diverge -from the others, it happens that in this way is originated many a -love-match, which afterward finds its issue in the marriage ceremonies -above described. - -This plan is, however, only employed when corn has to be gathered and -threshed on a small scale. When a large quantity is prepared the horse -is brought into requisition, the ears being thrown into a circular -shallow pit, round and round which six or seven horsemen urge their -steeds, shouting and yelling as if mad. When they think that the grain -is sufficiently released from the ears, they leap out of the ring, and -a number of women and children enter, who sweep up the corn and chaff -to the edge of the ring with bunches of twigs which serve as brooms. - -This operation, however, is a very imperfect one, and before the corn -can be taken to the mill a further husking has to be performed. This is -done by placing the wheat in shallow wooden dishes, getting into them -barefooted, and keeping up a sort of shuffling dance, throwing up the -grain with each foot alternately, and rubbing it with the other. - -The winnowing is simply accomplished by flinging the wheat into the -air, so that the chaff is blown away by the wind. As to the grinding, -it is exactly similar to that mode which is practised by the Kaffirs, -the women placing the corn on the top of a flat, sloping stone, and -rubbing it with another stone shaped like a rolling-pin. The mill being -placed on a sheepskin, the meal falls upon the skin as it is ground. -This is very hard work indeed, and even the skilled Araucanians are -bathed in perspiration before they have ground enough corn for a meal. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXVI. - -THE ARAUCANIANS--_Concluded_. - -GAMES AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS. - - - THE GAME OF PELICAN, AND ITS CLOSE RESEMBLANCE TO HOCKEY -- AVAS, - OR THE EIGHT BEANS GAME -- MANUFACTURES -- MAKING BROTHERHOOD, AND - EXCHANGING NAMES -- AN IRRUPTION OF NEW RELATIVES -- STATE OF THE - HEALING ART -- THE MACHIS OR DOCTORS -- THEIR MODE OF WORKING CURES - -- A WEIRD-LIKE SCENE -- THE FEMALE DOCTOR AT HER INCANTATION -- FEAR - OF ALLOWING THE NAME TO BE KNOWN -- BELIEF IN OMENS -- THE LUCKY - BIRDS -- HUMAN SACRIFICE -- FUNERAL OF A CHIEF. - -The games of the Araucanians are tolerably numerous, and one or two of -them resemble some of our own games. There is one, for example, called -Pelican, which is almost identical with the well-known game of hockey. -An animated description of this game is given by Mr. E. R. Smith:-- - -“Early in the morning we saw a number of boys engaged upon the fine -lawn in front of the house in planting out twigs at short intervals, -thus forming an alley about forty feet wide, and some three hundred -long. They were preparing for a game of Pelican. Others were blowing a -long horn (formed by the insertion of a cow’s horn in a hollow cane), -to the tones of which came back answering notes, as though a rival band -were approaching over the hills. The night before, we had heard the -same challenge to the neighboring youths, and the same echoing reply, -but more faint and distant. At last the enemy were seen emerging from -the woods; a shout of welcome arose; there were many salutations, a -‘big talk,’ and all put themselves in readiness for the great trial of -skill. - -“The game of Pelican ... is played with a small wooden ball, propelled -along the ground by sticks curved at the lower end. The two sides have -their bases at opposite extremities of the alley. The ball is placed in -a hole half-way between the bases, and over it two boys are stationed, -while the other players are scattered along the alley, each armed with -a stick. When all is ready, the two boys strike their sticks together -in the air, and commence a struggle for the ball, each striving to -knock it toward the opposite party. - -“The object of every one is to drive the ball through his opponent’s -base, or, in defence of his own, to knock it sideways beyond the -bordering line of twigs, in which case the trial is put down as drawn, -and recommences. Each game is duly notched on a stick, and the party -first tallying a certain number gains the victory. - -“There was much shouting and shuffling, many a cracked shin and an -occasional tumble, but the greatest goodwill reigned throughout. -Some thirty players were engaged in the game, mostly naked, with the -exception of a poncho about the loins. I was much disappointed with -their physical development, which was not as I expected to see. They -struck me as inferior to the laboring classes in Chili, both in muscle -and symmetry, though possessing the same general features. Neither was -their playing remarkable either for skill or activity; and if they -were a fair sample, it would be an easy matter to select from many of -our schools or colleges a party of young men more than a match for the -same number of picked Araucanians, even at their own national game of -Pelican.” - -When the sun is too high to allow this game to proceed, the players -generally abandon it in favor of another game called Avas. This is -purely a game of chance. It is played with eight beans, each having a -mark on one side, and ten sticks, which are used in reckoning the game. -Spreading a poncho on the ground, the players sit at opposite sides, -and each in turn takes the beans, shakes them in his hands, and flings -them on the poncho. For each bean that falls with the marked side -upward one point is scored, a hundred completing the game. - -The interest displayed in this game is extraordinary. The players shout -to the beans, talk to them, kiss them, press them to their breasts, -and rub them on the ground, imploring them to send good luck to -themselves, and evil fortune to their antagonists, and treating them -exactly as if they were living creatures. At this game they stake all -the property that they can muster, and ponchos, bolas, lassos, knives, -ornaments, and dollars when they can be got, change hands with great -rapidity amid the excited yells of the players and spectators. At this -game the Araucanians frequently lose every article of property which -they possess, and it is not at all uncommon to see a well-dressed and -well-armed player go disconsolately home without his weapons, his -ornaments, and his clothes, except a ragged cheripa. - -The fate of prisoners of war often depends on the turn of a bean, and -sometimes, when the national council have been unable to decide on a -subject, they have settled the point by the result of a game at avas. -Even the pelican game has sometimes been entrusted with the decision of -a knotty point of policy. - -The manufactures of the Araucanians are but few. The art of the -silversmith has already been described, as has also that of the bolas -maker, while the manufacture of the lasso will be described in another -place. The native cloths are made of cotton or wool, and are woven -in very rude looms. The principal dye employed by the Araucanians is -indigo, and the bright scarlet patterns which are introduced into -the best cloths are obtained by interweaving threads unravelled from -European manufactures. - -Among their social customs, the mode of making brotherhood ought to be -mentioned, inasmuch as it resembles in some respects that which has -already been described as practised in the Malay Archipelago and in -Africa, and in others. The ceremony is called Lacu, and is performed -after the following manner. - -One individual is selected from the family into which the honored -guest is to be received, and to him a present is made. He then fetches -a lamb, kills it, cuts it into two pieces, and boils one-half of the -animal. The meat is then placed in a huge wooden bowl, and brought to -the new brother in Lacu, who is supposed to eat the whole of it, and if -he should leave a single mouthful would grievously insult the family -into which he was to be received. - -Fortunately, he is allowed by the laws of etiquette to take advantage -of the adage, _qui facit per alium facit per se_; and though he cannot -by any possibility consume half a lamb, he is allowed to eat as much -as he can manage and to distribute the remainder among the family, -who are only too happy to take their share in fulfilling the required -conditions. From that time the two Lacus exchange names. - -Mr. E. R. Smith went through the ceremony of Lacu, and became a member -of the Mapuché tribe, under the name of Nam-culan, an abbreviation of -Namcu-Lanquen, _i. e._ Eaglet of the Sea. Sometime afterward he found -that his relations were strangely numerous. - -“After the usual meal, the usual distribution of presents was made, -and as the family was small we were just congratulating ourselves on -escaping cheaply, when in sauntered a neighbor, who was presented as my -brother. He had hardly settled down to the enjoyment of his share of -the booty, when in dropped a blear-eyed old woman, who proved to be my -aunt. Next followed a stately dowager, fair, fat, and forty, radiant -with paint and silver ornaments, looking as innocent as though she had -dropped in by the merest accident in the world. She was my sister, and -so it went on until we began to think that our host’s relations were -innumerable.” - - * * * * * - -The Araucanians know a little about medicine, and much more about -surgery, though the mixture of superstition with practice lessens the -former, and the absence of a written language hinders the latter. -Their medicines are almost entirely vegetable, the chief of which is -the well-known sarsaparilla root. Bleeding is performed by means of -sharp flakes of obsidian, which are sharper than any knife of native -manufacture, and blisters are in great favor. - -The Mapuché mode of blistering is the very simple one of the actual -cautery, and is performed by means of a moxa made of dried pith. This -material is rolled up in little balls and applied to the skin, where it -is allowed to remain until entirely consumed, being pressed down so as -to ensure its full effect. This is horribly painful, but in spite of -that drawback--perhaps in consequence of it--is very much in favor with -the people. - -Beside these material medicines they have others of a different -character, which are employed when the disease is beyond the reach of -their simple medicines. The wise men who practise this advanced system -of healing are but few in number, and are called by the title of Machi, -their mode of practice receiving the name of _machilun_. - -Going on the principle that a disease which cannot be expelled by -medicine must be caused by an evil spirit, the Machi proceeds to drive -it out after his own fashion. The hut is cleared of inhabitants, and -the patient laid on his back in the middle of the floor. The Machi, -having in the meanwhile removed nearly the whole of his clothes, and -made himself as horrible as he can by paint, enters the dwelling, -taking with him his magic drum, _i. e._ a wooden bowl with a cover -of sheepskin strained tightly over it. After examining the patient, -the Machi begins a long-drawn monotonous incantation, accompanied by -continual beating of the drum, until he has worked himself up to a -pitch of frenzy, and falls backward on the ground, with breast jerking -convulsively, eyes rolling, and mouth foaming. - -As soon as he falls, a number of young men, who have been waiting close -to the hut, leap on their horses, and dash at full speed round the -house, yelling defiantly, waving lighted torches over their heads, and -brandishing their long lances by way of frightening the evil spirit, -and warning him not to come near the place again. Like the Machi, they -are all nearly naked, and painted in the most hideous fashion, so as -to strike terror, not only into the spirit that has possession of the -man, but into those who are hovering round the house, and trying to -gain admission. In the first engraving on the next page the artist has -furnished a strange, weird scene, illustrating the Mapuché mode of -healing the sick. - -After a while the Machi recovers from his trance, and then announces -the seat and immediate cause of the malady. For the latter he carefully -searches the patient, and after a time produces it in the shape of a -spider, a toad, a stone, an arrow head, or similar object. Were he to -do more than this, no harm would accrue, and if the patient should -recover no harm is done. - -But, should he die, the Machi is forced by public opinion to declare -that the evil spirit has been sent to the dead man by means of -witchcraft. - -The body is opened, the gall removed, and placed in the wooden bowl of -the magic drum, where it undergoes a series of incantations. After they -are over, it is put into a closely covered pot and placed on the fire -until it is dried up. The sign of witchcraft is a stone found at the -bottom of the pot, and it is needless to say that such a stone is never -wanting. By means of this proof of witchcraft, the Machi again throws -himself into a trance, in the course of which he designates the culprit -who has caused the illness of the deceased. - -No one ever disbelieves a Machi, and the relatives of the dead man -seek out the accused and murder him. It naturally follows that the -Machis are too prone to abuse this terrible power of their position -by accusing persons against whom they have enmity, or whom they have -been bribed to condemn. No counter proof is admitted in the face of a -Machi’s accusation; and if the alleged culprit should be in another -district, the cacique is requested to deliver him up to justice. -The unfortunate wretch is sure to suffer torture for the sake of -extracting a confession of his guilt, and, whether he confess or not, -he is sure to be killed; so that a wise man admits his guilt at once, -and thereby escapes the tortures which he would otherwise have suffered. - -Sometimes, though rarely, the Machi is a woman. In this case she -assumes the male dress, mimics as far as she can the masculine tone -of voice and mode of walking, and is always a very disagreeable -individual, being mostly crabbed, ill-tempered, petulant, and irritable. - -As the Machi always operates at night, the scene is most wild and -picturesque, as may be seen from the account of Mr. E. R. Smith, who -witnessed (at a distance) the operations of a female Machi. - -“One of the neighbors was dangerously ill, and during the night there -was a grand _machilun_ performed by the grand exorcist, the medicine -woman of Boroa herself. I wished to be present, but Sancho would not -listen to the proposal, insisting that we might expose ourselves to -violence by appearing to interfere with this witch, whose hatred of the -whites and influence over the natives were alike unbounded. - -“The night was black and threatening, well suited to her machinations. -We could plainly hear the monotonous tap of the Indian drum, and the -discordant song occasionally rising with the frenzy of the moment into -a shrill scream, then sinking to a low, guttural cadence, while all -else was hushed for very dread of the unhallowed rites. Suddenly the -singing stopped, and there was a long silence, broken by the eruption -of a troop of naked savages rushing round the house on horse and -afoot, brandishing fiercely lance, and sword, and burning fagot and -blazing torch, and making night hideous with their demoniac cries. The -frightened dogs howled in dismal concert, and again all was still. The -evil spirit had been cast out and driven away. It only remained for the -sick man to recover or die.” - -The witch who presided over this extraordinary scene was a _mestizo_, -_i. e._ a half-breed between the negro and the native. She was a -singularly unprepossessing personage, hideously ugly, and turning -her ugliness of features to account by her shrewdness of intellect. -Ugliness is not, however, a necessary accompaniment of this particular -caste. There is now before me a photograph of a young mestizo woman, -whose features, although they partake somewhat of the negro character, -are good and intelligent, her color is comparatively pale, and her hair -retains the length and thickness of the Araucanian, together with a -crispness which has been inherited from the negro race. - -[Illustration: (1.) MAPUCHÉ MEDICINE. (See page 1206.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) MAPUCHÉ FUNERAL. (See page 1210.)] - -Like many other uncivilized nations, the Araucanians have a great -objection to allow a stranger to learn their names, thinking that by -means of such knowledge the wizards may be able to practise upon them. -When they are brought into contact with the white man, and are asked -their names, the Araucanians flatly deny that they have any. They will -take service under him, and allow him to call them by any name that he -likes, but their own name they will never tell, nor do they like even -to invent one on the spur of the moment. The reader will doubtless -recall many similar instances that have been recorded in the course -of this work. They have a similar objection to their portraits being -taken, thinking that the possessor will be able to exercise magical -influence upon them by means of the simulated features. - -This terror has been increased by the use of books by the white -travellers. Nothing is more inexplicable to an Araucanian than to see -a white man, evidently ignorant of the language, refer to a book and -then say the word which he wants. How such a mystery can be achieved -is beyond his comprehension, and he regards the book and its owner as -equally supernatural beings. - -In one case, an Indian of more than usually inquisitive mind pointed to -various objects, in order to see whether his white visitor could find -out their names by looking at a book. Being convinced that the feat -really was performed, he peered into the book, vainly trying to detect -some resemblance between the word and the object which it signified. -As he did not gain much information from his eyes, his white friend -pointed out the word, on which he laid his hand as if to feel it. Just -at that moment, a slight breeze ruffled the leaves of the book. The man -drew back as if a snake had bitten him. The mysterious voice of the -white man’s oracle had spoken to him, and, what was worse, upon his -left hand. He said nothing, but silently withdrew, and, wrapping his -poncho round his head, sat for several hours without speaking a word. - -In consequence of this superstition, a traveller dares not use his note -book openly. He is obliged to write his remarks surreptitiously, and, -so great is the fear inspired by the very fact of writing, that even if -the traveller be out of sight for any lengthened time, the people are -nervous and suspicious. - -The Araucanians have a firm belief in omens, and will address prayers -after their own fashion to any of the creatures that are supposed -to have supernatural power. On one occasion, when Mr. E. R. Smith -was travelling with his native friends, one of the mules fell and -broke its back. This was a sinister omen, and the Araucanians were -correspondingly depressed at it. Fortunately, an omen so good followed -it that their fears were dispelled and confidence restored. - -The reader may remember that Mr. Smith had just exchanged names with -a Mapuché lad, and was called Namcu-lanquen, _i. e._ Eaglet of the -Sea. Just after the unlucky mule had injured itself, a sea eagle rose -suddenly from its perch, circled around the party, and sailed off -southward. This was indeed a fortunate omen. In the first place, the -bird was the emblem of the white man who had recently become a Mapuché, -and in the next, the eagle was on the right hand of the travellers. - -The native guide Trauque put spurs to his horse, dashed forward at -full gallop, shouting and yelling with excitement at the piece of good -fortune that had befallen them. Presently he halted, and addressed a -prayer to the eagle: “O Namcu! Great being! Look not upon us with thy -left but with thy right eye, for thou knowest that we are poor! Watch -over our children and brothers; and grant us happiness, and allow us to -return in safety from our journey.” - -Every circumstance combined to make the omen propitious. The Namcu is -the being most venerated by the Araucanians, who think that it is a -sort of heavenly messenger in direct communication with the Superior -Being. The reader will doubtless be struck with the coincidence between -the bird divinations of the Araucanians and those of the Dyaks of -Borneo, as well as by their identity with the auguries of ancient -Greece and Rome. - -With the exception of the wise men above mentioned, the Araucanians -have no priests, and as a necessary consequence they have no temples -and no religious ceremonies. There is a general though vague belief -in a good and evil principle, which may be manifested by a host of -inferior deities or demons. They have not even an idol, nor is there -any definite system of worship, the only prayers which a native makes -being invocations such as that which has just been described as made to -the eagle. - -Sacrifices are made at their great national councils. An animal is -killed, its blood is poured on the ground as a libation, and the heart, -laid on a green branch, is borne round the assembly, accompanied with -dances and songs. The flesh is then cooked and eaten, and the bones -collected and thrown into the nearest river, so that they shall not be -polluted by being eaten by the dogs. - -Sometimes in war time, a prisoner is sacrificed. He is placed on a -horse whose tail and ears have been cropped by way of deriding the -rider, and is thus taken to the place of execution. Here he dismounts, -and is forced to dig a hole, into which he throws a number of sticks, -calling each after the name of some celebrated warrior of his tribe. -He is then made to fill up the hole, thus symbolically burying the -fame of his countrymen, and as soon as he has done so, his brains are -dashed out with a club, care being taken to inflict as little damage as -possible on the skull. - -As soon as he falls, the heart is torn from the breast and handed to -the Toqui, who sucks a few drops of the blood, and passes it to his -officers, who follow his example. The large bones of the arms and legs -are made into flutes, the head is placed on a spear and carried round -in triumph, and the skull is made into a drinking-cup to be used at the -principal feasts. Such a sacrifice, however, is not to be considered as -an act of worship, but merely as a mode of propitiating the manes of -deceased warriors. - -The similitude between the bird omens of the ancient Greeks and Romans -and those of modern Araucanians has already been mentioned. There is -another semi-religious practice which also recalls the customs of -classic times, namely, the making of libations and offerings of food -at every meal. When the Araucanian takes his broth or wine, he pours a -few drops upon the ground as a thank offering to the higher powers, and -with the same motive he scatters around a few morsels of food. - - * * * * * - -The mode of burial differs slightly according to the locality and the -tribe. - -When a Mapuché chief dies, the body is exposed on an open bier for -several days, during which time the friends and neighbors pay their -respects and offer their condolence to the family. On the day of the -funeral a procession is formed, led by a company of young men on -horseback, who dash forward at full speed to the place of interment. -After them the body, borne by the principal relatives, and behind them -come the women, who wail aloud and fill the air with their cries of -sorrow. Last of all comes a woman who scatters ashes on the ground, so -that the deceased may not return by the path along which he was borne. -The illustration No. 2, on page 1207, represents this part of a Mapuché -funeral. - -The body is then bound with the knees to the breast, and lowered into -the grave, with the face toward the west, the direction of the Mapuché -spirit-land. The saddle, bit, spurs, and stirrups of the deceased -are laid by his side, together with some provisions for the journey, -a few beads, and a piece of money, and the grave is then filled up. -As, however, the horse accoutrements of a chief are of silver, and -exceedingly valuable, they are represented by wooden copies, which are -supposed to serve the purposes of the deceased as well as the more -costly articles, which become the property of his successors. - -At the head of the grave is planted the dead man’s lance, the steel -head of which is replaced by a wooden imitation. It is also necessary -that a horse should be provided for the dead chief, and this is done -by sacrificing his favorite steed, and hanging its skin over the grave -by means of a pole placed across two forked props. Mr. E. R. Smith -shrewdly remarks that in all probability the deceased would be put -off with a wooden horse to ride, were it not that the Mapuchés are -exceedingly fond of horseflesh, and take the opportunity of holding -a great banquet on the flesh of the slaughtered animal, the skin and -spirit going to the share of the dead man. - -Such ceremonies as these are only for a chief, a common man not being -supposed to need a horse, and consequently being buried with slight and -simple ceremonies. For the funerals of women the rites are of a similar -character, the chief distinction being that, instead of the saddle and -weapons, some cooking vessels, a distaff, and similar objects are laid -in the grave. - -Some travellers have asserted that when a powerful chief dies, his -favorite wife is also killed and placed in the tomb with him. This -statement is, however, very doubtful, and was flatly contradicted by -every one of whom Mr. Smith inquired. The Mapuchés seem to have a -vague notion that the dead are able to return to earth and watch over -the living; and when the dark thunder-clouds lower over the distant -Cordilleras, they imagine that the deceased warriors of their tribe are -chasing away the invisible foes of their country, and utter loud shouts -of encouragement to the supernatural warriors. - -In some parts of the Mapuché territory the graves are surrounded with -a rude fence of upright boards, from the midst of which rises the long -quivering lance with its slight pennon fluttering in the wind. (See -background of illustration). - -The Huilyichés, however, have a much more elaborate mode of decorating -the graves of their chiefs, resembling in some degree that which is -employed by the New Zealanders. Figures supposed to represent the -deceased chief and his wives are set round the grave, just as the New -Zealanders plant their “tikis” round the graves of their friends. (See -page 861.) - -One such memorial, seen by Mr. Smith, had a very singular, not to -say ludicrous, appearance. Each figure was cut out of a huge log of -wood, some ten or twelve feet in height. In the middle stood the chief -himself, wearing no clothing, but having a hat on his head and a sword -in his hand. Round him were stationed his wives, equally without -clothing, the great object of the artist being to leave no doubt which -is the chief and which are his wives, without troubling himself as to -details of drapery. Rude as these figures are, only very few natives -can carve them, and these sculptors make a large income by the exercise -of their skill. Each figure is purchased with a fat ox, or even at a -higher price, according to its size and the amount of labor bestowed -upon it, and no grandee can be considered as buried respectably unless -the grave be decorated with a figure of the deceased. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXVII. - -THE GRAN CHACO. - -APPEARANCE--WEAPONS--CHARACTER. - - - THE GRAN CHACO AND ITS INHABITANTS -- THEIR LOVE OF FREEDOM -- - CONTRAST OF THE TWO RACES IN SOUTH AMERICA -- THE VARIOUS TRIBES IN - THE COUNTRY -- APPEARANCE OF THE INHABITANTS -- ERADICATION OF THE - EYEBROWS AND EYELASHES -- HAIR DRESSING -- COSTUME OF THE SEXES -- - EQUESTRIAN HABITS -- THE NAKED MAN ON THE NAKED HORSE -- WEAPONS -- - THE MACANA CLUB, AND MODE OF USING IT -- THE LONG SPEAR -- CURIOUS - ARMOR -- THE FOOT-BOW -- ATTACKING A VILLAGE -- HUTS OF THE GRAN - CHACO INDIANS -- CROSSING A RIVER -- CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. - -To the east of the Araucanian territory, and extending to the Paraguay -and Panama rivers, lies a tract of mountain country, of indeterminate -northern and southern boundaries, called the Gran Chaco. This great -district is inhabited by a series of tribes who deserve a short notice. - -Not the least remarkable point in their history is the manner in which -they have preserved the freedom of their own land, despite the attacks -of various white nations. Both the Spaniards and the Portuguese have, -at different times, seized on a few positions in the Gran Chaco, but -have not been able to retain them except on the indefinite western -frontier line. On the east, where the great Paraguay River forms the -natural boundary, the native is left unmolested in his freedom. - -In the eloquent words of Captain Mayne Reid: “On its eastern side, -coinciding almost with a meridian of longitude, the Indian of the Gran -Chaco does not roam; the well-settled provinces of Corrientes, and -the dictatorial government of Paraguay, presenting a firmer front of -resistance. But neither does the colonist of these countries think -of crossing to the western bank of the boundary river to form an -establishment there. - -“He dares not even set his foot upon the Chaco. For a thousand miles, -up and down, the two races, European and American, hold the opposite -banks of this great stream. They gaze across at each other--the one -from the portico of his-well-built mansion, or perhaps from the street -of his town--the other standing by his humble ‘toldo,’ or mat-covered -tent, more probably on the back of his half-wild horse, reined up for a -moment on some projecting promontory that commands a view of the river. -And thus have these two races gazed at each other for three centuries, -with little other intercourse passing between them than that of a -deadly hostility.” - -As the territory of the Gran Chaco is very extensive, being about -three times as large as that of Great Britain, and extends north and -south through eleven degrees of latitude, it naturally follows that -the tribes which inhabit it differ from each other in many details, -those of the warm north and cold south being in many points strongly -contrasted with each other. Still, there are many points of similarity, -and these we will select in the following brief account of the Gran -Chaco tribe, omitting, from want of space, those wherein they differ -from each other. - -In the first place, the aborigines of the Gran Chaco are of a much -paler complexion than those of the more northern tribes, known from -their color by the name of Red Men, and more nearly resemble the -rich olive of the inhabitants of Southern Europe. The nose is rather -aquiline, the mouth well formed, the cheek-bones high, and the eyes and -hair jetty black. The latter is singularly abundant, and though coarse -and without curl is smooth and glossy when properly dressed. - -The men have but little beard, and the scanty hairs which grow upon -the chin and face they completely eradicate, using for that purpose a -pair of shells until they are rich enough to purchase iron tweezers. -Even the eyebrows and lashes are pulled out, the natives saying that -they only hinder the sight, and comparing those who wear them to the -ostrich--_i. e._ the rhea, or American ostrich, which is plentiful in -their country. - -To an European, the loss of these appendages to the eyes has a very -unsightly effect; but the native takes a very different view of the -case, and looks upon a countenance wherein the eyebrows and lashes are -permitted to grow much as a gentleman of George the Second’s time would -have regarded a head which was decorated by its own hair, and a face -from which the beard and moustache had not been removed. - -The masculine mode of dressing the hair has some resemblance to that -which is practised by the warlike tribes of Northern America. The hair -is shaved from the forehead, as well as from a band extending behind -the head from one ear to the other. The remainder is allowed to grow to -its full length, and carefully cherished and tended. - -The Gran Chaco Indians only use paint upon great occasions, when they -decorate themselves as fantastically as any savage tribe can do; but, -as a rule, their faces and bodies are allowed to retain their normal -olive hue. Neither do the men use the tattoo, this being restricted to -the women, who mark themselves with a variety of patterns upon their -arms, cheeks, and breasts, each having a line of blue dots extending -from the corner of each eye to the ears, and a pattern of some kind -upon her forehead. - -The dress of these people is very simple. In warm and fine weather, it -consists merely of a piece of cotton or woollen fabric, woven in the -brightest hues of red, white, and blue. It is little more than a mere -strip of cloth, and in this respect the dress of the women scarcely -differs from that of the men. In cold and stormy weather, both sexes -wear a warm cloak made of the skin of the jaguar, or, if so valuable a -material cannot be obtained, of that of the nutria, or South American -otter. Earrings are worn by both sexes; but the hideous ornaments which -so many savage tribes wear in their lips and noses are utterly unknown -to them. - -The Gran Chaco Indian is essentially a horseman, and no inhabitants -of America have made more use of the horse than he has. He differs, -however, from those which have been already mentioned in one important -particular. He utterly despises the costly spurs, stirrups, and -headstalls which have been described in the account of the Araucanians, -and, almost naked himself, he rides upon an entirely naked horse. He -uses no saddle, no stirrups, and no bit, guiding his steed by voice and -touch, and not by the power of the iron curb. The only representative -of a bridle is a slight rope of plaited hide passed round the lower jaw -of the horse. - -The weapons of the Gran Chaco Indian are very few. He carries the -bolas and lasso, but cares little for them in war, preferring, as -his most efficient weapon, his spear. This instrument is sometimes -fifteen feet in length, and in the hands of a skilful rider, mounted -upon a perfectly trained steed, is a most formidable instrument of -war. The warrior uses his spear, not only for battle, but as a means -for mounting his horse. He stands on the right hand of the animal, -places the butt of the spear upon the ground, and, using the shaft as a -leaping pole, swings himself upon the back of the horse with scarcely -an effort. - -A rather peculiar club is also used by these people. This weapon -is called “macana,” and exists throughout a very large portion of -Southern America. It seldom exceeds two feet in length, and in form -somewhat resembles a square dice box, being smaller in the middle, -and increasing in diameter to each end. It is used both as a missile, -and as a hand weapon, and when used is held by the middle. The young -warriors pride themselves on the force and accuracy with which they -hurl this instrument, and during their leisure time vie with each -other in throwing it at a mark. The specimen which is shown in the -illustration was presented to me by H. Bernau, Esq., together with -several other weapons and implements of South America. - -[Illustration: THE MACANA.] - -Sometimes the macana is armed with a cylindrical piece of hard stone, -which projects from one end like the blade of an axe. It is fastened -into the wood by a very ingenious process. Having fixed upon a young -branch which he thinks will make a good club, the Indian bores a hole -in it, and hammers into the hole the stone cylinder which has been -previously prepared. He then allows it to remain for two or three -years, by which time the wood has grown over the stone, and become so -firmly imbedded that it will break to pieces rather than be loosened by -any amount of violence. - -Another of these weapons in my collection is remarkable for the slight -but elaborate carvings with which it is covered, leaving only a small -space in the centre devoid of ornament. The patterns are scratched -rather than cut, so that they cannot properly be seen unless the weapon -is turned from side to side, so as to ensure the light falling properly -upon it; but the extreme hardness of the wood makes them retain their -integrity in spite of rough usage. The tree from which these clubs are -made is one of those which are popularly called iron-wood, on account -of the hardness and weight of the timber. It belongs to the guaiacums. -The Spaniards call the tree by a name which signifies “axe-breaker.” - -The strangest part of war as waged by these natives is, that when they -fight with each other they adopt an elaborate system of defensive -armor, while they discard everything of the kind when they match -themselves against the fire-arms of the whites, knowing that the shield -and costume which will guard them against the club and the spear are -useless against a bullet. - -The armor is of a most cumbersome description, and looks nearly as -awkward as that which is worn by the soldiers of Begharmi. (See page -638.) - -First of all, the warrior puts on a coat made from the skin of the -jaguar, dressed so as to remain soft even after being wetted. Over this -dress he wears a complete suit of armor, made from the thick and hard -hide of the tapir. Not only the body armor, but the helmet and shield -are made of this material, which is capable of resisting the stroke -of the lance or the point of the arrow. It interferes, however, with -the right management of the horse, and it is very doubtful whether its -defensive powers compensate for its exceeding clumsiness. Still, it may -have a moral effect upon the enemy; and there is no denying that it -gives the warrior a more formidable appearance than he would possess if -he rode without armor. To add to the ferocity of his aspect, he employs -paint on these occasions, and with scarlet and black pigment makes -himself absolutely hideous. - -When he goes to attack a village inhabited by white men, he does so in -a very ingenious manner. Usually he fights exclusively on horseback, -being so admirable a rider that he can even stand on the withers of -his horse when at full speed, and feeling himself out of his element -when dismounted. But when he has to attack so formidable an enemy as -the white man, he begins after a different fashion. He takes with him -an enormous bow, far too strong to be drawn in the usual manner, and a -number of long arrows. Dismounting at some distance from the village, -he creeps to some spot within range of his arrows, and then prepares -for action. - -He begins by wrapping a quantity of cotton wool round the arrows just -behind the head, and when he has treated them all in this way, he -strikes a light and sets fire to the cotton wool on one of the arrows. -Lying on his back, he holds the bow with the toes of both feet, and, -laying the blazing arrow in its place, he is able to use both his hands -to draw the powerful weapon. He shoots with a wonderfully good aim and -great rapidity, so that when a number of Indians surround a village, -and pour their fiery missiles into it from all directions, the houses -are sure to take fire. - -In the midst of the confusion caused by the flames that arise on all -sides, the warriors leap on their horses, dash at the village, kill all -whom they can reach, carry off as much plunder as possible, and then -gallop back to their own districts, where no one dares to follow. - -Retaliation is never feared, as the Gran Chaco Indians have no fixed -habitation, and nothing that can be called even a village. The hut or -rather tent of these people is a very simple affair. Two upright posts -are driven firmly into the earth, and another is laid horizontally -across them. Over the horizontal pole is hung a large mat, the ends -of which are pegged to the ground, and the tent is then complete. The -mat is made of the epidermis of young palm leaves. In order to prevent -water from flooding the tent in rainy weather, a trench is dug around -it. The only furniture is the hammock in which the inhabitant sleeps, -and in fine weather, this is much more often slung between two palm -trees than between the upright posts of the tent. In fact, the only use -of the tent is as a shelter in rainy weather, the whole of the life -being passed in the open air. - -As may be imagined from this mode of life, the Gran Chaco Indian is -essentially a rover, passing from one part of the country to another -when game begins to be scarce in that district which he temporarily -inhabits. Illustration No. 1, on the 1218th page shows the manner in -which a community of these natives cross rivers. Swimming with perfect -ease themselves, they merely with one hand guide their horses in the -water without caring to get on their backs, while with the other hand -they paddle themselves across the stream, or hold the spear with its -light burden of ornaments. - -[Illustration: ARROWS AND ARROW-CAP. (See page 1229.)] - -The children and household goods are conveyed easily enough. Square -boats or tubs made of bull’s hide are launched, and in them are placed -the children, the puppies, of which there are always plenty, and the -heavier goods, such as the kettles and cooking vessels. A rope is -tied to the “pelota,” as this primitive boat is called, and the cargo -is towed across the stream either by being attached to the tail of a -horse, or held in the mouth of a good swimmer. The lighter articles, -such as dress and ornaments, are fastened to the head of the spear, -which is held upright, so as to keep them out of the water. - -The dogs which have just been mentioned are extremely useful to the -Gran Chaco Indians, who employ them in the chase. They give but little -trouble to their masters, living for the most part in holes which -they scratch in the ground, and feeding contentedly on the offal and -scraps of food, which in an uncivilized community are more than scanty. -Without the dogs the hunter could scarcely bring to bay the jaguar, the -peccary, and similar animals, which are so annoyed by the perpetual -and noisy attacks of the little curs that they stop in their flight in -order to revenge themselves, and so give the hunter time to come up -with them. - -Although so essentially a warrior, and living much upon the proceeds of -his plunder, the Gran Chaco Indian is in one respect far superior to -the North American tribes. He does not torture the prisoners whom he -takes in war, and the women and children he treats kindly, and adopts -into his own tribe. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXVIII. - -THE MUNDURUCÚS. - -MANUFACTURES--SOCIAL CUSTOMS. - - - POSITION AND NUMBER OF THE MUNDURUCÚ TRIBE -- THEIR GENERAL - APPEARANCE -- MODE OF TATTOOING -- SKILL IN FEATHER WORKING -- - FEATHER SCEPTRES AND APRONS -- HEAD PRESERVING -- THE TRIUMPHAL FEAST - AND WARRIOR’S PRIDE -- TRAINING OF THE WARRIOR -- THE ORDEAL OF THE - “GLOVES” -- INTELLIGENCE OF THE MUNDURUCÚS -- THE HEALING ART -- - ENCHANTED CIGARS -- COLLECTING SARSAPARILLA -- THE GUARANA TEA -- THE - PARICA SNUFF AND ITS OPERATION -- THE SNUFF TUBE -- COOKERY AMONG THE - MUNDURUCÚS. - -The largest, most warlike, and most powerful of the Amazonian tribes is -that which is known by the name of MUNDURUCÚ. - -Formerly, they used to inhabit the country on the southern bank of the -great Amazon River; but since their long and valiant struggle with the -Portuguese, they have moved considerably southward, having conceded -to their new allies the more northern portion of their territory. -Since that time, they have been on very good terms with Europeans, -and a white man of any nation is sure to find a welcome when he comes -among the Mundurucús. This feeling does not extend to the negroes and -mulattoes, the dark skin arousing the anger of the Mundurucú as a white -skin excites his friendship. - -The color of the Mundurucús is warm coppery brown; their hair is thick, -black, and straight, and with the men is cut short, except a long -fringe, which is allowed to hang over the forehead. Their features are -good, the lips being thin, the forehead tolerably high and arched, and -the general contour of the face oval. Unfortunately, they disfigure -themselves by a tattoo which is just as elaborate as that of the -Marquesans, but without its elegance. - -The Mundurucú seems to have no idea of a curved or scroll-like pattern, -and contents himself with tracing straight lines and angles. One -favorite plan is, to cover the whole body with a sort of trellis-like -pattern, the lines crossing each other diagonally in some, and at right -angles in others. One man, seen by Mr. Bates, had a large black patch -on the centre of his face, covering the bottom of the nose and mouth, -while his body was decorated with a blue checkered pattern, and his -arms and legs with stripes. - -At first it seems strange how the people can draw the lines with such -regularity. It is managed, however, easily enough by means of the -peculiar form of the tattooing instrument. This, instead of being very -small and made of bone, is of considerable size, and is in fact a comb -made of the sharp thorns of the pupunha palm set side by side. With -this instrument there is no difficulty in producing straight lines, as -all that the operator has to do is to lay the points of the comb on the -skin, tap it sharply until a row of little holes is made, and then rub -into the wounds the charcoal pigment. - -Besides the tattoo, they use paint in profusion, and adorn themselves -with lovely ornaments made of the feathers of the macaw, the toucan, -and other native birds. There are other tribes which use similar -decorations, specimens of which we shall presently see. They are -perhaps the best savage feather workers in the world, displaying an -amount of artistic taste which is really astonishing. Their feather -sceptres are beautiful specimens of native art. They are about three -feet in length and three inches in diameter, and are made by fastening -on a wooden rod the beautiful white and yellow feathers from the breast -of the toucan. At the top, the sceptre expands into a wide plume, -composed of the long tail-feathers of the trogons, macaws, and other -birds. In order to preserve these sceptres in their full beauty, they -are kept in cylindrical bamboo cases until they are wanted. These -decorations are only used on festival days, which are determined by -the will of the Tushaúa or chief of the tribe. On these occasions the -women prepare great quantities of “tarobá,” which is exactly the same -as the mudai of the Araucanians, and they go on drinking, singing, and -dancing until all the liquor is exhausted. - -The illustration No. 7 on page 1231, gives some idea of the mode of -feather working, and the kind of pattern employed by the Amazonian -aborigines, though the plain black and white can give no idea of the -gorgeous coloring and artistic arrangement of the hues. For this -reason, I have been obliged to limit the illustrations of the elaborate -feather work of these natives, and only to give a few examples, where -form, as well as color, is exemplified. - -The body of this apron is made of cotton strings, plaited into a -netting, so close that it resembles a woven fabric, while they are -allowed at the upper part to be loose, and parallel to each other. -Beginning at the bottom of the apron, we have first a row of jetty -black feathers, upon which is a tolerably broad band of bright yellow. -The ground-work of the rest of the apron as far as the base strings is -made of scarlet feathers, crossed by two narrow yellow bands, and the -curious double pattern in the middle is yellow above and blue below. -The sides and top are edged by a belt of black monkey fur. - -Among the upper edge of the base strings are a number of the elytra or -wing cases of the gorgeous Buprestis beetle. They are loosely strung in -a row by their bases, and not only look splendid when the light of the -sun shines on them, but rattle at every movement, so as to keep time -to the steps of the dancers, for whom such ornaments are chiefly made. -These wing cases are used also for children’s rattles. - - * * * * * - -Like many other warlike savages, the Mundurucús perpetuate the memory -of valiant deeds by preserving a trophy of the slain enemy. Indeed, -this is the only way in which it is possible to preserve the accounts -of their valor, and the Mundurucús follow in this respect the example -of the Dyaks, by cutting off and preserving the head of the dead man. -When a Mundurucú has been fortunate enough to kill an enemy, he cuts -off the head with his bamboo knife, removes the brain, soaks the whole -head in a bitter vegetable oil, called “andiroba,” and dries it over -a fire or in the sun. When it is quite dry, he puts false eyes into -the empty orbits, combs, parts, and plaits the hair, and decorates it -with brilliant feathers, and lastly passes a string through the tongue, -by means of which it can be suspended to the beams of the malocca or -council-house, where it remains except on festival days. When, however, -the chief gives orders for a feast, the proud owner of the head arrays -himself in his most magnificent suit of feathers, fetches his prize -from the malocca, fixes it upon the point of his spear, and parades -himself before his companions in all the glory of an acknowledged brave. - -One of these preserved heads is shown on page 203, drawn from a -specimen in the possession of A. Franks, Esq., of the British Museum. -In order to show the ordinary kind of feather headdress which is worn -by the Mundurucús, a portrait of a chief is also given on the same -page, so that the contrast between the living and preserved head is -well marked. - -The value which a Mundurucú attaches to this trophy is simply -inestimable. As none except acknowledged warriors are allowed to -contend against the enemy, the fact of possessing a head proves that -the owner has passed triumphantly through the dreadful ordeal of the -gloves. It is very remarkable that we find two totally distinct races -of men, the Malay and the Mongol, possessing exactly the same custom, -and reckoning the possession of a head as the chief object in life. - -It is quite impossible that the Dyak of Borneo and the Mundurucú of -Central Southern America could have been geographically connected, -and we must infer that the custom took its rise from the love of -approbation inherent in human nature. In all countries, whether -civilized or not, renown as a warrior is one of the chief objects of -ambition. In civilized countries, where a literature exists, this -renown is spread and conserved by means of the pen; but in uncivilized -lands, some tangible proof of success in war must be required. In this -head the necessary proof is obtained, for its existence shows that the -owner has killed some man or other, and the form or absence of the -tattoo is a proof that the slain man was an enemy and not a friend. - -The successful warriors are so proud of their heads that they will -often remove them temporarily from the malocca, and place them on the -fence which surrounds their crops, so that the women, who are working -in the field, may be cheered by the sight of their relative’s trophies. -Of late years, either this custom has fallen into abeyance, or the -people are unwilling to exhibit their trophies to a white man, for Mr. -Bates, who spent so much time with them, never even saw a preserved -head, or could hear of one being used. - -Like many other natives, the Mundurucús have to pass through a horribly -painful ordeal before they can be admitted into the rank of men. There -is a strange, weird-like character about the whole proceeding. - -The reader must know that South America possesses a great number of -ants, many of which sting most horribly. There is, for example, the -muniri ant, a great black insect, as large as a wasp and with as -venomous a sting. Then there is the fire ant, whose bite is just like a -redhot needle piercing the flesh, together with many others. These ants -are made the instruments by which the courage of the lad is tested. - -[Illustration: (1.) GRAN CHACO INDIANS ON THE MOVE. (See page 1213.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE GLOVE DANCE OF THE MUNDURUCÚS. (See page -1219.)] - -On the appointed day, the candidate for manhood and the privilege of -a warrior, goes to the council-house, accompanied by his friends, who -sing and beat drums to encourage him. The old men then proceed to the -test. They take two bamboo tubes, closed at one end and open at the -other, and place in each tube or “glove” a number of the fiercest ants -of the country. Into these tubes the wretched lad thrusts his arms, and -has them tied, so that they cannot fall off. The drummers and singers -then strike up, and the candidate joins in the song. - -Accompanied by the band and his friends, he is taken round the village, -and made to execute a dance and a song in front of every house, the -least symptom of suffering being fatal to his admission among the -men. In spite of the agony which he endures--an agony which increases -continually as the venom from the stings circulates through his -frame--the lad sings and dances as if he were doing so from sheer joy, -and so makes the round of the village. At last he comes in front of -the chief’s tent, where he sings his song for the last time, and is -admitted by acclamation to be a man. His friends crowd round to offer -their congratulations, but he dashes through them all, tears off the -gloves of torture, and plunges into the nearest stream, to cool his -throbbing arms. - -This fearful test of manhood, called “The glove dance,” is represented -on page 1218. - -The Mundurucús seem to be an intelligent race of savages, as may be -seen from Mr. Bates’s account of the interest which they displayed in a -book of illustrations. - -“To amuse the Tushaúa, I fetched from the canoe the two volumes of -Knight’s ‘Pictorial Museum of Animated Nature.’ The engravings quite -took his fancy, and he called his wives, of whom, as I afterward heard -from Aracú, he had three or four, to look at them: one of them was a -handsome girl, decorated with necklace and bracelets of blue beads. In -a short time others left their work, and I then had a crowd of women -and children around me, who all displayed unusual curiosity for Indians. - -“It was no light task to go through the whole of the illustrations, -but they would not allow me to miss a page, making me turn back when I -tried to skip. The pictures of the elephants, camels, orang-outangs, -and tigers seemed most to astonish them, but they were interested in -almost everything, down even to the shells and insects. They recognized -the portraits of the most striking birds and mammals which are found in -their own country; the jaguar, howling monkey, parrots, trogons, and -toucans. - -“The elephant was settled to be a large kind of tapir; but they made -but few remarks, and those in the Mundurucú language, of which I -understood only two or three words. Their way of expressing surprise -was a clicking sound made with the teeth, similar to the one we -ourselves use, or a subdued exclamation, Hm! Hm! - -“Before I finished, from fifty to sixty had assembled; there was no -pushing, or rudeness, the grown-up women letting the young girls and -children stand before them, and all behaved in the most quiet and -orderly manner possible.” - - * * * * * - -Like other savage tribes the Mundurucús place great faith in their -medicine men, or “pajes,” as they are termed. These men are supposed -to exercise a power over evil spirits, especially those which cause -sickness, and which take the visible form of a worm or some such -creature. - -When a Mundurucú is ill, he sends for the paje, who goes through the -gesticulations common to all the tribe of medicine men, until he has -fixed upon some spot wherein the evil spirit has located itself. He -then makes a huge cigar, by wrapping tobacco in folds of tanari, _i. -e._ the inner bark of a tree, which is separated into layers and then -beaten out like the bark cloth of Polynesia. Several trees, especially -the monkey-root tree (_Lecythis ollaria_), furnish the tanari, the best -being able to furnish a hundred layers from one piece of bark. - -The smoke from the cigar is blown for some time upon the seat of the -malady, and after a while the paje applies his lips to the spot, and -sucks violently, producing out of his mouth the worm which has done the -mischief. On one occasion, when a paje had operated on a child for a -headache, a white man contrived to get possession of the “worm,” which -turned out to be nothing but a long white air-root of some plant. - -These people have, however, some genuine medicines. In the first -place, they know the use of sarsaparilla root, and gather it in large -quantities for the market. The root, or rather the rhizome, of a -species of Smilax is the well-known sarsaparilla of commerce. - -The natives collect it during the rainy season, when the roots can be -easily torn out of the wet earth. After washing the roots carefully, -the gatherers store them under shelter until they are quite dry, and -then make them up into bundles of uniform size, for the convenience of -packing. These bundles are rather more than three feet in length, and -about five inches in diameter. They are tied up very tightly with the -sipo, a kind of creeper, and sold to the traders. - -Another medicine known to them is the guarana. It is made from the -seeds of a climbing plant belonging to the genus Paullinia. The seeds -are roasted in their envelopes, and then taken out and pounded between -two stones. The powder is mixed with water so as to form a stiff -paste, which is moulded into squares and left to dry. When used, the -vegetable brick is scraped into water, about a teaspoonful going to the -pint, and the medicine is complete. It has a stimulating effect on the -system. Like strong tea, it repels sleep, but is so valuable in the -intermittent fever of the country that in the Brazilian settlements it -obtains a very high price. - -There is another very remarkable medicine, which, though not used -by the pure Mundurucú tribe, is in great favor with the Cuparis, a -sub-tribe of the same nation. This is a sort of snuff, called paricá, -which is prepared and used after the following manner. The seeds of a -species of ingá (a plant belonging to the Leguminous Order) are dried -in the sun, pounded in wooden mortars, and the dust put into bamboo -tubes. - -When the people determine to have a bout of snuff taking, they assemble -together and drink various fermented liquors until they are half -intoxicated. They then separate into pairs, each having a hollow reed -filled with the paricá snuff. After dancing about for some time, they -blow the snuff into the nostrils of their partners so as to make it -produce its full effect. - -The action of the paricá is very singular. Sometimes it is so violent, -that the taker drops on the ground as if shot, and lies insensible for -some time. On those who are more used to it the effect is different. It -causes for a time the highest excitement, driving off the heaviness of -intoxication, and imparting a lightness and exhilaration of spirits, -causing the taker to dance and sing as if mad, which indeed he is for a -time. The effect soon subsides, and the men drink themselves anew into -intoxication. - -The Muras, a quarrelsome and savage tribe, with whom the Mundurucús are -at perpetual feud, are the most confirmed paricá takers. The Mauhés, a -neighboring tribe, use it as a means of repelling ague in the months -between the wet and dry seasons, when miasma always abounds. - -They keep the powder in the state of dried paste, and when they wish to -use it, scrape it into a flat shell, spreading it very carefully with -a little brush made from the hair of the great ant-eater. They then -produce the snuff-taking apparatus. This is made of two eagle quills -tied side by side for part of their length, and diverging at one end -to such a distance from each other that the extremities will go easily -into the possessor’s nostrils. The shape of the instrument is very much -like that of the letter Y. - -Inserting the diverging ends into his nostrils, the Mauhé places the -other end on the powder, and draws it through the quills, the end -travelling over the shell until every particle of the powder has been -taken. Sometimes the snuff taker employs, instead of the quills, the -bone of a plover’s leg. This instrument, however, is very rare, and -cannot easily be procured, the possessor esteeming it to be a most -valuable piece of property. It is remarkable that the paricá, under -different names, is used in places a thousand miles apart. - -The cookery of the Mundurucús is very simple. They make cassava bread -and tapioca, after a fashion which will be presently described, and -feed on yams, plantains, and similar vegetables. Animal food is -obtained by hunting, and chiefly consists of the monkeys with which -the South American forests abound. When a monkey is to be eaten, it is -cooked in one of two ways. Should there be time, a large fire is made -and allowed to burn nearly down, so that there is little or no smoke. -Over the red embers a number of green sticks are laid parallel to each -other, just like the bars of a gridiron, and on these bars the monkey -is placed just as it is killed, the skin never being removed, and the -interior seldom cleaned. - -There is even a simpler plan than this, which is employed when the -Mundurucú has no time to build a large fire. He makes up as large a -fire as he can manage, impales the monkey on a stick sharpened at each -end, and fixes the stick diagonally in the ground, so that the body of -the monkey hangs over the fire, just as a soldier cooks or rather burns -his rations by impaling the piece of meat on his ramrod. Very little -cooking is required by these people, who are content if the skin is -well calcined and the flesh not quite raw. - -The Mundurucú can also procure fruits that are capable of preservation, -so that he need be in no fear as to suffering from lack of provisions. -The chief fruits are the “nuts” of the Lecythis and the Bertholetia. -The fruit of the former tree is popularly known as “monkey-cup,” -because the hard envelope which encloses the seeds has a movable lid, -that falls off when the fruit is ripe, and enables the monkeys to draw -the seeds out of their case. - -The fruit of the Bertholetia is familiarly known as the Brazil nut. -A number of these nuts are enclosed within a very thick and hard -pericarp, which has no lid, though there is a little hole at the top -through which the seeds can be seen. When the fruit is ripe, it falls -to the ground with such force that if it were to strike a man on the -head it would instantly kill him. One of these fruits in my collection -measures exactly a foot in circumference, and, though very dry, weighs -nine ounces. The reader may imagine the force with which such a fruit -would fall from the height of a hundred feet or so. - -To guard themselves against accidents, the Mundurucús always wear thick -wooden caps when they go after the Brazil nuts, and are careful to walk -very upright, so as not to be struck on the back or the nape of the -neck. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXIX. - -THE TRIBES OF GUIANA. - -WEAPONS. - - - CHANGES OF LANGUAGE -- INVERSION OF WORDS AND SENTENCES -- THE - TALKING PARROT -- THE FIVE CHIEF TRIBES OF GUIANA -- PECULIARITY - OF CLIMATE, AND CONSEQUENT EFFECT ON VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE -- - THE HAMMOCK OF GUIANA -- THE WEAPONS PECULIAR TO THE COUNTRY -- THE - TWO KINDS OF BLOW GUN -- THE ZARABATANA, AND MODE OF CONSTRUCTION - -- WEIGHT OF THE WEAPON -- THE PUCUNA -- ITS DOUBLE TUBE -- THE - OURAH AND SAMOURAH -- THE KURUMANNI WAX -- THE INGENIOUS FORE AND - BACK SIGHTS -- THE BLOW GUN ARROWS -- THEIR CONSTRUCTION -- MODE OF - SHARPENING -- THE PIRAI FISH -- INGENIOUS MODE OF PACKING THE ARROWS - -- MODE OF PROPELLING THE ARROWS -- THE WINGED ARROW -- THE QUIVER - AND COTTON BASKET. - -It is evident that the innumerable tribes which inhabit the -neighborhood of the great Amazon River are members of the same family, -differing more in language than in appearance or habits. It is natural -that families when they become large should separate themselves, and -so become founders of fresh tribes, which spread themselves over the -country, settling down in those spots which suit them best. They retain -the general character of their manners and customs, but, owing to the -total want of a literature, their language is continually changing. - -This alteration in their language is also due to the native fondness -for inverting words and sentences during their conversation with each -other, a custom which bears some resemblance to that of punning among -ourselves. When these inverted words happen to please the people’s -fancy, they are retained in the language, so that in a few years after -a family has separated itself from the parent tribe the two dialects -will have receded so far from each other that the people can hardly -understand each other. - -To the philologist this fluctuation of language would be exceedingly -interesting, but, as we are concerned with manners and customs rather -than with language, we will pass northward and eastward to Guiana. -Sir R. Schomburgk mentions a fact which is a singular corroboration -of the rapidity with which language changes among these tribes. There -was a parrot living in 1800, which spoke well, but many of whose words -could not be understood, because it spoke the language of the Atures, a -tribe which had passed entirely out of recollection after it had been -mastered by the warlike Caribs. - -This comparatively small country is especially interesting to -ethnologists, in consequence of the perfect manner in which the natives -have guarded their individuality. Evidently sprung from one source, -they have settled down in different districts and, though alike in -color and general conformation, are as widely different in language, -and often in manners, as if they belonged to separate quarters of the -world. - -Five principal nations inhabit Guiana, and are subdivided into a vast -number of small tribes. These are the Macoushies, the Arawâks, the -Accawaios, the Caribs, and the Waraus. The two first of these will be -taken as representatives of the tribes in Guiana, though the others -will be mentioned in cases where they present any marks of difference. - -Taking broadly the chief points of distinction between these tribes, we -may simply define them as follows. - -The Macoushies are the largest and most ingenious tribe. They excel in -the manufacture of the terrible wourali poison, which they exchange -for canoes and other necessaries from other tribes. They also make the -best blow guns. Their huts are closed, and conical like sugar loaves. -Their number is somewhere about three thousand. - -The Arawâks are rather taller than the Macoushies, being, on an -average, five feet six inches in height. Their faces are marked with -the tattoo, and, as they are much brought into contact with white men, -they approach civilization nearer than do the other tribes. - -The Accawaios and Caribs wear no clothing except on occasions of -ceremony. The former are distinguished by a wooden ornament in the -cartilage of the nose, and the latter by wearing ornaments in the under -lip, and by a lump of annatto fastened to the hair of the forehead. -The Waraus are darker than the others, and are acknowledged to be the -best canoe makers in Guiana. Some of their vessels will carry ninety -or a hundred men, and they sell these canoes to the Macoushies for the -excellent wourali poison for which that tribe is celebrated. - - * * * * * - -Owing to the peculiarities of the climate, all these tribes have -many customs in common. The climate is a very remarkable one, being -exceedingly hot and exceedingly wet. The heat is owing to the -geographical position of Guiana, which is close to the equator, and the -wet is due to the trade winds and the configuration of the country. -Blowing across the Atlantic they absorb a vast quantity of moisture -from the ocean, and discharge the greater portion of it before they -can reach any distance inland, the moisture being condensed by the -secondary mountain chains, which are from five to seven thousand feet -in height. - -In consequence of this perpetual heat acting on perpetual moisture, -vegetation flourishes with a luxuriousness scarcely to be seen in any -other part of the world; and so completely is the ground covered with -tree and bush, that many trees are unable to find a habitation upon -the ground, and are forced to live upon each other. Thus, upon a lofty -mora tree a fig tree will grow, and upon the fig an enormous creeper -will fasten itself, its long shoots dangling loosely from the enormous -height at which they grow, or drooping in graceful and flower-clad -festoons from one tree to another. Such a forest as this is often -ankle-deep in water for miles together, and the vegetation is so thick -that the only way of passing through the tangled mass of vegetation -is to cut a path with the axe. And even then, after a week or two -has elapsed, the path will have vanished, so rapid is the growth of -vegetable life. - -It follows from this description that the animals which inhabit Guiana -must be chiefly of two kinds, those which inhabit the trees and those -which live in the water. Accordingly, we find that the country is -tenanted by a great variety of the monkey tribe, that the arboreal puma -and jaguar take the place of the terrestrial lion and tiger, and that -the aquatic capybara and tapir flourish where beasts of equal size -would perish if they had to live on the land. Birds of the most lovely -plumage abound in Guiana, which is also a very paradise of insects. - -It is evident that any human beings that live in such a country as -this must have many characteristics in common. They need no clothes, -no houses, and the woods supply them with food without the trouble of -cultivation, so that their chief incentives to labor are taken away. -Consequently, they may be called an idle people, though the indolence -is rather apparent than real. They will work as long as there is a -necessity for it; but, as a man can support existence without doing a -real day’s work in his life, it is evident that the necessity for work -does not often arise. - -One habit which they have in common is that of sleeping in the hammock. -This article is made by the natives from various vegetable fibres, and -is woven in different ways, according to the character of the tribe -which makes it. Some of these are made simply by laying a number of -strings parallel to each other, and knotting others across at right -angles; but the best have no knots at all, the strings interlacing with -each other diagonally, so as to yield in every direction to the body of -the occupier. When a native has made a particularly fine specimen, he -adorns it with feathers, and other brilliantly colored objects. - -These hammocks are of various sizes, some being small and used for -children, and others large enough to contain an entire family. The -specimen in my collection will hold two Guianan natives, but not two -Englishmen. It is rather more than sixteen feet in length, and six feet -in width. - -The hammock is exactly adapted to the wants of the native. It is so -light that he can roll it up and tie it round his body, so as to carry -it on a journey; so slight in texture as to keep him cool when lying in -it; and so yielding in its structure that the bare cords do not hurt -his naked skin. On a journey he always carries his hammock with him, -and if he wants to rest, he does not sit down, but slings the hammock -between two trees and lies in it. Several purposes are fulfilled by -this arrangement. In the first place, the ground is usually wet, so -that the man is kept dry in the hammock; in the next place, he is -safe from the snakes and other unpleasant reptiles that swarm in the -forests; and lastly, he would always rather lie down than sit. - -Another point which they have in common is the mode in which they -destroy the animals on which they live. The reader will remember that -the density of the jungle is so great, that if an animal were able, -after it was wounded, to run for a hundred yards or so, or a bird to -fly the same distance, it would be lost in the bush without the chance -of recovery. It is evident, therefore, that the successful hunter -must possess some means of destroying motion, if not life, almost -instantaneously, and this he finds in the terrible wourali poison, -which has the effect of causing instant stupor when it mixes with -the blood. The mode of manufacturing this poison will presently be -described, and at present it is sufficient to say that nearly all the -missiles used by the Guianan aborigines, whether propelled by the bow -or by the breath, are armed with this poison. - - * * * * * - -We will first take those missiles which are propelled by the breath, -and examine the instrument through which they are sent. In principle -this is exactly like the sumpitan of Borneo, described on page 1119, -but the mode of construction is different, and in the best specimens -the Guianan work is far superior to that of Borneo. - -Of this singular weapon there are several varieties, the two principal -of which are shown over the title “Blow guns” on the 1225th page, -both being taken from specimens in my possession. On the right is the -zarabatana. This is found throughout a very large tract of country -southward of Guiana, when it takes a somewhat modified and improved -form. - -It is made of two separate pieces of wood, in each of which is cut a -semicircular groove, so that when they are placed in contact with each -other they form a long wooden rod, pierced with a circular bore. As the -natives use nothing but the incisor teeth of rodent animals by way of -tools, it may be seen that the labor of making one of these instruments -is very great. The bore being carefully smoothed, the two halves are -laid together, and bound by means of long, flat strips of jacitara wood -wound spirally round them. - -To the lower end of the weapon is fastened a large mouthpiece, with a -conical opening like the mouthpiece of a trumpet, so as to collect the -breath for the propulsion of the arrow. A quantity of cement, composed -of a black wax made by a wild bee mixed with a pitchy substance -obtained from several trees, is then rubbed over the whole weapon, -which is considered complete. The zarabatana is exceedingly heavy, and -requires not only a strong but a practised arm to hold it steady. The -specimen in my collection, which is several feet in length, weighs -three pounds twelve ounces. - -A far superior weapon, called the “pucuna,” larger, lighter, and more -easily handled, is made by the natives of many parts of Guiana, that -used by the Macoushie tribe being the best. The specimen which is shown -on the left of the zarabatana was brought from Guiana by the late Mr. -Waterton, who presented it to me shortly before the accident which -caused his death. - -The weapon in question (called pucuna) is double, being made of two -portions, called ourah and samourah. The essential portion of the blow -gun is the ourah. This is a singular reed (_Arundinaria Schomburgkii_), -which, as far as is known, only grows on the sandstone ridge of the -Upper Orinoco between the rivers Ventuari, Paramu, and Mavaca. Like the -bamboo, it grows in clusters, and, though not exceeding half an inch in -diameter, the first fourteen or sixteen feet are without a knot. From -this point spread the long, slender branches, measuring from thirty to -forty feet in length, and waving in graceful curves when moved by the -wind. - -The portion used for the blowpipe is the first joint, which is uniform -in diameter throughout, and is naturally polished within. But it is -so thin, the walls being not twice the thickness of a playing card, -that it would be too fragile to be used without some protection. -Accordingly, the native has recourse to a sort of palm, called by him -samourah, its scientific title being _Ireartia setigera_. - -This is chosen of a proper size, cut down, and steeped in water, for -the purpose of extracting the pulp which fills the interior. When it -is quite dry, the reed is inserted into this tube, the native gunmaker -having a wonderful talent in getting the slender reed exactly in the -centre of the palm-stem, and fixing it in its place with the black wax -already mentioned. This wax is called kurumanni by the Macoushies, and -is used by them as freely as is the “black-boy” wax by the Australian -aborigines. The samourah is then scraped down to the proper thickness, -well polished, and the weapon is ready for the accessories which -complete it. - -One end is chosen to serve as a mouthpiece, and is bound with a string -made of silk-grass and the other is tipped with the half of the acuero -nut, which is very hard and prevents the end of the weapon from being -injured by accidental blows against a tree or the ground. This acuero -seed acts as a fore-sight, by which the native hunter can direct -his weapon; but, in order to secure a more certain aim, he adds a -singularly ingenious back-sight. Taking a lump of kurumanni wax, he -presses it on the blowpipe about eighteen inches from the mouthpiece, -and by means of the wax fixes upon the tube the two lower incisor teeth -of the acouchi, one of the cavies. - -Figure 1 shows the weapon itself, and fig. 2 the front view of the tip, -guarded with its ring of acuero seed, which forms the fore-sight. Fig. -3 gives an enlarged representation of the back-sight, made of the teeth -of the acouchi (_Dasyprocta Acouchi_) fixed in their place by the black -kurumanni wax. Fig. 4 is a section taken through the middle of the -back-sight, so as to show the way in which the teeth project from the -shaft. Fig. 5 is a front view of the butt, showing the way in which the -ourah reed is enclosed within the samourah palm. - -Such a weapon as this is exceedingly light and easy to handle, -presenting a strong contrast to the heavy and cumbrous zarabatana. -The weight of the one in my collection barely exceeds a pound and a -half, although it is eleven feet in length. It is held in rather a -curious manner. The left hand is turned with the palm upward, and the -elbow against the hip. The hand then grasps the blow gun within a -hands-breadth of the mouthpiece, and the right hand seizes it, palm -downward, in the space left by the other hand. In fact, this mode of -holding the weapon is exactly similar in principle to that which is -employed by riflemen. The blowpipe is then raised, not by the arms, -but by bending back the body; and it is astonishing to see how steady -it can be held for a lengthened time--a steadiness which can never be -gained if it be held by stretching out the right arm and grasping it at -some distance from the mouth. - -The natives are most careful respecting the straightness of their blow -guns, and never allow them to lean against anything lest they should be -warped. When they go hunting, they carry the blow gun upright, like a -soldier, “shouldering arms,” and when they return to their huts, they -suspend the weapon by a loop to the top of the house. Mr. Waterton -repeatedly draws attention to this point in his “Wanderings,” and when -he presented me with the pucuna which he brought from Guiana, the gift -was accompanied by a condition that it should never be allowed to lean -against a wall, but should be either laid on the ground or suspended by -its loop. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the arrows which are propelled through the pucuna. They -very much resemble in shape and size those which are employed by the -Dyaks, but, instead of being made to fit the bore of the pucuna by -a piece of pith or soft wood at the butt, a small quantity of wild -cotton, taken from the _Bombax ceiba_, is wound upon it, and fastened -with a fibre of silk grass. Cultivated cotton is too heavy to serve -the purpose, and nothing answers so well as the yellow, stout-fibred -cotton of the Bombax. Very great art is required in putting on the -cotton properly. It must exactly fit the bore, be perfectly regular, so -as not to disturb the accuracy of the flight, and must taper gradually -in front, so as to offer the least possible resistance to the air. See -illustration No. 1, on the next page. - -The shaft of the arrow is made of the leaf ribs of the coucourite palm, -a species of areca. It is about ten inches in length, no thicker than a -crow quill, and at one end is brought to a point as sharp as a needle -by scraping it between the teeth of the pirai fish (_Serrasalmus -piraya_). The teeth of this fish are flat, pointed, and double-edged, -much like those of the shark--and, indeed, the pirai is a veritable -fresh-water shark, biting whole mouthfuls from the bodies of animals -that enter the water, and even attacking the alligator itself--and when -the arrow is drawn between them, delicate shavings are taken off, just -as is the case with the double knife-sharpeners of the present day. One -half of a pirai jaw is always suspended to the quiver of a Macoushie. - -Of the poison with which the arrow is armed we will presently treat: -we are now only concerned with the manufacture of the weapon. In order -to save space, the cotton is not put upon the arrows until just before -they are wanted, six or seven finished arrows being left in the quiver -for immediate use, and the rest tied in a bundle until needed. The -formation of this bundle is singularly ingenious, the native being able -to remove any of the arrows without untying it, and to add as many as -he likes without disturbing those which already are tied together. - -The native takes a rod of hard wood, a little longer than the arrows, -and at one end he fixes a little wheel, rather more than two inches in -diameter. At two inches from the wheel, and the same distance from the -end of the rod, two holes are bored, through each of which are passed -two strings made of cotton. When the man wishes to tie up a number of -arrows, he lays them successively between the strings, which he twists -between each arrow. When the last arrow is laid in its place, the whole -are kept firm by a couple of sliding knots, which can be slipped along -the strings. - -Illustration No. 7 on the following page, will explain the method of -stringing the arrows better than can be done by words alone. Two of the -arrows are shown as prepared for use, the cotton being on their butts -and the poison on their tips. A number more are shown as they appear -on the double strings, poisoned, but without the cotton. A hunter will -sometimes have as many as five hundred arrows at once upon a string. - -In order to keep the weapons compact, so that they can be easily -slipped into the quiver, they are rolled round the little rod, and -bound firmly together in a cylindrical form, the poisoned points being -directed to the wheel, of which the reader will now see the use. It -serves as a sort of shield to the hand, so that when the hunter wishes -to take the arrows out of the quiver, he can do so without the least -danger; and when he desires to remove some arrows to be mounted with -cotton, he can push them through the spokes of the wheel, and take them -out without having to untie the bundle. See illustration No. 6. - -[Illustration: (1.) BLOW GUN ARROWS. (See page 1224.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) WINGED ARROW. (See page 1227.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) COTTON BASKET. (See page 1227.)] - -[Illustration: SHARPENER ENLARGED - -(4.) QUIVER AND SHARPENER. (See page 1227.)] - -[Illustration: (5.) BLOW GUNS. (See page 1223.)] - -[Illustration: (6.) ARROWS ROUND STICK. (See page 1224.)] - -[Illustration: (7.) ARROWS STRUNG. (See page 1224.)] - -When properly made and mounted, these arrows can be propelled with -wonderful force. I have sent one for a distance of a hundred yards, -and the natives can propel them to a still greater distance. There -is a certain art in using the pucuna, the arrow not being urged by a -lengthened breath, but by collecting all the air that the lungs will -hold, and giving a short expiration, as if the object were to empty the -lungs at one puff. The force comes entirely from the lungs, the cheeks -having nothing to do with it. When an arrow is rightly propelled, it -flies from the tube with a slight pop, like that which is produced by -quickly drawing the cork of a small bottle. It is quite invisible for -some little time, so rapid is the motion; and even when fitted with -white instead of yellow cotton the eye can scarcely follow its course. - -Such an instrument as this is simply invaluable for the purposes to -which it is devoted. It is intended to be used almost exclusively for -killing birds and small monkeys, both of which creatures live on trees. -Now, as the trees of Guiana run to an enormous height, some of them -attaining at least a hundred feet before they throw out a branch, it -will be seen that the birds are beyond the reach of shot-guns. The -foliage is so thick that it does not permit more than one or two shots -to reach the bird, and the height is so great that, even if they did -strike, they would produce but little effect. But the pucuna can throw -an arrow higher than a gun can propel a shot, and if the needle-like -point enters any part of the bird the effect is fatal. - -There is another advantage which the pucuna possesses over fire-arms. -The report of the gun frightens away every bird within sound, whereas -the pucuna is practically noiseless. The slight “pop” with which the -arrow is expelled does not alarm the birds, and an expert hunter can -kill twenty or thirty birds from one tree without alarming the others. -The pucuna is particularly useful in the chase of the toucan. The -feathers of this bird are much used in the manufacture of the beautiful -gala dresses which the natives wear on grand occasions, and are much -prized by them. Now, the toucan has a way of sitting on the topmost -boughs of the tallest trees, and were it not for the deadly arrow of -his pucuna, the native could seldom obtain a specimen. - -Just before the arrow is put into the blowgun, the hunter places it -between two of the pirai-teeth already mentioned, and turns it round -between his fingers. He thus cuts it through just above the poisoned -portion, so as to leave a mere thread of wood attaching the head to the -shaft. If, therefore, the bird or monkey, on feeling the smart, should -seize the arrow and withdraw it, the poisoned head snaps off and is -left in the wound. - -In some parts of the country a very ingenious form of arrow is used. -Instead of being made to fit the bore by means of cotton tied on the -butt, a flat piece of bark is twisted round the arrow so as to cause -it to terminate in a hollow cone. A larger piece of the same material -is fixed along the shaft of the arrow, and slightly twisted so as to -cause it to revolve when projected through the air. The arrow is tipped -with a slight iron blade, instead of being merely sharpened wood. (See -illustration No. 2.) This form of hollow base is admirably adapted -for its purpose, and has been copied by Messrs. Lang, the well-known -gunmakers of Cockspur Street, in their blow gun darts for killing small -birds and animals without noise. - -Next comes the quiver in which the arrows are kept. This is shown in -illustration No. 4, on page 1225. The framework of the quiver is made -of the ittiritti-reed, and the bottom is closed by a circular plate of -wood. In order to keep the poisoned arrows from the damp, which would -effectually spoil them, the whole of the quiver is covered with a thick -coat of kurumanni wax, which is pressed firmly into the interstices of -the wicker-work, and into the junction between the bottom and the sides -of the quiver. - -Lest the rough basketwork should injure the delicate arrows, the quiver -is lined with beautifully made mat-work, of much finer material, -and quite smooth to the hand. The cover is made of a piece of skin, -sometimes of the tapir, but mostly of the peccary. While fresh and wet -it is moulded over a wooden block of the proper size, just as hatters -mould their felt into its form. The hairy side is kept inward, and when -it is pressed on the top of the quiver, and twisted with a turn of the -hand, it holds itself firmly in its place. When the cover is on the -quiver, no water can enter, and even if the hunter were to drop it into -the river, the arrows would be preserved quite dry in their floating -receptacle. - -Before the kurumanni wax which covers the quiver is quite dry, a flat -plaited belt made of silk grass is secured to it by means of a long -string, which encircles the quiver several times. In this cincture is -also secured by strings a coil of silk-grass, from, which can be drawn -the fibres by which the cotton is attached to the arrow, together with -the half jaw-bone of the pirai, with which the arrows are sharpened. In -my specimen this jaw-bone is two inches in length. - -The last article which completes the equipment of the bird hunter is -the basket of wild cotton. This, as may be seen from illustration No. -3, has a narrow neck, and bulging body; so that the cotton does not -fall out of the basket, though carried with the opening downward. -The quantity which it will hold is astonishing. From one of them Mr. -Waterton took handful after handful until a large heap was on the -table, just as a conjuror takes vast quantities of feathers out of an -apparently empty hat. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXX. - -THE TRIBES OF GUIANA--_Continued_. - -WEAPONS--_Concluded_. - - - EFFECT OF THE WOURALI -- DEATH OF THE AI -- THE LARGER ARROWS -- - TUFTED ARROWS -- A SINGULAR QUIVER -- ARRANGEMENT OF THE MOVABLE - HEAD -- QUIVER FOR THE HEADS -- FATE OF THE WOUNDED INDIAN -- HOW - THE ARROWS ARE FEATHERED -- THE NATIVE BOW -- TURTLE ARROWS -- - MANUFACTURE OF THE WOURALI -- THE QUAKE AND ITS USES -- THE WOURALI - VINE, AND OTHER VEGETABLE CONSTITUENTS -- THE HYARRI POISON, AND ITS - USES -- ANTS AND SNAKE FANGS -- BOILING THE WOURALI -- EFFECTS OF THE - PROCESS ON THE MAKER -- SELF-POISONED ARROWS -- VARIOUS ARROW HEADS - OF GUIANA -- THE WHISTLING ARROW. - -The effect of the poison is instantaneous, provided that it be of good -quality and kept dry. There are many varieties of the wourali, but the -best, which is made by the Macoushies, is so powerful that one of the -tiny arrows brought by Mr. Waterton from Guiana killed a hedgehog at -once, though fifty years had elapsed since the poison was made. Death -was not instantaneous, for the animal, which was very slightly wounded -in the hind leg, breathed for some seconds; but the hedgehog was quite -insensible, and, as soon as it had been pricked by the dart, it allowed -me to lay it on its back, and place my finger on the ball of its eye, -without shrinking. - -Many experiments have been made in England with the wourali poison, -most of which have tended to prove that its power has been exaggerated, -and that a man could not be killed by the small quantity that could -be conveyed into a wound on the point of an arrow. I feel certain, -however, that in such cases either the poison has not been of good -quality, or that it has been carelessly kept, and allowed to become -damp, in which case it loses the greater part of its strength. It -is very difficult to procure the strongest wourali poison from the -natives, who are very unwilling to part with it, and will always try -to substitute an inferior kind. The only mode of procuring the best -wourali is to do as Mr. Waterton did, _i. e._ live among them, and -induce them to part with the little wourali-pots from which they have -poisoned their own arrows. Moreover, he must imitate their example in -keeping the poison in a perfectly dry place. The natives are so careful -on this point that they frequently remove the covers of their poison -pots and put them near the fire. - -There is no mistake about the potency of such poison as this. Its -effect upon a hedgehog has already been mentioned, but Mr. Waterton -tried it on several animals. For example, he had an Ai sloth that he -wanted to kill painlessly, and without damaging the skin. How he did it -is best told in his own words:-- - -“Of all animals, not even the toad and the tortoise excepted, this -poor animal is the most tenacious of life. It exists long after it has -received wounds which would have destroyed any other animal, and it may -be said, on seeing a mortally wounded sloth, that life disputes with -death every inch of flesh in its body. - -“The Ai was wounded in the leg, and put down upon the floor, almost -two feet from the table. It contrived to reach the leg of the table, -and fastened itself upon it as if wishful to ascend. But this was its -last advancing step; life was ebbing fast, though imperceptibly; nor -could this singular production of nature, which has been formed of a -texture to resist death in a thousand shapes, make any stand against -the wourali. - -“First one fore-leg let go its hold, and dropped down motionless by -its side; the other gradually did the same. The fore-legs having now -lost their strength, the sloth slowly doubled its body, and placed its -head betwixt its hind-legs, which still adhered to the table; but when -the poison had affected these also, it sank to the ground, but sank so -gently that you could not distinguish the movement from an ordinary -motion; and had you been ignorant that it was wounded with a poisoned -arrow, you would never have suspected that it was dying. Its mouth was -shut, nor had any froth or saliva collected there. - -“There was no _subsultus tendinum_, nor any visible alteration in -its breathing. During the tenth minute from the time it was wounded -it stirred, and that was all; and the minute after life’s last spark -went out. From the time the poison began to operate, you would have -conjectured that sleep was overpowering it, and you would have -exclaimed-- - - ‘Pressitque jacentem - Dulcis et alta quies, placidæque simillima morti.’” - -The reader will see that this account agrees exactly with my own -experiment. In neither case was death instantaneous, but in both cases -the power or wish to move seemed to be immediately taken from the -animal, though wounded in a limb and not in a mortal spot. - -Of course the quantity of poison must be proportioned to the size -of the animal. The tales that are told of a mere scratch producing -death are manifest exaggerations. It has been mentioned that in -Guiana no very large animals are found, the tapir and the jaguar -being the largest of the mammalia. For the purpose of killing these, -or going to battle where man is to be destroyed, the natives employ -a very different weapon, and use a bow and arrow of rather peculiar -construction. - -They are extremely long, some of them being six feet in total length. -The shaft is made of a cylindrical, hollow, and very strong reed -(_Gynecium saccharinum_) which runs to some length without a knot -or joint. In one end is fixed a long spike of a very hard and heavy -wood, called letter wood, because it is covered with red marks like -rude attempts at writing, very much like the scribbled marks on a -yellow-hammer’s egg. In order to guard it from splitting, the shaft of -the arrow is bound for some inches with cotton thread. The commoner -kinds of arrow are merely wrapped with this thread, but in the better -sorts the thread is woven in patterns almost as neat as those employed -by the Polynesian islanders. When the native wants to make a peculiarly -beautiful arrow, he ornaments it in a most singular manner. Into the -thread which wraps the shaft are inserted a quantity of brilliantly -colored feathers, mostly those of the various parrots which are so -plentiful in Southern America. Only the smallest and softest feathers -are used, and they are worked into the wrapping in a manner which -produces the most artistic combinations of color. - -The natives have a marvellous eye for color, most likely from having -continually before their eyes the gorgeous insects and birds of their -luxuriant country, and it is wonderful to see the boldness with which -they achieve harmony from a number of hues that scarcely any one would -dare to place in opposition with each other. Scarlet, yellow, pink, -blue, green, and snowy white are all used in these arrows, and are -arranged in a way that would do honor to the best European artist. - -Sometimes a cap is made for the arrows, and decorated with feathers in -the same brilliant style. Such arrows as these require much care on the -part of the owner, who is not content with an ordinary quiver, wherein -they might be jolted about and their lovely feathers spoiled, but -constructs a special and peculiar quiver for their reception. He takes -a number of bamboos, about the thickness of a man’s finger, and cuts -them into pieces some eighteen inches in length. These he lashes firmly -together, and then ties over them a bark cover, neatly wrapped with -cotton string. - -Each of these tubes contains one arrow, which fits with moderate -tightness, the downy feathers keeping it in its place. They are fixed -so perfectly, that when the arrow is pushed into its tube the feathers -are pressed tightly against the shaft, and when it is withdrawn, they -spring out by their own elasticity, and form an elegant colored tuft. -As the long arrow shafts are apt to vibrate by their own weight, and -might damage the feather tufts in the tubes, a cap is usually slipped -over them--in some cases plain, like the covering of the quiver, but in -others gorgeously made of feathers. These arrows are tipped with the -barbed tail-bone of the sting-ray or are pointed with iron, and not -with bone. These arrows and one of the tubes are illustrated on p. 1214. - -The heads of the arrows are made in various ways. Sometimes they are -simply covered with a series of rather blunt barbs, but the generality -of them are constructed after a very elaborate fashion. - -The barb of one kind of arrow reminds the observer of the weapon of the -Bosjesman, though the arrow is almost a spear in comparison with the -tiny weapon of the African savage. The point is tipped with a piece of -iron cut into a single barb, and projecting from it and pointing in the -opposite direction a curved iron spike is slightly lashed to the shaft -with cotton. - -A thick layer of wourali poison is laid on the arrow for about three -inches, aiding to fasten the iron spike to the shaft. Now, the wourali -poison mixes instantaneously with the blood, so that when the arrow -penetrates an animal, the poison dissolves, and allows the spike to -escape into the wound, carrying with it a sufficient amount of the -poison to cause death, even if in its struggles the animal should -succeed in shaking out the arrow itself. If the reader will refer to -illustration No. 4, on page 247, he will see in the illustration (fig. -4) the Bosjesman arrow, which is made on the same principle. - -Some of these arrows appear to have been much prized by the owners who -have covered them with an elaborate ornamentation of cotton thread for -a considerable portion of their length--an example of which, drawn from -one of my own specimens, may be seen in the illustration. Some of the -arrows have long ends of cotton strings hanging from them in lieu of -the feather tufts. These dangling cords are often used as ornaments -by the natives, who decorate with them their clubs in such a manner -that two or three blows must destroy the whole of the work. We shall -presently see examples of these clubs. - -The arrow head which is most in vogue among the Macoushies, whom we -take as the typical tribe of this part of the world, is made in a -different fashion. A square groove, about an inch in depth, is cut in -the extremity of the letter wood spike which terminates the arrow, and -a slight sliver of bamboo is lashed so as to press against the opening -along the side. A barbed spike of coucourite wood is then cut. It is -about three inches in length, flat toward the point, and squared at the -base, so as to slip easily into the groove at the head of the arrow, -where it is slightly held by means of the little bamboo spring. This -spring enables the head to remain in its place while the archer is -fitting the arrow to his bow and taking aim; but as soon as the missile -has struck its object, and the animal bounds forward, the poisoned head -remains in the wound, and the shaft falls on the ground. - -There is considerable art in putting the wourali on this kind of arrow -head. It is done in several layers, one being allowed to dry before -the other is applied, and being managed so as to cause an edge of the -pitch-like wourali to run along each side of the head. In consequence -of the movability of the head the native archer does not trouble -himself to carry more than one or two shafts, though he has by him a -store of ready-poisoned heads. These are kept in a little quiver made -of a joint of bamboo fitted with a cover, in order to keep the poison -from moisture, and with a cotton belt by which it can be slung over the -shoulders. - -One of these quivers in my collection, (see illustration No. 6, page -1231,) brought from Guiana by Sir. R. Schomburgk, is only seven inches -long by an inch and a half wide, and is capable of containing twelve -to fourteen poisoned heads. The native hunter does not require more -than this number, as he rarely shoots without hitting, and when he -has struck one animal large enough to require this kind of arrow, he -seldom wants more than one specimen. In the course of this account -of the Guiana natives the reader will notice the many trouble saving -expedients employed by them. - -Owing to the generous nature of the country, which supplies food -without requiring labor, and the warm, moist character of the climate, -the natives are very apathetic, and have the strongest objection to -carrying one ounce more weight, or doing one stroke more work, than is -absolutely needful. So, instead of carrying a large bundle of arrows, -the hunter has one, or at the most two arrows, and a quantity of small -poisoned heads, the whole equipment being so light that a child just -able to walk could carry the bow, arrows, and quiver without being much -inconvenienced. - -Knowing the power of this poison, the natives are exceedingly cautious -in handling it, and never carry the arrow with its head bare. They -always slip over the head a small tube of bamboo, just large enough -to be held in its place by the cotton wrapping that passes round the -junction of the head and the shaft. This is never removed except when -the arrow is to be used, and it is scarcely possible to frighten a -native more than by taking off the guard of an arrow and holding the -point to him. It is of this kind of arrow that the following story is -told in Mr. Waterton’s “Wanderings.” - -“One day ... an Arawâk Indian told an affecting story of what happened -to a comrade of his. He was present at his death. As it did not -interest the Indian in any point to tell a falsehood, it is very -probable that his account was a true one. If so, it appears that there -is no certain antidote, or at least an antidote that could be resorted -to in a case of urgent need; for the Indian gave up all thoughts of -life as soon as he was wounded. - -“The Arawâk Indian said it was but four years ago that he and his -companion were ranging in the forest in quest of game. His companion -took a poisoned arrow, and sent it at a red monkey in a tree above -him. It was nearly a perpendicular shot. The arrow missed the monkey, -and in the descent struck him in the arm, a little above the elbow. -He was convinced it was all over with him. ‘I shall never,’ said he -to his companion, in a faltering voice, ‘bend this bow again.’ And -having said that, he took off his little bamboo poison box which hung -across his shoulder, and putting it, together with his bow and arrows, -on the ground, he laid himself down close by them, bade his companion -farewell, and never spoke more.” - -Mr. Waterton then proceeds to mention the different antidotes, in none -of which does he place the least reliance, and in another place remarks -that if the natives knew of any remedy for the poison, they would never -be without it. - -[Illustration: (1.) WINGED ARROWS. (See page 1233.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) CASSAVA DISH. (See page 1248.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) QUAKE. (See page 1234.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) ARROW HEADS. (See page 1235.) - -_From Christy Collection._ _From my Collection._] - -[Illustration: (6.) QUIVER. - -(See p. 1230.)] - -[Illustration: (5.) TURTLE ARROW. (See page 1233.)] - -[Illustration: (7.) FEATHER APRON. (See page 1216.)] - -Before passing to the manufacture of this dreaded poison, we will -finish the description of the arrows. - -The very long arrows, with their plumed shafts, need no feathers, their -great length sufficing to keep them straight during their flight. Were -the Guianan native to attempt a “long shot,” he would fail. He is not -used to long ranges, which for the most part are rendered needless by -the conformation of the country and the density of the foliage. He does -not expect to shoot at an object distant more than thirty or forty -yards, and likes to get much closer if possible. At these short ranges, -the great length of the arrow keeps it straight, and is effectual in -enabling the hunter to strike an animal, such as a tapir, a capybara, -or a monkey, through the masses of vegetation by which it is concealed -from most eyes except those of a native. - -Most of the arrows, however, are feathered, and there is such ingenuity -in the way of putting on the feathers that it deserves mention. In -the arrows to which we are accustomed there are three feathers, but -in the Guianan arrow there are only two. These are taken from the -corresponding feathers of the opposite wings of the bird, so that -when they are fixed on the end of the shaft they curve in different -directions, like two blades of a steamer’s screw, and so communicate -a revolving motion to the arrow as it flies through the air. So, if a -native has two or three arrows before him to which he wishes to add -the feathers, he procures a bird, and for the first arrow takes, we -will say, the second primary feather from the right and left wings of -the bird, cuts off a portion of the upper part, about three inches in -length, strips away the inner half of the feather, and fastens the -remainder on the weapon. The next arrow is feathered from the third -primary of each wing, and so on. See illustration No. 1, page 1231. - -The feathers are lashed to the arrow with cotton thread, and so rudely -put on, that they would sadly cut an English archer’s hand when the -arrow was shot. In order to preserve the nock of the arrow from being -split by the bow-string, it is not made in the reed shaft of the arrow -itself, but in a piece of letter wood, which is lashed to the butt of -the arrow. - -The bow is often shorter than the arrows, and is of no great strength, -a long range being, as has already been stated, not required. Many -kinds of wood furnish the Guianan bow, but those weapons which are most -in favor are made of a species of Lecythis. They are strung with the -silk grass which has been already mentioned. - -Besides the ordinary mode of using their bows and arrows, the Guianan -natives have another, which exactly resembles that sport of the old -English archers, when a garland was laid on the ground, and the -archers, standing in a circle round it, shot their arrows high into -the air, so that they should fall into the garland. It sometimes -happens that a turtle is lying in the water in such a manner that an -arrow, shot at it in the usual manner, would only glance off its hard -coat without doing any injury. The hunter, therefore, shoots upward, -calculating the course of the descending missile so accurately that it -falls upon the turtle’s back, and penetrates the shell. - -These arrows are heavier than the ordinary kinds, and are furnished -with a sharp iron point, made in a very ingenious manner. As may be -seen by reference to illustration No. 5, page 1231, the iron point -is doubly barbed. Its neck, at first flat, is soon divided into two -portions, which diverge from each other, and have their ends sharply -pointed, so as to constitute a secondary pair of barbs. A stout -double string of silk grass is then fixed to the neck, and cotton -cord, strengthened with kurumanni wax, is coiled round the diverging -points, so as to form a tube. The end of the piece of hard wood which -terminates the arrow is scraped down to a conical point, so that it can -easily be slipped into the tube. Lastly, the double cord fastened to -the head is carried for a foot or so along the arrow, and made fast by -a couple of belts of silk grass. - -As soon as this arrow strikes the turtle, it dashes off, shaking the -shaft out of the tube, and so preventing the arrow from being worked -out of the wound by dragging the upright shaft through the water. -Whenever the reptile comes near the surface, the light reed shaft of -the arrow rises so as to indicate its presence, and, aided by this -mark, the hunter is soon able to secure the reptile. The arrow, a part -of which is shown in the illustration, is rather more than five feet in -length. It is represented with the shaft separated from the tube. The -iron point is thick and solid, and as the hard-wood spike is fourteen -inches in length, the front part of the missile is comparatively heavy, -causing it to descend with great force. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the manufacture of the dreaded poison which produces -such fatal effects. The natives are very chary of giving information on -the subject, and it is very difficult to learn the precise ingredients, -the proportionate quantities, or the mode of preparing them. The -following account is obtained partly from Mr. Waterton’s book, partly -from information given by himself, and partly from the words and works -of other travellers in the country. - -A good many articles are employed, or said to be employed, but I -believe that only two are really needed. The native who is about to -make wourali sets about his task in a very deliberate manner. He sets -off into the woods alone, taking on his back a peculiar kind of basket -called a “quake” or “habbah.” This is a very ingenious kind of basket, -combining the two requisites of lightness and strength. It is generally -used when the native wants to carry objects that are not very heavy, -and are large enough not to slip through the interstices. - -It is made from the ittiritti reed, split into slips about the third of -an inch in width. As when tilled it swells out toward the bottom and is -narrow at the mouth, the objects that are placed in it have no tendency -to fall out, which might easily be the case with an ordinary basket, as -the bearer is obliged to clamber over fallen trees, to force his way -through the dense underwood of a tropical forest, and to subject the -quake to such rough treatment that its qualities of form and elasticity -are continually brought into operation. - -The quake will hold a wonderful amount of goods, being as dilatable -as an English carpet-bag. My own specimen (see illustration No. 3, p. -1231,) measures twenty inches in width, and this is the usual average. - -The first thing to be sought is the wourali vine (_strychnos -toxifera_). It is closely allied to the tree which furnishes the -well-known strychnine, in its coarser stages of preparation called _nux -vomica_, or ratsbane. The upas tree, which furnishes the poison for the -Dyak sumpitan arrows, belongs to the same genus. The wourali (spelt -sometimes “oorara” or “curari”), though not very rare, is very local, -and not easily discovered. It has a vine-like appearance, with a woody -stem about three inches in diameter, covered with rough gray bark. The -leaves are dark green, placed opposite each other, and of an oval form. -The fruit is nearly as large as an apple, round, and smooth, with seeds -imbedded in a bitter gummy pulp. - -When the poison maker has found the wourali, he looks after two bulbous -plants, containing a green and glutinous juice, and puts some of their -stems into the quake. The third vegetable is a bitter root, which I -believe to be the hyarri, a papilionaceous plant, which is largely used -by the natives in poisoning the water when catching fish on a large -scale. All parts of the hyarri are poisonous, but the root is the most -powerful part of it. The natives take some of the root in their canoes, -bale water over it, and pound it with their clubs. After allowing -the water time to mix with the expressed juice, the fisherman throws -it overboard, and in a few minutes every fish within a considerable -distance comes floating to the surface perfectly helpless. One cubic -foot of the hyarri will poison an acre of water, even among rapids, -while a much less quantity is needed for creeks and still water. The -poison has no effect on the flesh of the fish, which is perfectly -wholesome. - -The wourali and the hyarri are, in my opinion, the essential parts of -the poison, the bulbous plants probably supplying the glutinous matter -needed to make it adhere to the point of the weapon. But the poison -maker is not content with vegetable substances, but presses the animal -kingdom into his service. - -He procures two kinds of ant, one the muniri (_Ponera grandis_), a -huge, black creature, sometimes an inch in length, with a sting so -venomous that it often produces a fever. One of these ants is in my -collection, and its very look is venomous enough to warn any one -against it. The other is the fire-ant (_Myrmica sævissima_), a tiny red -insect, whose sting is just like the thrust of a redhot needle. Besides -these he takes the poison fangs of the labarri and counacouchi snakes, -two of the most venomous serpents of the country. These fangs are kept -in store, as the native always kills these reptiles whenever he sees -them, and extracts their poison fangs. - -That these latter ingredients can have no effect in increasing the -power of the poison I never doubted, and some years ago I expressed -my opinion that they were not used at all, but merely collected as a -blind, to prevent the secret of the poison being known. This opinion -is corroborated by the researches of Dr. Herman Beigel, who analyzed -some wourali poison taken from the same arrow with which the hedgehog -was killed, and who ascertained that there was not a particle of bony -or animal matter in the poison, but that it was wholly of a vegetable -character. Moreover, there was no trace of red pepper, which is said to -be one of the ingredients. - -As far as the sense of taste goes, my own experience coincides with -that of Dr. Beigel. I have tasted the poison, which is innocuous unless -mixed directly with the blood, and found it to be intensely bitter, -and rather aromatic. These two qualities are doubtless due to the -strychnine of the wourali and to the hyarri. There was not the least -flavor of red pepper. - -All these ingredients being procured, the poison maker sets to work in -a very systematic manner. He will not prepare the wourali in, or even -near, his own house, but makes his preparations in the depth of the -forest, where he builds a little hut especially for the purpose. His -first care is to build a fire, and while it is burning up, he scrapes -into a perfectly new pot a sufficient quantity of the wourali wood, -adding to it the hyarri in proper proportion, and placing them in a -sort of colander. Holding the colander and its contents over the pot, -the Indian pours boiling water over them, and allows the decoction to -drain into the vessel, when it looks something like coffee. When a -sufficient quantity has been obtained, the bulbous roots are bruised -and their juice squeezed into the pot, and, lastly, the snakes’ fangs -and ants are pounded and thrown into the pot. - -The vessel is now placed on the fire, which is kept up very gently, so -as to allow the contents to simmer, rather than boil, and more wourali -juice is added to supply the waste by evaporation. A scum is thrown -up during the process, and carefully skimmed with a leaf, the boiling -being continued until the poison is reduced to a thick dark brown -syrup, about the consistence of treacle. According to some accounts, -the seeds of the red pepper are used, not as adding to the strength -of the poison, but as a test of its preparation being complete. When -the native thinks that the poison is nearly ready, he throws into it a -single seed of red pepper, which immediately begins to revolve. He then -allows the boiling to proceed a little longer, and throws in another -seed, which perhaps revolves, but more slowly; and he repeats this -experiment until the seed remains stationary, which is accepted as a -proof that the preparation is complete. - -The Indian then takes a few arrows, dips them in the poison, and tries -their effect upon some animal or bird, and, if satisfied with the -effect, pours the poison into a new earthenware pot, ties a couple of -leaves over the mouth, and a piece of wet hide over the leaves, so as -to exclude both air and moisture, especially the latter. The little -pots which are used for holding the wourali are nearly spherical, and -about as large as an ordinary orange. - -The above account of preparing the wourali poison is that which is -furnished by the natives, but, as they have a definite object in -keeping the mode of preparation secret, it cannot be absolutely relied -upon. That there is a secret connected with its manufacture is evident -from the fact that the Macoushie poison is acknowledged to be better -and stronger than that which is manufactured by any other tribe, and -that all the Guianan tribes are glad to purchase wourali from the -Macoushies. - -It is not every native who knows how to make this wonderful poison. The -knowledge is restricted to the conjurers, who keep it in their families -and hand it down from father to son. They are so careful to preserve -their secret, that not only do they make the wourali at a distance from -their houses, but when they have completed the manufacture they burn -down the huts, so as to obliterate every trace of the means which have -been employed. - -They have a sort of superstitious reverence for the wourali. The -ostensible reason which is given for burning down the hut is, that -it is polluted by the fumes of the poison, and may never again -be inhabited, so that it is better to burn it down at once. They -allege that during its preparation the Yabahou, or evil spirit, is -hovering over, ready to seize upon those who are uninitiated in the -mysteries, and so by the aid of superstition effectually prevent their -proceedings from being watched. - -In order to carry out this fear of the wourali to its full extent, the -professors of poison-manufacture will refuse to make it except when -they please, alleging any excuse that may suggest itself. Mr. Waterton -narrates an instance where a man who had promised to make some wourali -poison declined to do so at the last moment, on the ground that he -expected an increase to his family. The maker is always pleased to -consider himself ill after he has completed his work, which, in spite -of the repeated washing of his face and hands, renders him sufficiently -liable to the attacks of the invisible Yabahou to cause indisposition. -The manufacturer is not altogether an impostor in this case, but acts -from a sort of belief in the mysterious gloom which always surrounds -the wourali. Nothing, for example, would induce him to eat while the -poison is being prepared, and, however hungry he may be, he will fast -until the completed wourali has been poured into its receptacle. - -Although the chief poison in Guiana, the wourali is not the only one, -the natives having discovered a sort of wood which is sufficiently -poisonous in itself to need no other appliance. The wood is that of -some endogenous tree, of a pale yellow color. From this wood the -natives cut long blade-shaped heads, much resembling those of the -Kaffir assagais in form. The peculiar shape of the head may be seen in -figures 4 and 5 of illustration No. 4, on page 1231, which represents -two views of the same arrow head. Sometimes the head is left quite -plain, but in some specimens a pattern is rudely scribbled on the outer -surface of the blade. Annatto is the coloring matter used, leaving a -dusky red dye behind it. I possess specimens of these arrows, both -plain and colored. - -These flat heads are lashed to the hard-wood spike that terminates the -arrow by a complicated arrangement of cotton threads, which, though -they do not possess the artistic elegance of the Polynesian wrapping, -yet are crossed and recrossed so as to produce a series of diamond -shaped patterns. Mr. Waterton first called my attention to the venomous -properties of this arrow head. - -The young men practise diligently with these weapons. The largest, -which are intended for the slaughter of tapirs, jaguars, and such like -animals, are tested by being shot perpendicularly into the air, each -archer trying to send his arrow above that of his competitor. - -Mr. Brett, in his “Indian Tribes of Guiana,” gives an interesting -account of the skill of the natives as marksmen, and relates one -little episode of the shooting, which shows that the “inevitable dog” -accompanies sports in Guiana, just as he does in England. - -“After several rounds from each man and boy, the archery contest -closed by a simultaneous discharge of arrows from every bow. More than -two hundred shafts flying through the air together presented a novel -spectacle, and in an instant demolished the target amid loud shouts -from all. A dog which, unheeded, had wandered behind it, was surrounded -by the crop of arrows which suddenly stuck in the sand, some even -beneath him. He was a lucky dog, however, for with marvellous fortune -he escaped unhurt, though bewildered by the adventure and the roar of -applause which followed his somewhat hasty retirement, with deprecating -look and drooping tail.” - -Spears are also used by some of the tribes. The same writer describes -the mode in which a Warau had practised with the spear. His weapon -was made of the same material as the arrow, but of greater size, the -shaft being of reed, and the head of hard wood. The young spearman had -fixed a mark on the soft stem of a plantain tree. As the missile struck -the mark, the hard-wood head remained sticking in the tree, while the -elastic shaft bounded back toward the thrower. - -The lad said that this javelin was used for killing sundry large -fishes, which are induced to rise to the surface of the water by means -of scattering seeds and other food of which they are fond, and are then -killed by means of this weapon. - -Some of the arrows are unpoisoned, and, as an example of the great -variety assumed, of the arrow heads of the different tribes three more -specimens are given in the three left-hand figures of illustration No. -4, on page 1231, taken from the “Christy” collection. These heads are -something of the same form as those which have just been described, -but, instead of being flat, they are curved. The reader may remember -that a similar form of arrow prevails in New Guinea. The reason is -simple enough. The bamboo is covered with a coating of pure flint, -which forms a natural edge so sharp, that when the bamboo is split, it -can be used as a knife. - -Indeed, until the introduction of iron, the bamboo furnished the knife -in ordinary use throughout all Polynesia and many other countries where -it grew. It is evident, therefore, that an arrow head merely made from -a hollow bamboo stem, and retaining the hollow shape, must be a most -formidable weapon, and inflict a very dangerous wound. It is brittle, -fragile, and would shiver to pieces against a shield or defensive armor -of even moderate strength, but against the naked bodies of the Indians -it is a most effective weapon. - -Great pains have been taken with these arrows, all of which have -been ornamented in some peculiar manner. One of them is covered on -the convex side with colored patterns, just as is the case with the -poison-wood arrow just described. Another is not only ornamented, but -cut into barbs. The third, which is plain, is distinguished by a hollow -ball, placed just below the head. The ball is pierced with a hole, so -that when the arrow is sent from the bow a whistling sound will be -produced. The Chinese use whistling arrows at the present time, and so -did our archers in the days when the long-bow was the pride of England. -In all these cases, the whistle could be used for amusement in time of -peace, but for signals in time of war. - -As the thoughtful reader might gather from the elaborate care exercised -in ornamenting these weapons, the natives would rather exhibit than -use them. It is almost invariably found to be the case, that really -warlike people keep their weapons in the highest state of efficiency, -but trouble themselves comparatively little about ornamenting them, -whereas those who want a reputation for valor, without the trouble and -danger of earning it, try to gain their end by having their weapons -covered with ornament, and themselves assuming as martial an aspect as -possible. If the reader will remember the various peoples that have -been described in the course of this work, he will see how completely -this rule holds good. - -Take, by way of example, the Fijian and the Tongan. The one is -celebrated throughout the world for the variety, the beauty, the -finish, and the artistic ornamentation of his weapons. He always moves -armed, feeling himself at a loss without his club on his shoulder; he -bedizens himself in the most extravagant manner for the war dance, and -before joining in actual battle he consumes a vast amount of time in -boasting of his prowess, and of the use to which he will put the body -of his foe. - -But the Tongan, who never thinks of boasting before or after battle, -whose weapons are simple and unadorned, is so completely the superior -of the Fijian that he could, if he chose, make himself the master of -the whole Fiji territory. We see the same characteristic in several -Eastern lands, in which the men are walking arsenals of weapons inlaid -with gold, silver, and precious stones, and yet will take the first -opportunity of running away when there is a probability that their -ornamental weapons will be used in earnest. - -So the experienced anthropologist, as soon as he sees these beautifully -carved arms, decorated with the most delicate plumage, and painted with -all the colors which native art can supply, at once makes up his mind -that such weapons are more for show than use, and that the makers would -not have expended such time and trouble upon them, if they had intended -them to undergo the rough usage of actual warfare. - -[Illustration: (1.) HEADDRESS (See page 1255.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) HEADDRESS. (See page 1255.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) GUIANAN CLUBS. (See page 1239.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) GUIANAN CRADLE. (See page 1247.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXI. - -THE TRIBES OF GUIANA--_Continued_. - -WAR--SUPERSTITION. - - - GUIANAN CLUBS -- THE SAPAKANA AND POTU -- WARFARE -- CANNIBALISM - -- THE SHELL MOUND AND ITS CONTENTS -- RISE AND FALL OF THE CARIB - TRIBE -- BLOOD FEUDS -- THE KANAIMA AND ITS RESULTS -- A STRANGE - SUPERSTITION -- THE GUIANAN VAMPIRE -- WAR WITH THE ARAWÂKS -- - INGENIOUS STRATEGY -- THE AMBUSH -- THE FORT AND THE BOOM -- CAPTURE - OF THE CHIEF AND END OF THE WAR. - -We will now pass to their clubs, in which, as well as in the arrows, -can be read the characteristics of their makers: some of them are -wonderful examples of savage art. The specimens which are shown in an -illustration on the preceding page are all drawn from examples in the -“Christy” collection. - -Those on the right are examples of the kind of club which is called -Sapakana. They are made of the heaviest and hardest wood which the -native can find, and some of them are so large and heavy that they -require a strong man to wield them. The blade is formed something like -that of the New Zealand merai, being slightly convex in the middle, and -coming to an edge on either side, so that it is as formidable a weapon -as can well be imagined. - -In order to give a firm grasp, the handle is covered with cotton string -wound upon it very neatly, afterward being ornamented with feathers and -similar decorations. As the heads of these clubs are very much alike, I -have only given one entire, and the handles of two others. The central -is the most highly ornamented, having tufts of brilliant green feathers -just at the junction of the head and the handle, and below the feathers -a series of white balls made of cotton-wool. The reader will doubtless -admire the elaborate pattern in which the cotton string is wound -upon the handle. One of these weapons in my own collection very much -resembles that which has been already described, except that, instead -of the feathers and cotton-wool balls, it is ornamented with a series -of long trailing tufts made of cotton fibre. - -At the present time the use of these beautiful clubs is practically -abandoned, the musket having superseded the native weapons, so that the -clubs, although they are still manufactured, are made for sale, and not -for use. - -Next comes a club which is used by the Caribs. It carries out fully the -principle which has just been mentioned respecting the ratio between -the ornament of the weapon and the warlike spirit of the user. This -club is comparatively plain, being meant for use and not for show. The -makers call it by the name of Potu, and it is evidently a modification -of the “macana” club of the Gran Chaco Indians. To the eye it seems -no very powerful weapon, but its weight, form, and balance render it -capable of dashing out the brains of a man with a single blow. There -is generally a wrapping of cotton string round the middle, so as to -afford a firm grip, and a loop made of the same material, which passes -over the wrist. A modification of the potu is shown in the left-hand -specimen. - -The very shape of the potus proves that they are meant to be used by -a courageous and warlike people. As a rule the instinct of a really -courageous people is to “get at” the adversary, while that of an -unwarlike people is to keep the foe at a distance. - -As to warfare and the mode of conducting it, there is considerable -variation in the different tribes, some being peaceable and quiet, -while others are just the reverse. The most warlike tribe among them is -undoubtedly the Carib, of which Raleigh wrote that they were a naked -people, but as valiant as any under the sky. - -The Caribs were at that time the most important of the Guianan tribes, -having earned their prominence by their weapons. If they quarrelled -with another tribe, they were accustomed to make an expedition into the -enemy’s land by night, surround in succession their scattered villages, -kill all the men, and take the women and children prisoners. Some of -these captives were employed as slaves among themselves, and by degrees -became incorporated with the tribe of their captors, while others were -reserved for sale. They did not, however, restrict themselves to this -kind of secret expedition, but openly made war with other tribes, and -boasted that they would paddle their canoes against the stream, so that -the enemy might hear them coming and not be taken by surprise. - -There seems to be little doubt that the Caribs were at one time -cannibals, though at the present day there is great difficulty in -getting them to acknowledge the fact. The former cannibalism of these -tribes was easily continued by some discoveries which were made in a -large mound situated on a sand reef, some ten or twelve miles from the -sea. - -Thinking that this mound might be a kitchen midden similar to those -which are found in many parts of the Old World, Mr. Brett instituted -a search, and found that, like these mounds, the heap consisted -chiefly of shells, mostly those of mussels and periwinkles, together -with the claws and shells of crabs, and some bones of fishes and land -vertebrates. At no very great depth from the surface, the excavators -came upon a vast quantity of human bones, the skulls shattered to -pieces, and the bones of the arms and legs split longitudinally. - -To an experienced eye this state of the bones told its own story. The -bones were not laid regularly, as they would have been if they had -been the remains of bodies regularly interred, but were tossed about -in confusion, the fragments of skulls, vertebrae, and limbs being -scattered here and there without the least order. The story which these -remains tell is simple enough. They are the bones of human beings who -have been eaten by their fellow-men, which, after being cracked for the -sake of the marrow, have been flung aside, together with the shells of -molluscs and other refuse. That this horrid custom was common to all -the tribes at one time seems very probable, but the Caribs are the last -to whom cannibalism has been attributed. - -Like the Mundurucús, the Caribs had an ordeal consisting in enduring -the bites of ants. They had no hereditary chief, though the son of -a chief would succeed his father if he were considered to possess -sufficient ability and courage. Even in such a case, the candidate for -chieftainship had to prove his superiority over his fellows by his -capability of bearing privations as well as torture. He was required -to show that he was acquainted with all the stratagems of war, that he -could endure long fasting, that he was of unflinching courage, and that -he could resist even the terrible ordeal of the ants, and not until he -had satisfactorily passed through all those trials did the tribe lay -their weapons at his feet in token of their submission to him. - -We may naturally feel some surprise that a people who exhibit such an -indomitable spirit, and such a love of freedom, who have overrun vast -tracts of territory and successfully resisted even the well-armed and -disciplined troops of Europe, should not have advanced in the scale of -civilization, but have remained as savage at the present day as we know -them to have been three hundred years ago. Mr. Brett, whose personal -knowledge of them enables him to speak with authority, gives his -solution of the question as follows:-- - -“There arose among them no master spirit, who, combining the wisdom of -the legislator with the bravery of the warrior, might have established -humane and civilizing institutions among his people, and permanently -united their scattered hordes. In great emergencies the necessity for -united action led them accordingly to follow, and implicitly obey, some -one of their chiefs, invested by themselves with superior authority, -like a dictator of ancient Rome. But at other times each petty head -of a clan or family moved and acted in a great measure as he pleased, -there being no actual power nor hereditary authority sufficiently -respected to command the obedience of all. - -“Having thus no permanent band of cohesion, their wild hordes could -only fight, overrun, oppress, and destroy, and in their highest -prosperity were incapable of accomplishing any great and useful work -which might have remained as their memorial to future ages.” - -In consequence of the want of leadership, the Carib tribe, once the -greatest, and perhaps the origin of all the Guianan tribes, is steadily -decreasing, and, valiant as they may be, they are no longer the terror -of the other tribes, as they used to be. Indeed, during their feud with -the Acawaios, in which they have been engaged for a long time, the -Caribs have by no means been the winners. They have even been obliged -to quit their own district, and settle themselves near the missionary -stations for protection. - -The same author who has just been quoted mentions several instances -which show the failing power of the Caribs. On one occasion a Carib -chief came to live at the mission station because he had found that a -party of Acawaios, painted and equipped for war, were lurking near his -home in the forest. Even in his place of refuge he was not safe from -his enemies. One evening the village was disturbed by loud outcries, -and it was found that a son-in-law of the chief had been seriously -hurt, and was lying in his hammock, writhing with the pain of a blow -which he had received. He had wandered to some little distance from the -house, when he caught sight of an Acawaio behind him. He turned round, -sprang upon the enemy, and threw his arms round him; but the man was -too strong, hurled him to the ground, and, as he fell, struck the blow -which had caused him to take to his hammock. - -The whole Carib party was in great confusion and terror for some time, -but at last it turned out that the attack was in consequence of a -personal feud with the wounded man. Two years before, his father had -been assassinated by the Acawaios, and he very naturally used his -bow and arrows in a vain attempt to save his father’s life. This act -drew upon him the vengeance of the Acawaios, who marked him for death -whenever they could find an opportunity of killing him. He had fled -from the Essequibo to Pomeroon, but uselessly, and was advised by the -missionary to go to the coast and procure employment on one of the -sugar estates, where his enemies would not be likely to follow. - -Sometimes a blood feud is caused by a superstitious practice called -Kanaima. A person dies, and the medicine man decides that the death -has been caused by some one who has used sorcery for the purpose of -taking away his life. The supposed wizard is then doomed to die, and a -near relative of the deceased is set apart for the purpose of carrying -out the sentence. He is supposed to be possessed by a wandering spirit -called Kanaima, and is called by that name until the deed of vengeance -is accomplished. During the time of possession, the Kanaima has to -suffer many privations, so that the mere wish to be restored to his -ordinary life acts as an incentive to the fulfilment of his office. - -The mode of killing a victim according to the Kanaima superstition is -a very cruel one. He is approached from behind (as was the case with -the young Carib above-mentioned); and if the slayer can come within -reach, the victim is struck down with a blow on the back of his neck. -This blow is not meant to be fatal, and is only hard enough to cause -insensibility for a time. The Kanaima then forces open his victim’s -mouth, and presses through his tongue the fangs of a venomous serpent. -The tongue immediately swells to such an extent as to prevent the -unfortunate wretch from speaking, and in the course of a day or two -to end his life. Sometimes the Kanaima is said to substitute for the -serpent’s fangs a poisonous powder, made for the express purpose, and -kept in a little tube made of the wing-bone of a bird. The preparation -of this powder is a secret, handed down from father to son. - -The task of the Kanaima is not yet ended. Three days after the burial -of the victim, the murderer must visit the grave and go through some -ceremony, before the Kanaima spirit departs and allows the man to -return to his friends. The natives are very chary of their knowledge on -this subject, but, as far as can be ascertained, the Kanaima presses a -pointed stick through the body, tastes the blood, and by that act is -relieved from the spirit of murder. - -The friends of the victim, therefore, always endeavor to conceal the -place of burial, and it is the duty of the murderer to hover about the -place so that they shall not be able to inter the body without his -knowledge. Should the friends be successful, the vengeance is reversed, -for the unfortunate Kanaima is obliged to wander through the woods -until he is afflicted with madness, or some other form of vengeance -whereby the spirit of murder punishes those who have not carried out -his wishes. - -Mr. Brett witnessed several instances of this dreadful mode of -punishment, and in one case had little doubt that he had come upon a -Kanaima who had been unable to find the body of his victim. “An Indian, -reduced almost to a skeleton, and in a dreadful state of exhaustion, -was picked up in the forest by some Arawâk, and brought to the Pomeroon -mission. He had lost a portion of his scalp, and had his lower lip torn -down at each corner. This he said had been done by a small ‘tiger,’ -which had sprung on him while lying in the forest.... - -“The Acawaios at the mission, whose language he spoke, took much care -of him at first, but afterward judged, from his refusing certain kinds -of food and other signs, that he was a devotee and victim of unappeased -Kanaima, and the murderer of a man killed some time before. From this, -and his savage, ungrateful demeanor (though Mr. M’Clintock aided by -myself, cleansed and dressed his sores to encourage them), we had some -difficulty in getting him nursed till his strength had returned, as -they feared lest they should become his future victims.” - -If the friends of the murdered man fear that they will not be able to -conceal the body effectually, they remove the liver, and put in its -place a redhot axe-head, under the belief that when the Kanaima tastes -the blood of his victim, the heat which was in the axe-head will pass -into his body and consume him. - -Putting aside private feud, the Caribs have of late been beaten by the -other tribes in open war. They had been partially successful against -the Arawâks, who had been driven into the swampy district near the -Waini. Here, however, the fugitives made a stand, and placed themselves -under the supreme command of a well-known and tried warrior. Expecting -that the Caribs would soon follow them into their place of refuge, -their leader placed his men in ambush among the islands, and awaited -the coming of the enemy. - -On came the Caribs in their great war canoes, following each other in -single file through the narrow creeks which separate the “wet savannah” -into islands. They were allowed to pass unhurt, until they rounded one -of the islands, when a deadly shower of arrows from both banks disabled -or killed every man on board. The second canoe pushed on, only to meet -the same fate, while the others, not being able to see the carnage -that was taking place, hurried onward toward the spot whence the cries -proceeded, and were in their turn overwhelmed with the deadly shower. -The victorious Arawâks then jumped into the water, seized the canoes, -and killed every one of the warriors with the exception of two. These -were sent home by the victors on the promise of a large ransom, to be -paid in the cotton hammocks for the manufacture of which the Caribs are -so famous; and an insulting message was also sent by them, requesting -the Caribs to send another expedition. - -On land the Caribs fared as badly against the same foes as they had -done by sea. Being determined to resist the continual attacks of the -Caribs, the Arawâks made up their minds to fly no more to the swamps -for safety, but to boldly face their enemies. They therefore built -a large house on the banks of a rivulet, surrounded it with trees -laid with their branches outward--in fact, the _abattis_ of modern -engineering--and stored the house with as many arrows as they could -make. Moreover, they made broad wooden shields, which were used on this -occasion for the first and probably for the last time. - -As had been anticipated, the Caribs were not very long in making their -attack. Seeing a small party of men among the trees, they gave chase -and pursued them as far as the house, which they immediately attacked. -The defenders did not return the fire of the Caribs, but contented -themselves with receiving on their shields the arrows of the enemy. -When they judged that the arrows of the foe were nearly exhausted, they -made use of their own stores, and poured volley after volley on the -invaders, being supplied by the women and boys with arrows as fast as -they could shoot. The Caribs were unable to withstand such an attack, -and were obliged to beat a retreat, during which they lost many more of -their number by the pursuing Arawâks. - -The two last decisive battles between these great tribes ended again in -favor of the Arawâks. The latter established themselves on the banks of -a branch of the river Moruca, a stream which is thickly wooded on both -sides. The name of this branch is Haimara-Cabura. Across this stream -the Arawâks sank a tree trunk at such a depth that it would allow small -canoes to pass over it, while the large and heavily-laden war-canoes -must inevitably strike upon it. - -The invaders came, as had been expected, but found nothing except empty -houses. They then descended the Moruca, looking about for their prey, -and at last caught sight of several canoes and gave chase. The fugitive -canoes, on reaching the mouth of the Haimara-Cabura, darted into it as -if for shelter, and were followed by the invaders, yelling and shouting -with excitement. Suddenly, their canoes struck violently against the -sunken boom, jerked the paddles from their places, became entangled -with each other, and caused inextricable confusion. In the midst of -their perplexity, showers of arrows were hurled upon them, and very few -of the invading force escaped. - -Among them, however, was the Carib chief Manarrawa, who was incensed at -the repulse with which he had met, returned to the Orinoco, organized -another force, and again attacked the Arawâks. This time he was less -fortunate, being wounded and taken prisoner. On being brought before -the council of chiefs, Manarrawa promised that, if his life was spared, -he would cause his people to cease from further attacks. The Arawâks, -more lenient than the Caribs, granted his request, gave him a canoe, -and sent him home. He, on his part, performed his promise, and from -that time there has been no regular war between the Caribs and Arawâks, -although there have been private blood feuds of the kind described. - -[Illustration: (1.) LAKE DWELLERS OF THE ORINOCO. (See page 1269.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) A WARAU HOUSE. (See pages 1245, 1251, 1268.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXII. - -THE TRIBES OF GUIANA--_Continued_. - -ARCHITECTURE AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS. - - - ARCHITECTURE -- THE ORDINARY GUIANAN HOUSE -- THE MACOUSHIE AND - INLAND HUTS -- CHOICE OF THE SITE -- MATRIMONIAL ARRANGEMENTS -- - POLYGAMY AND ITS RESULTS -- A BREACH OF PROMISE CASE -- JEALOUSY AND - ITS RESULTS -- FORBIDDEN DEGREES AMONG THE ARAWÂKS -- THE GUIANAN - MOTHER AND CHILD -- A SINGULAR CUSTOM -- POLYANDRY -- MAKING CASSAVA - -- THE MANIOC TREE AND ITS ALLIES -- THE GRATER, THE BOWL, AND - THE COLANDER -- THE PRESS, OR TIPITI -- USE MADE OF THE POISONOUS - JUICE -- MAKING SUGAR -- PIWARRI DRINKING -- THE MAQUARRI DANCE -- - CONSTRUCTION OF THE WHIPS -- ENDURANCE OF PAIN. - -We will now examine the domestic life of the Guianan natives. - -Their architecture differs considerably according to the district. -As a rule, the climate is so warm that houses are but little needed, -all that is required being a simple roof above the head. The ordinary -kind of hut is nothing more than a mere shed, a sort of barn without -the walls, supported on posts and thatched with leaves. From the posts -and rafters are hung the personal goods of the natives, such as fans, -paddles, clubs, blow guns, bows and arrows, and similar articles, while -from one or two of the cross-beams is sure to be hanging the singular -cassava press, which will be presently described. Such a house is -represented on the preceding page. - -Between the upright posts, and sometimes from the transverse beams, are -suspended the hammocks, some of which are almost invariably occupied, -as the master has a natural genius for lying in his hammock when he is -not absolutely obliged to be on his feet. The number of hammocks under -a single roof is almost incredible. They are hung in tiers, one above -another, like the berths on board a passenger ship, and when thirty or -forty of them are occupied at once, it seems rather wonderful that the -building should be able to withstand such a strain. - -As the inhabitants move about, or get into and out of their hammocks -while replenishing the nightly fires, whose smoke is the only defence -against the mosquitoes and other winged pests, the whole building -rocks, the joints creak, and the house seems on the point of coming -down. But the junctions of the beams and posts are so firmly tied that -they are far stronger than they look, and however fragile the shed may -seem, it is quite equal to any strain they may have to endure. - -In the interior, however, the huts are more of a complicated character, -and have walls as well as a roof. Their form is invariably round, and -their roofs pointed in the centre. Some are shaped almost exactly -like single-poled tents, having a circular upright wall, some five or -six feet in height, and from that wall a tolerably high conical roof -ending in a sharp point. Their general shape much resembles that of the -Makololo house, seen on page 329. The roof, however, is neater, and the -central pole, by which it is supported, rises to some height above the -top, looking like the ornamental spikes with which English builders are -fond of decorating some of their villas. - -Other houses, though built on the same principle, are not quite -conical. They have no distinction between the wall and roof, and, -instead of being circular, are octagonal. They may be very well -imitated by cutting out eight isosceles triangles from cardboard, the -larger sides being about four times the length of the shortest, and -sewing them together. A knitting needle through the centre will act as -a support, and look very much like the centre pole of the edifice. - -These huts are used by the Macoushies, the makers of the very long -blow guns which have already been described, and from projections in -the upright poles the weapons are suspended when not in use. It need -scarcely be said that the task of house building belongs to the women, -inasmuch as it pertains to the category of heavy work, which is beneath -the character of a man to undertake. Indeed, with these people, as with -many other uncivilized nations, the rooted disinclination of the men to -labor, and the consequent falling of all the work upon the women, is -one of the most serious obstacles to their progress in civilization; -and even polygamy is not so much a drawback as the inferior condition -of the women. - -Treating of the native houses, Mr. Brett remarks that the builders, -simple as may be the house itself, carefully select a site which must -combine several requirements. In the first place, it must be near a -stream, so that the women may not have more trouble than needful in -fetching water for the use of the household, and that the canoe may be -within easy reach of the house when the owner wishes to set out upon -one of the frequent migrations which take place among these tribes. - -It must be a spot which is rather out of the way. The native Guianan -likes peace and quietness, and has a strong objection to being -disturbed, the apathy of his nature being supplemented by an inveterate -shyness, which makes him keep aloof from strangers. It must also be a -spot where the ground is light and sandy, and where the very slight -cultivation needed in this land can be easily carried on. - -The house being built, the next business is to prepare a field for -the cultivation of yams and cassava, and this is the only hard work -which the men will condescend to do. The ground is already occupied -by trees, but this is of no consequence to the native agriculturist. -Having selected a convenient spot, he cuts down the trees, ingeniously -contriving that the fall of one shall bring down several others. This -is done at the beginning of the hot season, _i. e._ somewhere in -August. The tropical sun soon dries the fallen trees, and when they are -sufficiently parched for the purpose, the Indian sets them on fire, -a process which rapidly consumes all but the trunks and the largest -branches. He has now done his share of the work, and leaves the rest to -the women, who have to clear away the débris as far as they can, and to -do all the digging, planting, and weeding that is needed. - -Among these people polygamy, though not always the rule, is often the -case, and a man’s greatness is partly estimated by the number of his -wives. It is not, however, carried out to such an excess as is the -case with many other peoples, inasmuch as one chief was looked upon -with the greatest respect because he had the unusual number of nine -wives. This chief, a Warau, was very jealous of his establishment, and -was said to have shot one of his wives, and severely wounded another -with his cutlass. As a rule, however, a man has one wife only, the -exceptions being rarer in proportion to the number of wives. - -The Caribs appear to carry out the principle of proprietorship in their -women to the fullest degree, as is exemplified by an amusing anecdote -related by Mr. Brett. It must be premised that, as is usual among -nearly all uncivilized natives, the wife is purchased from her father -or oldest male relative, who has absolute power over and can sell her -as he would sell his bow, and with as much regard for the feelings of -one article of property as the other. - -“A high-spirited Caribi girl, indignant at being given in marriage to -an elderly man, who had already other wives (one being her own sister), -ran away from him, and bestowed her hand on one of the Essequibo -Caribs, a younger man whom she liked better. After a while, the old man -visited that quarter--not, however, to exercise his undoubted right -to bring her back and beat her, but to claim compensation for her -services. It was willingly allowed, and for a gun, a barrel of salt, -or some article of like value, the woman was left with the man of her -choice, who perhaps thought himself secure, and the business ended. - -“But the next year the old man, who well knew what he was doing, paid -them another visit, still, as he said, in quest of compensation. On -being reminded by the husband that he had already been paid for the -woman, he replied, ‘Yes--for the woman; but she has since borne you a -child--you must now pay me for that.’ The unwritten law of Caribi usage -was decidedly in the old man’s favor, and he received compensation for -that child. For each succeeding birth he could, if he chose, reappear, -like an unquiet spirit, make a similar demand, and be supported therein -by the custom of his nation.” - -Sometimes the second wife is purchased while still a child, and brought -up together with the family of the first wife, and a prudent chief -will thus provide himself with a succession of wives, each attaining -marriageable years as her predecessors become too old to suit the taste -of their proprietor. Now and then, the first wife successfully resists -the introduction of a sharer of her household. In one such case, the -first wife, after trying to commit suicide, and being prevented, took -a more sensible course. She was an Arawâk, one of three sisters, all -living with their respective husbands at one settlement. One day, the -husband of the eldest sister, having been on a visit to some friends, -brought home another wife, a full-grown young woman. The first wife, -after her unavailing attempt at suicide, made an onslaught upon the -intruder, aided by her two sisters, whose husbands stood quietly -looking on. The end of the business was, that the woman was sent back -to her friends, and the first wife was left in the undisturbed rule of -her household. - -The Arawâks have a curious and praiseworthy regulation concerning -marriage. Their tribe is divided into a number of families, each -descending in the female line, and being known by its own name. No one -is allowed to marry into the family bearing the same name as himself or -herself, and this principle is carried out in a rather curious manner. - -As the succession falls in the woman’s line, her sons and daughters, -and the children of her daughters, bear the same name as herself, but -not so the children of her sons, who will take the names of their -respective mothers. The Arawâks are very tenacious of this rule, and -think an infraction of it to be a great crime. - -As is the case with most uncivilized nations, the Guianan mothers think -but little of the event which lays a civilized European woman on the -bed of sickness for weeks. Mr. Brett saw one Warau woman, only two -hours after the birth of her child, tie up her hammock, and carry it, -together with her newly born infant, from one house to another. When -the child is very young, it is laid in a small hammock, but when it -gains a little strength, a rather curious cradle is provided for it. - -The body of the cradle is made of the ever-useful itirritti reed, which -is split into slips about the tenth of an inch in width, and then woven -so as to make a kind of basket, open at one end and down one side. The -edges are strengthened by a rod of flexible wood lashed firmly to them, -and the cradle is brought into shape by means of a framework consisting -of tolerably strong sticks. The opening in front is much narrower than -the body of the cradle, so that the child can be easily secured in -it. The length of my specimen, drawn on page 1238, is exactly twenty -inches, and width at the back thirteen inches, while that of the -opening is only seven inches. This cradle is very strong, very elastic, -and very light--three great requisites in such an article. When the -mother wishes to carry her child, she only takes a broad plaited belt, -the two ends of which are united, passes it over the crossbars at the -top of the cradle, and then brings the belt across her forehead. - -The parents are very kind to their children, and can seldom bring -themselves to chastise them, except in a sudden fit of anger. The -natural consequence of this treatment is, that they have scarcely any -control over the children, though, when they grow up, the respect shown -by sons and daughters to their parents of either sex is worthy of all -praise. - -Connected with this subject, the Guianan natives have a very singular -custom, which, according to our ideas at the present day, entirely -reverses the order of things. With us, when a wife expects to be a -mother, she often thinks it necessary to abstain from certain articles -of food, and from too much exertion. With the Guianan Indians, the -wife eats exactly what she chooses, and works as hard as ever, while -the husband thinks himself bound to abstain and to rest. For example, -the Acawaios and Caribs will not eat the flesh of the agouti, lest the -future offspring should be thin and meagre; the haimara fish, lest it -should be dim-sighted; or the maroudi, lest it should be still-born, -the cry of this bird being held as an omen of death. The reader may -remember that a Macoushie excused himself from making wourali by -reference to this custom. This custom does not stop with the child’s -birth, but extends to several weeks afterward. - -As soon as her child is born, the Indian wife washes the baby, rolls it -in the cradle hammock, and goes about her business as usual. But the -Indian husband is pleased to consider himself very ill, and straightway -takes to his hammock, where he is waited upon by the women with the -most solicitous attention. In some districts the sick husband has not a -very pleasant part to play, being obliged to take nauseous drinks, and -to go through a course of very unpleasant medicine. Generally, however, -he does nothing but lie in his hammock for a week or two, during which -time he is kept amply supplied with the daintiest food, and petted as -if he were recovering from a dangerous sickness. - -This custom has gradually expired in the vicinity of the mission -stations, but it occasionally revives. Mr. Brett mentions an instance -where a large influx of strangers reintroduced it into the station. It -so happened that a young Christian Indian had become a father, and was -violently importuned by his female relatives to take to his hammock -according to ancient custom. He resisted for some time, but was so -persecuted that he fairly ran away, and went to work at a distance for -three weeks, at the expiration of which time he thought he might be -considered as convalescent. Strange as this custom may seem to be, it -is one which has prevailed through a very considerable portion of the -globe, and even in Europe has not been extinct until comparatively late -years. - -Not only is polygamy practised among these tribes, but the strange -custom of polyandry exists. On one occasion, when a missionary was -arguing with a native against the practice of polygamy, he used an -_argumentum ad hominem_, and with the bad results that usually follow -such an argument. Finding that he could not prove to his interlocutor -that a man ought not to have two wives, the missionary asked how it -would be liked by the men if one wife were to have two husbands. To his -astonishment, the man replied that the plan answered very well, and -that he knew a woman who at that time had three husbands. - - * * * * * - -It has been already mentioned that the natives of Guiana depend chiefly -for their food upon the beasts, birds, and fishes which they capture. -Vegetable food is not so important to them as it is generally to -inhabitants of warmer climates, probably because the almost perpetual -moisture of the country forces the inhabitants to partake of a -comparatively generous diet. - -The staple vegetable food is the cassava, which is prepared in rather a -curious manner. Strange to say, it is obtained from a plant belonging -to the natural order Euphorbiaceæ, plants which are celebrated for -containing most poisonous juices. - -Some of them are trees of the largest size, while others are little -herbs that only exist for a few weeks. All of them, however, secrete -an acrid juice, more or less poisonous. A familiar example of these -plants may be found in the common spurge, or wart-wort of our gardens -(_Euphorbia helioscopa_), the white, acrid, milky juice of which is -employed in destroying warts. Several of these Euphorbiaceæ produce, -beside the poisonous juice, a farinaceous substance, from which the -poison can be separated, and which is then useful as human food. - -The chief plant which produces the cassava is the _Jatropha manihot_, -though there are others from which the farina can be obtained. The -juice of this plant is so poisonous that a very small dose will produce -death. Fortunately, the venomous principle is exceedingly volatile, and -can be driven off by heat, so that the very substance which in its raw -state is a deadly poison becomes, when cooked, a wholesome article of -food. - -The mode of preparing the cassava is as follows: Taking on her back the -quake, which has already been described, the Guianan woman digs up a -quantity of the cassava root, puts it into the quake, and brings it to -her hut. She next peels it by tearing off the outer covering with her -teeth, and then proceeds to scrape it into very fine shavings. This is -done by means of the native grater, which, rude as it looks, is a very -effective machine. It consists of a thick board about a yard in length -and half as much in width. Into the upper surface of this board are -driven in regular rows a number of fragments of sharp stones, which are -further secured in their places by a sort of vegetable glue obtained -from the juice of a tree. - -By being drawn over this surface, the cassava roots are soon reduced to -thin shavings, much like those of the horse radish, which are collected -into a basket. One of these baskets is shown in fig. 2, on page 1231. -It is made much like the cradle already mentioned, but is of closer -texture, and the strips of cane are wider. It is about two feet in -diameter, and is capable of containing a considerable quantity of the -grated root. - -When the native cassava maker does not possess one of these graters, -she uses as a substitute the acrid root of a species of Ireartia palm, -which is covered with hard protuberances, and answers the purpose -tolerably well, though it does not work so smoothly or neatly as the -regular grater. - -Sometimes a further process of grinding is employed, though not always. -In such cases, the grated root is placed on a flat, sloping stone, and -rubbed with another, just as is done by the Araucanians. See page 1203. - -The next process is to rid it of its poisonous juices, and in this -part of the operation there is also considerable variation. Among -some tribes, the scraped cassava is taken out of the dish and pressed -tightly into a sieve or colander. This instrument is very ingeniously -made. It is of basket work, but instead of being made of flat strips of -cane or reed, round twigs are used, about as thick as ordinary drawing -pencils. The natives have an ingenious mode in which the shape of the -vessel is preserved while the interstices are not allowed to diminish -or increase in size. This is done by beginning with a comparatively few -twigs at the apex of the colander, and inserting fresh twigs at regular -intervals as the vessel increases in size. - -Into this colander the cassava is pressed and kneaded with water, until -a considerable amount of the juice is expressed. It is then left in -the sieve to undergo a partial drying, and is soon ready for another -process, that of the press; and it is remarkable that, though presses -of various descriptions have been sent from Europe, none of them seem -to answer so well as the native Guianan press called the “tipiti.” This -press is a long, cylindrical basket, from six to seven feet in length, -and about four inches in diameter, made of the bark of the Jacitara -palm, a species of _Desmoncus_. The lower part of the tipiti is closed, -and brought nearly to a point, while the upper part is left open, each -end terminating in a very strong loop. Owing to the mode in which the -tipiti is made, the central portion is highly elastic, while the mouth -and tip are comparatively stiff. One of these is represented on the -following page. - -[Illustration: (1.) TIPITI AND BOWL. (See pages 1248, 1251.)] - -[Illustration: STOPPER OUT - -(2.) TWIN BOTTLE. (See page 1251.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) SPATHE. (See page 1258.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) FEATHER APRON. (See page 1255.)] - -[Illustration: BEAD APRON. (See page 1256.)] - -Several of these tipities generally hang to the roof or the cross-beam -of the hut, so as to be ready for use when wanted. One of them is then -filled with grated cassava, which is thrust into the elastic tube as -tightly as possible, so as to cause it to become very much shorter, -and very much thicker in the middle. Underneath the tipiti is placed -an earthenware bowl to receive the juice. Vessels such as these are -made by the natives, and although they are very fragile, as the clay -is never thoroughly kneaded, and the baking is insufficient, they can -endure the fire well enough for cooking purposes. The vessel which is -represented in the illustration is of a deep brown color, striped and -spotted with black. - -Besides these soft and fragile bowls, the natives make bottles for -the purpose of carrying water. Some of these clay bottles are really -elegant in form, and show evidences of artistic feeling on the part of -the potter. A figure of a double water bottle, with its earthenware -stoppers, is given on page 1249. - -A heavy weight is then fastened to the bottom of the tipiti, which is -consequently elongated and narrowed, so as to compress the contents -forcibly, and squeeze out the juice that remains in the cassava. After -a while a still stronger pressure is obtained by means of the lever. A -pole is passed through the loop at the bottom of the tipiti, and the -shorter end of it is lashed to one of the upright posts of the house. -The heavy weight--usually a large stone--is then hung to the longer end -of the pole, so as to produce a powerful leverage on the tipiti, and -compress the cassava still further. - -When the process has arrived at this state, the cassava maker often -adds her own weight to that of the stone, by sitting on the end of the -lever, and with her baby slung in its cradle on her back, occupies -herself in some of the lighter feminine occupations. - -The cassava is now fit for baking, for which purpose it is placed on -circular iron plates, which are laid over the fire like the “girdles” -on which oat cakes are baked. Although little known in this country -under its proper name, cassava is largely used under the name of -semolina, which is nothing more than the cassava roughly ground to a -coarse sort of grain. - -Nothing of this useful plant is thrown away. We have seen that the -farinaceous matter can be rendered wholesome by being deprived of its -poisonous juice, and we shall now see that even this juice itself can -be rendered useful. If man or beast were to drink it as it pours from -between the interstices of the tipiti, they would swell, and die in -great agony. But by means of boiling the poisonous principle is driven -off and the juice changes to a deep brown liquid, which is well known -under the name of cassareep, and extensively used as a sauce. It is -the foundation of the “pepper-pot” of the West Indies, and when used -by natives is so highly impregnated with red pepper, that when they -hospitably serve a white stranger with cassava bread and cassareep -sauce, the mouth of the stranger is excoriated by the quantity of -capsicum. - -If the reader will refer to the illustration representing a -Warau house, on page 1244. he will see the various processes of -cassava-making. On the right hand is seen a woman kneeling before the -grater, and scraping the cassava into the dish or basket. Hanging to -the cross-beams of the hut are two of the tipiti presses, one filled -ready for the weight and the lever, and the other stretched nearly to -its full extent. A woman is sitting on the lever, and so expressing the -last drops from the cassava into the bowl. The baking of the cassava -cake is shown in the background on the right hand. - -A few little episodes of Guianan life are shown in the same -illustration. On the left hand is seen a man armed with his bow and -long arrows, and having slung on his shoulders the little bag which -serves as a pocket. Another man is lying asleep in his hammock, and -nearly in the middle is shown a mother with her two children, one -of them dragging a huge spider tied to a string. The spiders of -this country are sometimes as large as a man’s outspread hand, and, -unpleasant playfellows as they appear to us, they are used in this -light by the children, as was seen by Mr. Bates. - -The natives can also make sugar, though of a rather coarse character. -Some of the tribes employ a machine with small wooden rollers, for the -purpose of crushing the sugar-cane and expressing the juice, but the -plan followed by the Caribs is the most simple, and at the same time -the most remarkable. They carve the upper part of a stout post into the -rude semblance of a human bust, the post being as nearly as possible -as large as a man. The part that answers to the collar-bone projects -considerably, and a hole is bored through the middle of the neck under -the chin. - -When the Caribs wish to make their sugar, they put one end of a -long and stout lever, into the hole in the neck, and lay the cane -horizontally upon the collar-bones. One man then takes the end of the -lever, and by pressing it down crushes the cane so that the juice flows -down the breast of the image into the vessel, while another man shifts -the cane so as to bring every portion successively under the lever. - -As for drink, the Guianan natives have from time immemorial made an -intoxicating liquor called piwarri, which is almost exactly like the -mudai of the Araucanians. A number of cakes of cassava bread are -toasted brown, thrown into a large vessel, and boiling water poured -over them. The remainder of the cakes are masticated and mixed with -the others in the vessel. Fermentation then takes place very rapidly, -and in a short time the liquor is fit to drink. The natives are -immoderately fond of this disgusting preparation, and often brew and -drink great quantities at a time. A canoe is no uncommon vessel to be -filled with piwarri, and every one who joins in the revel is presumed -to become intoxicated as soon as possible. Mr. Brett mentions an -amusing instance of native feeling on this subject. - -The Arawâks of the Mahaiconi district having begged that a missionary -might be sent to them, the bishop determined on visiting them -personally. In honor of his arrival, the Arawâks had got up a -great festival, including a canoe full of piwarri, and the curious -Maquarri dance, of which we shall presently learn. Most of them were -intoxicated, but they apologized to the bishop for their shortcomings -in politeness, and said that if they had known sooner of his visit, -they would have had two canoes full of piwarri instead of one. - -Piwarri feasts vary in detail according to the tribe which holds -them. They are, however, always accompanied by a dance, and by some -ceremonies practised by the piaman or conjurer. An interesting account -of a piwarri feast is given by Messrs. Spix and Martius, in their -“Travels in Brazil:”-- - -“By degrees, those residing at a greater distance arrived in single -troops, each with his whole family, and with bag and baggage, as if -they were going to migrate; the men who had not yet secreted their bows -and arrows in the neighboring woods hid them here; the women put down -their baskets, took the children on their shoulders, and looked for the -drinking-cup (_cuja_). Without conversing with each other, each member -of the family examined the surrounding company with an unsteady look; -the men approached each other, and saluted their neighbors, at most, by -pouting out their lips, and a scarcely audible nasal tone. - -“In the middle of the assembly, and nearest to the pot, stood the -chief, who, by his strength, cunning, and courage, had obtained some -command over them, and had received the title of captain. In his right -hand he held the maracá, the above-mentioned castanet, which they call -_gringcrina_, and rattled with it, beating time with his right foot. We -did not find any traces among the Indians of the oracles of the maracá, -mentioned in the accounts of earlier travellers. Rather walking than -dancing, he advanced slowly, with his body bent forward, round the pot, -toward which his eyes were constantly turned. The dance, the measure of -which was in triple time, was accompanied by him with a low monotonous -singing, which was more strongly marked when he stamped with his foot. -The oftener the song was repeated, the more solemn and animated was the -expression of his voice and features. All the rest stood motionless -round the pot, stared at him without speaking, and only now and then, -when the words of the dancer, which seemed to be extempore, moved -them, they broke out into immoderate cries. - -“After this measured circular dance, by which, probably, it was -intended to conjure and keep off evil spirits, the leader approached -the pot, took from the hand of his neighbor the drinking-vessel which -he held ready, gravely dipped it into the pot, and took a sip. The -rattling of the gringerina and the monotonous music became general, and -more and more noisy the longer the cup went round. We, too, had a full -cuja presented to us, and though filled with disgust, we were obliged -to follow the advice of our guide to empty it, in order not to give the -Indians any reasons for distrust. - -“The beverage resembles in taste our malt liquor, and when taken in a -large quantity is intoxicating, an effect which was but too manifest -toward the end of the feast, by their leaping and noisy singing of, -‘_Hi! ha! ha!_’ Hopes had been given us that we should see on this -occasion the dances of the Coroados; but toward evening, after their -stomachs and heads were full, one party slipped away after the other, -as if by previous agreement.” - -The same authors give an account of a melancholy sort of dance -performed by another tribe of natives, the Puris:-- - -“When they had been made familiar, and treated with plentiful draughts -of brandy, of which, like all Indians, they are passionately fond, -they began their dance by night, on an open spot not far from the -fazenda of Guidowald. If the compact low stature, the brown-red color, -the jet-black hair hanging down in disorder, the disagreeable form -of their broad angular countenances, the small, oblique, unsteady, -blinking eyes, and, lastly, the tripping, short, light step of these -savages had excited in us the most sorrowful feelings at the debasement -of humanity in them, these were further increased by the melancholy -expression of their festivity in the darkness of the night. The men -placed themselves close together in a line, and behind them the women, -also in a line. The male children, sometimes two or three, took hold of -each other and of the fathers round the waist, as the female children -did their mothers. In this position they begin their melancholy -‘_Háu--jo--há--ha--há_.’ It is remarkable that the melodies which Lery -noted above two hundred years ago among the Indians in the neighborhood -of Rio Janeiro very much resemble those observed by us. - -“The song and the dance were repeated several times, and the two rows -moved slowly forward in a measured triple time. In the first three -steps they put the left foot forward, and bent the left side; at the -first and third step they stamped with the left foot, and at the second -with the right; in the following three steps they advanced the right -foot at the first and last, bending on the right side. In this manner -they advanced a little alternately, in short steps. As soon as the song -was concluded, they ran back in disorder, as if in flight--first the -women with their daughters, and then the men with their sons. After -this they placed themselves in the same order as before, and the scene -was repeated. A negro, who had lived a long time among the Puris, -explained to us the words sung to this dance as a lamentation, the -subject of which was, that they had attempted to pluck a flower from a -tree, but had fallen down. Ho interpretation of this melancholy scene -could have appeared to us more appropriate than that of the loss of -Paradise.” - -The most curious of all the Guianan dances is that which is called the -Maquarri dance, from the implement which forms its principal element. -The Maquarri is a whip, and the object of the dance is giving and -receiving blows from the maquarri. The form of this whip varies in -different districts. The form usually employed, is made of silk grass -fibre, bound together so as to form a stiff and elastic whip. The -handle is strengthened by being bound strongly with a strip of dark -cane wound spirally around it, and is ornamented by a tuft of fibres, -which hang from the butt. Several tufts of white cotton wool adorn the -transition between the handle and the lash, the latter of which tapers -gradually to a point. The whole whip including the lash, is nearly five -feet in length, and is a most formidable instrument of torture, capable -of cutting into the bare skin like a knife, and causing the blood to -spirt from the wound which it makes. The other form is scarcely so -terrible a whip to the eye, though it may inflict quite as much pain -when skilfully handled. It is entirely covered with cane, and, as it is -swung about, it gives a crackling sound with every curve. The length of -this whip is three feet four inches. - -The maquarri dance is conducted in the following manner. The young men -and boys, decorated with all the fantastic feather work which native -art can supply, range themselves in two rows opposite each other, the -dancers being all armed with their maquarri whips, which they wave in -the air, uttering at the same time cries which are intended to imitate -the notes of birds. - -Presently two of the dancers from opposite sides challenge each other, -leave the ranks, and dance opposite each other in the open space -between the ranks. After dancing for a while, one of them stops, and -stands firmly on one leg, thrusting the other forward, and remaining -perfectly firm and steady. See illustration on page 1260. - -His opponent, or partner, whichever he may be called, stoops down, -takes deliberate aim at some part of the projecting leg, and then -leaping into the air, in order to give force to his stroke, delivers -a blow with all his strength. A practised maquarri dancer is sure -to cut deeply into the skin and to draw blood by the stroke; but the -receiver does not shrink from the blow, gives no sign of pain, and only -smiles contemptuously as he executes the dance. Presently his opponent -holds out his leg in turn to be struck, and after a few lashes have -been exchanged, they retire to the piwarri vessel, drink some of its -contents, and return to their places in the ranks. - -The greatest good humor prevails during this strange contest, though -when a couple of powerful and experienced dancers have met, they have -often scarcely been able to walk from the severity of the blows which -they have received. Sometimes, after a hard day’s dancing and drinking, -when their legs are stiff and sore from the blows which they have -received, and their heads are aching from the liquid they have drunk, -they declare that they will abandon the dance for ever. But, as soon as -their legs get well and their heads are clear again, they forget all -their promises, and join in the next maquarri dance with unabated zest. - -During one of these dances, which was performed in Mr. Brett’s -presence, a stout little Warau came to the encampment, when the dance -was nearly over, evidently with the idea of getting some piwarri -without undergoing the previous salutation of the maquarri whip. -The young men at once divined his intention, and quietly passed the -word among themselves to frustrate his design. Accordingly, he was -challenged in rapid succession by the young men, and subjected to more -than ordinary castigation before he obtained any piwarri. However, -he bore his punishment manfully, and did his best to look pleasant, -although he soon perceived the trap into which he had fallen. - -On that occasion the dance was given in honor of a woman who had been -buried in the house. A broad plank lay upon her grave, and on it, among -other articles, was a bundle of silk grass being the remainder of the -material from which the maquarri whips had been made, these articles -having somewhat of the sacred character about them. After going through -a few ceremonies, two or three men, armed with long knives, dashed in -among the dancers, snatched the whips from them, cut off the lashes, -and flung them into the grave. The owners of the whips pretended to be -very savage at surrendering the whips, leaping, throwing somersaults, -and going through all kinds of evolutions, so that it was great matter -of surprise that any of them escaped injury. - -On another occasion, when the maquarri dance had been got up in honor -of the bishop, all the dancers, before they went into the large house, -laid their whips on a board which had been placed there expressly for -their reception. - -With regard to this dance, Mr. Brett was much struck with the apparent -indifference to pain manifested by the natives, and asked them how they -could endure such tortures without seeming to feel them. The Indians -replied that their insensibility to pain was partly produced by the -piwarri, and was partly owing to the presence of the women, who would -scoff at any one who showed the least symptom of suffering. - -Giving both these reasons their full value, there are two others of -much greater importance. One is the natural apathy of the native, who -requires a very strong stimulus for exertion. This apathy extends to -the nerves of sensation as well as to those of volition, and the real -fact is, that a blow which would cause the most horrible agony to a -white man is scarcely felt by the native Guianan. The other is the -effect of exposure and perfect health of body. All those who have gone -into training for any athletic contest will remember how different is -the pain-bearing capacity of the trained and untrained man, the former -scarcely seeming to be aware of an injury which would have prostrated -him for weeks had he been untrained. Now these natives are always in -the state of body to which the civilized athlete occasionally brings -himself, and the result is, that external injuries have but little -effect on them. - -Another and a rather picturesque dance is described by Mr. Brett. This -is an Arawâk dance, and is performed in the following manner:--Twelve -young men step forward, and arrange themselves in parallel rows; but -instead of carrying maquarri whips, they bear slender rods, about -twelve feet in length, decorated with strips of silk grass stained -red, and having at the tips little gourds with stones in them. They -dance backward and forward, striking the ends of their rods against the -ground, and keeping time with the measure. From time to time the young -women go up to the dancers, seize their arms, and dance with them, and -then, as the men clash the rattling ornaments of beetles’ wing cases -with which their wrists and legs are decorated, the women loose their -hold, and run back to their companions like frightened deer. - -A Warau dance is described by the same missionary who witnessed the -maquarri dance. “It was little more than a measured series of steps, -accompanied with stamping, while the persons advanced or receded, -sometimes in single rank, sometimes in two ranks facing each other, -throwing their right arms over their right-hand neighbor’s shoulders, -and their left arms round their left-hand neighbor’s waist, swaying -their bodies to and fro. Occasionally the women would run, and, -inserting themselves between the men, join in the dance. - -“The effect was somewhat heightened by a monotonous chant sung in -unison, and by the clatter of beads and anklets made of hard seeds and -the wings of beetles. The dance was intended to represent the antics of -a herd of kairounies, or bush hogs, and the chant was a succession of -mocking or jeering expressions.” - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXIII. - -THE TRIBES OF GUIANA--_Continued_. - -DRESS--AMUSEMENTS. - - - FEATHER HEADDRESSES AND THEIR STRUCTURE -- THE FEATHER APRON -- - DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- THE KIMISA AND QUEYU -- MODE OF MANUFACTURE -- - HARMONY OF COLOR -- MR. BAINES’ THEORY -- A SINGULAR PURCHASE -- THE - SAPURU OR GARTER OF THE CARIBS -- PAINT AND TATTOO -- THE SPATHE CAP - AND APRON -- PETS AMONG THE NATIVES -- SKILL IN FISHING AND CAYMAN - CATCHING -- MR. WATERTON’S ADVENTURE -- THE INGENIOUS HOOK -- GAMES - AND SPORTS -- SHIELD WRESTLING -- CANOE SLAKING -- NAVIGATING THE - FALLS. - -During their dances the natives display all their best feather -ornaments. Two of their headdresses are shown on page 1238. The -foundation of these is a circlet made of thin dark cane, cut into -strips. One of them (fig. 2) is made of parrots’ feathers, beautifully -shaded from dark blue to brilliant green, and being topped with three -long straight scarlet feathers from the tail of the macaw. The general -effect of this beautiful headdress is heightened by a row of white -downy feathers by which it is surrounded. This specimen was made by the -Macoushie tribe. - -The other headdress (fig. 1) is called Arok, and, though very -handsome in point of color, does not possess the beauty of form which -characterizes the other. The greater part of the headdress is bright -yellow, but just on either side of the top are two broad bands of -scarlet. The feathers in this specimen are arranged four deep. - -The reader may remember that, in many portions of the uncivilized -world, aprons are made of thongs depending from the waist. This -principle is carried out by many of the African tribes, who use -thongs or strips of leather, as well as in several of the islands of -Polynesia, where vegetable materials are used. We have at fig. 4, on -page 1249, an example of the same principle carried out in Tropical -America, feathers being employed instead of skin, grass, or bark. The -length of this apron is one foot nine inches, and its depth one foot -three inches. It is made of feathers, blue at the base and tip, and -scarlet in the middle. As may be seen by the smaller figure at the -side, the feathers are fastened on the string that binds the apron on -the waist by doubling over the quill, and tying the doubled end over -the string. - -It is on such occasions as the Arawâk and Warau dances, of which a -description was given in the last chapter, that the women produce their -best apparel. Generally, as long as none but their own people are in -sight, they are not particular about wearing clothes of any kind, but -since they have mixed with the white people they have learned to be -more fastidious. When a white stranger comes to a native settlement, -the men and women are mostly independent of clothing, but the latter, -as soon as they distinguish the color of their visitor, run off to -their homes to put on their dresses. - -Those settlements that are tolerably near civilization usually employ -the “kimisa,” _i. e._ a sort of petticoat passing round the waist, and -suspended by a string over one shoulder. These dresses are considered -merely a concession to the peculiar notions of the white man, and, -though worn while he is present, are taken off as soon as he departs, -and carefully put away until the next white visitor comes. - -The native dress of ceremony is, however, the little apron called the -queyu, or keu. At the present time it is made of beads, but before -beads were procurable it was simply of cotton, decorated with shells, -beetles’ wings, and similar ornaments. Several of these odd little -aprons are in my collection. The best and most elaborate of them is -that which is represented at fig. 5, on page 1249, and was presented -to me by H. Bernau, Esq. - -This beautiful specimen of native art is eight inches in length and -four in depth, including the large beads that serve as a fringe. It is -made entirely of “seed” beads, threaded on silk grass in such a manner -that the thread is scarcely visible. The principle on which the maker -has gone is, that she has woven a sort of framework of perpendicular -threads or strings, set exactly wide enough apart to allow two beads to -be placed between them. By this plan she has regulated the arrangement -of the beads requisite to form the pattern, while the beads themselves -are strung upon fine silk-grass threads that run at right angles to the -others. - -The colors are blue, yellow, green, and carmine, in transparent beads, -and chalk-white and vermilion in opaque beads, not counting the larger -beads used to form the fringe. The principle of the pattern is that -of the square standing on an angle, or the “diamond,” as it is more -familiarly termed. First, three diamonds have been worked in yellow -beads, a line of green beads running down the centre of the yellow, and -a rather broad line of carmine beads passing along the inner and outer -edge of each diamond. - -The dark pattern in the centre of each diamond is made of blue beads, -and the square patterns in each angle of the diamond are made of -chalk-white beads with a centre of vermilion. The entire apron is -edged with the chalk-white beads. The fringe at the bottom is made of -a treble row of much larger beads, one of which is represented of the -full size, and at either end of each bead is a small scarlet cylinder, -like coral. - -On looking at the form of the apron, the reader will notice that it -is much wider at the bottom than at the top. This is intentional. The -thick perpendicular strings only extend as far as the upper corners, -the others being thin threads. The consequence of this structure is, -that when the apron is held up by two loops, the middle of it is nearly -flat, while the two ends fall into heavy folds. - -There is a positively startling boldness about the coloring of this -apron; such, for example, as the placing green beads next to the -yellow. Still, the whole arrangement of the colors is so admirable, -that in spite of the brilliant hues of the beads, which are of the -brightest possible blue, yellow, carmine, and vermilion, they are so -well harmonized, that in no case does one hue seem to predominate over -another, or to interfere with another. - -Some few years ago, I was discussing the coloring of this very apron -with Mr. T. Baines, the celebrated traveller, and asking if he had any -theory by which he could account for the artistic harmony of color -which is invariably displayed in the aprons. He said that he had long -thought that the natives unconsciously imitated the coloring on the -wings of the gorgeous butterflies which are so plentiful in that land, -and, from specimens in his collection, showed that the very collocation -of hues which produced harmony of coloring in the bead apron was also -to be found in the wings of Guianan butterflies. Perhaps the splendid -plumage of many Guianan birds may also afford hints for the native -artist. - -Another queyu in my collection is made of similar materials, and on the -same principle, but is of a totally different pattern. In this case, -the maker has evidently possessed a preponderance of the chalk-white -beads, and comparatively few of the red, blue, and yellow beads. She -has accordingly made the body of the apron of the white beads, and -enlivened it by two patterns, of red, blue, and yellow, formed much -like those which occupy the centre of the diamond in the apron which -has been just described. In shape the two aprons are identical, but the -latter is very much smaller in size, being only four inches in length -and two in depth. - -The third specimen of the queyu in my collection is much larger, being -made of large beads, and really may take rank as an article of dress -and not a mere ornament. It is thirteen inches in length by nine in -depth, and, though not possessing the brilliant colors of the two -queyus which have been described, is yet a handsome article of costume. -The white beads of which the groundwork of this apron is made are as -large as ordinary peas, so that the whole work is of a much coarser -character than that which distinguishes the two other aprons. Those -which form the pattern are deep garnet color, so dark that except in -particular lights it looks black. The woman who made this apron has -ingeniously selected the beads of such a size that two of the garnet -beads occupy exactly the same space as one white bead, and exactly fill -the interval between the perpendicular strings of the framework. - -The most remarkable point in this apron is the pattern, which is -exactly like that which is found on old patterns, and which has come -into modern use under the name of the Greek fret. I have seen several -queyus of different sizes and colors made with this pattern. The lower -edge of the apron is made of six rows of topaz colored beads, as large -as the white beads, and it is further decorated with a fringe made of -tufts of cotton strings, one such tuft being fixed to every alternate -bead. - -As may be imagined from the description, the beads employed in making -the apron are very heavy, the whole article weighing nearly a pound -and a half, so that in this case the owner has good reason for not -wearing it except on occasions of ceremony. Owing to the material of -which these aprons are made, none of them put forth their full beauties -unless they are held between the spectator and the light. - -One of these aprons was procured by a friend of mine in a manner which -shows that they are considered rather as ornaments than dress. He -happened to be in one of the civilized coast towns, and met a woman -wearing a queyu of remarkable beauty. He stopped her and tried to -induce her to sell the apron; but all his exertions were in vain, -and for no amount of money could he purchase it. At last a brilliant -thought struck him. He had in his pocket one of the common printed -handkerchiefs containing the flags of all nations, and, as a last -resource, he offered the kerchief in exchange for the queyu. - -The woman could not withstand such a temptation. The gorgeous patterns -on the handkerchief were far superior to the best examples of native -art, and might afford new ideas for the future. Accordingly, she then -and there took off the queyu, handed it to the purchaser, and received -in exchange the kerchief, which she tied round her head, and then -pursued her walk in all the dignity of the best-dressed woman in Guiana. - -The strangest article of dress to be found in Guiana is undoubtedly -the Carib sapuru, or garter, an ornament which can compete with the -compressed foot of a Chinese beauty, or the wasp-like waist of an -European belle, both for inconvenience and ugliness. While the Carib -girl is young a band of rattan is bound tightly under the knee and -another above the ankle. To give them an ornamental appearance they are -stained with a red dye, but in fact they are instruments of torture, -which entirely alter the form of the human limb and convert it into a -mere spindle thicker in the middle than at each end. - -There are now before me a number of photographic portraits of Carib -women, and it is scarcely possible to imagine anything more hideously -ludicrous than the effect of the sapuru. Deprived of its natural -powers of extension, the limb has to expand itself as it can, and -the consequence is, that it is obliged to develop itself in the -comparatively narrow space between the two bandages. - -If the reader should wish to obtain an accurate idea of a Carib belle’s -leg from the ankle to the knee, he can easily do so. Let him take an -ordinary broomstick, eighteen inches in length, and push it through -the middle of a rather small Stilton cheese; then let him wrap the -stick above and below the cheese with a red bandage, adorn the cheese -with a number of blue spots, and he will have a very good idea of the -extraordinary shape which is assumed by the leg of a Carib female. - -The women are inordinately fond of the sapuru, and are as scornful -respecting those of their own sex who do not wear it as are the Chinese -women respecting those who do not wear the “golden lilies.” - -These women have a variety of ornaments, but little clothes. Necklaces -of various kinds are highly esteemed among them, especially when they -are made of the teeth of the jaguar and alligator, inasmuch as such -ornaments indicate the prowess of their admirers. The appearance of -a Carib woman in full dress is not very attractive. These people are -short, thick necked, and awkward looking, and in those respects the -women are much worse than the men. Of the ten portraits there is not -one that can bear comparison with the female inhabitants of Southern -Africa, such as have been figured in the first part of this work. Their -short necks are cumbered with row upon row of necklaces, their only -dress is a narrow strip of blue cloth, and they have done their best to -make themselves entirely hideous by the abominable sapuru. - -Then, by way of adding to their attractions, they perforate the under -lip, and wear in it one or several pins, the heads being within the -mouth and the points projecting outward. Some of the women smear their -whole bodies and limbs with the annatto dye, which gives them the -appearance as if blood were exuding from every pore; and the reader may -well imagine the appearance of such women, with pins sticking through -their lips, their bosoms covered with row upon row of necklaces, their -reddened limbs variegated with blue spots, and their legs swollen and -distorted by the effects of the sapuru. - -The Carib men wear an article of dress which is almost exactly like -that which is worn by the inhabitants of the Nicobar Islands. It is -a narrow but very long scarf, woven from cotton fibre. After passing -round the waist and between the legs, it is tucked into the girdle, -and then is so long that it can be hung over the shoulder like a -Highlander’s plaid. The men are very proud of a good girdle, and -adorn it plentifully with cotton tassels, beetles’ wings, and similar -ornaments. - -Of all the Guianan tribes, the Waraus are least careful respecting -dress. Even the women wear nothing but a triangular piece of bark, or -a similarly shaped article of apparel formed from the spathe of the -young palm leaf. This spathe is also used for a head dress by several -tribes. In order to understand the structure of this article the -reader must remember that the palm tree is an endogenous plant, and -that all the leaves spring from a central shoot. From this same spot -there also starts a conical shoot, which contains the flowers. In its -earlier stages of development this shoot is covered with a membranous -envelope, called a spathe, which bursts in order to allow the enclosed -flower-stalk to develop itself. Before it has attained its full -development, the spathe is drawn off the flower-stalk and soaked in -water for a time, until all the green substance becomes decomposed, and -can be washed away from the fibrous framework. The well-known skeleton -leaves are prepared in exactly the same manner. - -When decomposition is complete, the spathe is carefully washed in -running water, so that the whole of the green matter is removed and -nothing is left but the tougher fibres. These are tangled together in -a very remarkable manner, so as to be very elastic, and to allow the -fabric to be stretched in different directions without causing any -interstices to appear between them. - -In this state the spathe is conical, of a yellow-brown color, and -extraordinarily light. A specimen in my possession, though measuring -twenty-seven inches in length, weighs barely half an ounce. - -When the native wishes to convert the spathe into a cap, he doubles the -open end twice, and then makes a deep fold within eight or nine inches -of the tip, thus causing it to assume the shape which is seen in the -illustration on page 1249. Slight as is the texture of this odd cap, it -forms an excellent defence against the rays of the sun, which is the -only object of the headdress in such a climate. - -The reader will see that the shape, as well as the lightness of the -spathe, conduces to its usefulness as an apron as well as a headdress. -Such at all events is the only dress for which the Waraus care; and -whether on account of the perpetual exposure of their skins, or whether -from other causes, the short, stout, sturdy Waraus are much darker than -the other tribes--so dark, indeed, that they have been said to approach -the blackness of the negro. Mr. Brett thinks their want of cleanliness -is one cause of this deeper hue. They are the best native laborers -that can be found, and, when they can be induced to shake off their -national apathy and fairly begin work, they will do more than any other -tribe. Neither do they want so much wages as are required by the other -natives, preferring liberal rations of rum to actual wages. - -Living as do the Guianan natives in the forests, amid all the -wealth of animal life which is found in them, and depending chiefly -for their subsistence on their success in hunting, they attain an -intimate knowledge of the habits of the various animals, and display -considerable skill in taking them. They capture birds, monkeys, and -other creatures, not for the sake of killing them, but of domesticating -them as pets, and almost every hut has a parrot or two, a monkey, or -some such pet attached to it. - -The women are especially fond of the little monkeys, and generally -carry them on their heads, so that at a little distance they look -as if they were wearing a red or a black headdress, according to the -species and color of the monkey. They carry their fondness for their -animals to such an extent that they treat them in every respect as if -they were their children, even allowing them to suck at their breasts -in turn with their own offspring. - -Dreading the venomous snakes most thoroughly, they have no fear of the -non-poisonous kinds, and capture them without difficulty. Mr. Brett -saw one of them catch a young coulacanara snake by dropping a noose -over its head by means of a forked stick, and then hauling it out and -allowing it to coil round his arm. Although a very young specimen, only -five feet or so in length, the reptile was so strong that the man was -soon obliged to ask some one to release his arm. - -Sometimes this snake grows to a great length, and, as it is extremely -thick-bodied, is a very dangerous reptile to deal with. Mr. Waterton -succeeded in taking a coulacanara fourteen feet long, after a fierce -struggle, which is amusingly told in his “Wanderings.” I have seen the -skin of this snake in the collection which then adorned Walton Hall. - -The skill of these natives is well shown by their success in capturing -a cayman with a hook. Mr. Waterton had tried to catch the reptile with -a shark hook, but his efforts were unavailing, the reptile declining to -swallow the bait, and at last contriving to get it off the hook, though -it was tied on with string. After more than one failure, he showed the -hook to a native, who shook his head at it, and said that it would not -answer the purpose, but that he would make a hook that would hold the -cayman. - -Accordingly, on the following day he returned with a very remarkable -hook. It consisted of four pieces of hard wood about a foot in length, -curved, and sharpened at the ends, which were slightly barbed. These -barbs, if we may so call them, were tied back to back round the lower -end of a rope, a knot in the rope preventing it from dropping through -the barbs, which were forced to diverge from each other by four pegs -driven between them and the rope. The so-called hook, indeed, was very -like a four-pronged Fijian spear, supposing the shaft to be cut off -below the prongs, a hole bored through the centre of the cut shaft, -and a rope passed through the hole and knotted below the prongs. It is -evident that if such an instrument as this were taken into a cayman’s -throat, the diverging prongs would prevent it from coming out again, -and as long as they remained unbroken, so long would the cayman be -held. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE MAQUARRI DANCE. (See page 1253.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) SHIELD WRESTLING OF THE WARAUS. (See page 1261.)] - -This curious hook was then taken to the river side, and baited with -an agouti. The end of the rope was made fast to a tree, and the -barbed hook suspended about a foot from the water by means of a short -stick driven into the bank. The native then took the empty shell of a -tortoise, and struck it several blows with an axe, by way of telling -the cayman that its meal was ready. The result of the operation -justified the Indian’s promise. The cayman could not get at the bait -without lifting itself well out of the water, and securing it by a -sudden snap; while the resistance offered by the stick caused the -projecting barbs to be driven into the reptile’s throat as it fell back -into the water. - -How the cayman was dragged out of the water, and how Mr. Waterton -jumped upon its shoulders, and disabled it by seizing its fore-paws and -twisting them on its back, is matter of history. The tale was generally -disbelieved at the time, and gave rise to no small amount of banter; -but it is a perfectly true one, and the objections to it have long died -away. Indeed, one of Mr. Waterton’s men, who was then little more than -a mere lad, was, as an old man, in the service of one of my friends, -and corroborated every word of the story. - - * * * * * - -As might be inferred from the natural apathy and indolence of the -natives, they have but few games. They only work by fits and starts, -and spend a very large proportion of their time in their hammocks, -caring little for those contests of skill and strength which are so -absorbingly interesting to the inhabitants of cooler and more bracing -climates. There is, however, one such game which is played by the -Waraus, who have already been mentioned as the stoutest and strongest -of the tribes. This game is well described by Mr. Brett:-- - -“There is also a kind of wrestling, or trial of strength, practised by -the Waraus at their drinking-bouts, in which each of the antagonists is -furnished with a sort of shield, (see illustration on page 1260), made -of the light branches of the itá, cut into equal lengths, and firmly -lashed across a frame three or four feet in height, somewhat less in -width, and slightly bending outward. - -“The front of each shield is painted in various colors, and with -some peculiar device, according to the fancy of the owner. From its -upper edge arise elastic stems, generally three in number, adorned -with colored tassels, and surmounted with streamers made of the same -material as the maquarri whips, and not much unlike them. It has -altogether a picturesque appearance. - -“Each champion grasps the edges of his shield firmly with both hands, -and, after various feints and grimaces to throw his opponent off his -guard, a clash is heard, as one springs forward, and his shield strikes -that of his adversary. The contest is generally one of mere strength, -the shield being pushed forward by the whole force of the body, -and supported by one knee, while the other leg is extended behind. -Sometimes one of the players is able to push the other off the ground, -or, by a dexterous slip and thrust on the flank, to send him rolling -on the ground. More frequently they remain pressing, panting, and -struggling, till exhausted, when the contest ceases by mutual consent. - -“It is then a point of Warau etiquette to shake the shields at each -other in a jeering manner, with a tremulous motion of their elastic -ornaments, and to utter a very peculiar and ridiculously defying sound, -something like the whinnying of a young horse. This is generally -followed by a hearty, good-humored laugh, in which the bystanders join. -Another couple then step forward to engage.” - -The itá palm, of which the Warau shields are made, will be briefly -described when we come to that singular branch of the Warau tribe -which lives in dwellings raised above the surface of the water. It -has already been mentioned that the Waraus are celebrated for the -excellence of their canoes. They are universally recognized as the -chief canoe builders of the whole country, and to them the other tribes -resort from considerable distances. Some of these canoes are large -enough to hold fifty men, so that very considerable skill is needed in -building them without the instruments and measures by which our own -boat builders ensure the regularity of their craft. - -There are several forms of these canoes. The most important is that -which has just been mentioned. It is hollowed out of the trunk of a -tree, and is forced into the proper shape partly by means of fire, and -partly by wedges and cross planks. The largest of the canoes have the -sides made higher by a narrow plank of soft wood, which is laced upon -the gunwale, and the seam well caulked. The canoe is alike at both -ends, the stem and stern being pointed, curved, and rising well out of -the water. There is no keel, and it draws but a few inches of water. -This formation would be very awkward in our own rivers; but in those of -Guiana, such as the Essequibo, there are so many falls and rapids, that -the canoe must be especially adapted for them. This kind of canoe is -called a curial, or corial. - -The perils of the rapids have been well told by Mr. Brett:--“Advantage -is taken of the eddies which are found at the base of the huge rocks -that interrupt the stream. The Indians pass from rock to rock by -wading, leaping, or swimming, and by means of a hawser haul the boat -through the rushing water from one resting point to another, the -steersman meantime keeping his seat, and sometimes lashed to it, -striving with his large paddle to guide in some degree her course. -The waters dashing and foaming amidst the surrounding rocks render -this operation as exciting as it is difficult. Still more exciting and -dangerous is the task of _descending_ these rapids. The safety of all -then depends on the perfect steadiness of those in the canoe, and on -the bowman and steersman acting in concert and with instant decision. - -“The canoe is kept in the very centre of the current, one of her best -hands kneeling, with quick eye and ready paddle, in the bow, and the -rest of the men exerting their strength to give her headway. Darting -swiftly along, she arrives at the edge of the fall, and, pointing -downward, shoots into the surf below it, dashing it up on either side, -and leaving her crew alone visible. If all be well, rising above the -fall, she obeys the guiding paddles in stem and stern, and dances over -the tumbling waves, while her excited crew with a triumphant cry exult -at their success.” - -Sometimes even the skill of the natives fails to overcome all the -difficulties, and the canoe is upset, the crew barely escaping -with their lives. It was in descending one of these falls that Mr. -Waterton’s canoe was upset, and flung into the Essequibo the precious -store of materials from which the wourali is made. - -The simplest kind of boat, called by the colonists a “woodskin,” is -nothing more than the flexible bark of the purple-heart trees stripped -off in one piece, forced open in the middle, tied together at the ends, -and so left until dry. In order to prevent these bark canoes from -taking in water at the ends, a large lump of clay is pressed firmly -into the end, so as to make a barrier against the water. This mode of -caulking is necessarily but temporary, and the “back-dam,” as it is -called by the colonists, is sure to be washed away sooner or later, -according to the state of the river. The reader will remember that a -similar appliance of clay is found among the Australian savages. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXIV. - -THE TRIBES OF GUIANA--_Concluded_. - -RELIGION--BURIAL. - - - BELIEF IN ONE CHIEF DEITY AND MANY DEMI-GODS -- THE SORCERER OR - PIAI-MAN, AND HIS TRAINING -- THE SACRED RATTLE -- DUTIES AND - PRIVILEGES OF THE PIAI-MAN -- CURING DISEASE AND DRIVING OUT THE - EVIL SPIRIT -- MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS -- THE WATER-MAMMA -- THE ORIGIN - OF THE CARIB RACE -- A WILD LEGEND -- DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD -- THE - LAKE-DWELLING WARAUS -- THE ITÁ PALM AND ITS USES -- AN AËRIAL HOUSE - -- THE LAKE-DWELLERS OF MARACAIBO. - -We will conclude this history of the Guianan tribes with a few remarks -on their religion. - -As far as is known of their religious ideas as they were before they -became intermixed with those taught to them by the white man, the -Guianan natives believe in one supreme Deity, and a vast number of -inferior divinities, mostly of the evil kind. All pain is said to -be caused by an evil spirit called Yauhahu, and is said to be the -Yauhahu’s arrow. - -As it is necessary that these evil beings should be propitiated when -any calamity is feared, a body of sorcerers, called piai men, are set -apart in order to communicate between their fellow men and the unseen -world. In order to qualify themselves for the task, the piai men are -obliged to go through sundry strange ceremonies, under the charge -of some venerable professor of the art. The neophyte is taken to a -solitary hut, and there compelled to fast for several days before his -spirit is fit to leave his body and receive the commands of the Yauhahu. - -For this purpose a quantity of tobacco is boiled, and the infusion -drunk by the aspirant to priestly honors. The natural effect of -this dose is to exhaust the already weakened body, and to throw the -recipient into a state of fainting, during which his spirit is supposed -to leave his body, and receive a commission from the Yauhahu. Indeed, -he undergoes a civil death, he is proclaimed as dead, and his corpse is -exposed to public view. - -He recovers very slowly from the terrible state of prostration into -which he has been thrown, and when at last he leaves his hut, he -is worn almost to a skeleton. As a mark of office, he is solemnly -presented with the marakka, or sacred rattle. This is nothing more than -a hollow calabash, some eight inches in diameter, having a stick run -through it, and a few white stones within it, so as to make a rattling -sound when shaken. The calabash is painted red, and a few feathers are -generally hung to the sticks. It is two feet in length, and adorned -with scarlet and blue feathers. These rattles are held in the greatest -veneration by the uninitiated, who will not venture to touch them, -and are chary even of entering a house in which a marakka is hung. In -consequence of the value set upon these instruments, the natives can -scarcely be induced to part with them, and the few which have been -sent to England have in nearly every case been procured from sorcerers -who have been converted to Christianity, and, as a proof of their -sincerity, have given up the emblems of their order. - -The piai man is called in on almost every occasion of life, so that his -magic rattle has but little rest. He is present at every piwarri feast, -when he decorates himself with feather plumes, the skins of snakes, -and similar ornaments, and shakes his rattle over the bowl before the -contents are drunk. - -Chiefly is he needed in times of sickness, when, by virtue of his -rattle, he is supposed to be capable of driving away the evil spirit -whose curse has caused the malady. When a piai man is called to a -case of sickness, he sends all the women away, and even keeps the men -at a respectful distance. His exercises then begin, and are continued -for hours, chants to the evil spirit being accompanied with sundry -rattlings, until in the depth of night the Yauhahu manifests himself -to the sorcerer, and tells him how to extract the “arrow” which he has -aimed at the sick man. Of course it is incumbent on the sorcerer to -produce the arrow in question, which is done by sucking the affected -part, and producing from the mouth a little pebble, a bird’s claw, a -snake’s fang, or something of the kind. - -If the reader will refer to illustration No. 5, on page 1265, he will -see a very complicated and rather elegantly formed rattle. The hollow -gourd forms part of the rattle, but it is very small, and depends -from a series of three hoops, which are strung with beetle wings. The -noise which this simple instrument makes is really wonderful, and the -slightest movement of the string by which it is held sets all the wings -clattering against each other. This interesting object was brought from -Guiana by H. Bernau, Esq. - -Even accepting the marakka and the beetle wing rattle as musical -instruments, we find that the Guiana natives have but little variety -in music. The only instruments which are really worthy of the name are -pipes or flutes made of different materials. One of these instruments -is in my collection. It is made of the ever-useful bamboo, and includes -one internode, _i. e._ the space between two knots. - -The mouthpiece is narrow and oblong, and the maker has possessed -sufficient knowledge of sound to cut out a large scooped piece from the -middle of the instrument. The owner seems to have prized this flute -exceedingly, as he has covered it with elaborate patterns. It is blown -like our own flute, and the sound which it produces is loud, full, but, -if musical, is melancholy also, and much resembles the wailing sound -produced by blowing into the mouth of a soda-water bottle. The length -of this flute is fourteen inches. - -The natives also make a flute of the leg bone of the jaguar, which is -very much prized, the spoils of the jaguar having a very high value -among them. One of these is shown on the next page. The Caribs once -used human bones for this purpose, but at the present time are content -with jaguar bones, as equally indicative of courage and skill. - -To return to the superstition of the Guianan natives. One of the -beings which they most dread is the water mamma, or Orehu. This is -an unfortunate being who inhabits the water, and occasionally shows -herself, though in different forms, sometimes even assuming that of -the horse, but often taking that of the manati. The Orehu is a female -spirit, and is generally, though not always, malicious, and, when she -is in a bad temper, is apt to rise close to the canoes, and drag them -and their crews under water. - -The legends told by the various tribes respecting their origin are very -curious, as showing a great similarity with those of other parts of the -world with whom there could have been no geographical connexion. For -example, the legend of the earth submerged under water, through the -disobedience of some of its inhabitants, and repeopled by a few who -were placed in a safe spot until the waters subsided. - -One of the strangest of their legends is told by Mr. Brett. It concerns -the origin of the Warau and Carib tribes. - -Originally the Waraus lived in a country above the sky, where they had -all they could desire. One day a young hunter shot an arrow into the -air, and when he came to search for it, found a deep hole through which -it had fallen. Looking down through the aperture, he saw another world -opened out beneath him, and was seized with curiosity to visit it. -Accordingly, he made himself a sort of ladder of rattan, which grows -abundantly in the upper world where he lived, and descended to the -world below. - -Here he remained for some time, revelling on the flesh of animals -hitherto unknown to him. After a while, he climbed up the ladder with -great trouble, and told his friends the wonders which he had seen. -Struck with surprise at his narrative, and eager to partake of the -luxuries which he described, the whole of his friends determined on -paying a visit to these wondrous regions. Accordingly, they descended -the ladder in safety, except the last of their number, a very fat man, -who, in trying to squeeze himself through the aperture, became fixed in -it, and could not escape, thus shutting off all communication between -the two worlds. - -Nothing was left for them but to make the best of a bad business, and -first of all to beseech the Great Spirit to send them some water. He -listened to their entreaties, created the Essequibo, the Demerara, and -other rivers, and made for the special use of the Waraus a small lake -of the purest water, of which they were to drink, but in which they -were forbidden to bathe. - -Now it happened that there was a Warau family of four brothers and -two sisters, the latter beautiful, but wilful maidens. They rebelled -against the prohibition, plunged into the lake, swam to a pole that -was planted in its midst, and shook it. The presiding genius of the -lake was a male spirit, who was kept prisoner as long as the pole was -untouched, but as soon as it was shaken the spell was broken, and the -spirit of the lake pounced on the offending maiden and carried her off. -After a while he allowed her to rejoin her friends, but the indignation -of her brothers was very great when they found that their sister was -about to become a mother, and they determined to kill the child when it -was born. However, it was exactly like any other Warau child, and so -they allowed it to live. - -[Illustration: (1.) MEXICAN STIRRUPS. (See page 1272.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) IRON AND STONE TOMAHAWKS. (See page 1285.)] - -[Illustration: ANOTHER KIND OF ORNAMENT - -(3.) JAGUAR BONE FLUTE. (See page 1264.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) SHIELD AND CLUBS. (See page 1282.)] - -[Illustration: (5.) RATTLE. (See page 1264.)] - -Though living among her own friends, the girl could not forget her -strange lover, and went off again to him. A second child was born, -but this time the upper parts of the body were those of a child, and -the lower parts were developed into a water snake. The mother, though -terrified at the appearance of her offspring, carried it off into the -woods and cherished it, but it was discovered by her brothers, who -pierced it with their arrows, and left it for dead. Her attention, -however, restored it to life, and it grew to a formidable size. The -brothers held a consultation, and at last surrounded it, transfixed it -with showers of arrows, and, to make sure of its death cut it to pieces. - -“The unhappy Korobona carefully collected the remains into a heap, -which she kept continually covered with fresh leaves, and guarded with -tender assiduity. After long watching, her patience was rewarded. The -vegetable covering began to heave and show signs of life. From it there -slowly arose an Indian warrior of majestic and terrible appearance. His -color was of a brilliant red, he held bow and arrows in his hand, and -was otherwise equipped for instant battle. - -“That warrior was the first CARIB, the great father of a powerful race. -He forthwith commenced the task of revenge for the wrongs suffered in -his former existence. Neither his uncles, nor the whole Warau race whom -they summoned, could stand before him. He drove them hither and thither -like deer, took possession of such of their women as pleased him, and -by them became the father of brave and terrible warriors like himself. -From their presence the unhappy Waraus retired, till they reached the -swampy shores of the Atlantic, forsaking those pleasant hunting grounds -which they had occupied on their first descent from heaven.” - -The Waraus are wonderfully inventive with regard to legends; and have -one which is worthy of notice, if only for the fact that it attributes -all the learning of the white men to a Warau origin. This is the legend -of Aboré. “Once upon a time,” there was a very ill-conditioned female -spirit, named Wowtá, who usually preferred the form of a frog, but -who changed herself into a woman for the purpose of stealing a very -beautiful little boy called Aboré. In the form of a woman she obtained -access to the house of Aboré’s mother, whom she induced to leave the -child under her care. No sooner was she alone with Aboré than she -pulled and stretched him to such a degree that in a few hours he grew -as much as he would have done in several years, so that his mother -repudiated him on her return. - -As he grew to manhood, Aboré became the slave of his captor, whom he -thought to be his mother, until he was undeceived by a friendly spirit -who met him in the forest. After trying several plans for escape, and -failing in them all, he hit upon the design of making a canoe of wax. -He was aided in this task by the fondness of Wowtá for honey, in search -of which the unfortunate Aboré passed nearly the whole of his time. -Wowtá received the combs with croaks of delight, and as she threw them -away after eating the honey, Aboré laid the wax aside, until he had -enough for a canoe. - -As soon as he had collected a sufficiency of wax, Aboré called his -mistress to look at a hollow tree filled with bee-comb. She crept into -the tree to regale herself on the honey, and was imprisoned by the -crafty Aboré, who fastened up the aperture so that the sorceress could -not escape, loaded his canoe with provisions, and set off for a land of -refuge. He sailed far away until he came to a strange country where the -people were white, naked, uneducated, and utterly barbarous. He taught -them the elements of civilization, showed them how to forge iron, and -initiated them into the arts and sciences, for which the white man was -now so distinguished. - -In that far land he still lives, and, remembering the wants of his -fellow countrymen, he continually sends them shiploads of the things -which they most need. But in consequence of the bad faith of those -to whom they are delivered, the poor Waraus are obliged to pay for -everything that he sends. The moral which is derived from this legend -is, that all the white men who visit the Waraus ought to make up for -the dishonesty of their countrymen, and give them as many beads, -knives, and guns as they can procure. - -When Mr. Brett first heard this tale, he thought that it was simply -an ingenious invention framed for the purpose of unlimited begging, -especially as the narrator asked for a shirt as soon as he had finished -the story, and then proceeded to request a whole series of other -articles. He found, however, by questioning different natives, that -the legend was really a national one, and not a mere invention of an -ingenious native. - -There is evidently a distinction to be drawn between the two portions -of the legend. The first part, containing the adventures of Aboré, is -evidently ancient, while the second part is as evidently modern, and -has been introduced since the coming of white men into Guiana. - -In the disposal of the dead there is some little variation. The mode -which was most prevalent before the missionaries introduced Christian -burial among them was as follows: The body was placed in a net and sunk -in the river, where the whole of the flesh was quickly eaten from the -bones by the pirai and other voracious fish. If the dead man were a -person of distinction, the skeleton was then removed from the water, -dried, painted red, and suspended under the roof of the house. - - * * * * * - -In the fifth book of Herodotus, chap, xv., occurs the following -passage, which was long thought to be a mere invention on the part of -the historian. After enumeration of the various nations that Megabazes -subdued, he mentions that the Persian monarch also endeavored to -conquer “those who live upon the Lake Prasias in dwellings contrived -after this manner. - -“Planks fitted on lofty piles are placed in the middle of the lake, -with a narrow entrance from the mainland by a single bridge. These -piles that support the planks all the citizens anciently placed there -at the common charge; but afterward they established a law to the -following effect: ‘Whenever a man marries, for each wife he sinks three -piles, bringing wood from a mountain called Orbelus,’ but every man has -several wives. - -“They live in the following manner. Every man has a hut on the planks, -in which he dwells, with a trap-door closely fitted in the planks, -and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a cord -round the feet, fearing lest they should fall into the lake beneath. To -their horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder, of which -there is such abundance, that when a man has opened his trap-door, he -lets down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, and, after waiting a -short time, draws it up full of fish.” - -In these words the old historian describes with curious exactitude -the mode of life adopted by some branches of the Waraus and Caribs. -These have been described at some length by Humboldt, in his “Personal -Narrative.” The large tract of land which forms the delta of the -Orinoco possesses some very remarkable characteristics. It is always -wet, but during several months in the year it is completely inundated, -the river rising to an astonishing height, and covering with water a -tract nearly half as large as England. This seems to be as unpropitious -a spot as could be adopted for human habitations, and yet the Waraus -(or Guarános, as Humboldt spells the word) have established themselves -there, and prefer it to any other locality, probably because their -strange mode of life enables them to pass an existence of freedom. - -Varying much in the height to which it rises, in some places exceeding -fifty feet, the Orinoco has the quality of rising year after year -to the same height in the same place, so that when a mark is made -to designate the height to which the water rose in one year, the -same mark will answer year after year with scarcely the slightest -deviation. It is evident that in such a spot, where the soil is in the -dry season nothing but mud, and in the wet season is forty or fifty -feet under water, only a very peculiar vegetation can live. This is -the Itá (pronounced Eetáh) palm, belonging to the genus _Mauritia_, a -plant which, like the mangrove of Africa, requires plenty of heat and -moisture to enable it to develop itself fully. The native name for this -tree is Murichi. - -A brief description of the itá palm must be given before we proceed -further, or the reader will not understand the peculiar conditions -under which these water dwellers live. When full grown, it resembles -a tall, cylindrical pillar, with a fan of ten or twelve vast leaves -spreading from its extreme top. Each leaf is some ten feet in width, -and is supported upon a huge stem about twelve feet in length, looking -more like a branch than a leaf-stem. Indeed, a complete leaf is a heavy -load for a man. At regular intervals the whole fan of leaves falls off, -and is replaced by another, the tree adding to its height at every -change of leaf, until the stem is nearly a hundred feet high, and -fifteen in circumference. - -Myriads upon myriads of these marvellous trees rise amid the waters of -the Orinoco delta, sometimes clustered into solid masses of vegetation, -sometimes scattered, and sometimes drawn up in devious avenues, -according to the windings of the muddy channels that even in the dry -seasons traverse the country. Whether grouped or scattered, the itá -flourishes in this delta to such an extent that only the experienced -canoe men of the place can navigate their barks among the tall stems, -the narrow and winding channels which form the natural paths being -completely obliterated by the waste of water. Any stranger who tried -to thread this aquatic forest without the aid of a native guide would -soon lose himself among the armies of itá palm, and perish miserably of -hunger. Yet this very tree supplies to the Waraus of the Orinoco not -only all the necessaries, but the luxuries of life, and were the whole -tribe to be cut off from the mainland, they could support themselves -without the least difficulty, the itá palm supplying house, food, -drink, clothing, and furniture. - -First, as to the house. The Warau requires for a house nothing but -a floor and a roof. In the example seen on page 1244, the floor is -supplied by the earth, but it is evident that in a house built in a -locality where the ground is for many months together thirty or forty -feet beneath the surface of the water, an artificial flooring is -needed. The Warau architect, therefore, proceeds to construct his house -in the following manner. - -Selecting four itá trees that grow near each other in the form of a -square, and, cutting away any of the intervening trees, he makes use -of these four as the corner posts of his house. He knows by marks left -on the trunks the precise height to which the water will rise, and -some three feet or so above this mark he builds his floor, cutting deep -notches in the trunk. In these notches are laid beams made from the -stems of the felled itá palms, and lashed tightly in their places by -ropes made of itá fibre. - -On these beams are laid a number of cross-pieces, sometimes made from -the split trunks, but usually being nothing more than the gigantic -leaf-stems which have been already mentioned, and which are when dry -very light, very tough, and very elastic. These cross-pieces are tied -firmly together, and constitute the essential part of the floor. On -them is placed a layer of palm leaves, and upon the leaves is a thick -coating of mud, which soon dries under the tropical sun, and forms a -smooth, hard, and firm flooring, which will bear a fire without risk -of damage to the wooden structure below. Ten or twelve feet above the -floor the Warau constructs a roof of palm leaves, the corners of which -are supported by the same trees which uphold the house, and then the -chief labors of the native architect are over. An illustration on page -1244 shows the scenery of the Orinoco delta and the architecture of -these lake dwellers. So much for the house furnished by the itá palm. - -Food is supplied by it in various forms. First, there is the fruit, -which, when ripe, is as large as an ordinary apple, many hundreds -of which are developed on the single branch produced by this tree. -Next, there is the trunk of the tree and its contents. If it be split -longitudinally at the time when the flower branch is just about to -burst from the enveloping spathe, a large quantity of soft, pith-like -substance is found within it. This is treated like the cassava, and -furnishes a sort of bread called yuruma. - -Drink is also obtained from the itá palm. From the trunk is drawn a -sap, which, like that of the maguey or great American aloe, can be -fermented, and then it becomes intoxicating in quality. Another kind of -drink is procured from the fruit of the itá, which is bruised, thrown -into water, and allowed to ferment for a while. When fermentation has -proceeded to a sufficient extent, the liquor is strained through a -sieve made of itá fibre, and is thus ready for consumption. - -The small amount of clothing required by the Warau is also obtained -from the itá, the membrane of the young leaf being stripped off and -woven into a simple fabric. - -From the same tree the Warau obtains all his furniture. Bows, arrows, -and spears are made from its leaf-stems, the canoe in which he goes -fishing is made from a hollow itá trunk, and the lines and nets are -both furnished from the same tree, as is also the string of which his -hammock is made. That the one single tree should be able to supply all -the wants of an entire population is the more extraordinary, because -in former days the Warau had no iron tools, and it is not easy to find -a tree that will at the same time furnish all the necessaries of his -life, and be of such a character that it can be worked by the rude -stone implements which the Warau had to use before he obtained iron -from the white men. - -It may readily be imagined that the Waraus who inhabit this strange -region are lower in the scale of civilization than those who live on -dry land, and, to use the words of Humboldt, “in the lowest grades of -man’s development we find the existence of an entire race dependent -upon almost a single tree, like certain insects which are confined to -particular portions of a flower.” - - * * * * * - -The Waraus are not the only lake dwellers of Southern America. At the -extreme north of this half of the continent there is a province which -derives its name from the mode of life adopted by the savage tribe -which dwells upon the waters of a lake. On the north-western coast of -Venezuela there is a large gulf, called the Gulf of Maracaibo, the -name having been given to it by the Spanish discoverers in honor of a -native chief whom they met on its shores. Close to the gulf, and only -separated from it by a narrow, is a vast fresh-water lake, fed by the -streams that pour from the mountains which surround it. The shape of -this lake has been well compared to that of a jews-harp, with a rather -elongated neck, and the depth of its water varies in a most remarkable -manner. - -From the sides the bottom of the lake shelves almost imperceptibly for -a great distance, so that at a distance of two or three miles from the -shore, a man would be able to walk with his head above the surface. -Suddenly, and without the least warning, the bed of the lake dips into -almost unfathomable depths, so that, though a man might be barely -submerged above his waist, a single step will plunge him into water so -deep that the tallest spire ever built would be plunged far below the -surface. - -Over the surface of this lake dwell numerous human beings, and, even -at the present day, when the number of the inhabitants has been much -decreased, upon its waters are no less than four large villages, beside -numerous detached dwellings formed in the various bays which indent its -shores. - -The reason for thus abandoning the dry land and taking to the water is -a very curious one, and may be summed up in a single word--mosquitoes. -These tiny but most annoying insects are found in clouds around the -edge of the lake, some species flying by night and others by day, -so that at no hour is there the least respite from their attacks. -Fortunately, they need the protection of the luxuriant vegetation that -fringes the shore of the lake, and not being very enduring of wing, -are obliged to rest at intervals in their flight. They therefore keep -to the shore, and do not venture to any great distance over the water. -Knowing this characteristic of the insect, the natives manage to evade -them by making their dwellings behind the range of the mosquito’s -flight. - -In building these curious habitations, the lake dweller of Maracaibo -is forced to employ a greater skill in architecture than is needed by -the Waraus of the Orinoco delta. In that muddy delta, formed by the -alluvium washed down by the river, the itá palm abounds, and forms -natural pillars for the house; but the Lake Maracaibo furnishes no such -assistance, and the native architect is therefore obliged to drive -piles into the bed of the lake in order to raise his floor above the -level of the water. - -It is evidently needful that these piles should be made of wood which -will not perish by the action of the water, and upon the shores of the -lake grows a tree which supplies precisely the kind of timber that is -required. It is one of the numerous iron-wood trees, and its scientific -name is _Guiacum arboreum_. It is a splendid tree, rising to the height -of a hundred feet or so, and having wood so hard that it will turn the -edge of an axe. The natives, however, manage to fell these trees, to -cut them into proper lengths, and to drive them firmly into the bed of -the lake, where they become even stronger by submersion, being covered -in course of years with an incrustation of lime, which makes them look -as if they had been actually converted into stone. - -On these piles are laid cross-beams and planks of lighter wood, and -when a strong roof and light walls have been added, the house is -complete. All the parts of the house are lashed together with green -sipo, which contracts when dry, and binds the various portions as with -bands of iron. - -As has been already mentioned, numbers of these houses are gathered -together into villages. When the Spaniards first entered the Gulf of -Maracaibo, and came within view of the lake, they were struck with -amazement, at these habitations, and called the place Venezuela--_i. -e._ Little Venice--a name which has since been extended to the whole of -the large province which is now known by that title. - -It is on this lake that the gourd system of duck catching is carried to -the greatest perfection. Great quantities of ducks frequent its waters, -but they are shy of man, and will not allow him to come near them. The -natives, however, manage to catch them by hand, without even employing -a snare. They take a number of large gourds, scrape out the inside, and -set them floating on the lake. At first the timid birds are afraid of -the gourds and avoid them, but after a while they become accustomed to -them, and allow them to float freely among their ranks. - -The Indian then takes a similar gourd and puts it over his head, having -previously cut a couple of holes through which he can see. He slips -quietly into the water, and makes his way toward the duck, taking care -to keep the whole of his body submerged. As soon as he gets among them, -he grasps the nearest duck by the legs, jerks it under water, and ties -it to his girdle, where it is soon drowned. He then makes his way to -another duck, and, if an experienced hand, will capture as many as he -can carry, and yet not alarm the survivors. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXV. - -MEXICO. - -HISTORY--RELIGION--ART. - - - MEXICO AS IT IS, AND WAS BEFORE THE SPANISH CONQUEST -- WHY THE - EMPIRE FAILED -- CONTRADICTORY ACCOUNTS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICANS -- - THE RUINS OF THEIR BUILDINGS -- HUMAN SACRIFICES -- THE SACRIFICIAL - KNIFE -- MEXICAN ART -- MOSAIC WORK AND FEATHER PICTURES -- - CAPABILITIES OF THE COUNTRY. - -Before passing to the North American tribes, a brief notice must be -taken of MEXICO. - -At the present day this land is possessed of a sort of civilization -which presents no features of interest. It is inhabited chiefly by -a mixed people, the descendants of the Spanish conquerors having -contracted alliances with the natives, and so produced a hybrid race, -which is continually retrograding from the white parentage, and -assuming more of the aboriginal type. - -The failure in establishing a Mexican empire was entirely due to the -question of race. Those inhabitants who were either pure whites, or in -whom the white blood predominated, were naturally desirous to have a -ruler of their own kind, thinking that an empire was the only mode of -civilizing the land, and of putting an end to the constant civil wars -and repeated changes of dynasty which kept back their most prolific and -fertile land from developing its full capabilities. But in the great -bulk of the people the Indian blood predominated, and in consequence -an empire founded on the principles of European civilization was as -irreconcilable to them as would be the rule of an Indian cacique in -Europe. Such an empire could only be held by force of arms, and as soon -as the bayonet was withdrawn the empire fell. We must, however, confine -ourselves to Mexico as it was before the Spaniard crushed out her -civilization and destroyed her history. - - * * * * * - -The accounts of ancient Mexico are most perplexing. If the narratives -of the Spanish conquerors could be implicitly trusted, nothing would -be simpler than to condense them into a consecutive history. But it is -quite certain that these accounts were very much exaggerated, and that -the reality fell very far short of the romantic tales of the Spanish -conquerors. - -The following is an abstract of the narratives put forth by the -Spaniards. The capital was situated on an island in the midst of a -large lake. It contained twenty thousand houses, which were of great -magnificence. In the midst was the emperor’s palace, built of marble -and jasper, and of prodigious extent. It was adorned with fountains, -baths, and statues, and the walls were covered with pictures made -of feathers. Not only the palace, but the houses of the caciques, -possessed menageries filled with all the animals of the country, -together with museums of various natural curiosities. - -One of the greatest beauties of Mexico was a large square, daily filled -with merchants, who came to buy and sell the various works of art in -gold, silver, and feathers for which the Mexicans were famous. Between -the city and the borders of the lake a hundred thousand canoes were -continually passing; besides which mode of transit three vast causeways -were built on the lake. The capital was not the only city of the -waters, for more than fifty large cities and a multitude of villages -were built on the same lake. - -The dress of the nobles was most gorgeous, and their persons were -adorned with gold and jewels in profusion. Their treasuries were filled -with the precious metals, and gold was as plentiful in Mexico as copper -in Europe. - -That these statements were much exaggerated is not to be doubted, -but they were not pure inventions, and had all some foundation in -fact. For example, the architecture of the ancient Mexicans was of a -Cyclopean vastness, as is proved by the ruins which are now almost the -sole memorials of a vanished system of civilization. There is a strong -resemblance between the architecture of Mexico and that of Egypt, not -only in its massiveness, but in the frequent use of the pyramid. - -One of these pyramids has the sides exactly twice as long as those of -the large pyramid of Egypt. This is the great pyramid tower of Cholula, -which had eight stories, each forming a platform on which rested the -one above it, so that it closely resembled the Temple of Belus as -described by Herodotus. The interior of these pyramidal structures was -pierced with chambers, galleries, and flights of stairs, probably the -habitations of the priests who served the temples and performed those -terrible human sacrifices which formed an important part of their -religious system. Viaducts which crossed deep valleys, bridges, and -roads, remains of which are still in existence, testify to the vanished -civilization of the Mexicans, or, as some ethnologists think, of a race -that preceded them. - -Specimens of the artistic skill of the ancient Mexicans may be seen -in the magnificent Christy Collection. There is, for example, one of -the sacrificial knives with which the priests laid open the breast -of the human victim in order to tear out the heart and offer it to -the blood-loving deity of the temple. The blade of this instrument is -obsidian, and its handle is a marvellous piece of mosaic work, made of -lapis lazuli, ruby, and other precious stones. Then there are masks -made of similar materials, one being a most ghastly imitation of a -human skull. - -The skill in feather working still survives, and even at the present -day pictures are made so exquisitely from humming-birds’ feathers that -they seem, at a little distance, to be admirable specimens of enamel. - -The courage of the ancient Mexicans was very great. They opposed their -naked breasts to the mail-clad invaders, and their comparatively feeble -weapons to the dreaded fire-arms. Even the horse, which at first struck -terror into them as a supernatural being, soon ceased to be an object -of dread, and there is a story that they captured a horse in battle, -stabled it in a temple, and treated it as a god, feeding it with -daintily dressed chickens and similar dishes, until the poor beast was -starved in the midst of plenty. - -The conduct of the Aztecs in destroying their once venerated Emperor -Montezuma, because he yielded to the Spaniards, and the calm endurance -of his warlike successor Guatemozin, when stretched on the fiery rack, -are sufficient instances of the courage possessed by the Mexicans when -Cortez came into the country. - -The real prosperity of Mexico is to come. There is every capability in -the country, which is fertile in many valuable productions,--cattle -and horses, for example, both of which, importations from Europe, have -multiplied in an astonishing manner, and may at some time supply half -Europe with cheap food, hides, and beasts of burden. - -Insect life is almost as valuable as that of the higher and larger -animals. The cochineal insect reproduces itself in vast numbers, and, -large as is the trade in this valuable insect, it could be extended -almost indefinitely. There is no trouble in breeding the insect, no -risk, and scarcely any capital required. It feeds upon the prickly -pear, a plant which springs up luxuriantly if but a leaf be stuck in -the ground. - -It is indeed so luxuriant, that riders are forced to employ a peculiar -kind of stirrup, in order to prevent their feet from being riddled with -the needle-like thorns with which the plant, the leaf, and fruit are -covered. One of these curious stirrups is shown in illustration, No. 1, -page 1265, drawn from my own specimens, which was brought from Mexico -by Sir F. Wetherell. - -It is cut from a solid block of wood, and is therefore exceedingly -heavy. A hole is cut in the back of the stirrup, into which the foot -can be thrust nearly half way. Owing to the size and weight of this -curious implement, the prickly pears are pushed aside as the rider -passes among them, and thus the foot and ankle are protected from the -slender but formidable thorns with which they are armed. The stirrup -is sometimes put to another use, and employed as a rough and ready -drinking cup. The front of the implement is covered with bold and -graceful patterns, the effect of which is often heightened by means -of color. In my own specimen they are colored with blue, scarlet, and -black. - -As to the vegetable products of Mexico, they are too numerous to -mention, but the principal are the indigo, the chocolate, and the -vanilla. - -Then it is as prolific in mineral as in animal wealth, and in the hands -of an energetic and industrious people, the yield of copper, iron, -gold, silver, and other metals might be almost indefinitely extended. -In all these productions comparatively little labor is required. Nature -gives almost gratuitously those privileges which in other lands cannot -be obtained without the expenditure of time, labor, and money. - -The past civilization of Mexico has vanished never to return. Its -present is a comparative failure. The future is yet to be seen, but it -may even eclipse the vanished glories of the past if guided by those -who understand the epoch, the country, and the race. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXVI. - -THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. - -GOVERNMENT--CUSTOMS. - - - GENERAL NOTICE OF THE TRIBES -- THEIR COLOR AND FEATURES -- CATLIN’S - DESCRIPTION OF A CROW CHIEF -- LONG HAIR OF THE MEN -- SILVER HAIR OF - THE MANDAN TRIBE -- GOVERNMENT OF THE TRIBES -- THE HEREDITARY AND - ELECTED CHIEFS -- THEIR LIMITED POWERS -- THEIR DISTINCTIVE DRESS -- - COSTUME THE RECORD OF DEEDS -- THE SCALP-LOCKS, PAINTED ROBES, AND - CLAW COLLAR -- PRESERVATION OF SKINS -- THE FEATHER PLUMES -- THE - HORNS, AND THEIR SIGNIFICATION -- INDIAN DANDIES -- ESTIMATION IN - WHICH THEY ARE HELD -- THE PORTRAIT PAINTER BAFFLED -- DRESS OF THE - WOMEN -- BISON SKIN ROBES -- WAMPUM, AND ITS SIGNIFICATION. - -It has already been mentioned that, with the exception of the shore -districts, America is inhabited from the extreme south to extreme north -by the same race. - -The various tribes into which that race is divided are naturally varied -according to the locality and climate of the spot which they inhabit. -Those, for example, who live in the perpetual snow and ice of either -the extreme north or south are naturally different in manners and -customs from those who inhabit the tropical centre of America. Then, -even in similar climate, there is very definite modification according -to locality. The inhabitants of the mountains, for example, differ -materially from the dwellers of the plain, while those tribes who live -in the forests differ from both. - -Yet they are all members of one and the same great race, and whether -in the Esquimaux of the north, the Amazonian of the tropics, or -the Patagonian of the extreme south, all display the same race -characteristics. - -The color of the skin is deep copper red, the cheek-bones are -prominent, the nose mostly aquiline, the forehead rather receding, and -the eyes apparently small, this latter characteristic being due to the -continual exposure to the sun, and to the smoky atmosphere of the huts. -The beard is very deficient, and even those few hairs that make their -appearance are carefully eradicated with tweezers. Sometimes an old man -who is careless about his personal appearance allows his beard to grow, -but in that case it is very scanty, thin, and never reaches any great -length. - -The hair of the head contrasts strongly with that of the face, -being very long and fine, in some of the tribes attaining an almost -incredible length. The Crow tribe are remarkable for the extraordinary -development of their hair, which in some of the warriors actually -trails on the ground as they walk. They pride themselves so much on -this peculiarity, that in 1833 their chief received both his name of -Longhair and his office from his wonderful tresses. The hair of this -man was carefully measured by some white travellers, who had lived -in his lodge for months together, and was found to be ten feet seven -inches in length. - -He did not allow it to hang at its full length except on occasions of -ceremony, but kept it carefully wound with a broad leather strap, and -made up into a bundle weighing several pounds. Usually this bundle -was carried under his arm or in the bosom of his robe, but on great -occasions the hair was let down to its full length, and carefully -smoothed with bear’s grease, and allowed to trail on the ground several -feet behind the owner as he proudly stalked along. - -Several other tribes, such as the Blackfeet (so called from the dark -moccasins which they wear), have very long hair, of which they are -exceedingly proud, and those individuals whose locks do not reach the -standard of beauty are in the habit of splicing false hair to their own -tresses. - -The Mandans, of whom we shall hear much in the course of this -narrative, the Sioux, and the Minatarees, are all distinguished by this -peculiarity, though none of them possess it so abundantly as the Crows. -When Mr. Catlin was staying among the Minatarees, a party of Crows -came to visit them, and excited the admiration of their hosts by their -magnificent hair. One of them possessed so picturesque an appearance -that the artist traveller transferred him at once to canvas, and the -engraver has reproduced the sketch for the reader on the 1284th page. -The following is Mr. Catlin’s account of this splendid specimen of the -North American Indian:-- - -“I think I have said that no part of the human race could present a -more picturesque and thrilling appearance on horseback than a party of -Crows rigged out in all their plumes and trappings--galloping about and -yelling in what they call a war parade, _i. e._ in a sort of tournament -or sham fight, passing rapidly through the evolutions of battle, and -vaunting forth the wonderful character of their military exploits. -This is an amusement of which they are excessively fond; and great -preparations are invariably made for these occasional shows. - -“No tribe of Indians on the continent are better able to produce a -pleasing and thrilling effect in these scenes, not any more vain, -and consequently better prepared to draw pleasure and satisfaction -from them, than the Crows. They may be justly said to be the most -beautifully clad of all the Indians in these regions, and, bringing -from the base of the Rocky Mountains a fine and spirited breed of the -wild horses, have been able to create a great sensation among the -Minatarees, who have been paying them all attention and all honors for -some days past. - -“From amongst these showy fellows who have been entertaining us, and -pleasing themselves with their extraordinary feats of horsemanship, I -have selected one of the most conspicuous, and transferred him and his -horse, with arms and trappings, as faithfully as I could to the canvas, -for the information of the world, who will learn vastly more from lines -and colors than they could from oral or written delineations. - -“I have painted him as he sat for me, balanced on his leaping wild -horse, with his shield and quiver slung on his back, and his long -lance, decorated with the eagle’s quills, trained in his right hand. -His shirt and his leggings, and moccasins were of the mountain-goat -skins, beautifully dressed; and their seams everywhere fringed with a -profusion of scalp-locks taken from the heads of his enemies slain in -battle. His long hair, which reached almost to the ground while he was -standing on his feet, was now lifted in the air, and floating in black -waves over the hips of his leaping charger. On his head, and over his -shining black locks, he wore a magnificent crest, or headdress, made -of the quills of the war eagle and ermine skins, and on his horse’s -head was another of equal beauty, and precisely the same in pattern and -material. - -“Added to these ornaments there were yet many others which contributed -to his picturesque appearance, and amongst them a beautiful netting of -various colors, that completely covered and almost obscured the horse’s -head and neck, and extended over its back and its hips, terminating in -a most extravagant and magnificent crupper, embossed and fringed with -rows of beautiful shells and porcupine quills of various colors. - -“With all these picturesque ornaments and trappings upon and about -him, with a noble figure, and the bold stamp of a wild _gentleman_ -on his face, added to the rage and spirit of his wild horse, in time -with whose leaps he issued his startling though smothered yelps, as -he gracefully leaned to and fro, leaving his plume and his plumage, -his long locks and his fringes, to float in the wind, he galloped -about; and felt exceeding pleasure in displaying the extraordinary -skill which a lifetime of practice and experiment had furnished him -in the beautiful art of riding and managing his horse, as well as in -displaying to advantage his weapons and ornaments of dress, by giving -them the grace of motion, as they were brandished in the air and -floating in the wind.” - -Although the hair is generally black, it sometimes takes various -colors, the Mandan tribe being the most remarkable for this -peculiarity. Some of them, even though quite young, have the hair of a -bright silver gray, or even white. The men dislike this kind of hair -in their own sex, and when it occurs try to disguise it by a plentiful -use of red or black earth mixed with glue. The women, on the contrary, -are very proud of such hair, and take every opportunity of displaying -its beauties. Generally a woman wears the hair in two plaits, which are -allowed to fall down the back over on each side of the head; but when -they wish to appear to the best advantage, they rapidly unplait it, -pass their fingers through it in the manner of a comb, and spread it -as widely as possible over the shoulders. They always part it in the -middle and fill the line of parting with red paint. - -The silver gray hair is remarkable for its coarseness, in which respect -it seems like a horse’s mane, while the dark colored hair is quite -soft. Among the Mandans almost every shade of hair is found between -white, brown, and black, but there is never the least tinge of red in -it. - -The Mandan men have a curious habit of dividing their long hair into -flat tresses, two inches or so in width, and filling each tress at -intervals of an inch with vermilion and glue, so as to keep them -separate. These patches of glue and earth become very hard, and are -never removed. The hair thus treated is drawn tightly over the top of -the head, and allowed to fall down the back in parallel tresses, which -mostly reach to the knee, and in some cases to the ground. - - * * * * * - -The government of these tribes is of a similar character throughout. -Each tribe has at its head a chief, whose office is usually, but not -always, hereditary. Provided the eldest son of a chief be tolerably -well qualified for the post, he is suffered to assume the leadership -when his father dies, or becomes too old for work. Should the tribe be -dissatisfied with him, they elect a leader from among the sub-chiefs. -There is often a double system of government, two chiefs of equal power -being appointed, one of whom manages all matters of war, and the other -effects the administration of domestic policy. - -It often happens that, although the head chief of the tribe is -nominally the ruler, and holds the first place, the real power lies in -the second or third chief, who pays to his superior every deference -which is due to his position, but is practically the leader and -commander of the tribe. This was the case among the Mandans when Mr. -Catlin visited them. The head chief, though a man of abilities and -courage, and therefore respected and feared by the people, was by -no means loved by them, on account of his haughty and overbearing -demeanor. The real leader of the tribe was the second chief, named -Mah-to-toh-pa, _i. e._ the Four Bears, a name which he got from an -exclamation of the enemy, who said that he came at them “like four -bears.” Some of the adventures of this extraordinary man will be -mentioned in the course of the following pages. - -Great as is the power of the chief, it is much more limited than that -which is enjoyed by the chiefs of the African tribes. The American -chief has no control over life, or limb, or liberty. He takes the lead -in council, and if an offender be cited before the councillors, his -voice carries great weight with it, but nothing more. Should he be -the war chief, he cannot compel a single man to follow him to battle, -nor can he punish one of his followers for deserting him. Any of the -warriors, even the very youngest, may follow or desert his chief as -he pleases, the principal check against desertion being the contempt -with which a warrior is sure to be regarded if he leaves a chief who is -worthy of his office. - -The chiefs have, as a rule, no advantage over the other members of the -tribe in point of wealth. A chief would soon lose the popularity on -which his influence depends if he were to amass wealth for himself. By -virtue of his office, he has a larger house or tent than the rest of -the tribe, and he generally possesses a few more wives. But he is often -actually poorer than most of the warriors, thinking himself bound in -honor to distribute among the tribe the spoils that he takes in war. -Many chiefs even dress worse than the warriors under their command, so -as not to excite envy, and only assume their splendid dress of office -on great occasions. - -The question of dress is really an important one. Varying as it does -among the different tribes, there is a general character which runs -through the whole. - -Every man without distinction wears a scanty dress much like the -“cheripa” which has already been described, but is very much smaller. -In battle or hunting, and in all cases in which exertion is required, -he contents himself with this single garment; but when he is enjoying -himself at home, he assumes his full costume. He wears a pair of -leggings reaching to the hips, and falling as low as the ankles, -sometimes spreading well over them. These leggings are mostly adorned -with little bells, bits of fur, or similar decorations; and if the -wearer be a successful warrior, he fringes them along the sides with -tufts of hair taken from the head of a slain enemy. - -He has also a loose coat descending to the knees, and ornamented in a -similar manner with feathers or scalp-locks, and, when the owner has -performed any conspicuous feat of valor, he makes a rude painting of -the event. This answers the same purpose as the Victoria Cross among -ourselves. Although it is conferred by the man himself, it is equally -valuable. No man would dare to depict on his robe any deed of valor -which he had not performed, as he would be challenged by the other -warriors to prove his right to the decoration, and, if he failed to -do so, would be utterly scorned by them. The chief Mah-to-toh-pa -represented on his robe a series of events in which he had killed no -less than fourteen of the enemy with his own hand. Sometimes, when -the tribe uses skin huts or wigwams, the warriors also paint their -adventures upon the walls of their dwellings. - -From a similar spirit the scars and wounds received in war are kept -covered with scarlet paint, and when a man has succeeded in killing -a grizzly bear he is entitled to wear its skin, claws, and teeth. -The usual mode of so doing is to string the claws into necklaces and -bracelets, and to make the skin into robes. Sometimes they dress the -skin without removing the claws, and wear it in such a fashion that the -claws are conspicuously seen. Owing to the extreme ferocity, strength, -and cunning of the bear, to kill one of these animals is considered -equivalent to killing a warrior, and the claw necklace is as honorable -an ornament as the much prized scalp. Some of the most valiant hunters -have killed several of these animals, and it is a point of honor with -them to appear on great occasions with all their spoils, so that they -have to exercise considerable ingenuity, and display some forty huge -claws about their persons in a sufficiently conspicuous manner. - -All the dress of a North American Indian is made of skin, mostly that -of the deer, and in dressing it the natives are unrivalled, contriving -to make a leather which is as soft as silk, is nearly white, and which -may be wetted and dried any number of times without becoming harsh. - -The skin is first washed in strong lye, made of wood-ashes and water, -so as to loosen the hair, which is then scraped off. The hide is next -stretched tightly upon the ground upon a frame, or by means of a number -of wooden pegs driven firmly into the ground. In this position it -remains for several days, the brains of the animal being spread thickly -upon it, and rubbed into it. The next process is to scrape it carefully -with a blunt knife made of the shoulder-blade of the bison, the native -tanner pressing heavily upon it, and scraping every portion of the hide. - -The process by which it is made capable of resisting the effects of -water has yet to be undergone. A hole is made in the ground, and a -quantity of rotten wood is piled in it, so that when lighted it will -continue to smoulder for a long time, and produce smoke, but no flame. -Around the hole are stuck a number of sticks, which are then tied -together at the top, so as to make the framework of a sort of tent. The -wood is then set on fire, the hides are placed within the tent, and -over the sticks are wrapped other hides carefully fastened together, -so as to prevent the smoke from escaping. For several days the hides -are left in the smoke, and at the expiration of that time they have -assumed the peculiar quality which has been described. The whole of -the processes are conducted by women, manual labor being beneath the -dignity of a man and a warrior. - -The headdress of a North American Indian deserves some attention. -Variable as are the modes of dressing the hair, no warrior ever wears -his hair short. By so doing he would be taking an unfair advantage of -an adversary. When a warrior is killed, or even totally disabled, the -successful adversary has a right to take his scalp, in which he would -be much impeded if the hair was short. Moreover, he would lose the -honorable trophy with which he is entitled to fringe his garments. So -for a warrior to wear his hair short would be a tacit acknowledgment -that he was afraid of losing his scalp, and all the men therefore -always leave at least one lock of hair attached to the crown of the -head. - -The process of scalping will be presently described, when we treat of -war. - -A great chief always wears, in addition to the ordinary headdress -of the warrior, a plume of eagle feathers, by which he is made as -conspicuous as possible, so that the enemy shall have no difficulty in -recognising him. The form of plume varies according to the different -tribes. That of the Crows may be seen in an illustration on page 1284. -That of the Mandans is represented on the following page. It is made -of a long strip of ermine, to which are fastened the quill feathers of -the war eagle, so as to form a crest beginning at the back of the head -and descending to the feet. These quills are so valuable that a perfect -tail of the war eagle is considered to be worth a first-rate horse. - -In the present instance two horns may be seen projecting from the -headdress. This is a decoration very rarely seen, and only conferred by -the chief and council upon the most distinguished warriors. Even the -head chief will not be able to assume them unless by the general vote -of the council, and in the case of the Mandans the second chief wore -them, while the head chief was not privileged to do so. - -Even a brave may wear them, though he be below the rank of chief. - -They are made from the horns of the bison bull, divided longitudinally, -scraped nearly as thin as paper, and highly polished. They are loosely -attached at the base, so that they can be flung backward or forward by -the movement of the head, and give a wonderful animation to the action -of the wearer when he is speaking. - -This elaborate headdress is very seldom worn, and is only assumed on -occasions of special state, such as public festivals, war parades, or -the visits of other chiefs. In battle the wearer always assumes the -headdress by way of challenge to the enemy. There is good reason for -not always wearing this dress. I have worn the dress formerly used by -Mah-to-toh-pa, and found it to be hot, heavy, and inconvenient. - -As a contrast to the dress of a noted warrior, we may take that of a -mere dandy, a few of whom are sure to be found in every tribe. They -are always remarkable for elegance of person and effeminacy of nature, -having the greatest horror of exposing themselves to danger, and -avoiding equally the bear, the bison, and the armed enemy. Consequently -they may not deck themselves with the plumage of the war eagle, every -feather of which signifies a warrior slain by the warrior’s own hand. -Neither may they adorn their necks with the claws of the grizzly bear, -their robes with scalp-locks and paintings, nor their bodies with the -scarlet streaks that tell of honorable wounds received in battle. - -[Illustration: THE MANDAN CHIEF MAH-TO-TOH-PA AND WIFE. (See pages -1276, 1286, 1287.)] - -Such ornaments would at once be torn from them by the indignant -warriors of the tribe, and they are forced to content themselves with -mountain goat, doe, and ermine skins, swans’ down, porcupine quills, -and similar articles--all more beautiful than the sombre eagle quills, -bears’ claws, and scalp-locks that mark the brave. - -They spend their whole lives in idleness, and do not even join the -athletic games of which the Americans are exceedingly fond, but devote -their whole energies to the adornment of their persons. They will -occupy four of five hours in making their toilets, being fastidious as -to the arrangement of every hair of their eyebrows, and trying by the -mirror the effect of various expressions of countenance. - -Having spent the whole morning in this occupation, they sally out on -their horses, seated on white and soft saddles, beautifully ornamented -with porcupine quills and ermine, and lounge about the village for an -hour or two, displaying their handsome persons to the best advantage. -They then saunter, still on horseback, to the place where the young -warriors are practising athletic exercises, and watch them for an hour -or two, plying all the while their turkey-tail fans. Fatigued with the -effort, they lounge home again, turn their horses loose, take some -refreshment, smoke a pipe, and fan themselves to sleep. - -These men are utterly despised by the warriors, as Mr. Catlin found. He -was anxious to procure a portrait of one of these men:-- - -“Whilst I have been painting, day by day, there have been two or three -of these fops continually strutting and taking their attitudes in front -of my door, decked out in all their finery, without receiving other -information than such as they could discover through the seams and -cracks of my cabin. The chiefs, I observed, passed them without notice, -and, of course, without inviting them in; and they seemed to figure -about my door from day to day in their best dresses and best attitudes, -as if in hopes that I would select them as models for my canvas. It was -natural that I should do so, for their costume and personal appearance -were entirely more beautiful than anything else to be seen in the -village. - -“My plans were laid, and one day, when I had got through with all of -the head men who were willing to sit to be painted, and there were two -or three of the chiefs lounging in my room, I stepped to the door, -and tapped one of these fellows on the shoulder, who took the hint, -evidently well pleased and delighted with the signal and honorable -notice I had at length taken of him and his beautiful dress. Readers, -you cannot imagine what was the expression of gratitude which beamed -forth in this poor fellow’s face, and how high his heart beat with joy -and pride at the idea of my selecting him to be immortal alongside -of the chiefs and worthies whose portraits he saw ranged around the -room; and by which honor he undoubtedly considered himself well paid -for two or three weeks of regular painting, and greasing, and dressing, -and standing alternately on one leg and the other at the door of my -premises. - -“Well, I placed him before me, and a canvas on my easel, and chalked -him out at full length. He was truly a beautiful subject for the brush, -and I was filled with enthusiasm. - -“His dress from head to foot was made of the skins of the mountain -goat, dressed so neatly that they were almost as soft and white as -Canton crape. Around the bottom and the sides it was trimmed with -ermine, and porcupine quills of beautiful dyes garnished it in a -hundred parts. His hair, which was long and spread over his back and -shoulders, extending nearly to the ground, was all combed back, and -parted on his forehead like that of a woman. He was a tall and fine -figure, with ease and grace in his movements that were worthy of better -caste. In his left hand he held a beautiful pipe, in his right hand he -plied his fan, and on his wrist was attached his whip of elk-horn and -his fly-brush, made of the buffalo’s tail. There was nought about him -of the terrible, and nought to shock the finest and chastest intellect.” - -Unfortunately, the portrait was never taken, for the chiefs were so -exceedingly offended that so contemptible a being should be put on -the same level as themselves by being painted, that they left the -hut in angry silence, and sent a message to the effect that, if Mr. -Catlin painted the portrait of so worthless a man, he must destroy all -the portraits of the chiefs and warriors. The message was also given -to the obnoxious individual, who at once yielded the point, walked -consequentially out of the hut, and took up his old station at the door -as if nothing had happened to disturb his equanimity. - -On their feet the American Indians wear moccasins, _i. e._ shoes made -of soft leather, the sole of which is no thicker than the upper part. -To an European walking in moccasins is at first very fatiguing, on -account of the habit of turning out the toes. When, however, the white -man learns to walk as the natives do, with his toes rather turned in, -he soon finds that the moccasin is a better preservative of the feet -than the European shoe, with its thick and almost inflexible sole. - -The dress of the women is made of the same materials as that of the -men, and differs chiefly in its greater length, reaching nearly to the -ankle. It is generally embroidered in various patterns with colored -porcupine quills, as are the leggings and moccasins. The women are fond -of tattooing themselves, and produce blue and red patterns by the use -of charcoal and vermilion rubbed into the punctures. Both sexes are -furnished with large robes made of bison skins, and the inner side of -these robes is often painted in curious patterns. One of these robes -in Mr. Catlin’s collection, had a most elaborate figure of the sun in -the centre, around which were figures of men and animals, showing the -prowess of the owner both in war and hunting. - -Beads and such like ornaments, obtained from the white men, are much in -fashion; but, long before a glass or porcelain bead was introduced into -America, the natives had an ornament of their own manufacture. This is -the celebrated wampum, an article which is now almost extinct. It is -made of fresh water shells, which are found on the borders of the lakes -and streams. The thick part of the shell is cut into cylinders an inch -or so in length, and then bored longitudinally, like the “bugles” that -are worn by European ladies. Indeed, when the shell is, as is mostly -the case, a white one, the piece of wampum looks almost exactly like a -fragment of clay tobacco-pipe stem. - -The wampum is either strung like beads and worn round the neck, or is -formed into war belts for the waist. It answers several purposes. In -the first place, it acts, like the cowries of Africa, as a substitute -for money, a certain number of hand breadths being the fixed value of a -horse, a gun, or a robe. It is also the emblem of peace when presented -by one chief to another, and, when war has ceased between two hostile -tribes, a wampum belt is presented as a token that the two tribes are -at peace. - -There is no particular beauty about the wampum. If the reader will -break a tobacco-pipe stem into pieces an inch in length and string -them on a thread, he will produce a very good imitation of a wampum -necklace. Its only value lies in the labor represented by it; and, -as the white men have introduced tons of imitation wampum made of -porcelain, which looks rather better than the real article, and is -scarcely one-hundredth part of the value, the veritable wampum is so -completely extinct among many of the tribes that, if one of the natives -should wish to see a string of wampum, he must go to a museum for that -purpose. - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXVII. - -THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS--_Continued_. - -WAR--WEAPONS. - - - MARTIAL CHARACTER OF THE TRIBES -- THEIR MODE OF FIGHTING -- - DECLARATION OF WAR, AND APPLICATION FOR VOLUNTEERS -- WEAPONS -- THE - PLAIN AND THE SPIKED CLUB -- THE SHIELD, AND THE INGENIOUS MODE OF - MAKING IT -- THE LONG SPEAR -- THE BOW AND ITS CONSTRUCTION -- MODE - OF SHOOTING -- THE STONE AND IRON TOMAHAWKS -- THE SCALPING-KNIFE -- - MODE OF SCALPING -- USE MADE OF THE LOCKS -- THE SCALP DANCE -- THE - EXPLOITS OF MAH-TO-TOH-PA -- SHAM BATTLES OF THE BOYS -- THE TORTURE - OF PRISONERS -- TWO WONDERFUL ESCAPES -- HOW THE CAMANCHEES FIGHT -- - SMOKING HORSES. - -The North American Indians are essentially a warlike people, measuring -their respect for a man almost entirely by his conduct in battle and -the number of enemies which he has slain. - -The very constitution of the tribes, which prevents any leader from -enforcing obedience upon his followers, as is done with civilized -armies, entirely precludes the possibility of such military manœuvres -as those which are employed in civilized countries, where bodies of -men are wielded by the order of one individual. The leader can only -give general orders, and leave his followers to carry them out in the -way that best suits each individual. Consequently, war among these -tribes is much of the guerilla kind, where each combatant fights almost -independently of the other, and the moral effect of mutual defence and -support is therefore wanting. - -A few very simple manœuvres are known to them, and practised by them -from infancy, but they lead to nothing more than skirmishing, the chief -being merely the leader of his men, and expected to be in the post of -danger. The idea of a general directing the battle from a place of -comparative safety is unknown to them. - -Declaration of war is made in the full council of chiefs and doctors, -the majority deciding the question. The chief who is to lead the -expedition then asks for volunteers by sending his reddened war pipe -through the tribe by means of his messengers, and each warrior who -draws a puff of smoke through its stem by that act enlists himself. - -After the pipe has gone its round and a sufficient number of men have -volunteered, a grand war dance is got up in front of the chief’s house, -where has been set up a post covered with red paint, the sign of war. -The newly enlisted warriors make their appearance with all their -weapons, and execute a solemn dance, each man in succession dancing -up to the reddened post and striking his axe into it as a public -ratification of his promise. As has been mentioned, the leader always -wears every decoration to which he is entitled, so as to make himself -as conspicuous a mark as possible, while the braves and warriors wear -scarcely any clothing, and have their faces so disguised with black and -red paint that even their most intimate friends can scarcely recognize -them. - -As among us, white and red are the signs of peace and war, and each -leader carries with him two small flags, one of white bison’s hide, and -the other of reddened leather. These are kept rolled round the staff -like a railway flag-signal, and only produced when required. - -At the present day fire-arms have superseded the original weapons of -the American Indians, and much changed the mode of warfare. We will, -however, contemplate the warfare of these tribes as it was conducted -before the introduction of these weapons, when the bow, the club, the -axe, the spear, and in some districts the lasso, were the only weapons -employed. - -In illustration No. 4, on page 1265, are seen examples of the clubs -and shield, drawn from specimens in the Christy Collection. The clubs -are short, seldom exceeding a yard in length, and mostly eight or nine -inches shorter. They are almost invariably made upon one or other -of two models, examples of which are seen in the illustration. The -primitive idea of a club is evidently derived from a stick with a -knob at the end, and that is the form which is most in vogue. In the -common kind of club the whole of the weapon is quite plain, but in many -specimens the native has imbedded a piece of bone or spike of iron in -the ball or bulb at the end of the club, and has decorated the handle -with feathers, bits of cloth, scalps, and similar ornaments. - -The second kind of club is shaped something like the stock of a gun, -and has always a spike projecting from the angle. In most cases this -spike is nothing more than a pointed piece of iron or the head of a -spear, but in some highly valued weapons a very broad steel blade is -employed, its edges lying parallel with the length of the weapon. Such -a club as this is often decorated with some hundreds of brass headed -nails driven into it so as to form patterns, and is besides ornamented -so profusely with strings and feathers, and long trailing scalp-locks -five or six feet in length, that the efficacy of the weapon must be -seriously impeded by them. - -I have handled both kinds of clubs, and found this latter weapon to be -most awkward and unwieldy, its thick, squared, sloping handle giving -scarcely any power to the grasp, while the abundant ornaments are -liable to entanglement in the other weapons that are carried about the -person. - -The shield is made by a very ingenious process from the thick hide -which covers the shoulders of the bull bison. Making a shield is a -very serious, not to say solemn, business, and is conducted after the -following manner. - -The warrior selects a piece of hide at least twice as large as the -intended shield, and from the hoof and joints of the bison prepares a -strong glue. He then digs in the ground a hole the exact size of the -shield, and almost two feet in diameter, and makes in it a smouldering -fire of decayed wood. These arrangements being completed, his -particular friends assemble for the purpose of dancing, singing, and -smoking round the shield maker, and invoking the Great Spirit to render -the weapon proof against spears and arrows. - -The fire being lighted and the glue heated, the skin is stretched above -the hole by means of numerous pegs round the edge, which keep it a few -inches above the ground. As soon as the skin is thoroughly heated, -the glue is spread over it and rubbed carefully into the fibres. This -operation causes the skin to contract forcibly, and at the same time to -become thicker. As it contracts, the family of the shield maker busy -themselves in loosening the pegs, and shifting them inward, so as to -yield with the contraction of the skin, and at the same time to keep it -on the full stretch. This goes on until the skin has absorbed all the -glue which it is capable of receiving, and has contracted to the very -utmost. By this time it is only half as wide, though twice as thick, as -it was when first placed on the fire, and is allowed to cool slowly, -after which it is carefully trimmed into shape, furnished with a strap, -painted with the “totem” or symbol of the owner, and decorated with the -usual ornaments. - -The completed shield is rather flexible, but is so strong that it will -resist the direct blow of a spear or arrow, and if turned a little -obliquely will throw off even a pistol bullet. The specimen shown in -the illustration is painted light green with a white pattern. Above it -is a cover made of very thin and soft leather, which is thrown over -it in case of rain. The long strap is for the purpose of throwing the -shield when not in use over the shoulders, where it hangs, together -with the bow and quiver. - -The spear presents nothing especially worthy of remark, except that -the blade is leaf-shaped, long, and narrow, and the shaft is often so -covered with feathers and scalp-locks that there is barely enough space -for the hand of the wielder. It sometimes measures fourteen or fifteen -feet in length. - -Next come the bows and arrows. The bow is always a very short and -apparently insignificant weapon, being mostly used on horseback. It -scarcely ever exceeds three feet in length, and is mostly six inches -shorter, so that it looks more like a child’s toy than a weapon fit for -a warrior’s hand. Yet, with this apparently feeble bow, the American -Indian can drive an arrow completely through a man, and some of their -best hunters are known to have sent their arrows fairly through the -body of a bison, so that the missile fell on the ground after passing -through the huge animal. - -These bows are made of wood, horn, or bone. Ash is considered the best -wood for bows, and it is strengthened enormously by having the wet -sinews of the bison or deer fastened along the back, and so worked and -kneaded into it that they appear to be of one substance with the wood. -Several layers of sinews are often used, so that, in spite of its small -size, the bow is a very powerful one. Some of them are made of the -horn of the mountain or big horn sheep, and a few which are the most -valuable are made of bone, probably obtained on the Pacific coast from -the spermaceti whale, and sent inland by the traders. The owners of -these bows do not like to have the material questioned, and check the -interrogation with a remark of “Hush! that is medicine.” One of these -bows is in the Christy Collection. I have tried several of the bows in -Mr. Catlin’s collection, and found them to be very elastic, and, in -spite of their small size, very stiff. - -[Illustration: (1.) CROW CHIEF. (See page 1274.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) AMERICAN INDIANS SCALPING. (See page 1285.)] - -The arrow is headed with flint or bone, and when used against the -enemy is usually poisoned. The feathers are taken from the wing of the -wild turkey. (See page 1290.) When a warrior is fully armed, he has a -hundred or so of these arrows in a neat quiver made of deer or cougar -skin, and tastefully decorated with patterns woven in stained porcupine -quills. - -In an illustration on page 1318, the reader may see the usual -costume of the Indian when equipped for battle. The portrait is that -of Ee-a-chin-che-a (the red thunder) son of Black Moccasin of the -Minatarees. He was at this time one of the bravest and most desperate -warriors of this tribe. He has on his war-dress, with quiver slung, -and shield upon his arm. “In this plight,” says Mr. Catlin, “_sans_ -headdress, _sans_ robe, and _sans_ everything that might be a useless -encumbrance,--with the body chiefly naked, and profusely bedaubed with -red and black paint, so as to form an almost perfect disguise, the -Indian warriors sally forth to war.” The chief only plumes himself, and -loaded with his ornaments and trophies renders himself a conspicuous -target for the enemy. - -The Indians are not celebrated for their skill in marksmanship, which -indeed is scarcely required, as they never shoot at long ranges, like -the old English bowmen. But they are wonderfully skilled in discharging -a number of arrows in rapid succession, a practised archer being able -to throw twenty or more in a minute while galloping at full speed. - -There is a game much practised by the various tribes, by means of which -this peculiar modification of skill in archery is kept at the highest -pitch. The young men assemble with their bows and arrows, and each -brings several articles of property which he is willing to stake on his -skill, and throws one of them on the ground. When every one has thrown -down his stake, the first archer advances with his bow and ten arrows -clenched in his left hand. He then draws the arrows and shoots them -upward as rapidly as he can, the object being to throw as many arrows -as possible into the air before the first arrow has reached the ground. -He who gets the greatest number simultaneously in the air wins the -stakes. Some archers are so skilful that they will discharge the eighth -arrow before the first has touched the ground. - -We now come to the axe or tomahawk. The two figures in illustration -No. 2, page 1265, afford excellent examples of the principal forms of -this weapon; namely, that which is made entirely by themselves, and -that which is partly made in Europe and finished by themselves. The -most primitive tomahawk is that which is made of a stone fixed to a -wooden handle. Fig. 2, on the above mentioned page, shows how the head -is fixed to the handle, exactly as a blacksmith fixes his punches. The -stone axe-heads which are found so abundantly as relics of a bygone -age, were fastened on their handles in precisely the same manner. This -kind of weapon is now so rare that it is scarcely possible to procure a -specimen. - -The steel-headed tomahawk has in most tribes superseded that which -is made of stone. Vast numbers of these steel axe-heads are made in -Birmingham, and sold at a very high price to the Indians. - -The form which is most valued is that which is shown in fig. 1, page -1265. It is a “pipe-tomahawk,” the upper part of the head being formed -into a pipe-bowl, and the smoke drawn through the handle, which is -plentifully decorated with porcupine quills and feathers. This is -specially valued by the American Indians, because it saves them the -trouble of carrying a separate pipe, and is most formidable as a -weapon, and in time of peace is an efficient axe for chopping firewood -and similar purposes. The tomahawk is used both in close combat and as -a missile, in which latter capacity it is hurled with wonderful force -and accuracy of aim. - -Beside these weapons, every warrior carries the scalping knife, which, -with the poniard of early English times, is equally useful for war and -domestic purposes. Almost without an exception every scalping knife -used in North America is nothing more than a common butcher’s knife, -made in Sheffield for sixpence, and sold to the Indians at the price -of a horse. After all, it is perhaps the very best instrument that -they could use. One of my friends, an experienced hunter, said that he -discarded all his elaborate and costly hunting knives, and preferred -the Sheffield butcher’s knife, which combines the advantages of -strength, lightness, and the capability of taking an edge like a razor. - -Every one has heard of the custom of scalping as practised by these -tribes, a custom which takes the place of the preserved heads of the -Dyak, and Mundurucú. When an American Indian slays an enemy, he removes -the scalp as a proof of his victory. The scalp is a piece of skin, -with the hair attached to it, taken from the very crown of the head, -so as to exhibit that portion of the skin where the hair radiates from -a centre. The size of the scalp is of no importance, provided that it -only contain this indispensable mark. - -Generally, the piece of skin secured is almost as large as the palm of -the hand, and it is taken in the following manner. The enemy being -fallen, the victor sits behind him on the ground, seizes the scalp-lock -with his left hand, and with the knife makes two semicircular incisions -in the skin, cutting it completely down to the bone. He then twists -the scalp-lock round both his hands, puts his feet on the victim’s -shoulders, and with a violent pull drags off the circular piece of skin -with the hair adhering to it. - -This whole scene (illustrated on page 1284) is enacted in much less -time than it has taken to write, the Indians being well practised in -their sham fights before they come to taking scalps in actual battle. -Brandishing the scalp in one hand and the knife in the other, the -exultant conqueror utters the terrible “scalping yell,” which even when -given in a mock battle seems as if it were uttered by a demon rather -than a man. - -The scalped man is always supposed to be dead or dying, and, as the -scalp is always accepted as a proof of death, the native warrior would -never scalp a man whom he thought likely to recover. There have, -however, been many instances, where in the heat of battle a man has -been scalped while stunned, though without a mortal wound, and has -afterward recovered and lived for many years. - -When the battle is over and the warrior returns to his home, he dresses -the scalp for preservation. This is usually done by stretching it in a -sort of battledore, made by bending a flexible stick and lashing the -ends together, and it is then solemnly “danced” before it takes its -place with the other valuables of the owner. Some of the scalps are -quite small, not larger than a penny, and are hung on the bridles of -the horses, or the handles of clubs. - -Generally, however, they are, when quite dry, painted on the inside -so as to resemble a human face, and hung to the end of a long, slight -pole. On a fine day, the head chief of an encampment mostly orders that -the scalps should be hung out, and sets the example, by protruding from -the top of his own hut the pole on which are hung the scalps which he -has taken. All the warriors at once follow his example, so that by -walking round the village and counting the scalps, a stranger can learn -the standing of every warrior. - -It has been mentioned that many of the scalps are very small. Their -limited size is thus accounted for. If a warrior be hurried, as is -mostly the case when scalping a fallen man in the heat of battle, -he contents himself with the scalp alone. But, if he should have -leisure, he removes the whole of the hair-bearing portion of the skin, -and treats it as follows. He first cuts out a small circular piece -containing the crown of the head, this being the actual scalp. The -remainder of the hair he divides into little locks, and with them he -fringes the seams of his leggings, the arms and edges of his coat, the -shaft of his spear, the handle of his club, etc., etc. The whole of -Mah-to-toh-pa’s dress was covered with fringes made from the hair of -those whom he slew in battle. - -A dress thus ornamented is valued beyond all price, and there is -scarcely any price sufficiently high to tempt a warrior to part with -these trophies of his valor. - -The “scalp dance” is a ceremony quite in keeping with the custom of -securing the trophy. A scalp dance of the Sioux is thus described by -Mr. Catlin:--“Among this tribe, as I learned whilst residing with them, -it is danced in the night by the light of their torches, just before -going to bed. When a war party returns from a war excursion, bringing -home with them the scalps of their enemies, they generally dance them -for fifteen nights in succession, vaunting forth the most extravagant -boasts of their wonderful prowess in war, whilst they brandish their -war weapons in their hands. - -“A number of young women are selected to aid (though they do not -actually join in) the dance, by stepping into the centre of the ring -and holding up the scalps that have been recently taken, while the -warriors dance, or rather jump, around in a circle, brandishing their -weapons, and barking and yelping in the most frightful manner, all -jumping on both feet at a time, with a simultaneous stamp, and blow, -and thrust of their weapons, with which it would seem as if they were -actually cutting and carving each other to pieces. During these frantic -leaps and yells, every man distorts his face to the utmost power of his -muscles, darting about his glaring eyeballs, and snapping his teeth as -if he were in the heat--and actually breathing through his nostrils the -very hissing death--of battle. - -“No description that can be written could ever convey more than a -feeble outline of the frightful effects of these scenes enacted in the -dead and darkness of night, under the glaring light of their blazing -flambeaux; nor could all the years allotted to mortal man in the least -obliterate or deface the vivid impression that one scene of this kind -would leave upon his memory.” - -Mr. Catlin suggests, with much reason, that these dances are -propitiatory of the spirits of the slain men, showing how highly -their valor was prized by the conquerors, and the great respect and -estimation in which they were held, though the fortune of war had gone -against them. - -A good example of the war career of an American Indian chief may be -gained by the exploits of Mah-to-toh-pa, as displayed on his robe, and -explained by him to Mr. Catlin. It was covered with twelve groups of -figures, which will be briefly described. - -His first exploit was killing a Sioux chief, who had already killed -three Riccarees. This feat entitled him to wear eagles’ quills on his -lance, and in the second group he is shown as killing with this lance -a Shienne chief, who challenged him to single combat. The third scene -represents a combat in which Mah-to-toh-pa was forsaken by his party, -and yet, though badly wounded, killed a Shienne warrior in the presence -of some thirty of his fellows. - -The fourth scene shows a great chief of the Shiennes killed by this -warrior, whose splendid headdress was assumed by his slayer. The fifth -picture represents a strange episode in a battle. Mah-to-toh-pa was -travelling with a party of Riccarees, when they were fired upon by a -war party of Sioux. The Riccarees fled, leaving Mah-to-toh-pa, who -sprang from his horse, faced the Sioux on foot, killed one of them, and -secured his scalp. - -The sixth drawing illustrates a most remarkable piece of personal -history. A Riccaree brave, named Won-ga-tap, shot the brother of -Mah-to-toh-pa with an arrow, drove his well-known spear into the body -of the fallen man, and left it there, as a challenge to the surviving -brother. The challenge was accepted. Mah-to-toh-pa found the body, -recognized the spear, and vowed that he would slay the murderer of his -brother with the same weapon. Four years passed without an opportunity -to fulfil the vow, when he could no longer brook delay, but dashed out -of his house with the fatal spear in his hand, and a small wallet of -parched corn at his belt. He told the Mandans to mention his name no -more unless he returned victorious with the scalp of Won-ga-tap. - -Amid the awe-struck silence of his people he left the village, and -disappeared over the grassy bluffs. For two hundred miles he travelled -alone and by night, always concealing himself by day, until he reached -the Riccaree village, which he boldly entered, mixing with the -inhabitants as if he were a friendly stranger. He knew the position -of Won-ga-tap’s hut, and after having seen that the intended victim -and his wife had smoked the evening pipe and were in bed, he walked -gently into the hut, sat down by the fire, took some meat out of the -cooking-pot, and began to eat in order to strengthen himself for the -fulfilment of his task. This was according to the hospitable custom of -the American Indians. If a man be hungry, he need not ask for food, but -has only to go to the nearest hut and help himself. - -The repast being ended, Mah-to-toh-pa took the still warm pipe, filled -it with tobacco, and began to smoke it, breathing, with every curl of -smoke, a prayer for success in his undertaking. Once or twice the wife -of Won-ga-tap asked her husband who was eating in their hut, but he -replied that some one must be hungry, and was helping himself. - -When the last smoke-wreath had ascended, Mah-to-toh-pa turned toward -the bed, and with his foot pushed an ember on the fire, so as to make -a blaze by which he might see the exact position of his victim. In an -instant he leaped toward the bed, drove the spear through the heart of -Won-ga-tap, tore off his scalp, snatched the spear from his heart, and -darted out of the hut with the scalp of his victim in one hand, and in -the other the fatal spear, with the blood of Won-ga-tap already drying -over that of the man he had killed four years before. The whole village -was in an uproar, but Mah-to-toh-pa succeeded in making his escape, -and on the sixth day after leaving the Mandan village, he re-entered -it with the scalp of his enemy. A portrait of this celebrated chief is -given on the 1277th page. - -Another of these pictures records a single combat fought with a Shienne -chief in presence of both war parties. They fought on horseback, until -Mah-to-toh-pa’s powder-horn was shattered by a bullet. The Shienne -chief flung away his gun, horn, and bullet pouch, and challenged the -foe with bow and arrow. Both parties were wounded in the limbs, but -kept their bodies covered with their shields. - -Presently Mah-to-toh-pa’s horse fell with an arrow in its heart. The -Shienne chief immediately dismounted, and proceeded with the fight -until he had exhausted his arrows, when he flung the empty quiver on -the ground, challenging with his knife, the only weapon which he had -left. The challenge was accepted, and they rushed on each other, but -Mah-to-toh-pa had left his knife at home, and was unarmed. He closed -with his antagonist, and a struggle ensued for the knife. Mah-to-toh-pa -was dreadfully wounded in the hands, but at last wrested the knife from -his adversary, drove it into his heart, and in silence claimed the -scalp of his fallen foe. - -On another occasion he alone faced sixty Assineboins, drove them back, -and killed one of them. It was in this battle that he earned the name -of “Four Bears,” by which must be understood the grizzly bear, the most -terrible quadruped of North America. This is a sample of the mode in -which warfare is conducted by the North American Indians--a strange -mixture of lofty and chivalrous nobility with cunning and deceit. In -fact, in contemplating these interesting tribes, we are thrown back -to the time of Ulysses, whose great fame was equally derived from his -prowess in battle and his skill in deceiving his foes, or, in other -words, of being a most accomplished liar. - -The men are taught the operations of war from a very early age. Every -morning, all the lads who are above seven years old and upward, and -have not been admitted among the men, are taken to some distance from -the village, where they are divided into two opposing bodies, each -under the command of an experienced warrior. They are armed with -little bows, arrows made of grass stems, and wooden knives stuck in -their belts. In their heads they slightly weave a plaited tuft of grass -to represent the scalp-lock. - -The two parties then join in sham combat, which is made to resemble a -real fight as much as possible. When any of the combatants is struck -in a vital part, he is obliged to fall as if dead, when his antagonist -goes through the operation of scalping with his wooden knife, places -the scalp in his belt, utters the wild yell, and again joins in the -battle. As no one may fight without a scalp-lock, the fallen adversary -is obliged to withdraw from the fight. This goes on for an hour or so, -when the mock fight is stopped, and the lads are praised or rebuked -according to the skill and courage which they have shown, the number of -scalps at the belt being the surest criterion of merit. - -It is well known that after a battle the American Indians torture -their prisoners, and that they display the most diabolical ingenuity -in devising the most excruciating torments. Still, there has been much -exaggeration in the accounts of this custom. They do not torture all -their prisoners, selecting only a few for this purpose, the others -being absorbed into the tribe by marriage with the widows whose -husbands have been killed in battle, and enjoying equal rights with the -original members of the tribe. - -Neither is the torture practised with the idea of revenge, though it -is likely that vengeful feelings will arise when the victim is bound -to the stake. Superstition seems to be at the root of the torture, -which is intended to propitiate the spirit of those members of their -own tribe who have suffered the like treatment at the hands of their -adversaries. The doomed warrior accepts his fate with the imperturbable -demeanor which is an essential part of a North American Indian’s -character, and, for the honor of his tribe, matches his endurance -against the pain which his enemies can inflict. - -Tortures too terrible even to be mentioned are tried in succession; for -when the victim is once bound to the stake, the Indian never has been -known to relent in his purpose, which is to extort acknowledgments of -suffering from the captured warrior, and thereby to disgrace not only -himself but the tribe to which he belongs. He, in the meanwhile, prides -himself on showing his enemies how a warrior can die. He chants the -praises of his tribe and their deeds, boasts of all the harm that he -has done to the tribe into whose power he has fallen, ridicules their -best warriors, and endeavors to anger them to such an extent that they -may dash out his brains, and so spare him further torture. He will even -laugh at their attempts to extort cries of pain from a warrior, and -tell them that they do not know how to torture. - -One remarkable instance of endurance in a captured Creek warrior is -told by Mr. Adair. The man had been captured by the Shawnees, and -forced to run the gauntlet naked through all the tribe; he had been -tied to the stake, and was horribly tortured with gun-barrels heated -redhot. All the efforts of his enemies only drew from him taunts and -jeers, to the effect that the Shawnees were so ignorant that they did -not even know how to torture a bound prisoner. Great warrior though he -was, he had fallen into their hands through some fault in addressing -the Great Spirit, but that he had enough virtue left to show them the -difference between a Creek and a Shawnee. Let them only unbind him, and -allow him to take a redhot gun-barrel out of the fire, and he would -show them a much better way of torturing than any which they knew. - -His demeanor had excited the respect of the Shawnees, and they unbound -him and took him to the fire, in which were lying the redhot tubes. -Unhesitatingly, he picked up one of them with his bare hands, sprang -at the surrounding crowd, striking right and left with this fearful -weapon, cleared a passage through the astonished warriors, and leaped -down a precipice into the river. He swam the river amid a shower of -bullets, gained a little island in its midst, and, though instantly -followed by numbers of his disconcerted enemies, actually succeeded in -getting away. In spite of the injuries which he had suffered, and which -would have killed an ordinary European, he recovered, and lived for -many years, the implacable foe of the Shawnees. - -A somewhat similar adventure occurred to a Katahba warrior, who was -pursued by a band of Senecas, and at last captured, though not until -he had contrived to kill seven of them. A warrior of such prowess was -guarded with double vigilance, and he was brought to the Seneca village -for the torture, after having been beaten at every encampment through -which the party had passed. - -As the torturers were taking him to the stake, he, like the Creek -warrior, burst from his captors, and flung himself into the river, -swimming across in safety. He paused for a moment on the opposite bank -to express emphatically his contempt for the pursuers who were crowding -down the bank and into the river, and then dashed forward so fast that -he gained nearly a day’s journey upon the foremost of the pursuers. - -Five of the enemy pressed upon him, and, though naked and unarmed, he -deliberately waited for them. At night, when they were all asleep, not -having thought a sentry needful, he crept up to the party, snatched -one of their tomahawks, and killed them all before they could wake. -He scalped them, clothed and armed himself, invigorated his wasted -frame with food, and set off to the spot where he had slain the seven -foes as he was first pursued. They had been buried for the sake of -preserving their scalps, but he found the place of burial, scalped them -all, and not until then did he make for his home, which he reached in -safety. - -When the rest of the pursuers came to the place where the five had been -killed, they held a council, and determined that a man who could do -such deeds unarmed must be a wizard whom they could not hope to resist, -and that the best course that they could pursue was to go home again. - -The reader will not fail to notice the great stress that is here -laid on the possession of the scalp. A war party of Indians care -comparatively little for the loss of one of their number, provided -that they conceal his body so that the enemy shall not take his scalp. -Here we have an instance of a man pursued by numbers of infuriated -and relentless foes deliberately going back to the spot where he -thought his slain enemies might be buried, and a second time risking -his life in order to secure the trophies of victory. He knew that his -intention would be foreseen, and yet the value set upon the scalp was -so incalculable that even the risk of undergoing the torture was as -nothing in comparison. - -On more than one occasion, a warrior who has been struck down, and -felt himself unable to rise, has saved his life by feigning death, and -permitting his victorious foe to tear off his scalp without giving the -least sign of suffering. He must lose his scalp at any rate, and he -might possibly contrive to save his life. - -Several of the tribes are remarkable for the use which they make of -the horse in war, and their marvellous skill in riding. The most -celebrated tribe in this respect are the Camanchees, the greater part -of whose life is spent on horseback. As is often the case with those -who spend much of their time on horseback, the Camanchees are but poor -walkers, and have a slouching and awkward gait. No sooner, however, is -a Camanchee on the back of a horse, than his whole demeanor alters, -and he and the animal which he bestrides seem one and the same being, -actuated with the same spirit. “A Camanchee on his feet,” writes Mr. -Catlin, “is out of his element, and comparatively almost as awkward as -a monkey on the ground without a limb or branch to cling to. But the -moment he lays his hand upon his horse, his face becomes handsome, and -he gracefully flies away like a different being.” - -There is one feat in which all the Camanchee warriors are trained -from their infancy. As the man is dashing along at full gallop, he -will suddenly drop over the side of his horse, leaving no part of -him visible except the sole of one foot, which is hitched over the -horse’s back as a purchase by which he can pull himself to an upright -position. In this attitude he can ride for any distance, and moreover -can use with deadly effect either his bow or his fourteen-foot lance. - -One of their favorite modes of attack is to gallop toward the enemy at -full speed, and then, just before they come within range, they drop -upon the opposite side of their horses, dash past the foe, and pour -upon him a shower of arrows directed under their horses’ necks, and -sometimes even thrown under their bellies. All the time it is nearly -useless for the enemy to return the shots, as the whole body of the -Camanchee is hidden behind the horse, and there is nothing to aim at -save the foot just projecting over the animal’s back. - -To enable them to perform this curious manœuvre, (illustrated on the -1291st page) the Camanchees plait a short and strong halter of horse -hair. This halter is passed under the horse’s neck, and the ends are -firmly plaited into the mane, just above the withers, so as to leave a -loop hanging under the animal’s neck. Into this loop the warrior drops -with accurate precision, sustaining the weight of his body on the upper -part of the bent arm, and allowing the spear to fall into the bend of -the elbow. Thus both his arms are at liberty to draw the bow or wield -the spear; and as in such cases he always grasps a dozen arrows in his -left hand, together with the bow, he can discharge them without having -recourse to his quiver. - -Sometimes the Camanchees try to steal upon their enemies by leaving -their lances behind them, slinging themselves along the sides of their -steeds, and approaching carelessly, as though they were nothing but -a troop of wild horses without riders. A very quick eye is needed to -detect this guise, which is generally betrayed by the fact that the -horses always keep the same side toward the spectator, which would very -seldom be the case were they wild and unrestrained in their movements. - -Every Camanchee has one favorite horse, which he never mounts except -for war or the chase, using an inferior animal on ordinary occasions. -Swiftness is the chief quality for which the charger is selected, and -for no price would the owner part with his steed. Like all uncivilized -people, he treats his horse with a strange mixture of cruelty and -kindness. While engaged in the chase, for example, he spurs and whips -the animal most ruthlessly; but as soon as he returns, he carefully -hands over his valued animal to his women, who are waiting to receive -it, and who treat it as if it were a cherished member of the family. - -It need scarcely be added that the Camanchees are most accomplished -horse stealers, and that they seize every opportunity of robbing other -tribes of their animals. When a band of Camanchees sets out on a horse -stealing expedition, the warriors who compose it are bound in honor not -to return until they have achieved their object. Sometimes they are -absent for more than two years before they can succeed in surprising -the settlement which contains the horses on which they have set their -hearts, and they will lie in ambush for months, awaiting a favorable -opportunity. - -The value set upon horses by the equestrian tribes cannot be better -illustrated than by the singular custom of “smoking horses,” which -prevails in some parts of the country. The reader will find this -illustrated on the following page. - -When one of these tribes determine on making war, and find on mustering -their forces that they have not sufficient horses, they send a -messenger to a friendly tribe to say that on a certain day they will -come to “smoke” a certain number of horses, and expect the animals -to be ready for them. This is a challenge which is never refused, -involving as it does the honor of the tribe. - -On the appointed day, the young warriors who have no horses go to -the friendly village, stripped and painted as if for war, and seat -themselves in a circle, all facing inward. They light their pipes and -smoke in silence, the people of the village forming a large circle -around them, leaving a wide space between themselves and their visitors. - -Presently in the distance there appears an equal number of young -warriors on horseback, dashing along at full gallop, and in “Indian -file,” according to their custom. They gallop round the ring, and the -foremost rider, selecting one of the seated young men, stoops from -his saddle as he passes, and delivers a terrible blow at his naked -shoulders with his cruel whip. Each of his followers does the same, -and they gallop round and round the smokers, at each circuit repeating -the blow until the shoulders of the men are covered with blood. It -is incumbent upon the sufferers to smoke on in perfect calmness, and -not to give the slightest intimation that they are aware of the blows -which are inflicted on them. When the requisite number of circuits have -been made, the leader springs off his horse, and places the bridle and -whip in the hands of the young man whom he has selected, saying at the -same time, “You are a beggar; I present you with a horse: but you will -always carry my mark on your back.” The rest follow his example. - -Every one is pleased with this remarkable custom. The young men are -pleased because they get a horse apiece; and as to the flogging, in -the first place they really care very little for pain, and in the -next place they have enjoyed an opportunity of showing publicly their -capability of endurance. - -Those who give the horses are pleased because they have been able to -show their liberality, a trait which is held in great estimation by -these people, and they have also the peculiar satisfaction of flogging -a warrior with impunity. Both tribes are also pleased, the one because -they have gained the horses without which they could not have made -up their forces, and the other because they have shown themselves -possessed of superior wealth. - -[Illustration: FLINT-HEADED ARROW. (See page 1285.)] - -[Illustration: (1.) CAMANCHEES RIDING. (See page 1289.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) SMOKING HORSES. (See page 1290.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXVII. - -THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS--_Continued_. - -HUNTING--AMUSEMENTS. - - - NORTH AMERICAN HUNTERS -- BISON OR BUFFALO HUNTING -- THE CHASE ON - HORSEBACK -- USE OF THE GUN -- BISON DRIVING -- THE SNOW SHOE, AND - ITS USE IN BISON HUNTING -- THE DISGUISE IN WOLF SKINS -- HORSE - CATCHING -- MODES OF USING THE LASSO -- HOW HORSES ARE TAMED -- - “CREASING” HORSES -- THE BUFFALO DANCE -- CREDIT OF THE BUFFALO DANCE - RESTORED -- A SINGULAR MASK -- INVARIABLE SUCCESS OF THE DANCE -- HOW - THE DANCERS ARE RELIEVED -- AN INGENIOUS DECEPTION. - -As might be expected from a migratory people like the North American -Indians, all the tribes excel in hunting, though some are notable above -the others. Next to Africa, this country presents the finest hunting -grounds in the world, the game varying according to the locality, and -giving the hunter an almost unrivalled scope of action. - -First and most important of the North American game is the bison, -popularly but erroneously called the buffalo. This animal exists in -countless myriads, and in spite of the continual persecutions to which -it has been subjected, and the utterly reckless manner in which it has -been destroyed, it still blackens the plains with its multitudes. - -Before the horse came into use, the North American Indians were obliged -to chase the bison on foot, and even at the present day there are many -celebrated hunters who are able to run down a bison on foot and kill it -with the lance. The mode, however, which is generally adopted is the -chase by mounted hunters, a chase which offers the greatest results, -and exhibits the wildest enthusiasm and excitement. Armed merely with -his tiny bow and flint-headed arrows, the native hunter mounts his -horse, and goes off in chase of the bison. - -When he comes up with the animals, he selects one, usually a fat and -well-conditioned cow, presses his horse to her and prepares his bow and -arrow. The well-trained horse needs no guiding, but keeps close to the -right shoulder of the bison, and a little behind it, so that it may not -run upon the horns of the animal if it should happen to stop suddenly -and turn its head. This plan, moreover, just brings the rider into the -proper position to deliver his arrow in the most deadly manner, _i. -e._ directing it just behind the shoulder. When an arrow is discharged -by a practised hand, the bison falls mortally wounded, and, tenacious -of life as the animal is, soon breathes its last. Leaving the arrow in -the wound in order to mark the owner of the dead animal, the successful -archer dashes on in pursuit of another animal, and does not cease until -he has expended all his store of arrows. An illustration on page 1299 -shows a herd of bisons, and the Indians on horseback engaged in the -exciting sport. - -It is the pride of the native hunter to kill a bison with every arrow, -and not to shoot twice at the same animal. The younger hunters are -fierce and anxious rivals in this sport, knowing that the result of the -day’s hunt will be the talk of the whole village, and that on their -success or failure will much depend the estimation in which they are -held. So each successive hunt produces its eager competitors for honor, -some being desirous of wiping off past disgrace by present success, -and others equally anxious to maintain the reputation which they have -gained on former occasions. - -Even in those parts of the country where the bow has been almost -entirely superseded by fire-arms, it is equally a point of honor to -kill the bison with a single shot, and to claim a slain bison for every -bullet. In such cases, the hunter takes little pains in loading his -gun. He carries the powder loose in his pocket or bag, scoops hastily -a random quantity into the gun, drops upon it, without any wadding, a -bullet wetted in the mouth, and the loading is complete. The muzzle of -the gun is kept uppermost until the moment for firing, when the gun is -dropped, aimed, and fired simultaneously, without being brought to the -shoulder. - -The skill displayed in managing the horse is the more remarkable, as -these Indians use no bit by which the animal can be guided. They have -nothing but a slight hide halter tied round the lower jaw of the horse, -the only use of which is to cause it to halt when required. This is -popularly called the “lariat,” a corruption from the French word, -_l’arêt_. - -The excitement caused by this chase is indescribable, though Mr. -Catlin gives a very graphic idea in a few words:--“I have always -counted myself a prudent man, yet I have often waked, as it were, -out of the delirium of the chase, into which I had fallen as into an -agitated sleep, and through which I had passed as through a delightful -dream--where to have died would have been to have remained, riding on, -without a struggle or a pang.” - -Sometimes the bison is destroyed in a much less sporting manner, the -precipice and the pound being the two modes which are usually followed. -The reader may probably be aware that, in those parts of North America -inhabited by the bison, the surface of the plain is frequently -interrupted by ravines with precipitous sides and of tremendous depth. -When a hunting party see a herd of bisons within several miles of one -of these ravines, they quietly separate, and steal round the herd, so -as to place the bisons between themselves and the ravine. - -They then gently move forward, and the bisons, retreating from them, -draw nearer and nearer to the ravine, at the same time becoming packed -closer and closer together. Suddenly the hunters raise a shout, and -dash forward at the bisons. The affrighted animals take to flight at -their best speed, and run on until they reach the edge of the ravine. -Here the foremost bisons try to check themselves, but to no avail, as -they are pressed forward by their companions behind, and thus almost -the whole of the herd are forced over the precipice, and killed by the -fall. Even those in the rear, which at last see their danger, and try -to escape, have to run the gauntlet of their enemies, who allow but -very few of them to escape. - -A somewhat similar plan is adopted with the pound, into which the -bisons are driven by the hunters. The pound is an enclosure made of -felled trees and branches, with an opening which gradually widens. The -bisons are driven toward the enclosure, a task which often occupies -several weeks, and, when they arrive within the fatal arms of the -entrance, are urged forward by means of little fires, which are lighted -on either side. Instinct urges the animals to escape from an element -which sweeps over vast districts of country, and kills every living -thing in it, and in their haste they run toward the pound, in which -they are at once shut up. It is fortunate for the hunters that the -bisons do not know their own strength. They could easily break through -the walls of the pound, but they mostly content themselves with turning -round and round, and passively await the arrival of the destroyer. So -foolish are they in this respect, and in such numbers are they killed, -that pounds have been built of the bones of slaughtered bisons. - -In the winter another plan of hunting the bison is followed. At this -time of the year the fur or “pelt” of the bison is the thickest and -warmest, and the skin is of the most value. It is from these skins that -the “buffalo” rugs and robes are made, without which out-of-door life -would be scarcely endurable in the more northern parts of this vast -continent. - -During the winter months the prairies assume a new aspect. They are not -only covered with snow, so that the ordinary landmarks are obliterated, -but the snow is blown by the wind into the most fantastic shapes, -raised in some places into long and sharply scarped hills where no -hills were, forming level plains where the ground is really cut up -by hollows, and leaving only the tops of eminences bare, whence the -snow is blown away by the tempestuous winds that sweep across the -vast expanse. On these hills the bison congregate for the purpose of -grazing, shovelling away with their broad noses the snow which still -clings to the herbage. - -The animals instinctively keep clear of the small but treacherous -plains and valleys, knowing that the hidden crevices may at any time -swallow them up. Into these valleys the hunters try to drive them, -so that they may be helplessly entangled in the snow, and fall easy -victims to the spear. Were it not for some invention whereby the -hunters are enabled to skim over the surface of the snow, the bisons -would be in perfect safety, but the snow shoe lays the poor animals at -the mercy of their pursuers. It is necessary first to describe this -ingenious implement. - -The best form of snow shoe is seen on the next page. The shape is that -of a fish, and its framework is made of ash-wood, kept in form by two -cross-bars, one in front and one behind. It is slightly turned up in -front. The whole of the space within the framework is filled in with -a close and strongly made netting of hide thongs, much like those of -a racquet--indeed, the French Canadians use the word “_raquet_” to -represent the snow shoe. As the snow shoe is about five feet in length -and eighteen inches or more in breadth, it is evident that the weight -of the wearer is distributed over a large surface, and that a heavy man -wearing these shoes can pass with impunity over snow in which a child -would sink if only supported on its feet. - -[Illustration: SNOW SHOE. - -(From my collection.)] - -Just behind the opening is a triangular space crossed by parallel -thongs. When the shoe is to be worn, the foot is placed on it so that -the heel rests on the parallel thongs, and the centre of the foot is -supported by the thick cross-thong, called the “bimikibison,” the toes -passing into the square opening, which is called the eye of the shoe. -In order to keep the foot in its place, two leathern loops (not shown -in the figure) are attached to the bimikibison, one of which passes -over the instep and the other comes round the heel. - -As, therefore, the wearer moves along, the feet play freely on the -bimikibison, the heels coming down at each step on the parallel thongs, -while the toes move up and down through the “eye” of the shoe, which is -dragged over the snow by the instep thong, the heel strap being only -useful in keeping the foot from slipping out backward. - -After some practice, the wearer is able to skim over the snow with -astonishing speed, but to a novice the first attempt is not only -awkward, but causes excruciating pain. The unaccustomed movement of the -foot, together with the pressure of the instep strap, produces a pain -peculiar to the snow shoe called by the Canadians “_mal du raquet_.” -Not only does blood stain the snow as the excoriated foot drags the -heavy shoe over the surface, but a pain pervades the whole foot, as if -all the little bones were dislocated, and rubbing against each other. -Perseverance is the only cure for the “_mal du raquet_,” and after a -few days the wearer is able to proceed with perfect comfort. - -The most ingenious part of the snow shoe is the mode by which it is -fitted to the foot. It is evident that if it were fastened firmly to -the foot, like the sole of a shoe, the wearer would be unable to stir -a step. The movement of a snow-shoe wearer is somewhat analogous to -that of a skater, the shoe being slid over the snow, and not raised -and depressed like shoes in ordinary walking. If the reader will refer -to the illustration, he will see that in the middle and toward the -forepart of the shoe there is a square opening, edged by thongs, very -much stronger than the others. - -It often happens that heavy snow storms fall before the people are -able to replace the shoes, which are generally damaged in the course -of the summer months, and in this case they are obliged to extemporize -snow shoes out of flat boards. These are shorter and wider than the -regular snow shoes, but are used in much the same manner, the “eye” -being cut out of the board, and the necessary thongs being fixed across -the opening. These simple instruments are called by a name which -signifies “bear’s-paw” shoes. Some of the prairie tribes use very long -and comparatively narrow skates, turned up in front, and precisely -resembling the “skidor” of Northern Europe. - -Upborne on the snow shoe, the American Indian has the bison at his -mercy. He drives the herd from the eminences into the valleys, and -while the poor animals are floundering about in the deep snow, he -deliberately selects those which have the largest and softest “robes,” -and kills them with his spears. Thousands are annually slain in this -manner, their skin removed, and with the exception of the tongue and -the hump, which are the best parts of the bison, the whole of the -carcass is left to the prairie wolves and birds of prey. - -On these shoes the native hunters capture the huge moose. They select a -time when there has been a partial thaw followed by a frost, so as to -leave a thin crust of ice upon a substratum of soft snow. As the moose -plunges through the snow, it breaks through this icy crust at every -step, cutting its legs frightfully with the broken edges, and so falls -an easy victim. - -Another mode of bison hunting presents a curious analogy with the -ingenious method of ostrich hunting which is practised by the -Bosjesmans of Southern Africa. - -Upon the vast plains of North America the so-called wolves prowl in -numbers. They will follow the hunter for weeks together for the sake of -the offal of the beasts which he kills. They will not venture to harm -him, but follow him by day at a distance of half a mile or so, and at -night, when he lies down to sleep, they will couch also at a respectful -distance. - -Should he wound a bison and not be able to secure it, the wolves are -sure to have that animal sooner or later, and if they manage to detach -a single bison from the herd, they will fairly persecute the wretched -animal to death. But they will never venture to attack a herd of -bisons, and, being instinctively aware of the protection afforded by -mutual support, the bisons allow the wolves to approach quite close to -them, and, indeed, to wander freely among the herd. Of this fact the -hunters take advantage in the following manner. They remove the skin -of a large wolf, and put it upon themselves, so that when they go on -all fours the head of the wolf projects just above their own head, and -their arms and legs are partly covered by the skin belonging to the -corresponding members of the wolf. - -Thus disguised, they creep slowly and cautiously toward the herd, -bearing their bow and arrows in their left hands. The bisons, whose -eyes are none of the best, being overshadowed by the masses of black -hair that overlap them, think nothing of the supposed wolves, and -allow them to come quite close. Even if an animal more wary than his -comrades does suspect the ruse, the disguised hunter has merely to turn -in another direction, as if the creature he represents has no business -with the herd. By degrees, he contrives to creep close to the bison -which he prefers, and drives the flint-headed arrow to its heart. No -report attending the discharge of the arrow, the wounded bison runs -for a few paces, and sinks on the ground, mostly without alarming any -of its companions. The hunter leaves his dying prey, goes off after -another victim, and slays it in a similar fashion. Thus a skilful -hunter will manage to exhaust the whole of his stock of arrows, killing -a bison with each arrow, and yet not alarm the rest of the herd. - -Both in hunting and in warfare the equestrian warriors always carry the -lasso attached to the saddles of their horses. It is not, however, kept -coiled, as is the case in Mexico, but is allowed to trail on the ground -behind their horse. The object of this custom is easily understood. It -often happens that, whether in the hunt or warfare, the rider is thrown -from his horse. In such a case, as soon as he touches the ground, he -seizes the lasso, stops his well-trained horse with a jerk, leaps on -its back, and is at once ready to renew the combat or the chase. - -The mode in which the natives supply themselves with horses is worth -a brief description. In various parts of the country the horses have -completely acclimatized themselves, and have run free for many years, -so that they have lost all traces of domestication, and have become as -truly wild as the bison and the antelope, assembling in large herds, -headed by the strongest and swiftest animals. It is from these herds -that the natives supply themselves with the horses which of late years -have become absolutely necessary to them; and in most cases the animals -are captured in fair chase after the following manner:-- - -When an American Indian--say a Camanchee--wishes to catch a fresh -horse, he mounts his best steed, and goes in search of the nearest -herd. When he has come as near as he can without being discovered, he -dashes at the herd at full speed, and, singling out one of the horses, -as it gallops along, hampered by the multitude of its companions, -flings his lasso over its neck. - -As soon as the noose has firmly settled, the hunter leaps off his own -steed (which is trained to remain standing on the same spot until it -is wanted), and allows himself to be dragged along by the affrighted -animal, which soon falls, in consequence of being choked by the -leathern cord. - -When the horse has fallen, the hunter comes cautiously up, keeping the -lasso tight enough to prevent the animal from fairly recovering its -breath, and loose enough to guard against its entire strangulation, and -at last is able to place one hand over its eyes and the other on its -nostrils. - -The animal is now at his mercy. He breathes strongly into its nostrils, -and from that moment the hitherto wild horse is his slave. In order to -impress upon the animal the fact of his servitude, he hobbles together -its fore-feet for a time, and casts a noose over its lower jaw; but -within a wonderfully short period he is able to remove the hobbles, and -to ride the conquered animal into camp. During the time occupied in -taming the horse, it plunges and struggles in the wildest manner; but -after this one struggle it yields the point, and becomes the willing -slave of its conqueror. Those who have seen the late Mr. Rarey operate -on a savage horse can easily imagine the scene that takes place on the -prairie. - -The rapidity with which this operation is completed is really -wonderful. An experienced hunter is able to chase, capture, and break -a wild horse within an hour, and to do his work so effectually that -almost before its companions are out of sight the hitherto wild animal -is being ridden as if it had been born in servitude. - -The native hunter, cruel master though he generally is, takes special -care not to damp the spirit of his horse, and prides himself on the -bounds and curvets which the creature makes when it receives its master -upon its back. - -There is only one drawback to this mode of hunting. It is impossible to -capture with the lasso the best and swiftest specimens. These animals -always take command of the herd, and place themselves at its head. They -seem to assume the responsibility as well as the position of leaders, -and, as soon as they fear danger, dart off at full speed, knowing that -the herd will follow them. Consequently, they are often half a mile or -more in advance of their followers, so that the hunter has no chance of -overtaking them on a horse impeded by the weight of a rider. - -A rather strange method of horse taking has been invented since the -introduction of fire-arms. This is technically named “creasing,” and -is done in the following manner. Taking his rifle with him, the hunter -creeps as near the herd as he can, and watches until he fixes on a -horse that he thinks will suit him. Waiting till the animal is standing -with its side toward him, he aims carefully at the top of the neck, -and fires. If the aim be correct, the bullet just grazes the neck, and -the horse falls as if dead, stunned for the moment by the shock. It -recovers within a very short time; but before it has regained its feet -the hunter is able to come up to the prostrate animal, place his hands -over its eyes, breathe into its nostrils, and thus to subdue it. - -This is a very effectual mode of horse catching; but it is not in favor -with those who want horses for their own riding, because it always -breaks the spirit of the animal, and deprives it of that fire and -animation which the native warrior prizes so highly. Indeed, so careful -is the Camanchee of his steed, that he will not mount his favorite war -horse except in actual warfare, or in the hunt. When he is summoned by -his chief, he attends muster, mounted on a second horse, or hack, and -leading his war horse by the bridle. - -The wild horses of North America are a small and neat-limbed, though -powerful, breed of animal. Mr. Catlin says that their value has been -much overrated, as even those which belong to the Camanchees, and are -thought to be equal to the best Arab horses, are on the average worth -some twenty pounds each. The chiefs have generally one or two horses of -very superior quality; but as far as the average goes, the Camanchee -horse is not worth more than the above mentioned sum. - -The horses that are generally brought into the market are those that -are obtained by “creasing.” Experienced purchasers, however, do not -care much about such animals. Creasing is, moreover, liable to two -disadvantages. The hunter is equally in danger of missing his mark -altogether, in which case the whole herd dashes off, and gives no more -chances to the hunter; or of striking too low, in which case the horse -is killed on the spot. - -In accordance with their usual custom, some of the tribes perform a -sacred dance as a means of bringing the bison within their reach. The -most characteristic of these performances is the Buffalo Dance as -practised by the Mandans. - -Sometimes it happens that the supplies of fresh meat fail. During -the greater part of the year the bisons are scattered with tolerable -evenness throughout the land, so that the hunters are able to find a -sufficiency of game within a few miles of their village, to supply -them with food. Indeed, large herds of bisons can often be seen from -the village itself, their black masses being conspicuous against the -verdure of the ground over which they range. - -At certain seasons of the year, however, the animals are sure to -withdraw themselves further and further from the villages, so that the -hunters, in order to procure meat, are obliged to venture so far from -their own ground that they are in danger of meeting with war parties -of an inimical tribe. At last the hunters report to the council of -chiefs and medicine men that they can no longer find game. A solemn -conclave is at once held, and if, after a few days of patient waiting, -during which every adult throughout the community is reduced to a -state of semi-starvation, no bisons are found, the buffalo dance is -ordered. This remarkable dance is a sort of homage to the Great Spirit, -acknowledging that He can send the animals to them, and praying that He -will do so; and, as we shall presently see, it is a remedy that never -fails. - -Among the Mandans every man is obliged by law to have a buffalo mask, -_i. e._ the skin of the head, with the horns added to it. Usually -to the head is added a strip of skin some four or five inches wide, -extending along the whole length of the animal, and including the tail. -When the wearer puts on his mask, the strip of skin extends down his -back, and the tufted tail drags on the ground behind him. - -I have worn one of these strange masks, and found it much less -inconvenient than might have been supposed. It is not nearly so -cumbrous as the chief’s dress of state, described on page 1276. The -buffalo mask is kept by each man at the head of his bed, a circumstance -which gives a strange wildness to the interior of the hut, or lodge, as -it is called, especially if several young warriors sleep in the same -lodge. - -As soon as the mandate for the buffalo dance is given, the men repair -to their lodges and bring out their masks, together with the weapons -which they are accustomed to use in the hunt. Ten or fifteen of them -arrange themselves in a circle, while the medicine men seat themselves -on the ground, beating their sacred drums and shaking their rattles to -a rhythmical sort of movement which guides the steps of the dancers. - -These move continually in a circle, stamping, yelping, grunting, -bellowing, and imitating in various ways the movements of the bison. -The dance goes on day and night without cessation, and as it never -ceases until bisons are seen, the reader will understand that it is -absolutely effective in bringing them. A spirited sketch of such a -dance is given on the following page. - -The mode in which it is kept up is rather amusing. The medicine men -who beat the drums and encourage the dancers are relieved from time -to time by their companions. But for the dancers there is supposed to -be no relief but death. This difficulty, however, is surmounted by a -sort of legal fiction. When one of the performers has yelped, stamped, -bellowed, and leaped until he can dance no longer, he stoops down and -places his hands on the ground. Another dancer, who is armed with a -very weak bow and arrows with large blunt heads, fits an arrow to his -bow, and shoots him. The wounded dancer falls to the ground, and is -seized by the bystanders, who drag him out of the ring, go through the -movements of skinning him and cutting him up, when he is allowed to -retire and rest from his labors. As soon as he is dragged out of the -ring, another dancer leaps into his place, and in this way the dance -may go on for weeks without cessation. - -Meanwhile scouts are posted on all the hills within range, and as soon -as one of them sees the bisons, he gives the signal by tossing his -rope in the air in the direction of the game. Mr. Catlin relates a -remarkable instance of the buffalo dance and its sequel. - -Game had been scarce, the dance had been going on for days, and the -village was in a state of increasing distress, when the welcome signal -was seen from the hills. The dance ceased, the young men flew to their -arms, sprang on their horses, and dashed off into the prairie toward -the signal. - -“In the village, where hunger reigned and starvation was almost ready -to look them in the face, all was instantly turned to joy and gladness. -The chief and doctors, who had been for seven days dealing out minimum -rations to the community from the public crib, now spread before their -subjects the contents of their own private _caches_ (_i. e._ hidden -stores), and the last of everything that could be mustered, that they -might eat a thanksgiving to the Great Spirit for His goodness in -sending them a supply of buffalo meat. - -“A general carouse of banqueting ensued, which occupied the greater -part of the day, and their hidden stores, which might have fed them -on an emergency for several weeks, were pretty nearly used up on the -occasion. Bones were half picked, dishes half emptied, and then handed -to the dogs. I was not forgotten in the general surfeit. Several large -and generous wooden bowls of pemmican and other palatable food were -sent to my painting room, and I received them in this time of scarcity -with great pleasure.” - -When the feast was over, songs and dances set in, and the whole village -was filled with sounds of revelry. Suddenly, in the midst of their -mirth, two or three of the hunters dashed in among the feasters, one -having in his hands a still bleeding scalp, another sitting wounded on -his horse, whose white coat was crimsoned with the fast-flowing blood -of the rider, while another was, though unwounded, totally unarmed, -having flung away his weapons in the hurry of flight. - -Their fatal story was soon told. The bisons, after whom the hunters had -gone were nothing more than empty skins, within which a party of Sioux -warriors had hidden themselves, and were imitating the action of the -animals which they personated. Inveterate enemies of the Mandans, they -had reconnoitred their village by night, and ascertained that they were -executing the buffalo dance. Several of them procured bison skins, and -enacted the part of the animals, while their comrades were concealed -behind the bluffs. - -Fortunately for the Mandans, their leader became suspicious of the -supposed bisons, and halted his troop before they had quite fallen into -the trap, and, when some eighty or ninety mounted Sioux dashed at them -from behind the bluff, they were just starting homeward. As it was, -however, eight of them fell, a loss which was but ill compensated by -one or two Sioux scalps secured by the Mandans in the hurry of flight. -Even under such untoward circumstances, the buffalo dance did not lose -its reputation, for within two days a large herd of bisons passed near -the village, and afforded an abundant supply of meat. - -[Illustration: (1.) BISON HUNTING. (See page 1293.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) BUFFALO DANCE. (See page 1298.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXVIII. - -THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS--_Continued_. - -RELIGION--SUPERSTITION. - - - THE TERRIBLE ORDEAL OF THE MANDANS -- LEGEND OF THE FLOOD -- APPROACH - OF THE FIRST MAN -- THE GREAT MEDICINE LODGE, AND ITS CONTENTS - -- APPROACH OF THE CANDIDATES, AND DEPARTURE OF THE FIRST MAN -- - BUFFALO DANCE, AND THE BIG CANOE -- APPROACH OF THE EVIL SPIRIT -- - POWER OF THE MEDICINE PIPE -- COMMENCEMENT OF INITIATION -- TRIAL BY - SUSPENSION -- SWOON AND RECOVERY -- THE LAST RACE -- TWO COURAGEOUS - INITIATES -- LOOKING AT THE SUN -- RAIN MAKING -- THE WHITE BUFFALO - HAIR, AND HIS PROWESS -- THE MEDICINE BAGS AND THE TOTEMS -- THE - MEDICINE MAN AT WORK -- THE WOUNDED MAN AND SICK GIRL -- INITIATION - OF THE MIDÉ ORDER -- THE PIPES OF PEACE AND WAR -- SACRIFICES. - -We now come to the religious ceremonies of these remarkable tribes, -and will begin with the terrible ordeal through which the youths have -to pass before they can be acknowledged as men. Among the Mandans, -this ordeal, for length and for severity, throws into the shade all -the various ordeals of which we have read. Even the terrible gloves of -the Mundurucú are mild when compared with the horrors of the Mandan -initiation. - -Until late years this ceremony was quite unknown. Every one who knew -the people was aware that the Mandan youths had to pass through -some terrible scenes of torture before they could take their place, -among the warriors, but the details of the whole ceremony were kept -a profound secret, and were never betrayed until Mr. Catlin, in -his character of medicine man (which he had gained by his skill in -painting), was permitted to be present. It is most fortunate that he -did so, for the Mandan tribe has utterly perished, and thus the records -of a most extraordinary superstition would have vanished. The ceremony -is a very long and complicated one, and the following is a condensed -account of it. - -The ceremony has a religious aspect, and is, in fact, performed for the -sake of propitiating the Great Spirit in favor of the young men who -undergo it, so that he may make them valiant warriors and successful -hunters. It has also another important object. Being conducted in the -presence of the great chief and medicine man, it enables the leader -of the tribe to watch the behavior of the young men who pass through -the ordeal, and to decide upon their ability to sustain the various -privations of Indian warfare. - -The reader must first be told that among the Mandans there survived -the legend of a flood which covered the earth, and from which only one -man escaped in a large canoe. In the centre of the village there is a -large open space, in which is a conventional representation of the “big -canoe,” in which the First or Only Man escaped. It is not the least -like a canoe, and in fact is nothing more than a sort of tub standing -on one end. It is bound with wooden hoops, and is religiously preserved -from injury, not the least scratch being allowed to defile its smooth -surface. - -The ceremony only takes place once in the year, the time being -designated by the full expansion of the willow leaves under the banks -of the river. The Mandans possess the legend of the bird flying to the -big canoe with a leaf in its mouth, only with them the leaf is that of -the willow, and not of the olive. The bird itself is held sacred, and, -as it may not be injured, it may often be seen feeding on the tops of -the Mandan huts. - -Early on the morning of the appointed day, a figure is seen on a -distant bluff, approaching with slow and stately steps. As soon as -he is seen, the whole village becomes a scene of confusion, as if the -enemy were attacking it. The dogs are caught and muzzled, the horses -that are feeding on the surrounding pastures are driven into the -village, the warriors paint their faces for battle, seize their spears, -string their bows, and prepare their arrows. - -In the midst of the confusion the First Man, or Nu-mohk-muck-a-nah, -as he is called in the Mandan tongue, stalks into the central space, -where the chief and principal warriors receive him and shake hands. -He is a strange object to the eye. His nearly naked body is painted -white, a white wolf-skin mantle is thrown over his shoulders, his head -is decorated with plumes of ravens’ feathers, and in his left hand he -bears his mystery pipe, which he treats with the greatest veneration. - -After greeting the chief, he proceeds to the great medicine lodge, -which is kept closed during the year, and has it swept and the floor -strewn with fresh green boughs and aromatic herbs. Several skulls of -men and bisons are laid on the floor, a number of new ropes are thrown -over the beams, a quantity of strong wooden skewers are placed under -them, and in the centre is built a slight platform, on the top of which -is laid the chief medicine or mystery of the tribe. This is so sacred -that no one is allowed to approach it except the conductor of the -ceremony, and none but he ever knows what it is. - -He next goes to every hut in succession, stands before the gate, and -weeps loudly. When the owner comes out, the First Man narrates the -circumstances of the flood and of his own escape, and demands an axe -or a knife as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit. Every hut furnishes -an edged tool of some kind; and when the tale is completed, they are -carried into the medicine lodge. There they rest until the last day of -the ceremonies when they are thrown into a deep pool in the river. No -one is allowed to touch them, and there they lie until at some future -day they will be discovered, to the great bewilderment of antiquarians. - -From the moment that the First Man enters the village a dead silence -reigns, a circumstance quite in opposition to the usual noisy habits -of a native village. Where he sleeps no one knows, but at dawn of -the following morning he again enters the village, as he had done -before, and walks to the medicine lodge, whither he is followed -by the candidates for initiation walking in Indian file, and each -painted fantastically, and carrying his bow and arrows, his shield, -and “medicine bag.” Of this article we shall learn more in a future -page. In silence they seat themselves round the lodge, each having his -weapons hung over his head. - -Here they have to sit for four days, during which time they may not -communicate with those on the outside of the hut, and are not allowed -to eat, drink, or sleep. When they have taken their places, the First -Man lights his pipe from the fire that is kept burning in the centre of -the lodge, and makes an oration to the candidates, exhorting them to -be courageous and enduring, and praying that the Great Spirit may give -them strength to pass satisfactorily through the ordeal. - -He then calls to him an old medicine man, and appoints him to be master -of the ceremonies, handing him the mystery pipe as a symbol of office. -Addressing the assembled company, he takes leave of the chiefs, saying -that he will return in another year to re-open the lodge, and stalks -slowly out of the village, disappearing over the bluffs whence he came. -The master of the ceremonies then takes his place in the centre of -the lodge, and relights the pipe, uttering with every whiff of smoke -a petition to the Great Spirit in behalf of the candidates. For three -full days they sit silently round the lodge, but outside it a strange -series of ceremonies takes place. - -Chief among them is the buffalo dance, in which the eight actors wear -the entire skins of bisons, and carry on their backs a large bundle -of slight twigs. They also carry a mystery rattle in one hand, and -a slender staff in the other. They arrange themselves in four pairs -round the Big Canoe, each pair corresponding with one of the cardinal -points of the compass. Between each group dances a young man, two of -them painted black and covered with white stars, so as to represent the -night, and the other two painted red, to represent the day. - -Beside the Big Canoe sit two medicine men, wearing the skins of grizzly -bears, and threatening to devour the whole village. In order to appease -their hunger, the women bring continual relays of meat in dishes, which -are at once carried off to the prairie by men painted entirely black, -except their heads, which are white. They are thus colored in imitation -of the bald-headed eagle. As they run to the prairie they are pursued -by a host of little boys painted yellow, with white heads, and called -antelopes. After a severe chase they catch the eagle-men, seize the -food, and devour it. - -These dances occur several times daily, the performers being summoned -by the master of the ceremonies, who comes out of the medicine lodge, -followed by his immediate assistants, and proceeds to the Big Canoe, -against which he leans, and weeps aloud as if in dire distress. The -dance takes place four times on the first day, eight times on the -second, twelve times on the third, and sixteen times on the fourth; the -sound of the old man’s wailing cry being the signal for the dancers to -issue from the hut in which they dress. - -During each performance, the old medicine men who are beating their -drums address the bystanders, telling them that the Great Spirit is -pleased with their invocations, and that he has given them peace; that -even their women and children can hold the mouths of grizzly bears; and -that the evil spirit who is challenged by these rites has not dared to -make his appearance. Thirty-two times during the four days this vaunt -is made, and no evil spirit appears; but after the last day he comes, -and a horrible-looking object he is. - -On a distant bluff the evil spirit makes his appearance, rushing toward -the village in a wild and devious course. Presently he enters the -circle, perfectly naked, with his body painted black and covered with -white rings, his mouth decorated with white indentations like great -teeth, and holding in his hand a long magic staff tipped with a red -ball. As he runs along, he slides this ball before him on the ground, -and suddenly makes a rush at the groups of women who are witnessing the -ceremony. - -They fall back on each other in terror, and shriek for aid, which is -given by the master of the ceremonies. As soon as he hears their cries, -he runs from the Big Canoe, where he has been weeping, and holds his -magic pipe in front of the intruder. The demon is instantly checked -by its wondrous influence, and he stands as if petrified, each limb -remaining in the attitude which it had taken when the pipe was held -before him. - -“This check gave the females an opportunity to get out of reach, and -when they were free from their danger, though all hearts beat yet with -the intensest excitement, their alarm was cooled down into the most -exorbitant laughter and shouts of applause at his sudden defeat, and -the awkward and ridiculous posture in which he was stopped and held. -The old man was braced stiff by his side, with his eyeballs glaring -him in the face, whilst the medicine pipe held in its mystic chain his -satanic majesty, annulling all the powers of his magical wand, and also -depriving him of the power of locomotion. - -“Surely, no two human beings ever presented a more striking group -than these two individuals did for a few moments, with their eyeballs -set in direst mutual hatred upon each other; both struggling for the -supremacy, relying on the potency of their medicine or mystery; the one -held in check, with his body painted black, representing, or rather -assuming to be, O-kee-hee-de (the Evil Spirit), frowning everlasting -vengeance on the other, who sternly gazed him back with a look of -exultation and contempt, as he held him in check and disarmed under the -charm of his sacred mystery-pipe.” - -This scene is repeatedly enacted, until the powers of the magic pipe -are proved against the assaults of the evil one, and the people have -gained confidence in its protection. The women then begin in their -turn to assail their persecutor with jeers and laughter, until at last -one of them snatches up a handful of mud and dashes it in his face. He -is at once vanquished by this attack, and begins to weep piteously. -Emboldened by this confession of weakness, another woman snatches away -his magic staff, and breaks it across her knee. The fragments are -seized by the surrounding women, who break them to pieces and fling -them at the head of the demon. Being now deprived of all his power, -he runs off across the prairie, followed for half a mile or so by -the women, who pelt him with sticks, stones, and mud, until at last -he effects his escape, and the village is rid of the evil spirit for -another year. - -Now the remainder of the initiation may proceed. - -The little scaffold with its mystic burden is removed from the centre -of the great medicine lodge, the hide ropes are passed through -apertures in the roof to men who stand outside, and the master of the -ceremonies, and his assistants, together with the chiefs and braves of -the tribe, re-enter the lodge, and take up their positions. - -The first candidate is now called, and, wasted by four days of -abstinence from food, drink, or sleep, places himself in front of two -of the operators. One of these, who is armed with a double edged knife, -purposely blunted and notched, pinches up an inch or so of flesh of the -shoulder or breast, and pushes the knife through it, between his finger -and thumb and the body of the candidate. The knife is then withdrawn, -and one of the wooden skewers forced through the aperture. This -operation is repeated on the other shoulder or breast, on each arm just -below the shoulder and below the elbow, upon each thigh, and upon each -leg just below the knee. - -While this operation is being performed, the candidates do not allow -the slightest symptom of pain to escape them, and they even invite the -spectators to watch their countenances, so as to ascertain that they -betray no signs of suffering. They may well do so, for upon the verdict -of these chiefs depends the consideration in which they will be held in -after life, and no man has a chance of being appointed the leader of a -war party if he has been seen to flinch during the ordeal. - -As soon as these preparations are completed, two of the hide ropes are -lowered from the roof, and hitched round the skewers on the breast or -shoulders. To the others are hung the weapons of the candidate, while -to those of the lower arm and leg are suspended the skulls of bisons. -A signal is then given, and the poor wretch is hauled up into the air, -when he swings suspended only by the two skewers, and sustaining not -only his own weight but that of the heavy skulls, his feet being some -six or eight feet from the ground. In this terrible position he has to -remain until nature finally gives way, and he faints. The artist has -represented this stage of the fearful ordeal on the following page. - -“Surrounded,” writes Mr. Catlin, “by imps and demons, as they appear, -a dozen or more, who seem to be concocting and devising means for his -exquisite agony, gather around him, when one of the number advances -toward him in a sneering manner, and commences turning him round with -a pole which he brings in his hand for that purpose. This is done in a -gentle manner at first, but gradually increased, until the poor fellow, -whose proud spirit can control its agony no longer, bursts out in the -most lamentable and heart-rending cries that the human voice is capable -of producing, crying forth a prayer to the Great Spirit to support -and protect him in this dreadful trial, and continually repeating his -confidence in his protection. - -“In this condition he is continued to be turned faster and faster, and -there is no hope of escape for him, nor the chance for the slightest -relief, until, by fainting, his voice falters, and his strugglings -cease, and he hangs a still and apparently lifeless corpse. When he is -by turning gradually brought to this condition, which is generally done -within ten or fifteen minutes, there is a close scrutiny passed upon -him among his tormentors, who are checking and holding each other back -as long as the least struggling or tremor can be discovered; lest he -should be removed before he is, as they term it, entirely dead.” - -When they are satisfied, a signal is given to the rope-holders, and -the senseless man is lowered to the ground, the skewers which passed -through his breast are removed, and the ropes attached to another -candidate. Just as he falls, he is allowed to lie, no one daring to -touch him, for he has put himself under the protection of the Great -Spirit, and to help him would be a sacrilege. - -When he recovers a little strength, he crawls to another part of the -lodge, where sits a medicine man with a bison skull before him, and -an axe in his hand. Holding up the little finger of his left hand as -a sacrifice to the Great Spirit, the initiate lays it upon the skull, -when it is severed by a blow from the axe. Sometimes the fore-finger of -the same hand is also offered, so that there are only left the thumb -and the two middle fingers, which are all that are needed to hold the -bow. - -It is a point of honor with the initiates to recover as quickly as -possible from their swoon, and the chief warriors all watch them -narrowly on this point, inasmuch as rapidity of recovery is a proof -that the individual is strong, and capable of enduring the hardships -which every war party is nearly certain to undergo before their return. - -The final scene of the initiation is called the Last Race, and is, if -possible, even a more dreadful trial than any which the candidates have -yet undergone. An illustration of it is also given the reader on the -next page. - -The reader will remember that, although the skewers by which the -young men were suspended are removed as soon as they are lowered to -the ground, there yet remain eight more, two in each arm, and two in -each leg. To each of these is attached a heavy weight, such as the -bison skull, and none of them may be drawn out. They must absolutely -be torn out through the flesh by main force, and that this object may -be accomplished the Last Race is run. Hitherto the ordeal has been -confined to the interior of the medicine lodge, but the Last Race is -run in the open air, and the whole of the inhabitants are spectators. - -The master of the ceremonies leaves the medicine lodge, goes to the Big -Canoe, leans his head against it, and sets up his wailing cry. At the -sound of his voice twenty young men issue from the dressing hut, all of -the same height, and all wearing beautiful war dresses of eagle quills. -Each carries in one hand a wreath of willow boughs, and on reaching the -Big Canoe they arrange themselves round it in a circle, holding the -wreaths as connecting links. They then run round the canoe, from left -to right, screaming and yelping at the top of their voices, and going -as fast as their legs can carry them. - -The candidates are now brought out of the medicine lodge, each trailing -the heavy weights attached to his limbs, and are placed at equal -intervals outside the ring of runners. As each takes his place, he is -given into the charge of two powerful young men, who pass round each -of his wrists a broad leathern strap, which they grasp firmly without -tying. - -As soon as all are ready, a signal is given, and the candidates are set -running round the Big Canoe, outside the inner circle, each man being -dragged along by his supporters, until the skulls and other weights -tear out the skewers to which they are fastened. The bystanders yell -and applaud at the tops of their voices, so as to drown the groans of -the sufferers, should the force of nature extract a sound from them, -and to encourage them to endure this last trial. It often happens that -the flesh is so tough that the skewers cannot be dragged out, and in -such cases the friends of the sufferers jump on the skulls as they -trail along the ground so as to add their weight to them. - -The candidates mostly faint before they have run very far, but they -are still dragged round the circle, and not released until the last -weight has been torn away. As soon as this occurs, the two men who have -dragged their senseless charge loosen their holds, and run away as fast -as they can, leaving the body lying on the ground. No one may touch the -poor wretch; and there he lies, a second time in the keeping of the -Great Spirit. After a few minutes he recovers his senses, rises, and -staggers through the crowd to his own hut, where his friends meet him, -and do their best to succor him. - -[Illustration: (1.) MANDAN ORDEAL OF SUSPENSION. (See page 1304.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE LAST RACE. (See page 1304.)] - -The rule is absolute that the man may not be released until the -skewers have been fairly torn through the flesh. Mr. Catlin relates -two remarkable anecdotes illustrative of this fact. In the one case -the skewer had been unfortunately passed under a sinew. The poor -lad was in vain dragged round the ring, and in vain did his friends -throw themselves on the elk skull that was hung to him. At last the -spectators set up a cry of distress, and the master of the ceremonies -stopped the runners, leaving the senseless body lying on the ground. -Presently the lad recovered himself, looked at the cause of his -torment, and with a pleasant smile crawled on his hands and knees to -the prairie, where he remained for three days longer without food or -drink, until suppuration took place, and enabled him to release himself -from his encumbrance. He crawled on his hands and knees to his home, -and, in spite of his sufferings, recovered in a few days. - -In the other case, two of the weights attached to the arms could not -be removed. The unfortunate wretch crawled to the precipitous bank of -the river, and drove a stake into the ground. To this stake he fastened -the weights by two ropes, and let himself down half-way to the water. -In this terrible position he hung for more than two days, until the too -stubborn flesh at last gave way, and let him fall into the water. He -swam to the side, made his way up the steep bank, and recovered. - -Such instances as these, terrible as they are at the time, are never -regretted by those to whom they occur, as they offer means of proving -their valor and endurance, and any one who has overcome them is held in -much consideration by the rest of the tribe. - -Dreadful as is the whole scene of suffering, and sufficient to kill -an ordinary white man, several of the warriors have undergone it more -than once, and Mr. Catlin saw by the scars left on the body and limbs -that some of the chief Mandan braves had submitted to the torture no -less than five times. Some part of the estimation in which such men are -held is owing to the belief of the Mandans that the annual supply of -bisons depends on the proper fulfilling of these ceremonies, and that -the Great Spirit is gratified in proportion to the number of times that -the rites are performed. Thus those who have undergone them repeatedly -are benefactors to the tribe in general, and as such receive their -gratitude. - -A somewhat similar system prevails among the Dacotah or Sioux Indians, -as they are generally called. This, however, is a voluntary proceeding -very rarely seen, and one which is intended simply to raise the -candidate to the rank of medicine man. A tall and slender pole is set -firmly in the ground, and to the top of it is fastened one end of a -rope, the other being made into a loop. The candidate for mystic honors -takes his place at the pole before dawn, painted gaily, and holding his -medicine bag in his hand. Just before the sun rises, two skewers are -passed through his breast, as is done by the Mandans, and the loop of -the rope is passed over them. - -The man now stands opposite the spot where the sun will rise, fixes his -eyes upon it, and leans backward so as to throw the whole weight of his -body on the rope, his feet serving more to balance than sustain him. -As the sun passes over the heavens, he moves gradually round, never -speaking nor taking his eyes from it; and if he can endure this torture -from sunrise to sunset without fainting, he earns the rank to which he -aspires, together with all the valuable presents which are laid at the -foot of the pole by his admirers. - -There is great risk attending this practice. Should the man faint in -spite of the shouts and cheering cries of his friends, and the prayers -and songs of the medicine men who sit around the pole, chanting and -beating their magic drums, his reputation is lost, and he will ever -afterward be held up to ridicule as one who had the presumption to set -up for a medicine man, and had no power to sustain the character. - -The Mandans have a curious mode of obtaining the rank of medicine man, -resembling in many points the rain making ceremonies of Africa. As -they depend much for their subsistence on the maize which they grow, a -drought is always a great calamity, and must be averted if possible. -When such an event occurs, the women, whose business it is to till the -ground, come to the chiefs and doctors, and beg them to make rain, -lest the corn should die. A council is then held, and the medicine -men assemble in the council-house, and go through their preliminary -ceremonies. No one is allowed to enter the house except the medicine -men and those candidates who aspire to that rank. - -There are generally ten or fifteen young men who prize that rank so -highly that they are willing to run the risk of failure, and to lose -all reputation in their tribe if they fail in drawing down the rain -from the sky. They are called one by one out of the lodge, and take -their position on the roof, when they go through the ceremonies which -they think will produce the desired rain. They stand there from sunrise -to sunset, and if no rain falls, they go to their houses disgraced, -and debarred from all hope of being admitted into the Council of the -tribe. Should, however, the rain descend, the reputation of the rain -maker is assured, and he is at once admitted into the council among the -chiefs and greatest braves. - -Mr. Catlin relates a curious account of rain making of which he was -a witness. There had been a drought for some time in the land, and -the rain makers had been at work for three days. On the first day a -man named Wah-kee, or the Shield, essayed his fortune, and failed. -The same fate befell Om-pah, or the Elk, in spite of his headdress -made of the skin of the raven, the bird that soars amid the storm. -Wa-rah-pa, or the Beaver, also tried and failed; and on the fourth day -Wak-a-dah-ha-hee, the White Buffalo Hair, took his stand on the lodge. -He placed his chief reliance on the red lightnings with which he had -painted his shield, and the single arrow which he carried in his hand. - -He made an oration to the people, saying that he was willing to -sacrifice himself for the good of the tribe, and either to bring rain -or live with the dogs and old women all his life. He explained that one -candidate had failed because the shield warded off the rain clouds; -that the second failed because the raven was a bird that soared above -the storm, and so did not care whether it rained or not; and the third -failed because the beaver was always wet, and did not require rain. But -as for himself, the red lightnings on his shield should bring the black -thunder-cloud, and his arrow should pierce the cloud and pour the water -on the fields. - -Now it happened that just at that time a steamboat, the first that -had ever been up the Missouri, fired a salute from a twelve-pounder -gun, as she came in sight of the Mandan village. The sound of the gun -was naturally taken for thunder, and the village was filled with joy. -Valuable gifts were presented on all sides to the successful candidate, -mothers were bringing their daughters to offer them as his wives, and -the medicine men were issuing from their lodge in order to admit him -formally among themselves. - -Suddenly, from his elevated post, Wak-a-dah-ha-hee saw the steamboat -ploughing her way up the river, and emitting the thunder from her -sides. He turned to the chiefs and the assembled multitude, and told -them that, though the sounds were not those of thunder, his medicine -was strong, and had brought a thunder-boat to the village. The whole -population thronged to the bank in silent wonder, and in the excitement -of the time even the rain maker was forgotten. The passengers landed -among the Mandans, and for the rest of the day all was turmoil and -confusion. Just before sunset the White Buffalo Hair spied a black -cloud creeping up from the horizon, unnoticed by the excited crowd. -In a moment he was on the roof of the council-house again, his bow -strung and the arrow brandished in his hand. He renewed his boastings -and adjurations, and as the cloud came over the village, he bent his -bow and shot his arrow into the sky. Down came the rain in torrents, -drenching the fortunate rain maker as he stood on the roof, still -brandishing his thunder shield and vaunting its power. - -The storm continued during the night, but unfortunately a flash of -lightning entered a lodge, and killed a young girl. Consternation -reigned throughout the village, and no one was more frightened than -the newly-made medicine man, who feared that the Council would hold -him responsible for the girl’s fate, and condemn him to a cruel death. -Moreover, he really considered that he was in some way responsible, as -he had left the top of the council-house before he had brought rain. - -So, early in the morning, he sent his friends to bring him his three -horses, and, as the sun rose, he again mounted the lodge and addressed -the people. His medicine was _too_ strong, he said. “I am young, and -I was too fast. I knew not where to stop. The wigwam of Mah-sish is -laid low, and many are the eyes that weep for Ko-ka (the Antelope). -Wak-a-dah-ha-hee gives three horses to gladden the hearts of those that -weep for Ko-ka. His medicine is great. His arrow pierced the black -cloud, and the lightning came, and the thunder boat also. Who says that -the medicine of Wak-a-dah-ha-hee is not strong?” This ingenious address -was received with shouts of applause, and from that time to his death -Wak-a-dah-ha-hee was known by the honorable title of the “Big Double -Medicine.” - -We will now glance at the medicine bag, which plays so important a part -among all the tribes of North America. - -When a boy is fourteen or fifteen years old, he is sent into the woods -to find his medicine. He makes a couch of boughs, and then lies without -food or drink for several days, the power of his medicine being in -proportion to the length of his fast. So severe is this discipline -that instances have been known when the lad has died from the long -abstinence to which he subjected himself. When he has endured to the -utmost, he yields himself to sleep, and the first beast, bird, or -reptile of which he dreams becomes his “medicine.” - -He then returns home, and as soon as he has recovered a little -strength, he goes out in search of his medicine, and, having killed -it, preserves the skin in any shape which his fancy may dictate. It is -mostly sewed up in the form of a bag, and contains one or two other -charms. The reader will see that the size of the medicine bag is -exceedingly variable, according to the size of the creature from whose -skin it is formed. Sometimes it is three feet or more in length, and -often it is so small that it can be concealed under the garments of the -owner. - -From the medicine bag the Indian never parts. He considers its presence -absolutely indispensable to ensure success in any undertaking, and even -carries it into battle, where he trusts to it for protection. Should -he lose it in battle, he is utterly disgraced, and there is only one -way of restoring himself to reputation. An Indian can only “make his -medicine” once, so that he may not restore it by another probation -of fasting and dreaming. But if he can slay an enemy in open battle, -and take his medicine bag, his status in the tribe is restored, and -he thenceforth assumes the medicine of the slain man in exchange -for his own. If a man who has not lost his own medicine succeeds in -capturing one from an enemy in fair battle, he is entitled to assume a -“double-medicine,” and never loses an opportunity of displaying both -the medicine bags as trophies of his prowess. Taking a medicine bag -is as honorable as taking a scalp, and the successful warrior has the -further advantage of being doubly protected by the two charms. - -Very few instances have been known where an Indian has voluntarily -parted with his medicine bag, and in such cases scarcely any display of -valor will reinstate him in the opinion of his tribe. Sometimes he can -be induced by the solicitation of white men to bury it, but he treats -the grave as if it were that of a revered relation, hovering about it -as much as possible, lying over the sacred spot, and talking to the bag -as if it were alive. Sometimes he offers sacrifices to it; and, if he -be a wealthy man, he will offer a horse. - -Such a sacrifice as this takes rank as a public ceremony. A long -procession goes to the prairie, the lead being taken by the owner of -the medicine bag, driving before him the horse, which must always be -the best he possesses. The animal is curiously painted and branded, and -is held by a long lasso. When the procession arrives at the appointed -spot, the sacrificer makes a long prayer to the Great Spirit, and then -slips the lasso from the animal, which from that time takes its place -among the wild horses of the prairie, and if at any time caught by the -lasso, is at once recognized by the brand, and set free again. Such a -sacrifice as this is appreciated very highly by the tribe, and gives -the man the privilege of recording the circumstance on his mantle and -tent. One Mandan chief sacrificed in this way no less than seventeen -horses. - -In connection with the medicine bag may be mentioned the “totem,” or -mark by which each family is known. This is mostly an animal, such as a -wolf, a bear, a dog, a tortoise, &c. If a chief wishes to show that he -and his party have passed a given spot, he strikes with his axe a chip -off a tree and draws on the white surface his totem. Or, if he sends an -order to a distance, he draws his totem on a piece of bark, and gives -it to his messenger as a token. - -To return to the medicine man. He is best seen to advantage when -exercising his art upon a sick person. He wears for this purpose one of -the most extraordinary dresses which the mind of man ever conceived. No -two medicine men wear a similar costume, but in all it is absolutely -essential that every article shall be abnormal. Mr. Catlin saw one of -these men called in to practise on a Blackfoot Indian, who had been -shot through the body with two bullets. There was not the least chance -of his recovery, but still the medicine man must be summoned. His -strange, grotesque appearance, and the wild ceremony over the sick man -are vividly represented on page 1311. - -A ring was formed round the dying man, and a lane was preserved through -them, by which the mystery man would make his appearance. In a few -minutes a general hush-h-h ran through the assembly as the tinkling and -rattling of his ornaments heralded the approach of the wise man. As -he entered the ring, nothing could surpass the wild grotesqueness of -his costume. By way of a coat, he wore the skin of a yellow bear--an -article exceedingly rare in North America, and therefore in itself a -powerful medicine. The skin of the head was formed into a mask, which -entirely hid the features of the enchanter. The skins of various -animals dangled from his dress, and in one hand he held his magic wand, -and in the other the mystery drum, which contained the arcana of his -order. - -His actions were worthy of his appearance. He came in with a series of -wild jumps and yells, accompanied with the rattling and beating of his -magic drum as he approached the dying man. Having reached his patient, -he began to dance round him to the accompaniment of his drum, to leap -over him, to roll him from side to side, and in every imaginable way -to render his last hours unendurable. In fact, the man might well die, -if only to be rid of his physician. In a short time he did die; but -the man, not in the least disconcerted at the failure of his efforts, -danced out of the circle as he had entered it, and went off to his -lodge to take off and pack up his official dress. - -A somewhat similar scene was witnessed by Mr. P. Kane, in which the -mode of manipulation was almost identical, though the medicine man, -instead of disguising himself in a strange dress, went just to the -opposite extreme. The story is narrated in Mr. Kane’s “Wanderings of an -Artist,” being as follows:-- - -“About ten o’clock at night I strolled into the village, and on -hearing a great noise in one of the lodges, I entered it, and found -an old woman supporting one of the handsomest Indian girls I had ever -seen. She was in a state of nudity. Cross-legged and naked, in the -middle of the room, sat the medicine man, with a wooden dish of water -before him; twelve or fifteen other men were sitting round the lodge. -The object in view was to cure the girl of a disease affecting her -side. As soon as my presence was noticed, a space was cleared for me to -sit down. - -“The officiating medicine man appeared in a state of profuse -perspiration, from the exertions he had used, and soon took his seat -among the rest, as if quite exhausted; a younger medicine man then -took his place in front of the bowl, and close beside the patient. -Throwing off his blanket, he commenced singing and gesticulating in -the most violent manner, whilst the others kept time by beating with -little sticks on hollow wooden bowls and drums, singing continually. -After exercising himself in this manner for about half an hour, until -the perspiration ran down his body, he darted suddenly upon the young -woman, catching hold of her side with his teeth, and shaking her for a -few minutes, while the patient seemed to suffer great agony. He then -relinquished his hold, and cried out he had got it, at the same time -holding his hands to his mouth; after which he plunged them in the -water, and pretended to hold down with great difficulty the disease -which he had extracted, lest it might spring out and return to its -victim. - -“At length, having obtained the mastery over it, he turned round to me -in an exulting manner, and held something up between the finger and -thumb of each hand, which had the appearance of a piece of cartilage; -whereupon one of the Indians sharpened his knife, and divided it in -two, leaving one in each hand. One of the pieces he threw into the -water and the other into the fire, accompanying the action with a -diabolical noise, which none but a medicine man can make. After which -he got up perfectly satisfied with himself, although the poor patient -seemed to me anything but relieved by the violent treatment she had -undergone.” - -Mr. Mulhausen relates an amusing anecdote of a native doctor’s practice -upon himself. He had suffered so much in a long march that he was -at last compelled to ask for a day’s rest. One of his companions, a -medicine man, immediately tried the effect of his art. First he kneaded -the body, and especially the stomach, of the prostrated traveller with -all his force. This was to drive out the evil spirit; and, in order to -effectually exorcise him, he procured his drum, and seated himself on -the ground. - -Placing the drum close to the ear of his patient, he kept up a -continual rub-a-dub for two whole hours, singing the magic chant the -while, until, in spite of his wounded feet, Mr. Mulhausen crawled out -of the tent in sheer despair. The triumphant doctor wiped his streaming -brows, and, declaring that no evil spirit could withstand such a -medicine as that, gave the signal for resuming the march. - -Among the Ojibbeways there is a remarkable ceremony by which an infant -is received into the order of the Midés, a society in some degree -resembling the Freemasons, the members of which consider themselves as -related to each other, and addressing each other by the names of uncle, -aunt, brother, sister, cousin, &c. - -A temple, forty feet in length, was constructed for the express -purpose, and built of boughs, like the bowers of the Feast of -Tabernacles. It was built east and west, and had the entrance door at -the eastern end, and the exit door at the western. In the middle sit -the great Midés, each with his mystery bag, and opposite them sits the -father of the child, dressed in his full paraphernalia of feathers, -furs, and scalp-locks, and holding in his arms the child, lying tied on -its board after the manner of Indian babies. On either side of him are -the witnesses of the reception, and eastward of the chief Midés lies a -large rough stone, which prevents the evil spirit. - -The ceremony begins with an address of the principal Midé, and then -the chiefs rise, and after walking in procession, each of them runs -at one of the guests, presenting his medicine bag at him, and yelling -in quickening accents, “Ho! ho! hohohoho! O! O! O! O! O!” As he -presents the bag, the breath proceeding from it is supposed to overcome -the person to whom it is presented, who falls down and lies there -motionless. Having struck one person down, the Midé runs round the -temple, to allow the medicine bag to recover its strength, and then -presents it to another victim. This process is repeated until all the -inmates of the hut, with the exception of the officiating Midés, are -lying prostrate on the ground, where they lie until a touch from the -same bag restores them to life and activity. This ceremony is repeated -several times during the day, and is intended to show the virtue of the -medicine bag. - -The father then presents his child to the Midés, after which there is -another speech from the chief Midé, and then follows a curious dance, -consisting of two leaps to the right and two to the left alternately. -After this, every one produces his medicine bag, and tries to blow down -everybody else. And, as the bags are covered with tinkling bells, bits -of metal, and shells, and the principal Midés are beating their drums -and shaking their rattles with all their might, it may be imagined that -the noise is deafening. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE INDIAN BALL PLAY. (See page 1324.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE MEDICINE MAN AT WORK. (See page 1309.)] - -This completed the first part of the ceremony. In the next act, a pile -of boughs covered with a cloth lay in front of the evil stone, and the -chief Midé summoned all the initiated. They formed a procession of men, -women, and children, and walked round the lodge, each stooping over the -cloth as he passed, and looking at it. The second time they stooped -closer, and the third time they were seized with convulsive movements -as they approached the cloth, and each ejected from the mouth a little -yellow shell upon the cloth. By the ejection of the shell (which -typifies the sinful nature of man) the convulsions are healed, and, -after going once more round the lodge, each performer takes one of the -shells and places it in the medicine bag. - -The last scene was a general feast, and gifts of amulets and charms -presented by the chief Midés to the child. - -One of the most pleasing traits in the character of these tribes is -the strong religious feeling which pervades the general tenor of their -lives, and which has raised them above the rank of mere savages. -However imperfect may be their ideas on this subject, they are not -idolaters, and give all their worship, either directly or indirectly, -to one Great Spirit, whose aid and protection they continually invoke. - -They believe in future existence and a future recompense according -to their character in this life. Whatever their superstitions and -ignorance, the mysteries enveloping their belief, there is running -clearly through them all, these great doctrines accepted by the -civilized Christian races. - -To the Great Spirit they ascribe the possession of all the necessaries -and pleasures of life, and to him they offer their prayers and return -their thanks on almost every occasion. For example, the bisons, on -which many of the tribes depend for food, clothing, and lodging, are -held to be direct gifts of the Great Spirit to the red men, and asked -for accordingly. The same is the case with the maize, or Indian corn, -and religious ceremonies are held both at the planting and at the -harvest time. - -Tobacco is placed in the same category, and the smoke of the plant -is considered to be a sort of incense, which is offered to the Great -Spirit whenever a pipe is lighted, one wreath of smoke being blown -silently to each quarter of the heavens, and to the sun, as an -acknowledgment that the tobacco is a gift of the Great Spirit. Indeed, -to the Indian mind there is something peculiarly sacred about tobacco -smoke, probably on account of the soothing, and at the same time -exhilarating, properties which have caused its use to extend to every -portion of the globe. - -Every religious ceremony is begun and ended with the pipe; war is -declared, volunteers enlisted, negotiations conducted, and peace -concluded, by its means. The character of the pipe varies with the -occasion, the most valued being the sacred calumet, or medicine pipe, -by which are settled the great questions of war and peace. - -Among the Cree Indians the calumet is borne by a man who is solemnly -elected to the office, and who has to pay rather dearly for the honor, -from fifteen to twenty horses being the usual fee which each pipe -bearer presents to his predecessor on receiving the insignia of office. -These, however, are of considerable intrinsic value. They include a -bear skin, on which he lays the pipe-stem when uncovered, a beautifully -painted skin tent, in which he is expected to reside, a medicine rattle -of singular virtue, a food bowl, and other articles so numerous that -two horses are needed to carry them. - -During his term of office, the pipe bearer is as sacred as the calumet -itself. He always sits on the right side of the lodge, and no one -may pass between him and the fire. He is not even allowed to cut -his own food, but this is done by his wives, and the food placed in -the official bowl which has just been mentioned. The pipe, with its -innumerable wrappers, hangs outside the lodge, and is finally enclosed -in a large bag, embroidered with the most brilliant colors which native -art can furnish. - -When it is uncovered, great ceremony is shown. No matter how severe -may be the weather,--sometimes far below zero,--the bearer begins his -operations by removing all his garments with the exception of his -cloth, and then pours upon a burning coal some fragrant gum, which -fills the place with smoke. He then carefully removes the different -wrappers, fills the bowl with tobacco, and blows the smoke to the four -points of the compass, to the sky, and to the earth, at each puff -uttering a prayer to the Great Spirit for assistance in war against all -enemies, and for bison and corn from all quarters. The pipe is replaced -with similar ceremonies. No woman is allowed to see it, and if during -the beginning of the ceremony a single word is spoken, it is looked -upon as a very bad omen, and all the ceremony has to be begun again. - -The bowl of the calumet is made of a peculiar stone, found, I believe, -only in one place in the world, namely, in the Great Pipe-stone Quarry. -This is situated in the Côteau des Prairies, about three hundred -miles west of the Falls of St. Anthony, on the southern summit of the -dividing ridge between the Minnesota and Missouri rivers, in the very -middle of the Sioux territory. On this sacred spot the Great Spirit is -said to have stood in the ancient times, and to have called together -all the Indian nations. He broke from the rock a piece of stone, -moulded it in his hands into a huge pipe bowl, and smoked it toward the -four quarters of the compass. Then he told them that the ground was -sacred, and that no weapon of war should be raised in it, for the red -stone was their flesh, and belonged equally to them all. At the last -whiff of the pipe the Great Spirit disappeared in the cloud, and the -whole ground was melted, and became polished as at the present time. - -In consequence of this legend, the Indians have the greatest reverence -for this place. They will not allow any white man to touch the stone, -or even to approach the place, if they can keep him away, saying that -the stone is their flesh, and that if a white man takes the red men’s -flesh, “a hole will be made in their flesh, and the blood will never -stop running.” - -Even the natives themselves never take a piece without asking -permission of the Great Spirit, depositing tobacco in the hole whence -they dug it, and promising that it shall be made into a pipe. When -Mr. Catlin succeeded in reaching this sacred spot, one of the chief -obstacles lay in the fact that a native had once given a piece of the -red stone to a white man in order to be made into a pipe, and he had -made it into a dish, thereby offending the Great Spirit, and “making -the heart of the Indians sick.” - -Mr. Catlin’s opinion is, that the red pipes, found among almost every -tribe of Indians on the continent, were obtained at this place. His -reasons are that every tribe he visited alleged this as their source; -and furthermore, the stone from which they are made is different from -any mineral yet discovered in America or Europe. He expresses the -conviction substantiated by striking proof that the various tribes -had for centuries visited this quarry, laying aside the war club and -scalping knife, and smoking together in amity upon this neutral ground -by command, as they thought, of the Great Spirit. - -This stone is of a soft, creamy red color, rather variable in point of -tint, and taking a peculiar polish. It has been analyzed, and is said -to be a kind of steatite. It is cut into various fanciful shapes, those -shown in the illustration on the next page being ordinary examples, -though in some cases the bowls are adorned with figures of men and -various animals. Some of these pipe heads have two bowls, one in front -of the other. - -These bowls are fitted with stems worthy of their sacred character. -They are generally made of the stalk of the young ash, and are often -adorned in the most elaborate manner. They are mostly flat, and -sometimes are twisted spirally and perforated with open patterns in -such a way that the observer cannot but marvel how the aperture for the -smoke is made. After all, the mode of boring is simple enough. As every -one knows who has cut a young ash sapling, the centre is occupied with -pith. This is easily burned out with a hot wire, or bored out with a -piece of hard wood, and the aperture is completed. - -Afterward the wood is cut away on two sides, so as to leave only a flat -stem, with the bore occupying the centre. The perforated patterns are -next cut at either side of the bore, being carefully kept clear of it; -and if the stem be then softened in boiling water, it can be made to -assume almost any shape. One valued but rather rare form is a screw, or -spiral, and several of the pipes in Mr. Catlin’s collection have this -form. - -The stems are very seldom left bare, but are almost invariably -decorated with colored porcupine quills, woven into various patterns, -sometimes representing the forms of men and animals. The calumet is -always decorated with a row of eagle feathers, sometimes stained -scarlet, and being tufted at their ends with slight plumes of hair. -Indeed, this portion of the calumet is formed on exactly the same -principle as the headdress of the chief, of which a drawing is given -on page 1277. An example of this kind of pipe is shown in the upper -figure, on page 1315. Many pipes, instead of feathers, have long tufts -of hair dyed scarlet. This hair is taken either from the tail of a -white horse or that of a white bison, as in the lower figure of the -same illustration. The woodpecker furnishes many ornaments for these -pipes, and sometimes the stem passes through the preserved skin of a -bird, or through that of a particularly beautiful ermine. But whatever -may be the ornament of a medicine pipe, it is always the very best and -most valuable that can be procured. The stem of the pipe varies from -two to four feet. - -The natives do not restrict themselves to tobacco, but smoke -many narcotic vegetables, whether leaves, roots, or bark. These -are generally mixed with tobacco, and go by the general name of -_k’neck-k’neck_. - -The custom of sacrifice obtains among all Indian tribes and is -performed in various ways and upon many occasions. Cruel as the Indian -is reputed to be, none of the tribes, except the Pawnees, have ever -made human sacrifices; and these many years since abandoned the inhuman -custom. - -Their offerings to the Great Spirit must consist of the best of their -possessions: the choicest piece of buffalo meat, the finest arrow, the -most costly piece of cloth, the favorite horse or dog, and sometimes -their own fingers. Such offerings are erected over the great medicine -lodge in the centre of the village. When Mr. Catlin was among the -Mandans there was placed there beside other gifts a beautiful skin of a -buffalo, the history of which he gives as follows:--“A few weeks since -a party of Mandans returned from the mouth of the Yellow Stone with -information that a party of Blackfeet were there on business with the -American Fur Company, and that they had with them a white buffalo robe. -Such a robe is a great curiosity, even in the country of buffaloes, -and will always command an incredible price. Being the most costly -article in the region it is usually converted into a sacrifice, being -offered to the Great Spirit as the rarest and most acceptable gift that -can be procured. Among the vast herds of buffaloes there is not one in -a hundred thousand, perhaps, that is white; and when such is obtained -it is considered a great medicine or mystery. - -“Receiving the intelligence above mentioned the chiefs convened in -council and deliberated on the propriety of procuring this valuable -robe. At the close of their deliberation eight men were fitted out on -eight of their best horses, who took from the Fur Company’s store, on -the credit of the chief, goods exceeding the value of the horses. They -arrived in due time, made the purchase, and leaving their horses and -all the goods carried, returned on foot, bringing the coveted robe, -which was regarded as vastly curious and containing (as they express -it) something of the Great Spirit. This wonderful anomaly lay several -days in the chief’s lodge, till public curiosity was gratified; then -it was taken by the high priests, and with a great deal of ceremony -consecrated and raised on the top of a long pole over the medicine -lodge, where it stands and will stand as an offering to the Great -Spirit, until it decays and falls to the ground.” - -[Illustration: INDIAN PIPES. (From my collection.) - -(_See pages 1313, 1314._)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXXXIX. - -THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS--_Continued_. - -SOCIAL LIFE. - - - MARRIAGE -- AN ENTERPRISING BRIDEGROOM, AND HIS SUDDEN ELEVATION TO - RANK -- TREATMENT OF WOMEN -- TREATMENT OF CHILDREN -- PORTRAIT OF - PSHAN-SHAW -- OF INDIAN BOY -- THE CRADLE -- THE FLAT-HEADED TRIBES - -- AFFECTION OF THE MOTHERS -- THE COUCH OF MOURNING -- ABANDONING - THE SICK AND OLD -- DANCES OF THE TRIBES -- GAMES -- THE SPEAR AND - RING GAME -- PAGESSAN, OR THE BOWL GAME -- THE BALL PLAY -- THE - BALL DANCE -- STARTING THE GAME, AND EXCITING SCENES -- THE WOMEN’S - BALL PLAY -- HORSE-RACING -- CANOE-MAKING -- THE CANOE RACE -- - PRIMITIVE SAILS -- SWIMMING -- THE LEAPING ROCK -- QUILL ORNAMENTS - -- BARK-BITING -- WIGWAMS -- MUSIC -- PLEDGE OF FIDELITY -- DISPOSAL - OF THE DEAD -- BURIAL OF BLACKBIRD -- REFLECTIONS UPON CHARACTER AND - DESTINY OF THE INDIANS. - -The ordinary social life of these interesting tribes now comes before -us. As to marriage, there is little to distinguish it from the same -ceremony among other uncivilized tribes, the girl being in fact -purchased from her father, and her affections not necessarily, though -generally, considered. A man may have as many wives as he can afford to -keep, and when he can purchase four or five, their labor in the field -is worth even more to the household than his exertions in the hunting -field. - -Mr. Catlin relates one rather amusing wedding. - -There was a young lad, the son of a chief, whom his father started -in life with a handsome wigwam, or tent, nine horses, and many -other valuable presents. On receiving these presents, the young man -immediately conceived a plan by which he could perform an act which -would be unique. He went to one of the chiefs, and asked for the hand -of his daughter, promising in return two horses, a gun, and several -pounds of tobacco. The marriage was fixed for a certain day, but the -transaction was to be kept a profound secret until the proper time. -Having settled the business, he went to three other chiefs, and made -exactly the same bargain with each of them, and imposed silence equally -upon all. - -On the appointed day, he announced to the tribe that he was to be -married at a certain hour. The people assembled, but no one knew who -was to be the bride, while each of the four fathers stood proudly -by his daughter, inwardly exulting that he alone was in the secret. -Presently the young bridegroom advanced to the chief to whom he had -made the first offer, and gave him, according to his promise, the two -horses, the gun, and the tobacco. The other three fathers immediately -sprang forward, each denouncing the whole affair, and saying that -the offer was made to his daughter, and to his alone. In the midst -of great confusion, which was partially quelled by the chiefs and -doctors, the young bridegroom addressed the assembly, saying that he -had promised each of the claimants two horses, a gun, and a certain -amount of tobacco in exchange for his daughter, and that he expected -them to fulfil their part of the contract. There was no gainsaying the -argument, and in the sight of the admiring spectators, he delivered the -stipulated price into the hands of the parents, and led off his four -brides, two in each hand, to his wigwam. - -The action was so bold, and so perfectly unique, that the doctors -immediately determined that a lad of nineteen who could act in this -manner must have a very strong medicine, and was worthy to be ranked -among themselves. So they at once installed him a member of their -mystery, thereby placing him on a level with the greatest of the -tribe, and by that bold _coup_ the lad raised himself from a mere -untried warrior to the height of native ambition, namely, a seat in the -Council, and a voice in the policy of the tribe. - -[Illustration: (1.) EE-A-CHIN-CHE-A. (See page 1285.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) A BLACKFOOT BOY. (See page 1319.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) PSHAN-SHAW. (See page 1319.)] - -The Indian women are the slaves of their husbands. They have to perform -all the domestic duties and drudgeries of the tribe, and are never -allowed to unite in their religious ceremonies or amusements. - -That the reader may form a better idea of the appearance and dress -of the women, I have given on the preceding page the portrait of a -beautiful girl of the Riccarees (a part of the Pawnee tribe), whose -name is Pshan-shaw (the Sweet-scented Grass). “The inner garment, which -is like a frock, is entire in one piece, and tastefully ornamented -with embroidery and beads. A row of elk’s teeth passes across the -breast, and a robe of young buffalo’s skin, elaborately embroidered, -is gracefully thrown over her shoulders, and hangs down to the ground -behind her.” - -On the same page the reader may find, as illustrative of Indian -childhood, a portrait of the grandson of a chief of the Blackfeet, a -boy of six years of age. He is represented at full length, with bow and -quiver slung, and his robe of raccoon skin thrown over his shoulder. -This young chief, his father dying, was twice stolen by the Crows, and -twice recaptured by the Blackfeet, and then placed in the care of a Mr. -M’Kenzie until he should be old enough to assume the chieftainship of -his tribe, or be able to defend himself against his foes. - -The Indian mothers do not have many children, possibly owing to the -early age at which they marry. For example, the ages of the four brides -just mentioned ranged from twelve to fifteen. Two or three is the -average, and a family of five is considered quite a large one. - -The children are carried about much in the same way as those of the -Araucanians. A sort of cradle is made by bandaging the infant to a flat -board, the feet resting on a broad hoop that passes over the end of the -cradle. Another hoop passes over the face of the child, and to it are -hung sundry little toys and charms; the one for the amusement of the -infant, and the other for its preservation through the many perils of -infantile life. When the mother carries the child, she hangs the cradle -on her back by means of a broad strap that passes over her forehead. -Both the cradle and band are ornamented with the most brilliant colors -which native art can furnish, and are embroidered in various patterns -with dyed porcupine quills. - -Among the tribes which inhabit the banks of the Columbia River, and a -considerable tract that lies contiguous to it, the cradle is put to -a singular use, which has earned for the tribes the general title of -Flat-heads. To the upper part of the cradle is fastened a piece of -board, which lies on the child’s forehead. To the other end of the -board are fastened two strings, which pass round the foot or sides of -the cradle. As soon as the infant is laid on its back, the upper board -is brought over its forehead, and fastened down by the strings. Every -day the pressure is increased, until at last the head is so flattened -that a straight line can be drawn from the crown of the head to the -nose. One of these cradles with a child undergoing this process of head -flattening, is illustrated below. The mother’s head is a type of its -permanent effect. - -[Illustration: THE FLAT-HEADED WOMAN.] - -This is perhaps the most extraordinary of all the fashionable -distortions of the human body, and the wasp waist of an European belle, -the distorted leg of the female Carib, and even the cramped foot of the -Chinese beauty, appear insignificant when compared with the flattened -head of a Chinnook or Klick-a-tack Indian. Mr. Catlin states that this -custom was one far more extended than is the case at present, and -that even the Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes of Mississippi and Alabama -were accustomed to flatten their heads, their burial-places affording -incontrovertible evidence that such must have been the case, and at no -very distant date. - -The reader, especially if he dabble in phrenology, might well imagine -that such a practice must act injuriously upon the mental capacities -of those who are subjected to it. Let us, for example, fancy a skull -which has been so ruthlessly compressed that it only measures an inch -and a half, or at the most two inches, in depth, at the back; that it -is in consequence much elongated, and forced outward at the sides, -so that it is nearly half as wide again as it would have been if it -had been permitted to assume its normal form. The hair, combed down -in one place, and expanding in others, would seem to have its natural -capabilities much altered, even if not in many cases destroyed. Yet -those who have mixed with the Flat-headed tribes say that the intellect -is in no way disturbed, much less injured, and that those members -of the tribe who have escaped the flattening process are in no way -intellectually superior to those who have undergone it. Indeed, as -Mr. P. Kane observes, in his “Wanderings of an Artist,” the Chinnooks -despise those who retain the original shape of their heads. They always -select their slaves from the round-headed tribes, the flattened head -being the sign of freedom. - -There is another point about the head flattening which deserves -attention. Seeing that it is begun almost in the same hour that the -infant is born, and is continued for eight months to a year or more, it -might naturally be imagined that it would cause considerable pain to -the child, and in many cases be dangerous to life. This, however, is -not the case; and that it should not be so is one of the many proofs of -the extent to which the human frame may be distorted without permanent -injury. Mr. Kane’s remarks are as follows:-- - -“It might be supposed, from the extent to which this is carried, that -the operation would be attended with great suffering to the infant, but -I have never heard the infants crying or moaning, although I have seen -the eyes seemingly starting out of the sockets from the great pressure. -But on the contrary, when the lashings were removed, I have noticed -them cry until they were replaced. From the apparent dulness of the -children while under pressure, I should imagine that a state of torpor -or insensibility is induced, and that the return to consciousness -occasioned by its removal must be naturally followed by the sense of -pain.” - -Should a child die before it is old enough to be released from the -cradle, the mother is not released from her maternal duties, but, on -the contrary, continues to perform them as assiduously as if the little -creature were living. - -After the child is buried, she makes a “mourning-cradle,” _i. e._ in -the place which the child had formerly occupied she places a large -bundle of black feathers, by way of representative of the deceased -infant, and treats it in all respects as if the little one still -occupied the cradle. She carries it on her back wherever she goes, and -when she rests, stands it upright against a tree or the side of the -hut, and talks to it as if to a living child. This custom is continued -for at least a year, and in many cases is extended even beyond that -period. And, though a bereaved mother may be so poor as scarcely to -have sufficient clothing for herself, she will contrive to decorate the -cradle of her lost child with the appropriate ornaments. - -As a rule, the North American Indians are affectionate parents. Mr. -Catlin mentions an instance where he had painted a portrait of a -married woman, the daughter of a chief. Some time afterward she died, -and the father, happening to see and recognize the portrait of his lost -daughter, offered ten horses--an enormous price for an American Indian -to pay. Of course the portrait was presented to him at once. - -Parental affection is fully reciprocated by the children, and the -greatest respect paid by the younger to the elder men. Yet we find even -among them, as among so many tribes which lead a semi-nomad existence, -the custom of abandoning the sick and aged when they are obliged to -make a forced march of any distance. - -This is generally done at the instance of the victims themselves, who -say that they are old and useless, and can be only an encumbrance to -the rest of the tribe. Accordingly, a rude shelter is formed of a bison -hide stretched over four upright rods, under which the sick man is -laid; a basin of water and some food are placed by his side; and he is -left to perish, if not by privation or disease, by the ranging flocks -of wolves that roam the prairies. - - * * * * * - -We will now pass to a more agreeable phase in the life of these tribes, -and take a glance at their dances and games. - -It has been the prevalent impression that the Indian is taciturn, -unsocial, and morose. Mr. Catlin, whose testimony cannot be impeached, -takes considerable pains to correct this opinion; and states as the -result of his travels among the Indian tribes, that “they are a far -more talkative and conversational race than can easily be seen in the -civilized world. No one can look into the wigwams of these people, or -into any little momentary group of them, without being at once struck -with the conviction that small talk, garrulity, story-telling and -amusements, are leading passions with them.” To watch their games, -and hear their shouts of exultation, in any of their villages, to sit -down in their lodges and listen to their jokes, repartee, anecdote and -laughter, would effectually banish this erroneous opinion so generally -held in regard to the Red Men. With no anxieties for the future--no -necessities goading them, it is natural that they should be a merry -people, and most of their life be spent in sports and games. - -[Illustration: (1.) BIRCH BARK CANOE. (See page 1326.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) DANCE TO THE MEDICINE OF THE BRAVE. (See page -1323.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) THE SNOW SHOE DANCE. (See page 1323.)] - -The Indian fondness for amusement is shown in the great variety of -their dances, most of which are very fanciful and picturesque, though -some of them have a religious significance. There are the ball-play -dance, pipe dance, buffalo and scalp dances (already described), -beggar’s, bear, and dog dances. But the most pleasing of all are the -eagle dance, dance of the braves which is peculiarly attractive, -and the green corn and snow-shoe dances. The latter is exceedingly -picturesque, and the artist has represented it on the preceding page. - -Before the first snow shoe hunt, the Indians always perform a dance -by way of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit for sending the snow which -will enable them to live in plenty so long as it lasts. Several spears -are stuck upright in the snow covered ground, on one of which are -tied a pair of snow shoes, and on the others sundry sacred feathers -and similar objects. The dancers, clad in hunting dress, and wearing -snow shoes, go round and round the spears, imitating the while all the -movements of the chase, and singing a song of thanksgiving. - -Nearly all the tribes, however remote from each other, have a season -of festivity annually, when the ears of corn are large enough for -eating. Green corn is regarded a great luxury, and is dealt out with -most improvident profusion--the festivities lasting eight or ten -days. The whole tribe feast and surfeit upon it so long as it lasts, -making sacrifices, singing songs of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit, -and celebrating the green corn dance. Every occupation is suspended -during these festivities, and all unite in the carnival of gluttony -and merriment. Mr. Catlin thus describes this dance:--“At the time -when the corn is thought to be nearly ready for use, several of -the old women, who have fields or patches of corn (the men disdain -such degrading occupations as cultivating the field or garden), are -appointed by the medicine men to examine the cornfields at sunrise -every day, and bring to the council house several ears of corn, which -they must on no account break open or look into. When the doctors, -from their examination, decide that the corn is suitable, they send -criers to proclaim to every part of the village or tribe that the Great -Spirit has been kind, and they must meet next day to return thanks to -Him. In the midst of the assembled tribe, a kettle filled with corn is -hung over a fire. While this corn is being boiled, four medicine men, -each with a stalk of corn in one hand and a rattle in the other, their -bodies painted with white clay, dance around it chanting a thanksgiving -to the Great Spirit, to whom the corn is to be offered. In a more -extended circle around them, a number of warriors dance, joining in the -same song. During this scene, wooden bowls are laid upon the ground, in -which the feast is to be dealt out.” - -When the doctors decide that the corn is sufficiently boiled, the -dance assumes a different form, and a new song is sung, the doctors -in the meantime placing the corn on a scaffold of sticks built over -the fire, where it is consumed. This fire is then removed, the ashes -are all buried, and a new fire is originated on the same spot, and in -the same way as by the Hottentots, described on page 100. Then corn is -boiled for the feast, at which the doctors and warriors are seated. An -unlimited license is given to the whole tribe, who mingle excess and -amusement until the fields of corn are stripped, or it has become too -hard for eating. - -The dance of the braves is beautiful and exciting in the highest -degree:--“At intervals the dancers stop, and one of them steps into -the ring and vociferates as loudly as possible the feats of bravery -which he has performed during his life.... He boasts of the scalps he -has taken, and reproduces the motions and actions of the scenes in -which his exploits were performed. When his boasting is concluded, -all assent to the truth of his story, and express their approval by -the guttural ‘_waugh!_’ Then the dance commences again. At the next -interval another makes his boast, and so another and another, till all -have given a narrative of their heroic deeds, and proved their right to -be associated with the braves of the nation.” - -The dog dance, though a favorite with the Sioux, is not an attractive -one. - -The hearts and livers of two or more slain dogs are placed entire and -uncooked upon two crotches, about as high as a man’s head, and are -cut into strips so as to hang down. The dance then commences, which -consists in each one proclaiming his exploits in loud, almost deafening -gutturals and yells. At the same time the dancers, two at a time, move -up to the stake, and bite off a piece of the heart and swallow it. All -this is done without losing step or interrupting the harmony of their -voices. The significance of the dance is that none can share in it but -the braves who can boast that they have killed their foe in battle and -swallowed a piece of his heart. - -Among the Sacs and Foxes there are several singular dances, besides -some already mentioned, viz: the slave dance (a very curious one), -dance to the Berdashe, which is an amusing scene, and dance to the -medicine of the brave. There is a tender and beautiful lesson conveyed -in this latter dance. In the illustration of it on page 1322, a party -of Sac warriors are represented as returned victorious from battle, -with the scalps they have taken as trophies. Having lost one of their -party, they appear and dance in front of his wigwam fifteen days in -succession, about an hour each day, the widow having hung his medicine -bag on a green bush, which she erects before her door, and under which -she sits and cries whilst the warriors dance and brandish the scalps -they have taken. At the same time they recount the heroic exploits -of their fallen comrade, to solace the grief of his widow, and they -throw her presents as they dance before her, that she may be kept from -poverty and suffering. - -There is little in these dances that resembles the “light fantastic -toe” and giddy maze of the dance among the civilized. The former -consist very much of jumps and starts--oftentimes the most grotesque, -and even violent exertions--united with songs and yells, sometimes -deafening by their sound or fearful by the wildness and intense -excitement that are manifested. - -To a looker on not familiar with the peculiar significance of these -displays, they seem only a series of uncouth and meaningless motions -and distortions, accompanied with harsh sounds, all forming a strange, -almost frightful medley. Yet Mr. Catlin says “every dance has its -peculiar step and every step has its meaning. Every dance has also its -peculiar song, which is so intricate and mysterious oftentimes, that -not one in ten of the young men who are singing know the meaning of the -songs. None but medicine men are allowed to understand them.” There are -dances and songs, however, not so intricate, which are understood and -participated in by all the tribe. - -The beating of drums, the yells, stamping, and bellowing, the noisy -demonstrations forming so great a part of Indian amusements, will -remind the reader of similar manifestations among some of the African -tribes, recorded in the first part of this work. - -The game which is perhaps the most popular and widely spread is almost -unintelligible to an uninstructed bystander. Its title is Tchung-chee, -that being the name of the spear which will be presently described. It -is played with a ring about three inches in diameter, made of bone or -wood wrapped with cord, and a slight spear, on which are several little -projections of leather. The players roll the ring along the ground, and -as it is about to fall, project the spear so that, as the ring falls, -it may receive within it one of the pieces of leather. If it does so, -the player scores one or more points, according to the particular -projection which is caught in the ring, and the mode in which it flies. - -Another variation of this game, called Al-kol-lock, has the spear -without the leathern projections, but in their stead six colored beads -are fixed inside the ring. At each end of the smooth clay course, which -is about fifty feet in length, a slight barrier is erected. The players -bowl the ring from one end of the course, run after it, and as it falls -after striking the barrier, throw their spears as described above, the -points being reckoned according to the color of the bead which lies on -them. - -The absorption of the players in this game is beyond description. -They will play at it all day, gamble away their horses, their tents, -their clothes, and, when they have lost all their property, will stake -themselves, the loser becoming the slave of the winner. - -Another game, called Pagessan, or the bowl game, is very popular, -though it is a sedentary one, and lacks the graceful action that gives -so great a charm to the preceding game. It is played with a wooden -bowl, containing a number of pieces of wood carved into various forms; -some, which we may call the pieces, having round pedestals on which -to stand, and others, which we will term the pawns, being round, and -painted on one side and plain on the other. The players take the bowl -alternately, give it a shake, and set it in a hole in the ground. The -contents are then examined, and the points are scored according to the -number of pieces which stand on their pedestals. If the pawn has its -colored side upward, the player scores one point; if it has the plain -side uppermost, he deducts a point from his score. The position of -the pawns is entirely a question of chance, but considerable skill is -exerted in getting the pieces to stand on their pedestals. - -The game which is most characteristic of the American Indians is the -celebrated ball game, a modification of which has been introduced into -England under the name of La Crosse. The principle on which it is -played is exactly that of foot-ball and hockey, namely, the driving of -a ball through a goal defended by the opposite party. We will first -take the game as it is played by the Choctaws. The reader will find it -illustrated on page 1311. - -A ball is carefully made of white willow wood, and ornamented with -curious designs drawn upon it with a hot iron. The ball-sticks, or -racquets, are much like our own racquets, but with larger and more -slender handles, and with a very much smaller hoop. Each player carries -two of these sticks, one in each hand. The dress of the players is -very simple, being reduced to the waist-cloth, a tail made of white -horsehair or quills, and a mane of dyed horsehair round the neck. The -belt by which the tail is sustained may be as highly ornamented as -possible, and the player may paint himself as brilliantly as he likes, -but no other article of clothing is allowed, not even moccasins on the -feet. - -On the evening of the appointed day, the two parties repair to the -ground where the goals have been already set up, some two hundred yards -apart, and there perform the ball-play dance by torchlight. Exactly in -the middle between the goals, where the ball is to be started, sit four -old medicine men, singing and beating their drums, while the players -are clustered round their respective goals, singing at the top of their -voices, and rattling their ball-sticks together. This dance goes on -during the whole of the night, so that the players are totally deprived -of rest--a very bad preparation, as one would think, for the severe -exertion of the ensuing day. All the bets are made on this night, -the article staked, such as knives, blankets, guns, cooking utensils, -tobacco, and even horses and dogs, being placed in the custody of the -stakeholders, who sit by them and watch them all night. - -About nine o’clock on the next morning the play begins. The four -medicine men, with the ball in their custody, seat themselves as -before, midway between the goals, while the players arrange themselves -for the attack and defence. At a given signal, the ball is flung high -in the air, and as it falls, the two opposing sets of players converge -upon it. As there are often several hundred players on each side, it -may be imagined that the scene is a most animated one. - -“In these desperate struggles for the ball,” writes Mr. Catlin “where -hundreds are running together, and leaping actually over each other’s -heads, and darting between their adversaries’ legs, tripping, and -throwing, and foiling each other in every possible manner, and every -voice raised to its highest key, in shrill yelps and barks, there are -rapid successions of feats and incidents that astonish and amuse far -beyond the conception of any one who has not had the singular good luck -to witness them. - -“In these struggles, every mode is used that can be devised to oppose -the progress of the foremost, who is likely to get the ball; and -these obstructions often meet desperate individual resistance, which -terminates in a violent scuffle, and sometimes in fisticuffs. Then -their sticks are dropped, and the parties are unmolested, whilst they -are settling it between themselves, except by a general _stampedo_, to -which those are subject who are down, if the ball happen to pass in -their direction. Every weapon, by a rule of all ball players, is laid -by in the respective encampments, and no man is allowed to go for one; -so that the sudden broils that take place on the ground are presumed to -be as suddenly settled without any probability of much personal injury, -and no one is allowed to interfere in any way with the contentious -individuals. - -“There are times when the ball gets to the ground, and such a confused -mass is rushing together around it, and knocking their sticks together, -without a possibility of any one getting or seeing it for the dust -that they raise, that the spectator loses his strength, and everything -but his senses; when the condensed mass of ball sticks and shins and -bloody noses is carried around the different parts of the ground, for a -quarter of an hour at a time, without any one of the masses being able -to see the ball, which they are often scuffling for several minutes -after it has been thrown off and played over another part of the ground. - -“For each time that the ball was passed between the goals of either -party, one was counted for their game, and they halted for about one -minute; when the ball was again started by the judges of the play, and -a similar struggle ensued; and so on until the successful party arrived -at 100, which was the limit of the play, and accomplished at an hour’s -sun, when they took the stakes.” - -In this game the players are not allowed to strike the ball with their -sticks, or catch it in their hands; though to do so between the netted -ends of the sticks, and then to run away with it, is a feat which each -player tries his best to accomplish. Ball-play among the Sioux is -exactly the same in principle as that of the Choctaws, but the players -only carry one stick, which is wielded with both hands. - -Sometimes the men are kind enough to indulge the women with a -ball-play, and to present a quantity of goods as prizes, hanging them -across a horizontal pole, in order to stimulate the players by the -sight. Such inferior beings as women are not, however, allowed to use -the ball and racquet of their superiors, the men, but play with a -couple of small bags filled with sand, and attached to each other by -means of a string about eighteen inches in length. Each of the players -is furnished with two slight sticks, about two feet in length, and -with these sticks they dexterously catch the sand bags, and fling them -toward the goals. The women play with quite as much enthusiasm as the -men, and the game often assumes the appearance of a general battle -rather than of a pastime. - -Since the introduction of horses, the American Indians have become -very fond of horse racing, and bet so recklessly on the speed of their -animals that they often lose everything which they possess. In these -races neither the horse nor the rider are allowed to be costumed in -any way, not even a saddle or a girth being allowed. They also have -boat races, in which the spectators take as much interest as those who -witness the Oxford and Cambridge races. The canoes are mostly propelled -by one man only. - -The canoes are of various forms and materials, according to the tribe -to which they belong. For example, the Mandans have an odd, circular -vessel, made from a bison hide, stretched over a wooden framework. This -is called a “bull boat,” and is propelled in a very singular manner. -A woman is the usual paddler, and she stands or kneels with her face -toward the direction in which she intends to proceed, and, thrusting -the paddle into the water as far forward as she can reach, draws it -smartly toward her, and thus propels the boat with considerable speed. - -On one occasion, Mr. Catlin and two companions were desirous of -crossing the river, and were packed into one of these bull boats by the -wife of a chief. She then went into the water, and swam across the -river, towing the boat after her. As, however, she neared the opposite -bank, a number of young girls surrounded the canoe, took it into their -own management, and kept it in mid-stream, until the passengers, -utterly powerless in such a craft, ransomed themselves with bead -necklaces and other decorations. Then there is another kind of canoe, -which is simply a hollowed tree-trunk, and which is graphically called -a “dug-out.” No very particular care is taken about the shaping of this -simple boat, which is more like a punt than a canoe. - -The best and most characteristic form of native canoe is that which is -made of the bark of the birch tree. The mode of making these canoes is -briefly as follows. Canoe building is a work in which both sexes take a -part. The men first select the largest and finest birch trees, with the -smoothest skins, and strip off large pieces of the bark. The women then -take charge of the bark, and, while it is still fresh and moist, clean -and scrape it as if it were leather, and then sew the pieces together, -so as to make the “cloak” of the future canoe. - -While the women are at this work, the men are busily preparing the -skeleton of the canoe. This is made of the white cedar, the ribs being -cut and scraped until they are quite thin and light, and held in their -places by smaller cross-pieces, and a long thin piece of wood, which -runs round the entire edge of the boat, and is, in fact, the chief -support of the canoe. This is technically called the “maître.” No nails -are used, the whole of the junctions being effected by means of thongs -of bass, obtained from the inner bark of the white cedar. - -The skeleton being completed, it is laid upon the cloak, which is -brought over the ribs, firmly lashed to the “maître,” and then by -degrees brought into its proper shape. A strengthening piece, called -the “faux maître,” is next tied along the whole of the gunwale in order -to protect it from injury, and the interior is lined with cedar boards, -scarcely thicker than pasteboard. When the canoe is finished and dry, -the holes through which the lashings have passed, as well as all the -junctions of the bark, are carefully stopped with pitch obtained -from the pine or fir-tree, and the weaker parts of the bark are also -strengthened with a coat of pitch. - -The bark canoe of the Chippeways is, unquestionably, the most beautiful -model of all the water crafts ever invented. It is usually made -complete, from the rind of one birch tree, and so ingeniously formed -and put together, that it is water-tight, and will ride upon the water -with singular grace and swiftness. - -These canoes are wonderfully light, as indeed is necessary for the -navigation of the rivers. The many rapids would effectually prevent -a boat from passing up the river, were it not for the plan called -“portage.” When the canoe arrives at the foot of a rapid, it is taken -ashore, the crew land, take all the goods out of the canoe, and carry -them to the opposite side of the rapid. They then go back for the canoe -itself, launch it in the smooth water above the rapid, and load it, and -proceed on their journey. The figure at the head of page 1322 will give -the reader a good idea of the form of the birch bark canoe. - -These vessels can be propelled with wonderful speed, as they sit on -the surface like ducks, and, when empty, scarcely draw two inches of -water. The number of paddlers varies according to the size of the boat, -but the course is regulated by the two who sit respectively in the bow -and stern, whom we may for convenience call the “bow” and “stroke.” It -is the duty of the “bow” to look carefully ahead for any rocks or any -other obstacles, and, by movements well understood, to indicate their -presence to the “stroke,” who, with a sweep of the paddle, brings the -canoe round in the direction indicated by the “bow.” - -The canoes which are used in races are made of birch bark, and are -almost always of small size--so small, indeed, that a man can easily -carry his canoe on his head from his house to the water’s edge, and -then launch it without assistance. Mr. Catlin gives a very animated -description of a canoe race, the competitors being accompanied by large -canoes, full of their respective friends, who yell encouragements -to the antagonists, fire guns in the air, and render the scene a -singularly exciting one, even to a stranger. - -Toward the right hand of the illustration which depicts the canoe race, -on the following page, the reader may see a curious mode of propelling -canoes, which is often adopted when there is no necessity for speed -and the wind is favorable. The man who acts as “bow” stands up in the -front of the canoe, extends a robe or a blanket in his two hands, and -then he presses the two other corners at the bottom of the boat with -his feet. The robe thus becomes an extemporized sail, of which the man -is the mast. In this manner a canoe is often carried for a considerable -distance, to the great relief of the paddlers. - -An European would instantly upset the fragile canoe if he tried to -stand erect in it; but the natives are absolutely perfect masters of -their little vessels, and seem to move about in them as easily and -firmly as if on dry land. They will load a canoe within an inch and -a half of the water’s edge, and paddle it for a whole day, without -dreaming of danger. And an accomplished canoe man will take a fish -spear in his hand, place a foot on each gunwale of the boat, and, -propelled by a friend in the stern of the boat, dart down rapids, -spearing fish as he shoots along, hauling the struggling fish out of -the water, and shaking them into the boat behind him. - -[Illustration: (1.) CANOE RACE. (See page 1326.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) ESQUIMAUX DWELLINGS. (See page 1335.)] - -Among most Indian tribes, when mourning for the death of relatives, the -women are required to cut their hair entirely off, and the period of -mourning is until it has grown to its former length. As long tresses -are so highly valued by most of the tribes this is no small sacrifice. -But long hair being of much more importance to the men they cut off -only a lock or two, to indicate grief or affliction for their departed -kindred. - -There is a game which has in it somewhat of a religious aspect. On the -border of the Great Pipe-stone Quarry a solitary rock rises from the -plain. It resembles a large pillar, being only a few feet in diameter, -though more than thirty feet in height. It is situated within a short -distance from the edge of the precipice, and the Indians who come to -procure red stone for their pipes often try to leap upon it and back -again. The mere leap to the rock is comparatively easy, but there are -two terrible dangers which threaten the leaper. In the first place, the -small, flat surface of the rock is so polished and smooth, that if the -leaper should exert too much power, he must slip off, and be killed -on the sharp rocks below. Should he retain his foot-hold he has still -a difficult task in regaining the spot whence he sprang, as he can -take no run, and the slippery surface of the rock affords but a slight -fulcrum from which he can take his spring. - -Before an Indian essays this terrible leap, he offers up many prayers -to the Great Spirit for help and protection, and he has at all events -the satisfaction of knowing that, if he should fail, his body will be -buried in the sacred ground of the nation. Those who succeed leave an -arrow sticking in the rock, and have a right to boast of it at every -public meeting when they are called upon to speak. No man would dare to -boast of this feat without having performed it, as he would at once be -challenged to visit the Leaping Rock and to point out his arrow. - -If the reader will refer to the figure of the canoe on page 1322, he -will see that its sides are decorated with a pattern. This is made by -fastening dyed porcupine quills to the sides of the little vessel. -Porcupine quills are used very largely for ornaments, and, even though -they have been partly superseded by beads, are still in use for -decorating the dresses and utensils of the natives. - -These quills are never so long or thick as those of the porcupine of -the Old World, and are naturally white or gray, so that they can easily -take any desired dye. They are first sorted very carefully into their -different sizes, the largest rarely exceeding three inches in length, -while the smaller are quite thread-like, and can be passed through the -eye of an ordinary needle. Both ends are sharp. When the native artist -desires to produce a pattern, the design is first drawn on the right -side of the bark or leather; the two ends of the quill are then pushed -through the fabric, and fastened on the wrong side, the quill acting -both as needle and thread. - -Perhaps the most ingenious mode of making ornaments is that which -is practised by the Ojibbeway women, and called Bark-biting. The -following description of this curious art is given by Mr. Kohl in his -“Kitchi-Gami:”-- - -“This is an art which the squaws chiefly practise in spring, in their -sugar plantations. Still, they do not all understand it, and only a few -are really talented. I heard that a very celebrated bark-biter resided -at the other side of St. Mary’s River, in Canada, and that another, of -the name of Angélique Marte, lived in our cataract village. Naturally, -I set out at once to visit the latter. - -“Extraordinary geniuses must usually be sought here, as in Paris, on -the fifth floor, or in some remote faubourg. Our road to Angélique -Marte led us past the little cluster of houses representing our village -far into the desert. We came to morasses, and had to leap from stone -to stone. Between large masses of scattered granite block, the remains -of the missiles which the Indians say Menaboju and his father hurled -at each other in the battle they fought here, we at length found the -half-decayed birch-hut of our pagan artiste, who herself was living in -it like a hermit. - -“The surrounding landscape seemed better adapted for a _renversi_ than -for an _atélier_. When we preferred our request for some specimen of -her tooth carving, she told us that all her hopes as regarded her art -were concentrated in one tooth. At least she had only one in her upper -jaw properly useful for this operation. She began, however, immediately -selecting proper pieces of bark, peeling off the thin skin, and -doubling up the pieces, which she thrust between her teeth. - -“As she took up one piece after the other, and went through the -operation very rapidly, one artistic production after the other fell -from her lips. We unfolded the bark, and found on one the figure of a -young girl, on another a bouquet of flowers, on a third a tomahawk, -with all its accessories, very correctly designed, as well as several -other objects. The bark is not bitten into holes, but only pressed -with the teeth, so that, when the designs are held up, they resemble, -to some extent, those pretty porcelain transparencies made as -light-screens.” - -The mode of constructing the wigwam is very much the same among the -various tribes. Generally it is made of dressed buffalo skins sewed -together and arranged in the form of a tent, with a score or more of -poles about twenty-five feet in height, as a support, and with an -opening at the apex for the escape of smoke or the admission of light. -The Crows, however, excel all others in the style of their lodge. They -dress the skins almost as white as linen, embellish them with porcupine -quills, and paint them in various ways so as to make their tents -exceedingly beautiful and picturesque. - -The Indian lodges may be removed in a few minutes. The taking down and -the transportation is the work of the squaws. A tribe will generally -remove six or eight times in a summer in order to find good hunting -grounds among the herds of buffaloes. - -The Indian tribes judging from their musical instruments, have little -taste or skill in music. These are very rude, and consist of rattles, -drums, the mystery whistle, war whistle and deer skin flute. The war -whistle is from six to nine inches in length, made of the bone of the -deer’s or turkey’s leg, with porcupine quills wound around it. The -chief wears this to battle under his dress. It has only two notes--one, -produced by blowing into one end of it, is shrill, and is the summons -to battle; and the other sounds a retreat. Even in the noise of battle -and amid the cries and yells of their fierce conflicts, this little -instrument can be distinctly heard. - -The chief pledge of friendship among these tribes, is a dog feast. -If we consider that the dog is an object of special affection with -the Indians; that he is more valued by them than anywhere else on -the globe;--we can understand the significance of this feast. This -sacrifice of what is dearest to them is therefore the very strongest -evidence of friendship. On their coats of arms, on the rocks, they -carve the image of the dog, and everywhere and always, he is the -emblem of fidelity. Accordingly, to ratify friendship, to give the -most unquestionable proof of honor and devotion, the Indian will take -his beloved companion of the chase and wigwam, and offer it as the -sacrifice to hospitality and affection. - -These feasts are conducted in the most solemn and impressive manner, -as if with the conviction that the pledge of friendship is a sacred -thing. Those were tender words which Catlin gives at the conclusion of -an Indian chief’s address to him and other white guests, to whom such -a feast had been given: “we offer you to-day not the best we have got, -for we have plenty of good buffalo hump and marrow--but we give you our -hearts in this feast--we have killed our faithful dogs to feed you, and -the Great Spirit will seal our friendship. I have no more to say.” - - * * * * * - -We come now to consider the customs of the Indians in regard to death -and the disposal of the dead. - -The Mandans take the body of the deceased, clothe it in his best robes -and ornaments, furnish it with food, pipes, tobacco, and arrows, and -wrap it up in skins previously soaked in water, so as to render them -pliant, and cause them to exclude the air as much as possible. The body -is then placed upon a slight scaffold, some seven feet in height, and -left to decay. In process of time, the scaffold gives way and falls, -when the relations of the deceased bury the whole of the remains, with -the exception of the skull, which they place on the ground, forming -circles of a hundred or more, all with the faces looking inward, and -all resting on fresh bunches of herbs. In the centre of each circle is -a little mound, on which are placed the skulls of a male and female -bison, and on the mound is planted a long pole, on which hang sundry -“medicine” articles, which are supposed to aid in guarding the remains -of the dead. - -No people are more fond of swimming than the Indians, the youth of -both sexes learning the art at a very early age. Such knowledge is -indispensable to them, especially liable as they are to accidents with -their light canoes, and in their marches compelled to cross the widest -rivers. The squaws will fasten their children to their backs, and -easily cross any river that lies in their way. - -The Indian mode of swimming, however, is quite different from ours. -They do not make a horizontal stroke outward from the chin, but throw -the body alternately from one side to the other, and raising one arm -out of the water, reach as far forward as possible, while the other arm -having made the same motion, goes down and becomes a propelling power. -And this, though an apparently awkward, is yet a most effective mode of -swimming, and less likely to be attended with injury to the chest, or -with fatigue. - - * * * * * - -The relatives constantly visit the skull circles, and the women may -often be seen sitting by the skulls of their dead children for hours -together, going on with their work, and talking to the dead skull as -if it were a living child. And, when tired, they will lie down with -their arms encircling the skull, and sleep there as if in company with -the child itself. The Sioux and many other tribes lodge their dead in -the branches or crotches of trees, enveloped in skins, and always with -a wooden dish hanging near the head of the corpse, for the purpose, -doubtless, to enable it to quench its thirst on the long journey they -suppose awaits it after death. The Chinnooks place them in canoes, -which, together with the warrior’s utensils accompanying the dead, are -so shattered as to be useless. - -The most singular funeral of which a record has been preserved was that -of Blackbird, an Omaha chief. The artist has reproduced the strange -scene on page 1341. - -Upon the bank of the Missouri, and in the district over which he -ruled, there is a lofty bluff, the top of which can be seen for a vast -distance on every side. When the chief found that he was dying, he -ordered that he should be placed on the back of his favorite war horse, -and buried on the top of the bluff. - -The request was carried out to the letter. On the appointed day, the -whole tribe, together with a vast concourse of spectators, repaired to -the bluff, leaving an open space in the middle, where the chief was to -be buried. - -Presently, the body of the dead chief was borne up the sides of the -bluff, and after him was led his war horse, a noble milk-white steed -which he had valued exceedingly. When the funeral procession reached -the top of the bluff, the dead chief was clothed in full panoply of -war, the feather plumes on his head, the strung bow, quiver, arrows, -shield, and medicine bag slung on his back, his scalps, which no other -man might take, hung to his horse’s bridle and to his weapons, and his -favorite spear in his hand. He was also furnished with food and drink, -to sustain him in his passage to the spirit land, and with his pipe and -filled tobacco pouch, flint, and steel, so that he might solace himself -with the luxury of smoking. - -This done, he was mounted on the back of his horse, and all the chiefs -advanced in their turn to make their farewell speeches to their dead -leader. Each, after delivering his address, rubbed his right hand with -vermilion, pressed it against the white coat of the horse, and left -there the scarlet imprint of his hand. Then began the burial. The -warriors brought in their hands pieces of turf, and with them began to -raise a huge mound, in the middle of which the chief and his horse were -to be enclosed. One by one they placed their turves around the feet of -the devoted horse, and so, by degrees, they built the mound over the -animal while yet alive. - -The mound, when completed, rose high above the head of the chief thus -strangely buried in its centre, and there he and his horse were left -to decay together. On the top of the mound a cedar post was erected; -and this mound has been, ever since it was built, a familiar landmark -to all the surrounding country. This green, flower spotted mound is -visited by great numbers of travellers, both white and red. The former -ascend the bluff partly out of curiosity to see so strange a tomb, and -partly for the sake of the magnificent view from its summit, while -the latter visit it for the sake of paying their respects at the -burial-place of one of their most renowned chiefs and greatest medicine -men. - -The custom of burying wives and other victims with the deceased husband -seems now to be extinct among the North American tribes, but such an -event has happened within comparatively late years. There was a Nachez -chief, called the Stung Serpent, who died; and as he was the head -chief of the tribe, a considerable number of victims were devoted for -sacrifice. The French, however, remonstrated, and induced the friends -of the dead chief to limit the number to eight or ten. Among them was -a beautiful girl, who, though not his wife, had loved him greatly, and -desired to share his grave. - -On the day appointed a procession was formed, in which the victims were -led in great state, accompanied by eight relatives of the deceased, who -were to act as executioners, and who bore the fatal cord, the deer-skin -which was thrown over the head of the victim, the tobacco pills -which were to be taken before the ceremony, and the other implements -required. When they were all placed at the grave, the chief wife made a -speech, in which she took leave of her children; and the victims, after -being strangled, were deposited in the grave. - - * * * * * - -As the object of this work is to present the manners and customs -of tribes and races in their primitive state, and not those -semi-civilized, it will be enough to merely introduce the names of -the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Senecas, Delawares, etc. -Nor is it necessary to consider those, now extinct, that occupied -the country when first settled by white men. For the same general -characteristics, now presented, pertain to all the North American -races. The Indian tribes are rapidly retreating or vanishing before the -steady, irresistible march of civilization, and the growing grandeur -of the great Republic in North America. The line, where the echoes -of the Indian’s yell blends with the shout of advancing pioneers and -the sound of the wood-chopper’s axe, is continually moving westward. -In a few years we have seen it pass from the Mississippi River, to -the base of the Rocky Mountains. The settler’s cabin is unceasingly -encroaching upon the wigwams of the Red Men. With sadness, having -smoothed the graves of their fathers, and taken a last look of their -hunting grounds, they retreat before a power which they vainly strive -to resist. Pressed backward in two centuries and a half, across -three-quarters of the continent, from Massachusetts Bay almost to the -Pacific, except a few decaying remnants of tribes, their history and -doom cannot but awaken sympathy for an unfortunate and overpowered race. - -Even though we do not form our estimate of the Indian from the romantic -creations of Cooper, every right-thinking person will accord them the -tribute of many qualities that constitute a real grandeur of character. -Their marvellous bravery, their ardent rage, their steadfast, fiery -enthusiasm in the fight or in the chase, their manly sports, their -grave, philosophic demeanor in the council, their stern, stoical -endurance in misfortune, their disdain of death, are traits that have -given to the Indian a character unique and noble, a character and -history that the annalist, poet, and novelist, have transferred to -their immortal pages, and over which multitudes of old and young alike -have bent with eager, breathless interest. As Mr. Mangin in his “Desert -World” says:--“There was poetry in their faith, in their customs, in -their language, at once laconic and picturesque--and even in the names -they bestowed on each tribe, each chief and warrior, on mountain and -river. One can hardly suppress a feeling of regret that so much of wild -romance and valor should have been swept from the face of the earth, -unless we call to mind the shadow of the picture--the Indian’s cruelty, -perfidiousness and savage lust. Even then, our humanity revolts from -the treatment to which he has been subjected by the white man.” Tracked -and hunted like wild beasts, driven from their hunting grounds and the -territory of their ancestors, imbruted by drink, decimated and dying by -epidemics and vices contracted from white men, the poor Indians vainly -struggling to avert their doom of extermination have elicited the -sympathy and commiseration of the civilized world. The theory advocated -in the preceding part of this work, (see page 790), in regard to the -decay and extinction of savage races, does not forbid regrets that such -a people should have suffered so grievously at the hands of the United -States Government, by the greed of its agents, the frauds of traders -and the fatal contagion of the vices of a civilized people. What with -American rifles and American whiskey, their extinction has been rapid, -and their doom certain. - -These tribes, contending in a most unequal strife with the forces -of modern civilization, more readily falling victims to the vices -of white men than accepting their virtues, are entitled to the just -consideration and protection of the government, as its wards, from -whom, or their ancestors, have been taken their soil and their homes. - -It is gratifying to know that a more humane policy is about being -inaugurated, and though the wrongs of the past may not be redressed, -that their rights in future may be recognized and maintained. -Major-General Thomas, of the U. S. army, whose name and history are -the guarantee of candid and wise judgment, says, in respect to an -instance of cold-blooded, unprovoked, unpunished outrage upon an -Indian boy (it is given only as a representative fact of many more and -bitter wrongs):--“I see no better way than to extend civil authority -over the Indians and enable them to appear as witnesses in all cases -affecting their own status and that of the whites toward them. This is -a fair instance of the cause of the Indian troubles; and until white -murderers and robbers of the Indians are punished, a large force of -troops will be necessary to protect peaceful white settlers from Indian -avengers.” And Gen. Sherman, in whose opinion the utmost confidence -can be reposed, makes the following indorsement to General Thomas’ -view:--“This case illustrates the origin of most of the Indian wars -on the frontier. A citizen may murder an Indian with impunity, but if -the Indian retaliate, war results, and the United States must bear the -expense.” - -Here we have the secret of many of the barbarities of the Indian -tribes. Inflamed and imbruted by the whiskey sold them, their ignorance -imposed upon by the greed of traders and even government agents, having -little or no chance for securing justice in their real or imagined -injuries, there is certainly some extenuation if this wild son of the -forest go forth with tomahawk and scalping knife, as the self-appointed -avenger of his own and his people’s wrongs. This is not the place, if -there were room, for a thorough discussion of the wrongs of the Red -Men, but I cannot forego the duty, in treating of the manners, customs -and character of tribes so interesting, so noble and superior, by many -traits, to most savage races, of recording at the same time, this -tribute and testimony. It will unquestionably be the verdict of the -future, as coming generations shall study the memorials and character -of the North American Indians.[1] - - [1] These reflections, with much relating to the customs of the - Indians, have been introduced into the work by the American editor. - - - - -CHAPTER CXL. - -THE ESQUIMAUX. - -APPEARANCE--DRESS--DWELLINGS. - - - APPEARANCE OF THE PEOPLE -- THEIR COMPLEXION, AND DIFFICULTY OF - SEEING IT -- AN ESQUIMAUX CHILD WASHED AND COMBED -- BODILY STRENGTH - -- DRESS OF THE MEN -- THE TAILED COAT -- “MILLING” BOOTS -- DRESS - OF THE WOMEN -- THE LARGE HOOD AND BOOTS -- THE TATTOO, AND MODE OF - PERFORMING IT -- HAIR-DRESSING -- PREPARING SKINS -- THE SNOW HOUSES, - AND MODE OF BUILDING THEM -- CAPTAIN LYON’S DESCRIPTION -- INTERNAL - ARRANGEMENTS OF THE HUT -- ICE AND BONE HOUSES -- THE TUPIC, OR - SUMMER DWELLING -- FOOD OF THE ESQUIMAUX -- A WISE TRAVELLER. - -We now come to those extraordinary people, called by Europeans the -ESQUIMAUX (their own name being Innuit), who, placed amid perpetual -ice and snow, have bent those elements to their own purposes, and -pass as happy lives in their inclement country as do the apparently -more favored inhabitants of the tropics amid their perpetual verdure. -Indeed, the Esquimaux has a perfect yearning for his beloved country, -should he be away from it. Captain Hall relates the circumstances -attendant upon the “death of Kudlago, a singularly intelligent man, -who had visited the United States, and fully learned to appreciate -the advantages of the high civilization which he saw there. But all -his wishes were for home, and he was taken back. As the ship neared -his native land, he fell ill and died, his last words being the eager -inquiry, ‘Do you see ice? Do you see ice?’” - - * * * * * - -In appearance, the Esquimaux are a peculiar people. Their stature is -short, when compared to that of an ordinary European, the average being -about five feet three inches for the men, and two or three inches less -for the women. - -The complexion is in some cases rather dark, but, as a rule, is not -much darker than that of the inhabitants of Southern Europe. It looks, -however, many shades darker, in consequence of the habits of the -Esquimaux, who never wash from their birth to their death. It is not -that they neglect their ablutions, but the very idea of washing never -enters the mind of an Esquimaux, who, unless he has met with white men, -has not even heard of such an operation. When, however, an Esquimaux -has been induced to allow his skin to be cleansed, he is found to lose -many shades of his original darkness. There is an amusing passage in -the journal of Captain Hall, given in his “Life with the Esquimaux,” a -work to which frequent reference will be made in the next few pages. - -“Kimnaloo has just been Americanized. Captain B----’s good wife had -made and sent to her a pretty red dress, a necktie, mittens, belt, &c. - -“Mr. Rogers and I, at a suggestion from me, thought it best to commence -the change of nationality with soap and water. The process was slow, -that of arriving at the beautiful little girl, whom we at length found, -though deeply imbedded layer after layer in dirt. Then came the task of -making her toilet. With a very coarse comb I commenced to disentangle -her hair. She had but little, the back part from behind her ears -having been cut short off on account of severe pains in her head. How -patiently she submitted to the worse than curry-comb process I had to -use! This was the first time in her life that a comb had been put to -her head. Her hair was filled with moss, seal and reindeer hairs, and -many other things, too numerous to call them all by name. Poor little -thing! Yet she was fat and beautiful, the very picture of health. Her -cheeks were as red as the blown rose; Nature’s vermilion was upon -them.” - -The skin is smooth, soft, and yet wonderfully tough, with a sort of -unctuous surface, probably occasioned by the enormous amount of oil -and fat which forms the principal part of their diet. The features are -not very pleasing, the face being broad, and the cheek-bones so high -that in many cases, if a flat ruler were laid from cheek to cheek, it -would not touch the nose. As is the case with the Chinese section of -this vast race, the eyes slope rather downward, and the face is often -covered with wrinkles to a wonderful extent, extending from the eyes -down each cheek. - -In bodily strength, the Esquimaux present a great contrast to the -Andamaners, who, though short, are possessed of gigantic muscular -powers. Captain Lyon found that the natives could not raise burdens -that were easily lifted by his sailors, whereas an ordinary Andamaner -is often a match for two powerful sailors. The neck is strangely thin -and feeble, however well-proportioned the chest may be, and it is a -curious fact that the Esquimaux are almost wholly ignorant of running -and jumping. There is but little beard, and the hair is black, coarse, -straight, and lanky. - -The general character of the dress is alike in both sexes, so that -at a little distance it is not easy to tell whether the spectator be -looking at a man or a woman, both sexes wearing trousers, and jackets -with a large hood, which can either be drawn over the head or allowed -to fall on the shoulders. The jacket of the man is made something like -a broad-tailed dress coat, hanging behind as far as the middle of the -calf, and cut away in front just below the waist. It is mostly made of -deer-hide, and the hood is lined and turned up with white fur, which -forms a curious contrast to the dark, broad face within it. The edge of -the coat is generally bordered with a lighter-colored fur, and is often -decorated with little strips of fur hanging like tassels. - -Under this coat is another of similar shape, but of lighter material, -and having the furry side turned inward. The legs are clothed in -two pairs of trousers, the outer pair being often made of strips of -differently colored deer-skins arranged in parallel stripes, and having -the fur outward, while the other has the fur inward, as is the case -with the coats. They only come as low as the knee, so that the joint -is often frost-bitten; but nothing can induce the Esquimaux to outrage -fashion by adding a couple of inches to the garment. - -The boots are made of the same materials as the other parts of the -dress. In winter time the Esquimaux wear first a pair of boots with -the fur inward, then slippers of soft seal-skin so prepared as to be -waterproof, then another pair of boots, and, lastly, strong seal-skin -shoes. In the summer time one pair of boots is sufficient protection. -The soles are made of thicker material than the rest of the garment, -and it is the duty of the women to keep the soles flexible by chewing -or “milling” them, an operation which consumes a considerable part of -their time. - -Mittens are made of various skins, the hairy side being inward; and if -the wearer be engaged in fishing, he uses mittens made of watertight -seal-skin. During the summer, light dresses are worn, made of the skins -of ducks, with the feathers inward. Over all there is sometimes a very -thin and light waterproof garment made of the intestines of the walrus. - -The jackets worn by the women have a much longer and narrower tail -than those of the men, and a tolerably deep flap in front. The hood is -of enormous size, being used as a cradle as well as a hood, in which -a child of nearly three years old is carried. The trousers, or rather -leggings, are tied to a girdle that passes round the waist, and are -so cut away at the top, that they allow a portion of the skin to be -visible between them and the sides of the jacket, an exposure from -which the wearers do not seem to suffer. The oddest article of the -female apparel is, however, the boots, which more resemble sacks or -buckets than boots, and are simply tied to the girdle by a broad strap -that passes up the front of the leg. The boots are used as receptacles -for all kinds of portable property, food included, and in consequence -impart a most singular walk, or rather waddle, to the wearers, who are -obliged to keep their feet widely apart, and, as they walk, to swing -one foot round the other, rather than to use the ordinary mode of -walking. - -The Esquimaux women use the tattoo, called by them the kakeen, and -in some places cover their limbs and a considerable portion of their -persons with various patterns. There are some who mark the forehead, -cheeks, and chin, these being mostly proof that the woman is married, -though they are sometimes worn by unmarried females. The mode in -which the kakeen is performed is amusingly told by Captain Lyon, who -courageously submitted to the operation. - -“My curiosity determined me on seeing how the kakeen was performed, -and I accordingly put myself into the hands of Mrs. Kettle, whom I had -adopted as my amama, or mother. - -“Having furnished her with a fine needle, she tore with her teeth a -thread off a deer’s sinew, and thus prepared the sewing apparatus. -She then, without a possibility of darkening her hands beyond their -standard color, passed her fingers under the bottom of the stove pot, -from whence she collected a quantity of soot. With this, together with -a little oil and much saliva, she soon made a good mixture, and taking -a small piece of whalebone well blackened, she then drew a variety of -figures about my arm, differing, as I easily saw, from those with which -she herself was marked; and, calling her housemates, they all enjoyed a -good laugh at the figures, which perhaps conveyed some meaning that I -could not fathom. - -“I had, however, only determined on a few strokes, so that her trouble -was in some measure thrown away. She commenced her work by blackening -the thread with soot, and taking a pretty deep but short stitch in my -skin, carefully pressing her thumb on the wound as the thread passed -through it, and beginning each stitch at the place where the last had -ceased. My flesh being tough, she got on but slowly, and, having broken -one needle in trying to force it through, I thought fit, when she had -completed forty stitches, or about two inches, to allow her to desist; -then, rubbing the part with oil in order to stanch the little blood -which appeared, she finished the operation. I could now form an idea of -the price paid by the Esquimaux females for their embellishments, which -for a time occasion a slight inflammation and some degree of pain. The -color which the kakeen assumes when the skin heals is of the same light -blue as we see on the marked arms of seamen.” - -The dress of the children is alike in both sexes. None at all is worn -until the infant is nearly three years old, up to which age it is -kept naked in its mother’s hood. A dress is then made of fawn skin, -having the jacket, trousers, boots, and hood in one piece, the only -opening being at the back. Into this odd dress the child is put, and -the opening being tied up with a string, the operation of dressing -is completed. The hood or cap is generally made in the shape of the -fawn’s head, so that the little Esquimaux has the strangest appearance -imaginable, and scarcely looks like a human being. - -As to the hair, the men cut it short over the forehead, and allow the -side locks to grow to their full length, tying them, when very long, -over the top of the head in a large knot projecting over the forehead. -The women part the hair in the middle, and make it into two large -tails. A piece of bone or wood is introduced into each of the tails -by way of a stiffener, and they are then bound spirally with a narrow -strip of deer-hide, with the fur outward. Those women who can afford -such a luxury pass the hair through two brass rings, which are then -pressed as closely as possible to the head. - -The whole of the operations of preparing the skin and making the -clothes are done by the women, the men having completed their task when -they have killed the animals. The fat, blood, and oil are first sucked -from the skins, and the women then scrape the inner surface with an -ingenious instrument, sometimes furnished with teeth, and at other -times plain, like blunt knives. The skins are then rubbed and kneaded, -and are dried by being stretched by pegs to the ground in summer, and -laced over a hoop in winter and exposed to the heat of the lamp, which -constitutes the only fire of the Esquimaux. - -Bird skins are prepared in a somewhat similar fashion, and are stripped -from the bodies of the birds in a marvellously expeditious manner. -With their knife, which exactly resembles a cheese cutter, they make -an incision round the head and round the outer joint of each wing. The -cut part is then seized between the teeth, and with a pull and a jerk -the skin comes off in one piece, and turned inside out. These skins are -considered a great luxury by the Esquimaux, who bite and suck off the -fat which adheres liberally to them. - - * * * * * - -In a country where the thermometer remains many degrees below zero for -many months together, and in which ice and snow are the prevailing -features, it is evident that houses cannot be built after the fashion -of those in most countries. No trees can grow there, so that wooden -houses are out of the question, and in a land where ice has been known -to choke up the iron flue of a stove always kept burning neither clay -could be made into bricks, nor stones cemented with mortar. There is -only one substance of which houses can be made, and this is frozen -water, either in the form of snow or ice, the former being the usual -material. These snow houses, called igloos, are made in a dome-like -shape, and are built with a rapidity that is perfectly astonishing. The -reader will find the form and mode of building these houses illustrated -on page 1327. - -The general appearance of these strange houses is thus described -by Captain Lyon, in his “Private Journal.” “Our astonishment was -unbounded, when, after creeping through some long passages of snow, to -enter the different dwellings, we found ourselves in a cluster of dome -shaped edifices, entirely constructed of snow, which, from their recent -erection, had not been sullied by the smoke of the numerous lamps that -were burning, but admitted the light in most delicate hues of verdigris -green and blue, according to the thickness of the slab through which -it passed.... There were five clusters of huts, some having one, some -two, and others three domes, in which thirteen families lived, each -occupying a dome or one side of it, according to their strength. The -whole number of people were twenty-one men, twenty-five women, and -eighteen children, making a total of sixty-four. - -“The entrance to the building was by a hole about a yard in diameter, -which led through a low arched passage of sufficient breadth for two to -pass in a stooping posture, and about sixteen feet in length; another -hole then presented itself, and led through a similarly shaped but -shorter passage, having at its termination a round opening about two -feet across. Up this hole we crept one step, and found ourselves in a -dome about seven feet in height, and as many in diameter, from whence -the three dwelling-places with arched roofs were entered. It must be -observed that this is the description of a large hut; the smaller ones, -containing one or two families, have the domes somewhat differently -arranged. - -“Each dwelling might be averaged at fourteen or sixteen feet in -diameter, by six or seven in height; but as snow alone was used in -their construction, and was always at hand, it might be supposed that -there was no particular size, that being of course at the option of the -builder. The laying of the arch was performed in such a manner as would -have satisfied the most regular artist, the key piece on the top being -a large square slab. The blocks of snow used in the buildings were from -four to six inches in thickness, and about a couple of feet in length, -carefully pared with a large knife. Where two families occupied a dome, -a seat was raised either side two feet in height. These raised places -were used as beds, and covered, in the first place, with whalebone, -sprigs of Andromeda, or pieces of seal-skin; over these were spread -deer-pelts and deer-skin clothes, which had a very warm appearance. The -pelts were used as blankets, and many of them had ornamental fringes of -leather sewed round their edges. - -“Each dwelling-place was illuminated by a broad piece of transparent -fresh-water ice, of about two feet in diameter, which formed part of -the roof, and was placed over the door. These windows gave a most -pleasing light, free from glare, and something like that which is -thrown through ground glass. We soon learned that the building of a -house was but the work of an hour or two, and that a couple of men--one -to cut the slabs and another to lay them--were sufficient laborers. - -“For the support of the lamps and cooking apparatus a mound of snow is -erected for each family; and when the master has two wives or a mother, -both have an independent place, one at each end of the bench.” - -In the middle of the hut is erected a slight scaffold, which supports -a rudely made net, and under the net is placed the one essential piece -of furniture of the house, namely, the lamp. This is a very simple -contrivance. It is merely an oval shaped dish of stone, round the edge -of which is arranged a long wick made of moss. Oil is poured into it, -and a quantity of blubber is heaped in the centre of the lamp, so as -to keep up the supply. Over the lamp is hung the cooking pot, the size -of each being proportioned to the rank of the possessor. It sometimes -happens that two wives occupy the same hut. In this case, the chief or -“igloo-wife” has the large lamp and the supporting scaffold, while the -other has to content herself with a little lamp and a small pot, which -she must support as she can. - -The value of the lamp is simply incalculable, not so much for its use -in cooking, as the Esquimaux like meat raw quite as well as cooked, but -for its supply of warmth, for the water which is obtained by melting -snow over it, and for its use in drying clothes. All garments, the snow -being first beaten off them, are placed on the “dry-net” over the lamp, -where they are gradually dried, and, after being chewed by the women, -are fit for wear again: otherwise they become frozen quite hard, and -are of no more use than if they were made of ice. Oil is supplied by -chewing blubber, and the women, who always perform the task, have the -curious knack of expressing the oil without allowing a drop of moisture -to mix with it. In one minute a woman can obtain enough oil to fill a -lamp two feet in length. - -Sometimes, when snow is scarce, the igloo is made of ice. The walls -are formed of this material, and are generally of an octagonal form, -the ice slabs being cemented together with snow. The domed roof is -usually made of snow, but the tunnel, or passage to the interior, is -of ice. Such a house is, when first made, so transparent that, even at -the distance of some paces, those who are within it can be recognized -through its walls. - -It may seem strange that such materials as snow and ice should be -employed in the construction of man’s dwelling-place, as nothing seems -more opposed to comfort; yet these houses, instead of being cold, are -so warm that the inhabitants throw off the greater part, and sometimes -the whole, of their clothes when within them; and the bed of snow on -which they recline is, when covered with the proper amount of skins, -even warmer than an European feather bed. In the summer time the -Esquimaux prefer the skin hut, or “tupic.” This is a mere tent made of -deer-skins thrown over a few sticks, though the supports are sometimes -formed from the bones of whales. - - * * * * * - -The food of the Esquimaux is almost wholly of an animal character. In -the first place, the country supplies scarcely any vegetation; and, in -the next place, an abundant supply of animal food is required in order -to enable the inhabitants to withstand the intense cold. The seal and -the reindeer form their favorite food, and in both cases the fat is the -part that is most highly valued. - -In the reindeer, the fat of the hinder quarters, called by the -Esquimaux “toodnoo,” is the portion that is most valued. Captain Hall, -who very wisely lived as the Esquimaux while staying with them, says -that it is as much superior to butter as is the best butter to lard; -and when the deer is in good condition, the meat is so tender that a -steak almost falls to pieces if lifted by its edge. Another part of the -reindeer is almost as valuable as the fat. This is the contents of the -deer’s paunch, eaten raw with slices of raw venison. It has a slightly -acid flavor, like that of sorrel, and if the consumer were not to know -what he was eating, he would be delighted with it. - -This was the case with Captain Hall, while partaking of a deer feast -in an igloo. He tried the deer flesh, and found it excellent; he then -took a morsel of the unknown substance, and describes it as ambrosial. -After eating the greater part of it, he took it to the light, and was -horrified to find the nature of the feast. However, he soon came to the -wise conclusion that epicurism of any kind was nothing but the effect -of education, and that, in consequence, he would ignore his previous -prejudices on the subject, and eat whatever the Esquimaux ate, and as -they ate it. As to the quantity consumed, neither he nor any other -white man would be a match for an Esquimaux, who will consume nine or -ten pounds of meat at a sitting, and lie leisurely on his back, being -fed by his wife with pieces of blubber when he is utterly unable to -help himself. An Esquimaux finds a sort of intoxicating effect in utter -repletion, which stands him in the stead of fermented liquors. - -Putting aside the gourmandizing propensity of the Esquimaux, Captain -Hall found that if he were to live with them, as he intended to do, he -must sooner or later come to the same diet. He determined in making -a bold plunge, and eating whatever he saw them eat. At first it was -rather repugnant to his feelings to eat a piece of raw meat that had -been carefully licked by a woman, in order to free it from hairs and -other extraneous matters. But he reflected that, if he had not known -of the licking, he would not have discovered it from the flavor of the -meat, and he very wisely ignored the mode in which it had been cleaned. -Similarly, fresh seal’s blood just drawn from the animal seemed rather -a strange kind of soup, and the still warm entrails a remarkable sort -of after-dinner delicacy. But finding that the Esquimaux considered -them both as very great dainties, he tried them, and pronounced that -the Esquimaux were perfectly right, and that his preconceived ideas -were entirely wrong. - -[Illustration: 1 2 4 - -3 FRONT OF HEAD LARGER - -LOOSE - -FAST - -HARPOON HEAD. (From my collection.) (See page 1340)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXLI. - -THE ESQUIMAUX--_Continued_. - -HUNTING--RELIGION--BURIAL. - - - MODES OF HUNTING -- SEAL HUNTING IN THE SNOW -- THE INFANT DECOY -- - THE SEAL’S IGLOO -- AN IVORY FLOAT -- SEAL “TALK” -- THE HARPOONS AND - SPEARS -- SPEARING THE WALRUS -- THE ICE RAFT -- THE BOW AND ARROWS - AND WRIST GUARD -- DEER HUNTING -- GROUSE SHOOTING -- THE WOLF AND - FOX TRAPS -- THE BIRD SLING -- BEAR HUNTING -- THE MEN’S AND WOMEN’S - BOATS -- CONSTRUCTION OF THE KIA, AND MODE OF USING IT -- AQUATIC - FEATS -- THE WOMEN’S BOAT AND ITS USES -- THE SLEDGE -- THE VARIOUS - RUNNERS -- SLEDGE DOGS AND THEIR TRAINING -- EXAMPLES OF THEIR - CLEVERNESS -- BARBEKARK AND THE CAPELINS -- MARRIAGE AND EDUCATION - OF CHILDREN -- GAMES AND DANCING -- RELIGION -- THE ANGEKO AND HIS - MYSTERIES -- “IN VINO VERITAS” -- HONESTY -- HOSPITALITY -- DISPOSAL - OF THE DEAD. - -Depending wholly upon the products of the chase for their food, the -Esquimaux are most accomplished hunters, and in their peculiar way are -simply unequalled by any other people on earth. Take, for example, -their mode of seal catching. The reader is doubtless aware that the -seal, being a mammal, breathes atmospheric air, and that in consequence -it cannot remain very long under water, but is obliged to come up at -certain intervals for the purpose of breathing. When it dives under the -ice, it would therefore be drowned did it not form for itself certain -breathing holes in the ice. These are very small, not more than an -inch and a half, or at the most two inches, in diameter, and do not -penetrate through the coating of snow that lies on the ice. - -The hunter’s dog, which is specially trained for this purpose, detects -the breathing hole, and the master then reverses his harpoon, which has -a long, spindle shaped butt, and thrusts it through the snow in search -of the concealed hole, which often lies under some two feet of snow. -When he has found it, he seats himself by the hole, with his harpoon -ready; and there he will sit until he hears the blowing sound of the -seal, when he drives the harpoon into the hole, and invariably secures -his prey. This is the more difficult, as, if the stroke be wrong by -even a quarter of an inch, the seal will not be struck, and the man is -often wearied with waiting and need of sleep. - -The patience with which the Esquimaux hunter will watch a seal hole -far surpasses that of a cat at a mouse hole. Captain Hall mentions one -case, where an Esquimaux, a notable seal hunter, actually sat watching -a seal hole for two and a half days and two nights without either sleep -or food. Considering the nature of the climate, such a feat as this -is almost incredible. The poor man, after all his trouble, failed to -secure the seal, but was not disheartened, and, after taking some food, -went off again to the seal hole to renew his watch. - -Some of the Esquimaux seal hunters use a singularly ingenious -instrument for enabling them to detect the approach of the animal. It -consists of a very slender ivory rod, about twelve inches in length, -pointed at one end, and having a round knob at the other. It is about -as thick as a crow quill. When the hunter has found a seal hole, he -ties to the upper end a very fine thread made of sinew, and lowers it -into the seal hole, where it is allowed to dangle by the thread. When -the seal comes to breathe, it takes no notice of so small an object, -but rises as usual for air, pushing the little rod before it. As soon -as the hunter sees the rod rise, he knows that the seal is there, and -drives his spear down the hole. Even a larger float--if we may so -call it--might be unseen by the seal, but it would interfere with the -passage of the spear. - -There is another mode of catching seals, in which the young acts as -a decoy for its mother. The seal, when she is about to produce her -young, scratches away the ice until she comes to the snow, which lies -deep upon it. She then scratches away a quantity of the snow until -she has made a dome-like chamber, in form exactly like the snow hut -of the Esquimaux. The tunnel through the ice is just large enough to -allow the passage of the seal, while the chamber is about five feet in -diameter, so that a tolerably large platform of ice is left, on which -the creature can rest. Here its young is produced, and here it remains -until the sun melts away the snow covering of the chamber, or igloo, as -it is called, by which time the young animal is able to take care of -itself. - -At the proper season, the Esquimaux set off in search of these seal -igloos, and when they are detected by the dogs, the hunter flings -himself on the snow, thus beating down the roof of the igloo. He then -thrusts his sealing hook into the igloo, and drags out the young seal. -It is remarkable, by the way, that the polar bear acts in precisely the -same manner, crushing down the walls of the igloo, and dragging out the -young one with its paws. - -When the Esquimaux has secured the young seal, he ties a long line to -one of the hind flippers, and allows it to slip into the sea through -the tunnel, while he creeps into the igloo with his hook, in hopes of -catching the mother as she comes to help her young one. The Esquimaux -always kill young seals by putting the foot on their shoulders, and -pressing firmly down, so as to suffocate it. This is done for the -purpose of preserving the blood. - -Sometimes the seal hunter actually stalks the wary animal on the ice. -The seal has a strange way of sleeping when lying on the ice. It takes -short naps of only a few seconds’ duration, and between them raises its -head and looks round to see if any enemy be approaching. The Esquimaux -takes advantage of this habit, and, lying down on the ice, he waits for -these short naps, and hitches himself along the ice toward the animal, -looking himself very much like a seal as he lies on the ice, covered -with seal skin garments. Whenever the seal raises its head, the hunter -stops, begins to paw with his hands, and utters a curious droning -monologue, which is called “seal talk,” and is supposed to act as a -charm. Certain it is, that the seal appears to be quite gratified by -the talk, is put off its guard, and allows the hunter to approach near -enough to make the fatal stroke. - -The same kind of “talk” is used when the sealer goes out in his boat, -and some of the hunters are celebrated for the magical power of their -song. In seal hunting from a boat, a different kind of harpoon is -employed. It is longer and slighter than that which is used for ice -hunting, and is furnished with a float made of a leathern bag inflated -with air. This is fastened to the shaft, and just below it one end of -the harpoon line is secured, the other end being made fast to the head -of the weapon. - -When the seal is struck, the shaft is shaken from the head, so that -there is no danger of its working the weapon out of the seal by its -leverage, and it acts as a drag, impeding the movements of the animal, -so that the hunter is able to overtake it in his boat, and to pierce it -with another harpoon. When the seal is dead, the float serves another -purpose. Seals, when killed in the water, almost invariably sink so -rapidly that they cannot be secured. The float, however, remains at the -surface, so that the successful hunter has only to paddle to it, take -it into the canoe, and haul the seal on board. Perhaps the most curious -part of the business lies in the skill with which the hunter carries -the seal home. The boat in which he sits is entirely covered with skin, -except a small aperture which admits his body, and yet he lays the body -of the seal upon this slight platform, and manages to balance it as he -paddles homeward, regardless of the waves upon which his light little -canoe trembles like a cork. - -Of these boats we shall presently see something, and will now merely -look at the weapons which are employed by the Esquimaux in hunting. - -It is worthy of remark that war is totally unknown among the Esquimaux, -who are perhaps the only people in the world who possess no war -weapons, and have no desire to do so. Generally, when a savage obtains -for the first time possession of fire-arms, he uses them in warfare, -and by the superiority of his weapons raises himself to eminence. The -Esquimaux cares for none of these things. He is essentially a family -man, and when he is fortunate enough to procure a musket, he simply -uses it for hunting purposes, never wasting the precious powder and -lead upon the bodies of his fellow-men. Of fame he is totally ignorant, -except that sort of local fame which is earned by skill in hunting. He -finds that all his energies are required to procure food and clothing -for his household, and therefore he does not expend them upon any other -object. - -The weapon which is to the Esquimaux what the rifle is to the -backwoodsman, the boomerang to the Australian, the sword to the -Agageer, the lasso to the South American, and the sumpitan to the -Dyak, is the harpoon, a weapon which undergoes various modifications, -according to the use to which it is put, but is essentially the same in -principle throughout. - -The first example is the typical harpoon. It consists of a long wooden -shaft, with a float attached to it, as has already been described on -page 1339. Owing to the great scarcity of wood in Esquimaux land, the -greater part being obtained from the casual drift-wood that floats -ashore from wrecks, such a weapon is exceedingly valuable. The shaft is -generally made of a number of pieces of wood lashed together in a most -ingenious fashion. - -The barbed head is but loosely fitted to the shaft, a hole in the base -of the head receiving a point at the end of the shaft. It is held in -its place by leathern thongs, so arranged that, as soon as the wounded -animal darts away, the shaft is shaken from the head. The arrangement -of the leathern thongs varies according to the kind of weapon. The -illustration on page 1337, shows the head of the harpoon which is used -for spearing the walrus. - -It is about nine inches in length, and is made of ivory, either that of -the walrus or the narwhal, probably the former, as it partakes of the -curve of the walrus tooth. It consists of two pieces, which we call, -for convenience’ sake the body and the head. The upper part of the -body is slightly pointed and rounded, and is meant to be fixed to the -shaft of the harpoon. About an inch and a half from the end two holes -are bored, through which is passed a double thong of leather about as -thick as a goose quill. Next comes the head, which is a triangular and -deeply barbed piece of ivory, armed with a thin, flat plate of iron, -almost exactly like the armature of the Bosjesman’s war arrow. Through -this head is bored a hole, and through the hole passes the loop of the -double thong already mentioned. At the butt of the head there is a -hole, into which is fitted the conical termination of the body. - -By reference to the illustration, the reader will easily comprehend the -arrangement. Fig. 1 shows the entire instrument, the head fitted on the -body, and held in its place by the double thong. Fig. 2 shows the head -disjointed from the body. The reader will now see what a perfect barb -this instrument forms. When the harpoon is hurled at the walrus, the -head penetrates through the tough skin, and, becoming disjointed from -the body, sets at right angles across the little wound which it made -on entering, and effectually prevents the weapon from being withdrawn. -Fig. 3 shows the upper view of the head, and fig. 4 shows the hole at -its base, into which the conical end of the body is loosely fitted. - -The line attached to the shaft of this harpoon is very long and of -great strength, and, when the hunter goes out to catch walrus, is -coiled round and round his neck in many folds, very slightly tied -together so as to prevent the successive coils from being entangled -with one another. When the hunter launches his harpoon with the right -hand, he with the left hand simultaneously jerks the coils of rope off -his neck, and throws them after the harpoon. The jerk snaps the slight -ligatures, and the animal is “played” like a salmon by an angler, until -it is utterly wearied with pain, loss of blood, and its struggles to -escape, and can be brought near enough to receive the fatal wound from -a spear. - -Casting off the rope in exact time is a most important business, as -several hunters who have failed to do so have been caught in the coils -of the rope, dragged under the ice, and there drowned. On the end -of the harpoon line is worked a loop, and, as soon as the weapon is -hurled, the hunter drives a spear deeply into the ice, slips the loop -over it, and allows the walrus to struggle against the elastic rope -until it is quite tired. He then hauls up the line until he has brought -the animal to the ice, snatches up his spear, and with it inflicts a -mortal wound. On the next page the reader may find an illustration -showing the Esquimaux in his usual dress, and engaged in walrus hunting. - -One mode of employing this harpoon against the walrus is singularly -ingenious. When the Esquimaux hunters see a number of the animals -sleeping on a sheet of ice, they look out for an ice fragment small -enough to be moved, and yet large enough to support several men. -Paddling to the ice, they lift their canoes upon it, bore holes in it, -and make their harpoon lines fast to the holes. They then gently paddle -the whole piece of ice, men, canoes, and all, to the spot where are -lying the drowsy animals, who do not suspect any danger from a piece of -ice floating by. - -Having made their selection, the hunters tell off two men to each -walrus, and, at a given signal, all the harpoons are hurled. The whole -herd instantly roll themselves into the sea, the wounded animals being -attached to the piece of ice by the harpoon lines. The hunters allow -them to tow their ice craft about until they are exhausted, when they -launch their canoes, and kill the animals with their spears. As soon -as the walrus is dead, the hunters plug up the holes with little pegs -of ivory, for the purpose of preserving the blood, which is so highly -valued by the Esquimaux. - -The Esquimaux have another kind of spear. The shaft is made of wood, -but the point and the barbed projections are of ivory. This spear is -chiefly used for catching fish, and is flung by means of a throwing -stick, almost in the same manner as the spears of the Australians. The -throwing stick is made of wood, flattish, and near one end has a hole, -into which the butt of the spear is passed. This is altogether a much -slighter and lighter weapon than that which has been described. - -[Illustration: (1.) BURIAL OF BLACKBIRD. (See page 1330.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) SPEARING THE WALRUS. (See page 1340.)] - -Bows and arrows are also employed by the Esquimaux. The former are -made of horn, bone, or wood, and are almost always composed of several -pieces lashed firmly together. As is the case with the bows of the -North American tribes, the chief strength is obtained, not so much from -the material of the bow, as from a vast number of sinew strings which -run down its back. There are often a hundred or more of these sinews, -which are put on sufficiently tight to give the bow a slight curvature -against the string. The shape of the bow is rather peculiar. And though -the weapon is so powerful, it is seldom used at a greater distance than -twelve, or at most twenty yards. The length of the bow is on an average -three feet six inches. - -The arrows are extremely variable. Some have wooden shafts tipped with -bone, but the shafts of the best specimens are half bone and half wood, -and the points are armed with a little piece of iron. The arrows are -contained in a quiver, and the bow is kept in a case. This quiver and -bow-case are generally made of seal skin, as being impervious to wet, -though they are frequently made of other materials. My own specimen -is formed from the hide of the reindeer. When the Esquimaux shoots, -he always holds his bow horizontally. The bow-string is made of some -fifteen or twenty sinew strings, which are loosely twisted, but not -made into a cord. - -The bow and arrows are chiefly used in the capture of the reindeer and -in shooting rabbits, birds, and other small game. The mode of deer -hunting is very ingenious. When the hunter sees some deer feeding on -the level plain, he takes his bow and arrows, draws his hood well over -his head, and creeps as close as he can to the spot where the deer are -reposing. Here he begins to bellow in imitation of the cry with which -the deer call each other, and thus attracts the animals within the -short distance at which an Esquimaux archer shoots. - -Even if he should not use the bellowing call, he has only to lie -patiently on the ground to be sure that, sooner or later, some of the -deer will come and look at him. They are most inquisitive animals, and -when they see any strange object, they cannot resist satisfying their -curiosity by inspecting it. Providing the object of their curiosity -does not move after them, they approach in a series of circles which -they gradually narrow, capering and tossing their heads capriciously, -and at last will come within a yard or two of the motionless hunter, -and so fall a victim to the arrow which he has already fitted to his -bow. - -Sometimes the deer hunters adopt an ingenious ruse. Two of them walk -near the deer, and purposely show themselves. When the animals’ -attention is fixed upon them, they walk slowly away, knowing that the -innate curiosity of the deer will induce them to follow. They direct -their course past some stone or similar object, when one of them -quickly steps behind it, while the other walks onward as before. The -deer do not notice that one of the men has disappeared, and so follow -the other, thus coming within a yard or two of the deadly arrow. - -The arrow is also used for shooting birds, which are always killed when -sitting. The arctic grouse are killed in great numbers by the arrow. -They pack closely together, so that an arrow shot at random among them -can scarcely avoid hitting one of them; and the birds are so apathetic -that, when the missile falls among them, they only fly a few yards -further and then settle, so that the hunter can pick up his arrow and -shoot it at them again, until he has shot the greater number of the -covey. - -In order to save the wrist from the recoil of the bow-string, the -Esquimaux wears a very ingenious guard, composed of several pieces -of bone tied together and fastened on the wrist by a bone button and -loop. The pieces of bone are about four inches in length. Below the -wrist-guard, which is shown on the 1353d page, some curiously formed -hooks are represented. No bait is required with them. They are simply -moved up and down in the water so as to attract the attention of the -fish, and then are jerked sharply upward, so as to catch the fish on -one of the projecting points. There are many varieties of this curious -hook, but those which are illustrated are the most characteristic. - -There is also an instrument called the kakeeway, or little nippers, -which is used in a similar manner by the Esquimaux boys. They take a -model of a fish made of ivory, tie a string to it, and troll it about -in the water in order to attract the fish, when they are struck with -the kakeeway, and hauled out of the water. The artificial fish are -about three inches long, and are very neatly made, with eyes of iron -pyrites. This is a very slow process of fish catching, but the boys, to -whom time is of no object, are very fond of it, and will sit on their -heels all day for the chance of catching two or three little fish. - -The foxes and wolves are generally taken in traps. There are several -kinds of traps, but they are mostly made on one or the other of two -principles. The usual trap is very like a common mouse trap, except -that it is made of ice instead of wood. It is so long and narrow that a -wolf cannot turn himself in it, but, if he wishes to retreat, must do -so backward. The door is a heavy slab of ice, which moves up and down -in two grooves. The door being raised, it is held in position by a line -which passes over the top of the trap, through a hole at the end, and -is then slightly hitched over a peg. A bait is then attached to the -end of the line, and when the wolf pulls it, the door is released, and -effectually secures the animal in the icy prison. A hole is then made -in the side of the trap, and the wolf is speared where he lies. - -Foxes are also taken in these traps, but the usual kind of fox trap is -made on a different plan. It is built in a form somewhat resembling -a lime-kiln, and the aperture is covered with a piece of whalebone, -along which the animal must walk to get at the bait. As it steps on the -whalebone, the elastic material gives way, lets the fox into the trap, -and then resumes its former position, ready for another victim. - -It has already been mentioned that birds are often shot with arrows as -they are sitting. The Esquimaux have a singular instrument by which -they can capture birds on the wing, provided that they do not fly at -any great height from the ground. It consists of seven or eight pieces -of bone or ivory, or stone, the latter being preferred on account of -its weight. To each of the weights is attached a sinew cord about -two feet six inches in length, and all the ends of the cords are -tied together, their junction being usually ornamented by a tuft of -feathers. When the Esquimaux sees a bird flying so that it will pass -tolerably near him, he whirls the sling round his head and flings it -at the bird. As it leaves his hand, all the weights fly apart, on -account of the rotatory motion which has been communicated to them, -so that the weapon covers a space of five feet. Should one of the -weights or strings strike the bird, the whole of the sling becomes -wrapped round it, and the bird falls helpless to the ground. The reader -will doubtless see that this sling is in fact a modification of the -Patagonian bolas. - -In bear hunting the Esquimaux use either the walrus harpoon or the -spear, and often both. They set their dogs at the bear, and while he -is engaged in repelling their attacks, which are always made at his -back and hind-quarters, the hunter drives the harpoon at him, and -fastens the end of the line to the ice, so as to prevent the bear from -escaping. He then attacks the animal with another harpoon and with his -lance, and, avoiding skilfully the repeated attacks which the bear -makes upon him, drives the sharp weapon into the animal’s heart. - -The Esquimaux are always very careful not to kill a young bear without -previously killing its mother. Should one of them, pressed by hunger, -commit so rash an act, the whole party to which he belongs are obliged -to take the strictest precautions lest they should be assailed by -the mother, who will assuredly follow on their track. They therefore -proceed for some five or six miles in a straight line, and then -suddenly turn off at right angles, so that the bear may overrun their -track as she presses eagerly forward. This manœuvre is several times -repeated. When the houses are reached, the weapons are laid ready for -use by the bedside, and the sledges are stuck upright outside the -house. This is intended by way of a warning to the sleepers. The bear -is suspicious about the erect sledge, and always knocks it down before -attacking the house, so that the noise of the falling sledge awakens -the sleepers, and puts them on their guard. - - * * * * * - -The two means of transport used by the Esquimaux are the boat and the -sledge, both of which deserve description. - -There are two kinds of boats, those of the men and those used by women. -The man’s boat is called kajak or kia, according to the dialect of the -people, and is a very remarkable piece of workmanship. It is shuttle -shaped, both ends being sharply pointed. It is made of a very slight -framework of wood and whalebone, over which is stretched a covering of -skin. In the middle there is a hole just large enough to admit the body -of the rower, and when he takes his seat, he gathers his skin together -and ties it round his waist, so that the boat is absolutely impervious -to water. The average length is twenty-five feet, and so light are the -materials of which it is made, that a man can carry his kia on his head -from the house to the water. - -These slight canoes have no keel, and sit so lightly on the water that -they can be propelled over, rather than through, it with wonderful -speed. The paddle is a double one, held in the middle, and used in a -manner which is now rendered familiar to us by the canoes which have so -largely taken the place of skiffs. It is between nine and ten feet in -length, small in the middle, which serves as a handle, and gradually -widening to the blades, which are about four inches in width, and edged -with ivory, not only for ornament but for strength. - -The paddle acts much the same part as the balance pole to the -rope-dancer, and by its aid the Esquimaux canoe man can perform really -astonishing feats. For example, if two kias are out together, one of -them will remain still, the canoe man keeping his boat exactly in the -same place, by delicate management of his paddle. The other goes to a -distance at right angles to him, and then, urging his kia to the utmost -speed, drives it fairly over that of his friend. In performing this -remarkable feat, the skill of both is equally tried, for it is quite as -difficult to preserve the balance of the stationary kia as to drive the -other over it. - -There is one feat which is sometimes performed in order to show the -wonderful command which an Esquimaux has over his little vessel. He -does not, however, attempt it unless another kia is close at hand. -After seeing that the skin cover is firmly tied round his waist, and -that his neck and wrists are well secured, the man suddenly flings -himself violently to one side, thus capsizing the kia, and burying -himself under water. With a powerful stroke of his paddle he turns -himself and canoe completely over, and brings himself upright again. A -skilful canoe man will thus turn over and over some twenty times or so, -almost as fast as the eye can follow him, and yet only his face will be -in the least wet. - -In the illustration on page 1347 both these feats are shown. - -The paddler is so tightly tied to the kia, that he is unable to change -his position without assistance, or even to lift a heavy weight, such -as a seal. In such a case, he asks assistance from a companion. The -two kias are placed near each other, and paddles are laid from one to -the other, so that for the time they are formed into a double canoe, -which cannot be upset. Small lines of whalebone are stretched across -the end of the kia, and under them are thrust the points of the spears -and harpoons, so that they cannot roll off the boat, and yet are always -ready to hand. An inflated seal’s bladder is always attached to the -canoe. When the kia is not in use, it is taken out of the water, and -rested in a reversed position upon the snow houses, as is seen on page -1327. - -The second kind of boat is that which is called the oomiak, and is used -by the women. It is evident that the slight and fragile kia, useful -as it is for hunting purposes, cannot be employed for the conveyance -of baggage, or for the transport of more persons than one, and that -therefore some other kind of boat must be made. This is a large, -clumsy, straight sided, square ended, flat bottomed vessel, more like a -skin trough than a canoe, to which it bears about the same analogy as -a punt does to a racing skiff. The framework of the oomiak is made of -wood and whalebone, and the covering is of seal skin, from which the -hair has been removed. When wet, these skins are nearly transparent, so -that the forms of the persons sitting in the boat can be indistinctly -seen. - -The sides of the boat are about three feet in height, and the weight -which a well-made oomiak will carry is really wonderful. Captain Lyon -mentions that in one of these boats, measuring twenty-five feet in -length by eight in width and three in depth, more than twenty human -beings were conveyed. There are two very clumsy paddles by which the -boat is slowly propelled, and it is steered by another paddle in the -stern. The post of steerer is usually occupied by an old man, who is -unable any more to manage the kia, but is still capable of guiding the -oomiak, and of flinging a knife, a harpoon, a seal hook, or anything -that may come to hand, at the women, if they neglect their paddling. - -To each oomiak there can be attached a very primitive mast, with its -sail. The mast is but a short one, and is stepped in the fore-part of -the boat. Toward the top it is pierced, and in the hollow is placed a -sheave, or deeply grooved wheel of ivory, on which the halyards run. -The sail is that simplest of all sails, the lug, and is made of the -intestines of the walrus, split open so as to form strips of some four -inches in width. These strips are sewed together, and produce a sail -which is remarkable both for its strength and its extreme lightness. -The reader will doubtless have noticed the singular contrast between -the canoes of the hot and cold parts of the world. In the former, the -canoe and sails are entirely of vegetable materials, without a particle -of hide, sinew, or any animal product; while, in the latter, the animal -world furnishes almost the whole of the materials. - -We now come to the sledge, which is quite as important to the Esquimaux -as the canoe. The materials and form of the sledge differ exceedingly, -so that in these respects no two sledges are alike, while the principle -is identical in all. A sledge is nothing more than two runners, -connected with each other by a number of cross-pieces, on which the -driver can sit and the goods be packed. - -The best sledges are those in which the runners are made from the -jaw-bone of a whale, sawn into narrow planks and cut into the proper -shape. They are always shod with a strip of the same material. Others -are made of wood, shod with bone, and in these cases the wooden part is -usually in several pieces, which are lashed together with hide thongs. -In the winter, the hide of the walrus is often used for runners. It is -fully an inch in thickness, and, when frozen, is very much stronger -than a board of the same thickness. - -When neither wood, bone, nor walrus skin can be procured, the Esquimaux -is still at no loss for runners. He cuts long strips of seal skin, and -sews the edges of each strip together, so as to make two long tubes. -The tubes are next filled with moss and earth, and water is then poured -into them. In a minute or two they are frozen as hard as stone, and -are then ready to form the runners of a sledge. The lower edge of the -runner, whether it be of bone, wood, or skin, is always shod with a -coating of ice, which is renewed as soon as it is worn off by friction, -which not only causes the sledge to glide faster over the frozen -surface, but preserves the valuable material of the runners from being -rubbed to pieces. - -The cross-bars of the sledge are generally of bone. They project a -little beyond the runners on either side, and are so arranged that -the sledge is narrower in front than behind. They are not lashed too -tightly, as they are required to yield to the jerks and continual -strain which the sledge undergoes in its travels. - -The sledge is drawn by a team of dogs, varying from seven to ten, or -even more, according to the weight to be carried. They are very simply -harnessed to it by a strong cord, or trace, made of seal hide, the -trace of the leading dog being considerably longer than that of any -of the others. Being accustomed to the work of the sledge, as soon as -they can walk, their training is very complete, and a good team will do -almost anything but speak. - -A team of seven dogs drew a heavy sledge, full of men, a mile in four -minutes and a half; and Captain Lyon mentions that three dogs drew -him the same distance in six minutes, the weight of the sledge being -one hundred pounds. Several times, when returning to the ships, the -sagacious animals brought him and his companions safely to the vessels, -though the night was pitchy dark and the snow-drift blowing about in -clouds. They kept their noses to the ground, and galloped on at full -speed, in absolute certainty of their proper line. - -The dogs are guided, not by reins, but by a whip, the lash of which is -from eighteen to thirty feet in length, and the handle only one foot in -length, much like the stock-whip of Australia. A skilful driver makes -but little use of the whip when he has a good team of dogs, but guides -the animals partly by his voice, and partly by flinging the lash of -the whip on one side or other of the leader, who perfectly understands -the signal. When they are required to stop, the driver gives a cry -almost exactly like the “Woa!” of our own country. He then throws the -lash gently over their backs, when they all lie down, and will remain -couched in the snow for hours even, during their master’s absence. - -The worst of these dogs is that they are very quarrelsome, and are apt -to snap and snarl at each other as they gallop along. Sometimes a dog -will be exasperated with a bite, and turn furiously on his assailant, -when a general fight takes place, the whole of the dogs tumbling over -each other, and entangling the traces in a manner that none but an -Esquimaux could hope to disentangle. A plentiful application of whip -is then made, which is always resented by the dog that receives the -stroke. He chooses to think that his next neighbor has hurt him, and so -bites his ear. Sometimes a dog is so unruly that the driver is obliged -to use his last argument. Making a little hole in the snow with the toe -of his boot, he presses the dog’s snout into it, and pounds away at it -with the ivory handle of his whip. The dog never howls, nor tries to -release himself, but only utters a low whine. Such a punishment never -has to be repeated, and the dog always goes quietly for the rest of the -day. - -The endurance of these animals is wonderful. They are kept in the open -air when the temperature is from thirty to forty degrees below zero. -They are very ill fed, being forced to content themselves with the -bones of fish and seals, scraps of hide, and such very few fragments as -their masters cannot devour. Consequently they are always hungry, and -can eat almost anything. Captain Hall mentions that in one night they -ate a whiplash thirty feet long, and that on one occasion a single dog -ate in seven seconds a piece of walrus hide and blubber six feet long -and an inch and a half square. - -Yet, in spite of all the hardships which they undergo, they can endure -almost any amount of fatigue without appearing to be the worse for -it, and a team has been known to eat nothing for at least forty-eight -hours, to traverse some seventy miles of ground, and yet to return to -their homes apparently as fresh as when they set out. - -Many of them are possessed of singular intelligence, especially those -which are trained to chase the seal, the bear, or the deer. One of -these dogs, named Barbekark, belonging to Captain Hall, actually killed -a deer himself, took one morsel from the neck, and then went home and -fetched his master to the spot where he had left the dead deer. He -had a brother that equally distinguished himself in seal catching. He -was the leading dog in the team, and once, while drawing a sledge, he -caught sight of a seal on the ice. He immediately dashed forward at -full speed, and just as the seal was plunging into the water, caught -it by the hind flippers. The seal struggled frantically to escape, but -the dog retained his hold, and, aided by his fellows, dragged the seal -firmly on the ice, when it was secured by his master. - -A very amusing example of the intelligence of these dogs is related by -Captain Hall. He fed the dogs on “capelins,” a small dried fish, and -used to make them stand in a circle round him, so that each received -a capelin in turn. “Now Barbekark, a young and shrewd dog, took it -into his head that he would play a white man’s trick. So every time he -received his fish he would back square out, move a distance of three -or four dogs, and force himself in line again, thus receiving double -the share of any other dog. But this joke of Barbekark’s bespoke too -much of the game many men play upon their fellow-beings, and, as I -noticed it, I determined to check his doggish propensities. Still, the -amusing and the singular way in which he evidently watched me induced a -moment’s pause in my intention. - -“Each dog thankfully took his capelin as his turn came round, but -Barbekark, finding his share came twice as often as his companions, -appeared to shake his tail twice as thankfully as the others. A twinkle -in his eyes as they caught mine seemed to say, ‘Keep dark; these -ignorant fellows don’t know the game I’m playing. I am confoundedly -hungry.’ Seeing my face smiling at his trick, he now commenced making -another change, thus getting _three_ portions to each of the others’ -_one_. This was enough, and it was now time for me to reverse the order -of Barbekark’s game by playing a trick upon him. - -[Illustration: (1.) THE KAJAK AND ITS MANAGEMENT. (See page 1344.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) ESQUIMAUX SLEDGE DRIVING. (See pages 1345, 1346.)] - -“Accordingly, every time I came to him he got no fish, and though he -changed his position three times, yet he got nothing. Now, if ever -there was a picture of disappointed plans--of envy at others’ fortunes, -and sorrow at a sad misfortune--it was to be found in that dog’s -countenance as he watched his companions receiving their allowance. -Finding that he could not succeed by any change of his position, he -withdrew from the circle to where I was, and came to me, crowding his -way between my legs, and looked up in my face as if to say, ‘I have -been a very bad dog. Forgive me, and Barbekark will cheat his brother -dogs no more. Please, sir, give me my share of capelins.’ I went the -rounds three times more, and let him have the fish, as he had shown -himself so sagacious, and so much like a repentant prodigal dog.” - - * * * * * - -Marriage among the Esquimaux is of the very simplest description, and -is generally arranged by the parents of the bride and bridegroom, the -latter having nothing to do with the affair. There is no marriage -ceremony, the parties merely going to live in the same igloo. A man -may, and often does, have several wives, and in this case one of them -takes the position of the chief, or igloo wife, and is supreme under -her husband. She has the largest lamp, the best bed, and the best -provision. But she also has the entire management of the household, -such as cooking the food, and drying the clothes on the “dry-net.” This -is by no means a sinecure, as it forces her to rise many times in the -night for the purpose of turning the clothes and drying them equally. -She also has to see that the boots are properly “milled.” - -After a child is born, the mother is obliged to confine herself to her -own igloo for some months, and when the allotted time has expired, she -throws off all the clothing which she has worn, and never wears it -again. She then dresses herself in a totally new suit of clothes, and -visits in succession the inhabitants of every igloo. If a second or -third child be born, a separate igloo is always built for the mother, -to which she repairs before the birth of the child, and in which she -remains until the customary time has elapsed and she is able to call -upon her neighbors. - -The children begin their education at a very early age; the boys being -taught to paddle the kia, to hunt and to fish, and to build igloos; -while the girls learn to row the women’s boat, to dress skins, to -manage the lamp, to cook, and perform the multitudinous tasks that -fall to their lot. The carving of the Esquimaux women is wonderfully -good. They make spirited, though conventional, imitations of fish, -ducks, dogs, and various animals, from ivory, using in the manufacture -nothing but a knife. In the earlier days, before white men visited -them, the Esquimaux were obliged to rely entirely upon flint as a -material for their knives, which were exactly like those of the -ancient and perished races. In chopping the flakes off the flint, the -Esquimaux employed a very simple instrument, the use of which showed -an exact knowledge of the fracture-line of flint. It is made of bone -and ivory, and is about six inches in length. Iron, indeed, is of so -late introduction, that when Captain Lyon visited the natives, in 1821, -he could purchase a complete harpoon, with its ivory head, float, -and line, for a nail; while a knife would purchase a kia, or indeed -anything that was asked in exchange for it. - -As may be inferred from the climate, the games of the Esquimaux are but -few. They are wonderful experts at a sort of “cat’s-cradle,” producing -with a piece of string imitations of seals, reindeer, ducks, canoes, -and other objects. The little ivory models of ducks and other animals, -which have already been mentioned, are used in several of the native -games. - -Their dances are remarkable for their simplicity, the dancer inventing -the steps according to his own taste. There is a dance in which a -number of women stand in a ring, with their hands under the front flaps -of their jackets, and sing, with half-closed eyes, the inevitable -Amna-aya song: these are the band. The dancers are represented by one -man, who takes his place in the middle of the ring, swings his head and -arms from side to side, his long, lank hair flapping in the wind, while -he utters sharp yells at intervals, and occasionally flings one leg as -high as his thick garments permit. - -The women have a special dance of their own, which consists in kneeling -on the ground, leaping to their feet as fast as they can. This is -really a difficult task when the heavy and clumsy boots are taken into -consideration. Sometimes the men challenge each other to dance, and -in that case the challenge is accepted by employing the “koonik,” or -national salutation, which is given by rubbing the noses together, and -inhaling strongly through the nostrils. - -With regard to religion, the Esquimaux seem to have no very definite -idea of the subject, except that they believe in a future existence, -in a heaven and a hell--the latter being, according to their ideas, -dark, full of ice, with snow-storms always blowing, and no seals. They -have also a hazy description of a Supreme Being, and a secondary female -divinity, the special protector of the Esquimaux. - -By way of worship, they have sundry medicine men, or “angekos,” as they -are called, who go through a series of strange ceremonies on various -occasions, such as illness, or when a party is setting out on a hunting -expedition. They make the people pay heavily for their services, and -rule with a rod of iron, so that no Esquimaux is likely to retain -possession of any valuable piece of property if an angeko should happen -to be in the neighborhood. They act upon a very simple and intelligent -principle, namely, that the amount of success in “ankooting,” or -divining, is in exact ratio with the amount of pay. - -Sometimes, in order to impress awe upon their victims, the angekos -go through a series of imposing ceremonies, the performance of which -infers a vast amount of practice. By the present of a knife and some -beads, Captain Lyon induced a celebrated angeko, named Toolemak, to -have an interview with a Tornga, or familiar spirit, in the cabin of -the ship. - -“All light excluded, our sorcerer began by chanting to his wife with -great vehemence, and she, in return, answered by singing the Amna-aya -(the favorite song of the Esquimaux), which was not discontinued during -the whole ceremony. As far as I could learn, he afterward began turning -himself rapidly round, and, in a loud, powerful voice, vociferated for -Tornga with great impatience, at the same time blowing and snorting -like a walrus. His noise, impatience, and agitation increased every -moment, and he at length seated himself on the deck, varying his tones, -and making a rustling with his clothes. - -“Suddenly the voice seemed smothered, and was so managed as to sound as -if retreating beneath the deck, each moment becoming more distant, and -ultimately giving the idea of being many feet below the cabin, where it -ceased entirely. His wife, now, in answer to my queries, informed me -very seriously that he had dived, and that he would send up Tornga. - -“Accordingly, in about half a minute, a distant blowing was heard very -slowly approaching, and a voice which differed from that which we at -first had heard was at times mixed with blowing, until at length both -sounds became distinct, and the old woman informed me that Tornga was -come to answer my questions. I accordingly asked several questions of -the sagacious spirit, to each of which inquiries I received an answer -by two loud slaps on the deck, which I was given to understand was -favorable. - -“A very hollow yet powerful voice, certainly much different from the -tones of Toolemak, now chanted for some time, and a strange jumble of -hisses, groans, shouts, and gabblings like a turkey succeeded in rapid -succession. The old woman sang with increased energy, and, as I took -it for granted that this was all intended to astonish the Kabloona, -I cried repeatedly that I was very much afraid. This, as I expected, -added fuel to the fire, until the form immortal, exhausted by its -own might, asked leave to retire. The voice gradually sank from our -hearing, as at first, and a very indistinct hissing succeeded. In -its advance, it sounded like the tone produced by the wind upon the -bass-cord of an Æolian harp; this was soon changed to a rapid hiss, -like that of a rocket, and Toolemak, with a yell, announced his return. -I held my breath at the first distant hissing, and twice exhausted -myself; yet our conjuror did not once respire, and even his returning -and powerful yell was uttered without a previous stop or inspiration of -air. - -“Light being admitted, our wizard, as might be expected, was in a -profuse perspiration, and certainly much exhausted by his exertions, -which had continued for at least half an hour. We now observed a couple -of bunches, each consisting of two strips of white deer-skin and a long -piece of sinew, attached to the back of his coat. These we had not -seen before, and were informed that they had been sewed on by Tornga -while he was below.” A similar exhibition has been seen by several -travellers, and they have expressed their astonishment at the length of -time during which an angeko can howl, hiss, and gabble without taking -breath. - -While he is below the earth, the angeko is supposed to visit the -habitation of the particular spirit whom he is addressing, and -sometimes gives a detailed account of the places in which he has been, -and of their inhabitants. One female spirit, for example, is called -Aywilliayoo. She commands all the bears, whales, seals, and walruses by -means of her right hand. So, when there is a scarcety of provisions, -the angeko makes a visit to Aywilliayoo and attacks her hand. If he -can cut off her nails, the bears immediately are set free, the loss of -one finger joint liberates the small seals, the second joint sends the -large seals, the knuckles free the whole herds of walrus, while the -entire hand liberates the whale. - -In figure this spirit is very tall, and has only one eye and one -pigtail, but this is as large as a man’s leg, and descends to her knee. -Her house is a very fine one, but Toolemak did not venture to enter it, -because it was guarded by a huge dog with black hind-quarters and no -tail. Her father is no larger than a boy of ten years old, and he has -but one arm, which is always covered with a large bear’s-skin mitten. -His house is also handsome, but its entrance is guarded by troops of -bears and walruses, who keep up a continual growling. - -Unfortunately for his own credit, Toolemak got drunk one evening, as he -might well be, having consumed in succession nearly ten glasses of rum, -or “hot water,” as he was pleased to call it. During his intoxication -he became very good-natured, and betrayed the secrets of his magic -art, showing how he altered his voice by covering his face with his -hands and then with his jacket, so as to make the voice appear as if -it came from a continually increasing depth. He finished this singular -exhibition by drinking in succession eleven pints and one gill of -water, and within a few minutes became sober enough to leave the ship -and walk to his sledge. - -Sometimes the Esquimaux say that they are annoyed by spirits. On -one occasion when a man nicknamed Kettle was eating in Captain -Lyon’s cabin, he became uneasy, and frequently ceased eating, a very -remarkable circumstance in a hungry Esquimaux. Presently he said that -there was a spirit sitting on the opposite side of the cabin, making -grimaces at him, and preventing him from eating. He asked leave to -drive his tormenter away, which he did by raising a long, bellowing -sound, and then blowing sharply on the ends of his fingers. He resumed -his meal quietly, and nothing would induce him to blow on his fingers -or raise the exorcising yell again, on the ground that the spirit was -no longer to be seen. - - * * * * * - -The Esquimaux possess wonderful powers of drawing. They know scarcely -anything of perspective, but they can make their sketches tell their -own tale; while in drawing from memory a chart of a coast, their skill -is really admirable. In Captain Hall’s book there are fac-similes -of several native charts and sketches, the most curious of which -is one which was not only drawn but engraved on wood by the native -draughtsman. It represents a woman with a child nestling in the hood -behind her back, and is quite equal in execution to wood-cutting in -the earlier stages of the art. The point about it which most strikes -a practised eye is the force and fidelity with which the artist has -marked the texture of the different parts of the dress; the fur coat -and trowsers edged with leather, and the white-edged, fur-lined hood, -are most admirably managed. - -Of music and musical instruments the Esquimaux know little. They -have the Amna-aya song, which has already been mentioned, and they -possess one national musical instrument, called the “keeloun.” This is -something like a tambourine, being formed of a very thin deer skin, or -the envelope of the whale’s liver, stretched over one side of a wooden -hoop. A handle is attached to the hoop, and the instrument is struck, -not upon the membrane, but upon the hoop. - -As a nation they are remarkable for two good qualities, honesty and -hospitality. There are, of course, exceptions to every rule, and such -is the case with the Esquimaux. But the early voyagers found that they -might leave their knives and axes on shore, and that not one of them -would be touched. Now, to an Esquimaux a steel knife or axe is more -valuable than a box full of sovereigns would be to us, and the honesty -of the Esquimaux was as much tried by the sight of these articles as -would be that of our London poor if a heap of sovereigns were left -lying on the pavement. - -As to hospitality, their food is considered to be merely common -property, so that if one of the Esquimaux should kill a seal, all his -friends and neighbors assemble as a matter of course to assist in -eating it; and even though the family of the successful hunter should -be starving, he will nevertheless invite all his friends to partake -of the food. In this way, it often happens that an entire seal barely -affords a single meal to all who come to share it. - - * * * * * - -Funerals among the Esquimaux are rather variable in their forms. -Generally, when a sick person is on the point of death, a new igloo is -built, and carefully fitted with lamp, provisions, and other furniture. -The dying person is carried in--not through the regular doorway, but -through a breach in the wall--placed on the couch, the lamp lighted, -and the provisions laid ready to hand. The attendants then leave the -igloo, build up the openings, and never trouble themselves again about -the sick person. The principal reason why the dying are left alone is, -that if the relatives are in the igloo at the moment of death, they are -obliged to throw away the dresses which they were wearing, and never -to wear them again. None of them can tell the reason for this strange -belief, but it is so strongly ingrained that no argument can induce -them to abandon it. - -Sometimes the body of a dead person is simply buried in a hole scooped -in the snow, and sometimes it is laid upon a ledge of rock, accompanied -by the lamp, kettle, knives, spears, and dresses which the deceased -used while in life. When a child dies, all its toys are placed with it -in the grave, that it may be supplied with them in the next world. - -The demeanor of the Esquimaux with regard to their dead is a most -extraordinary mixture of affection and unconcern. After having buried -the body, whether alive or dead does not matter, they care nothing -about it, and this strange insensibility is even displayed before the -burial. For example, a man’s wife had died, leaving a child of a few -weeks old, which in a short time followed its mother. The father was -very sorrowful for his dying child, and was seen in the night lifting -the curtains of its bed as it lay ill on board ship, and sighing -deeply. But, on the next day, when he came to the ship, he made no -scruple of laying his meat on the body of the child, and using it as a -table at breakfast. - -Once, when Captain Lyon visited the grave where an Esquimaux named -Pekooya had been laid, he found that the wolves and dogs had uncovered -the body, and had eaten a considerable portion of it. He was naturally -shocked at the scene, but the natives treated it with absolute -indifference, and though the father and a brother of Pekooya were -witnesses of the desecration, they would not cover up the mangled body, -and only laughed when Captain Lyon remonstrated with them. Moreover, -when the body was buried, it was covered so slightly with snow that the -first day’s thaw would melt off all the snow, and leave it to the mercy -of the dogs. - -Judging from such a fact as this, it might be thought that the -Esquimaux have but little natural affection, and that they are -indifferent to the loss of their nearest relatives. Such, however, is -not the case. An Esquimaux never passes the grave of an acquaintance -without depositing a piece of meat as an offering, and the surviving -relatives often visit the burying-place of their dead, and sit there -for hours, talking to them as if they were still alive. On comparing -all the conflicting accounts respecting the Esquimaux and their dead, -it seems likely that they consider the dead body as something that the -deceased once possessed, but cast away at death, and that, as their -departed friend abandoned the body, they need take no trouble about so -worthless an article. - - * * * * * - -If the reader will refer to the illustration on page 1347, he will -see that the horizon is illuminated by strange and wild-looking -dashes of light. These represent the Aurora Borealis, as it often -appears in those parts,--not pale and flickering as we see it in these -comparatively southern regions, but blazing with all imaginable hues, -and giving out a light that stands the natives in stead of the sun, -which in those latitudes is absent for months at a time. The glory and -magnificence of these displays can only be described by those who have -seen them, and very inadequately even by such. - -There is an account given by Captain Hall of one of these marvellous -exhibitions:--“I had gone on deck several times to look at the -beauteous scene, and at nine o’clock was below in my cabin, when the -captain hailed me with these words, ‘_Come above, Hall, come at once!_ -THE WORLD IS ON FIRE.’ - -“I knew his meaning, and quick as thought I re-dressed myself, -scrambled over several sleeping Innuits close to my berth, and rushed -to the companion stairs. In another moment I reached the deck, and as -the cabin door swung open, a dazzling and overpowering light, as if the -world were really ablaze under the agency of some gorgeously colored -fires, burst upon my startled senses. How can I describe it? Again I -say, _No mortal hand can truthfully do so_. Let me however, in feeble, -broken words, put down my thoughts at the time, and try to give some -faint idea of what I saw. - -“My first thought was, ‘Among the gods there is none like unto Thee, -O Lord; neither are any works like unto Thy works!’ Then I tried to -picture the scene before me. Piles of golden light and rainbow light, -scattered along the azure vault, extended from behind the western -horizon to the zenith; thence down to the eastern, within a belt of -space, 20° in width, were the fountains of _beams_, like fire-threads, -that shot with the rapidity of lightning hither and thither, upward and -athwart the great pathway indicated. No sun, no moon, yet the heavens -were a glorious sight, flooded with light. Even ordinary print could -easily have been read on deck. - -“_Flooded_ with rivers of light! Yes, flooded with light; and such -light! Light all but inconceivable. The golden hues predominated, but -in rapid succession _prismatic colors leaped forth_. We looked, we -saw, and trembled; for as we gazed, the whole belt of aurora began to -be alive with flashes. Then each pile or bank of light became myriads; -some were dropping down the great pathway or belt; others springing -up, others leaping with lightning flash from one side, while more as -quickly passed into the vacated space; some twisting themselves into -folds, entwining with others like enormous serpents, and all these -movements as quick as the eye could follow. - -“It seemed as if there were a struggle with these blazing lights to -reach and occupy the dome above our heads. Then the whole arch above -became crowded. Down, down it came; nearer and nearer it approached -us. Sheets of golden flame, coruscating while leaping from the auroral -belt, seemed as if met in their course by some mighty agency that -turned them into the colors of the rainbow, each of the seven primary -colors 3° in width, sheeted out to 21°. - -“While the auroral fires seemed to be descending upon us, one of our -number could not help exclaiming,-- - -“‘Hark! hark! such a display! almost as if a warfare were going on -among the beauteous lights above--so palpable--so near--it seems -impossible without noise.’ - -“But no noise accompanied this wondrous display. All was silence.... - -“I would here make the remark that the finest displays of the aurora -only last a few moments. Though it may be playing all night, yet -it is only now and then that its grandest displays are made. As -if marshalling forces, gaining strength, compounding material, it -continues on its silent workings. At length it begins its trembling -throes; beauty anon shoots out here and there, when all at once the -aurora flashes into living hosts of _powdered_ coruscating rainbows, -belting to the heavenly dome with such gorgeous grandeur that mortals -sometimes tremble to behold.” - -These wonderful aërial phenomena are characteristic of the Arctic -regions. One of the most extraordinary appearances in the sky is called -the Parhelion, or Mock Sun. It assumes various and most astounding -forms, the sun appearing in the middle, and being surrounded with -dimmer imitations of itself, round which run circular bands of light. -There seems, indeed, to be no end to the extraordinary modifications -of aërial effects which take place in these regions. Captain Hall -described many of them, among which may be mentioned a moon distorted -beyond all recognition, its lower limb all crushed and shapeless, -and the whole appearance of the planet like that of a man under the -influence of liquor. - -Then the refractive powers of the atmosphere produce most wonderful -effects, destroying all perspective, and bringing into sight all kinds -of objects which, by the ordinary laws of optics, are far out of sight. -All sailors are familiar with the appearance of a vessel high in the -air, sailing, as it were, through the sky with her keel in the clouds, -and the tops of her masts pointing downward. In these regions the -refractive powers are even terrible to accustomed eyes, so wonderful -are the sights presented to them. - -In one of these strange exhibitions, witnessed by Captain Hall, a -vast white inverted pyramid seemed to form in the sky, and at every -roll of the vessel to dip into the sea. Presently “some land that was -seventy-five miles distant, and the top of it only barely seen in an -ordinary way, had its rocky base brought full in view. The whole length -of this land in sight was the very symbol of distortion. - -“Pendant from an even line that stretched across the heavens was _a -ridge of mountains_. Life hangs upon a little thread, but what think -you of mountains hanging upon a thread? In my fancy I said, ‘If Fate -had decreed one of the Sisters to cut that thread while I witnessed -the singular spectacle, what convulsions upon the land and sea about -us might not have followed!’ But Nature had an admirable way of taking -down these rock-giants, hanging between the heavens and the earth. Arch -after arch was at length made in wondrous grandeur from the rugged and -distorted atmospheric land; and, if ever man’s eye rested upon the -sublime, in an act of God’s creative power, it was when He arcuated the -heavens with such a line of stupendous mountains. - -“Between those several mountain arches in the sky were hung icebergs, -also inverted, moving silently and majestically about as the -sea-currents shifted those along of which they were the images. In -addition to all this there was a _wall of water_, so it appeared, far -beyond the apparent horizon. This wall seemed alive with merry dancers -of the most fantastic figures that the imagination could conceive, -and its perpendicular columns were ever playfully changing. Oh, how -exquisitely beautiful was this God-made, living wall! A thousand -youthful forms of the fairest outline seemed to be dancing to and fro, -their white arms intertwined, bodies incessantly varying, intermixing, -falling, rising, jumping, skipping, hopping, whirling, waltzing, -resting, and again rushing to the mazy dance--never tired--ever -playful--ever light and airy, graceful, and soft to the eye.” - -[Illustration: WRIST-GUARD AND HOOKS. (See page 1343.)] - -Such, then, is a brief account of the remarkable and interesting Innuit -people--a people which, according to the observation of Captain Hall, -are gradually dying out, and in a few more years will cease to exist. - - - - -CHAPTER CXLII. - -VANCOUVER’S ISLAND. - -THE AHTS AND NEIGHBORING TRIBES. - - - DEFINITION OF THE AHT TRIBES -- APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES -- STRENGTH - OF GRASP -- PECULIARITY OF THE LEGS -- GAIT OF THE WOMEN -- SPEED - OF THE MEN -- DANCE -- THE LIP ORNAMENT OF THE WOMEN -- CLOTHING -- - THE BOAT CLOAK AND HAT -- WEAPONS -- THE BOW AND ARROW -- INGENIOUS - CONSTRUCTION OF THE BOW -- ITS BACKING OF ELASTIC STRINGS -- THE - ARROWS AND THEIR SPIRAL FEATHERING -- THE FISH SPEAR AND HARPOON - ARROWS -- THE HALIBUT HOOK -- VARIOUS MODES OF HUNTING -- SALMON - SPEARING BY TORCHLIGHT -- THE HERRING RAKE -- HOW TO KEEP THE BOAT - FROM SINKING -- THE WHALE FISHERY. - -Before leaving this part of the world, we will cast a brief glance -at the tribes which inhabit Vancouver’s Island. They are singularly -interesting, inasmuch as they combine some of the habits which -distinguish the Esquimaux with others of the North American tribes, -and add to them several of the customs which have been already noticed -among the Polynesians, their insular position and peculiar climate no -doubt affording the cause for this curious mixture. - - * * * * * - -As a type of these tribes, we will take the AHTS, though other tribes -will be casually mentioned. The Ahts may rather be called a nation than -a tribe, being divided into some twenty tribes, the names of which -all end in “aht,” as, for example, Ohyaht, Muchlaht, Ayhuttisaht, -Toquaht, etc. Altogether they number about seventeen hundred. They do -not, however, act together as a nation, and each tribe is perfectly -distinct, and often at war with another. - -They are not a tall people, the men averaging a little less than five -feet six inches, and the women being just above five feet. Possibly, -from the continual paddling which they practise almost from childhood, -the upper limbs of an Aht are exceedingly strong, so strong, indeed, -that a slight-looking native can carry with ease on his extended -fingers a weight which a white man can scarcely lift. Their power of -grasp, probably from the same cause, is more like the grip of a machine -than the grasp of a man; and those who have had to fight with them have -found that if once an Aht be allowed to seize either the clothing or -the hair, the only way to loosen his grasp is to knock him down with a -blow in the throat or in the ribs--he cares nothing for a blow on the -head. - -When he comes to such close quarters in a quarrel, he has an awkward -habit of grasping the enemy with one hand, and using with the other a -knife which he has kept concealed in his long hair. Fortunately for his -white opponent, so extraordinary a proceeding as a blow from the fist, -which deprives him for a time of breath, bewilders and alarms him to -such an extent that he seldom risks its repetition. - -The legs of the Aht tribes are, as a rule, short, ill-made, bowed, -and apparently deficient in power. This peculiarity is especially -noticeable in the women, whose legs are so bowed, and whose toes are -so turned inward, that they waddle rather than walk, and at every step -they are obliged to cross their feet as a parrot does. The legs of -the inland tribes are, as a rule, better developed than those of the -inhabitants of the coast. Yet these unsightly limbs are by no means -deficient in power. An Aht, powerfully built above, will step out of -his canoe, and exhibit a pair of legs scarcely as thick as his arms, -and yet he will walk in the woods for a whole day without showing any -signs of fatigue. - -Owing to this form of limb, the natives, though enduring enough, are -not swift of foot, and can be easily overtaken by a white man on -the open ground, notwithstanding the impediments of clothing, and -especially of shoes, which hinder the progress of the pursuer, the -pursued usually throwing off the only garment that he wears. Should he -once reach the woods, pursuit is useless, as no white man can follow a -naked native in them. - -The color of the Ahts is a dull, but not dark, brown. Their face is -broad and flat, the nose tolerably well formed when it is not dragged -out of shape by rings and other ornaments, and the cheek-bones are -strongly marked and broad, but not high. There is very little hair on -the faces of the men, but that of the head is long, straight, and is -generally allowed to hang loosely over the shoulders, though it is -sometimes gathered into a knot at the back of the head, merely covered -by a cap or a wreath of grass. They are very proud of their hair, so -that when an Aht has been guilty of some offence which is not very -serious, the best punishment is to cut off his hair, inasmuch as he -will be an object of constant ridicule until it has grown again. The -women divide their hair in the middle, and tie it in two plaits, one -of which hangs at each side of the face, and often has a piece of lead -suspended to the end to keep it straight. Mr. Sproat thinks that the -physical characteristics of the Ahts have been modified by means of a -large importation of Chinese, which took place about the end of the -last century, and remarks that the peculiar Chinese eye is sometimes -seen among these natives. Still, even if this be the fact, the -modification can be but slight, as both people are undoubtedly members -of the same great race, though altered by the conditions in which they -have respectively been placed. - -Some of the women have a hideously ugly ornament which they wear in -their under lip, just as do the Botocudos of Tropical America. This -practice exists only among the northern tribes, where it is carried -out to an enormous extent. As the size of the ornament is gradually -increased from childhood, the lip of an old woman will contain an oval -ornament three inches long by two wide. There is a shallow groove round -the edge so as to keep it in its place, and both sides are slightly -concave. Sometimes it is used as a spoon, the woman putting on it a -piece of meat that is too hot, and, when it is cool, turning it into -her mouth by a contraction of the lip. - -The value that is set upon this horrible disfigurement is almost -ludicrous, a woman’s rank being due to the size of her lip ornament. -Possibly, on account of the long time which must be occupied in -stretching the orifice in the lip to the required size, the opinion -of a woman with a large lip is always held in respect; and, if she -should be opposed by a younger person of her own sex, she will -contemptuously decline to enter into argument with a woman who has so -small a lip. Some of them wear a shell ornament, like the stem of a -clay tobacco-pipe, one or two inches long, stuck through the lip and -projecting forward at a considerable angle with the chin. This ornament -is called the hai-qua. - -As for clothing, the men wear a sort of robe made by themselves, for -which they have in later days substituted an European blanket. They -are not at all particular as to the disposal of this robe, and even -if it should fall off do not trouble themselves. The women also wear -the blanket, but always have a small apron in addition to it. In their -canoes they wear a cape. It is made of cedar-bark string, and is woven -in nearly the same manner as the mat of the New Zealander, which has -already been described; namely, by stretching the warp threads parallel -to each other on a frame, and tying them together at intervals with a -cross-thread which represents the woof. A specimen in my collection has -the cross-threads at intervals of half an inch. - -It is shaped exactly like the cross section of a boat, straight above, -and rounded below. It measures five feet three inches in width, and -three feet six inches in depth in the centre. As is usual with such -robes, the upper edge is adorned with a strip of marten fur a quarter -of an inch wide, wound spirally round the selvage so as to form quite -a thick rope of fur. These capes are the work of the women, who have -the manufacture of all the clothing. Fur bags are made by the simple -process of skinning the marten, the body being then extricated through -a cut made across the abdomen just below the tail. As the skin comes -off it is reversed, and when dry and properly dressed it is turned with -the fur outward, and the bag is complete, the tail serving as a handle. -One of these bags in my collection was presented to me by Lieut. Pusey. - -The woof thread is also made of the white pine bark, and the needle is -nothing more than a sharpened twig. The same useful materials are also -employed for the curious hats which the natives wear in their canoes. -These hats are made on the principle of the sailors’ “sou’-westers,” -and are fashioned so as to shoot rain off the shoulders. The outside of -the hat is made of cedar bark, and the inside of white pine bark. - - * * * * * - -Depending largely upon animal food for their nourishment, the Aht -tribes are expert hunters, and make very ingenious weapons, some of -which are shown in the illustrations on page 1357, drawn from my own -specimens. - -The bow and arrows used by these people are worthy of a brief -description. The bow is an admirable specimen of savage art, and must -be the result of long experience. It is four feet three inches in -length, and made of one piece of wood. In general shape it resembles -the bow of the Andamans, though it is not of such gigantic dimensions. -In the middle the wood is rounded, so as to form a handle which is -nearly four inches in circumference. From the handle to the tips, the -wood is gradually flattened and widened for about fourteen inches, -where it is just two inches wide. From this point it gradually lessens -again to the tip, which is rounded and thickened, so as to receive the -notch for the string. - -Were no addition made to the bow it would still be a very powerful -weapon, but the maker has not been satisfied with the simple wood, and -has strengthened it with a wonderfully complex arrangement of strings -made of twisted sinews. In my specimen there are rather more than fifty -of these strings, which are laid on the bow and interwoven with each -other in a manner so strong and neat, that the most skilful sailor -might be envious of such a piece of handiwork. Each of these strings is -double, the two strands being about as large as thin whipcord, and when -seen against the light they are quite translucent. - -They are put on in the following manner. Two deep notches, parallel to -the line of the bow, are made at each lip, these notches serving two -purposes: first, the reception of the bow-strings, and next the support -of the strengthening strings. Eight of the strings, measuring about -eleven feet in length, have been doubled, the loop passed over the tip -of the bow, and the strings led along the back over the corresponding -notch at the other tip, and brought back to the middle. These strings -lie parallel to each other, and form a flat belt from one end of -the bow to the other. About an inch below the tip, three other sets -of strings are fastened in a somewhat similar manner, so that four -distinct layers of strings run throughout the length of the weapon. - -[Illustration: ARROWS.] - -Even these have not sufficed the maker, who has added six more layers -starting from the widest and flattest part of the bow, so that nearly -three feet of the centre of the weapon are strengthened by no less than -twelve layers of sinew strings. By referring to the illustration, the -reader will perceive the extreme ingenuity with which the strings are -laid on the bow, so that whether the weapon be bent or unstrung, they -all keep their places. So firmly are they lashed to the bow, that even -when it is unstrung they are all as tight as harp strings. - -The string of the bow is made of the same material as those which -strengthen the back, and in consequence of the very great strength -of the material, it is much thinner than the string of an ordinary -archer’s bow. It is made of two strands, each strand being about as -large as the back strings. - -By referring to illustration No. 3, on the next page, a good idea can -be gained of this singularly ingenious weapon. At first the bow is seen -as it appears when strung, fig. 3 giving a section of the wood. At fig. -2 is an enlarged representation of one end of the bow, so as to show -the manner in which the various sets of strings are fastened. At the -upper part are seen the strings which form the first layer, passing -over the end of the bow, and filling up the notch in which they lie. -Just below the tip come the second and third sets, which pass down the -bow, where they are met by, and interwoven with, the remainder of the -strings, the whole of them being gathered in the rope with its spiral -building. This beautiful weapon was added to my collection by Lieut. -Pusey, R. N. - -The arrows are of various kinds, according to the object for which they -are intended. That which is used for ordinary occasions is shown in the -uppermost figure of the illustration. It is two feet three inches in -length, and is headed with bone. - -There is a peculiarity about these arrows which is worthy of notice. -Some time ago an arrow was patented in England, which had the feathers -placed spirally upon the end of the shaft, so as to give it a rapidly -revolving movement when discharged from the bow. The principle was -exactly that of the screw which is applied to steam vessels; and those -who used the arrow acknowledged that the spiral setting of the feathers -not only increased the power of flight, but enabled the archer to drive -his arrow through the wind with greater ease and certainty than could -be obtained with the ordinarily feathered arrow. There is a very old -saying that there is nothing new under the sun, and this is the case -with the arrow in question, the savages of Northern America having -adopted the same principle long ago. In their arrows the feathers are -set spirally, with a bold curve, and there is really no difference -between the weapon of the savage and the toy of civilization, than the -greater neatness and higher finish of the latter. - -[Illustration: (1.) AHT FISH-HOOK. (See page 1359.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) PIPES. (See page 1370.)] - -[Illustration: SECTION - -BACK ENLARGED - -(3.) BOW OF THE AHTS. (See page 1356.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) BEAVER MASK OF AHT TRIBE. (See page 1365.)] - -[Illustration: (5.) HEADDRESS. (See page 1365.)] - -[Illustration: SIDE VIEW - -(6.) PADDLES. (See page 1363.)] - -The lower figure represents the arrow which is used for killing fish. -In this weapon the point is also of bone, but is very much longer, and -is double, the two halves diverging considerably from each other, and -being barbed on the inner surface. It is firmly lashed to the shaft, -and their divergence is given by means of two pegs, which are driven -between the shaft and the two portions of the point. If a fish be -struck by this ingenious weapon, it cannot possibly escape, the elastic -points contracting violently and holding the fish between them. - -It is worthy of notice that a police spear made exactly on the same -principle is used by the Malays. It consists of a handle some seven -feet long, from the end of which project two diverging points. The -inner side of each point is armed with a row of very sharp barbs, all -directed backward. Thorns are often used for this purpose. Should a -criminal try to escape, the police officer has only to thrust his spear -against the back of the man’s neck, when he is at once a prisoner, the -barbed points effectually preventing him from escaping, even should the -officer drop his weapon. The zoölogical reader will remember that the -teeth of the snake and of many fish--the pike, for example--are set on -exactly the same principle. - -In some specimens the head is fitted loosely on the shaft, and -connected with it by means of a string, which is wound spirally round -it, and when the fish is struck the head is shaken off the shaft, which -serves both as a drag to aid in tiring the fish, and as a float by -which its presence may be indicated. - -The most ingenious of these arrows is used for shooting seals and the -larger fish, and is very elaborately constructed. It measures about -four feet in length, and is almost deserving of the name of harpoon -rather than arrow. - -The shaft is made of very light wood, and is about as thick as a man’s -finger. At the butt-end it is feathered in the usual manner, and at -the other it is terminated by a pear-shaped piece of bone an inch in -diameter at the thickest part. Into the end of this bone is bored a -small conical hole, which receives the head. This is also made of bone, -and is very small in comparison with the arrow, and is furnished with -two deeply cut barbs. As is the case with all harpoon weapons, the head -is connected with the shaft by a line, but in this case there is a -peculiarity about the line and its mode of attachment. - -Instead of being a mere double-strand string, it is made of a number of -fibres arranged in three strands, and plaited, not twisted together, -so as to form a flat line, which possesses enormous strength combined -with great elasticity and small size. The mode of attachment is as -ingenious as the method of manufacture. The line is a double one, -measuring twelve feet in length. The line is first doubled, the loop -is put through a hole in the point and over the head, so as to secure -it, and the two halves of the line are then lashed together about -eighteen inches from the point. One end is then fastened to the arrow -just below the feathers, and the other to the shaft just above the bone -tip. The object of this arrangement is evident. As soon as a seal is -struck, it dashes off, shaking the shaft from the barbed head, which -remains in its body. Were the line simply tied to the end of the shaft, -the wounded creature would easily drag it through the water. But, as -the line is fastened to each end of the shaft and to the head besides, -when the latter transfixes a seal it is separated from the shaft, and -the shaft is drawn crosswise through the water, presenting so great -a resistance that the seal becomes exhausted with its unavailing -struggles, and comes to the surface, where it is despatched with a -second or third weapon. - -Besides the harpoon and fish arrow, these people also use the hook (see -page 1357), which is quite as ingenious in its way as the implements -which have been described. The body of the hook is of wood, and is -exactly in the shape of the capital letter U. The point bends slightly -outward, and is charred at the tip to render it harder. It is also -defended and strengthened by a band of very tough vegetable fibre, -which covers it for about three inches. The barb is a piece of bone, -about five inches in length, sharpened like a needle at the point. This -barb is not attached to the point, as is the case with the generality -of hooks, but is fastened to the shank, and is so long that its tip -reaches to the middle of the hook. - -At first sight this seems a very inadequate arrangement for securing -fish, and looks as if the creature could easily slip off the unguarded -point. If, however, the hook, which is a very large one, be tested, -it will be found astonishingly efficacious. If the point be inserted -between the fingers, as it would be inserted into the jaws of a -fish, and then brought upward, it will be found that the sharp barb -effectually prevents the hook from being withdrawn. - -There is one effect of this mode of fixing the barb which may or may -not have been intended. Should, by any accident, the line become -entangled with the hook, and reverse it, the fish is quite as secure, -the long, straight barb forming a second hook, to which it is -transferred. The body of this hook is made of the Douglas pine, and -it is brought into shape by steaming. The hook is chiefly used for -catching the halibut, as, for some reason, the Ahts will not use a -steel hook in the capture of this fish. - -There is plenty of game, both large and small, in these regions, though -the chase is in all cases a severe one, and tests not only the skill -but the endurance of the hunter. There is, for example, the black -bear, which is a most valuable animal, its fur being used for clothing, -and its flesh for food. Bear hunting is not carried on at all times of -the year, but is generally followed toward the end of autumn, when the -bears are fat, and about to enter their winter quarters. Sometimes the -Ahts wait until the bear has gone into retirement, and then spear it in -its winter home. Traps are in great favor, because they do not spoil -the skin. They are very simple; the trap consisting of a tree trunk -heavily loaded with stones, and suspended at one end over the animal’s -track. It is kept in position by a trigger, to which is attached a -slight rope crossing the track. It is always placed in some spot where -a large stump or the root of a fallen tree allows the trap to be set -without disturbing the appearance of the track. - -Then there are one or two deer, the largest of which is the wapiti, -commonly but erroneously called the elk. The hunter generally takes it -by following its track, and stalking it as it feeds, when the powerful -bow drives an arrow to its heart. The skill of the hunter is shown as -much after the deer is dead as during the actual chase. Captain Mayne -mentions that he has seen a wapiti killed, and in a quarter of an hour -it has been skinned, the whole of the flesh removed from the bones, and -the skin converted into moccasins. The natives have rather a strange -way of carrying the meat. At their first halt after killing a deer, -they cut the meat into pieces two or three inches square, transfix them -with a long stick, and carry the stick upon their shoulder, every now -and then pulling off a piece and eating it as they go along. In this -manner the flesh of a deer vanishes in a wonderfully short time. Very -little meat is preserved, the Ahts generally eating it as soon as the -animal is killed. - -As to the fish, there are so many that only one or two can be -mentioned. The salmon is the fish that seems to be the most valued by -these fish-eating tribes, and it is caught, as with us, in a variety -of ways. Sometimes the natives use a rather curious fish spear, about -fifteen feet long in the shaft, and with a double head, made of wapiti -bone. The head is only slightly fixed in the shaft, to which it is -attached by a line, as in the harpoon arrow already described. Should -the fish be a very heavy one, the hunter merely ties to the line a -number of inflated bladders, and causes it to tire itself by useless -struggles before he risks the fracture of the line or loss of the -barbed head, one or both of which events would probably happen if he -were to try to secure a fresh and powerful fish. - -Sometimes, when the fish are plentiful, they are caught by dropping -among them a stick armed with barbed points, and jerking it upward -sharply, until it impales a fish on one or other of these points. - -“Burning the water” is employed in catching salmon, and is carried on -by two natives, one of whom paddles the canoe, while the other stands -in the bow, where a torch is kept burning, and strikes the fish as they -glide through the water. Mr. Sproat mentions that a single canoe has -been known to bring back forty fine salmon as the result of a day’s -fishing. Salmon traps are also employed. These are made after a fashion -closely resembling that of the eel-traps used in this country. They are -double baskets, externally cylindrical, and are set with their mouths -directed down the stream. When the fish try to pass up the stream they -enter the basket, and, as the inner basket is very much shorter than -the other, shaped like a sugar-loaf, the salmon finds itself imprisoned -between them. Some of these baskets measure as much as twenty feet -in length, and five feet in diameter, so that they will contain a -considerable number of fish. - -One of the oddest fishing instruments is that by which the herring is -caught. This is a pole about ten feet in length, flattened at one end -like the blade of an oar, and armed along the edge with projecting -spikes. When the fisherman gets among a shoal of herrings, he plunges -his pole into the mass of fish, draws it through them with a peculiar -movement of the arms, so as to transfix the herrings on the spikes, -and then shakes them into his boat. By this mode of fishing, which is -called “herring-raking,” great numbers of fish are taken, as well as by -the net, which is ingeniously made from fibre obtained from a native -nettle, which reaches eight or ten feet in height. - -The Ahts are such keen fishermen that they will often endanger the -safety of their canoes by the quantity of fish with which they will -heap them, so that the gunwales are sunk within an inch or so of the -water’s edge. In calm weather they can manage well enough, even with -such a burden as this; but if the wind should get up before they can -reach the shore, the danger is very great. Should such an event happen, -these enterprising fishermen will not throw their cargo overboard to -save the boat, but will fasten all the spare floats round the canoe, so -as to keep it from sinking even if it be filled with water. - -There is scarcely any end to the use which is made by the Ahts of -these floats, and with their aid they will attack and conquer even the -gigantic whale. The following account of their mode of whale fishing -is written by Mr. G. M. Sproat:--“A whale-chase is an affair of some -moment. The kind of whale commonly seen on the coast was described by -an old whaling skipper as ‘finner,’ in which there is not much oil. -The season for fishing whales commences about the end of May or in -June. Many whales are killed every season by the Nitinahts, who live -principally on the seaboard near Barclay or Nitinaht’s Sound. This -tribe has a custom, which I have not observed elsewhere, of separating -during spring and summer into small parties, each under a separate -head, but all still continuing under the chieftaincy of the principal -chief of the tribe. - -“Months beforehand preparations are made for the whale fishing, which -is considered almost a sacred season. I particularly noticed this -circumstance from having, in my boyhood, heard of the Manx custom, -in which all the crews of the herring fleet invoke a blessing before -‘shooting’ their herring-nets. The honor of using the harpoon in an Aht -tribe is enjoyed but by few,--about a dozen in the tribe,--who inherit -the privilege. Instances, however, are known of the privilege having -been acquired by merit. - -“Eight or nine men, selected by the harpooner, form the crew of his -canoe. For several moons before the fishing begins, these men are -compelled to abstain from their usual food; they live away from their -wives, wash their bodies morning, noon, and night, and rub their skins -with twigs or a rough stone. If a canoe is damaged or capsized by a -whale, or any accident happens during the fishing season, it is assumed -that some of the crew have failed in their preparatory offices, and -a very strict inquiry is instituted by the chief men of the tribe. -Witnesses are examined, and an investigation made into the domestic -affairs of the accused persons. Should any inculpatory circumstance -appear, the delinquent is severely dealt with, and is often deprived of -his rank and placed under a ban for months. - -“When the whales approach the coast, the fishermen are out all day, -let the wind blow high or not. The canoes have different cruising -grounds, some little distance apart. The Indian whaling gear consists -of harpoons, lines, inflated seal-skins, and wooden or bone spears. The -harpoon is often made of a piece of the iron hoop of an ale cask, cut -with a chisel into the shape of a harpoon blade, two barbs fashioned -from the tips of deer-horns being affixed to this blade with gum. Close -to the harpoon the line is of deer sinews. To this the main line is -attached, which is generally made of cedar twigs laid together as thick -as a three-inch rope. Large inflated skins are fastened to this line -about twelve feet from the harpoon. The weapon itself is then tied -slightly to a yew handle ten feet long. - -“On getting close, the harpooner, from the bow of his canoe, throws his -harpoon at the whale with full force. As soon as the barb enters, the -fastening of the wooden handle, being but slight, breaks, and becomes -detached from the line. The natives raise a yell, and the whale dives -quickly, but the seal-skins impede his movements. Very long lengths -of line are kept in the canoes, and sometimes the lines from several -canoes are joined. On the re-appearance of the whale on the surface, he -is attacked from the nearest canoe; and thus, finally, forty or fifty -large buoys are attached to his body. He struggles violently for a -time, and beats and lashes the water in all directions, until, weakened -by loss of blood, and fatigued by his exertions, he ceases to struggle, -and the natives despatch him with their short spears. The whale is -then taken in tow by the whole fleet of canoes, the crews yelling and -singing, and keeping time with their paddles. - -“Sometimes, after being harpooned, the whale escapes, and takes ropes, -harpoons, seal-skins, and everything with him. Should he die from his -wounds, and be found by another tribe at sea, or on shore within the -territorial limits of the finders, the instruments are returned to the -losers, with a large piece of the fish as a present. Many disputes -arise between tribes on the finding of dead whales near the undefined -boundaries of the tribal territories. If the quarrel is serious, all -intercourse ceases, trade is forbidden, and war is threatened. By and -by, when the loss of trade is felt, negotiation is tried. An envoy -is selected who is of high rank in his own tribe, and, if possible, -connected with the other tribe by marriage. He is usually a quiet man -of fluent speech. Wearing white eagle feathers in his headdress as a -mark of peace, he departs in a small canoe. Only one female attendant, -generally an old slave, accompanies him, to assist in paddling, as -the natives never risk two men on such occasions. The envoy’s return -is anxiously awaited. As a general rule, the first proposition is -rejected. Objections, references, counter proposals, frequently make -three or four embassies necessary before the question can be settled. -By that time the blubber must be very rancid.” - -[Illustration: CANOE OF THE AHTS. (See page 1362.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXLIII. - -VANCOUVER’S ISLAND--_Continued_. - -THE AHTS AND NEIGHBORING TRIBES--_Continued_. - - - MANUFACTURE OF CANOES -- CORRECT EYE OF THE NATIVE BUILDERS -- - MATERIAL AND SHAPE OF THE PADDLE -- MODE OF USING IT -- PATTERN WITH - WHICH IT IS DECORATED -- “CUTTING” THE WAVES -- SKILL AND ENDURANCE - OF THE PADDLERS -- ESCAPE OF A NATIVE -- FEASTS AMONG THE AHT TRIBES - -- METHOD OF COOKING -- THE WOODEN POTS AND HEATED STONES -- HOW - “THE INDIANS DIED” -- DISTRIBUTION OF PROPERTY, AND ITS CONSEQUENT - DESTRUCTION -- SACRED CHARACTER OF A FEAST -- THE SACRED MARKS -- THE - ARTIFICIAL SNOW-STORM -- THE DOCTOR’S DANCE -- ADMIRABLE ACTING -- - SIMULATED MURDER AND RECOVERY OF THE CORPSE -- THE ROOF DANCE. - -The canoes in which the Aht tribes make their expeditions are carved -out of solid wood. The tree which is employed for this purpose is a -kind of cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), which flourishes by the sea. When a -native wishes to make a canoe, he looks out for a good tree as near -as possible to the water, and, with the assistance of a comrade, cuts -it down. Now that he has European tools, he can fell a tree with some -rapidity, but in the olden times, when his sole tool was a sort of -chisel made of wapiti horn, it was a very slow process indeed. The -only way of using this primitive instrument was by placing the edge of -the chisel against the tree, and striking the butt with a heavy stone, -shaped something like a dumb-bell. - -The tree being felled, the bark is stripped off, and the trunk split -lengthwise by wedges. The next process is to hollow out the inside, -which is done entirely by hand, fire not being employed, as is the case -with many savage tribes. The outside is then dubbed down to the proper -thickness by means of an adze formed of a large mussel-shell fixed in -a handle. In this work the natives use no measuring tools, but trust -entirely to the eye; yet their work is so true that, when the boat is -completed, it sits lightly on the water, and is well balanced. Any of -my readers who have made even a toy boat will appreciate the difficulty -of this task. - -In about three weeks or so the canoe is roughly hewn and hollowed, -and then comes a more difficult business, namely, the bringing it -into the peculiar shape which the Ahts think to be the best. This is -done by filling the canoe with water, and throwing redhot stones into -it till the water boils. This part of the process is continued for a -considerable time, until the wood is quite soft, and then a number of -crosspieces are driven into the interior, so as to force the canoe into -its proper shape, which it retains ever afterward. - -While the canoe is still soft and comparatively pliant, several slight -crosspieces are inserted, so as to counteract any tendency toward -warping. The outside of the vessel is next hardened by fire, so as to -enable it to resist the attacks of insects, and also to prevent it -from cracking when exposed to the sun. Lastly, the bow and stem pieces -are fixed to the canoe, and the interior is painted of some brilliant -color, usually red. The outside is generally quite black and highly -polished, this effect being produced by rubbing it plentifully with oil -after the fire has done its work. Lastly, a pattern of some kind is -generally painted on the bow and stern. - -The figure on page 1361 will give the reader a good idea of the form -of this canoe. It is drawn from a large model brought from Vancouver’s -Island by Lieut. Pusey, and added by him to my collection. In this -specimen the patterns at the bow and stem are red and blue. As is -mostly the case with canoes made by savages, there is no keel to the -boat. - -The paddle by which the canoe is propelled is a singularly ingenious -one, combining the three qualities of lightness, elasticity, and -strength to a really remarkable extent. The paddle represented in -fig. 1 of illustration No. 6, on page 1357, is one of the specimens -in my collection. It is four feet six inches in length, and the blade -is about six inches wide at the broadest part. It is shaped with the -greatest accuracy, the part where it is grasped by the left hand being -nearly cylindrical, and then widening gradually until it forms the -blade. At this part it is very thin--so thin, in fact, that it seems -scarcely able to bear the strain that is put upon it when the paddler -urges his canoe swiftly over the water. - -The lightness of such a paddle is wonderful. The specimen which is -figured in the illustration only weighs eighteen ounces, being hardly -half the weight of a similarly sized New Zealand paddle. The reader -will notice the peculiar handle. This is made in order to suit the mode -of paddling. When the Aht gets into his canoe, he grasps the paddle -with his left hand about eighteen inches from the end, and places his -right hand upon the crosspiece that serves as a handle. The left hand -thus acts as a fulcrum; upon the right hand works the leverage of the -paddle. Beside this paddle is figured another from the Solomon Islands, -in order to show how two totally distinct races of mankind have hit -upon the same invention. There is even a similarity in the form of -their canoes, as well as in the shape of their paddles. - -The reader will observe that the blade of the paddle is covered with a -pattern which extends some way up the handle. This is the work of the -women, who take upon themselves the decoration of the paddles after -their husbands have shaped them. The colors employed are generally -black and red, the latter hue being obtained by a preparation of -annatto. In this particular specimen, red is the chief color, the large -oval marks on the side of the blade and on the handle being red, while -the more intricate pattern on the blade is drawn in black. - -No matter what may be the color of the paddle, the pattern is always -of the same character. I have no doubt in my mind that it is really a -conventional mode of depicting the human face, such as is seen upon the -work of many extinct races of mankind; and although at a first glance -the semblance may not be seen, it is evident to a practised observer, -and is, moreover, quite in character with other works of art found of -these people. - -The broad, flat, sharp-edged blade of the paddle is often used for -other purposes besides propelling the canoe. It has already been -mentioned that the Ahts will not throw overboard their cargo of fish, -no matter how high the waves may roll, or how deeply the canoe may be -loaded. They watch carefully for the waves, and if one of them comes in -such a manner that it would dash inboard, they have the art of cutting -it in two with a blow from the edge of the paddle, and causing it to -fly harmlessly over the little vessel. - -Both in making canoes and in other work where holes have to be bored, -the Ahts make use of a simple drill, formed from the bone of a bird, -fixed in a wooden handle. When it is used, the shaft is taken between -the two hands, the point placed on the object to be bored, and the -hands moved swiftly backward and forward until the hole is made. In the -same manner, by using a stick instead of a drill, fire is produced, -precisely as is done by the Kaffirs. - -The skill of the paddlers is wonderful. Mr. Sproat mentions the escape -of an Aht Indian who had committed several murders, and had contrived -to escape from custody. Finding the place where he had concealed -himself, a party set out to recapture him, and discovered him running -across the snow to gain the shelter of a wood. Had he reached it -he would have been safe, so one of the pursuers chased him, and, -notwithstanding the disadvantage of wearing shoes, which soon became -clogged by the snow, succeeded in gaining on him, the Ahts being, as -has already been remarked, very poor runners. - -The man soon perceived that he was no match for his pursuer in running, -and so, abandoning his intention of reaching the wood, he turned -sharply off toward the river, flung off his blanket, and leaped into -the stream. Presently he was seen making his way toward a canoe which -was made fast to a drift tree in the river, and in a short time he -reached it, looked eagerly into it to see if there were a paddle, -scrambled into the boat, cast it off, and paddled away. Meanwhile two -of his pursuers had got into a canoe, and were paddling after him, so -that when he cast the boat loose they were not more than twenty yards -from him. It was, however, quite enough for the fugitive, who forced -his canoe up the stream with a power and rapidity which soon increased -the distance between the two boats, and, in spite of all the efforts of -his pursuers, he made his way to the bank nearly fifty yards ahead of -them. As soon as he reached the shore, he jumped out of the canoe, and -dashed into the wood, where it was useless to follow him. - -Several times during the struggle Mr. Sproat had the man covered with -his revolver, but the skill, grace, and strength of the fugitive were -so admirable, that, much to the discontent of his companions, he would -not fire. He remarks that in such a chase as this a white man has no -chance with an Aht, but that in a long race on the sea the white man -will win, his powers of endurance exceeding those of the savage. - -The possession of a canoe is an object of much ambition among the -Ahts, as it confers upon them a sort of distinction, and is looked -upon much as is the possession of a carriage among ourselves. Each -canoe is furnished with a baling instrument, which is always made of -wood. It is, in fact, a large spoon, the bowl being angular, and shaped -something like the gable of a house. - - * * * * * - -The domestic manners of the Ahts are, from Mr. Sproat’s account, -very interesting, and, as he remarks, if any one only knew their -strange language well, and had the stomach and the nose to live among -them during the winter months, he would obtain copious information -respecting them. - -Winter is the time mentioned, because during the summer the men are -generally dispersed in their pursuit of game, especially of salmon, -which they dry and preserve for winter use. But about November they -return to their homes, and a time of general feasting and enjoyment -sets in. Cooking goes on all day, and the revellers are perpetually -feasting, while during times of work they only eat twice in the day, -namely, in the morning and evening, and even then do not eat much at -each meal. Fish is the principal article of their diet, and dried -salmon is the food which is most plentiful, though they also eat the -flesh of the seal and the whale when they can get it. Of late years the -Ahts have obtained rice and molasses, and apparently with a bad effect -upon their health. - -The pots in which the food is cooked are made of wood, the water being -boiled, not by placing the pots on the fire, but by heating stones -red hot and throwing them into it. Rude as this mode of boiling water -may seem, it is much more rapid and effectual than might be imagined, -which will account for the wide spreading of the custom. In more than -one place, when the white man visited the natives for the first time, -nothing impressed them so strongly as the fact that, when he boiled -water, he put the vessel on the fire. The capability of making a vessel -that would endure such treatment had, in their eyes, something of the -supernatural. - -An old native illustrated well the astonishment which they themselves -felt when they saw a kettle placed on the fire for the first time. He -narrated the story to Mr. Duncan in the following quaint but forcible -language:--“The strangers landed, and beckoned the Indians to come to -them and bring them some fish. One of them had over his shoulder what -was supposed to be only a stick. Presently he pointed it at a bird that -was flying past--a violent ‘poo’ went forth--down came the bird to the -ground. The Indians died! As they revived, they questioned each other -as to their state, whether any were dead, and what each had felt. - -“The whites then made signs for a fire to be lighted. The Indians -proceeded at once according to their tedious practice of rubbing two -sticks together. The strangers laughed, and one of them, snatching up a -handful of dry grass, struck a spark into a little powder placed under -it. Instantly, another ‘poo’ and a blaze! The Indians died! After this, -the new-comers wanted some fish boiled. The Indians therefore put the -fish and some water into one of their square wooden buckets, and set -some stones in the fire, intending, when they were hot, to cast them -into the vessel, and thus boil the food. The whites were not satisfied -with this way. One of them fetched a tin kettle out of the boat, put -the fish and some water into it, and then, strange to say, set it on -the fire. The Indians looked on with astonishment. However, the kettle -did not consume, the water did not run into the fire. Then again the -Indians died!” - -Sometimes a man of consequence issues invitations for a solemn feast, -and on such an occasion he seizes the opportunity of showing his wealth -by the liberal distribution of presents, every individual present -receiving a share of the property. Consequently, a feast always affords -a scene of destruction. For example, Captain Mayne mentions that at one -feast which he witnessed, he recognized three sea-otter skins, for one -of which thirty blankets had been offered and refused. Yet, valuable -as they were, they were cut up into little pieces about three inches -by one, so that every guest might have a piece. As each blanket is to -the Aht the equivalent of a sovereign among ourselves, the amount of -waste may be imagined. Mr. Duncan, the successful missionary among -these people, relates several instances of the waste of property which -takes place both on these and other occasions. For example, a chief had -just built a house, and issued invitations for a great feast. “After -feasting, I heard he was to give away property to the amount of four -hundred and eighty blankets, of which one hundred and eighty were his -own property, and the three hundred were to be subscribed by his people. - -“On the first day of the feast, as much as possible of the property to -be given to him was exhibited in the camp. Hundreds of yards of cotton -were flapping in the breeze, hung from house to house, or on lines put -up for the occasion. Furs, too, were nailed up on the fronts of houses. -Those who were going to give away blankets or elk-skins managed to -get a bearer for every one, and exhibited them by making the persons -walk in single file to the house of the chief. On the next day, the -cotton which had been hung out was now brought on the beach, at a good -distance from the chief’s house, and there run out at full length, and -a number of bearers, about three yards apart, bore it triumphantly -away from the giver to the receivers. I suppose that about six to eight -hundred yards were thus disposed of. - -“After all the property the chief is to receive has been thus openly -handed to him, a day or two is taken up in apportioning it for fresh -owners. When this is done, all the chiefs and their families are called -together, and each receives according to his or her position. If, -however, a chief’s wife is not descended from a chief, she has no share -in this distribution, nor is she ever invited to the same feasts as her -husband. Thus do the chiefs and their people go on reducing themselves -to poverty. In the case of the chiefs, however, this poverty lasts but -a short time; they are soon replenished from the next giving away, but -the people only grow rich again according to their industry. One cannot -but pity them, while one laments their folly. - -“All the pleasure these poor Indians seem to have in their property is -in hoarding it up for such an occasion as I have described. They never -think of appropriating what they can gather to enhance their comforts, -but are satisfied if they can make a display like this now and then; so -that the man possessing but one blanket seems to be as well off as the -one who possesses twenty; and thus it is that there is a vast amount of -dead stock accumulated in the camp, doomed never to be used, but only -now and then to be transferred from hand to hand for the mere vanity of -the thing. - -“There is another way, however, in which property is disposed of even -more foolishly. If a person be insulted, or meet with an accident, or -in any way suffers an injury, real or supposed, either of mind or body, -property must at once be sacrificed to avoid disgrace. A number of -blankets, shirts, or cotton, according to the rank of the person, is -torn into small pieces, and carried off.” - -Sometimes a feast assumes a sacred character, and such festivals are -held during the latter half of the last month in the year, their object -being to induce the demons who have charge of the weather to give them -rain instead of snow. In one of these feasts, witnessed by Mr. Garrett, -the principal part was performed by a female chief, who lay on her back -in the middle of the house as if dead, while all the people assembled -were making a hideous noise, howling, wailing, and beating with sticks -the bench on which they sat, while a young man added to the hubbub by -drumming upon a wooden box. After a while the prostrate woman began -to show signs of life, and gradually assumed a sitting posture. In -this attitude she contrived to jump round the room, and exhibited some -extraordinary vagaries, the other occupants of the room alternating -dead silence with deafening uproar at signals from her hand. - -The costumes that are worn at such feasts are very remarkable articles, -especially the head-dresses that are worn by the chiefs. They take the -form of masks, and are cut out of solid wood, generally imitating the -heads of various birds and beasts, though they sometimes are carved -in the semblance of a grotesque human face. The specimens which are -shown in the illustrations on page 1357 will give a good idea of these -strange headdresses. One of them, which was presented to me by Lieut. -Pusey, is carved in imitation of a beaver’s head, and is tied on the -wearer’s head with strings. There are holes bored through the eyes, -by means of which the wearer is enabled to see, and these holes are -cleverly bored in a slanting direction, so as to coincide with the -pupil of the eye. Some of these masks are made with great goggle eyes -and large jaws. Both the eyes and the jaws are movable, and are worked -by strings that pass down the back, so that the wearer can make the -eyes roll and the jaws open and close without any apparent cause. - -Sometimes the masks are made in the form of birds, and by a similar -arrangement of cords, the birds can be made to turn their heads from -side to side, and to flap their wings while the wearer speaks. There is -a very remarkable specimen of these masks in the museum at Maidstone. -It is double, one mask within another. The outer mask is divided by -lines drawn from forehead to chin, down the centre of the nose, and -across the face, so that it is in four distinct pieces. The pieces all -work on hinges, and are so well fitted to each other that a spectator -could not suspect that they were not one solid piece. Suddenly, while -the wearer is dancing, he will fling all the pieces open, and discover -a second and more hideous mask beneath. - -When the chief wishes to pay an extraordinary compliment to a visitor, -he puts on a mask that is fitted with a number of porcupine quills. -Upon this head-dress he heaps a vast quantity of swan’s down, which -is retained in its position by the quills. He then dances up to the -visitor, and, as he retreats backward in the dance, gives a jerk with -his head, and sends the down flying over him. It is a point of honor -that the visitor should be kept enveloped in a shower of down, as if -he were in a snow-storm, and this can only be done by perpetually -dancing and nodding the head, which is kept well supplied with down by -attendants. - -White feathers and down always signify peace, and hence, when a man -sets off on a mission of peace to a neighboring tribe with whom there -has been a quarrel, he puts white down on his head, and knows that his -person will be as sacred as that of the bearer of a flag of truce in -civilized warfare. - -One of the dances practised by the Ahts displays a really wonderful -amount of ingenuity, and must take no little time to practise. It was -witnessed by Mr. Sproat, who describes it in the following terms. The -different dances are called Nooks in Aht language. This might be called -the “Doctor’s (Ooshtukyu) Nook.” A fine representation of it by the -artist is given on the following page. - -“During the song and dance, which at first seemed to present nothing -peculiar, a well-known slave (one, however, who was in a comparatively -independent position, being employed as a sailor on board the steamer -_Thames_), suddenly ceased dancing, and fell down on the ground -apparently in a dying state, and having his face covered with blood. He -did not move or speak, his head fell on one side, his limbs were drawn -up, and he certainly presented a ghastly spectacle. While the dance -raged furiously around the fallen man, the doctor, with some others, -seized and dragged him to the other side of the fire round which they -were dancing, placing his naked feet very near the flames. - -“After this a pail of water was brought in, and the doctor, who -supported the dying man on his arm, washed the blood from his face; the -people beat drums, danced, and sang, and suddenly the patient sprang -to his feet and joined in the dance, none the worse for the apparently -hopeless condition of the moment before. While all this was going on, I -asked the giver of the feast whether it was real blood upon the man’s -face, and if he were really wounded. He told me so seriously that it -was, that I was at first inclined to believe him, until he began to -explain that the blood which came from the nose and mouth was owing to -the incantations of the medicine man, and that all the people would be -very angry if he did not afterward restore him. - -“I then recalled to mind that in the early part of the day, before -the feast, I had seen the doctor and the slave holding very friendly -conferences; and the former had used his influence to get a pass for -the latter to be present at the entertainment, to which, probably, -he had no right to come. I feel sure that many of the Indians really -believed in this exhibition of the doctor’s power. When the affair -was over, many of the natives asked me what I thought of it, and -referred to it as if it must set at rest for ever any possible doubts -with regard to the abilities of their native doctors. The Indian, who -explained this and other performances to me, said that the cure was -not entirely owing to the doctor, but to the large body of dancers and -singers, who all ‘exerted their hearts’ to desire the recovery of the -sick man, and so procured the desired effect.” - -This simulated production of blood forms an element in several of the -Aht dances. In one of them a man, stripped even of his blanket, is -bound with his hands behind him, and driven about at the end of long -cords, while the spectators yell, shout, and hammer with sticks upon -wooden dishes and drums made of bear-skin. - -Suddenly the chief dashes among the people, brandishing a knife, and, -on seeing the bound man, gives chase to him, and to all appearance -drives the knife deeply into his back. Blood pours abundantly from the -wound, and the man rushes wildly about in search of shelter, followed -by the chief, who plunges his bloody weapon repeatedly into the man’s -back. Exhausted by his wounds and loss of blood, the victim staggers, -falls, and dies. His friends gather round the dead body, and carry it -outside the house, when it washes itself, and puts on its blanket. - -Mr. Sproat remarks of this dance that the illusion is absolutely -perfect, and the acting so lifelike, that the performers would make the -fortune of a minor theatre in London. The red liquid which simulates -blood is a mixture of red gum, resin, oil, and water; and is, indeed, -the material which is used for painting the inside of the canoes. - -Another of these “nooks” is called the seal dance. The performers take -off their blankets, and, though in the depth of winter, go into the -sea, and crawl upon the shore, imitating the movements of the seals as -they flounder along the ground. They proceed in the same manner until -they reach the houses, which they enter, and crawl about the fires, -which are purposely kept brightly blazing by being fed with oil. The -dance is finished by jumping up and dancing round the house until the -performers are tired. - -There is one dance which belongs specially to the Sesaht tribe, and, -absurd as it may seem, appears to have in it something of a religious -nature. It is peculiar to that tribe, and may not be omitted. While -the people are singing and dancing within the house, a number of the -performers clamber up the posts, push some of the roof-boards aside, -get on the roof, and dance there, making a noise like thunder. As the -dancers become fatigued, they descend from the roof and others take -their places, so that there is a constant stream of men ascending and -descending the roof. - -After the dance is over, an old man makes a speech to the owner of the -house, saying that he is aware that the roof-boards are damaged by the -dance, but at the same time the ceremony may not be omitted. A number -of men then come forward, and each presents the owner of the house with -a small stick, which is a token that the owner will redeem it with a -new roof-board as soon as possible. - -[Illustration: (1.) AN AHT DANCE. (See page 1366.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) INITIATION OF A DOG EATER. (See page 1371.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXLIV. - -VANCOUVER’S ISLAND--_Concluded_. - -THE AHTS AND NEIGHBORING TRIBES--_Concluded_. - - - ARCHITECTURE OF THE AHTS -- SEMI-NOMADIC CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE -- - THE PERMANENT FRAMEWORK, AND MOVABLE WALLS AND ROOF -- DIVISION OF - THE HOUSE -- RANK OF THE OCCUPANTS -- OBJECT AND MODE OF MIGRATION - -- PIPES OF THE AHT TRIBES -- LABOR EXPENDED IN THEIR MANUFACTURE -- - RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF THE TRIBES -- AN AHT PROMETHEUS -- SOCIETY OF THE - “ALLIED” -- THE MEDICINE MEN AND THEIR EDUCATION -- THE CANNIBALS AND - DOG-EATERS -- REVOLTING SCENES -- THE TWO CANNIBALS -- SACRED RATTLES - -- TERROR INSPIRED BY THE MEDICINE MEN -- DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD -- - RESPECT FOR THE CEMETERY. - -From the account of the Roof-dance in the preceding chapter, it is -evident that the houses are built very strongly, or they would not be -able to endure the violent stamping and jumping which constitute the -principal charms of the dance. The houses of the Ahts are constructed -after a very peculiar manner, the posts and framework being stationary, -and the roof and sides movable. The effect of this arrangement is to -enable the people to shift from one place to another. At each of the -spots to which they migrate they find the framework of their houses -ready for them, and all that they have to do is to carry with them the -roofs and walls. The mode of migrating will be presently described. - -The framework of the houses consists of stout posts about twelve feet -in diameter, and twelve feet or so in height, placed at distances of -twenty feet from each other. The top of the post is hollowed so as to -receive the cross pieces which connect them. A house is some eighty -feet in length, and the ridgepole which supports the roof is made of a -single tree trunk. The roof, which is gabled-shaped, but slopes gently -from the back to the front of the house, so as to throw off the rain, -is made of cedar boards, about five feet long and nearly two inches -thick. The walls are made of similar boards lashed to small upright -posts driven into the ground. - -Just below the roof a rude framework is extended, on which the -inhabitants keep their stores of food, their weapons, and similar -articles. About six feet from the walls, a strong stockade is erected, -so that each house becomes a sort of fortress. There are no windows, -and the only chimney is formed by removing one of the roof-boards above -the fireplace. In many of these houses, the large inside posts are -ornamented by having great faces carved upon them, face-carving being -an art in which these tribes excel, just as is the case with the New -Zealanders. Mr. Sproat mentions, that he has seen a row of such houses -extending for the third of a mile along a river’s bank, and that the -depth of the houses varied from twenty-five to forty feet. - -Inside the house, the earth is dug away for a foot or so in depth, -in order to give additional height to the interior. Every house is -partitioned off into several divisions, each of which is occupied by a -family, which is thus separated from the other inhabitants by a sort of -bulkhead about four feet high. These partitions are movable, so that on -occasion of a great festival they can be taken away, and the whole of -the space kept clear. There is a fire in the middle of each division, -and around it are placed wooden couches, about nine inches from the -floor, and covered with a whole series of mats by way of bedding. - -There is to each building one main entrance, and other small doors, -which are always in a corner of one of the divisions. The rank of the -different occupants is marked by the position which they occupy in the -house. For example, the chief of the house occupies the extreme end on -the left of the building, the next in rank lives in the corresponding -place at the other end, while the common people occupy the space -between the two great men. - -These houses are much more agreeable to the eye than to the nostrils. -Having no windows, and all the stores of salt fish and other provisions -being kept in them, the interior atmosphere is close, fishy, rank, and -pungent, the last quality being due to the wood smoke of the several -fires. Neither is the exterior air better than that of the interior, -for the ground is covered with heaps of putrefying heads, tails, and -bones of fish, decaying mollusks, and refuse of all kinds, which is -simply flung into heaps and never removed, the nostrils of the natives -being incapable of feeling any annoyance from the horrible odor that -arises from the decomposing heaps. - -The ownership of these houses is rather a complicated question. The -framework of the house is generally considered as being in several -divisions, each division being called after the name of the owner, -while the planks are the common property of the inhabitants. - -When the Ahts wish to move to another spot, which is done for the -purpose of changing to better fishing, hunting, and fruit grounds, -according to the time of year, they always migrate by water. They -place two large canoes about five or six feet apart, and connect them -together with the planks of the roof and walls, which thus form a -platform on which can be placed the stores and household goods. Mr. -Sproat remarks that he has seen this platform heaped to a height of -fourteen feet, only just enough space being left for the passengers. -As soon as they arrive at their destination, the travellers unpack -the boats, and, assisted by the slaves who have been sent forward in -readiness, fix the boards on the already existing framework, so that in -a very short time the house is ready for the occupants. - -These migrations have one beneficial effect. While the people have -deserted their villages, the birds, aided by the elements, the only -scavengers of Vancouver’s Island, clear away a considerable portion of -the heaps of putrefying rubbish, which would otherwise become too much -even for native endurance. - -In the meetings which are held within these houses the pipe naturally -plays an important part; and, as the pipes made by these tribes differ -from those of any other part of the world, a short description is -here given of them. Both in shape and material these pipes are most -remarkable. They seem to have been made for the express object of -expending the greatest possible amount of labor upon the clumsiest -possible pipe. I have seen and tried many of these pipes, and, except -that they draw the smoke very well, there is not a redeeming point -about them. - -In the first place, they are carved--stem and bowl--out of solid stone, -a sort of very dark slate. The upper figure in illustration No 2, on -page 1357, which represents one of these pipes in my collection, shows -the lightest and least cumbrous form of pipe. Although only eight -inches in length, it weighs six ounces, no trifle for a pipe of that -description. As is usually the case with these pipes, it is adorned -with a human figure and a human head. The figure evidently represents -a man seated in a canoe. On account of the details of dress, it seems -likely that it is intended to represent a native--possibly the carver -himself--in European costume, the features being of a strongly-marked -Indian type, while the dress is European. This pipe was presented to me -by Lieut. Pusey. - -Sometimes the natives absolutely run riot in pipe making, and expend -infinite labor in making pipes which look utterly unlike pipes, and -which cannot be smoked without the very greatest inconvenience. The -lower specimens represent two views of a pipe of this kind, belonging -to T. W. Wood, Esq., which has apparently been made for the purpose -of trying how many heads of men and birds could be compressed into a -certain space. As the reader may observe, the whole character of this -carving bears a very strong resemblance to the art of the ancient -Mexicans, so strong, indeed, that it might almost be passed off as a -specimen of that art. - -In total length it is a very little more than eight inches, but from -bowl to the mouth-piece it only measures five inches, the remaining -three inches being simply superabundant material. The number of heads -that the carver has contrived to introduce into this pipe is really -wonderful, the ingenuity of combination, together with force of effect, -being worthy of all praise, especially when the rudeness of the -workmanship is considered. Taken as a work of art, it is admirable; -taken as a pipe, it is detestable. It is so heavy that the mere -exertion of holding it is fatiguing, and it is so thick and clumsy that -it does not at all adapt itself to the lips. And, in so cold a climate, -to grasp or to put to the lips such a piece of hard, cold stone, must -involve very great inconvenience. - - * * * * * - -The religious ideas of the Aht tribes are, as may be expected, -exceedingly vague, and are rendered still more so by the reticence -which a savage always exhibits on such subjects. Mr. Sproat remarks -that he lived for two years among the Ahts, with his mind constantly -directed toward this subject, before he could discover whether the -people believed in any overruling power, or had any idea of a future -existence. He then proceeds to say that “a traveller must have lived -for many years among savages, really as one of themselves, before -his opinion as to their mental and spiritual condition is of any -value at all.” How true this statement is, none know better than the -missionaries, who find that even their most promising converts are -almost as unwilling to give information on such subjects as they were -during their state of heathenism. - -It is, however, ascertained that the Ahts really have a belief in a -deity and in a future state, and that they possess several legends on -these subjects. Some of these legends treat of a certain Quawteaht, -who made the earth and the animals, but would not give them fire, -this being concealed in the body of the cuttle-fish. In those days -they needed fire, because the Indians, who were afterward to people -the earth, were hidden in their bodies. At last the deer succeeded in -discovering the fire, and carried away some of it in the joint of his -hind leg. The reader will doubtless perceive the similarity of this -legend to the old myth of Prometheus. - -As far as can be understood, this Quawteaht is the chief of their -deities, but they have a whole host of minor divinities, who preside -over the sea, the woods, and their inmates, as well as rule the -elements. So, if a native sees a sudden breeze curl the surface of the -sea, he thinks it signifies the approval of some spirit; and if he -should hear a rustling in the woods for which he cannot account, or a -sound which he does not recognize, he immediately puts it down to the -presence of some demon or other. - -As might be expected, there are plenty of medicine men, who have great -power over the people, and are implicitly trusted by them. They have -to go through a long and unpleasant ordeal before they can be admitted -into the order of the “Allied,” as the medicine men call themselves. -When their education is nearly finished, they go into the bush alone, -and remain there for several days, fasting until they have received the -spiritual gifts. The society of the Allied is encouraged by the chiefs, -not from religious motives, but because they become enriched by it. No -one can become an Allied unless he possesses considerable wealth, the -whole of which he must give away before he can be admitted into the -society. The act of giving away his property is done as ostentatiously -as possible, the candidate being escorted by a large body of men, who -shout and make as great a noise as they can. In front of them goes the -candidate, with one end of a large rope round his waist, the other -end being held by fifteen or twenty men, who pretend that all their -strength is required in order to hold him back. - -Captain Mayne relates a curious anecdote respecting the doings of these -medicine men. He was called one evening to see a moon on the beach. -On arriving at the spot he found that the men had made a flat disk of -wax to represent the moon, and had painted a man upon it,--they having -the belief, which is still prevalent among the illiterate of our own -country, respecting a man who lives in the moon. They had lighted a -torch and placed it behind the artificial moon, so as to illuminate it, -and were supposed to be holding converse with its inhabitant, much to -the awe of the surrounding crowd. - -These medicine men seem to be divided into three parties, or sects. -One of them does not appear to be particularly distinguished, but the -other two gradually rise in circumstances of horror. The former sect is -called the Dog-eaters, a portion of whose initiation is described by -Mr. Duncan, and is illustrated on page 1367. - -“Early in the morning the pupils would be out on the beach or on the -rocks, in a state of nudity. Each had a place in front of his own -tribe, nor did intense cold interfere in the slightest degree. After -the poor creature had crept about, jerking his head and screaming for -some time, a party of men would rush out, and, after surrounding him, -would commence singing. The dog-eating party occasionally carried a -dead dog to their pupil, who forthwith commenced to tear it in the most -dog-like manner. The party of attendants kept up a low, growling noise, -or a whoop, which was seconded by a screeching noise made from an -instrument which they believe to be the abode of a spirit. - -“In a little time the naked youth would start up again, and proceed a -few more yards in a crouching posture, with his arms pushed out behind -him, and tossing his flowing black hair. All the while he is earnestly -watched by the group about him, and when he pleases to sit down, they -again surround him and commence singing. This kind of thing goes on, -with several little additions, for a time. - -“Before the prodigy finally retires, he takes a run into every house -belonging to his tribe, and is followed by his train. When this is -done, in some cases he has a ramble on the tops of the same houses, -during which he is anxiously watched by his attendants, as if they -expected his flight. By and by he condescends to come down, and they -then follow him to his den, which is signified by a rope made of red -bark being hung over the doorway, so as to prevent any person from -ignorantly violating its precincts. None are allowed to enter that -house but those connected with the art: all I know, therefore, of their -further proceedings is, that they keep up a furious hammering, singing, -and screeching, for hours during the day. - -Even this mode of initiation cannot be very pleasant, involving, as it -does, the devouring of raw dog-flesh; but it is nothing in comparison -to that of the most powerful and dreaded of the three sects, namely, -the cannibals. Mr. Duncan was also a witness to part of the initiation -of a cannibal Allied. - -In order to give his assistance to the ceremony, a chief ordered one -of his slaves, an old woman, to be killed, and her body flung into the -sea. As soon as this was done, the whole of the uninitiated population -left their houses and formed themselves into groups at a distance from -the fatal spot, lest they should also become victims, a fear for which -there was very good reason. Presently two bands of Allied men came -rushing along, producing the most hideous sounds, each being headed by -a candidate for membership. - -The two candidates advanced with a long creeping step, waving their -arms, and jerking their heads backward and forward, so as to make -their long hair wave in the breeze. They pretended for some time to -be seeking for the body, and at last they discovered it, and made a -simultaneous rush at it. In a moment they were closely surrounded by -their respective bands, but in a few minutes the crowd opened, and out -passed the two men, each bearing half the body of the murdered woman, -which they had actually torn in two with their hands and teeth alone. -They then began devouring the body, when the spectator was unable to -endure the sight any longer, and left the spot. - -These cannibal medicine men are the dread of their country. At the cost -of such revolting practices, as have been but very lightly touched, -they gain such a complete influence over the people, that they can do -exactly as they choose, no man daring to contradict them. Sometimes at -a feast one of them will be taken with a fit of inspiration, and dash -among the people, biting like a mad dog at every one whom he meets. -On such occasions it is thought very manly and praiseworthy of the -guests to welcome instead of repelling his attacks, and to offer their -arms or shoulders for him to bite. The Allied cannibal responds to the -invitation by biting at and swallowing a piece of the flesh, and the -man who offers it thinks himself honored in proportion to the size of -the piece that is removed. The wound thus made is not only productive -of excruciating pain, but is also dangerous, many men having died from -the effects of it. Yet they are willing to have both the pain and the -danger for the sake of the honor which is conferred upon them. - -The general public have very good reason for getting out of the way -when one of these cannibals chooses to make an excursion in search of -a human body. Should not one be found, the cannibal Allied who escort -their companions would think themselves bound to provide a corpse for -his eating, and would seize and kill the first person whom they might -meet. Therefore, when the sound of the horrid cannibal songs is heard -in the distance, the whole population of a village will desert their -houses, take to their canoes, and remain at a distance from the shore -until the danger is over for the time. - -These medicine men are considered all-powerful in the cure of the sick, -and are always called in when any one is ill. They almost invariably -say that the malady is local, and that it is due to some object or -other, which they can extract by their incantations. In the ceremonies -which they employ, they make much use of a rattle, the material of -which does not seem to be of much consequence, provided that it can -only make a noise. For example, a favorite form is a hollow wooden -case, carved like a bird or a frog, and containing a few stones. -Some rattles, however, are made on totally different principles, and -resemble the beetle-shell rattle of Guiana that is figured on page -1265. Captain Mayne saw one which was made of three or four dozen -puffin-beaks strung loosely together. - -Incisions are often made over the part affected, or the doctor uses -the actual cautery by means of a moxa, made of a pledget of dried -flax. These remedies often do have the effect of relieving pain, and -when that is the case, the patient and his friends present the doctor -with liberal gifts, all which, however, he is bound to return should a -relapse come on and the patient die. They even say that, when they are -violently excited by their incantations, they can see the soul of the -patient, which they say is in the shape of a fly, with a long curved -proboscis. One man, who had recovered from a dangerous illness, said -that he had seen his own soul, which the medicine man had caught as it -was escaping from the body, and had put back again. - -The noise which these medicine men make at their incantations is -almost indescribable. Mr. Sproat describes their howling as being -perfectly demoniacal, and says that no wild beast could utter sounds so -calculated to strike sudden horror into the heart. Even himself, though -a white man, and in perfect security, has often shuddered at the savage -yells of the mystery men. Indeed, their object is to keep up the dread -in which they are held, and, in order to do this, they must ever be -doing something to keep themselves before the eyes of the people. - -Sometimes they will assemble together on the outskirts of the village, -set up a furious howling, and then rush like a pack of wolves through -the village, the cannibals and dog-eaters tearing to pieces with their -teeth any corpses or dogs that they may find. Sometimes a single man -will leave the place and bury himself in the woods, whence he will -suddenly rush, quite naked, reduced to a skeleton through his long -fast, with his body and limbs covered with wounds inflicted by himself -in his mad violence, and with foam flying from his lips, while he -utters wild yells and beats furiously his drum or shakes his magic -rattle. As is the case in Africa, women as well as men can enter this -sacred order, and exercise quite as powerful an influence over the -people as do their male colleagues. - -Sometimes a man will leap up in the night terrified, and crying that -he sees a spirit. All within the house are at once in motion. The -women begin to sing, while the visionary tears his blanket to pieces, -snatches feathers from his pillow, eating some of them, and scattering -the others over his head. His nearest relation then makes incisions -in his legs and arms, receives the blood in a dish, and scatters it -over the place where the spirit is supposed to be standing. Should the -spirit withstand this exorcism, it is evident that he wants property. -Accordingly the friends of the visionary throw his property on the -fire; his clothes, his mats, and even the very boxes in which they were -kept, go to make up the demands of the spirit, which will not take its -leave until all the property has been destroyed. - - * * * * * - -The mode of disposal of the dead varies extremely among the different -tribes, and even in the same tribe is not always uniform. The bodies -of slaves and people of no consequence are simply taken to the -burial-ground--which is usually a small island--wrapped in mats, and -merely laid on the ground, covered with sticks and stones. The bodies -of chiefs and young girls of rank are placed in boxes, and hoisted -into the branches of trees, where they are allowed to remain. The rank -of the person is indicated by the height to which the body is raised, -that of a great chief or of his daughter being nearly at the top of -the tree, while that of an inferior chief will be on one of the lowest -branches. - -Over the coffin are thrown blankets and mats, and similar articles are -hung on the boughs of neighboring trees. They are always torn into -strips, partly perhaps as a sign of mourning, and partly to guard them -from being stolen. With the dead man is deposited all the property -which he has not given away before his death, except his best canoe, -his share of the roof and wall boards, his weapons, and his slaves, -all of which belong by right to his eldest son. In some cases even his -house is burned, and in others the posts are dug up, and the whole -house transported to another position. - -Near the bodies of chiefs are placed large wooden images intended -to represent the dead man. One of them, seen by Mr. Sproat, held a -skull in its hand, which it was grimly contemplating; another, which -represented a deceased orator, had its hand outstretched as in the act -of speaking; and a third was shown as if grasping a wolf. The relatives -often visit their burial-places. They come about dark, light a great -fire, and feed it with oil and other inflammable materials, while they -wail loudly at intervals. - -To the honor of these tribes, it may be said that they never disturb -the relics of the departed, even if they occupy the burial-ground of a -hostile tribe. In consequence of the mode of burial, nothing can have a -more dreary or forlorn look than an island which has been selected as a -burial-ground. On the branches of the trees are the mouldering bodies -of the dead, and on their boughs flutter the tattered remains of their -clothing. And on the ground the scene is no better, for it is occupied -with decaying boards, broken boxes, shattered canoes, rotten paddles, -and other emblems of decay. - -When the dead chief has been a man of very great importance, his emblem -or crest is either painted or carved. In the former case it is painted -on the coffin, but in the latter it is generally placed on a post or a -tree near the body. According to Mr. Duncan, if the crest should happen -to be an eagle or a raven, it is carved as if in the act of flying, and -fixed to the edge of the coffin with its wings spread, as if it were -typical of the escaping and aspiring spirit of the dead chief. - - - - -CHAPTER CXLV. - -ALASKA. - -MALEMUTES--INGELETES--CO-YUKONS. - - - LARGE STATURE -- THE TO-TOOK -- ORNAMENTS -- BAIDARRES -- UNDERGROUND - HOUSES -- MALEMUTE DANCE -- CHIEF ALEUYANUK -- INGELETES -- HOUSES - -- HONESTY -- CO-YUKONS -- DRESS -- MOURNING FOR THE DEAD -- WAKE - -- DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD -- APPEARANCE OF THE WOMEN -- AFFECTION FOR - CHILDREN -- COMMUNITY OF GOODS -- CHARACTER. - -The United States Government having recently purchased the territory of -Alaska, this work will be increased in value to the American public, -by including some account of the uncivilized tribes which are its most -numerous inhabitants. - -At the mouth of the Unalachleet River is the most northern settlement -on the coast, a Russian trading post. To the northwest of this post -Mr. Whymper found a large village of Malemute and Kaveak Indians. -They resemble the Esquimaux, except that they are a tall and stout -race. It is not unusual to find men among them six feet in height, -and some even taller than this. The men shave the crown of the head, -and are fond of an ornament called the To-took. It is made by pieces -of bone run through holes on either side of the face just below the -mouth. The ornaments of the women, who are stout and good-humored, are -a tattoo on the chin, beads hanging from their hair, and also leaden -or iron bracelets. Both sexes wear skin clothing. The coat has a hood -almost always, which is generally of wolf skin. Men and women alike -wear pantaloons of seal or reindeer skin, the women having the socks -attached and in one piece. The “baidarres” of these natives, similar -to the Esquimaux kajak, are admirably made. The frames are light and -strong, the skin covering being sewed with sinew, and the seams made -water-tight by fat rubbed into them. - -Their houses are usually underground, and have a tunnel, through which -one must crawl to enter them. A hole in the roof--which is just above -the surface of the ground--lets out the smoke. When there is no fire, -this aperture is closely covered with a skin. - -Mr. Whymper gives the following account of a dance to which he and his -party were invited:-- - -“On arriving at the doorway, we found a subterranean passage, two -and a half feet high, crawling through which we at last reached the -room,--dimly lighted by blubber lamps. The Indians who were to take -part in the dance, chiefly young men, were nude to the waist, and -wore seal, deerskin or cotton pantaloons, with tails of wolves or -dogs hanging behind, and feathers round their heads. The elders sat -on a bench or shelf, running round the entire building, and looked on -approvingly, while they consumed their own smoke, like the Tchuktchis, -by swallowing it, and getting partially intoxicated thereby. The women -brought in berries and fish in large ‘contogs,’ or wooden bowls. - -“The performance commenced by the actors ranging themselves in a -square, and raising these dishes of provisions to the four cardinal -points successively, and once to the skies, with a sudden noise like -‘swish!’ or the flight of a rocket. - -“Then came the feast; and that over, a monotonous chorus, with an -accompaniment of gongs, was started. The words of the song commenced, -‘Yung i ya, i ya, i ya!’ and continued throughout, ‘Yung i ya!’ Then -a boy sprang out on the floor; he was joined by a second, then a -third, till a circle of twenty was formed. Now they appeared violently -attracted together, and now as much repelled; now they were horrified -at one another’s conduct, and held up their arms in warning gestures, -and again all were friends and made pantomime of their happiness. In -this performance there was nearly as much done by arms and bodies, as -with feet. When there was a lull in the entertainment, small presents -were given to all the strangers invited.” - -The Malemutes and Kaveaks, though intermingling, and having similar -habits, manners, and customs, yet speak different dialects and inhabit -different parts of the territory. They are considered as superior to -the other Indian tribes of that region. The Malemute chief “Aleuyanuk,” -whom Mr. Whymper saw, “was a fine-looking old man, erect and soldierly, -and, wearing a mustache and imperial, his manners would not have -disgraced a civilized assembly.” - - -INGELETES. - -The Ingeletes speak a dialect entirely different from that of the -Malemutes,--one nearly allied to the Co-yukon. They are a stout, -noble-looking race, good-natured, and having considerable intelligence. - -Polygamy, though allowed, is not very common, and marriage is a -permanent relation, except occasionally, when the wife is barren or -has too many daughters. Female children not being prized so highly as -sons, in such instances the wife is sometimes dismissed. They live -in underground houses, such as have been described, and in mild, wet -weather, the passage-way is nothing but a sewer. The entrance being -covered with a skin, the mixture of foul smells inside, arising from -stale fish and meat, old skins, dogs, dirt and smoke, is sickening -and unendurable by any but an Indian. Mr. Whymper testifies to the -good temper of the children and the honesty of the people. “At their -villages our goods lay unguarded in our absence, and I cannot recall -a single case of proved dishonesty among them, although we found them -becoming more greedy in their demands for payment.” - - -THE CO-YUKONS. - -The Co-yukons are an interior tribe, and the largest on the Yukon, -which is the great river of the north, being 2,000 miles long, and -navigable 1,000 miles. They may be found on the banks of the Co-yukuk, -and other interior rivers. These Indians resemble the Ingeletes, -already mentioned, but have a more ferocious countenance. Their dress -is a double-tailed coat, one tail before, the other behind, and this -style, with some modifications, prevails for a thousand miles on the -Yukon. - -The dress of the women is cut more squarely, and they wear an ornament -of Hy-a-qua shells on the nose, which runs through a hole made in the -cartilage between the nostrils. It is a singular fact that higher up -the river it is the men only who wear this ornament. - -Among these tribes the period of mourning for the dead is one year, -the women during this time often gathering to talk and cry over the -deceased. At the end of the year, they have a feast or “wake,” which -is generally a queer compound of jollity and grief. One such scene, -to commemorate the death of a child, was witnessed by Mr. Whymper at -Nulato. “The poor old mother and some of her friends wept bitterly, -while the guests were gayly dancing round a painted pole, on which -strings of beads and some magnificent wolf skins were hung. They kept -up singing and dancing to a fashionable hour of the morning, and one -little savage, who had been shouting at the top of his lungs for hours, -got up the next day without any voice at all, a case of righteous -retribution. The decorations of the pole were divided among those who -took part in the ‘wake.’” - -Their method of disposing of the dead is not interment, but enclosure -in oblong boxes, raised on posts. These are sometimes ornamented with -strips of skin, and the possessions of the deceased, as the canoe, -paddles, &c., are placed on the top of the box. Smaller articles are -placed within the box. This four-post coffin is a custom also among the -coast tribes already described. The women are quite prepossessing in -appearance, are affectionate toward their children, and especially fond -of their first-born. They are good-natured and playful, snowballing -and rolling each other in the snow, sliding down hill on sledges or -snow-shoes, with the enthusiasm of children. - -There are other tribes, the names of which need only be mentioned, -viz: the Kotch-a-Kutchins (or lowland people), the Au Kutchins, -the Tatauchok Kutchins, Birch River and Rat River Indians. The -Zanana Indians (or knoll people), Mr. Whymper thinks are the most -unsophisticated of all the Indian tribes of the present day. Those he -saw “were gay with painted faces, feathers in their long hair, patches -of red clay at the back of their heads, covered with small fluffy -feathers, double-tailed coats and pantaloons of buckskin, much adorned -with fringes and beads, and elaborately worked fire-bags and belts.” -Many of them, as in other Indian tribes, wore through the nose the -Hy-a-qua shell as an ornament. The women of the upper tribes wear less -ornament than the men, and are compelled to do more drudgery than -those of the lower Yukon and coast of Alaska. - -Among the coast tribes, and especially on the Yukon, there is, to some -extent, a community of goods, the industrious hunter supplying the -village crowd. This is a custom so much practised that the hunter gets -no praise for his service. Some of the chiefs maintain their position -by frequent distributions of their effects, and the game which they, -being good hunters, have been able to take. “These chiefs are often -the worst clothed and worst fed of all the tribe. Such generosity is -expected as a matter of course. No man, woman, or child among them goes -unfed, unhoused, or unwarmed, if there be food, dwelling, or fire in -the settlement.” - -Among the tribes of Alaska, a system of slavery exists that can hardly -be surpassed for barbarism. They all buy and sell slaves. “Parents will -sell their children for three or four blankets or a few dollars, and -have no compunction of conscience for the use they may be put to in -the future. When one tribe goes to war with another, all the prisoners -taken by either tribe are called and used as slaves. When a chief or -any of his family dies, it is the custom to kill one or more of these -slaves, so that the chief or his deceased relative may have a servant -in the other world to wait on him. In 1868 an old chief of the Sitka -tribe died, and a few days before his death, when his relatives were -satisfied that he could live but a short time, they selected as a -victim for sacrifice a young, healthy, good-looking warrior, whom the -Sitka tribe had taken prisoner while at war with one of the tribes down -near Queen Charlotte’s Sound. The slave had been tied up two days about -the time the old chief died, and by some means some of his friends were -apprised of his condition, and immediately notified Gen. Davis that the -Indian slave was liable to be killed at any moment. Gen. Davis had one -of the chiefs brought before him, and after a long conversation about -the foolishness of such sacrifices, he agreed to let the slave go free; -and lest they might attempt to put into execution their original idea -of killing him, the General permitted the Indian to remain in the city, -where he would be protected. - -“Recently one of the chiefs tried hard to get hold of a half-breed, -named Evanoff, to sacrifice him. For the two preceding weeks this chief -would go up every day to Gen. Davis, stating that he had a slave in -the city, and wanting to know if he could not get him into Indiantown. -The General, supposing the chief wanted one of his Indians, told him -to go and get him, but it was not until the day in question that the -effort was made to get this man. It seems that Evanoff’s mother was -an Indian woman, but his father was a Russian, and when he was but -three years of age a lady named Bengeman adopted and brought him up. -The chief who claimed him had a child that was expected to die, and -afterward did die. Having no slave but his claim on Evanoff, he made -this effort to sacrifice him that he might be a servant for his child -in the spirit world. When the general saw whom the chief claimed, in -a very few well-timed words he taught him and several of his warriors -more about civilization than ever they knew before. He asked the chief -what he wanted with this man. Pointing to Evanoff, the Indian told him -his child was sick, and he only wanted him for three hours, and then -he would let him go free. The General told him that the best thing -he could do was to look on Evanoff as a free man already, and warned -the Indian if in the future he should ever attempt to trouble Evanoff -again, he would put him in the guard-house and keep him there. The -Indian went off well pleased, and stated that he would be a good Indian -thereafter. - -“The slaves are put to death as follows. As soon as a chief dies, the -slave is compelled to wash the body of the corpse; and is then taken -out and thrown flat on his back and held there, when a stick of wood is -placed across his throat, and two Indians sit down on each end of it, -and in this way strangle him to death. His body is then placed inside -a large pile of wood and burned to ashes. It is customary when a big -chief dies to put to death two or more slaves. All slaves taken in war -have to act as servants for the chiefs who own them.”--(_Sitka Times of -Nov. 27, 1869._) - -The Indian population of the whole territory of Alaska is estimated at -about 30,000. They are peaceful and quite capable, learning quickly, -and exhibiting considerable skill in their utensils and weapons. - - - - -CHAPTER CXLVI. - -SIBERIA. - -THE TCHUKTCHI--JAKUTS--TUNGUSI. - - - HOME OF THE TCHUKTCHI -- INDEPENDENCE -- DISTRICT OF THE RUSSIANS -- - CARAVANS -- INTOXICATION BY TOBACCO -- FAIR OF OSTROWNOJE -- GRAVITY - OF THE TCHUKTCHI -- THEIR TENT -- MADAME LEÜTT -- HOSPITALITY -- - SHAMANISM -- HUMAN SACRIFICE -- POLYGAMY -- MURDER OF THE AGED -- - JAKUTS -- THEIR ENDURANCE -- RESERVE -- SUPERSTITION -- THE TUNGUSI - -- DIFFERENT TRIBES -- CANNIBALISM -- ORNAMENTS -- BRAVERY -- DIET -- - SHAMANISM -- DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD -- A NIGHT’S HALT WITH THE TUNGUSI - IN THE FOREST -- SPORTS -- FAIRS. - -Crossing Behring’s Straits into Asia, we find in Northern Siberia -several peoples whose condition and character bring them within the -scope of this work. - -The home of the TCHUKTCHI is at the extreme north-eastern point of -Asia; bounded by the Polar Ocean on one side, and by Behring Sea on the -other. It is, as the few travellers who have visited it say, one of the -dreariest regions of the earth. There is no indication of summer before -July 20th, and winter begins about the 20th of August. The sea coasts -abound with seals, sea-lions, and walruses; while the wolf, reindeer, -and Arctic fox abound in the interior. In this cold, desolate region -dwell the only aboriginal race of Northern Asia that has resisted all -attempts of the Russian government to take away its independence. Dr. -Hartwig, in his sketch of this tribe, says: “The rulers of Siberia have -confined them within narrower limits, but they obey no foreign leader, -and wander unmolested, with their numerous reindeer herds, over the -naked tundras.” - -A natural distrust of their powerful neighbors has rendered them long -unwilling to enter into any commercial intercourse with the Russians, -and to meet them at the fair of Ostrownoje, a small town, situated not -far from their frontiers, on a small island of the Aninj, in 68° N. lat. - -From the East Cape of Asia, where, crossing Behring’s Strait in boats -covered with skins, they barter furs and walrus teeth with the natives -of America, the Tchuktchi come with their goods and tents drawn on -sledges to the fair of Ostrownoje. One of these caravans generally -consists of fifty or sixty families, and one fair is scarcely at an end -when they set off to make their arrangements for the next. - -Tobacco is the _primum mobile_ of the trade which centres in -Ostrownoje. Their pipes are of a peculiar character, larger at the -stem than the bowl, which holds a very small quantity of tobacco. In -smoking, they swallow the fumes of the tobacco, and often, after six or -eight whiffs, fall back, completely intoxicated for the time. - -But Ostrownoje attracts not only Tchuktchi and Russians; a great -number of the Siberian tribes, from a vast circuit of 1,000 or 1,500 -versts,--Jukahiri, Lamutes, Tungusi, Tschuwanzi, Koriacks,--also come -flocking in their sledges, drawn partly by dogs, partly by horses, for -the purpose of bartering their commodities against the goods of the -Tchuktchi. Fancy this barbarous assembly meeting every year during -the intense cold and short days of the beginning of March. Picture to -yourself the fantastic illumination of their red watch-fires blazing -under the starry firmament, or mingling their ruddy glare with the -aurora flickering through the skies, and add to the strange sight the -hollow sound of the Shaman’s drum, and the howling of several hundreds -of hungry dogs, and you will surely confess that no fair has a more -original character than that of Ostrownoje. - -The imperturbable gravity of the Tchuktch forms a remarkable contrast -with the greedy eagerness of the Russian trader. Although the Tchuktchi -have no scales with them, it is not easy to deceive them in the weight, -for they know exactly by the feeling of the hand whether a quarter of a -pound is wanting to the pound. The whole fair seldom lasts longer than -three days, and Ostrownoje, which must have but very few stationary -inhabitants indeed (as it is not even mentioned in statistical -accounts, which cite towns of seventeen souls), is soon after abandoned -for many months to its ultra-Siberian solitude. - -But before we allow the Tchuktchi to retire to their deserts, we may -learn something more of their habits by accompanying Mr. Matiuschkin -Wrangell’s companion on a visit to the ladies of one of their first -chiefs. “We enter the outer tent, or ‘wamet,’ consisting of tanned -reindeer skins supported on a slender framework. An opening at the -top to let out the smoke, and a kettle in the centre, announce that -antechamber and kitchen are here harmoniously blended into one. But -where are the inmates? Most probably in that large sack made of the -finest skins of reindeer calves, which occupies, near the kettle, the -centre of the ‘wamet.’ To penetrate into this _sanctum sanctorum_ of -the Tchuktch household, we raise the loose flap which serves as a -door, creep on all-fours through the opening, cautiously re-fasten the -flap by tucking it under the floor-skin, and find ourselves in the -reception or withdrawing-room,--the ‘polog.’ A snug box, no doubt, for -a cold climate, but rather low, as we cannot stand upright in it, and -not quite so well ventilated as a sanitary commissioner would approve -of, as it has positively no opening for light or air. A suffocating -smoke meets us on entering. We rub our eyes, and when they have at -length got accustomed to the biting atmosphere, we perceive, by the -gloomy light of a train-oil lamp, the worthy family squatting on the -floor in a state of almost complete nudity. Without being in the -least embarrassed, Madame Leütt and her daughter receive us in their -primitive costume. But, to show us that the Tchuktchi know how to -receive company, and to do honor to their guests, they immediately -insert strings of glass beads in their greasy hair. Their hospitality -equals their politeness; for, instead of a cold reception, a hot dish -of boiled reindeer flesh, copiously irrigated with rancid train-oil by -the experienced hand of the mistress of the household, is soon after -smoking before us. Unfortunately, our effeminate taste is not up to the -_haut goût_ of her culinary art, and while Mr. Leütt does ample justice -to the artistic talent of his spouse, by rapidly bolting down pieces as -large as a fist, we are hardly able to swallow a morsel.” - -Though most of the Reindeer or nomadic Tchuktchi have been baptized, -yet Wrangell supposes the ceremony to have been a mere financial -speculation on their part, and is convinced that the power of the -Shamans is still as great as ever. An epidemic had carried off a great -number of persons, and also whole herds of reindeer. In vain the -Shamans had recourse to their usual conjurations. The plague continued. -They consulted together, and directed that one of their most respected -chiefs, named Kotschen, must be sacrificed, to appease the irritated -spirits. Kotschen was willing to submit to the sentence, but none could -be found to execute it, until his own son, prevailed on by his father’s -exhortations, and terrified by his threatened curse, plunged a knife -into his heart, and gave his body to the Shamans. - -Polygamy is general among the Tchuktchi, and they change their wives -as often as they please. Still, though the women are certainly slaves, -they are allowed more influence, and are subjected to less labor, than -among many savages. Among other heathenish and detestable customs, is -that of killing all deformed children, and all old people as soon as -they become unfit for the hardships and fatigues of a nomad life. They -do not indulge in any needless cruelty, but stupefy the aged victim, by -putting some substance up the nostrils before opening a vein. Two years -before Wrangell’s arrival at Kolyma there was an instance of this in -the case of one of their richest chiefs. Waletka’s father became infirm -and tired of life, and was put to death at his own express desire, by -some of his nearest relations. - -The number of the Tchuktchi is greater than one might expect to find -in so sterile a country. According to the Russian missionaries, there -were, some years back, 52 ulusses or villages of the Onkilon (or -stationary Tchuktchi), with 1,568 tents, and 10,000 inhabitants, and -Wrangell tells us that the Tennygk (or Reindeer Tchuktchi), are at -least twice as numerous, so that the entire population of the land of -the Tchuktchi may possibly amount to 30,000. - - -JAKUTS. - -The Jakuts are the most energetic of these races, having reached a -higher civilization than the others in the same latitude, with the -exception of Iceland, Finland, and Norway. They are a pastoral people, -hospitable, possess considerable mechanical skill, and are so shrewd -and cunning that no Russian can compete with them. - -“Even in Siberia,” Wrangell says, “they are called ‘men of iron.’ Often -have I seen them sleeping at a temperature of 4° in the open air, and -with a thick ice rind covering their almost unprotected bodies.” - -Though reserved and unsocial, they are kind to strangers that need -assistance. They are the universal carriers to the east of the Lena. -Bidding defiance to the cold and the storm, fearing neither the gloom -of the forest nor the dangers of the icy stream, yet they are not -emancipated from the old belief in Schamanism--the dread of evil -spirits. They number about 200,000, and form the principal part of the -population of the vast and dreary province of Jakutsk. - - -THE TUNGUSI. - -This race having spread over East Siberia, driving before them the -Jakuts, Jukahiri, Tchuktchi, and other aboriginal tribes, were -conquered by the Russians, and are now as ignorant and uncivilized -as they were two hundred and fifty years ago. Dr. Hartwig, deriving -his information from Wrangell, the Arctic explorer, thus sketches the -traits of this people:-- - -“According to their occupations, and the various domestic animals -employed by them, they are distinguished by the names of Reindeer, -Horse, Dog, Forest, and River Tungusi; but, although they are found -from the basins of the Upper, Middle, and Lower Tunguska, to the -western shore of the sea of Ochotsk, and from the Chinese frontiers and -the Baikal to the Polar Ocean, their whole number does not amount to -more than 30,000, and diminishes from year to year, in consequence of -the ravages of the small-pox and other epidemic disorders transmitted -to them by the Russians. Only a few rear horses and cattle, the -reindeer being generally their domestic animal; and the impoverished -Tunguse, who has been deprived of his herd by some contagious disorder, -or the ravages of the wolves, lives as a fisherman on the borders -of a river, assisted by his dog, or retires into the forests as a -promyschlenik, or hunter.” - -Of the miseries which here await him, Wrangell relates a melancholy -instance. In a solitary hut, in one of the dreariest wildernesses -imaginable, he found a Tunguse and his daughter. While the father, with -his long snow-shoes, was pursuing a reindeer for several days together, -this unfortunate girl remained alone and helpless in the hut,--which -even in summer afforded but an imperfect shelter against the rain and -wind,--exposed to the cold, and frequently to hunger, and without the -least occupation. No wonder that the impoverished Tungusi not seldom -sink into cannibalism. Neither the reindeer nor the dogs, nor the wives -and children of their more fortunate countrymen, are secure from the -attacks and voracity of these outcasts, who, in their turn, are treated -like wild beasts, and destroyed without mercy. A bartering trade is, -however, carried on with them, but only at a distance, and by signs; -each party depositing its goods, and following every motion of the -other with a suspicious eye. - -The Russian government, anxious to relieve the misery of the -impoverished nomads, has given orders to settle them along the river -banks, and to provide them with the necessary fishing implements; but -only extreme wretchedness can induce the Tunguse to relinquish his free -life of the forest. His careless temper, his ready wit, and sprightly -manner, distinguish him from the other Siberian tribes,--the gloomy -Samoïede, the uncouth Ostiak, the reserved Jakut,--but he is said to -be full of deceit and malice. His vanity shows itself in the quantity -of glass beads with which he decorates his dress of reindeer leather, -from his small Tartar cap to the tips of his shoes. When chasing or -travelling on his reindeer through the woods, he of course lays aside -most of his finery, and puts on large water-tight boots, or sari, -well greased with fat, to keep off the wet of the morass. His hunting -apparatus is extremely simple. A small axe, a kettle, a leathern bag -containing some dried fish, a dog, a short gun, or merely a bow and -a sling, is all he requires for his expeditions into the forest. -With the assistance of his long and narrow snow-shoes, he flies over -the dazzling plains, and protects his eyes, like the Jakut, with a -net made of black horse-hair. He never hesitates to attack the bear -single-handed, and generally masters him. The nomad Tunguse naturally -requires a movable dwelling. His tent is covered with leather, or large -pieces of pliable bark, which are easily rolled up and transported -from place to place. The yourt of the sedentary Tunguse resembles -that of the Jakut, and is so small that it can be very quickly and -thoroughly warmed by a fire kindled on the stone hearth in the centre. -In his food the Tunguse is by no means dainty. One of his favorite -dishes consists of the contents of a reindeer’s stomach mixed with wild -berries, and spread out in thin cakes on the rind of trees, to be dried -in the air or in the sun. Those who have settled on the Wiluj and in -the neighborhood of Nertschinsk likewise consume large quantities of -brick tea, which they boil with fat and berries into a thick porridge, -and this unwholesome food adds, no doubt, to the yellowness of their -complexion. - -But few of the Tungusi have been converted to Christianity, the -majority being still addicted to Shamanism. They do not like to bury -their dead, but place them, in their holiday dresses, in large chests, -which they hang up between two trees. The hunting apparatus of the -deceased is buried beneath the chest. No ceremonies are used on the -occasion, except when a Shaman happens to be in the neighborhood, when -a reindeer is sacrificed, on whose flesh the sorcerer and the relatives -regale themselves, while the spirits to whom the animal is supposed -to be offered are obliged to content themselves with the smell of the -burnt fat. As among the Samoïedes or the Ostiaks, woman is a marketable -ware among the Tungusi. The father gives his daughter in marriage for -twenty or a hundred reindeer, or the bridegroom is obliged to earn her -hand by a long period of service. - -In East Siberia the Tungusi divide with the Jakuts the task of -conveying goods or travellers through the forests, and afford the -stranger frequent opportunities for admiring their agility and good -humor. On halting after a day’s journey, the reindeer are unpacked in -an instant, the saddles and the goods ranged orderly on the ground, and -the bridles collected are hung on branches of trees. - -Comfortably seated on his reindeer saddle, the traveller may now amuse -himself with the dances, which the Tungusi accompany with an agreeable -song; or, if he choose to witness their agility in athletic exercises, -it only costs him a word of encouragement and a small donation of -brandy. Two of the Tungusi hold a rope, and swing it with all their -might, so that it does not touch the ground. Meanwhile a third Tunguse -skips over the rope, picks up a bow and arrow, spans the bow and shoots -the arrow, without once touching the rope. Some particularly bold and -expert Tungusi will dance over a sword which a person lying on his back -on the ground is swinging about with the greatest rapidity. Should our -traveller be a friend of chess, the Tungusi are equally at his service, -as they are passionately fond of this noblest of games, especially in -the Kolymsk district. - -Like all other Siberian nomads, they visit, at least once a year, -the various fairs which are held in the small towns scattered here -and there over their immense territory, such as Kirensk, Olekminsk, -Bargusin and Ochotsk, which, before the opening of Amoor to trade, was -the chief port of East Siberia. - - - - -CHAPTER CXLVII. - -SIBERIA--_Concluded_. - -THE SAMOÏEDES AND OSTIAKS. - - - THEIR BARBARISM -- NUM, OR JILIBEAMBAERTJE -- SHAMANISM -- SAMOÏEDE - IDOLS -- SJADÆI -- HAHE -- THE TADEBTSIOS, OR SPIRITS -- THE TADIBES, - OR SORCERERS -- THEIR DRESS -- THEIR INVOCATIONS -- THEIR CONJURING - TRICKS -- REVERENCE PAID TO THE DEAD -- A SAMOÏEDE OATH -- APPEARANCE - OF THE SAMOÏEDES -- THEIR DRESS -- A SAMOÏEDE BELLE -- CHARACTER OF - THE SAMOÏEDES -- THEIR DECREASING NUMBERS -- TRADITIONS OF ANCIENT - HEROES -- OSTIAKS -- WHAT IS THE OBI? -- A SUMMER YOURT -- POVERTY OF - OSTIAK FISHERMEN -- A WINTER YOURT -- ATTACHMENT OF OSTIAKS TO THEIR - ANCIENT CUSTOMS -- ARCHERY -- APPEARANCE AND CHARACTER OF THE OSTIAKS. - -The Samoïedes, the neighbors of the Laplanders, are still farther -removed from civilized society, and plunged in even deeper barbarism. -The wildest tundras and woods of Northern Russia and Western Siberia -are the home of the Samoïede. With his reindeer herds he wanders over -the naked wastes, from the eastern coasts of the White Sea to the -banks of the Chatanga, or hunts in the boundless forests between the -Obi and the Jenissei. His intercourse with the Russians is confined -to his annual visit at the fairs of such miserable settlements as -Obdorsk and Pustosersk, where, far from improving by their company, -he but too often becomes the prey of their avarice, and learns to -know them merely as cheats and oppressors. Protestant missionaries -have long since brought instruction to the Laplander’s hut, but the -majority of the less fortunate Samoïedes still adhere to the gross -superstitions of their fathers. They believe in a Supreme Being,--Num, -or Jilibeambaertje,--who resides in the air, and, like the Jupiter of -old, sends down thunder and lightning, rain and snow; and as a proof -that something of a poetic fancy is to be found even among the most -savage nations, they call the rainbow “the hem of his garment.” As this -deity, however, is too far removed from them to leave them any hope of -gaining his favor, they never think of offering him either prayer or -sacrifice. But, besides Num, there are a great many inferior spirits, -or idols, who directly interfere in human concerns,--capricious beings, -who allow themselves to be influenced by offerings, or yield to magical -incantations; and to these, therefore, the Samoïede has recourse when -he feels the necessity of invoking the aid or averting the wrath of a -higher power. - -The chief of all Samoïede idols is in the island of Waygatz,--a cold -and melancholy Delos,--where it was already found by old Barentz. This -idol is a mere block of stone, with its head tapering to a point. -It has thus been fashioned, not by a mortal artist, but by a play -of nature. After this original the Samoïedes have formed many idols -of stone or wood of various sizes, which they call “Sjadæi,” from -their possessing a human physiognomy (sja). These idols they dress -in reindeer skins, and ornament them with all sorts of colored rags. -But a resemblance to the human form is not the necessary attribute -of a Samoïede idol; any irregularly shaped stone or tree may be thus -distinguished. - -If the object is small, the savage carries it everywhere about with -him, carefully wrapped up; if too cumbersome to be transported, it -is reserved as a kind of national deity. As with the Ostiaks, each -Samoïede tribe has in its train a peculiar sledge,--the Hahengan,--in -which the household idols (or Hahe) are placed. One of these Penates -protects the reindeer, another watches over the health of his -worshippers, a third is the guardian of their connubial happiness, a -fourth takes care to fill their nets with fish. Whenever his services -are required, the Hahe is taken from his repository, and erected in the -tent or on the pasture ground, in the wood or on the river’s bank. - -His mouth is then smeared with oil or blood, and a dish with fish -or flesh is set before him, in the full expectation that his good -offices will amply repay the savory repast. When his aid is no longer -necessary, he is put aside without any further ceremony, and as little -noticed as the Madonna of the Neapolitan fisherman after the storm has -ceased. - -The Hahe, or idols, are very convenient objects of reverence to the -Samoïede, as he can consult them, or ask their assistance, without -being initiated in the secrets of magic; while the Tadebtsios, or -invisible spirits, which everywhere hover about in the air, and are -more inclined to injure than to benefit man, can only be invoked by a -Tadibe, or sorcerer, who, like the Cumæan sibyl, works himself into a -state of ecstatic frenzy. When his services are required, the first -care of the Tadibe is to invest himself with his magical mantle,--a -kind of shirt made of reindeer leather, and hemmed with red cloth. The -seams are covered in a similar manner, and the shoulders are decorated -with epaulettes of the same gaudy material. A piece of red cloth veils -the eyes and face,--for the Tadibe requires no external organs of sight -to penetrate into the world of spirits,--and a plate of polished metal -shines upon his breast. - -Thus accoutred, the Tadibe seizes his magical drum, whose sounds summon -the spirits to his will. Its form is round, it has but one bottom, made -of reindeer skin, and is more or less decorated with brass rings, and -other ornaments, according to the wealth or poverty of its possessor. -During the ceremony of invocation, the Tadibe is generally assisted by -a disciple, more or less initiated in the magic art. They either sit -down, or walk about in a circle. The chief sorcerer beats the drum, at -first slowly, then with increasing violence, singing at the same time -a few words to a mystic melody. The disciple immediately falls in, and -both repeat the same monotonous chant. - -At length the spirits appear, and the consultation is supposed to -begin; the Tadibe from time to time remaining silent, as if listening -to their answers, and but gently beating his drum, while the assistant -continues to sing. Finally, this mute conversation ceases, the song -changes into a wild howling, the drum is violently struck, the eye of -the Tadibe glows with a strange fire, foam issues from his lips, when -suddenly the uproar ceases, and the oracular sentence is pronounced. -The Tadibes are consulted, not only for the purpose of recovering a -strange reindeer, or to preserve the herd from a contagious disorder, -or to obtain success in fishing. The Samoïede, when a prey to illness, -seeks no other medical advice; and the sorcerer’s drum either scares -away the malevolent spirits that cause the malady, or summons other to -the assistance of his patient. - -Besides dealing with the invisible world, the Tadibe does not neglect -the usual arts of an expert conjurer, and knows by this means how to -increase his influence over his simple-minded countrymen. One of his -commonest tricks is similar to that which has been practised with so -much success by the brothers Davenport. He sits down, with his hands -and feet bound, on a reindeer skin stretched out upon the floor, and, -the light being removed, begins to summon the ministering spirits to -his aid. Strange, unearthly noises now begin to be heard; bears growl, -snakes hiss, squirrels rustle about the hut. At length the tumult -ceases, the audience anxiously awaits the end of the spectacle, when -suddenly the Tadibe, freed from his bonds, steps into the hut, no one -doubting that the spirits have set him free. - -As barbarous as the poor wretches who submit to his guidance, the -Tadibe is incapable of improving their moral condition, and has no wish -to do so. Under various names,--Schamans among the Tungusi, Angekoks -among the Esquimaux, medicine-men among the North American Indians,--we -find similar magicians or impostors assuming a spiritual dictatorship -over all the Arctic nations of the Old and the New World, wherever -their authority has not been broken by Christianity or Buddhism. This -dreary faith still extends its influence over at least half a million -of souls, from the White Sea to the extremity of Asia, and from the -Pacific to Hudson’s Bay. - -Like the Ostiaks and other Siberian tribes, the Samoïedes honor the -memory of the dead by sacrifices and other ceremonies. They believe -that their deceased friends have still the same wants and pursue the -same occupations as when in the land of the living; and thus they place -in or about their graves a sledge, a spear, a cooking-pot, a knife, an -axe, etc., to assist them in procuring and preparing their food. At -the funeral, and for several years afterward, the relations sacrifice -reindeer over the grave. When a person of note, a prince, a Starschina, -the proprietor of numerous herds of reindeer, dies (for even among the -miserable Samoïedes we find the social distinctions of rich and poor), -the nearest relations make an image, which is placed in the tent of the -deceased, and enjoys the respect paid to him during his lifetime. At -every meal the image is placed in his former seat, and every evening it -is undressed and laid down in his bed. During three years the image is -thus honored, and then buried; for by this time the body is supposed to -be decayed, and to have lost all sensation of the past. The souls of -the Tadibes, and of those who have died a violent death, alone enjoy -the privilege of immortality, and after their terrestrial life hover -about in the air as unsubstantial spirits. - -Like the Ostiaks, the Samoïedes consider the taking of an oath as an -action of the highest religious importance. When a crime has been -secretly committed against a Samoïede, he has the right to demand an -oath from the suspected person. - -If no wooden or stone Hahe is at hand, he manufactures one of earth or -snow, leads his opponent to the image, sacrifices a dog, breaks the -image, and then addresses him with the following words: “If thou hast -committed this crime, then must thou perish like this dog.” The ill -consequences of perjury are so much dreaded by the Samoïedes,--who, -though they have but very faint ideas of a future state, firmly believe -that crime will be punished in this life: murder with violent death, -or robbery by losses of reindeer,--that the true criminal, when called -upon to swear, hardly ever submits to the ceremony, but rather at once -confesses his guilt, and pays the penalty. - -The most effectual security for an oath is that it should be solemnized -over the snout of a bear,--an animal which is highly revered by all -the Siberian tribes, from the Kamschatkans to the Samoïedes, as well -as by the Laplanders. Like the Laplanders, they believe that the bear -conceals under his shaggy coat a human shape with more than human -wisdom, and speak of him in terms of the highest reverence. Like the -Lapps, also, they will drive an arrow or a bullet through his skin; but -they preface the attack with so many compliments that they feel sure of -disarming his anger. - -The appearance of the Samoïedes is as wild as the country which they -inhabit. The dwarfish stature of the Ostiak or the Lapp, thick lips, -small eyes, a low forehead, a broad nose, so much flattened that the -end is nearly upon a level with the bone of the upper jaw (which is -strong and greatly elevated), raven-black, shaggy hair, a thin beard, -and a yellow-brown complexion, are their characteristic features, and -in general they do nothing to improve a form which has but little -natural beauty to boast of. The Samoïede is satisfied if his heavy -reindeer dress affords him protection against the cold and rain, and -cares little if it be dirty or ill-cut; some dandies, however, wear -furs trimmed with cloth of a gaudy color. The women, as long as they -are unmarried, take some pains with their persons; and when a Samoïede -girl, with her small and lively black eyes, appears in her reindeer -jacket tightly fitting round the waist, and trimmed with dog-skin, in -her scarlet moccasins, and her long, black tresses, ornamented with -pieces of brass or tin, she may well tempt some rich admirer to offer a -whole herd of reindeer for her hand. For among the Samoïedes no father -ever thinks of bestowing a portion on his daughter; on the contrary, -he expects from the bridegroom an equivalent for the services which he -is about to lose by her marriage. The consequence of this degrading -custom is that the husband treats his consort like a slave, or as -an inferior being. A Samoïede, who had murdered his wife, was quite -surprised at being summoned before a court of justice, for what he -considered a trifling offence; “he had honestly paid for her,” he said, -“and could surely do what he liked with his own.” - -The senses and faculties of the Samoïedes correspond to their mode of -life as nomads and hunters. They have a piercing eye, delicate hearing, -and a steady hand; they shoot an arrow with great accuracy, and are -swift runners. - -The Samoïede is good-natured, melancholy, and phlegmatic. He has, -indeed, but indistinct notions of right and wrong, of good and evil; -but he possesses a grateful heart, and is ready to divide his last -morsel with his friend. Cruelty, revenge, the darker crimes that -pollute so many of the savage tribes of the tropical zone, are foreign -to his character. Constantly at war with a dreadful climate, a prey to -ignorance and poverty, he regards most of the things of this life with -supreme indifference. - -A common trait in the character of all Samoïedes is the gloomy view -which they take of life and its concerns; their internal world is as -cheerless as that which surrounds them. True men of ice and snow, they -relinquish, without a murmur, a life which they can hardly love, as it -imposes upon them many privations, and affords them but few pleasures -in return. - -The entire number of the European and Asiatic Samoïedes is estimated -at no more than about 10,000, and this number, small as it is when -compared to the vast territory over which they roam, is still -decreasing from year to year. Before their subjugation by the Russians, -the Samoïedes were frequently at war with their neighbors, the Ostiaks, -the Woguls, and the Tartars, and the rude poems which celebrate the -deeds of the heroes of old are still sung in the tents of their -peaceful descendants. The _minstrel_, or _troubadour_,--if I may be -allowed to use these names while speaking of the rudest of mankind,--is -seated in the centre of the hut, while the audience squat around. His -gesticulations endeavor to express his sympathy with his hero. His -body trembles, his voice quivers, and during the more pathetic parts -of his story, tears start to his eyes, and he covers his face with his -left hand, while the right, holding an arrow, directs its point to the -ground. The audience generally keep silence, but their groans accompany -the hero’s death; or when he soars upon an eagle to the clouds, and -thus escapes the malice of his enemies, they express their delight by a -triumphant shout. - - -THE OSTIAKS. - -What is the Obi? “One of the most melancholy rivers on earth,” say the -few European travellers who have ever seen it roll its turbid waters -through the wilderness; “its monotonous banks a dreary succession of -swamps and dismal pine forests, and hardly a living creature to be -seen, but cranes, wild ducks, and geese.” If you address the same -question to one of the few Russians who have settled on its banks, he -answers, with a devout mien, “Obi is our mother”; but if you ask the -Ostiak, he bursts forth in a laconic but energetic phrase, “Obi is the -god whom we honor above all other gods.” - -To him the Obi is a source of life. With its salmon and sturgeon he -pays his taxes and debts, and buys his few luxuries; while the fishes -of inferior quality which get entangled in his net he keeps for his -own consumption and that of his faithful dog, eating them mostly raw, -so that the perch not seldom feels his teeth as soon as it is pulled -out of the water. In spring, when the Obi and its tributaries burst -their bonds of ice, and the floods sweep over the plains, the Ostiak is -frequently driven into the woods, where he finds but little to appease -his hunger. At length, however, the waters subside, the flat banks -of the river appear above their surface, and the savage erects his -summer hut close to its stream. This hovel has generally a quadrangular -form, low walls, and a high-pointed roof, made of willow branches -covered with large pieces of bark. These, having first been softened -by boiling, are sewed together, so as to form large mats or carpets, -easily rolled up and transported. The hearth, a mere hole inclosed -by a few stones, is in the centre, and the smoke escapes through an -aperture at the top. Close to the hut there is also, generally, a small -store-house erected on high poles, as in Lapland; for the provisions -must be secured against the attacks of the glutton, the wolf, or the -owner’s dogs. - -At the beginning of winter the Ostiaks retire into the woods, where -they find, at least, some protection against the Arctic blasts, and are -busy hunting the sable or squirrel; but as fishing affords them at all -times their chief food, they take care to establish their winter huts -on some eminence above the reach of the spring inundations, near some -small river, which, through holes made in the ice, affords their nets -and anglers a precarious supply. Their winter yourt is somewhat more -solidly constructed than their summer residence, as it is not removed -every year. It is low and small, and its walls are plastered with clay. -Light is admitted through a piece of ice inserted in the wall or on the -roof. - -Besides those who live solely upon fishes and birds of passage, there -are other Ostiaks who possess reindeer herds, and wander in summer to -the border of the Polar Sea, where they also catch seals and fish. When -winter approaches, they slowly return to the woods. Finally, in the -more southerly districts, there are some Ostiaks who, having entirely -adopted the Russian mode of life, cultivate the soil, keep cattle, or -earn their livelihood as carriers. - -In general, however, the Ostiak, like the Samoïede, obstinately -withstands all innovations, and remains true to the customs of his -forefathers. He has been so often deceived by the Russians that he is -loth to receive the gifts of civilization from their hands. He fears -that if his children learn to read and write, they will no longer be -satisfied to live like their parents, and that the school will deprive -him of the support of his age. He is no less obstinately attached to -the religion of his fathers, which in all essential points is identical -with that of the Samoïedes. In some of the southern districts, along -the Irtysch, at Surgut, he has indeed been baptized, and hangs up -the image of a saint in his hut, as his Russian pope or priest has -instructed him to do; but his Christianity extends no further. Along -the tributaries of the Obi, and below Obdorsk, he is still plunged in -Schamanism. - -Like the Samoïedes, the Ostiaks, whose entire number amounts to about -25,000, are subdivided into tribes, reminding one of the Highland -clans. Each tribe consists of a number of families, of a common -descent, and sometimes comprising many hundred individuals, who, -however distantly related, consider it a duty to assist each other in -distress. - -The Ostiaks are excellent archers, and, like all the other hunting -tribes of Siberia, use variously constructed arrows for the different -objects of their chase. - -They are generally of a small stature, and most of them are -dark-complexioned, with raven-black hair like the Samoïedes; some of -them, however, have a fairer skin and light-colored hair. They are a -good-natured, indolent, honest race; and though they are extremely -dirty, yet their smoky huts are not more filthy than those of the -Norwegian or Icelandic fishermen. - -As among the Samoïedes, the women are in a very degraded condition, the -father always giving his daughter in marriage to the highest bidder. -The price is very different, and rises or falls according to the -circumstances of the parent; for while the rich man asks fifty reindeer -for his child, the poor fisherman is glad to part with his daughter for -a few squirrel-skins and dried sturgeon. - - - - -CHAPTER CXLVIII. - -INDIA. - -THE SOWRAHS AND KHONDS. - - - LOCALITY OF THE SOWRAH TRIBE -- GENERAL APPEARANCE -- THE TARTAR - CHARACTER OF THE FEATURES -- DRESS OF THE MEN, THEIR SCANTY COSTUME - AND PLENTIFUL ORNAMENTS -- CURIOUS EAR-RINGS -- DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- - MODE OF OBTAINING CLOTHES FOR WINTER USE -- WEAPONS OF THE SOWRAHS - -- THEIR COURAGE, AND THE APPREHENSION WHICH THEY EXCITE -- A SOWRAH - WEDDING -- RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF THE SOWRAHS -- THEIR TRUTHFULNESS -- - THE KHONDS -- DRESS AND APPEARANCE -- THE KHOND POCKET -- FEATURES OF - THE WOMEN -- THE MERIAH SACRIFICE AND ITS OBJECT -- PROCURING OF THE - VICTIM -- VARIOUS MODES OF PERFORMING THE SACRIFICE -- SUBSTITUTE FOR - THE MERIAH -- STRANGE USE OF BRACELETS -- THE MERIAHS’ INDIFFERENCE - TO THEIR FATE -- INFANTICIDE -- WEAPONS OF THE KHONDS -- DEATH OF A - BEAR -- PRIDE OF THE KHONDS -- SUPERSTITION -- BELIEF IN THE POWER OF - TRANSFORMATION -- A KHOND MARRIAGE. - -The reader may remember that the Andaman Islands trench closely upon -the shores of India, thus bringing closely together the two phases of -utter savagery that never has advanced in the scale of humanity, and of -a civilization which has advanced to the utmost limits of which it is -capable. In the following pages I propose to give a brief account of -various phases of Indian life, throwing most emphasis upon those which -trench least upon civilization, as being most akin to the objects of -this work. - -From the figures which illustrate this country, and which are all taken -from photographs, the reader will notice the very distinct type of man -which is exhibited throughout India; and though in some of the tribes -there is a facial resemblance to the Australian type, and in others to -the Mongolian, it is impossible to mistake an entire figure in either -instance. We will begin with those parts of India which are the least -civilized, and in which the inhabitants retain most of their aboriginal -manners and customs. - - * * * * * - -There is a remarkable hill tribe of India which deserves a short -description, as the people seem to have preserved the original -characteristics of their race better than any other inhabitants of the -country. They are called Sowrahs, and live in a tract of country about -lat. 18° 30´ N., and long. 72° 30´ E. - -The Sowrahs are a tolerably good-looking tribe, some of the girls -being even handsome, were not their faces disfigured by the nose -rings, of which one woman will often wear three. The men, as is the -case with all the Indian tribes, are slenderly built, and appear to be -devoid of muscles, especially in the legs. This apparent slightness, -however, conceals great muscular power, as has often been shown in the -skirmishes which their predatory habits constantly entail upon them. In -one of these skirmishes, a Sowrah who had been taken prisoner suddenly -snatched a bayonet out of the hands of his captor, and bent the blade -double. - -There is about the features of the Sowrahs a decidedly Tartar look, -which increases with age, and is marked most strongly in the men. Some -photographs of them now before me exhibit this characteristic very -distinctly marked, and in one case so strongly that, but for color and -the mode of dressing the hair, the face might easily be mistaken for -those of a genuine Tartar. Indeed, Mr. Hooper, from whose paper this -account is condensed, thinks that they may have a Tartar origin. - -One remarkable point about the Sowrahs is, that they have no -distinction of caste, though they are divided into two distinct -classes, the Hill Sowrahs and the Sowrahs of the Plain. The latter are -comparatively civilized, and live in villages, and it is only of the -former that this work will treat. - -The dress of the Sowrahs is primitive enough. The men wear nothing but -the “languti,” _i. e._ a narrow strip of cloth passing round the waist, -through the legs, and tucked into the waistband. They are, however, -very fond of ornaments, though they care so little about dress, and -have their necks loaded with beads, and their ears and nostrils -filled with rings. A photograph of one of these men shows that he is -wearing no less than twenty-seven bead necklaces, as well as a broad -brass collar. Besides the ordinary ear-rings, he wears an ornament -which seems rather popular among the Sowrahs. A hole is bored in the -upper part of the ear, and through it is passed one end of a string -almost four inches in length, to the other end of which is attached a -glittering bead about as large as a walnut. Some of the Sowrahs also -thread small beads upon the string. - -The hair of the men is allowed to grow to a considerable length, and -on festival days it is gathered into a knot at the back of the head, -and adorned with feathers, mostly those of the peacock. This mode of -dressing the hair gives a very effeminate look to the countenance, and -on seeing a photograph of the face alone, especially if it be that of a -young man, it is not very easy at a hasty glance to discover whether it -is the portrait of a man or woman. - -The dress of the women consists of a cloth wrapped round the waist. -Those women who have been photographed wear long calico cloths wrapped -round them from shoulder to knee after the ordinary Indian fashion; but -it is evident that they have borrowed these cloths for the occasion, -and so, after the custom of all uncivilized people, have contrived, -through anxiety to look their best, to baffle the real object of the -photographer, _i. e._ to represent them as they really appear. Like the -men, they wear an abundance of necklaces, and also are fond of simple -bracelets, consisting of broad metal bands wound spirally round the -wrists. The hair is parted down the middle, but no particular care is -expended upon it. - -When the colder weather comes on, and the Sowrahs want more clothing, -they do not make it, but have recourse to the simple plan of waylaying -travellers, killing them, and taking their garments. In these -robberies, as well as in the skirmishes to which they often tend, the -Sowrahs chiefly use the bow and arrow. The bow is a comparatively weak -one, only being a yard or so in length, and having a string made of -the outer coating of the bamboo. The arrows are of reed, armed with a -flat, many-barbed iron head. The Sowrahs always lie in wait for their -victims, and direct their aim at the stomach and legs, so that the -wounds are always dangerous, and generally mortal. - -They also carry a kind of battle-axe. They are a brave as well as a -warlike people, and are the terror of the inhabitants of the plains. -Even the Khonds, who will be presently described, ready as they are to -fight among each other, and skilled as they are in the use of the bow -and the battle-axe, stand in awe of the Sowrahs, and do not like to be -drawn into a quarrel with them. They are especially afraid of these -enemies, because the favorite mode of attack with the Sowrahs is to -make a raid under cover of night, and, after securing all the plunder -they can seize, and doing all the harm in their power, to return to -their hill fastnesses as rapidly as they issued from them. - -General Campbell thinks that their mode of life may have something -to do with this superiority, and that their more abstemious and less -dissipated life renders them stronger and more enduring than their -self-indulgent neighbors. In some places, Sowrahs and Khonds dwell -together in tolerable amity, but both of the tribes, although they may -derive their origin from the same source, and both assert themselves to -be the aboriginal inhabitants of the land, and to have a right to its -possession, preserve their own characteristic differences so rigidly -that there is no difficulty in distinguishing a Sowrah from a Khond. - - * * * * * - -The ceremony of marriage among the Sowrahs, illustrated on the -following page, is thus described by Mr. Hooper: “A young man, or his -friends for him, having selected a bride, messengers are sent to her -parents, and finally the young man goes, bearing a pot of toddy, or -other present. If the consent of the parents is obtained, the ceremony -is commenced by fixing three posts in the ground, between which the -bride and bridegroom, with their respective friends, assemble, and a -feast is commenced at which nearly every person gets drunk upon toddy. - -“The bride and bridegroom sit together, while turmeric water is poured -on their heads. Presents of cloth, beads, rings, etc., are exchanged, -fowls, and if possible sheep, are sacrificed to propitiate the demons, -and the flesh is then cooked, made up into balls with some sort of -grain, and distributed among the party. On these occasions they all -join in a dance, which seems to consist principally in hopping from one -leg to the other, at each movement snapping their fingers and uttering -an ejaculation, while at intervals the whole of the dancers come -bumping together, and then separate. - -“If the parents of the bride refuse to consent to the marriage, it -frequently happens that the friends of the bridegroom watch their -opportunity, and if the girl is found alone, they seize and carry her -off. The relatives of the girl then pursue and attack the opposite -party, but, even though successful in retaking her, they are prohibited -by their customs from giving her in marriage to any one else. Should -such a thing be attempted, the parties would have to fight it out in a -more serious manner with bows and arrows.” - -[Illustration: (1.) A SOWRAH MARRIAGE. (See page 1386.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) MERIAH SACRIFICE. (See page 1391.)] - -The reader will doubtless recognize the similarity of these marriage -rites to those which are practised by savage tribes in many parts of -the world. - -In the account of the wedding, the propitiation of the demons is -mentioned. This is the key to their religious system, such as it is, -and explains the reason for the absence of caste. The Sowrahs of the -Plains seem to have a rather better religious system, but that of the -Hill Sowrahs is simply demonolatry. They seem to have but little notion -of worship, the only ceremonies which have been observed taking place -at harvest time. When the crops reach maturity, the owners set small -stones upright in the earth as emblems of the presiding demons, and -lay before them little heaps of each crop. After the offerings have -remained there for some little time, they are consumed at a feast to -which the proprietor of the crops invites his relatives and friends. - -When a Sowrah dies, his body is burned, the ashes buried, and a small -building erected over the spot. Five days after the burial a pot of -toddy is laid on the grave, round which are placed a number of leaves -representing the ancestors of the deceased. A little toddy is poured -upon each leaf, and the remainder is drunk by the people who have -assisted at the ceremony. A somewhat similar rite, but accompanied with -feasting, is celebrated at the end of the first and fourth years after -burial. - -According to General Campbell, they do not destroy their female -infants, as is done by too many of the Indian tribes, neither do they -practise human sacrifice. Yet they will sometimes participate in the -remarkable Meriah sacrifice, which will presently be described, and -will travel some distance to do so. They do not, however, seem to -attach very great importance to the rite, and when General Campbell -remonstrated with them on the subject, they at once promised to abandon -it, and not even to be present as spectators. - -Perhaps the most characteristic trait of the Sowrahs is their absolute -truthfulness, which, according to Mr. Hooper, is the result from their -want of capacity to invent a lie. - - -THE KHONDS. - -In the now renowned district of Orissa live the remarkable tribes -called Khonds, who, like the Sowrahs, appear to be immediately -descended from the aboriginal inhabitants, and to have retained, though -in a somewhat modified form, several of the customs of their savage -forefathers, the chief of which will be briefly described. - -The Khonds are active, wiry, and of much darker complexion than the -inhabitants of the plains, and neither sex trouble themselves much -about clothing. The men wear a few yards of coarse cotton round their -waists, a separate piece dyed red hanging down behind like a tail. -Their hair is allowed to grow to its full length, and is twisted round -and round the head, and fastened in a knot in front, in which the Khond -always keeps a few cigars made of tobacco rolled in a green leaf. -He generally decorates this top-knot with a piece of red cloth and -feathers. - -The women wear a rather large cloth round their loins, and decorate -themselves with vast quantities of beads and other ornaments, among -which the most conspicuous are some heavy bracelets, which are little -more than thick brass bands twined round their wrists. Among some of -the tribes, these ornaments are put to a very tragical use, as we shall -presently see. Slips of red cloth are considered very fashionable -ornaments by the Khond women, and in some cases strings of copper coins -are worn by way of necklaces. These, however, are mostly reserved for -the children. There is some excuse for the anxiety of the Khond women -to make the best of themselves, as they are very inferior to the men -in appearance, being short, stumpy, and so plain in features, that -they are pronounced by General Campbell to be absolutely repulsive. -Some photographs, however, which are now before me, do not give this -impression. Perhaps these women were selected for their good looks. - -They are divided into many tribes, and as a rule live in villages -varying in population from forty to ten times the number. We will now -proceed to the manners and customs of the Khond tribes. - - * * * * * - -Throughout the whole of Khondistan there is a system of human -sacrifice, varying exceedingly in detail according to the locality, but -agreeing in all principal points. There is one point especially which -seems to be the very essence of the sacrifice, and which is common to -all the tribes. The victim, or Meriah, must be bought with a price. -Should a captive be taken in war, he may not be offered as a Meriah -by his captor, but he may be sold for that purpose, and will then be -accepted by the priests. - -There is no restriction of age, sex, or caste, but adults are thought -more acceptable because they are more costly, and the healthy more -likely to propitiate the gods than the sick or feeble. That the Meriah -should be sacrificed is thought an absolutely necessary condition for -the prosperity of every undertaking, but especially for the growth -of the crops, and the Khonds therefore use every endeavor to secure -a succession of victims. Sometimes they purchase children from their -parents or relations when they have fallen into poverty, but, as a -rule, they are stolen by a set of robber tribes called Pannoos, who -decoy them into the hills, seize them, and sell them to the Khonds. It -is rather remarkable that although the Khonds avail themselves of the -services of the Pannoos, and are very glad to purchase victims, they -bear an intense hatred and contempt toward them, and, except in the way -of business, will have no dealings with them. - -The Meriah victims have no reason to complain of their lot, with the -one exception that it must soon come to an end. They are well fed -and kindly treated, and, with the ruling fatalism of the Oriental -character, generally resign themselves to their fate, and make no -efforts to escape. Often a Meriah girl is married to a Khond man, -and allowed to live until she has borne children. These, as well as -herself, are liable to be sacrificed, but must never be offered in the -village wherein they were born. In order to avoid this difficulty, the -various towns agree to exchange their Meriah children. - -The mode of sacrificing the Meriah is so exceedingly variable that it -will be necessary to give a short abstract of the various modes. - -In the first place, the Meriah must always be sacrificed openly in the -sight of the people, and this rule is absolute throughout all the land. - -In Goomsur, the sacrifice is offered to the Earth-god, Tado Pennor, who -is represented by the emblem of a peacock. When the time is fixed, the -victim is selected, and for a month there is much rejoicing, feasting, -and dancing round the Meriah, who is abundantly supplied with food and -drink, and is in all appearance as merry and unconcerned as any of the -people. On the day previous to the sacrifice a stout pole is set up, -having on its top the peacock emblem of Tado Pennor, and to it is bound -the Meriah. The people then dance round him, saying, in their chants, -that they do not murder the victim, but sacrifice one who was bought -with a price, and that therefore no sin rests with them. As the Meriah -is previously intoxicated with toddy, he can give no answer, and his -silence is taken as consent to his sacrifice. - -Next day he is anointed with oil, and carried round the village, after -which he is brought to the peacock post, at the foot of which is a -small pit. A hog is then killed, and the blood poured into the pit -and mixed with the soil, so as to form a thick mud. The Meriah, who -has been previously made senseless from intoxication, is thrown into -the pit, with his face pressed into the mire until he is dead. The -officiating priest or zani then cuts off a small piece of the flesh of -the victim and buries it near the pit, as an offering to the earth, -and, as soon as he has done so, all the spectators rush upon the body, -hack it to pieces, and carry off the fragments to bury them in their -fields as a propitiation to the earth deities who produce the crops. -Revolting as this custom is, it is much more merciful than most modes -of Meriah sacrifice, inasmuch as suffocation is not a death involving -much physical pain, and the victim has been previously deprived of his -senses. - -In Boad, the Meriah is taken round the village, when every one tries to -procure one of his hairs, or to touch his lips with their fingers so -that they may anoint their heads with the sacred moisture. After being -drugged into insensibility, he is taken to the fatal spot, where he is -strangled by placing his neck between the two halves of a split bamboo, -the ends of which are then brought together by the priests. The head -priest next breaks the bones of the arms and legs with his axe, and -when he has done so, the body is cut to pieces as in Goomsur. - -In Chinna Kimeday a grotesquely cruel mode of sacrifice is employed. -In lieu of the peacock which is used at Goomsur, a large wooden figure -of an elephant is placed on the post, and revolves on a pivot. The -Meriah is tied to the extended proboscis of the elephant, and, amid the -yells of the spectators, is whirled round as fast as the figure can be -turned. In this case the Meriah is not drugged. At a signal from the -officiating zani, the crowd rush on the Meriah with their knives, and -in a few moments hack him to pieces as he is tied, still living, on the -elephant. - -General Campbell, while executing his mission of mercy in Khondistan, -saw as many as fourteen of their elephant images, all of which he -caused to be pulled down and destroyed by the baggage elephants -attached to his force, so that the Khonds might see that those -venerated emblems of a cruel worship were powerless even against the -animals which they simulated. His task was naturally a difficult one, -as it involved the abolition of a rite which had existed from time -immemorial, and which no amount of reasoning could persuade them to be -wrong, much less criminal. So deeply was it ingrained in their nature, -that their only idea of his object in setting free so many hundred -Meriahs was, that he might sacrifice them on his own account, in order -to bring back water into a large tank which he was thought to have -constructed for the use of his elephants. - -In this very place, a most singular circumstance occurred. The English -officer was told that a sacrifice was being actually performed, the -victim being a young and handsome girl, only fifteen or sixteen years -old. He instantly started off with an armed party, and found the -offering of the Meriah already complete, and nothing wanting but the -actual sacrifice. The aged priest was ready to give the signal, and the -surrounding people were mad with excitement, when the armed party came -to the rescue, and demanded the girl. The Khonds, furious as they were, -found that they dared not risk a collision, and so the party retired -with the rescued victim. - -The remainder of the story has yet to be told. Scarcely were the -English soldiers out of sight than the assembled Khonds broke out -into loud murmurings at their disappointment. At last one of them hit -upon a happy thought. “Why,” said he, “should we be debarred from our -sacrifice? See our aged priest. Seventy summers have passed over his -head--what further use is he? Let us sacrifice _him_.” And forthwith -the old man was tied on the elephant, spun round, and cut to pieces. - -In Maji Deso another mode of sacrifice is employed. They do not keep -a large supply of Meriahs, as do most of the tribes, but buy them -immediately before the sacrifice. The consequence is, that it is very -difficult to detect them, except in the very act of offering the -victim. Their mode of killing the Meriah is as follows. The Khonds -surround the victim, and beat him on the head with the heavy metal -bracelets, which they are in the habit of wearing. Mostly they kill -him in this way, but if they fail in doing so, they strangle him with -a split bamboo, as has already been described. The flesh of the back -is then cut into long and narrow strips, and each person carries off a -strip and suspends it on a pole, which he thrusts into the bed of the -stream which waters his fields. - -In Patna, the mode of sacrifice varies exceedingly. In some cases the -victim is stoned, in others beaten to death with bamboos, together -with other barbarous modes of putting to death. General Campbell -remarks, that in this district there are places where sacrificing and -non-sacrificing tribes inhabit the same village. They live harmoniously -together until the time of sacrifice, when the non-sacrificing tribes -retire to their houses, and never pass through the front door of their -dwellings until seven days are over, and the remains of the Meriah -buried. After that time, all goes on as usual, until the next sacrifice -takes place. - -Bundari appears to be the place where the people adhere most firmly to -the Meriah system. When General Campbell visited this district, they -refused to give up the Meriah, and on the near approach of his force, -fled to their hiding-places in the mountains. As he approached Bundari, -he found that the people had been actually offering a sacrifice, and -that they had gone off in such haste that they had left behind them -the sacrificial post with the head of a victim hanging to it by the -hair, and the fatal knife suspended beside it. The mode of sacrifice -employed in this district is thus described:-- - -“The sacrifice which had taken place, and which is called Junnah, is -performed as follows, and is always succeeded by the sacrifice of three -other human victims, two to the sun to the east and west, and one in -the centre, with the usual barbarities. A stout wooden post is firmly -fixed in the ground. At the foot of it a narrow grave is dug, and to -the top of the post the victim is firmly fastened by the long hair of -his head. Four assistants hold his outstretched arms and legs, the -body being suspended horizontally over the grave, with the face toward -the earth. The officiating zani, or priest, standing on the right -side, repeats the following invocation, at intervals hacking with his -sacrificing knife the back part of the shrieking victim’s neck:-- - -“‘O mighty Manicksoro, this is your festal day (to the Khonds the -sacrifice is Meriah, to the Rajahs, Junnah). On account of this -sacrifice you have given to Rajahs countries, guns, and swords. The -sacrifice we now offer, you must eat; and we pray that our battle-axes -may be turned into swords, and our bows and arrows into gunpowder -and balls, and if we have any quarrels with other tribes, give us -the victory, and preserve us from the tyranny of Rajahs, and other -officers.’ - -“Then, addressing the victim, he added, ‘that we may enjoy prosperity, -we offer you a sacrifice to our god Manicksoro, who will immediately -eat you, so be not grieved at our slaying you. Your parents were aware -when we purchased you from them for sixty gunties (articles) that we -did it with intent to sacrifice you; there is, therefore, no sin on -our heads, but on those of your parents. After you are dead, we shall -perform your obsequies.’” - -This speech being concluded, the head of the victim is severed from -the body, and allowed to hang from the post until it is eaten by wild -beasts. The knife is also suspended from the post, and allowed to -remain there until the three additional sacrifices have been offered, -when it is removed with many ceremonies. Eight of these posts were -found in the village, and were all destroyed. - -It is this mode of sacrifice which is shown in the illustration on page -1387. In the centre is seen the aged priest in the act of sacrificing -the Meriah, which in this case is a young girl. Her head is supported -by her long hair, which is tied to the top of the post, and her body is -held horizontally by the four assistants, who each grasp a hand or a -foot. On the right hand is shown a post, to which hangs the head of the -first sacrificed Meriah, and on the other side is another victim bound -by the hair to the post, waiting until the priest had completed the -sacrifice in which he is engaged. - -One circumstance connected with the Meriah sacrifice is rather -remarkable, namely, the indifference to their fate that seems to -possess the victims. One young man, a Meriah, said that it was better -to be sacrificed among his own people, and to give them pleasure, than -to live upon the plains. The natives believe that this indifference -is caused by the Meriah food, a mixture of rice, turmeric, and other -ingredients, prepared with certain magical ceremonies. Even the Meriahs -themselves have this belief. For example, three young women were hired -by a seller of salt fish to carry his goods among the Khonds, and when -he got them there, the treacherous dealer sold not only the fish but -the women. Twice the victims attempted to escape, but were recaptured, -and after the second attempt, the Khonds fed them on Meriah food, when -they became reconciled to their fate, and made no further efforts to -escape. - -Other ties seem to have their effect on the Meriahs. Sometimes a man -wishes to buy a Meriah, that being a very meritorious act; but the -cost is so great, amounting on an average to sixty-five rupees, that -the Khond is almost reduced to poverty. Under such circumstances, he -is unable to marry, inasmuch as he cannot pay the heavy price which is -demanded of a bridegroom. Accordingly, he buys a Meriah girl, and takes -her as his wife until the time when she may be required for sacrifice. - -It has already been mentioned that children are sold by their parents -as Meriahs. This seems so cruel and heartless a system, that some -explanation ought to be offered. It is very seldom that such a purchase -is made, unless the parents be very poor, and fear that they shall not -be able to provide their children with food. In such cases they argue -that it is better for the child to be nourished and kindly treated, and -then to die as a sacrifice to the deities, than to perish by degrees -of starvation. Moreover, it is considered rather a meritorious action -for a parent to devote a child to the gods, and, when it is done, the -parents are very proud of such children, and regard them with respect -and admiration as belonging to the deities. - -Another reason for the continuance of the Meriah sacrifice is the -slight regard in which the Khonds hold human life, sacrificing that -which we consider as priceless because they are indifferent to it, not -only with regard to others, but with regard to themselves. - -That the custom of propitiating the deities of agriculture with living -sacrifices should be entirely abolished could not be expected, and -General Campbell found that the best mode of extinguishing human -sacrifice was to induce the Khonds to substitute that of a beast. This -was done in many cases, the sacrificers apologizing to the god for the -substitution, and begging him, if he should be angry, to vent his -wrath, not upon them, but upon the foreigner who had suggested the -alteration. He had no objection to this arrangement, and as the crops -turned out well afterward, it was to be supposed that all parties, the -gods included, were satisfied. - -A very similar custom was once prevalent among certain tribes of the -Lower Amazon. The name of these tribes was Tapuyos, but this title has -now been given to all the inhabitants of the Lower Amazon district. -Prisoners taken in war by them were reserved for sacrifice. They were -treated with extreme kindness, fed in the most liberal manner, so that -they might be plump and fat, and were provided with wives. They were -generally allowed to live for several years, until their wives had -borne children. They were then taken to the place of sacrifice, and -killed with a single blow of a club; their children being carefully -reared, for the purpose of undergoing a similar fate after they had -grown up. - -Even without reference to the Meriah system, the Khonds are in the -habit of killing their female children. This custom has arisen partly -from the fear of poverty, and partly from the system on which marriages -are conducted. The Khonds dislike marrying among themselves, and seek -their wives among distant tribes, alleging as a reason that they can -purchase them at a cheaper rate. But General Campbell tried to show -them that if they were to rear their own female children, they would -find them much cheaper as wives, and recommended them, as a beginning, -to marry their Meriah women, for whom a high price had already been -paid. - -In some of the hills of Chinna Kimedy, children of both sexes are put -to death. As soon as a child is born, a priest is called to ascertain -whether it is to live or die. To effect this purpose, he employs a plan -very like the “Sortes Virgilianæ.” He produces a book, and, after some -prayers, thrusts an iron style at random among the leaves. He then -reads the passage to which the style points, and if it be unfavorable, -the child must die, or the fields would bear no more crops. - -The fatal edict having been pronounced, the child is placed in a new -earthen vessel (which has been painted in red and black stripes), the -cover is fastened down, and the jar is buried. Some flowers and rice -are laid on the cover, and, after the earth is filled in, a fowl is -sacrificed upon the poor little victim’s grave. - - * * * * * - -Before leaving these remarkable tribes, we will glance slightly at one -or two of their most characteristic customs. - -Their weapons are very simple, consisting of a curious sword fixed to -a gauntlet, the bow and arrow, and the axe. The last is the national -weapon of the Khonds, and in its use they are wonderfully adroit. -General Campbell mentions that a British officer was out in the evening -for the purpose of shooting a bear, but only wounded the animal -slightly, instead of killing it outright. The bear started for the -hills, but was pursued by several Khonds, who overtook it, got between -the hill and the bear, and then, armed only with their axes, attacked -and hacked the animal to pieces. These axes are about four feet long -in the handle, and have but small heads. These, however, are made of -good steel, and in the practised hand of a Khond the axe is a weapon -much more formidable than it looks. This exhibition of courage is the -more remarkable, because the actors in it were Meriah men who had -been rescued from sacrifice. The sword that has been mentioned is a -comparatively rare weapon, and belongs rather to the Ooryahs than to -the Khonds proper. - -The Khond tribes seem to be rather fond of quarrelling among each -other, and carry on a kind of desultory or guerilla warfare. Pitched -battles they dislike, preferring to steal cattle from their opponents, -and to kill them by stealth, to meeting them in open fight. Indeed, -they pride themselves on doing as much injury as possible to their -antagonists, while receiving the least possible harm themselves. -Accordingly, when the delegates of two inimical tribes meet for the -purpose of restoring peace, some very absurd scenes take place. The -umpires call upon the representatives of the tribes to declare the -number of cattle stolen and men killed; and it is generally found -that the latter item is equally balanced, neither party caring to -acknowledge that a man of their own tribe has been killed, unless -the adversaries can prove it. They cannot but admit that the man was -killed, but attribute his death to accident, such as being carried off -by a tiger, or bitten by a snake. - -Pride forms a great element in the Khond character. The people are -fond of their land, and nothing can induce a Khond to sell one yard -of ground to a foreigner, nor even to part with a single tree that -grows on that soil. Generally, they are too proud to barter, but leave -that business to the Pannoo tribes, by whom, as may be remembered, -the Meriah victims are generally furnished. Among the Khonds there -are but two employments worthy of their dignity, _i. e._ warfare and -agriculture, and all persons are despised who carry on any other -profession or business, even though they may profit by it themselves. -Yet there is no system of caste among them, such as we find among the -Hindoos, neither have they any prejudice in regard of diet, except -perhaps a dislike to milk. - -As to the religion of the Khonds, it is of the simplest description, -and their worship is practically comprised in the Meriah sacrifice. -There are certain very barbarous sacred images to be found in the hill -districts, but no one seems to care or even to know much about them, -and the priests, or medicine men, are as ignorant or careless on the -subject as the people in general. It ought to be mentioned that very -elaborate accounts have been published respecting the religion of the -Khonds, their vast army of deities, and their quadruple souls. But -there is now no doubt that the information upon which these accounts -were based was simply invented by the narrators in order to suit their -own purposes. - -Putting aside the Meriah system, the Khonds have several superstitions -in which they firmly believe, and the strangest of them is their -idea that certain human beings can transform themselves into tigers. -These persons are called “Pulta Bags,” and are very much dreaded by -the people, upon whose fears they intentionally play for the purpose -of extortion. Knowing that the ignorant people believe them to be -possessed of such a power, they extort food, clothing, and other -property from them at intervals, saying that they are poor, and unless -supplied with the necessaries of life, they will be forced to transform -themselves into tigers, and to carry off the cattle. - -General Campbell mentions an instance where he was brought in contact -with, or rather in opposition to, this superstition. An excited crowd -came to him, accompanied by several armed men, who guarded two women. -One of the men then said that he and his son were in the jungle cutting -firewood, when a tiger sprang upon the lad and carried him off. The -father pursued the animal, shouting after it until it turned the -corner of the rock, when it disappeared, and on the top of the rock -were then seen the two women. The case was clear. These two women were -Pulta Bags. While in the tiger form they had carried off his son, but, -alarmed by his shouts, had hidden the body of the lad and resumed their -human shapes. - -On being questioned, the women acknowledged that the story was true, -and that they did possess the power attributed to them. General -Campbell then offered to release them, provided that they would -transform themselves into tigers in his presence. This, to his -astonishment, they agreed to do, provided that he accompanied them to a -neighboring jungle. Finding, however, that the English general was not -so easily frightened as a Khond warrior, and that they would be taken -at their word, they threw themselves at his feet, and acknowledged -their imposture. - -A remarkable instance of this belief is narrated by the same writer. A -brave little Khond, belonging to the irregular force, was engaged in -a conflict when several of the enemy were killed, among whom was one -who was shot by his own hand. Instead of being proud of his exploit, -he was seized with terror, declaring that the man whom he had killed -was a Pulta Bag, and that he would assume the shape of a tiger and -avenge himself. After the campaign was over, he obtained leave to visit -his family, and, previous to his departure, he brought his uniform, -asking that care might be taken of it, as he felt sure that he should -never wear it again. He joined his family, and lived with them for some -weeks, when, as he was watching his cattle, a tiger sprang on him, and -wounded him so cruelly that he shortly died. Nothing could persuade him -that the tiger was not the man whom he had shot, and the event only -strengthened the hold which the superstition has on the native mind. - -Marriage is generally celebrated at the hunting season, probably -because the stores of food and drink are secured for that time, and -there is always plenty of food for the marriage feast. Among them -prevails the custom of carrying off the bride. The bridegroom snatches -up the girl and runs off with her, pursued by a number of young women -who try to snatch her from him, or at least pretend to do so. He, -however, is protected by twenty or thirty young men, who keep him -and his burden in their midst, and do their best to shield him from -the bamboos, stones, and other missiles which are hurled at him by -the women. When he reaches the boundaries of his own village, he is -supposed to have won his bride, while the assailing party scamper at -full speed to their own dwellings. - -[Illustration: BOWS AND QUIVER. (_From my Collection._) (See page -1401.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CXLIX. - -INDIA--_Continued_. - -WEAPONS. - - - THE GHOORKA TRIBE AND THEIR FAVORITE WEAPON -- BLADE AND CURVED - HANDLE OF THE “KOOKERY” -- MODE OF STRIKING WITH IT -- THE ADDITIONAL - KNIVES -- MAKING “WOOTZ” STEEL -- FIGHTING A TIGER -- THE HUNTER’S - NECKLACE -- ROBBERS OF INDIA -- THE BURGLAR, THE BURROWER -- THE - PURSE CUTTER -- AN INGENIOUS THEFT -- STRANGE MODE OF ESCAPING - OBSERVATION -- VARIOUS BOWS -- THE PELLET BOW AND ITS DOUBLE STRING - -- THE REVERSED BOW AND MODE OF USING IT -- STRINGING THE BOW -- THE - VARIOUS ARROWS -- ARMOR AND CHAIN MAIL -- SIR HOPE GRANT’S SPECIMEN - -- INDIAN SWORDS AND MODE OF USING THEM -- VARIOUS DAGGERS -- THE - “CHAKRA” OR QUOIT WEAPON. - -One of the hill tribes, called the Ghoorka tribe, is worthy of notice, -if only for the remarkable weapon which they use in preference to any -other. It is called the “kookery,” and is of a very peculiar shape. -One of the knives, drawn from a specimen in my collection, is given in -illustration No. 2, on page 1403. As may be seen by reference to the -drawing, both the blade and hilt are curved. The blade is very thick -at the back, my own specimen, which is rather a small one, measuring a -little more than a quarter of an inch in thickness. From the back it is -thinned off gradually to the edge, which has a curve of its own, quite -different to that of the back, so that the blade is widest as well as -thickest in the middle, and tapers at one end toward the hilt, and at -the other toward the point. The steel of which the blade is formed is -of admirable temper, as is shown by the fact that my specimen, which, -to my knowledge, has not been cleaned for thirty years, but has been -hung upon the wall among other weapons, is scarcely touched with rust, -and for the greater part of its surface is burnished like a mirror. -Indeed, on turning it about, I can see reflected upon its polished -surface the various objects of the room. The handle is made after a -very remarkable fashion, and the portion which forms the hilt is so -small that it shows the size of the hand for which it was intended. -This smallness of hilt is common to all Indian swords, which cannot be -grasped by an ordinary English soldier. My own hand is a small one, but -it is too large even for the heavy sabre or “tulwar,” while the handle -of the kookery looks as if the weapon were intended for a boy of six or -seven years old. Indeed, the Ghoorkas are so small, that their hands, -like those of all Indian races, are very delicate, about the same size -as those of an English boy of seven. The point of the kookery is as -sharp as a needle, so that the weapon answers equally well for cutting -or stabbing. In consequence of the great thickness of the metal, the -blade is exceedingly heavy, and it is a matter of much wonder how -such tiny hands as those of the Ghoorkas can manage so weighty a -weapon, which seems almost as much beyond their strength as does the -Andamaner’s gigantic bow to the dwarfish man who wields it. It may be -imagined that a blow from such a weapon as this must be a very terrible -one. The very weight of the blade would drive it half through a man’s -arm, if it were only allowed to fall from a little height. But the -Ghoorkas have a mode of striking which resembles the “drawing” cut of -the broadsword, and which urges the sharp edge through flesh and bone -alike. - -Before passing to the mode in which the kookery is used, I may mention -that it is not employed for domestic purposes, being too highly valued -by the owner. For such purposes two smaller knives are used, of very -similar form, but apparently of inferior metal. These are kept in -little cases attached to the side of the kookery-sheath, just as is -the case with the knives attached to a Highlander’s dirk, or the -arrangement of the Dyak sword, which has already been described in the -article upon Borneo. There is also a little flat leathern purse, with -a double flap. This is pointed like a knife-sheath, and is kept in a -pocket of its own fastened upon the larger sheath. - -In the illustration the kookery is shown with all its parts. Fig. 1 -shows the kookery in its scabbard, the top of the purse and the handles -of the supplementary knives being just visible as they project from -the sheaths. At Fig. 2 the kookery itself is drawn, so as to show -the peculiar curve of the blade and the very small handle. Fig. 3 -represents the purse as it appears when closed, and Figs. 4 and 5 are -the supplementary knives. My own specimen, which, as I have already -mentioned, is a small one, measures fifteen inches from hilt to point -in a straight line, and twenty-one inches if measured along the curve -of the back. Its weight is exactly twelve ounces. The knife is a very -plain one, no ornament of any kind being used, and the maker has -evidently contented himself with expending all his care upon the blade, -which is forged from the celebrated “wootz” steel. - -This steel is made by the natives in a very simple but effectual -manner. After smelting the iron out of magnetic ore, the Indian smith -puts small pieces of it in a crucible, and mixes little bits of wood -with them. He then covers the crucible with green leaves and plenty of -clay, and puts it in his simple furnace. The furnace being lighted, a -constant blast of air is driven through it for about three hours, at -the expiration of which time the iron, now converted into cast-steel, -is found in the form of a small cake at the bottom of the crucible. -Wootz steel was at one time much used in England, and great numbers of -these cakes were imported. - -In the hands of an experienced wielder this knife is about as -formidable a weapon as can be conceived. Like all really good weapons, -its efficiency depends much more upon the skill than the strength of -the wielder, and thus it happens that the little Ghoorka, a mere boy in -point of stature, will cut to pieces a gigantic adversary who does not -understand his mode of onset. The Ghoorka generally strikes upward with -the kookery, possibly in order to avoid wounding himself should his -blow fail, and possibly because an upward cut is just the one that can -be least guarded against. - -Years ago, when we were engaged in the many Indian wars which led -at last to our Oriental empire, the Ghoorkas proved themselves -most formidable enemies, as since they have proved themselves most -invaluable allies. Brave as lions, active as monkeys, and fierce as -tigers, the lithe, wiry little men came leaping over the ground to -the attack, moving so quickly, and keeping so far apart from each -other, that musketry was no use against them. When they came near -the soldiers, they suddenly crouched to the ground, dived under the -bayonets, struck upward at the men with their kookeries, ripping them -open with a single blow, and then, after having done all the mischief -in their power, darting off as rapidly as they had come. Until our men -learned this mode of attack, they were greatly discomfited by their -little opponents, who got under their weapons, cutting or slashing with -knives as sharp as razors, and often escaping unhurt from the midst -of bayonets. They would also dash under the bellies of the officers’ -horses, rip them open with one blow of the kookery, and aim another at -the leg of the officer as he and his horse fell together. - -Perhaps no better proof can be given of the power of the weapon, and -the dexterity of the user, than the fact that a Ghoorka will not -hesitate to meet a tiger, himself being armed with nothing but his -kookery. He stands in front of the animal (see the next page), and -as it springs he leaps to the left, delivering as he does so a blow -toward the tiger. As the reader is aware, all animals of the cat tribe -attack by means of the paw; and so the tiger, in passing the Ghoorka, -mechanically strikes at him. - -The man is well out of reach of the tiger’s paw, but it just comes -within the sweep of the kookery, and, what with the force of the -tiger’s stroke, what with the blow delivered by the man, the paw is -always disabled, and often fairly severed from the limb. Furious with -pain and rage, the tiger leaps round, and makes another spring at his -little enemy. But the Ghoorka is as active as the tiger, and has sprung -round as soon as he delivered his blow, so as to be on the side of -the disabled paw. Again the tiger attacks, but this time his blow is -useless, and the Ghoorka steps in and delivers at the neck or throat of -the tiger a stroke which generally proves fatal. - -The favorite blow is one upon the back of the neck, because it severs -the spine, and the tiger rolls on the ground a lifeless mass. For -so fierce is the tiger’s fury, that, unless the animal is rendered -absolutely powerless, rage supplies for a few moments the place of -the ebbing life, and enables it to make a last expiring effort. All -experienced hunters know and dread the expiring charge of a wounded -lion or tiger, and, if possible, hide themselves as soon as they -inflict the death wound. If they can do so, the animal looks round for -its adversary, cannot see him, and at once succumbs; whereas, if it can -espy its enemy, it flings all its strength into one effort, the result -of which is frequently that the man and the tiger are found lying dead -together. - -[Illustration: (1.) INGENIOUS RUSE OF BHEEL ROBBERS. (See page 1400.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) GHOORKA ATTACKED BY A TIGER. (See page 1396.)] - -Many of these little hunters are decorated with necklaces made from -the teeth and claws of the animals which they kill. One of these -necklaces is in my collection, and is figured in illustration No. 1, -on page 1403. It is made of the spoils of various animals, arranged -in the following way. The central and most prominent object is one of -the upper canine teeth of a tiger. The man may well be proud of this, -for it is a very fine specimen, measuring five inches and a half in -length, and more than three inches in circumference. This tooth is -shown at Fig. 5. At Fig. 1 is a claw from a fore-foot of a tiger, -evidently the same animal; and at Fig. 9 is a claw of the hind-foot. -Figs. 2, 3, 7, 8 are differently sized teeth of the crocodile; and -Figs. 4 and 6 represent claws from the foot of the sloth-bear. The -reader may remember that in all uncivilized countries such spoils are -of the highest value, and play the same part with regard to them, that -titles and decorations do among more civilized nations. Consequently, -it is almost impossible to procure such ornaments, the natives having -as strong objection to part with them as a holder of the Victoria Cross -would have to resign at the same time his badge and a right to wear it. - - * * * * * - -Among men of such a stamp, leading a half-savage existence, with ideas -necessarily limited to their own range of thought, it is likely that -a strange sort of morality should prevail. We have already seen that -there is one existing system in which treacherous murder, instead of -being regarded as a capital offence, is exalted into a religion, and we -may therefore expect that robbery may in some cases be considered as a -virtue. Certain it is that there are no more accomplished thieves in -the world than those of India. - -The natives are justly celebrated for their wonderful powers of posture -making and conjuring, and it is to be expected that, when they turn -those powers to an evil use, they must be most dangerous opponents. -Lately a most valuable report has been issued by the Inspector-General -of Prisons, relating to the thieves of Lower Bombay, in the perusal of -which it is impossible to restrain a smile, so wonderfully ingenious -are the devices of the thieves, and so astonishing is the skill with -which they are employed. - -For example, there are the regular burglars, who completely carry out -the description of the Scriptures, “breaking through the wall and -stealing.” Two of these burglars work together. One acts as sentinel, -while the other gently bores a hole through the wall, large enough to -admit the passage of his person. When he has completed the breach, he -pushes through it a stick, with a piece of grass wrapped round it, so -as to look like a human head. This is done to ascertain whether the -inmates are alarmed, for it sometimes happens that the owner of the -house hears the miner at work, and quietly stands by the side of the -hole, armed with a sword or cudgel, with which he strikes at the head -of the robber, as soon as it appears through the wall. Should the sham -head be smashed by a blow from the inside, the thieves escape as fast -as they can. If not, one of them crawls through the breach, steals all -the property on which he can lay his hands, and returns to his comrade, -who has been keeping careful watch, and will alarm him, should danger -appear. - -Other thieves appear to be more harmless, though they probably steal -as much money as the burglars. They carry in their mouths a tiny -knife, with a blade as sharp as that of a razor. They frequent the -bazaars, mix with the crowd, and contrive to feel for the money which -is wrapped up in the girdle. With their little knives, they gently cut -the cloth, noiselessly extract the money, and slink off into the midst -of the crowd, where they can scarcely be detected. In short, they act -precisely after the manner of our European cut-purses. - -The most ingenious of all the thieves are those who get into the -zenanas, or women’s apartments, and steal their jewelry. As the -reader is probably aware, the women’s apartments are in the most -central portion of the house, and are so carefully guarded that little -precaution is taken with respect to the costly jewels with which the -women deck themselves so abundantly. The Indian burglar knows of this -wealth, and sometimes manages to steal it. He digs a hole in the ground -outside the walls of the house, and burrows under the foundation until -he comes beneath the floor of the zenana. He then cautiously works -his way upward, and so obtains admission into the apartment. But -even when there his task is not completed, as a large portion of the -jewelry consists of nose rings and bangles, or bracelets. The skill of -these thieves is now shown, for they will contrive to cut the rings -and bangles, remove them from the wearers, and make good their escape -without disturbing the sleeping women. - -These adroit burglars often commit the most daring robberies in the -very midst of an army. Knowing the position of the tents, they mark -out that which is the residence of a great man, and creep silently -toward it. Arrived at the tent, their sharp knife cuts a hole and they -glide into the interior without making the slightest noise. Indeed, -so wonderfully adroit are they, that even the very watch-dogs do not -discover them, and a thief has been known actually to step over the -body of a dog without disturbing the animal. They take an extraordinary -pride in their skill, and have not the least objection to boasting of -it. Once, an English officer, who had been robbed of all his valuables, -his clothing included, in the course of a night, was talking to a -robber, who made very light of the exploit, and boasted that if he -chose he could steal the blanket from under him as he slept. Such a -challenge as this could not but be accepted, and the officer laid -a wager with the man that his blanket could not be stolen without -arousing him. - -Accordingly, one morning, when the officer awoke, he found his blanket -missing. The thief came openly with the blanket, restored it, and told -him how he had achieved the theft. It was done by gently tickling the -face and hands of the sleeping man, so that he involuntarily turned on -his bed. As he moved, the thief gave the blanket a slight pull, and so -by degrees “coaxed” it away without fairly awaking the sleeper. - -When these thieves set about their task of robbery, they remove all -their clothes, and rub themselves with oil. Round their neck is a -slight string, which holds their razor-bladed knife, so that, if they -should be detected, the pursuer has no hold of them; and even should he -succeed in grasping them, the ready knife is used to sever his wrist -and to deal a fatal stab. - -Then there are other thieves of altogether a sneaking and despicable -character. The burglars have, at all events, the redeeming points of -audacity and ingenuity. The Mooches exhibit neither of these qualities, -but act in a way that exactly resembles the proceedings of the gipsy -thieves as described by Mr. Borrow. They lay poison on plantain leaves, -and drop them about at night among the cattle. The bait is sure to -be taken, and the dead cattle are thrown away next morning. This is -exactly what the Mooches have expected, and they flay the dead cattle -and sell their skins. - -Sometimes a band of these thieves is pursued, and then the robbers are -often driven to use all their ingenuity in evading their pursuers. -One stratagem is marvellously clever. Should a company of these men -succeed in reaching the jungle, there is no hope of capturing them; -but when they find that they must be overtaken on a level plain, they -are not without a mode of avoiding detection. As is the case in many -hot countries, the ground is often cleared by fire, which destroys -all the coarse, dry, rank herbage, and leaves it free for the fresh -green blades that at the first rains shoot through the surface. In -those spots where the grass is short, the fire does but little damage; -but where it is long, the flames are powerful enough to destroy the -small trees which grow upon them, and to leave nothing but a number of -blackened stumps. - -If the thieves think that they cannot pass the plain without being -observed, they put in practice a _ruse_ which they may have borrowed -from the habits of many insects. They strip off all their clothes, -place them and their weapons under their little round shields, which -they disperse so as to look like stones, and then dispose themselves -in such strange attitudes that their slender and nearly fleshless limbs -bear the most exact resemblance to the blackened branches of which -their bodies represent the trunks. In these attitudes they will remain -fixed until the enemy has passed them, when they slip off as fast as -they can to the nearest jungle. An illustration on page 1397 shows -with what rare ingenuity, even artistic verisimilitude these rascals -simulate the charred trunks and branches of the trees. - -Before the English had become used to these manœuvres, a very ludicrous -incident occurred. An officer, with a party of horse, was chasing a -small body of Bheel robbers, and was fast overtaking them. Suddenly -the robbers ran behind a rock or some such obstacle, which hid them -for a moment, and, when the soldiers came up, the men had mysteriously -disappeared. After an unavailing search, the officer ordered his men to -dismount beside a clump of scorched and withered trees, and, the day -being very hot, he took off his helmet and hung it on a branch by which -he was standing. The branch in question turned out to be the leg of a -Bheel, who burst into a scream of laughter, and flung the astonished -officer to the ground. The clump of scorched trees suddenly became -metamorphosed into men, and the whole party dispersed in different -directions before the soldiers could recover from their surprise, -carrying with them the officer’s helmet by way of a trophy. - -This stratagem is not confined to one tribe, or even one race, but is -practised in many parts of the world where the country is cleared by -means of fire. - - * * * * * - -We will now examine some of the weapons used by the Indians. I -intentionally omit any description of their fire-arms, as such weapons -are of a modern date, and the use of gunpowder has been imported from -other countries. In the following pages will be described some of the -most characteristic weapons of India. - -The reader will probably notice that whatever may be their form, there -is a nameless something which designates the country in which they were -produced. No matter whether the weapon has belonged to a rich or a poor -man, whether it be plain wood and iron, or studded with jewels and -inlaid with gold, the form remains the same, and there is about that -form a graceful elegance which is peculiar to India. Take, for example, -that simplest of weapons, the kookery, and see how beautiful are the -curves of the blade and handle, and how completely they satisfy the -eye. In the same manner we shall find that, with all the weapons that -will be figured, there is always a graceful curve or a well-balanced -arrangement of lines. - -We will begin with the bow and arrows. - -Many kinds of bows are used by the Hindoos, the most simple of which -is made from a piece of male bamboo. Even this simple weapon is -not complete in the eyes of an Indian without some ornament, and -accordingly it is bound at intervals by belts of split reed drawn -tightly round it, and tied up at the back of the bow in a sort of -rosette form. This kind of bow is often used for shooting bullets or -stones. For this purpose two strings are placed side by side, and kept -apart by a little piece of wood near one end, so that in the middle -there is an interval of a couple of inches between the strings. A strip -of leather rather more than an inch in width is then sewed to the -strings, so that when the bow is bent the leather is stretched tightly -between them. - -The bow is used in the following manner. A bullet or stone is placed -on the leather, and the two strings are grasped by the forefinger and -thumb of the right hand, so as to enclose the bullet in the leather. -The bow is then drawn and aimed, and when the strings are released -from the pressure of the fingers, they fly asunder and permit the -bullet to escape. The precision that may be obtained by this weapon is -really wonderful, and even Europeans soon learn to pride themselves -on their skill with the “pellet-bow.” Squirrel shooting with this bow -is a favorite amusement with many persons, and some of the natives of -rank occasionally amuse themselves with shooting at the earthenware -jars carried on the heads of the women, a successful shot smashing the -jar to pieces, and deluging the women with the water which had been -contained in it. - -There is another kind of bow which is much used in different parts of -Asia, varying somewhat in form and material, but smaller in principle. -The bow is so formed that when it is unstrung it curves in exactly -the opposite direction to the string. The amount of curvature varies -considerably in different bows, the most perfect being that in which -the two ends almost touch each other. The specimen which is shown in -Fig. 1 of the illustration on page 1394, and which is drawn from a -bow in my collection, is a singularly perfect example of this kind of -weapon. It is made in the following manner:-- - -A horn of the buffalo is sawn longitudinally, so as to produce two -tapering pieces of exactly the same size. These are then flattened by -heat and pressure, and are trimmed until when bent they give exactly -the same amount of curvature. The handle and the tips are made of very -hard wood, and are fitted to the horn with the greatest care, the wood -which forms the tips running for some distance along the under side -of the horn. After the handle and tips are fitted in their places, -a great number of sinews are laid wet over the back of the bow, and -kneaded so carefully that the wood, the sinews, and the horn seem to -be altogether one substance. After this part of the work is finished, -the whole of the bow is covered with repeated layers of a kind of glue, -which is very carefully smoothed and polished. The bow is practically -complete, but the maker is not satisfied unless he adds plenty of -ornament. This is always a sort of conventional flower pattern, gilt -on a brilliantly colored background. I possess several such bows, in -each of which there is a dissimilarity of color and pattern. In the bow -now before us, the groundwork is vivid green and scarlet, on which are -drawn the most elaborate patterns of flowers, leaves, and arabesques in -gold. It is impossible, on looking at the surface, not to admire both -the beauty of the patterns and the excellence of the paint and varnish, -which can be subjected to such violent treatment as is caused by the -bending of the bow and shooting the arrow, and yet not be cracked to -pieces. - -The elasticity of this bow is wonderful. I have often tried to string -it, but without effect, and indeed I never saw but one man, the late -Colonel Hutchinson, of the Indian Army, who could do so. It is strung -by passing it under one leg, bending it back sharply over the other -leg, at the same time slipping the loop of the string into its notch. -A groove passes along the back of the bow, so as to guide the string. -When strung it assumes quite a different shape, and looks something -like the bow which the ancient sculptors placed in the hands of -Cupid. I regret that the bow could not be strung, so as to give two -illustrations of the same bow in its different aspects. - -The classical reader may perhaps remember that this weapon is exactly -similar to the ancient Scythian bow. Reference is made to this shape by -Athenæus (book X.) when an unlearned shepherd, trying to describe the -letters which formed a name, said that “the third (_i. e._ c) was like -a Scythian bow.” This kind of bow was of horn, as indeed were most of -the ancient bows. - -The length of the bow above mentioned, measured along the back, is a -little more than four feet, whereas the measurement across it as it -appears when unbent is only nineteen inches. The reader will see how -useful a bow of this description would be to a horseman, its peculiar -curvature rendering it easy of carriage. It could even be carried -along on the bridle arm, if required, so as to leave the sword hand at -liberty, and in a moment could be strung when needed, by passing it -under the leg as the rider sits on horseback. Small as this bow seems, -almost indeed insignificant in appearance as a weapon, its performances -in skilful hands are something marvellous. With one of these bows an -arrow has been shot to a distance which was said to be six hundred -yards, and was actually not much short of that measurement. And, -although so powerful, it is wonderfully manageable. Colonel Hutchinson -told me that he once saw an archer shoot an arrow along a corridor, and -send the missile through a hole which a bullet had made in a pane of -glass at the end of the corridor. - -Next comes a form of bow which is much more common than the preceding. -In this bow the reflex curvature is strongly marked, though not so -strongly as in the case of the weapon just described. - -Several of these bows are in my collection, the handsomest of which was -presented to me by J. Allen, Esq. This bow, with its case, its quiver, -and score of arrows, is shown in Fig. 2 of the illustration, on page -1394. Measuring along the back, the bow is four feet five inches in -length, whereas the space between the two tips is only twenty-eight -inches. The color with which the bow is painted is bright scarlet, -profusely covered with gilt flowers and arabesques, so that it is a -more showy weapon at a distance than the previous specimen, though it -is not nearly so handsome when closely examined, the patterns being -larger and more roughly executed. The bow-string is made of some -vegetable fibre,--I think that of some species of aloe,--and is very -thick, being composed of nine strands twisted very closely together. - -The case, quiver, and straps by which they are held have been once very -splendid, being crimson velvet, so covered with gold embroidery that -scarcely any part of the velvet is visible. The arrows are two feet -three inches in length, and are very carefully made. The shaft is of -reed, and to either end is fixed a piece of hard wood four inches in -length. On one end of the shaft is fixed the point, which is a heavy -and solid quadrangular piece of steel brought to a sharp point. The -hard wood at the end receives the feathers, and is enlarged at the -extreme end, so as to allow space for the nock or notch in which the -thick bow-string is received. Both the pieces of hard wood are colored, -that in which the point is fixed being simply green, but that at the -other end being gilt, and covered with patterns in blue and scarlet. - -This is the most common kind of arrow, but there are many varieties, of -which I possess specimens. Several varieties are in many collections, -the chief distinction being in the shape of the point. In most of them -it is more or less quadrangular; though in some it is leaf-shaped, like -a spear head, in others it is conical, and in others round and blunt. -In one of the arrows the place of the lower piece of hard wood is taken -by a solid piece of steel nearly four inches in length, and weighing -about three ounces, looking something like a rather elongated Whitworth -bullet. - -The most primitive form of Indian arrow is that which is made by the -hill tribes. The shaft is of wood, not of reed, and the head is deeply -barbed, and tied to the shaft with fibre, exactly as is done with the -flint-headed arrows, which this weapon almost precisely resembles in -form, though not in material. Instead of feathers, dry leaves are -substituted, cut into the required shape, and passed through slits in -the shaft of the arrow, these slits being afterward bound up. In one -arrow the nock has been formed in a very strange manner, a piece of -wood being lashed to each side of the shaft, and projecting a little -beyond it. - -Some very beautiful examples of the best kinds of weapons are shown in -the illustration on page 1406. They belong to General Sir Hope Grant, -G.C.B. etc., who kindly allowed them to be drawn for the use of this -work. They are splendid instances of Indian art, one or two of them -displaying a most elaborate ornamentation. - -The first of the illustrations shows a suit of armor and weapons, which -is made of steel most elaborately engraved and inlaid with gold, the -patterns resembling those on the bow, and looking much as if they had -been taken from the bow and sunk into the steel, the freedom and grace -of the lines being quite as remarkable as the elaborate minuteness of -the pattern. - -In the centre (Fig. 1) is seen the martial looking helmet, with its -slight feather plume. There are often several of these plumes in a -helmet, their shafts being adorned with gold and jewels, and placed -in sockets projecting from the helmet. In front is seen the flat bar -which protects the nose and upper part of the face from a sword cut. -This bar slides up and down through a groove for the convenience of the -wearer. From the helmet depends a piece of very slight but very strong -chain-mail, which falls behind and on either side of the face, and -hangs as low as the shoulders, so that, however abruptly the wearer may -move his head, the folds of the chain-mail protect his neck. In several -of these helmets the links of the mail are gilt, and arranged so as to -form patterns, mostly of a diamond shape. - -By the side of the helmet (Fig. 3) is the curious gauntlet, which -extends far up the arm, and has no joint at the wrist. The absence of -the joint, unpleasant as it would be to an European swordsman, is no -obstacle to the proper use of the sword by the Oriental warrior. If -the reader will refer to the figure of the sword (Fig. 6), he will see -that the hilt is terminated by a large circular plate of steel. In a -specimen in my own collection, this plate is three inches in diameter, -so that when the sword is grasped after the European fashion, the plate -comes against the wrist, and acts as a fulcrum by which, when a blow is -struck, the leverage of the blade forces the sword out of the grasp. - -[Illustration: (1.) NECKLACE. (See page 1399.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) KOOKERY. (See page 1395.)] - -[Illustration: (3.) THE CHAKRA, OR QUOIT WEAPON. (See page 1406.)] - -[Illustration: (4.) INDIAN ARMS AND ARMOR. (See page 1405.)] - -But the whole system of swordsmanship in India differs essentially -from that which is employed in England, or indeed in Europe generally, -strength not being used so much as dexterity. For the object of this -weapon its curved form is essential. The stroke of the sword is done by -a turn of the wrist more than by a direct blow, so that the curved edge -of the weapon is drawn rapidly over the object of attack. - -The mode of employing the Indian sword was illustrated to me by the -same Colonel Hutchinson whose name has already been mentioned. - -He took a large mangold-wurzel, and laid it on a table. He then placed -the flat side of the sword upon the root, so that no blow could be -dealt, and then, with a slight turn of the wrist, he drew the blade -toward him, and the root fell apart, severed in two pieces. In the -same manner he cut the whole of the root into slices. The feat looked -so easy that I tried it on another root, but, instead of cutting it -in two, the edge of the sword glided off it as if it had been a solid -piece of glass, and jarred my arm to the shoulder. However, after a few -lessons, the feat became tolerably easy. - -The same effect can also be produced by pushing the blade from the -swordsman instead of drawing it toward him. It is to this delicate, -drawing cut that the Indian sword owes its efficiency, the steel of -the blade not being nearly of so good a quality as that of our common -dragoon swords, and not being capable of taking so fine an edge. But -if in battle an Indian warrior meets or overtakes an enemy, he does -not strike at him with the whole power of the arm, as is done by our -swordsmen, but places the edge of his weapon against the neck of the -enemy, and with a turn of his wrist nearly severs the head from the -body. - -In the same illustration is seen the circular shield or target. This -is of no great size, measuring about eighteen inches in diameter, and -sometimes even less. It is made of the hide of the rhinoceros, which, -when properly dressed and dried, is of considerable thickness, as -hard as horn, though not so brittle, and almost equally translucent. -The shield is generally adorned with four circular plates of metal, -which in an ordinary specimen are merely of iron, but in a peculiarly -handsome one are covered with lacquered gilding. The reader will -doubtless see the almost exact resemblance between the Indian shield -and the target of the Scotch Highlander. The other portions of the -armor are adorned with gold inlaying, like those parts which have been -described. - -Illustration No. 4, on page 1403, contains several articles used in -warfare, all of which are drawn from specimens in Sir Hope Grant’s -collection. In the centre is seen a coat of mail. This is one of the -most beautiful pieces of armor I have ever seen, each of the links -bearing upon it a sentence from the Koran. Three of the links are -shown underneath the coat of mail, drawn of the size of the originals. -If the reader will reflect upon the vast number of such links which are -required to form a coat of mail, he will appreciate the amount of labor -that must have been expended on it, the letters having to be formed -after the links are put together, so that they may not be obliterated -in the forging. The helmet belonging to this suit is seen by its side -at Fig. 2. - -Between the helmet and the coat of mail is a Coorg knife or dagger, -and its sheath. This weapon is sometimes very plain, and sometimes -blazes with gold and jewels on the hilt and sheath. A specimen in my -collection is of the former kind, and, though the blade is of good -quality, the handle is of wood, and is secured to the blade by a stout -brass rivet which passes through the tang. A bold ridge runs along -either side of the blade. - -Two more characteristic forms of the Indian dagger are shown at Figs. -7 and 9 in the illustration. One, Fig. 7, with its sheath at Fig. 8, -is in great favor, especially with the rich. It is made entirely of -steel, the two cross-bars constituting the handle. The form of the -blade varies somewhat in different specimens, but the general form is -the same in all. A good specimen in my collection is altogether twenty -inches in length, and weighs exactly a pound, so that it must be rather -an awkward weapon for the girdle. The blade, if it can be so called, is -nearly a foot in length, flat toward the handle, and within five inches -of the tips welling suddenly into a sort of quadrangular bayonet, -rather more than half an inch in thickness. - -The reader will see that when this dagger is grasped, the steel -continuations of the handle project on either side of the wrist, and -effectually guard it and the lower part of the arm from a sword-blade. -The weight of this instrument, as well as the force with which a thrust -can be delivered by a straight blow as in boxing, render the weapon -well calculated to drive its way through the folds of dress, or even -between the joints of armor. - -Next comes a weapon (Fig. 9) which would scarcely be recognized as a -dagger. It is, however a dagger, made from the two horns of the Indian -antelope. In the simplest form of this curious weapon, the horns are -arranged with their bases crossing each other for about six inches. The -curvature of the bases thus furnishes a sort of handle, which can be -grasped in such a way that the holder of the weapon can strike right -and left with it, and, among a number of people, could do a vast amount -of damage in a very short time. - -A dagger such as has been described could be made in half an hour, and, -indeed, a temporary weapon might be made in a few minutes by lashing -the horns together. But the Indians prefer to add ornament to the -weapon, and so they often make a hollow steel hilt in the form of a -cup, with the curved side outward. The hand passes into this cup as -into the basket-hilt of a single-stick, and is effectually guarded from -injury. The dagger shown in the illustration has one of these steel -hilts. In some places this weapon is in such favor that, instead of -making it of antelope horns, with a steel hilt, the entire dagger is of -steel, the points made in imitation of the horns. - -The last weapon (Fig. 10) is one which is used by the Afghans, and is a -sort of compromise between a sword and a dagger. A weapon of a similar -form and character is carried by the Moors. - -There is one kind of sword which ought not to be passed without some -notice. It is a most murderous looking weapon, and is made on precisely -the opposite principle to that of the sword which has already been -described. In that form of sword, the edge is on the outer curve of the -blade, which narrows toward the point. In the other sword, the edge is -on the inside curve, and the blade widens greatly at the tip, which -is curved like a bill-hook. Indeed, the weapon bears some resemblance -to a bill-hook with a greatly elongated blade. In a specimen in my -collection the blade is very little more than an inch wide by the hilt, -but at the point (or rather the tip, for this part of the blade is -squared) it is just four inches in width. The weight of this sword is -rather more than two pounds. - -There is also the quoit, or chakra, a missile weapon, that bears some -resemblance to the boomerang of Australia or the casting-knife of the -Fan tribe, it being intended to cut and not to pierce, as is generally -the case with missiles. It is made of thin steel, and is sharpened to a -razor-like edge on the outside. The mode of casting it is to spin it on -the forefinger and then to hurl it. The reader may imagine that such a -missile, which not only strikes an object, but revolves rapidly at the -time, must be a very formidable one. It is generally aimed at the face -of the adversary, and a skilful warrior will hurl four or five in such -rapid succession that it is scarcely possible to avoid being struck -by one of them, and having the face laid open, or the nose or lip -absolutely cut off. These quoit-like articles are carried upon a tall, -conical head-dress worn by the natives, into the folds of which they -also put several small knives, as Irish laborers stick their pipes in -their hats. See illustration No. 3, on page 1403. - -A similar weapon, made of brass instead of steel, is used by the -cattle-poisoning Mooches, who have already been described. They call it -by the name of “thâl.” - -The chakra is the special weapon of Vishnu, and may be seen in the -various representations of that deity, hanging in one of the hands. -Reference is made to this by Southey in the “Curse of Kehama.” Other -deities also hold the chakra in the many-armed images by which the -Indian artists clumsily attempt to depict omnipotence. This takes us to -another branch of the subject. - -[Illustration: SUIT OF ARMOR INLAID WITH GOLD. (See page 1402.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CL. - -INDIA--_Continued_. - -SACRIFICIAL RELIGION. - - - PRINCIPLE OF HUMAN SACRIFICE -- THE SUTTEE, OR WIDOW BURNING -- HER - FATE DESIRED BY HERSELF AND HER NEAREST RELATIVES -- REASONS FOR THE - SACRIFICE -- CONTRAST BETWEEN THE LIFE OF A WIFE AND A WIDOW OF HIGH - CASTE -- SOCIAL STATUS OF THE BRAHMINS -- HONOR IN WHICH THE SUTTEE - IS HELD -- MODE OF CONDUCTING THE SACRIFICE -- STRUCTURE OF THE PILE - -- COURAGEOUS CONDUCT OF THE VICTIM -- ATTEMPTED ESCAPE OF A SUTTEE - -- BERNIER’S DESCRIPTION -- GRADUAL ABOLITION OF THE SUTTEE -- THE - GODDESS KALI AND HER WORSHIPPERS -- THE THUGS AND THEIR CONSTITUTION - -- THE SACRED “ROOMAL” OR NOOSE -- MODE OF OFFERING A VICTIM -- THE - FESTIVAL OF JUGGERNAUT -- HARDSHIPS OF THE PILGRIMS -- FORM OF THE - IDOL -- SELF-SACRIFICE IN THE GANGES -- SACRIFICE OF BEASTS -- THE - GODDESS DOORGA OR KALI -- FAKIRS OR JOGIS -- THEIR VARIOUS MODES OF - SELF-TORTURE -- THE SWINGING FESTIVAL -- THE MOTIONLESS FAKIR. - -There is no part of the world, not even Africa itself, where the -principle of human sacrifice is so widely spread, and is developed so -variously, as in India. Several forms of human sacrifice, such as the -Meriah, which has already been described, belong to definite districts, -and even in them are carried out with certain limitations. Some forms -of the same principle, such as the murders by Thugs or Phânsigars in -their worship of the dread goddess Kali, are restricted to certain -societies of men. Again, the victims annually crushed under the wheels -of Juggernaut’s car are comparatively few, and can only be sacrified in -a certain locality, and at certain times. - -There is, however, one mode of human sacrifice which at no distant -period prevailed over the whole of India, and has only been checked by -the influence of England in those parts of the country which have been -subject to British dominion. Even in those districts the task has been -a very difficult one, and there is no doubt that if the strong hand of -England were ever lifted, the practice would again prevail as it did -before. - -This form of human sacrifice is the dreadful Suttee, or the death of -the widow on the funeral pyre of her dead husband. Both in Africa and -Polynesia we have seen several instances where the widow is sacrificed -on the grave of her husband, so that he may not find himself wifeless -when he reaches the spirit land. But it is remarkable that even among -the lowest of the savages, whose indifference to inflicting pain -is well known, there are none who exercise such horrible cruelty -toward the widow as do the highly civilized Hindoos. On referring to -the former portions of this work, the reader will see that in some -places the widows are strangled and laid in the grave, in others they -are buried alive, and in others they are killed by a blow of a club -(perhaps the most merciful death that can be inflicted), but that in no -instance is the surviving wife burned alive, as is the case with the -Hindoo. - -At the first glance, it seems strange that not only should the -relatives of the miserable wife desire her to be burned, but that she -herself should wish it, and should adhere to her determination in spite -of every opportunity of escaping so dreadful a death. Yet the calm, -dispassionate cruelty of the Hindoo nature is shown by the fact that, -painful as is a death by burning, the life of a widow who survives her -husband is made so miserable that the short though sharp agony of the -funeral pyre is infinitely preferable to life. She loses all caste, and -a Brahmin widow who refuses to be burned is loathed and despised even -by the very Pariahs, whose shadow would have been a contamination to -her during the lifetime of her husband. The horror of such a life can -scarcely be conceived by an European, even supposing a delicate girl, -bred in the midst of all luxury and refinement, to be suddenly cast -among the most debased of savages without possibility of rescue, and to -be made an object of scorn and contempt even to them. - -To realize the depths of utter degradation which a high-caste widow -incurs, we must first see what is her opinion of her own status. The -reader is doubtless aware that the Hindoos are divided into a number of -distinct castes, the peculiarity of which is, that no one can ascend -to a superior caste, though he may fall into a lower. Now, of all the -castes, the Brahmins are immeasurably the highest, and the reverence -which is paid to them by their countrymen is almost incredible. Wealth -or secular rank have nothing to do with this reverential feeling. -A Hindoo of inferior caste may be, and often is, a man of almost -unbounded wealth, may possess almost unbounded power, and, in his own -way, unbounded pride. But the very poorest of Brahmins is infinitely -his superior, and should he meet one of these exalted beings, he bows -before him, and pays divine honors to him. And, according to his -belief, he is right in so doing, the Brahmin being an incarnation of -Deity, sprung from the mouth of Vishnu, the Saviour God himself. He -may be mounted on a magnificent elephant, covered with glittering -trappings, he may be clothed in gorgeous robes and sparkle with costly -gems, but before a Brahmin, with a single cloth round his waist, and -bearing the solitary sign of his caste,--the slight cord hung over -one shoulder and under the other,--he is an abject slave. Even if, as -sometimes happens, he should employ a Brahmin as his cook, that Brahmin -retains his rank, and receives the worship of the man by whom he is -paid. - -According to their sacred books, “when a Brahmin springs to light, he -is born above the world; the chief of all creatures; assigned to guard -the treasury of duties, religious and civil.” According to the same -books, the very existence of mankind, and even of the world itself, -depends upon the forbearance of the Brahmins whose power even exceeds -that of the gods themselves. Should there be one who cannot be slain -by the great god Indra, by Kali, the goddess of destruction, or even -by Vishnu himself, he would be destroyed if a Brahmin were to curse -him, as if he were consumed by fire. In the same spirit, princes were -warned not to take the property of the Brahmins, however much in want -of money, for that if these holy men were once enraged, they could by a -word destroy them, their armies, elephants, and horses. - -By them, under Brahma, were originally made the earth, the sun, the -moon, and the fire, and by them they could be destroyed. “What prince -could gain wealth by oppressing those who, if angry, could frame other -worlds, and legions of worlds, _could give being to new gods_ and -mortals?” Just as these tremendous privileges are independent of the -external circumstances of wealth and rank, so are they independent of -individual character. The pure soul of a Brahmin is beyond all moral -elevation, and above all moral pollution. He may be a man of the -purest life and loftiest morality, but he is none the better Brahmin -for that; he may be one of the vilest of debauchees, and be none the -worse Brahmin for that, provided he does not commit any act which would -forfeit his caste,--such, for example, as killing a cow, or eating food -that had been cooked by an inferior. - -To fall from such an estate as this, above humanity and equal to -divinity, must be something almost too terrible to conceive, and we -can easily imagine that any death would be preferable to such a life. -But not even the horror of a life like this would be equivalent to -the sufferings of the Indian widow, who believes that her very soul -is contaminated beyond hope by the loss of her caste, and who feels -herself degraded below the level of those on whom she had looked with -an utter loathing that is almost incomprehensible to the Western mind. -She has to cut off her hair, she has to live on the coarsest of food, -she has to clothe herself in the coarsest of raiment, and altogether to -lead a life utterly and hopelessly miserable in every hardship that can -afflict the body, and every reproach that can torture the mind. - -On the other side comes the belief, that if she follows the dictates -of her religion, and suffers herself to be burned on the funeral pile -of her husband, she qualifies herself for everlasting happiness. From -the moment that the ceremonies of the sacrifice are begun, she becomes -an absolutely sacred being, whose very touch sanctifies the objects on -which she lays her hands; she renders herself a model to be imitated -by all her sex, and her memory is forever venerated by her family. It -is therefore no wonder that, swayed by such considerations, the Indian -widow prefers death to life, and that the sacrifice of the Suttee has -taken such hold upon the people. - -Varying slightly in details according to the rank of the individual -and the particular district in which the sacrifice takes place, the -ceremony is conducted after the following manner. - -A hole is dug in the ground, over which the funeral pile is raised. The -object of the hole is to supply a current of air by which the fire may -be fed. Sticks are then driven round the edge of the hole to support -the materials of the pile, which are dry wood, rushes, and hemp. These -are heaped carefully to a height of four feet or so, and resin and ghee -(_i. e._ liquid butter) are thrown on the pile, so as to increase the -vehemence of the flames. The body is then taken to the river, on whose -bank the pyre is always erected, and is there washed by the relatives, -and afterward wrapped in a new cloth and laid on the pile. - -During this time the widow stands on the bank, uttering prayers, and -waving in her hand a branch of mango. After the corpse is removed -from the water, she descends into it herself, and, having washed, -distributes to her friends all her ornaments, which are eagerly sought, -as being sanctified by having been touched by the sacred hand of a -suttee. She is then dressed in a new robe, and places herself by the -side of the body, to which she is usually, though not always, lashed. -Dry rushes and wood are next heaped over her, only her head being -suffered to be uncovered, so that she may breathe for the short time -she has to live. Two long bamboos are then laid across the pile, the -ends being held by the relations, so as to press her down should she -struggle to escape when the flames reach her. The fire is lighted by -her nearest relation, and, if the pile has been properly constructed, -the suttee is soon dead, being killed rather by suffocation from the -smoke than by the flames. - -Sometimes, however, when the building of the pile has been entrusted -to inexperienced hands, a terrible scene takes place, the wretched -victim trying to escape from the flames that torture her, and being -ruthlessly held down by the bamboo poles across her body. Dr. Massie -relates several instances of attempted escape. In one case, the mode -of preparing the pile was evidently the cause of the poor victim’s -sufferings. At each corner a stout pole was erected, and from this pole -was suspended a second pile, like a canopy, elevated three or four feet -above the surface of the principal pile. This canopy was chiefly made -of logs of wood, and was exceedingly heavy. - -After the suttee had been laid upon the pile, and covered with straw -saturated with ghee, the fire was kindled, and the smoke rolled in -thick volumes over the head of the victim. The flames began to blaze -fiercely, and if they had been allowed to burn in their own way, the -death of the poor woman would have been almost immediate. But just at -this time four assistants severed with their swords the ropes which -upheld the canopy, so that it fell with its whole weight upon her. - -Possibly it was intended as an act of mercy, but its effect was -anything but merciful. For the moment she was stunned by the blow, but -the mass of billets checked the action of the fire, and caused it to -burn slowly instead of rapidly. The creeping flames soon restored her -to consciousness through the agony which they inflicted upon her, and -she shrieked pitifully for the help that none would give her, until -death at last put an end to her sufferings. - -The same author quotes an account of a suttee who actually did succeed -in escaping from the flames, in spite of the resistance offered by the -officiating Brahmins and her relatives:-- - -“Another well-authenticated and brutal instance of this sacrifice -occurred about the same time in a more northern province of India: ‘The -unfortunate Brahminee, of her own accord, had ascended the funeral -pile of her husband’s bones, but finding the torture of the fire more -than she could bear, by a violent struggle she threw herself from the -flames, and, tottering to a short distance, fell down. Some gentlemen, -who were spectators, immediately plunged her into the river, which was -close by, and thereby saved her from being much burnt. She retained -her senses completely, and complained of the badness of the pile, -which, she said, consumed her so slowly that she could not bear it; but -expressed her willingness again to try it if they would improve it. -They would not do so, and the poor creature shrunk with dread from the -flames, which were now burning intensely, and refused to go on. - -“‘When the inhuman relations saw this, they took her by the head and -heels, and threw her into the fire, and held her there till they were -driven away by the heat; they also took up large blocks of wood, with -which they struck her, in order to deprive her of her senses; but she -again made her escape, and, without any help, ran directly into the -river. The people of her house followed her here, and tried to drown -her by pressing her under the water, but an European gentleman rescued -her from them, and she immediately ran into his arms and cried to him -to save her. - -“‘I arrived at the ground as they were bringing her the second time -from the river, and I cannot describe to you the horror I felt on -seeing the mangled condition she was in: almost every inch of skin -on her body had been burnt off; her legs and thighs, her arms and -back, were completely raw, her breasts were dreadfully torn, and the -skin hanging from them in threads; the skin and nails of her fingers -had peeled wholly off, and were hanging to the back of her hands. In -fact, I never saw and never read of so entire a picture of misery as -this poor woman displayed. She seemed to dread being again taken to -the fire, and called out to “the Ocha Sahib” to save her. Her friends -seemed no longer inclined to force, and one of her relations, at our -instigation, sat down beside her, and gave her some clothes, and told -her they would not. We had her sent to the hospital, where every -medical assistance was immediately given her, but without hope of -recovery. She lingered in the most excruciating pain for about twenty -hours, and then died.’” - -It is often said that the woman is stupefied with opium or Indian hemp -before she is brought to the pile, and that the bystanders beat drums -and shout in order to drown her shrieks. This, however, is not the -case, the woman requiring the use of all her senses to enable her to go -through the various ceremonies which precede the actual burning, and -the pile being generally made so carefully that death is so rapid that -the victim scarcely utters a cry or makes a single struggle to escape. - -Additions to the mere burning of the widow have been mentioned by -various travellers. Bernier, for example, says that, while travelling -near Agra, he heard that a Suttee was about to take place. He went to -the spot, and there saw a great pit, in the midst of which was a large -pile of wood. On the pile lay the body of a man, and beside it sat a -young and handsome woman, whose dress was almost saturated with oil, as -was the wood of the pile. The fire being lighted, she sat on the pile, -and as the flames wrapped her body, she exclaimed with a loud voice -that, according to the Indian belief in the transmigration of souls, -this was the fifth time that she had become a suttee, and that she -would have to do so twice more in order to attain perfection. - -Round the edge of the pit danced five women, holding each other by -the hand, and appearing regardless of the fire. Presently the flames -seized upon the dress of one of them; whereupon she detached herself -from her companions, and flung herself headlong into the burning pit. -The remaining four continued their dance, and, as the fire caught their -garments, they one by one leaped into the flaming pit. These women, it -appeared, had been slaves of the suttee. They were greatly attached to -their mistress, and when they heard her offer the vow to die on the -funeral pile, they determined to die with her. - -The same traveller relates a very curious anecdote of a suttee who -employed the dreadful ceremony for a strange purpose. - -She was a widow by her own act, having poisoned her husband in order -to carry on an intrigue with a young tailor, a Mohammedan, who was -celebrated for his skill in playing the drum. He, however, was alarmed -at her crime, and declined her society. On account of the caste to -which she belonged, the death by burning was not a necessity, but on -her lover’s refusal she went to her relations, reported the sudden -death of her husband, and declared that she would be burned with him. - -“Her kindred, well satisfied with so generous a resolution, and the -great honor that she did to the whole family, presently had a pit made -and filled with wood, exposing the corpse upon it, and kindling the -fire. All being prepared, the woman goes to embrace and bid farewell to -all her kindred that were there about the pit, among whom was also the -tailor, who had been invited to play upon the tabor that day, with many -others of that sort of men, according to the custom of the country. -This fury of a woman, being also come to this young man, made sign as -if she would bid him farewell with the rest, but, instead of gently -embracing him, she taketh him with all her force about his collar, pull -him to the pit, and tumbles him, together with herself, into the ditch, -where they both were soon despatched.” - -The date at which the Suttee was instituted is not known, but it was -in operation at the time of Alexander the Great, and must have been -established long before. Under the British rule the Suttee system has -gradually been abolished, and we may hope that never again will the -dread scene be repeated. - - * * * * * - -Reference has already been made to several other modifications of human -sacrifice, and we will give a few pages to a description of them. - -There is in the Indian mythology a certain dreadful goddess of -destruction, named Kali. Her statues show her attributes, her many -hands being filled with all kinds of weapons, and her person decorated -with a huge necklace of human skulls. In order to propitiate this -terrible divinity, a system has been developed which is perhaps the -most remarkable, illogical, and best regulated system that is to be -found upon the face of the earth. It is simply murder raised to the -rank of a religious rite, and differs from all other human sacrifices -in that blood is not shed, that the victim is always killed by -stratagem, and that the worshippers need neither temple nor altar. - -The members of the society call themselves THUGS, from a Hindoo word -which signifies “deception,” and which is given to them in consequence -of the mode in which the victims are entrapped. In some parts of India -they are called PHÂNSIGARS, from a Sanscrit word which signifies “a -noose.” Perhaps the strangest point, in this country of strict and -separate caste, is that the Thugs do not belong to one caste, nor even -to one religion. They all agree in worshipping Kali, but in other -respects they admit among their numbers men and women of all castes, -and a large number of them are Mahommedans, who have no caste at all. -Indeed, the Mahommedan Thugs claim for themselves the origin of the -system, though the Hindoos say that it was in existence long before the -time of Mahommed. - -They always go in companies, a complete band often consisting of -several hundred persons of all ages and both sexes. As the very essence -of the sacrifice is secrecy, they assume all kinds of disguises, the -usual being that of travelling merchants. In this capacity they act -their part to perfection, and endeavor to entice travellers into their -clutches. - -For this purpose they have a regular organization. At their head they -have a chief, or Sirdar, who directs the operations of the band. Then -an old experienced Thug acts as instructor, and teaches the younger men -how to use the sacred noose by which the victims are strangled. This -is not a cord with a running knot, but a sort of handkerchief, which -is flung round the neck of the unsuspecting man, and suddenly drawn -tight. This noose, or handkerchief, is called the “roomal.” Then come -the men who are entrusted with the noose. These are called Bhuttotes, -or stranglers, and are generally men possessing both strength and -activity. Next are the entrappers, or Sothas, namely, those whose -business it is to entrap the victim into a convenient spot for his -assassination, and to engage his attention while preparations are being -made for his death. Lastly come the Lughaees, or grave-diggers, who -prepare the grave for the reception of the body. - -The method in which the Thugs perform their sacrifices is almost -exactly like that which is employed by the modern garroters, except -that a noose is used instead of the arm, and that the victim is always -killed, instead of being only made insensible for a time. - -Having pitched upon a person whom they think will be a fit offering -for Kali, the Sothas manage to induce him to come to the fatal spot. -Several days are often spent in this endeavor; for, unless there -is every probability that the murder will not be executed before -any except members of their own society, the Thugs will not attempt -the traveller’s life. The women and children attached to the band -are usually employed as Sothas, inasmuch as they would excite less -suspicion than if they were men. If the women be young and handsome, -they are the more valuable as decoys; and, horrible to say, even young -girls take the greatest interest in decoying travellers within the -fatal noose. - -When the party have arrived at the appointed spot, the attention of the -traveller is adroitly directed to some object in front of him, while -the Bhuttote who acts the part of executioner steals quietly behind -him. Suddenly the noose is flung round the victim’s neck, the knee of -the murderer is pressed into his back, and in a short time he ceases -to live. Generally the executioner is so adroit at his dread office -that the murdered man makes no resistance, but dies almost without a -struggle, the first pressure of the noose causing insensibility. - -The body of the murdered man is then stripped, and his property falls -to the band. Sometimes a whole party of travellers is entrapped by a -band of Thugs, and all are simultaneously murdered. This is generally -the case when several wealthy men travel together, in which case they -and their servants are all murdered in honor of Kali; who, on her -part, yields to her servants the goods of the murdered men, by way of -recompense for their piety. - -The sacrifice over, the body is pierced in several places to prevent -it from swelling, and is then laid in the grave. The soil is carefully -filled in, and levelled with such ingenious care that scarcely any -except those who dug the grave can discover it after the burial. In -one case, when an English force was in chase after a band of Thugs, -they passed over ground which was full of bodies, and never suspected -it until one of the Thug prisoners exultingly pointed out grave after -grave as proofs of their success. - -After the body is buried, and all signs of the murder removed, the -Thugs go through a sort of religious ceremony, sitting round a white -cloth, on which are laid the sacred pickaxes with which the graves are -dug, a piece of silver, and some sugar. The Sirdar then sits on the -sheet, facing westward, with the most accomplished stranglers on either -side of him, and distributes the sugar to all present, who eat it in -solemn silence. The sheet is then put away, and to all appearance the -Thugs are nothing more than a party of harmless travellers. - -So secretly is the whole business conducted, that the system has only -been discovered within late years. Numbers of persons had mysteriously -disappeared; but in India the natives are singularly apathetic, and -it is always easy to account for the disappearance of a traveller by -saying that he has been carried off by a tiger. The Thugs take the -greatest pride in their profession, and, when captured, do not attempt -to disguise it, but openly boast of the number of victims whom they -have slain, and describe with glee the method in which they destroyed -them; and, when themselves led to the gallows, they treat the whole -business with calm contempt, having no more care for their own lives -than for those of their victims. - - * * * * * - -We now come to another ceremony, in which human life is sacrificed, -though as an adjunct, and not as its essential feature. This is the -celebrated procession of Juggernaut, or Jaganatha. The ceremonies -connected with this idol, and indeed the invention of the idol itself, -seem to be of comparatively modern date, and, except for the great -annual procession of the car, are of little interest. - -The great temple of the idol is situated in Orissa, rather more than -three hundred miles southwest from Calcutta. It is a tall, pyramidal -tower, some two hundred feet in height, built of a warm red sandstone, -covered with the lime-cement called “chunam.” Being on the sea-coast, -this tower is a most useful landmark to navigators in the Bay of -Bengal. - -Once in every year the great festival of Juggernaut takes place, and -the huge idol-car is brought out for the procession. The car is an -enormous edifice of wood, more than forty feet high, and thirty-five -feet square. This mass of timber is supported on sixteen wheels, each -more than six feet in diameter, some of the wheels being under the body -of the car. The car itself is plentifully adorned with sculptures of -the usual character, and it is conventionally supposed to be drawn by -two great wooden horses, which are attached to it in readiness for the -procession, and kept inside it during the rest of the year. - -On the appointed day three idols are placed in the car. The central -figure represents Krishna, and the others are his brother Bala Rama and -his sister Sûbhadra. They are nothing but three enormous and hideous -busts, not nearly so well carved as the tikis of New Zealand, and, in -fact, much resemble the human figures scribbled on walls by little -boys. Stout and long cables are attached to the car, by means of which -the worshippers of the idol drag it along. The scene that takes place -at the procession is most vividly described by Bruton:-- - -“In this chariot, on their great festal days, at night they place their -wicked god, _Jaggarnat_; and all the _Bramins_, being in number nine -thousand, attend this great idol, besides of _ashmen_ and _fackeeres_ -(fakirs) some thousands, or more than a good many. - -“The chariot is most richly adorned with most rich and costly -ornaments; and the aforesaid wheels are placed very complete in a -round circle, so artificially that every wheel doth its proper office -without any impediment; for the chariot is aloft, and in the centre -betwixt the wheels: they have also more than two thousand lights with -them. And this chariot, with the idol, is also drawn with the greatest -and best men of the town; and they are so greedy and eager to draw it, -that whosoever, by shouldering, crowding, shoving, heaving, thrusting, -or in any insolent way, can but lay a hand upon the rope, they think -themselves blessed and happy; and when it is going along the city, -there are many that will offer themselves as a sacrifice to this idol, -and desperately lie down on the ground, that the chariot-wheels may run -over them, whereby they are killed outright; some get broken arms, some -broken legs, as that many of them are so destroyed; and by this means -they think to merit heaven.” - -Another of the earlier writers on this subject states that many persons -lie down in the track of the car a few hours before it starts, and, -taking a powerful dose of opium, or “bhang,” _i. e._ Indian hemp, meet -death while still unconscious. - -In former days the annual assemblage at the temple of Juggernaut, which -is to the Hindoos what Mecca is to the Mahommedans, was astonishing, -a million and a half of pilgrims having been considered as the average -number. Putting aside the comparative few who perished under the wheels -of the great car (for, indeed, had the whole road been paved with human -bodies, they would have been but a few), the number that died from -privation and suffering was dreadful. - -We know by many a sad experience how difficult it is to feed a large -army, even with the great advantage of discipline on the part of the -commissariat and the recipients. It is therefore easy to see how -terrible must be the privation when a vast multitude, quadruple the -number of any army that ever took the field, arrives simultaneously -from all directions at a place where no arrangements have been made -to supply them with provisions, and where, even if the locality could -furnish the requisite food, the greater number of the pilgrims are -totally without money, and therefore unable to pay for food. In those -days the pilgrims perished by thousands, as much victims to Juggernaut -as those who were crushed under his chariot wheels, and, indeed, -suffering a far more lingering and painful death. Still, according to -their belief, they died in the performance of their duty, and by that -death had earned a high place in the paradise of the Hindoos. - -Such was the case before the English raj was established in India. -Since that time a gradual but steady diminution has taken place in the -number of the pilgrims to Juggernaut’s temple; and we have lately seen -a most astonishing and portentous event. Formerly, the vast crowd of -worshippers pressed and crowded round the cables by which the car was -drawn, trying to lay but a hand upon the sacred rope. Of late years the -Brahmins have found fewer and fewer devotees for this purpose, and on -one occasion, in spite of all their efforts, the ropes were deserted, -and the car left stationary, to get along as it could. - -As to the idol Juggernaut itself, Bruton gives a curious description -of it, saying that it is in shape like a serpent with seven heads, and -that on the cheeks of each head there are wings which open and shut and -flap about as the car moves along. - -An idol in the form of a five-headed cobra is mentioned by Messrs. -Tyerman and Bennett in their “Missionary Voyages”: “We happened to be -visiting a very handsomely built stone temple (at Allahabad), covered -with well executed sculptures of their idols, holy persons, etc., in -stone of the highest relief. In the temple were several stone idols -representing the serpent--the _cobra capella_, or hooded snake. The -largest, which represents a serpent twelve feet long, with five heads, -and the heads all expanded, coiled into a sort of Gordian knot, is the -principal object of worship in this temple. - -“While we were looking at this stone snake, a horrid-looking man, -unclothed, rushed in (he was about twenty-five years old), being -covered with ashes, and his huge quantity of hair matted with mud -dust. His eyes appeared inflamed; he bowed before the serpent, then -prostrated himself, afterward respectfully touched his head, looked -fixedly upon the serpent, prostrated himself again, then touched it and -rushed out, as if in a paroxysm of delight at the thought of having -worshipped this thing. When he got out of the temple, he walked all -round within the verandah, and, having once more bowed at the door of -the temple, he departed with a hurried step. We cannot conceive of -any human being having more the appearance of a demoniac than this -miserable creature, who, nevertheless, is regarded by the poor Hindoos -as one of the holiest of men.” - - * * * * * - -Another form of human sacrifice was intended, like the prostration -under Juggernaut’s car, to take the devotee to Paradise, though by a -less painful and less revolting process. - -The Ganges has always been reckoned as a most sacred stream, whose -waters wash from the soul all taint of sin. There is, however, one -spot, namely, the confluence of the Jumna with the Ganges, which is so -very sacred, that any one who dies there must of necessity go straight -to Paradise. It is evident, therefore, that the simplest plan of -entering Paradise is to ensure death at the junction of the rivers. For -this purpose the devotee entered a boat, and tied to each of his feet -a chatty or earthenware jar filled with sand. The boat was rowed into -mid-stream, and the devotee dropped overboard into the river. The boats -used for this purpose were kept by Brahmins, who charged a fee for -officiating at the sacrifice. - -Sometimes the devotees managed to sacrifice themselves without the -assistance of the Brahmins and their boat. They tied an empty chatty to -their waists in front and behind, and, buoyed up by the empty vessels, -paddled themselves with their hands until they reached the desired -spot. They then scooped water into the chatties, until they were -filled, and so sank, the weight of the vessels being sufficient to take -them to the bottom. In like manner are corpses entrusted to the keeping -of the holy river, when the relatives of the deceased are not able to -afford the great expense of a funeral pile. The body is surrounded by -lighted straw, so that it is scorched, and therefore considered to be -purified by fire. Two chatties are then fastened to it, the relatives -tow the body into mid-stream, fill the chatties with water, and allow -the body to sink. What becomes of it afterward they care nothing, and -though it be devoured by the many creatures of prey which haunt the -rivers in search of their loathsome food, they are perfectly satisfied -with their share in its disposal. - -In many cases beasts are substituted for human sacrifices. A short, -stout post is fixed in the ground, and on its top is cut a deep notch, -in which is received the neck of the animal, the size of the notch and -height of the post being suited to the size of the victim. Sacrifices -are thus offered to Doorga, the goddess of nature, and it is of the -utmost importance that the head of the victim should be severed at a -single blow. This is easy enough with a lamb, or even a goat, but when -a buffalo is to be sacrificed, the success of the blow is so doubtful -that many ceremonies are employed to ensure its right performance. -The sacrificial knife is a tremendous weapon, shaped something like -a bill-hook, very broad, very heavy, and kept as sharp as a razor. -When the sacrifice is to take place, the buffalo is brought to the -post, which stands before the ten-armed image of Doorga, its horns are -painted red, turmeric is poured over its head, water from the Ganges is -sprinkled over it, and garlands of flowers are hung about its neck. - -The animal is then placed so that its neck rests in the fork of the -post, to which it is firmly secured by an iron bar which passes through -holes in the fork, and presses its head downward. The body is supported -on a mound of earth in front of the post, and the legs are drawn apart -and held by ropes, so that a movement is impossible. The sacrificer, -always a man of great muscular power, then comes forward and takes the -sacrificial knife from the altar before Doorga’s statue, and, together -with the assembled multitude, prays that strength may be given to -enable him to fulfil his office. - -Amid the breathless silence of the assembled worshippers, he raises -the heavy blade, and with one blow drives it through the neck of the -helpless victim. As the head falls to the ground, it is snatched up -by the officiating Brahmins, who offer it to the goddess, while the -people, in a frenzy of delight, dance round the sacrificer, embrace -him, chant songs in his honor, and crown him with garlands of flowers. -The body of the buffalo becomes the property of the spectators, who -struggle for it until one party gains the superiority over the other, -and carries off the prize. Around the blood, that lies in pools on the -ground, the multitude crowd, dip their fingers in it, and daub it on -their bodies and on the walls of the temple. - -The goddess Doorga, to whom these sacrifices are made, is in fact Kali -under another title; the former name meaning the Inaccessible, and the -latter the Black One. She is represented as the wife of the Destroying -God, Shiva, and as the mother of the God of War, Kartikeya. As Doorga, -her many-armed figure is carved of wood, or modelled in pasteboard, -and painted rose color. She is seated cross-legged on a peacock, and -surrounded by many other deities of the multitudinous Hindoo mythology. -Before her is represented a man being devoured by a nondescript beast, -something like the heraldic griffin. As soon as the sacrifice is over, -the goddess is supposed to depart from her image, which is then taken -in procession to the Ganges, and amid the deafening shouts of the -people, the blast of trumpets, and the beating of kettle-drums, is cast -into the stream. - - * * * * * - -The reader may remember that on page 1413 was given a short description -of a holy man who came to worship the many-headed snake-god. He was one -of the Fakirs, or Jogis, _i. e._ ascetics, who in India are wonderfully -numerous, and submit themselves to the most dreadful tortures in honor -of their deities. By rights the Fakirs are Mohammedans, though the -English have been accustomed to call both the Mohammedan and Hindoo -ascetics by the common title of Fakir. “Jogi” is the usual title for -the Hindoo devotees, though they are divided into a number of sects, -such as Bairágès, Sangasés, Gosárés, &c. - -In all ages and in almost all countries, there have been religious -enthusiasts, who have sought to gain the favor or propitiate the anger -of the deity by voluntary suffering, but there is perhaps no country -where we find so great a variety of this principle as we do in India. -There are Mohammedan as well as Hindoo ascetics, and the latter have -this advantage, that they need not belong to any particular caste. To -describe fully the extraordinary proceedings of these men would occupy -much more space than can be afforded, and we will therefore only take a -few of the most characteristic examples. - -One of the commonest, as well as one of the lightest, of these tortures -is, to have the tongue bored with a red-hot iron. This practice used -to prevail largely at Chinsurah, at the temple of the Bull-god. Under -a clump of banyan trees the devotees assembled in order to inflict -various tortures upon themselves, and by far the most common was that -of tongue boring. The operation was performed by a native smith, -who was reckoned very skilful at it, and at certain seasons he was -completely beset by applicants, doubly clamorous in the first place to -have their tongues bored, and in the next to have it done as cheaply as -possible. At these seasons he used to range the applicants in regular -lines, and take them in their turn, varying his fee according to their -number, rank, and impatience. - -A strange instance of self-torture is described by Colonel Campbell. -At Colar, the birthplace of Tippoo Sultan, a man was seen marching up -and down before a mosque, chanting a hymn. He was shod with a pair of -wooden sandals, not tied but nailed to his feet by long iron spikes -that had been driven through the sole and projected above the instep. -Yet he walked with a firm, unconcerned step, and chanted his measured -tune as if utterly unconscious of the horrible torture which each step -must have cost him. - -Sometimes these devotees show their piety by long pilgrimages to -certain sacred spots, making the journey as difficult and fanciful as -possible. Some will lie on the ground and roll the whole distance, -while others measure the track by prostrating themselves on their -faces, marking the spot where their heads lay, getting up, placing -their feet on the marked spot, and then prostrating themselves -again. Sometimes they will lie on their backs and push themselves -along the road by their heels, thus cutting and bruising their backs -terribly against the rough ground. Some of these men practise a most -extraordinary penance in honor of the goddess Doorga, a penance which -in some respects resembles the initiation of the Mandans. A stout pole, -some twenty feet high, is fixed in the ground, and a long bamboo is -placed horizontally over the top, on which it revolves by means of a -pivot. Sometimes two or even three poles cross each other on the top -of the post. Ropes hang from each end of the bamboos, and to half of -them are fastened large unbarbed hooks of polished iron. The devotees -having placed themselves under the bamboo, the hooks are run into their -backs, and by persons hauling on the rope at the other end of the -bamboo they are raised into the air. The men who hold the ropes then -run in a circle, so as to swing the devotees round at a great pace, the -whole weight of their bodies being borne by the hooks. While swinging -they scatter flowers and other gifts among the spectators, who eagerly -scramble for them, thinking they possess very great virtues. - -Both men and women submit to this terrible torture, and do so for a -variety of reasons. Some permit themselves to be swung in pure honor of -the goddess, some do it in fulfilment of a vow, while many submit to -the operation for pay, acting as substitutes of persons who have made -the vow and are afraid to fulfil it personally, or who prefer honoring -the goddess by deputy rather than in their own person. From one to two -rupees, _i. e._ from two to four shillings, is considered a fair price -to the substitute. - -Sometimes the upright post is fastened upon an ordinary bullock wagon, -and is shorter than when it is fixed in the ground. After the hooks -have been inserted, the opposite end of the bamboo is drawn down, so -as to elevate the devotee some thirty feet in the air, and made fast -to the wagon. The cart is then drawn as fast as possible round the -enclosure by six or eight bullocks, which are harnessed to it for the -occasion, and selected for their speed. - -In many instances, the Jogis (pronounced Yogees) perform their penance -by keeping one or more of their limbs in one attitude, until after a -time it becomes incapable of motion, and the muscles almost entirely -waste away. Some of these men will hold one arm stretched upward to -its fullest extent. This is done by supporting the arm by a cord when -the wearied muscles refuse to uphold the limb any longer. In some -instances, where the Jogi has clenched his hand, the nails have grown -fairly through the hand, forced their way through the back, and hung -nearly to the wrist. - -A very common practice is to sit completely motionless, in which case -the legs become in time totally incapable of moving, so that the man -could not change his position even if he desired to do so. In some -instances they even go beyond this, and manage to stand instead of sit, -with scarcely any support for their bodies during sleep. One of these -men is described by Mr. Williamson: “Within a few yards of the river -on our left stood one of those horrid figures called a _yogee_, or -Indian saint,--a gentleman beggar, who had placed himself in a certain -attitude, from which he had vowed never to swerve during the remainder -of his life, but to spend his life in mental abstraction. - -“He appeared on a platform of earth raised about eighteen inches from -the ground. At one end of this mound (which might be seven feet long -by five broad) were erected two bamboos, seven or eight feet high, -and sufficiently apart for him to stand between them. At elbow height -a broad board was placed from one bamboo to the other, and upon the -middle of this another piece of plank, two feet long by five inches -wide, was fixed, sloping upward from him. He therefore, standing on the -platform, and resting his arms upon the cross-bar, held with his hands -on each side of the upright sloping board. He seemed to press equally -on either foot, leaning a little forward, with his face turned rather -aside, and raised toward the sun. - -“His personal appearance was squalid and miserable. His body was -daubed all over with blue mud; his hair--long, matted, discolored to a -yellowish brown with exposure--dangled in all directions. His beard was -bushy and black, and the rest of his face so disfigured with hair, that -it might be said to be all beard. - -“Not the slightest motion in one of his limbs, nor in a muscle of his -countenance, was perceptible. He was altogether without clothing, -except a slip of brown stuff about the loins. He wore the ‘poita,’ or -sacred thread, indicating that he was a Brahmin. Night and day, it is -understood, the wretched sufferer (if indeed his state can be called -one of suffering) maintains without any variation this paralyzing -position.” - -Mr. Bennett then expresses some disbelief in the constant immobility of -the devotee, and evidently suspects him to be an impostor, who, under -cover of night, leaves his post, and refreshes himself with sleep in -a recumbent position. This, however, was certainly not the case, and -indeed the very language of the account shows that it could not be so. -A very long period must have elapsed before the devotee in question -could have trained his body to remain, as Mr. Bennett admits was the -case, without the movement of a muscle during the whole time that -his proceedings were watched. And, before such a consummation could -have been attained, the limbs of the man must have been so entirely -stiffened by non-usage, that they would be as inflexible as if they -had been cut out of wood or stone, and whether he stood or lay would -have been a matter of perfect indifference. As to sitting, or assuming -any attitude that involved the flexion of a limb, it would have been -utterly impossible. - -We may see a similar phenomenon, if it may be so called, among -ourselves. There is not one man in a thousand who preserves the -normal flexibility of his limbs, unless he be a professional athlete. -Naturally, the limbs of every man and woman are as flexible as those of -the posture-masters, who can cross their feet over the back of their -necks, pick up a coin with their mouths from the ground between their -heels, or sit on the ground with their legs stretched straight at -either side of their bodies. But, unless men preserve this flexibility -by constant use, the limbs become stiff, and it is quite as difficult, -not to say impossible, for an ordinary Englishman to perform the feats -of the professional acrobat, as it is for the Jogi to bend the knees or -ankles that have been unbent for a series of years. - -Moreover, the spectators who assemble round such devotees, and who -never leave him unwatched by day or night, would be very ready to -detect any attempt at imposture, and would be excited by it to such a -pitch of religious fury, that the man would be torn to pieces by the -excited crowd. And the very fact that the man was a Brahmin was proof -enough that he was no impostor. By virtue of his Brahminical rank, he -was at the summit of humanity. Had he been a low-caste man, he might -with reason have been suspected of imposture, in order to obtain -respect from his countrymen. But, as the man was already a Brahmin, -such imposture was totally needless, and his devotion, superstitious -and fanatical as it might be, was undoubtedly sincere. - - - - -CHAPTER CLI. - -INDIA--_Concluded_. - -THE INDIANS WITH RELATION TO ANIMALS. - - - FALCONRY -- THE MINA BIRD AND ITS FEATS -- SNAKE CHARMERS -- - SUSPICION OF IMPOSTURE -- GENERAL CAMPBELL’S ACCOUNT OF THE COBRA - AND THE CHARMER -- DEATH OF THE MAN -- DIFFICULTY OF THE TASK -- - THE POISON FANGS NOT REMOVED -- INITIATION OF A NOVICE -- ELEPHANT - HUNTING -- CATCHING ELEPHANTS WITH KOOMKIES -- TAMING THE CAPTURED - ANIMAL -- AN ENTHUSIASTIC KOOMKIE -- HUNTING IN NEPÂL -- JUNG BAHADÛR - AND THE ELEPHANTS -- HUNTING WITH TRAINED STAGS AND ANTELOPES -- THE - CHETAHS OR HUNTING LEOPARDS. - -We will end this description of India with a few remarks on one of -the chief peculiarities of native character, namely, the wonderful -capacity of the Indians in taming and training animals. This capacity -develops itself in various ways, some partaking of a religious -character, and being considered as in some sense miraculous, and some -only illustrative of the natural ascendancy which these men exert over -beasts, birds, and reptiles. - -The Indians are, for example, unsurpassed in their powers of training -falcons, which they teach to attack, not only birds, but antelopes and -other game. These falcons are of course unable of themselves to kill -an antelope, but they will mark out any one that has been designated -by their master, and will swoop down upon its head, clinging firmly -with their talons, and buffeting the poor beast about the eyes with -their wings, so that it runs wildly hither and thither, and thus allows -itself to be captured by the dogs, from which it could have escaped had -it been able to proceed in a straight line. A thoroughly trained falcon -is held in very great esteem, and many a petty war, in which many lives -were lost, has been occasioned by the desire of one rajah to possess a -falcon owned by another. - -Then there is a little bird called the Mina, belonging to the Grakles. -It is a pretty bird, about as large as a starling, with plumage of -velvety black, except a white patch on the wing. From either side of -the head proceeds a bright yellow wattle. This bird can be taught to -talk as well as any parrot, and it is said that, as a rule, the mina’s -tones more closely resemble those of the human voice than do those -of any parrot. It is very intelligent besides, and can be taught to -perform many pretty tricks. - -One trick, which is very commonly taught to the bird, is to dart down -upon the women, snatch away the ornaments which they wear on their -heads, and carry them to its master. This is a little trick that is -sometimes played by a young man upon the object of his affections, -and is intended to make her grant an interview in order to have her -property restored. - -As to reptiles, the cobra seems to be as unlikely a creature to be -tamed as any on the face of the earth. Yet even this terrible serpent, -whose bite is nearly certain death, is tamed by the Indians, and -taught to go through certain performances. For example, a couple of -serpent charmers will come, with their flat baskets and their musical -instruments, and begin to give a performance. One of them plays on -a rude native pipe, while the other removes the cover of one of the -baskets. Out comes the hooded head of the cobra, which seems as if it -were about to glide among the spectators, when a gesture and a few -notes from the piper check its progress, and it begins to rise and -fall, and sway its head from side to side, as if in time to the music. -The men will then take up the venomous reptile, allow it to crawl over -their bodies, tie it round their necks, and take all kinds of liberties -with it, the serpent appearing to labor under some strange fascination, -and to be unable or unwilling to use its fangs. - -Some persons think that the serpents are innocuous, their poison fangs -having been extracted. This may be the case in some instances, but in -them the performers are not the genuine snake charmers. Moreover, there -are several sets of fangs, one behind the other, so that when one pair -is broken or extracted, another pair speedily comes forward. - -That the genuine charmers do not depend upon such imposture for their -success is evident from many cases in which the serpents have been -carefully examined before and after the performance, and their fangs -found to be perfect in every respect. One such instance is narrated by -General Campbell in his “Indian Journal.” He had previously been under -the impression that the fangs were always removed from the serpents, -but the following circumstance convinced him that the charmers could -perform their tricks with snakes whose fangs were perfect:-- - -“When I was on General Dalrymple’s staff at Trichinopoly, there was a -dry well in the garden which was the favorite haunt of snakes, and in -which I shot several. One morning I discovered a large cobra-capella -at the bottom of this well, basking in the sun; but while I ran to -fetch my gun some of the native servants began to pelt him with stones, -and drove him into his hole among the brickwork. I therefore sent -for the snake charmers to get him out. Two of these worthies having -arrived, we lowered them into the well by means of a rope. One of them, -after performing sundry incantations, and sprinkling himself and his -companion with ashes prepared from the dung of a sacred cow, began to -play a shrill, monotonous ditty upon a pipe ornamented with shells, -brass rings, and beads, while the other stood on one side of the -snake’s hole, holding a rod furnished at one end with a slip-noose. - -“At first the snake, who had been considerably bullied before he took -refuge in his hole, was deaf to the notes of the charmer, but after -half an hour’s constant playing the spell began to operate, and the -snake was heard to move. In a few minutes more he thrust out his head, -the horse-hair noose was dexterously slipped over it and drawn tight, -and we hoisted up the men dangling their snake in triumph. - -“Having carried him to an open space of ground, they released him -from the noose. The enraged snake immediately made a rush at the -by-standers, putting to flight a crowd of native servants who had -assembled to witness the sport. The snake charmer, tapping him on the -tail with a switch, induced him to turn upon himself, and at the same -moment sounding his pipe. The snake coiled himself up, raised his head, -expanded his hood, and appeared about to strike, but, instead of doing -so, he remained in the same position as if fascinated by the music, -darting out his slender forked tongue, and following with his head the -motion of the man’s knee, which he kept moving from side to side within -a few inches of him, as if tempting him to bite. - -“No sooner did the music cease, than the snake darted forward with such -fury that it required great agility on the part of the man to avoid -him, and immediately made off as fast as he could go. The sound of the -pipe, however, invariably made him stop, and obliged him to remain in -an upright position as long as the man continued to play. - -“After repeating this experiment several times, he placed a fowl within -his reach, which he instantly darted at and bit. The fowl screamed out -the moment he was struck, but ran off, and began picking among his -companions as if nothing had happened. I pulled out my watch to see how -long the venom took to operate. - -“In about half a minute the comb and wattles of the fowl began to -change from a red to a livid hue, and were soon nearly black, but no -other symptom was apparent. In two minutes it began to stagger, was -seized with strong convulsions, fell to the ground, and continued to -struggle violently till it expired, exactly three minutes and a half -after it had been bitten. On plucking the fowl, we found that he had -merely been touched on the extreme point of the pinion. The wound, not -larger than the puncture of a needle, was surrounded by a livid spot, -but the remainder of the body, with the exception of the comb and -wattles (which were of a dark livid hue), was of the natural color, and -I afterward learned that the coachman, a half-caste, had eaten it. - -“The charmer now offered to show us his method of catching snakes, and -seizing the reptile (about five feet long) by the point of the tail -with his left hand, he slipped the right hand along the body with the -swiftness of lightning, and grasping him by the throat with his finger -and thumb, held him fast, and forced him to open his jaws and display -his poisonous fangs. - -“Having now gratified my curiosity, I proposed that the snake should be -destroyed, or at least that his fangs might be extracted, an operation -easily performed with a pair of forceps. But, the snake being a -remarkably fine one, the charmer was unwilling to extract his teeth, -as he said the operation sometimes proved fatal, and begged so hard to -be allowed to keep him as he was, that I at last suffered him to put -him in a basket and carry him off. After this he frequently brought the -snake to the house to exhibit him, and still with his fangs entire, as -I ascertained by personal inspection, but so tame that he handled him -freely, and apparently without fear or danger.” - -The best proof that the snake’s fangs were not extracted is, that some -weeks afterwards the reptile bit the charmer, and killed him. - -It seems strange that serpents should be thus subject to man. It is -comparatively easy to tame a bird or a beast, as hunger can be employed -in the process, and really is the chief power, the creature learning to -be fond of the person who furnishes it with food. Or, in extreme cases, -the power of inflicting pain is employed, so that the animal is ruled -by fear, if not by love. - -But, in the case of a snake, the tamer is deprived of both of these -adjuncts. As a serpent only feeds at very long intervals, and possesses -an almost inexhaustible power of fasting, hunger cannot be employed; -and its peculiar constitution would render the infliction of pain -useless. The charmer has, therefore, to fall back upon some other -mode of working upon his pupil, and finds it in music, to which the -cobra seems peculiarly accessible. That it is powerfully influenced by -music was known many centuries ago, as we may see by the references -to serpent charming in the Scriptures. Any music seems to affect -the creature, and, if it can be rendered docile by the harsh sounds -that proceed from the charmer’s flute, we may conjecture that more -melodious sounds would have a like effect. Mr. Williams, who was very -much inclined to be sceptical on the subject of serpent charming, and -thought that the poison fangs were always removed, mentions that a -gentleman at Chinsurah, who was a very excellent violinist, was forced -to lay aside his instrument because the sounds of the violin attracted -so many serpents to his house. - -Serpent charming is thought to be a semi-sacred calling, and is one -of those cases where the process of taming partakes of the religious -character. The charmers are regularly initiated into their duties, and -undergo certain ceremonies before they are thought to be impervious -to the serpent’s teeth. Sometimes an European has been initiated into -these mysteries, as happened to Lady Duff Gordon, to whom a snake -charmer took a fancy, and offered to initiate her. He and his pupil sat -opposite each other, and joined their hands. The charmer then twisted -a cobra round their joined hands, and repeated some invocation. Both -of them afterward spat on the snake, and the novice was pronounced -to be safe, and enveloped in snakes as a proof of the success of the -incantation. - - * * * * * - -There is perhaps no better instance of the mastery of the Indians over -animals than the manner in which they catch and instruct elephants. - -The reader will doubtless remember that, though the elephant is -abundant both in Africa and India, the inhabitants of the former -country never attempt to domesticate it. It has been thought that the -African elephant is not trained, because it is fiercer than the Asiatic -species or variety, and lacks the intelligence which distinguishes -that animal. This, however, is not the case. The African elephant is -as docile and intelligent as that of Asia, and quite as capable of -being trained. The elephants which were used in the time of the ancient -Romans were brought from Africa, and yet we read of the most wonderful -feats which they could perform. Moreover, the African elephants which -have been in the Zoölogical Gardens for some years are quite as -tractable as the Asiatic animals. The real cause for the non-use of the -African elephant is, not its incapacity for domestication, but the lack -of capacity in the Africans to domesticate it. - -In almost all cases of domesticated animals, the creatures are born in -captivity, so that they have never been accustomed to a wild life. The -Indian, however, does not trouble himself by breeding elephants, but -prefers to capture them when sufficiently grown to suit his purposes. -There are two modes of catching the elephant, one of which is so -ingenious that it deserves some description, however brief. A common -way is by making a large enclosure, called a “keddah,” and driving the -elephants into it. The keddah is so made, that when the elephants have -fairly entered it they cannot get out again, and are kept there until -subdued by hunger and thirst. - -By this mode of elephant catching, the animals are taken in -considerable numbers, and of all sizes. The genuine elephant hunter, -however, cares little for this method, and prefers to pick out for -himself the best animals, the Indians being exceedingly particular -about their elephants, and an elephant having as many “points” as a -prize pigeon or rabbit. - -In every herd of elephants the males are given to fighting with each -other for the possession of the females, and it often happens that a -male, who for some time has reigned supreme in the herd, is beaten -at last. Furious with rage and disappointment, he leaves the herd, -and ranges about by himself, destroying in his rage everything which -opposes him. In this state he is called a “rogue” elephant by the -English, and _saun_ by the natives. Now, furious and dangerous as is -the saun, he is always a splendid animal, scarcely inferior indeed to -the master elephant of the herd. The elephant hunters, therefore, are -always glad to hear of a saun, and take measures to capture so valuable -a prize. - -They possess several female elephants, called “koomkies,” which are -used as decoys, and, strangely enough, take the greatest interest in -capturing the saun. When the hunter goes out on his expedition, he -takes with him at least two koomkies, and sometimes three, if the saun -should happen to be a very large one; and in all cases he takes care -that the koomkies shall not be much smaller than the saun. - -The hunters, furnished with ropes and the other apparatus for securing -the saun, lie flat on the koomkies’ backs, cover themselves with a -large dark cloth, and proceed toward the place where the saun was -seen. Often the koomkies carry in their trunks branches of trees, -which they hold in such a manner as to prevent their intended captive -from seeing that they carry anything on their backs. The saun, seeing -them approach, loses some of his fury, and thinks that he is in great -good-fortune to meet with females over whom he can rule as he had done -before. He is so delighted with this idea that he fails to perceive -the hunters, who usually slip off behind a tree as they near him, but -sometimes boldly retain their post. - -The koomkies then go up to the saun and begin to caress him, one on -each side, and sometimes another in front of him, when three decoys are -employed. They caress him, make much of him, and gradually bring him -near a stout tree, where they detain him. The hunters then creep under -the huge animal, and pass stout ropes round his forelegs, binding them -tightly together, being aided in this by the decoys, who place their -trunks so that their masters cannot be seen, and sometimes even assist -him by passing the rope when he cannot conveniently reach it. The -forelegs being secured, the hunter places round the elephant’s hindlegs -a pair of strong fetters. These are made of wood, and open with a hinge -of rope. They are studded inside with sharp iron spikes, and, when -clasped round the feet of the elephant, are fastened to the trunk of -the tree with strong ropes. - -The elephant being now made fast, the hunters creep away, and are -followed by the koomkies, who receive their masters on their necks, and -go off, leaving the unfortunate saun to his fate. If he was furious -before, he is tenfold more so when he has to add to disappointment the -sense of confinement, and the knowledge that he has been tricked. He -screams with rage, tears branches off the tree, pulls up the grass by -the roots and flings it about, and even tries to break the rope which -holds him to the tree, or to pull up the tree itself by the roots. The -spikes with which the wooden fetters are lined give him such pain, that -he is soon forced to desist, and wearied out with pain and exertion, -he becomes more quiet. On the following day the same men and elephants -come to him, and bring him a little food; and so they go on until he -has learned first to endure, and afterward to desire their presence. -When they judge him to be sufficiently tamed, strong ropes are fastened -to his legs, and attached to the koomkies, and, the ligatures round -his feet being removed, he is marched off to his new quarters. - -Sometimes he resists, on finding his limbs at liberty. In such a case -the koomkies drag him along by the ropes, while a large male pushes him -on from behind, sometimes using his tusks by way of spurs. When he has -been taken to his abode, he is treated with firm but kind discipline, -and is so effectually tamed, that in a few months after he was ranging -wild about the forest he may be seen assisting to convey a refractory -brother to his new home. - -The intelligence of the koomkies is really wonderful, and they take -quite as much interest in the pursuit as their masters. Captain -Williams mentions an instance where a gentleman had purchased a -koomkie, not knowing her to be such. The mahout or driver would not -mention her capacity, because he very much preferred the ease and -comfort of a gentleman’s establishment to the dangers and hardships -of a hunter’s life. The wealthy natives of the neighborhood would not -mention it, because each of them hoped to buy the animal for himself at -a less price than would be asked for a koomkie. - -One day the animal was missing, and did not return for several days. -However, she came back, and was harnessed as usual for a walk. When she -came to a certain spot, she became restive, and at last dashed into -the jungle, where she brought her master to a fine saun, whom she had -crippled by fastening a chain round his forelegs. - -In Nepâl the natives adopt a very dangerous mode of elephant hunting. -They go to the hunt on elephants, and furnish themselves with very -strong ropes, one end of which is made fast to the body of the riding -elephant, and the other furnished with a slip-knot, to which is -attached a line, by which the noose can be relaxed. They give chase -to the herd, and, selecting a suitable animal, the hunter dexterously -flings the noose upon the head of the animal just behind its ears and -on its brows. The elephant instinctively curls up its trunk, whereupon -the noose slips fairly over its head. - -The hunter then checks the pace of his animal, so that the noose is -drawn tightly round the neck of the captured elephant, and causes a -partial choking. His speed being checked, another hunter comes up and -flings a second noose, so that by their united force the captive can be -strangled if necessary. Sometimes, when he is very furious, the hunters -are obliged to render him insensible over and over again, before he can -be induced to obey his new masters. The well-known Nepâlese ambassador, -Jung Bahadûr, was celebrated for his skill and daring in this dangerous -sport. - -As an example of the perfect command which the Indian mahouts have -over their animals, Captain Williams mentions an adventure which took -place at Chittagong. During a stormy night, an elephant got loose, and -escaped into the forest. Four years afterward, when a herd of elephants -was driven into a keddah, the mahout, who had climbed the palisades -to view the enclosed animals, thought that he recognized among them -his missing elephant. His comrades ridiculed him, but he persisted in -his idea, and called the animal by name. The elephant recognized the -voice of its driver, and came toward him. The man was so overjoyed at -this, that, regardless of the danger which he ran, he climbed over the -palisades, and called to the elephant to kneel down. The animal obeyed -him, he mounted on its neck, and triumphantly rode it out of the keddah. - -Elephants are sometimes taken in pits, at the bottom of which are laid -bundles of grass in order to break the fall of the heavy animal. The -elephants are generally decoyed into these pits by a tame animal which -is guided close to the pit by the mahout, who has placed certain marks -by which he knows its exact locality. Sometimes they are merely dug -in the paths of the elephants, which fall into them in their nightly -rambles, and by their moanings inform the hunters of their proceedings. - -In these pits they are forced to remain until they have been tamed by -hunger, just as is the case with those animals that are tied to the -trees. When they are sufficiently tame, the hunter throws into the pit -successive bundles of jungle grass. These the sagacious animal arranges -under his feet in such a way that he soon raises himself sufficiently -high to step upon the level earth, where he is received by the hunters -and his tame elephants. These “pitted” elephants, as they are called, -are not held in high estimation, as there is always danger that they -may have suffered some injury by the fall. - -Just as tame elephants are brought to capture the wild animals, so are -tame stags taught to capture those of their own species. An account of -the sport is given in the “Private Life of an Eastern King”:-- - -“I have never heard of trained stags being employed elsewhere as I saw -them employed in Oude.... In our rides in the neighborhood of the lake, -near which we encamped, we lighted upon a fine open country adjoining -a forest, which would answer admirably for the purpose. The adjoining -wood was full of the smaller game of Oude, or, if not smaller, at all -events the more harmless, among which the wild deer must be classed as -one. Skilful beaters were sent off into the forest to drive the deer, -as if unintentionally,--that is, without violence, or making much -noise,--toward the point of the forest adjoining the open space which -I have just mentioned. Here, protected by its watching guardians, the -most warlike and powerful of its males, the herd was congregated in -apparent safety. - -“We had about a dozen trained stags, all males, with us. These, well -acquainted with the object for which they were sent forward, advanced -at a gentle trot over the open ground toward the skirt of the wood. -They were observed at once by the watchers of the herd, and the boldest -of the wild animals advanced to meet them. Whether the intention was -to welcome them peaceably, or to do battle for their pasturage, I -cannot tell, but in a few minutes the parties were engaged in a furious -contest. Head to head, antlers to antlers, the tame deer and the wild -fought with great fury. Each of the tame animals, every one of them -large and formidable, was closely contested with a wild adversary, -standing chiefly on the defensive, not in any feigned battle or mimicry -of war, but in a hard-fought combat. We now made our appearance in the -open ground on horseback, advancing toward the scene of conflict. The -deer on the skirts of the wood, seeing us, took to flight, but those -actually engaged maintained their ground, and continued the contest. - -“In the meantime a party of native huntsmen, sent for the purpose, -gradually drew near to the wild stags, getting in between them and the -forest. What their object was we were not at the time aware; indeed, -it was not one that we could have approved or encouraged. They made -their way to the rear of the wild stags, which were still combating -too fiercely to mind them; they approached the animals, and, with a -skilful cut of their long knives, the poor warriors fell hamstrung. We -felt pity for the noble animals as we saw them fall helplessly on the -ground, unable longer to continue the contest, and pushed down by the -tame stags. Once down, they were unable to rise again. - -“The tame ones were called off in a moment; not one of them pursued his -victory. Their work was done; they obeyed the call of their keepers -almost at once, and were led off like hounds, some of them bearing -evidence in their gored chests that the contest in which they had been -engaged was no sham, but a reality. As we rode up we saw them led off, -triumphantly capering over the ground as if proud of their exploits, -tossing their fine spreading antlers about joyously, and sometimes -looking as if they would enjoy a little more fighting,--this time with -each other.” - -The antelope is sometimes used in a similar manner. The largest and -most powerful male antelopes are trained for the purpose, and are sent -toward the herd with nooses fastened on their horns. The wild antelopes -soon come out to fight the intruders, and are caught by the nooses. - - * * * * * - -There is another sport of which the Indians are very fond, namely, -the chase of the deer by means of the chetah, or hunting leopard. -This animal is by no means the same species as the common leopard, -from which it is easily distinguished by its much larger legs, its -comparatively bushy tail, and a crest or ridge of hair along the neck. -It is not so much of a tree-climber as the common leopard, and though -it can ascend a tree, very seldom does so. Whether the common leopard -could be trained to catch deer is rather doubtful. The experiment has -not been tried, probably owing to the fact that the chetah performs its -part so well that there is no object in trying another animal. - -Chetahs are very docile creatures, and, when tame, seem to be as fond -of notice as cats. This I can personally testify, having been in the -same cage with the animals at the Zoölogical Gardens, and found them -very companionable, even allowing me, though after some protest in the -way of growling and spitting, to take their paws in my hand, and push -out the talons. - -Those which are used for the sport are led about by their attendants, -merely having a cord round their necks, and are so gentle that no one -is afraid to be near them. Lest, however, they might be irritated, and -in a moment of passion do mischief, they wear on their heads a sort of -hood, shaped something like the beaver of an ancient helmet. This hood -is generally worn on the back of the head, but if the keeper should -think that his charge is likely to be mischievous, he has only to slip -the hood over the eyes, and the animal is at once rendered harmless. - -When the hunters go out in search of deer, the chetahs are taken on -little flat-topped carts, not unlike the costermongers’ barrows of our -streets. Each chetah is accompanied by its keeper, and is kept hooded -during the journey. When they have arrived within sight of deer, the -keeper unhoods the animal and points out the prey. The chetah instantly -slips off the cart, and makes its way toward the deer, gliding along on -its belly like a serpent, and availing itself of every bush and stone -by which it can hide its advance. When it can crawl no closer, it -marks out one deer, and springs toward it in a series of mighty bounds. -The horsemen then put their steeds to the gallop, and a most exciting -scene ensues. - -The chase is never a very long one, for the chetah, though of wonderful -swiftness for a short distance, does not possess the conformation -needful for a long chase. Sometimes a chetah of peculiar excellence -will continue the chase for some little time, but, as a rule, a dozen -mighty bounds bring the animal to its prey. We all know the nature of -the cat tribe, and their great dislike to be interrupted while their -prey is in their grasp. Even a common cat has a strong objection to be -touched while she has a mouse in her mouth, and we may therefore wonder -how the keepers contrive to make the chetah relinquish its prey. This -is done either by cutting off part of the leg and giving it to the -chetah, or filling a ladle with its blood and allowing the leopard to -lap it. The hood is then slipped over the eyes, and the chetah allows -itself to be replaced in its cart. - -Sometimes it is necessary to leave the cart, and lead the animal by -its chain toward the place where the animals are known to be. This is -always a difficult business, because the animal becomes so excited that -the least noise, or the scent left by a passing deer, will cause it to -raise its head aloft, and stare round for the deer. In a few moments it -would, become unmanageable, and dash away from its keeper, were not he -prepared for such an event. He carries with him a kind of ladle, made -of a hollowed cocoa-nut shell at the end of a handle. This is sprinkled -on the inside with salt, and as soon as the man perceives a change -of demeanor on the part of his charge, he puts the ladle over the -muzzle of the chetah. The animal licks the salt, forgets the cause of -excitement, and walks on quietly as before. - -Some of the great men in India take considerable pride in their -chetahs, and have them paraded daily, covered with mantles of silk -heavily embroidered with gold, and wearing hoods of similarly rich -materials. - - - - -CHAPTER CLII. - -TARTARY. - -THE MANTCHU TARTARS. - - - MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE TARTARS AND CHINESE UPON EACH OTHER -- A - CHINESE BATTLE -- DASH AND COURAGE OF TARTAR HORSEMEN -- TARTAR - GUNNERS -- “CATCHING A TARTAR” -- THE BOW, AND MODE OF STRINGING IT - -- SYSTEMATIC TRAINING OF THE ARCHER -- THE TARTAR ARROW -- ATHLETIC - EXERCISES -- BLOODLESS CONQUEST OF THE TARTARS BY THE CHINESE. - -We now proceed to the more civilized portions of the vast Mongolian -race, namely the Tartars, the Chinese, and the Japanese. It will of -course be impossible to give even the briefest account of the numerous -nations which have been called Tartars, and we will therefore confine -ourselves to the Mantchu Tartars, who have exercised so remarkable an -influence on the empire of China. - -It has been well said, that when a strong people invade and conquer the -territory of a weaker, their conquest has a double effect. The victors -impose certain habits and modes of life upon the vanquished, and, in so -doing, generally strengthen them in those points where they are weak. -But, in return, the vanquished exert an influence upon their conquerors -which has precisely the opposite effect, and tends to diminish rather -than to increase their strength. So it has been with the Tartars and -the Chinese, whose history during the last few centuries has been -most instructive to the ethnologist,--I should rather say, to the -anthropologist. - -Just as in one family we invariably find that there are members of very -different powers, and that the possessor of the stronger intellect -invariably obtains dominion over the others, so it has been with the -two great divisions of the Asiatic Mongols. The Tartar is in many -points superior to the Chinese, and, as a rule, is easily distinguished -even by his appearance. He possesses more decided features, is more -alert in his movements, and certainly possesses more courage. The -Chinese will fight wonderfully well behind walls, or on board ship, and -even in the field display great courage of a quiet nature if they are -led by European officers. But, when left to themselves, they are not -good soldiers in the field, unless opposed to enemies much inferior. -Mr. Scarth, who had the opportunity of witnessing a battle, describes -it as an absolute farce. - -“One day, when a great many soldiers were out, I saw more of the -contest than was pleasant. Having got into the line of fire, I was -forced to take shelter behind a grave, the bullets striking the grave -from each side every second. Why they came my way it was difficult to -discover, for they ought to have passed on the other side of a creek, -about twenty yards distant, to the people they were intended for; but -to see the dodging of the soldiers, then of the rebels, each trying to -evade the other, was almost amusing. - -“One fellow, ready primed and loaded, would rush up the side of a -grave-hillock, drop his matchlock over the top, and, without taking -aim, blaze away. There is no ramrod required for the shot they use; the -bullet, or bar of iron, is merely dropped in loose upon the powder. - -“There was a fine scene on an occasion when the Shanghai rebels made -a sortie. One of the men was cut off by an imperial skirmisher, who -had his piece loaded. The rebel had no time to charge his; so he ran -round and round a grave, which was high enough to keep his enemy from -shooting him when on the opposite side. Hare hunting was nothing to it. -Red-cap described hosts of circles, and the royalist was fast getting -blown, when the gods took pity on his wind, for, by some unlucky -chance, the rebel tripped and fell. The soldier was at him in a -moment, and, to make sure of his prize, put the muzzle of his matchlock -close to Red-cap’s head, fired, and took to his heels as fast as he -could go. It is difficult to say who was most astonished, when Mr. -Red-cap did exactly the same! The bullet that dropped down readily on -the powder fell out as easily when the barrel was depressed. The rebel -got off with a good singeing of his long hair.” - -The Tartars, however, are very different men in battle, as was -frequently proved during our wars in China; and though they were -comparatively ignorant of the art of war, and were furnished with -weapons that were mere toys in comparison with the arms to which -they were opposed, they showed themselves to be really formidable -antagonists. As irregular cavalry, they displayed an amount of dash -and courage which would make them most valuable allies, could they -be trained by European officers. They boldly charged in the face of -field-batteries of Armstrong guns, and, though the shells burst among -them with murderous precision, they came on in the most gallant manner. - -Indeed, a British officer, who was opposed to them, said that scarcely -any regular cavalry would have advanced in the face of such a fire, -delivered from fifteen breech-loading guns. Of course, when they did -close, the superior discipline of their opponents prevailed against -them, and the Sikh cavalry of Probyn and Fane at once routed their -undisciplined ranks. But, had they been drilled and commanded by such -men as those who led the Sikh cavalry against them, the issue of the -fight might have been very different. - -They served their guns with dauntless courage, and allowed themselves -to be cut to pieces by the Armstrong shell rather than leave them. -A single man would sometimes be seen working a gun by himself after -his comrades had been killed, and he expected the same fate every -moment; and it therefore happened, that of the slain in that war by far -the greatest number were Tartars. They are better horsemen than the -Chinese, and both themselves and their steeds are hardy, active, and -capable of existing on very little food. One of their peculiarities -is the method in which they carry the sword. Instead of hanging it to -the waist, and letting it bang against the horse’s side, they pass it -under the saddle-flap, where it is held tight by the pressure of the -leg. They thus avoid the jingle and swing of the European sabre, and -moreover are free from the drag of a heavy weapon upon the waist of the -rider. - -Of the courage displayed by the Tartars under adverse circumstances, a -curious instance is given by Mr. M’Ghee. After one of the charges of -Probyn’s horse, the Tartar cavalry, in spite of their skill in evading -the thrust of a lance or the stroke of a sword, had suffered severe -loss, and many were stretched on the ground. Among them was the body of -a very powerful man, who had carried a handsome lance. As Mr. M’Ghee -found himself without arms, in a rather dangerous position, he thought -he would arm himself with the lance, and began to dismount. - -As he took his foot from the stirrup, the supposed dead man sprang to -his feet, lance in hand, and showed fight. An officer just then rode to -the rescue with his revolver, and shot the Tartar in the back. The man -fell, but rose again, charged the officer with his lance, unhorsed him, -and made off, but was killed by a lance thrust from a Sikh horseman. -The fact was, his horse had been killed in battle, and he meant to -feign death until he could find an opportunity of slipping away. Even -the wounded men, knowing nothing of the amenities of civilized war, and -expecting no quarter, used to fire at the enemy when they lay writhing -with pain on the ground. - -These Tartar soldiers are commanded by a general belonging to their own -people, and his immediate subordinate is almost invariably a Tartar -also. The office of Tartar general is one of great importance, because, -as the Emperor is always of a Tartar family, it is thought that the -safety of his person and dynasty ought to be confided not to a Chinese, -but to a Tartar. The lieutenant-general, who serves under him, though -his post is perhaps the least lucrative in the Imperial household, is -glad to hold the appointment, because he is usually selected to succeed -to the generalship. - -The chief weapons of these soldiers are the bow and the spear, the -sword and fire-arms playing a comparatively subordinate part. Being -good riders, they naturally take to the spear, the true weapon of a -horseman, and are drilled in the various modes of delivering a thrust, -and of avoiding one, the latter feat being performed with a dexterity -almost equalling that of a Camanchee Indian. Although they carry -fire-arms with them, they really place little dependence on the heavy, -clumsy weapons which they use, that require two men to fire them, and -generally knock down the firer by the recoil. Nor do they care very -much for the improved fire-arms of Europeans, for, as one warrior said, -guns get out of order, spears and swords do not. - -The bow of the Tartar (which has spread throughout all China) is -much on the principle of the reversed bows which have already been -described, though the curve is not so continuous. The bow is nearly -straight for the greater part of its length, and then takes an abrupt -curve within a foot or so of each end. One of these bows, in my -collection, is nearly six feet in length, and measures two inches in -width. About seven inches from each end, a broad piece of bone nearly -an inch in length is fixed to the bow, so that the string passes over -it, and does not strike against the wood. - -The strength of these bows is enormous, varying, according to our mode -of reckoning, from sixty to ninety pounds. The weapon is strung in -manner somewhat resembling that which has already been described in -connection with Indian bows. It must be done in a moment, or not at -all, and the only method of doing so is, by placing it behind the right -thigh and in front of the left, and then bending it with a sudden stoop -of the body, at the same time slipping the loop of the string into -its notch. My own weapon is so powerful that I can scarcely make any -impression upon it, though I have used my best efforts. - -The soldiers undergo a vast amount of practice in the use of this -weapon, of which they are as proud as were the English archers of their -long-bow and cloth-yard arrow. They have a saying, that the first and -most important duty of a soldier is to be a good archer, and that a man -ought even to sleep with a bow in his hands. In order to instruct them -in the proper attitude of an archer, they have invented a simple piece -of machinery, by means of which the soldier undergoes a vast amount of -“position drill,” so that he may learn to keep his body straight and -firm, his shoulders immovable, and his hands in the right position. - -From a beam or branch are suspended two rings, which can be moved up -and down, to suit the height of the learner. The young archer places -his hands in the rings as far as the wrists, and then goes through the -various movements of the weapon. When he can satisfy his instructor, a -bow is placed in his hands, and he then practises the art of drawing -the string to its proper tension. Lastly, he has an arrow besides, and -shoots it repeatedly. The head of the arrow is blunted, and the target -is a piece of stout leather, hung loosely at a little distance, so that -it partially yields to the arrow, and allows the missile to fall to the -ground. - -The arrow corresponds to the bow. One of these missiles in my -collection is three feet three inches in length. It is made of some -light wood, and is terminated by a flat, spear-shaped head, two inches -long and one inch wide. The other end of the arrow is expanded, so as -to allow a large “nock” for the reception of the thick string, and is -bound with fish-skin as far as the feathers, which are exactly a foot -in length. The shaft is extremely slight in comparison with the length -of the arrow. - -These men train their muscular powers to a great extent, and have -several exercises for this purpose. One of them is called Suay-tau, or -throwing the weight. They have a nearly square stone, weighing rather -more than fifty pounds, and having a handle in a hollow cut in its -upper surface. - -The men mark out a square on the ground, and the players stand at some -distance apart. One of them takes the stone, swings it once or twice, -and hurls it in the air toward the next player. It is thrown with such -skill that the hollow always comes uppermost, and the stone descends -into the hand with a shock that makes the man spin round on his heels. -The same movement, however, is utilized to give force to the stone; -and so the players pass this heavy weight from one to the other with -apparent ease, and with the regularity of a machine. A similar exercise -is conducted with a heavy sand-bag. - -It may easily be imagined how such men would vanquish in battle the -comparatively sluggish Chinese, and how they would impose upon them -many of their manners and customs. But, though they succeeded in their -conquest, though they changed the dress of the Chinese, though they -placed a Tartar monarch on the throne, and though they have been the -chief military power in China, they have themselves suffered a far -severer, though slower, conquest at the hands of the vanquished. - -The Chinese, being essentially a contemplative and intellectual nation, -care very little for military ability, so that the lowest civil -mandarin feels a thorough contempt for the highest military mandarin, -because the active life of the latter precludes him from following up -those peculiar studies which can raise a Chinese from the state of a -peasant to that of the highest in the land. Especially do the Chinese -despise their intellectual capacities, though they may appreciate and -utilize their bodily strength and military prowess. “The Tartars,” said -a Chinese shopkeeper, “are cows.” - -The extraordinary reaction of the vanquished upon their conquerors is -admirably put by Mr. Fleming, in his “Travels on Horseback in Mantchu -Tartary.” - -“By dint of their extraordinary industry, thrifty habits, an unceasing -desire to accumulate wealth by any amount of plodding, cunning, or -hardship, the Chinaman has wormed himself beyond the Great Wall, built -towns and villages, cultivated every rood of land, and is at once the -farmer and the trader everywhere. He claims the best part of Mantchuria -as his own, and dares even to scandalize the Tartar race in their own -capital, though it is barely two centuries since that race filed in -long cavalry troops through those gates at Shan-kis-Kwan, and were -introduced by an indiscreet Chinese general to the vast empire which -they soon conquered and sternly governed. - -“Now the Chinese seem the conquerors, for they have not only obtained -possession of the land, and converted it into a region thoroughly -Chinese, but they have imposed their language, their habits and -customs, and every trait belonging to them, on those of the original -occupants who choose to mix with them, and ousted out every grim old -banner-man who would not condescend to shopkeeping, or handling the -spade or plough. - -“There is not the most trifling Mantchu word to designate town, hamlet, -mountain, or river, in use among the people nowadays, and anything -that might at all tell of the character and power of the original -proprietors is entirely effaced. If the Mantchus obtained possession -of the Dragon Throne at Pekin, partly by force of arms in military -prowess, and partly by perfidy, aided by rebellions among the Chinese -themselves; if they compelled the hundreds of millions over whom they -found cause to rule to alter their dress, wear tails, and perhaps -smoke tobacco,--the people thus subjugated have made ample retaliation -by wiping out every trace of their invaders in their own country, -and leaving the existence of the usurpers all but traditionary in -the metropolis where, two hundred years ago, they held their court, -and where one of their kings boldly vowed vengeance for seven great -grievances that he imagined had been brought on him by the Chinese -Emperor. - -“Nothing prevents the invasion of the Corea by these wonderful Chinese -but the high palisade that keeps them within the limits of Mantchuria. -For, if once they got a footing in that country, the Coreans would -suffer the same fate as the Mantchus, and there is no telling when -these sons of Ham would stop in their bloodless aggrandizement and -territorial acquisitiveness.” - -[Illustration: REPEATING CROSSBOW. (From my Collection.) (See page -1434.)] - - - - -CHAPTER CLIII. - -CHINA. - -APPEARANCE--DRESS--FOOD. - - - APPEARANCE OF THE CHINESE -- MODE OF PLAITING THE “TAIL” -- THE - CHINESE BARBER -- THE REFUSE HAIR AND ITS USES -- CEREMONIOUS - EMPLOYMENT OF THE TAIL -- DRESSING THE HAIR OF THE WOMEN -- MUTUAL - ASSISTANCE -- POWDER FOR THE SKIN, AND MODE OF APPLYING IT -- SMALL - FEET OF THE CHINESE WOMEN -- ORIGIN AND DATE OF THE CUSTOM OF - COMPRESSING THE FEET -- DRESS OF THE WOMEN -- DRESS OF THE MEN -- - THE “BUTTON” OF RANK -- SYSTEM OF EXAMINATION -- INGENIOUS MODES OF - EVASION -- EXCEPTION IN FAVOR OF OLD AGE -- THE FAN AND ITS VARIOUS - USES -- CHINESE LANTERNS -- THE “STALKING-HORSE LANTERN” -- FEAST OF - LANTERNS -- THE GREAT DRAGON -- CHOPSTICKS, AND THE MODE OF USING - THEM -- THE CASE OF CHOPSTICKS -- FOOD OF THE CHINESE -- LIVING CRABS - -- BIRDS’-NEST SOUP -- TEA, AND MODE OF PREPARATION. - -We now come to China, a country of such extent, so thickly populated, -and containing so many matters of interest, that justice could not be -fully done if an entire volume were devoted to it. We will therefore -restrict ourselves to a selection of those particulars in which the -Chinese appear to offer the greatest contrast to Europeans. - -The appearance of the Chinese possess many of the characteristics of -the Tartar, both nations being different branches of the same great -family. The Chinese, however, are, as a rule, of a less determined and -manly cast than the Tartars, and have about them a sort of effeminacy -which accounts for the conquest suffered at their hands. - -One of the chief peculiarities in a Chinaman’s appearance is his -“tail.” This mode of dressing the hair was imposed upon the Chinese by -the Tartars, and has remained in full force ever since. The Tae-ping -rebels, however, viewing the “tail” as an ignominious sign of conquest, -refuse to wear it, and allow the whole of their hair to grow. - -With the loyal Chinese, however, the tail has become quite an -institution, and they regard it with the same sort of reverence which -is felt by an Arab, a Turk, or a Persian for his beard. It is scarcely -possible to punish a Chinaman more severely than by cutting off his -tail, and, though he may supply its place with an artificial tail -curiously woven into the hair, he feels the indignity very keenly. -Sometimes, when two men are to be punished severely, they are tied -together by their tails, and exposed to the derision of the public. - -The tail bears some resemblance to the scalp-lock of the American -Indian, but it includes very much more hair than is comprehended in -the scalp-lock. The Chinaman shaves the hair from his forehead and -round the temples, but leaves a circular patch of tolerable size, the -hair of which is allowed to grow to its full length. Sometimes, if the -patch be not large enough to nourish a sufficient quantity of hair to -produce a good tail, it is enlarged by allowing more and more hair to -grow at each successive shaving. On an average, the head is shaved once -in ten days, and no one would venture to go into good society unless -the hair of his head were clean shaven. As for his face, he has so few -hairs upon it, that he does not trouble the barber very much with his -countenance. - -Owing to the position of the tail, a man cannot dress it properly -without aid, and, chiefly for this purpose, the peripatetic barber has -become quite an institution in China. All the materials of his trade -are carried at the ends of a bamboo pole, which the barber carries in -yoke fashion across his shoulders. When his services are required, he -puts down his load, arranges his simple apparatus in a few moments, and -sets to work upon the cherished tail of his customer. - -Very little capital is required to set up a barber in trade. There is -the razor, a most primitive triangle of steel, two inches long by one -inch wide, which cost, perhaps, three half-pence, or twopence if it be -of the best kind. There is the linen strop, which costs a penny, and a -bamboo seat and table, which cost, perhaps, twopence each. There is one -expensive article, namely, the brass basin, but, as a rule, a Chinese -barber can be well set up in trade at the expenditure of about six or -seven shillings, and can make a good living by his business. This sum -includes a supply of black silk, wherewith to supplement the tails of -his customers, and a few locks of real hair, with which he can supply -artificial tails in cases where they are denied by nature. - -The customer always holds a sort of basin in which to catch the -clippings of hair. These are preserved, not from any superstitious -ideas, as is the case in many parts of the world, but are put aside -for the hair collector, who makes his daily rounds with his basket oil -his back. The contents of the basket are carefully utilized. The long -hair combed from women’s heads is separated and made into false tails -for the men, while the short pieces shaven from men’s heads are used as -manure, a tiny pinch of hair being inserted into the ground with each -seed or plantlet. In consequence of the universal practice of shaving -the head and wearing a tail, the number of barbers is very great, and -in 1858 they were said to exceed seven thousand in Canton alone. - -The right management of the tail is, among the Chinese, what the -management of the hat is among ourselves. For example, it is a mark -of respect to allow the tail to hang at full length, and any one who -ventured to address an equal without having his tail hanging down his -back would be thought as boorish as would an Englishman who went into -a lady’s drawing-room without removing his hat. When the people are at -work, they always coil the cherished tail round their heads, so as to -get it out of the way; but if a man of superior rank should happen to -pass, down go all the tails at once. - -[Illustration: MUTUAL ASSISTANCE.] - -During the late war in China, the common people soon found that the -English, in their ignorance of Chinese customs, did not trouble -themselves whether the tails hung down their backs or were twisted -round their heads. Accordingly, Oriental-like, they took advantage -of this ignorance, and, though they would lower their tails for the -meanest official who happened to pass near them, they made no sign even -when an English general came by. However, one of the English officers -discovered this _ruse_, and every now and then one of them used to go -through the streets and compel every Chinaman to let down his tail. - -The tail is never entirely composed of the hair of the wearer. -Sometimes it is almost wholly artificial, a completely new tail being -fixed to a worn-out stump, and, as a general rule, the last eighteen -inches are almost entirely made of black silk. Besides being a mark -of fashion, the tail is often utilized. A sailor, for example, will -tie his hat to his head with his tail when the wind rises, and a -schoolmaster sometimes uses his tail in lieu of a cane. - -Absurd as the tail looks when worn by any except a Chinese or Tartar, -it certainly does seem appropriate to their cast of countenance, and it -is to be doubted whether the Tartar conquerors did not confer a benefit -instead of inflicting an injury on the Chinese by the enforcement of -the tail. - -The hair of the women is not shaven, but on the contrary, additions -are made to it. While they are unmarried, it hangs down the back in a -long queue, like that of the men; but when they marry, it is dressed -in various fantastic forms. There is a very fashionable ornament in -China, called the “butterfly’s wings.” This is a quantity of false -hair made in fanciful imitation of a huge butterfly, and fastened to -the back of a woman’s head. Fashions, however, vary in different parts -of China, and even in the same locality the women are not tied to the -absolute uniformity which distinguishes the hair of the men. One mode -of hair-dressing which is very prevalent makes the hair look very much -like a teapot, the long tresses being held in their place by a strong -cement made from wood shavings. Another mode of hair-dressing which -prevails in Northern China is thus described by Mr. Fleming: “Here it -is dressed and gummed in the form of an ingot of sycee silver, which is -something in shape like a cream-jug, or an oval cup, wide at the top -and narrow at the bottom, with a piece scooped out of the edge at each -side, and with bright-colored flowers fastened by, or stuck about with -skewers and pins, that stand out like porcupine quills. Though their -necks be ever so dirty, and their faces not much better, yet the hair -must be as exquisitely trimmed and plastered, according to the local -rage, as that in a wax model seen in a London barber’s shop-window.” - -In the accompanying illustration two women are shown, who render aid to -each other in arranging their hair after the “teapot” fashion. In the -households of Chinese women, dressing-cases are considered almost the -chief requisites of life. In the drawers are the combs, pins, and paint -for the cheeks and lips, and the white powder which is rubbed into the -skin. This powder is made from white marble, which is broken small -with a hammer, and then thrown into a tub in which revolve two stones -turned by a buffalo, just like the wheels which are used in making -gunpowder. The coarsely ground mass is then transferred, together with -water, to a second mill, in which it is reduced to a mixture like -cream. This creamy substance is then levigated in a succession of tubs, -the sediment of which is taken out and returned to the mill, and the -remainder is allowed to settle, the superfluous water drawn off, and -the sediment pressed, while still moist, into cakes. - -When used it is not only rubbed on the skin, but actually worked into -it with string, which is placed on the hands in a sort of cat’s-cradle, -and worked backward and forward until the required effect is produced. -This powder is also used to give rice a factitious whiteness. The -coarser portions are employed for making whitewash and whitening mortar. - -Many of the Chinese of both sexes are remarkable for the great length -to which they allow their nails to grow. This is supposed to be a sign -of rank or literary occupation, inasmuch as the nails would be broken -by any laborious work. For this purpose, they are kept carefully oiled -to prevent them from being brittle, and are further preserved by being -enclosed in tubes which slip over the end of the finger. These tubes -are sometimes of bamboo, sometimes of silver, and a few of the most -precious minerals. - -The feet of the Chinese women are often more strangely decorated -than their heads. A vast number of the women have their feet cramped -by bandages into a state which renders them little better than mere -pegs on which to walk, or rather totter. It is not only the rich who -are thus deformed, but the poorest often have their feet cramped. -The operation is begun at a very early age, so that the feet of the -full-grown woman may not exceed in size that of a child of five or -six. Bandages are bound firmly round the foot in such a way as to -force it into an arched shape, the heel being pressed forward and the -ball of the foot backward, while the four middle toes are bent under -the foot, and so completely squeezed into its substance that they -almost lose their identity. In fact, the member is made artificially -into a club-foot, which, repugnant as it may be to European eyes, is -the delight of the Chinese, who call it metaphorically by the name of -“golden lily.” - -[Illustration: CHINESE WOMAN’S FOOT AND MODEL OF A SHOE. - -(From my collection.)] - -Clay models of these “golden lilies” are sold at many of the shops; -and as they are very accurate imitations of the foot, and it is almost -impossible to induce a Chinese woman to remove the bandages and exhibit -the member, a representation of one of these models is here given. The -gait of the woman is necessarily reduced to an awkward waddle. There is -no play of the beautiful machinery of the human foot, and the wearer of -the “golden lily” walks exactly as she would do if she had no feet at -all. Indeed, her gait is even more awkward, inasmuch as the weight of -the body is thrown forward upon the great toe, than which nothing can -be imagined more opposed to the real intention of the foot. - -Fast walking is impossible with these feet, and running is out of the -question, the women being obliged to support themselves by holding -to walls or other objects, or to balance themselves by holding out -their arms at right angles to their bodies. Indeed, even when walking -quietly in the house, the woman generally leans on the various articles -of furniture as she passes them, the act appearing to be instinctive, -and one of which she is not conscious. Stairs are of course a -difficulty in the way of “golden lilies.” Fortunately, there are not -many stairs in a Chinese dwelling-house, the living rooms of which -are mostly on the ground floor. I have noticed that a small-footed -Chinawoman can ascend stairs easily enough, but that she always holds -by the banisters or wall as she descends. - -The deformity in question does not end with the foot. As the toes and -ankles are deprived of motion, the muscles which work them, and which -form the calf of the leg, gradually dwindle away for want of use, so -that from the ankle to the knee the leg is scarcely thicker than a -broomstick. - -Utterly hideous as is this deformity, it is coveted by all, and those -who do not possess it try to look as if they did. This they achieve -by making an artificial “golden lily” of wood, putting it into a -fashionable shoe, and fastening the contrivance on the sole of the real -and serviceable foot. Mr. Milne remarks that a nurse, if called up -suddenly in the night, will make her appearance walking firmly on her -full-sized bare feet, instead of hobbling along with the fashionable -waddle which she has been exhibiting by day. By a similar _ruse_, the -boys who enact female parts on the stage imitate not only the feet but -the peculiar walk of the women, and do it with such perfection that no -one who was not in the secret would have the least idea that they are -not what they pretend to be. - -Of the origin or date of the custom nothing is known, though there are -various legends which attempt to account for both. One legend, for -example, attributes it to an empress of China named Tan-key, who lived -some three thousand years ago, and who, having club feet by nature, -induced her husband to impose the same deformity on all his female -subjects. Another legend states that a certain empress was discovered -in the chamber of a courtier, and laid the fault on her feet, which -carried her against her will. The emperor accepted the excuse, but cut -off the fore-part of her feet in order to render them more subordinate -for the future. Another legend, which is a very popular one, attributes -the custom to a certain prince named Le-yuh, who in consequence was -condemned to seven hundred years’ torture in the infernal regions, and -to make with his own hands one million shoes for the women. - -The dress of the Chinese varies greatly according to the rank of the -individual and the season of the year. Without going into detail, -which would occupy too much time, it is sufficient to say that the -principle of the dress is similar, not only among different classes, -but with the two sexes, the coat and trousers being the principal -articles, modified in material and form according to circumstances. -The dress of a mandarin or noble, and of his wife, may be seen in the -illustration on the 1437th page. The richness of material and beauty of -work displayed in some of these dresses are really marvellous. They are -generally of the most delicate silks, and are covered with embroidery -of such harmonious coloring and exquisite workmanship as no country can -equal. - -It is not, however, the richness of dress which denotes rank among the -Chinese. The symbol of social status is simply a spherical “button,” -about as large as a boy’s playing marble, placed on the apex of the -cap. The different colors and materials of the buttons designate the -rank, the “blue ribbon” being a plain red coral button. The possession -of these buttons is an object of high ambition for the Chinese, and -its value is increased by the fact that there is no hereditary rank in -China, and that the coveted button must be earned, and can neither be -purchased nor given by favor. - -It can only be gained by passing through a series of examinations, -each increasing in severity, and no candidate for high rank being -permitted to compete unless he can show the certificate that he has -gained the rank immediately below it. The examinations are conducted -in a building expressly made for the purpose. It has double walls, -between which sentinels are continually pacing. The gates are watched -in the strictest manner, and each candidate is locked into a tiny cell, -after having undergone the strictest search in order to ascertain that -he has not carried in any scrap of writing that may help him in the -examination. - -The examiners themselves are conveyed from a distance, and surrounded -by troops, so that no one can approach them; and so careful are the -officers who conduct the examination that the examiners are not -allowed to see the original passages written by the candidates, but -only copies made by official scribes. When they have passed a paper as -satisfactory, the original is produced, the two are compared, and not -until then does any one know the name of the writer, which has been -pasted between two leaves. - -The precautions are most stringent, but the ingenuity exercised in -evasion sometimes conquers all the barriers set up between a candidate -and external assistance. Sometimes a man, already a graduate, will -manage to substitute himself for the candidate, write all the essays, -and contrive a second change on leaving the place, so that the real -candidate takes up the substituted essays. Sometimes a friend within -the building will learn the subject of the essays, write them in tiny -characters on very thin paper, enclose the paper in wax, and drop it -into the water which is supplied to the candidates. One man of peculiar -daring hit on the plan of getting a friend to tunnel under the walls of -the college, and push the required documents through the floor of the -cell. Should any such attempt be discovered, the candidate is at once -ejected, and disqualified from a second attempt. - -The Chinese have good reason to be ambitious of the honors of a button, -as even the very lowest button exempts the wearer from military service -and from arrest by the police. The bearer of this coveted symbol -becomes at once one of the privileged classes; he wears an official -costume when he likes, and is qualified to enter as candidate for still -higher honors. Such privileges are worth much trouble to obtain, and -accordingly the rejected candidates will enter the examination year -after year, even until they are gray-headed. With the respect for old -age which is one of the most pleasing characteristics of the Chinese, -there is a law that if a man should attend the examinations annually -until he is eighty years of age, and still be unable to pass, he is -invested with an honorary degree, and may wear the button and official -dress _honoris causâ_. The same rule holds good with the higher degrees. - -The very highest posts in the kingdom are denoted by a peacock’s -feather, which falls down the side of the cap. The gradations in rank -of the feather wearers are marked by the number of “eyes” in the -ornament, the summit of a Chinaman’s ambition being to wear a feather -with three eyes, denoting a rank only inferior to that of the Emperor. - -There is one article common to all ranks and both sexes, and equally -indispensable to all. This is the fan, an article without which -a Chinaman is never seen. The richer people carry the fan in a -beautifully embroidered case hung to their girdles; but the poorer -class content themselves with sticking it between the collar of the -jacket and the back of the neck. Whenever the hand is not actually -at work on some task, the fan is in it, and in motion, not violently -agitated, as is mostly the case in Europe, but kept playing with a -gentle, constant, and almost imperceptible movement of the wrist, so as -to maintain a continuous though slight current of air. - -Sometimes, in very hot weather, a stout mandarin will quietly lift up -the skirts of his jacket, place his fan under the garment, and send a -current of cool air round his body; and this done, he drops the skirts -afresh into their place, and directs the refreshing breeze over his -countenance. Sometimes it is used by way of a parasol, the man holding -it over his head as he walks along. Sometimes the schoolmaster uses it -by way of a ferule, and raps his pupils unmercifully on the knuckles; -and so inveterate is the use of the fan, that soldiers, while serving -their guns, have been observed quietly fanning themselves in the midst -of a brisk fire of shot, shell, and bullets. - -The materials and patterns of Chinese fans are innumerable. They are -made of paper, silk, satin, palm-leaf, wood, feathers, horn, or ivory. -Some of them are made so that when they are opened from left to right -they form very good fans, but when spread from right to left all the -sticks fall apart, and look as if they never could be united again. -Those which are made of paper have various patterns painted or printed -on them, and thousands are annually sold on which are complete maps of -the larger Chinese cities, having every street and lane marked. Those -which are made of silk or satin are covered with the most exquisite -embroidery; while the horn and ivory fans are cut into patterns so -slight and so delicate that they look more like lace than the material -of which they really are composed. The wooden fans are made in much the -same way, though the workmanship is necessarily coarser: the material -of these fans is sandal-wood, the aromatic odor of which is much prized -by the Chinese. - -Choice sentences and aphorisms from celebrated authors are often -written on the fan; and it is the custom for Chinese gentlemen to -exchange autographs written on each other’s fans. The price of these -fans varies according to the material and workmanship, common ones -being worth about four or five for a penny, while a first-class fan -will cost several pounds. - -The lantern is almost as characteristic of the Chinese as the fan, -inasmuch as every one who goes abroad after dark is obliged by law to -carry a lantern, whereas he need not carry a fan unless he chooses. -These lanterns have of late years become very common in England, -the subdued light which they give through their colored envelopes -having a very pretty effect at night, especially in conservatories. -There is a wonderful variety of these lanterns, some of them being -most complicated in structure, enormous in size, and hung round with -an intricate arrangement of scarlet tassels. Others are made of a -balloon-like shape, the framework being a delicate net of bamboo, over -which is spread a sheet of very thin paper saturated with varnish, so -that it is nearly as transparent as glass. Figures of various kinds are -painted upon the lantern, and so great is the sale of these articles, -that many artists make a good living by painting them. Generally, when -a man buys a lantern, he purchases a plain one, and then takes it to -the painter to be decorated. The name of the owner is often placed upon -his lantern, together with his address, and sometimes the lantern is -used as a representative of himself. - -Many of the lanterns shut up flat, on the principle of the fan; some of -them open out into cylinders, and some into spherical and oval shapes. - -One of the most ingenious of these articles is the “stalking-horse -lantern,” which is only used for festivals. It is of large size, and -contains several tapers. Above the tapers is a horizontal paddle-wheel, -which is set revolving by the current of air caused by the flame, and -from the wheel silk threads are led to a series of little automaton -figures of men, women, birds, beasts, etc., all of which move their -arms, legs, and wings as the wheel runs round. A good specimen of this -lantern is really a wonderful piece of work, the threads crossing each -other in the most complicated style, but never getting out of order. - -So completely is the Chinaman a lantern-carrying being, that, during -our war in China, when a battery had been silenced by our fire in a -night attack, and the garrison driven out, the men were seen running -away in all directions, each with a lighted lantern in his hand, as if -to direct the aim of the enemy’s musketry. - -In connection with this subject, the celebrated Feast of Lanterns must -not be omitted. In this remarkable ceremony, every lantern that can be -lighted seems to be used, and the Chinese on this occasion bring out -the complicated “stalking-horse lantern” which has just been described. -The chief object, however, is the Great Dragon. The body of the Dragon -is made of a number of lanterns, each as large as a beer barrel, and -having large candles fastened within it. Nearly a hundred of these -joints are sometimes used in the construction of a single Dragon, -each joint being tied to its neighbor, so as to keep them at the same -distance from each other. At one end is an enormous head with gaping -jaws, and at the other is a tail of proportionate dimensions. - -This Dragon is carried through the streets and villages, and has a most -picturesque effect as it goes winding along its course, the bearers -contriving to give it an undulating movement by means of the sticks to -which the different joints are attached. A similar festival is held -in the autumn. Accompanying the Dragon are a number of men dressed in -various fantastic ways, as representations of the attendants of the -gods. Some of them have heads like oxen, others like horses, and they -are all armed with curious pronged weapons. Then there are simulated -giants and dwarfs, the former being carried on the shoulders of men -whose legs are concealed by the robes of the image, and the latter by -boys whose heads are received into the hats which the images wear. In -neither instance do the bearers trouble themselves to conceal their -faces. - -Various ceremonies of a like nature are enacted, of which no -description can be given for want of space. - - * * * * * - -Of the Chinaman’s social habits none has been more widely known -than the use of the “chopsticks,” or the two little rods by means -of which the solid food is eaten. This is not the Chinese name, but -is one invented by foreigners, who have employed the term as a sort -of equivalent for the “kwai-tsze,” or nimble-lads, as they are very -appropriately termed by the Chinese. Originally they were simply two -slips of bamboo, but now they are of wood, bone, ivory, or sometimes -silver. Two pairs of chopsticks in my collection are nearly ten inches -in length, and about as thick at the base as a small goose-quill, -tapering gradually to half the thickness at the tip. - -Much misunderstanding prevails as to the use of the chopsticks, many -persons supposing that they are held one in each hand, after the manner -of knives and forks in Europe. These curious implements are both held -in the right hand after the following manner: One of them is taken much -as a pen is held, except that, instead of being held by the thumb and -forefinger, it passes between the tips of the second and third fingers. -This chopstick is always kept stationary. The second chopstick is held -lightly between the thumb and forefinger, and can be worked so as to -press with its tip against the point of the other, and act after the -manner of pincers. - -The adroitness displayed by the Chinese in the use of these implements -is worthy of all admiration. I have seen them pick up single grains of -rice with the chopsticks, dip them in soy, and carry them to the mouth -with perfect precision; and, indeed, after some few lessons, I could do -it tolerably well myself. In eating rice after the usual manner, the -tips of the chopsticks are crossed, and the rice lifted with them as if -on a spoon. If, however, the man be very hungry, he does not trouble -himself about such refinement, but holds the bowl to his lips, and -scoops the rice into his mouth with a celerity that must be seen to be -believed. In point of speed a spoon would be nothing compared with the -chopstick. - -The reader must understand that the Chinese never carve at table, -thinking that to do so is an utterly barbarous and disgusting custom. -The meat is brought to table ready cut up into small morsels, which can -be taken up with the chopsticks. The only use made of a knife at table -is to separate any small pieces of meat that may adhere together; and -for this purpose, a narrow, long-bladed knife is generally kept in the -same sheath with the chopstick. - -As a rule, every Chinaman who can afford so cheap a luxury has his -chopstick-case hanging from his girdle. The case is made of different -materials, such as shagreen, tortoise shell, and ivory. Specimens of -the two latter kinds of case are in my collection. The ordinary case -contains the two chopsticks, the knife, and a flat ivory toothpick. -Sometimes, however, a wealthy man will carry a much more complicated -set of table apparatus. Besides the usual chopsticks, the knife, -and the toothpick, there is a spoon for eating soup, a neat little -quatrefoil saucer for soy, and a peculiar two-pronged fork, with its -prongs united in the middle by a floriated ornament. - -As to the food of the Chinese, it varies according to the wealth of -the individual, so that a man of property would not think of eating -the food which the poor man thinks luxurious. In fact, it is much the -same as with ourselves, so that it is impossible to make the dietary -of one station the sample for that of the nation in general. There -are, perhaps, one or two articles of food which ought to be casually -mentioned. One, which is not generally known, is rather graphically -described by Mr. Milne: “Like other Chinese, he” (_i. e._ a Chinese -officer named Le) “invited me to dine with him on an early day after -our acquaintance was formed. On this occasion I met at his table with a -peculiar dish, which I had never seen under the roof of any other host, -though I was informed that it was not a monopoly of Mr. Le’s taste. - -“When our party of six had seated themselves at the centre table, my -attention was attracted by a covered dish, something unusual at a -Chinese meal. On a certain signal, the cover was removed, and presently -the face of the table was covered with juvenile crabs, which made -their exodus from the dish with all possible rapidity. The crablets -had been thrown into a plate of vinegar just as the company sat down, -such an immersion making them more brisk and lively than usual. But -the sprightly sport of the infant crabs was soon checked by each guest -seizing which he could, dashing it into his mouth, and swallowing the -whole morsel without ceremony. - -“Determined to do as the Chinese did, I tried this novelty also with -one. With two I succeeded, finding the shell soft and gelatinous, -for they were tiny creatures, not more than a day or two old. But -I was compelled to give in to the third, who had resolved to take -vengeance, and gave my lower lip a nip so sharp and severe as to make -me relinquish my hold, and likewise desist from any further experiment -of this nature.” - -The celebrated birds’-nests, which the Chinese convert into soup, -are not, as some persons seem to think, made of sticks, and straws, -and wool, but are formed from the gelatinous substance obtained by -masticating a sort of seaweed. The nests are transparent, as if made of -gelatine, and when placed in hot water they dissolve as readily. The -nest, when dissolved, is very much like the well-known “Irish moss,” -or carrageen; and I fully believe that, if the Chinese were to obtain -the seaweed itself, and prepare it like the nests, it would answer -every purpose. I possess specimens both of the seaweed and the nest, -and, after tasting both, have found them to be identical in flavor -and consistence. And, as the seaweed might be obtained for about ten -shillings per hundredweight, and the finest kind of nest costs eight -hundred pounds for the same amount, the importation of the seaweed -instead of the nests from Java might be a good speculation. - -With regard to the great staple of the country, namely tea, very little -can be said here. In the first place, the public is very well informed -on the subject, and, in the next, the tea question is so large that it -would occupy far too great space. The mode of preparing tea differs -much from that practised by ourselves. Instead of allowing the tea to -be made and then to stand for a considerable time, the Chinaman puts -a little tea into a cup, pours boiling _rain_-water on it, inverts -the saucer over it, so as to prevent the aroma from escaping, and -drinks it immediately, using the saucer as a strainer whereby to keep -the tea-leaves out of his mouth. As to adulterating the tea with such -abominations as cream and sugar, he would be horrified at the idea. The -Chinese never use milk for themselves, though of late years they have -learned to milk their buffaloes for the service of the foreigner, and -they consume sugar in almost every shape except in tea. - -We who use either of these accessories cannot understand the true -flavor of tea, the aroma of which is as much destroyed by such -admixture as would be that of the choicest wine. Even those who do -not spoil their tea in the usual manner can seldom know what the best -tea is, because it is never sent to this country. Not in China can -a foreigner purchase it, as it is not made for general sale, but is -reserved for “cumshaws,” or presents. - - - - -CHAPTER CLIV. - -CHINA--_Continued_. - -WARFARE. - - - WEAPONS OF THE CHINESE -- BREECH-LOADING CANNON -- VARIOUS FORMS OF - THE JINGALL -- CHINESE ARTILLERYMEN AND THEIR MAGAZINE -- BOWS AND - ARROWS -- THE REPEATING CROSS-BOW AND ITS MECHANISM -- CONSTRUCTION - OF THE ARROWS -- CHINESE SWORDS -- THE DOUBLE SWORD, AND MODE OF - USING IT -- TWO-HANDED SWORDS -- CRUELTY OF THE VICTORS -- VARIOUS - MODES OF TORTURE -- KNEELING ON THE CHAIN -- THE CANGUE -- FINGER - AND ANKLE SQUEEZING -- USE OF TORTURE IN MONEY-GETTING -- THE LARGE - AND SMALL BAMBOO -- MODE OF EVADING IT -- EXPOSURE IN A CAGE -- - THE HOT-WATER SNAKE -- CAPITAL PUNISHMENTS -- SUICIDE BY ORDER -- - STRANGLING -- CRUCIFIXION PREFERRED TO BEHEADING -- EXECUTION OF A - THIEF -- SAWING ASUNDER -- CONDUCT OF THE MANDARINS -- THE “UMBRELLA - OF A THOUSAND PEOPLE” -- THE ROBE OF HONOR -- TRANSFER OF RANK. - -Without going into the question of warfare in China, we will mention -one or two of the characteristic weapons. - -Fire-arms have apparently been known to them for ages, but in all the -years that we have been acquainted with China, no improvement has been -made in these weapons, the cannon, the jingall, and the hand-gun being -as rude and ineffective as they were two centuries ago. The cannon are -little more than thick tubes of iron, mostly hooped to strengthen them, -and of various lengths and bores. As to preserving any exactness of -size in the bores, the Chinese care little for it, and if the ball is -too small to fit the cannon, they wrap it up in cotton and then push it -upon the powder. Wadding is thought to be needless in fire-arms. It is -rather remarkable, however, that the Chinese have used breech-loading -cannon from time immemorial. Each of these guns is supplied with -several separate chambers, which can be kept loaded, and dropped one by -one into the aperture of the gun as fast as they can be fired. - -Clumsy as may be the jingall, it appears to be the most efficient -of the Chinese firearms. It looks something like a duck-gun, and is -supposed to carry an ounce ball, though the missiles sent from it are -generally of a very miscellaneous character. Some of these guns are -pivoted and fixed on tripod stands, while others are either supported -on the shoulder of an assistant gunner while the firer takes aim, or -rest upon two supports which are pivoted to the stock not very far from -the muzzle of the gun. Of the manner in which the jingall is fired, -Captain Blakiston gives a very amusing account, the whole proceeding -having a very ludicrous aspect to an English artillery officer. - -“We explained to them that we should like to see some practice with -their artillery, on which the bombardier, as he seemed to be, went to -the powder magazine, which was an old sack carefully tied up and lying -under a bed in the hut, and brought forth the charge in a tea-cup. Then -he mounted on a stool, and poured the powder in at the muzzle; the -jingall was thumped on the ground, and with a long bamboo, which served -as a ramrod, they rammed the powder home. A little of the already soft -powder was then mealed, and the touch-hole filled with it. - -“One man then held on tight to the butt, while another, coming out -with a hot poker, discharged the weapon, the effect of which in noise -and smoke was marvellous; but the poor fellow who was doing the -marksman was knocked heels over head backward. He seemed, however, -quite accustomed to that sort of thing, for, picking himself up in a -minute, he performed what I certainly took for the _coup d’état_ of the -whole proceeding. Suddenly swinging round the jingall on its pivot, -he applied his mouth to the muzzle, and blew violently down it, which -sent the remaining sparks flying out of the vent, and then swung it -back into its former position, by which manœuvre he nearly knocked my -companion off his legs. - -“The piece was then left with its muzzle inclined well upward, so that -any rain which might fall would trickle nicely down the barrel and -accumulate at the breech. The picket seemed to be without any shot -for their jingall, for we tried to get them to put one in, so that we -might fire across the bows of our junks, in order to test the courage -of the boat coolies. Probably shot are not used in the warfare of the -interior: our after experience was favorable to this supposition.” - -Captain Blakiston rather maliciously adds, that the picket was placed -there for the purpose of giving an alarm by running away as soon as any -body of rebels might come in sight. - -I possess a specimen of the jingall. It is exactly seven feet in -length, and is, in fact, nothing more than a heavy iron tube mounted on -a stock, and supplied with the rudest imaginable arrangement for the -match. Altogether, I think that the risk of firing it would be rather -greater than that of being fired at with it. - -As for the bow and arrow, they are substantially the same as that which -has been described when treating of the Tartars, the weapon having been -taken up by the Chinese, and its use carefully learned after the same -fashion as has been mentioned. - -The most characteristic Chinese weapon with which I am acquainted is -the repeating crossbow (shown on page 1425), which, by simply working a -lever backward and forward, drops the arrows in succession in front of -the string, draws the bow, shoots the missile, and supplies its place -with another. The particular weapon from which the drawings are taken -was said to have been one of the many arms which were captured in the -Peiho fort. - -It is not at all easy to describe the working of this curious bow, but, -with the aid of the illustration, I will try to make it intelligible. - -The bow itself is made of three strong, separate pieces of bamboo, -overlapping each other like the plates of a carriage-spring, which -indeed it exactly resembles. This is mounted on a stock, and, as the -bow is intended for wall defence, it is supported in the middle by a -pivot. So far, we have a simple crossbow; we have now to see how the -repeating machinery is constructed. Upon the upper surface of the stock -lies an oblong box, which we will call the “slide.” It is just wide and -long enough to contain the arrows, and is open above, so as to allow -them to be dropped into it. When in the slide, the arrows necessarily -lie one above the other, and, in order to prevent them from being -jerked out of the slide by the shock of the bowstring, the opening can -be closed by a little wooden shutter which slides over it. - -Through the lower part of the slide a transverse slit is cut, and the -bowstring is led through this cut, so that the string presses the slide -upon the stock. Now we come to the lever. It is shaped like the Greek -letter π, the cross-piece forming the handle. The lever is jointed to -the stock by an iron pin or bolt, and to the slide by another bolt. -Now, if the lever be worked to and fro, the slide is pushed backward -and forward along the stock, but without any other result. - -Supposing that we wish to make the lever draw the bow, we have only -to cut a notch in the under part of the slit through which the string -is led. As the slide passes along the stock, the string by its own -pressure falls into the notch, and is drawn back, together with the -slide, thus bending the bow. Still, however much we may work the lever, -the string will remain in the notch, and must therefore be thrown out -by a kind of trigger. This is self-acting, and is equally simple and -ingenious. Immediately under the notch which holds the string, a wooden -peg plays loosely through a hole. When the slide is thrust forward and -the string falls into the notch, it pushes the peg out of the hole. But -when the lever and slide are drawn backward to their full extent, the -lower end of the peg strikes against the stock, so that it is forced -violently through the hole, and pushes the string out of the notch. - -We will now refer to the illustration. Fig. 1 represents the bow as it -appears after the lever and slide have been thrust forward, and the -string has fallen into the notch. Fig. 2 represents it as it appears -when the lever has been brought back, and the string released. - -A is the bow, made of three layers of male bamboo, the two outer being -the longest. B is the string. This is made of very thick catgut, as is -needed to withstand the amount of friction which it has to undergo, and -the violent shock of the bow. It is fastened in a wonderfully ingenious -manner, by a “hitch” rather than a knot, so that it is drawn tighter in -proportion to the tension. It passes round the end of the bow, through -a hole, and then presses upon itself. - -C C show the stock, and D is the slide. E is the opening of the slide, -through which the arrows are introduced into it, and it is shown as -partially closed by the little shutter F. The lever is seen at G, -together with the two pins which connect it with the stock and the -slide. H shows the notch in the slide which receives the string. I is -the pivot on which the weapon rests, K is the handle, and L the place -whence the arrows issue. - -If the reader should have followed this description carefully, he will -see that the only limit to the rapidity of fire is the quickness with -which the lever can be worked to and fro. As it is thrust forward, -the string drops into its notch, the trigger-peg is set, and an arrow -falls with its butt just in front of the string. When it is drawn -sharply back, the string is released by the trigger-peg, the arrow is -propelled, and another falls into its place. If, therefore, a boy be -kept at work supplying the slide with arrows, a constant stream of -missiles can be poured from this weapon. - -The arrows are very much like the “bolts” of the old English cross-bow. -They are armed with heavy and solid steel heads, and are feathered in a -very ingenious manner. The feathers are so slight, that at first sight -they appear as if they were mere black scratches on the shaft. They -are, however, feathers, projecting barely the fiftieth of an inch from -the shaft, but being arranged in a slightly spiral form so as to catch -the air, and impart a rotatory motion to the arrow. By the side of the -cross-bow on Fig. 2 is seen a bundle of the arrows. - -The strength of this bow is very great, though not so great as I have -been told. It possesses but little powers of aim, and against a single -and moving adversary would be useless. But for the purpose for which it -is designed, namely, a wall-piece which will pour a series of missiles -upon a body of men, it is a very efficient weapon, and can make itself -felt even against the modern rifle. The range of this bow is said to be -four hundred yards, but I should think that its extreme effective range -is at the most from sixty to eighty yards, and that even in that case -it would be almost useless, except against large bodies of soldiers. - -Of swords the Chinese have an abundant variety. Some are single-handed -swords, and there is one device by which two swords are carried in the -same sheath, and are used one in each hand. I have seen the two-sword -exercise performed, and can understand that, when opposed to any -person not acquainted with the weapon, the Chinese swordsman would -be irresistible. But in spite of the two swords, which fly about the -wielder’s head like the sails of a mill, and the agility with which the -Chinese fencer leaps about and presents first one side and then the -other to his antagonist, I cannot but think that any ordinary fencer -would be able to keep himself out of reach, and also to get in his -point, in spite of the whirling blades of his adversary. - -Two-handed swords are much used. One of these weapons in my collection -is five feet six inches in length, and weighs rather more than four -pounds and a quarter. The blade is three feet in length and two inches -in width. The thickness of metal at the back is a quarter of an inch -near the hilt, diminishing slightly toward the point. The whole of the -blade has a very slight curve. The handle is beautifully wrapped with -narrow braid, so as to form an intricate pattern. - -There is another weapon, the blade of which exactly resembles that -of the two-handed sword, but it is set at the end of a long handle -some six or seven feet in length, so that, although it will indict a -fatal wound when it does strike an enemy, it is a most unmanageable -implement, and must take so long for the bearer to recover himself, -in case he misses his blow, that he would be quite at the mercy of an -active antagonist. - -Should they be victorious in battle, the Chinese are cruel conquerors, -and are apt to indict horrible tortures, not only upon their prisoners -of war, but even upon the unoffending inhabitants of the vanquished -land. They carry this love for torture even into civil life, and -display a horrible ingenuity in producing the greatest possible -suffering with the least apparent means of indicting it. For example, -one of the ordinary punishments in China is the compulsory kneeling -bare-legged on a coiled chain. This does not sound particularly -dreadful, but the agony that is caused is indescribable, especially as -two officers stand by the sufferer and prevent him from seeking even a -transient relief by shifting his posture. Broken crockery is sometimes -substituted for the chain. - -The most common punishment in China is that of the cangue, a sort of -moveable pillory. A piece of wood, some four feet square and nearly -four inches in thickness, has a hole in the middle, through which the -culprit’s head is passed. The machine opens with a hinge, and when -closed is locked, and a placard designating the offence is pasted on -it. As long as the cangue is worn, the unhappy delinquent cannot feed -himself, so that he would be starved to death were he not fed by casual -contributions. Fortunately, it is considered a meritorious action to -feed a prisoner in the cangue, so that little risk of actual starvation -is run, and the principal terror of the cangue lies in the pain caused -by carrying such a weight upon the neck and shoulders. This instrument -is often worn for weeks and sometimes for three months, which is the -extent of its legal use. - -Finger squeezing is another torture which is frequently used. Four -pieces of bamboo are tied loosely together at one end, and a string -passes through the other ends, so arranged that by drawing it they -can be pulled closely together. The fingers are introduced between -the bamboos, and by pulling at the string they can be crushed -almost to pieces. This torture is often employed by the mandarins, -when endeavoring to extort money from persons whom they suspect of -concealing their wealth. The ankles are squeezed after a similar -fashion, only in this case the bamboos are much larger. Both these -modes of torture are shown in the illustration on the next page. - -Most of the so-called minor tortures, _i. e._ those which are not -directly aimed at life, are employed for the purpose of extorting -money. The fact is, the mandarins who are set over districts only -have a limited term of office, and may, indeed, be transferred at any -time. As during their term of office they have to make up a certain -sum demanded by their superiors, and have also to keep up considerable -state on a nominal salary, it follows that they oppress the people to -the utmost of their power, looking upon them merely in the light of -tax-producing animals. It is, therefore, no wonder that a Chinaman of -any ability strives for literary rank, and the privilege of wearing the -button, which exempts him from arrest except by imperial order. - -Beating with the bamboo is another common punishment. There are two -kinds of bamboo for this purpose, the small and the large; the latter -being capable of producing death if used with severity. Indeed, even -the lesser bamboo, if the blows be struck with the edge, instead of the -flat, bruises the flesh so completely as to bring on mortification, of -which the sufferer is sure to die in a few days. This punishment is -chiefly used by the peculative mandarins, in order to extort money, and -is employed for men and women alike; the only difference being that the -man is thrown prostrate on the ground, while the woman suffers in a -kneeling posture. - -A man of forethought, however, never suffers much from the bamboo, -and, if possible, nothing at all. In the former case, he bribes the -executioner, who strikes so as to produce a very effective sounding -blow, but in reality inflicts very little injury. In the latter case, -he bribes a man to act as a substitute, and, just as the first blow -is about to be struck, some of the officers, who are also bribed, get -between the judge and the culprit, while the latter rolls out of the -way, and the substitute takes his place. A similar ruse is enacted at -the completion of the punishment. It may seem strange that any one -should act as a substitute in such a business; but in China men care -little for their skins, or even for their lives, and it is possible to -purchase a substitute even for capital punishment, the chief difficulty -being not to bribe the substitute, but to find enough money to bribe -all the officials, who must act in concert. - -Powerful as they may be, the mandarins have not all the power of life -and death, though they can inflict punishments which practically lead -to the same result. Mr. Milne mentions a case of this kind. Two men -had been arrested in the act of robbing a house during a fire. This is -rightly held to be the most heinous kind of theft, and is generally -punished with decapitation. The mandarin of the district had not the -power to inflict death, but contrived to manage that the men should -die. Accordingly, he had two tall bamboo cages made, placed a man -inside each, and tied him by his tail to the top bars of the cage. The -cages were placed in the open air, in charge of officers, who would not -allow any communication with the offenders. The natural consequence -was, that privation of food, drink, sleep, and rest of any kind, -together with exposure to the elements, killed the men as effectually -as the sword of the executioner. - -A modification of this mode of punishment is by covering the top of -the cage with a board through a hole in which the head of the sufferer -passes. It is, in fact, a fixed cangue. The top of the cage is adjusted -so that the man is forced to stand on tiptoe as he is suspended by the -neck. His hands being bound behind him, relief is impossible. This mode -of punishment is shown in the last figure but one, on the right-hand -side. - -The other figures speak for themselves, except that of the kneeling -figure with snakes coiled round his body. These snakes are tubes of -soft metal, fashioned in the shape of snakes with open mouths. They -are coiled round the naked limbs and body of the sufferer, and boiling -water is then poured into them, producing the most horrible torture. - -As to capital punishments, they are inflicted in various ways. The -mode that is thought to be the least terrible is the command to commit -suicide, because in that case they can avoid the mangling of the body, -and so make their appearance in the spirit world whole and entire. -This is a privilege only accorded to officers of very high rank, and -is conferred upon them by sending the “silken cord.” No cord is really -sent, but the mandate implies the instrument of death. When it is -received, the doomed man takes some of his nearest relatives and most -valued friends to his house, fastens the silken cord to a beam, places -himself on a stool, passes the noose round his neck, and then leaps -off the stool, and so dies. Officers of lower rank, when they see that -they will probably be condemned to death, generally anticipate their -sentence by hanging themselves on their own responsibility. - -For criminals of no status, strangulation is the mode of death most -preferred. It is accomplished in a manner exactly resembling the -Spanish garrote. The criminal stands with his back to a post, through -which a hole is bored at the level of his neck. The two ends of a -cord are passed through the hole, the loop embracing the man’s neck. -The ends are then twisted round a stick, and, by a few rapid turns -of the stick, the man is killed. The rapidity of the process is such -that Mr. Lockhart mentions an instance where he and a friend saw a -file of soldiers coming along, carrying a pole and a pinioned man in a -basket. They stopped, lashed the pole to an upright post, took the man -out of the basket, tied him to the pole, and strangled him before the -foreigners could find out what they were doing. The strange part of the -business was that the officials had bribed the apparent culprit and his -friends, as they wanted to make the foreigners believe that he was an -opium smuggler, and that they were doing their best to stop the trade. -Truly it is a strange country. - -[Illustration: (1.) MANDARIN AND WIFE. (See page 1429.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) MODES OF TORTURE. (See page 1436.)] - -To beheading the Chinese have the strongest aversion, because they -shrink from the idea of appearing headless in the next world, and -they will therefore do all in their power to avoid it. A most -remarkable instance of the extent to which a Chinaman will go to avoid -decapitation is given in the following extract from a letter to an -Indian newspaper. The man was a well-known and most abandoned criminal, -who with his wife had been arrested. - -“On his trial before his judge he refused to criminate himself, -although repeatedly scourged until his back was raw. If a female -witness fails in giving satisfactory evidence in a court of justice, -she is beaten with a leather strap across the mouth. His wife, desirous -of sparing her husband, refused to give evidence, but after two or -three applications of strap her courage gave way. She confessed his -guilt. The prisoner was then sentenced to decapitation,--deemed by the -Chinese to be the most severe of punishments, because they imagine that -if a man leaves this world _minus_ any of his members, he appears in -the same condition in the next. The culprit, therefore, prayed to be -crucified instead of being beheaded. - -“The cross was of the Latin form, the foot being inserted in a stout -plank, and the criminal, standing on a board, had nails driven through -his feet, and his hands stretched and nailed to the cross-beam. His -legs were fastened to the cross with an iron chain, and his arms bound -with cords, and on the cord round his waist was inserted a piece of -wood on which was written his name and offence; a similar piece on his -right arm contained his sentence, namely, to remain on the cross night -and day until he died; another on his left arm had the name of the -judge, with his titles and offices. - -“The criminal was nailed to the cross inside the Yamun in the presence -of the magistrate, and then carried by four coolies to one of the -principal thoroughfares leading from the city, where he was left during -the day, but removed at night inside the prison for fear of his friends -attempting to rescue him, and again carried forth at daylight in charge -of two soldiers. He was crucified at noon on the Wednesday, and Mr. -Jones conversed with him at five in the evening. He complained of a -pain in the chest, and thirst. On Thursday he slept for some hours, -when the cross was laid down within the jail compound. No one was -allowed to supply him with food or drink, and during the day there -was quite a fair in front of the cross, people being attracted from a -distance, and the sweetmeat venders driving a large trade. - -“On Saturday he was still alive, when the Taotai was appealed to by a -foreigner to put an end to the wretch’s sufferings, and he immediately -gave orders that the vinegar should be administered, which he expected -would produce immediate death; but the result was otherwise, and at -sunset, when the cross was taken within the jail, two soldiers with -stout bamboos broke both his legs, and then strangled him.” - -It is no matter of wonder that the woman confessed her husband’s guilt, -for the face is sometimes beaten with a hard leather strap until the -jaws are broken, and the whole of the lips fall from them. In all -probability she was quite as guilty as her husband, so that she was not -altogether deserving of pity. - -Decapitation is always conducted with much judicial solemnity, and, -as a rule, is restricted to certain seasons of the year, when large -batches of criminals are executed. There are, however, occasional -exceptions to the rule. The instrument employed is a sword made -expressly for the purpose. It is a two-handed weapon, very heavy, and -with a very broad blade. The executioners pride themselves on their -skill in its management, and, in order to show their powers, will draw -a black-ink line round a turnip, and sever it at a blow, the cut never -passing on either side of the line. Before a man is admitted to be an -executioner, he is obliged to prove his ability by this test. - -The criminal is carried to the place of execution in a bamboo cage, -and by his side is the basket in which his head will be removed. He -is pinioned in a very effective manner. The middle of a long and thin -rope is passed across the back of his neck, and the ends are crossed on -the chest, and brought under the arms. They are then twisted round the -arms, the wrists tied together behind the back, and the ends fastened -to the portion of rope upon the neck. A slip of paper containing his -name, crime, and sentence is fixed to a reed, and stuck at the back of -his head. See illustration No. 1, on page 1451. - -On arriving at the place of execution, the officials remove the paper, -and take it to the presiding mandarin, who writes on it in red ink -the warrant for execution. The paper is then replaced, a rope loop is -passed over the head of the culprit, and the end given to an assistant, -who draws the head forward so as to stretch the neck, while a second -assistant holds the body from behind; and in a moment the head is -severed from the body. The head is taken away, and generally hung up -in a bamboo cage near the scene of the crime, with a label announcing -the name and offence of the criminal, and the name of the presiding -mandarin by whose order he was executed. In some places these heads are -unpleasantly numerous. In many cases the rope and assistants are not -employed. - -There is even a lower depth of degradation than mere beheading. This -is called “cutting into small pieces.” Before striking the fatal blow, -the executioner makes long but not deep cuts on the face and in all the -fleshy parts of the body, taking care to avoid the chief blood-vessels, -so that when the culprit is released by the loss of his head, he may -enter the next world not only without a head, but with scarcely any -flesh on his bones. - -The last of the punishments which will be mentioned in this work is -that of sawing asunder, a punishment which of late years has been but -rarely inflicted, and we may hope is dying out, though in reality it -does not cause nearly as much pain to the sufferer as many of the minor -punishments. The mode in which it is performed may be seen from an -anecdote related by Mr. Fleming, in the work which has been already -quoted. There was a distinguished Imperial officer named Sun-kwei who -was taken prisoner by the rebel leader Kih-yung. Knowing the ability -of his prisoner, the rebel leader offered to spare his life on the -condition that he would accept a command in his army. Sun-kwei flatly -refused to do so, saying that as he was defeated he must die, for that -to take service against his emperor was impossible. Bribes, threats, -and promises were of no avail, and at last Kih-yung ordered his -prisoner to be sawn asunder. - -The executioners began to exercise their dreadful office, but with all -their endeavors could not make the saw enter the body of their victim, -who only jeered at them for their ignorance in not knowing how to saw a -man asunder. At last Sun-kwei was good enough to instruct them in their -business. “You dead dogs and slaves,” said he, “if you would saw a man -asunder, you should compress his body between two planks; but how could -_you_ know it?” The men followed his advice, and sawed him and the -planks asunder at the same time, he never relenting, but scoffing at -them to the last moment. - -It is with some reluctance that I describe, however briefly, these -horrible scenes, but to pass over them would be to omit some of the -most characteristic traits of this strange people. Those who know the -Chinese nation will be aware that I have touched the subject very -lightly, and that the most revolting modes of punishment have not -been, and for obvious reasons cannot be mentioned at all. - -Although the mandarins are generally hated by those over whom they are -placed, there are exceptions to the usual rule, and men are found who -resist the temptation of extorting money from the people,--a temptation -which is rendered the stronger because a mandarin who can report that -his district has paid a very large sum into the Imperial treasury is -sure of promotion, and if he has “squeezed” a large tribute out of a -district that previously had paid but a small sum, he may almost reckon -on obtaining the coveted peacock’s feather, with all its privileges. - -When an honest and kind-hearted mandarin vacates his post at the -expiration of his term of office, the people subscribe to present him -with an umbrella of state, called “The Umbrella of Ten Thousand of the -People.” It is made of red silk and satin, with three rows of flounces, -and bears upon it the names of the chief donors written in golden -characters. When he takes his formal leave of office, the umbrella -is carried in procession by his attendants, and he is followed for a -certain distance by those who presented it. - -The highest honorary reward of this kind that can be given is an outer -garment made of the same material as the umbrella, and also decorated -with the names of the principal donors. This robe of honor is carried -in procession, hung within a kind of pavilion that all may see it, and -accompanied by a band of music. Such a robe is very seldom presented, -and the recipient naturally values it very highly. - -While treating of honorary rewards, one particular kind must be -mentioned. If a man distinguishes himself greatly, and feels that he is -under great obligation to some person who has no real claim on him, he -will solicit some high title from the emperor, and then ask permission -to transfer it to his benefactor. Thus it has frequently happened -that a man, without any rank of his own, has taken upon himself the -education of a young lad of promising abilities, and has been afterward -rewarded by finding himself raised even to a higher rank than that of -his _protégé_. Sometimes, when a man who has been thus educated is -presented to a higher title, the emperor bestows on his benefactor the -lower rank from which he has been raised. Thus it will be seen that in -this country every incentive is employed to promote education among the -people, and that not only the educated man obtains the reward which his -powers have earned, but that those by whom he was educated have their -share in his honors. - - - - -CHAPTER CLV. - -CHINA--_Continued_. - -SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS. - - - OPIUM SMOKING -- SINGULAR RESULT OF THE HABIT -- MODE OF USING THE - OPIUM PIPE -- TOBACCO SMOKING -- THE WATER PIPE -- WEIGHTS AND - MEASURES -- THE STEELYARD AND ITS USES -- BOAT-LIFE IN CHINA -- - CORMORANT FISHING -- FISH SPEARING -- CATCHING FISH WITH THE FEET -- - THE DUCK BOATS -- AGRICULTURE -- MODE OF IRRIGATION -- CHINESE MUSIC - AND INSTRUMENTS -- A SKILFUL VIOLINIST -- CHINESE SINGING -- ART IN - CHINA -- PORCELAIN -- CARVING IN IVORY AND JADE -- MAGIC MIRRORS -- - RESPECT TO AGE. - -We will conclude this subject with a short account of the miscellaneous -manners and customs of the Chinese. - -Among the chief of their characteristic customs is opium smoking, a -vice which is terribly prevalent, but which is not so universally -injurious as is often stated. Of course, those who have allowed -themselves to be enslaved by it become gradually debased, but the -proportion of those who do so is very small, though, by the terrible -sight which they present, they are brought prominently into notice. It -seems, moreover, that the quantity consumed at a time is not of so much -importance as the regularity of the habit. - -Let a man once fall into the way of smoking opium, though it be but -one pipe, at a certain hour of the day, that pipe will be an absolute -necessity, and he takes it, not so much to procure pleasure, as to -allay the horribly painful craving from which he suffers. In fact, a -man destroys his health by opium smoking in China, much as a drunkard -does in England, not so much by taking immoderate doses occasionally, -but by making a habit of taking small doses repeatedly. From such a -habit as this very few have the courage to break themselves, the powers -of their mind being shattered as well as those of the body. - -A confirmed opium smoker really cannot exist beyond a certain time -without the deadly drug, and those who are forced to exert themselves -are generally provided with some opium pills, which they take in order -to give them strength until they can obtain the desired pipe. An -anecdote illustrative of this practice is narrated by Mr. Cobbold in -his “Pictures of the Chinese”:-- - -“A small salesman, or pedler, was seen toiling along with great -difficulty through the gates of Ningpo, as if straining every nerve -to reach some desired point. He was seen to stagger and fall, and his -bundle flew from him out of his reach. While many pass by, some good -Samaritan comes to him, lifts up his head, and asks what is the matter, -and what he can do for him. He has just strength to whisper, ‘My good -friend, please to untie that bundle; you will find a small box in the -centre; give me two or three of the pills which are in it, and I shall -be all right.’ It was soon done; the opium pills had their desired -effect, and he was soon able to rise and pursue his journey to his inn.” - -This most graphically describes the extreme state of exhaustion which -comes on if the usual period of taking the pipe has passed by. The -pedler thought, no doubt, he had strength just to reach his inn, where -he would have thrown himself upon a bed and called for the opium -pipe; but he miscalculated by a few minutes his power of endurance, -and the pills (often resorted to in like cases of extremity), when -supplied him by his friend, perhaps saved him from an untimely end. -Very similar scenes have happened to foreigners travelling in sedan -chairs through the country, the bearers having been obliged to stop and -take a little of the opium, in order to prevent complete exhaustion. -A long hour or more, in the middle of the day, has frequently to be -allowed, nominally for the sake of dinner and rest, but really, in some -instances, for the opium pipe. - -The pipe which is used for smoking opium is not in the least like -that which is employed for tobacco. The stem is about as large as an -ordinary office-ruler, and it has a hole near one end, into which the -shank of the bowl is fixed. The bowl itself is about as large as a -Ribstone pippin, and nearly of the same shape, the bud representing -the tiny aperture in which the opium is placed, and the stalk -representing the shank which fits into the stem. These pipes are made -of various materials, some being mere bamboo and wood, while others -have bowls of the finest porcelain, and the stem richly enamelled. My -own specimen has the stem twenty inches in length, and an inch and a -half in diameter, the bore not being large enough to admit an ordinary -crowquill. The bowl is of some light-colored wood, well varnished, and -covered with landscape scenes in black lines. Although it has not been -in use for many years, it still smells strongly of opium, showing that -it had been saturated with the fumes of the drug before it came into my -possession. - -The mode of using it is as follows: The smoker has a couch prepared, -together with a little lamp, and his usual supply of the prepared -opium. He lays his head on the pillow, with a long, needle-like -implement places over the aperture of the bowl a little piece of the -opium, about as large as a mustard seed, holds it to the flame of the -lamp, and, with a long and steady inspiration, the whole of the opium -is drawn into the lungs in the state of vapor. The smoke is retained -for a few seconds, and then expelled. The generality of opium smokers -are content with one pipe, but the votary of the drug will sometimes -take as many as twelve in succession before he is completely under the -influence of the opium. As he finishes the last morsel of opium, the -pipe falls from his hand, and he passes into that dreamland for which -he has bartered everything that makes life precious. - -The terrible scenes which have so often been related take place for -the most part at the opium shops, places which are nominally illegal, -but which carry on their trade by payment of periodical bribes to the -ruling official of the place. In Tien-tsin alone there were upwards -of three hundred of these shops, in which opium could be purchased or -sold wholesale, or could be refined for smoking, and consumed on the -premises. - -There is only one redeeming point in opium smoking, namely, that it -does not produce the brutal scenes which too often take place in the -gin palaces of this country. Mr. Fleming remarks of this vice: “If -opium smoking is a great evil among the Chinese people, as it is no -doubt, yet they endeavor to hide it, they are ashamed of it, and it -offends neither the eyes nor the hearing by offensive publicity. It is -not made a parade of by night and by day, neither does it give rise to -mad revels and murderous riots. Its effects on the health may be more -prejudicial than our habits of alcohol drinking, but yet it is hard to -see any of those broken-down creatures that one reads about.” - -Indeed, the Chinese themselves, who are apt to drink more than they -ought of a fiery liquid called samshu, say that the spirit is far more -injurious than the drug. - -We will now see how the Chinese smoke tobacco. The pipe which is -ordinarily used has a very little bowl of brass, at the end of a -slight stem about as large as a drawing pencil. The bowl is scarcely -large enough to hold the half of a boy’s playing marble, and is almost -exactly like the Japanese pipe, which will be presently described. - -A pipe that is very much in fashion, especially with the women, is a -kind of water-pipe made of brass, and enlarged at the bottom so as to -stand upright. The enlarged portion is filled with water, through which -the smoke passes, as in a hookah. The little brass tube which serves -the purpose of a bowl can be drawn out of the body of the pipe, so as -to be charged afresh; and in most cases each pipe is supplied with -several bowls, so that they can be used successively as wanted. Only -three whiffs are taken at a time; and indeed the quantity of tobacco -used is so small, that more would be almost out of the question. For -this pipe, tobacco is prepared in a peculiar manner, a minute quantity -of arsenic being mixed with it. - -One peculiarity about the Chinese is their almost universal employment -of weight as a measure. With the exception of objects of art, nearly -everything is bought by weight, and the consequence is, that the most -absurd modes of increasing the weight are often employed. Fowls and -ducks, for example, are sold alive by weight, so that the dishonest -vendor has a habit of cramming with stones before he brings them to -market. Fish are also taken to market while still living, and are -improved in appearance by being blown up with bellows, and in weight -by being crammed with stones. Through the lips of each fish a ring is -passed, so that it may be at once taken from the water and hung upon -the hook of the balance. Nor is the fish dealer particular as to the -sufferings of the creatures which he sells, and he has not the least -hesitation in cutting off a pound or two in case his customer does not -wish to purchase an entire fish. - -In these transactions the Chinese do not use scales, but employ a -“steelyard” balance, made of various materials and various sizes, -according to the object for which it was intended. That which is meant -for ordinary market use is made of wood, and is marked at regular -distances by small brass studs, so as to designate the exact places on -which the weight should be hung. Those which are intended for finer -work are of ivory. - -It is kept in a case, which looks something like two wooden spoons laid -upon each other, so that their bowls enclose any object placed between -them. They are united by a rivet or pivot, which passes through the -ends of the handles, enabling them to be separated at will by drawing -them sideways. In order to prevent them from coming apart needlessly, -a ring of bamboo is plaited loosely round the stem, so that when it is -slipped toward the bowl, the two halves of the case are kept together, -and when it is slid to the end of the stem, they can be separated. In -one of the halves of the bowl a large hole is scooped, in which the pan -of the balance lies, and a smaller hole is cut for the reception of -the weight. The steelyard itself lies in a groove cut along the inside -of the stem. The reader will see that when the apparatus is closed, it -lies very compactly, and can be stuck into the girdle ready for use at -any moment. - -The “yard” of this balance is of ivory, and is longer and more slender -than the chopsticks which have already been described. In my specimen -it is eleven inches in length, and the sixth of an inch in diameter -in the thickest part. Three distinct sets of marks are made upon it, -and there are three separate fulcra, so that when the weight exceeds -the amount which can be measured with one fulcrum, the second or third -fulcrum can be used with its own set of marks. - -The arrangement of these marks is a fertile source of dispute among -the Chinese. There is no standard by which all the balances can be -regulated, but each dealer has his own balance, and his own arrangement -of the gradations upon it. The natural consequence is, that quarrels -take place with every purchase. A vast amount of time is wasted -upon disputes which might easily be avoided, were the government to -establish a standard balance, by which all others might be graduated. -Time, however, is not of the least importance to a Chinese, and as a -prolonged bargain has a positive fascination for him, it is probable -that such a regulation would not be popular, and would indeed be -evaded in every mode which Chinese ingenuity could invent. The larger -steelyards have a hook whereon to hang the article to be weighed, but -those which are intended for weighing small and valuable objects are -furnished with a shallow brass pan, attached to the end of the balance -by four silken threads. - -The extraordinary economy which distinguishes the Chinese is -characteristically shown in the population which crowds the rivers near -the principal towns. A vivid picture of Chinese boat-life is given by -Mr. Tiffany, in his “American’s Sojourn in the Celestial Empire.” After -describing the various kinds of boats that he has seen, he proceeds as -follows:-- - -“We have passed through several miles of boats, and have not seen the -quarter of them. It is, indeed, impossible to give an idea of their -number. Some say that there are as many as seventy thousand of them at -the city of Canton alone. But let us be content with forty thousand. -Then fancy forty thousand wild swans, closely packed together, floating -on some wide pond, and mostly restless, and you would say that they -would cover many acres of their element. Now, by the enchantment of -imagination, convert the pond into the roaring Pekiang River, the swans -into boats of every shape and size, the notes of the birds into the -yells, the shrieks, the piercing voices of the river people, and you -may have the actual scene before you. - -“And all these boats, miles upon miles, from border to border, are -densely packed with human beings in every stage of life, in almost -every occupation that exists upon the shore that they seldom trespass -upon; and there they are born and earn their scanty bread, and -there they die. The boats are moored side by side, in long-reaching -thousands, so that the canal which they form stretches to a point in -the distance. In the Shaneem quarter, above the foreign factories, -they form large squares and avenues. Forty thousand floating tenements -would, under any circumstances, be considered a singular sight, but -here the swarming occupants give them the appearance of a mighty -metropolis.” - -It seems strange that so vast a population should live on the river, -within pistol shot of the land, and yet that the greater number of -them, from their birth to their death, have never known what it is to -put a foot on the shore. When one of the older boatmen does so for the -first time, he can hardly walk, the firm land being as difficult for -him to tread as the deck of a tossing vessel is to a landsman. - -Though the smallest of all the vessels that traverse a Chinese river, -the sampans are perhaps the most conspicuous. They are rather small -boats, drawing but little water, and for the most part propelled by two -women, one sitting in the bow with her oar, and the other stationed in -the stern, working the huge implement, half oar, half rudder, by which -the boat is at once propelled and guided. Many of the boat-steerers -are quite young girls, but they manage their craft with wonderful -skill and power, hardly ever touching another boat, no matter how many -may be darting about the river, and, with one mighty sweep of the -huge scull, sending the boat clear of the obstacle from which escape -seemed impossible but a second before. To the eye of a foreigner, -the boatwomen are more pleasing in appearance than their sisters of -the land, inasmuch as their feet are allowed to assume their proper -shape, and exposure to the air and exercise take away the sickly, -pasty complexion which often distinguishes the better-class women on -shore, and is heightened by the white powder with which they persist in -disfiguring themselves. - -Some of the mandarin boats present the greatest possible contrast to -the little sampans. They are, in fact, floating palaces, decorated in -the most picturesque and sumptuous manner, and furnished with every -luxury that a wealthy Chinaman can command. They often have thirty -or forty oars of a side, are gaily bedecked with flags and brilliant -lanterns, and mostly carry several cannon, together with abundance of -fire-arms, in order to deter the pirates, who would be likely to swoop -down upon an unarmed vessel, kill the passengers, and seize the boat -for their own purposes. - -In connection with the river life of the Chinese may be mentioned the -various modes of fishing. The most celebrated method is that in which -the fish are caught by cormorants. The fisherman has several of these -birds, which are trained to the sport, and indeed are bred from the egg -for the purpose, and sold at high prices when fully trained. The man -goes out in a boat or on a raft, accompanied by his birds, and when he -comes to a favorable spot, sends them into the water. They immediately -dive, and dart upon the fish, which they are taught to bring to the -boat. - -Should the fish be too large, the man generally takes both fish and -bird into his boat by means of a net at the end of a handle; and often -when a bird has captured a very large fish, and is likely to lose it, -one or two of its companions will come to its assistance, and by their -united efforts hold the fish until their master can come up. A ring -is put loosely round the throats of the birds, so that they cannot -swallow the fish even if they desire to do so; but a well-trained -cormorant will no more eat a fish than a well-trained pointer will eat -a partridge. Each time that the cormorant brings a fish to the boat, it -is rewarded with a mouthful of food, generally a mouthful of eel, its -master raising the ring to allow it to swallow. - -Fishing with cormorants is almost invariably carried on at high tide, -and near bridges, as fish always love to congregate under shelter. At -such times the bridges are always crowded with spectators watching the -feats of the cormorants. - -The raft on which the fisherman stands is made of five or six bamboos, -about twenty feet in length. Now and then a cormorant which has not -completed its course of training is so delighted when it catches a -fish, that it swims away from its master as fast as it can. The -fisherman, however, can propel his light raft faster than the cormorant -can swim, and soon brings the truant to reason. This sport has recently -been introduced into England, and bids fair to be successful. - -Though caring little for sport, and pursuing game merely for the -“pot,” the Chinese employ one or two methods of fishing which have the -sporting element in them,--_i. e._ which give the quarry a fair chance -of escape. Such, for example, is fish spearing, which is practised -after rather a curious manner. The fisherman generally takes his stand -upon a low bridge, and is furnished with a trident spear and a decoy -fish. The decoy fish is prepared by lacing a strip of wood to either -side of its dorsal fin, and to these sticks a slight line is fastened. - -All being prepared, the fisherman takes his place on the bridge, drops -the decoy into the water, and ties the end of the line to a stick like -a fishing-rod, while he holds the three-pronged spear in his right -hand. As large a fish as the sportsman can procure is used for the -decoy; and as it swims about, its fellows come up to it, apparently -attracted by its peculiar movements. As they come within reach, they -are struck with the trident, and deposited in the fisherman’s basket. - -A very inferior kind of fishing is carried on in places where the bed -of the river is muddy. The fisherman wades into the river up to his -knees or deeper, and every now and then strikes the surface of the -water violently. As he does so, the fish which love such localities -dive under the mud, where they are felt and held down by the bare feet -of the man. As soon as he feels the wriggling of a fish under his foot, -he stoops down, often having to plunge entirely under water, draws the -fish from under his foot, and drops it into his basket. It is evident -that only small fish can be caught by this method. I have tried it -myself, and found that after a little trouble it was easy to catch any -quantity of small flounders and similar fish,--too small, indeed, to -be of any use, except to the thrifty Chinese, two of whom will buy a -duck’s head and divide it for their dinner. - -Among other river industries may be mentioned the system of duck -feeding that is there carried on. Vast quantities of ducks’ eggs are -hatched by artificial heat, and are purchased, when only a day or two -old, by the persons who make their living by feeding and selling the -birds. One favorite mode of duck feeding is to keep the birds in a boat -fitted up for the purpose, and to take the boat along the banks of the -river. At low water the keeper lets out the ducks, which find abundance -of food in the multitudinous creatures that swarm in the mud, and when -he thinks fit, he recalls them by a signal. As soon as they hear the -signal, they hurry to the boat with an alacrity that seems rather -ludicrous, unless the spectator knows that the last duck always gets a -sharp blow from a switch. - -The characteristic thrift of the Chinese is well shown in their various -agricultural operations, which are marvellously successful, not only -on account of the real skill and knowledge possessed by the Chinese, -but by reason of the systematic and ceaseless labor bestowed upon the -various crops. Not a weed is allowed to absorb the nutriment which -ought to go to the rice, and between the rows of plants the laborer -creeps on his hands and knees, searching for every weed, and working -with his fingers the earth round every root. Taken alone, this is hard -and disagreeable work, but, as the rice is planted in mud, as sharp -stones are often hidden under the mud, and as leeches abound in it, the -hardships of a rice-weeder’s life may be conceived. - -The water which is so necessary for the crop is mostly supplied by -mechanical means. If the agriculturist is fortunate enough to have land -near the river or canal, his task is comparatively easy. He has only to -erect a certain number of water-engines. These are almost all on the -same principle,--_i. e._ an endless chain passing over two wheels, and -drawing the water through an inclined trough. The wheels are generally -worked by men, who turn them with their feet, supporting themselves on -a horizontal bamboo. A larger and more complicated apparatus is worked -by a buffalo. - -At the smaller wheels all labor, as Mr. Milne observes: “In working -them the energies of every household appeared taxed to the utmost -vigor, as if each individual felt convinced of the necessity of his -personal aid in securing a good and plentiful crop. I saw both young -and old leaning on the same frame, treading the same wheel, and humming -together their rustic song as they trod. Boys six years of age kept the -step very well with men of fifty, and if too small to mount the wheel, -they were placed on the ground to work the paddles with their little -hands; and women, too, whose tiny and compressed feet disable them from -treading the mill, stood at the feet of the men, keeping time with -their hands.... None were indolent. There was no cessation, nor was -there exemption from labor; and, while they fought among the thorns and -thistles with which the ground had been cursed, and with the sweat of -the brow under a blazing sun sowed, weeded, and watered the earth, no -murmurs were heard, save the undulating sound of the husbandman’s song -as it waved over the field.” Those women who are fortunate enough to -possess feet of the natural size work as hard in the field as the men -do, and are then almost as scantily attired, a wide and short pair of -trousers, and a wide hat to shelter them from the sun, being all the -clothing they care for. - -Though the earth be poor, the Chinese agriculturist forces it to bear, -for every substance which can serve as manure is carefully saved for -that purpose. Not only do the Chinese dispose of all the refuse of -their houses and streets in the fields, but, as we have seen, even the -little scraps of hair that are shaved from the head are saved and used -as manure. Indeed, it is only by means of this exceeding economy that -the inhabitants of so densely populated a country can sustain life. - -Our concluding notes on Chinese life must be few and short. - -According to their own ideas, they are as much adepts in music as -in the other arts and sciences, which, as they believe, have placed -them at the very summit of humanity. They have a tolerable variety -of musical instruments, the most common of which is the San-hien, -a sort of three-stringed guitar, with a very long neck and a very -little cylindrical body. The strings are of silk, and are struck with -a thin slip of bamboo at the end of the finger. Then, as a type of -stringed instruments played with a bow, may be mentioned the Urh-heen, -or two-stringed fiddles, the sounds of which are generally very -disagreeable,--that is, when produced for Chinese ears; but when the -player desires to imitate the characteristics of European music, he can -do so very perfectly, as is shown by Mr. Fleming:-- - -“In one of the most thronged streets I was, on one afternoon, elbowing -my way along, exploring the ‘Heavenly Ford,’ when the sound of a violin -playing a well-known waltz fixed my attention in a bylane; and there, -instead of a hairy Briton flourishing a bow over a Cremona, was a blind -beggar eliciting those pleasant notes with as great precision and tone -from the rude and weighty mallet-shaped urh-heen, as if he had been all -his public life first violin at the opera.” - -[Illustration: MOUTH ORGAN.] - -The same traveller remarks of the vocal music of the Chinese, that “a -Chinaman rehearsing a song looks and gives utterance to such goat-like -bleats, that it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that he is -laboring under a violent attack of chronic whooping-cough, combined -with intermittent seizures of hiccough,--the ‘dying falls’ of the -inhuman falsetto at the end of each verse finishing in the most -confounding hysterical perturbations of the vocal chords.” - -There are several Chinese wind instruments. For instance, there is a -clarionet, called Shu-teh, an instrument with a very loud and piercing -note, and a peculiar “mouth-organ,” in which are a number of pipes. One -of these instruments, drawn from a specimen in my collection, is shown -on page 1445. It contains sixteen pipes, of different lengths, arranged -in pairs. Some of the pipes, however, are “dummies,” and are only -inserted to give the instrument an appearance of regularity. The length -of the pipes has nothing to do with the pitch of the note, as they -speak by means of brass vibrators inserted into the lower end, exactly -like those of harmoniums. The pipes are bound together by means of a -horn band that passes around them. When it is used, the player blows -into the projecting mouthpiece, and with his fingers stops or opens the -apertures in the pipes. The tone of this instrument is not pleasing to -European ears. - -Strange as Chinese music seems to us, and unpleasant as are the odd -and unexpected intervals of their melodies, the art is evidently -cultivated among the people, and there is scarcely a house without -its musical instrument of some kind. In the evening, according to Mr. -Fleming, “in passing through the narrow streets, one is sure to hear -from the dimly lighted houses the squealing, incoherent, and distorted -vibrations tumbling out on the night air with a spasmodic reality and a -foreignness of style that at once remind the listener of the outlandish -country he is in.” The preference of the Chinese for the strange, -wild, abrupt intervals of their own music is not, as the reader may -see, merely occasioned by ignorance of a more perfect scale, but is -the result of deliberate choice on their part. They have no objection -to European music. On the contrary, they are pleased to express their -approbation of it, but with the proviso that it is decidedly inferior -to their own. - -From Music we turn to Art. In their own line of art the Chinese are -unsurpassed, not to say inimitable. Ignorant of perspective as they may -be, there is a quaint force and vigor about their lines that is worthy -of all praise, while their rich softness of color can scarcely be -equalled. From time immemorial they have been acquainted with the art -of color printing from wooden blocks, and some of their oldest examples -of color printing are so full of life and spirit, despite their -exaggeration of gesture, and their almost ludicrous perspective, that -the best English artists have admired them sincerely. - -Of their porcelain, in which they simply stand alone, it is impossible -to treat fully in such a work as this, as the subject would demand -a volume to itself. Their carved work in ivory is familiarly known -throughout the greater part of the civilized world. In many of these -carvings the object of the artist seems to have been, not to develop -any beauties of form, but to show his power of achieving seeming -impossibilities. Among the best-known forms of Chinese carving may -be reckoned the sets of concentric balls, which are cut out of solid -ivory, or at least are said to be so made. - -[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF CHINESE ART. (From Sir Hope Grant’s -Collection.)] - -There is quite a controversy about the mode of cutting these balls, -and even those who have spent much time in China, and are thoroughly -acquainted with the arts and manufactures of the country, disagree on -this subject, some saying that the balls are really cut from solid -ivory, and others that each ball is made of two separate portions, -which are joined very artificially by cement, and can be separated by -steeping in boiling water. Of the two explanations I am rather inclined -to believe the former, as none of those who say that the balls can be -separated seem to have tried the experiment for themselves. The mode of -cutting these curious specimens of art is said to be by boring conical -holes from the circumference of the ball to its centre with a spherical -piece of ivory, and then detaching each ball in succession with curved -tools. - -The jade carving of China is also celebrated. This material is -remarkable for the beautifully soft polish which can be given to it, -and, as it is a rare mineral and exceedingly hard, coming next in that -respect to the ruby, articles made of jade are valued very highly -by the Chinese. In the accompanying illustration are shown a number -of jade carvings belonging to Sir Hope Grant, who kindly allowed -me to have them engraved for this work. The bowl in the front is -carved in imitation of a water-lily, the handle being formed from the -flower-stem. The ring which hangs from the handle is cut from the same -piece of jade. Just behind it is a jar of the same material, which is a -wonderful specimen of carving, and admirably shows the patient industry -of the Chinese worker. The second small bowl in the front, and the jar -behind it, are also of jade. - -The elegant jar which occupies the centre of the group is a splendid -specimen of enamel, and beside it is a large piece of _lapis lazuli_, -on which is engraved a poem written by the emperor himself. - -The celebrated Summer Palace or Yuenming-yuen, which was sacked and -burned by the English and French forces, was filled with splendid -specimens of jade carving, some of which are shown in the preceding -illustration. There are three kinds of jade, the cream-colored, the -clear white, and the bright green. This last is the most esteemed, and -is so valuable that a single bead, not so large as a boy’s playing -marble, is worth a pound, or even more. Some necklaces made of these -beads were sold after the destruction of the Summer Palace, and though -they only contained about a hundred and fifty beads, a hundred and -twenty pounds were given for them, the Chinese commissioners thinking -that they were sold at a very cheap rate. The Chinese name for this -jade is “feh-tsui.” - -One of the most remarkable instances of Chinese art is the magic -mirror. This article is a circular plate of metal rather more than a -quarter of an inch thick, having its face smooth and highly polished, -and its back dark and ornamented with various patterns, among which -four Chinese characters are conspicuous. These characters are in honor -of literature, and seem to be generally employed for the decoration of -these mirrors. - -When used simply for the purpose of reflecting the face, the mirrors -present nothing worthy of notice, but when they are held to the sun, -and the beams thrown upon a white surface, the whole of the characters -on the back are shown in the reflection. The mirror will even show its -powers when used with a lamp, but the sun is required to bring out -the characters clearly. A small but excellent specimen of this mirror -was presented to me by Dr. Flaxman Spurrell, and always excites great -admiration wherever it is shown. Not the least trace of any figure is -to be found in the face of the mirror, and the higher the polish given -to the face, the clearer is the representation of the figures on the -back. - -Several theories have been promulgated respecting the mode of making -these extraordinary mirrors, the most probable one being that the -characters and patterns on the back are made of a harder and more -condensed metal than that of the rest of the mirror, and that, when a -high polish is given to the face, the difference of the metal is not -perceptible, except by the mode in which it reflects light. - -There is much to say respecting the customs of the Chinese. The small -space, however, which remains will not permit us to treat fully of such -wide subjects as religion, marriage, and disposal of the dead, and -that they should be cursorily treated is impossible. We will therefore -conclude with one of the most pleasing traits in the Chinese character, -namely, the respect paid to old age. - -According to Mr. Milne, “The sacred regard which Chinese pay to the -claims of kindred secures to the patriarchs of respectable families -ample support in the advanced and helpless stage of their pilgrimage; -and charity often relieves poor septuagenarians whose relations may be -unable to supply them with comforts or necessaries at their mature age. -In China one’s feelings are not harrowed with the sad spectacle of an -aged parent discarded by his children, and left to perish, unattended -and unnursed, under a scorching sun, or on the banks of a rolling -river. But you will see the tottering senior, man or woman, who has not -the means to hire a sedan, led through the alleys and streets by a son -or a grandchild, commanding the spontaneous respect of each passer-by, -the homage of every junior. - -“The deference of the _polloi_ to the extreme sections of old age -is manifest likewise from the tablets and monuments you may any day -stumble upon, that have been erected by public subscription to the -memory of octogenarians, nonagenarians, and centenarians. Nor is the -government backward in encouraging this, but the reverse. Hence I have -often seen very aged men and women in the streets, arrayed in yellow, -_i. e._ imperial, robes, the gift of the emperor, in mark of honor, and -out of respect to their gray hairs.” The reader will remember that an -honorary degree is given to competitors who have reached an advanced -age. - -On one occasion, the emperor called together about four thousand old -men at his palace, entertained them with a banquet, at which they were -served by his own children and grandchildren, presented each of them -with money and a yellow robe, and conferred upon the oldest of the -assembly, a man aged one hundred and eleven years, the rank and dress -of a mandarin. - -Family festivals are held, something like the silver and golden wedding -of the Germans, to celebrate each decade of life; and so important -do the Chinese consider these festivals that they are often held by -children even after the death of their parents, the only difference -being that they have somewhat of a funeral cast, white, the color -of mourning, being substituted for red, the color of joy. On those -occasions the children offer gifts, and no present is thought to be -more grateful to the recipient than a very handsome coffin. All Chinese -who can afford it purchase during their lifetime a coffin as handsome -as their means will permit, and so, should they not have been able to -purchase this their last resting-place, their children think themselves -honored by taking the purchase into their own hands. These coffins are -nearly square, are made of immense thickness, and are so carefully -cemented that the body may be kept in them without needing burial. - -Filial respect is inculcated into the Chinese with their earliest -breath, and their youthful minds are filled with legends of pious -children. For example: Wu Mang was the son of parents who were too poor -to possess mosquito curtains. So at night Wu Mang used to allow the -mosquitoes to feed upon him, hoping that they would prefer a young boy -to aged people. Wang Liang lost his mother, and had a step-mother who -disliked him. Still he behaved to her as though she had been his own -mother, and once, when she wished for some fresh fish and the river was -frozen, Wang Liang went to the river, took off his clothes, and lay on -the ice, hoping to melt it. Suddenly, in reward for his filial conduct, -the ice opened, and out leaped two fine carp, which he took to his -step-mother. Again, Lae, when he was seventy years of age, dressed and -behaved like a child, in order that his parents should not be troubled, -when looking at him, with the idea of their own age. - -In every town or village, the oldest persons are treated with the -greatest consideration, not on account of their rank or wealth, but -of their age. Every one gives way to them, they have the best places -in the theatres, are brought forward at every public spectacle, and -are indulged in every possible way. Such has been the custom from -time immemorial in this great nation, which was civilized when the -inhabitants of England were naked savages. The oldest civilized nation -in the world, they have honored their fathers and their mothers, and -their days have been long in the land. - - - - -CHAPTER CLVI. - -JAPAN. - -DRESS--ART--AMUSEMENTS. - - - POSITION AND NAME OF JAPAN -- APPEARANCE OF THE JAPANESE -- DRESS - OF THE MEN -- USE OF SLEEVES -- HAIR-DRESSING -- COURT DRESS -- - THE TATTOO AND ITS USES -- A STREET SCENE IN JAPAN -- DRESS OF THE - WOMEN -- ARRANGEMENT OF THE HAIR -- THE ANCIENT HAIR-PINS -- USE OF - PAINT -- BLACKENING TEETH AND PULLING OUT EYEBROWS -- MR. OLIPHANT’S - OPINION UPON THE CUSTOM -- DISREGARD OF CLOTHING -- THE PUBLIC BATHS - -- HOMERIC SIMPLICITY -- JAPANESE DRAWINGS -- TRAVELLING IN JAPAN -- - A LADY ON HORSEBACK -- JAPANESE RIDERS -- THE GAME OF MALL -- HORSE - ACCOUTREMENTS -- A SINGULAR HORSESHOE -- THE NORIMON, OR PALANQUIN -- - FASHION OF THE POLE -- THE CANGO, OR CHAIR -- A NOBLE IN HIS NORIMON - -- ATHLETIC POWERS OF THE JAPANESE -- THE LADDER BALANCING, TOP - SPINNING, AND BUTTERFLY TRICK. - -The Empire of JAPAN extends over a vast cluster of Islands, of -different sizes, situated on the north eastern coast of Asia. There -are nearly four thousand of these islands, but the kingdom practically -consists of three chief Islands, Niphon, Kiou-siou, or Kew-sew, and -Sikok, or Sitkokf. The first of these islands gives its name to the -entire empire, our word Japan not having even a Japanese origin, but -being a corruption of the Chinese rendering of the word Niphon, _i. e._ -Land of the Sunrise. As might be inferred, it is within the island of -Niphon that the capital, Jeddo or Yedo, is placed. - -The complexion of the Japanese is yellowish, with a little brown, -and in many cases is no darker than that of a Portuguese or southern -Italian. The eyes are small, and not so much sunk in the head as those -of the Chinese; the hair is black, straight, and coarse, and the nose, -though thick, is well formed. Their stature is about equal to that of -ordinary Europeans, and their limbs, though not large, are often very -powerful, a slightly-made Japanese being able to lift easily a weight -which a stalwart Englishman would find a heavy burden. - -The dress of the Japanese is very peculiar, and well suited to their -features and complexion. Although it has about it something of a -Chinese aspect, it is as distinct from the Chinese as is the character -of the two people. As in China, the dress consists of much the same -articles with both sexes, that of the women differing from male apparel -chiefly in the comparative length of the robes and the mode of dressing -the hair. A male Japanese may or may not wear trousers, his liberty -in this point being absolute, sometimes amounting to a practical -dispensation with all dress whatever. - -The chief articles of male dress are robes of differing lengths, one -being worn upon the other, until a man will sometimes carry four or -five robes at once. They are girt round the waist with a broad sash, -so that if the wearer wishes to remove his dress, he has only to -loosen the sash, and draw his arms out of the sleeves, when all the -garments fall to the ground together. The sleeves are very large, and, -being partly closed at the ends, are used as pockets, in which are -carried various little articles of portable property. In the sleeves, -for example, are carried the squares of white paper which serve as -pocket handkerchiefs, and which are always thrown away when used; and -in the same convenient receptacle the Japanese guest will carry off -the remains of the feast to which he has been invited, such being the -custom of this strange country. - -The material of these robes differs according to the wealth and quality -of the wearer, some being of simple cotton, while those of the higher -classes are made of the finest silks, and ornamented with the device -or arms of the family, embroidered on the breast and back of the outer -robe. - -The hair of the men is dressed in a very singular manner. The front -and temples of the head are shaved, as in China, and the remaining -hair is made into a tail, as is the case with the Chinese. The hair, -however, is not allowed to grow to its utmost length, and to hang down -the back, but is made into a short queue, about three inches in length, -and as thick as the finger, and is turned up over the top of the head. -Generally the head is bare, but it is sometimes covered with a hat. -The hats differ much in shape. That which is in general use is nearly -flat, and is fastened to the head by six strings, two of which pass -under the chin, two are crossed at the back of the head, and two more -are passed under the nose. A hat thus fastened gives to the head a -very singular aspect, making the face look as if it had suffered from -a severe accident, and was covered with bandages. Some hats look like -beehives, and entirely conceal the features, and are worn by outlaws, -or “lonins,” and disgraced nobles. Sometimes the men pass a piece of -stuff over their heads in such a way as to hide the forehead and chin, -and only to leave the eyes, nose, and mouth exposed; and in winter they -throw over the hat a piece of cloth, which is tied over the nose so as -to shield that member from the cold blasts. - -Men of consideration also wear a scarf over the shoulders, its length -being regulated by the rank of the wearer, and thus serving to indicate -the amount of courtesy which is due from one man to another. When two -Japanese gentlemen meet, they bow until the ends of the scarf touch the -ground. It is evident, therefore, that the man who, in virtue of his -rank, wears the longest scarf, has the less distance to bow. - -In addition to the ordinary costume, the dress of ceremony has two -extraordinary additions. The first is the “kami-samo,” respecting which -the Japanese are exceedingly punctilious. It consists of a piece of -stuff which is folded back over the shoulders in a fan-like form, and -gives a most extraordinary and awkward look to the wearer. Courtiers -wear another article of dress which is exactly opposed to our customs. - -In European courts the nether garments are abbreviated, and only come -to the knee; in Japan the custom is reversed. When the nobles appear -before the emperor, they wear a pair of trousers with legs fully twice -as long as those of the wearer, so that in walking they trail a yard -or so on the ground. Walking in such garments is an art which can only -be attained by long practice, and which, even when learned, is nothing -more than an ungainly shuffle, threatening every moment to throw the -courtier on his face. The attitudes which are assumed by fashionable -courtiers are so absurd that the Japanese picture books abound in -caricatures of noblemen at court. The object of this curious custom is -probably to give the wearer of the court dress an aspect as if he were -kneeling instead of standing. - -Men of the better classes always appear in public carefully dressed, -but those of the lower orders consider themselves sufficiently clothed -if they have a mere strip of cloth like the “languti” of India. -Coolies, for example, laborers of various kinds, post-runners, etc., -wear nothing but the cloth strip while at work. - -Mr. Oliphant, in his “Narrative,” mentions this fact in connection -with the custom of tattooing, which is carried out in Japan to as -much perfection as in Polynesia. “Some, however, denied themselves -the benefit of dress, apparently for the purpose of exhibiting the -brilliant patterns in which their skins were tattooed. One man had -a monster crab on the small of his back, and a pretty cottage on -his chest. It is rather fashionable to have scarlet fish playing -sportively between your shoulders. The scarlet tattooing presents a -very disgusting appearance. The skin looks as if it had been carefully -peeled off into the required pattern. - -“On a really well-tattooed man there is not an inch of the body which -does not form part of a pictorial representation. If the general effect -is not agreeable, it is perfectly decent, for the skin ceases to look -bare, or like skin at all; it rather resembles a harlequin’s costume. -It must be dreadful to feel that one can never undress again. Yet what -anguish does not the victim undergo, in order to put himself into a -permanent suit of red dye and gunpowder!” The Japanese are very fond -of their children, and in summer time a man may often be seen in the -streets, wearing nothing but the cloth strip, and carrying in his arms -his infant child, who has no clothing whatever. - -Sometimes a man will appear in a costume which even seems more absurd -than the almost entire nudity which has just been mentioned, and will -walk about in a hat, a short jacket, and nothing else but the cloth. - -In an illustration on the next page, the artist has shown a number of -the ordinary costumes as they appear when the wearers are gathered -round a ballad-singer. The most conspicuous figure is that of a -Samourai or Yaconin, an armed retainer of a nobleman, swaggering along -with the two swords emblematic of his office, and his features nearly -hidden under his hat. The men wearing the extraordinary piebald dresses -are a sort of street constable, who accompany a man of rank on his -journey, and who jingle an iron rod laden with rings, in order to warn -people to get out of the way of the great man. The other figures of men -are arranged so as to show the mode of dressing the hair, and one or -two varieties of costume. - -[Illustration: (1.) DECAPITATION OF CHINESE CRIMINAL. (See page 1440.)] - -[Illustration: (2.) THE STREET BALLAD-SINGER. (See page 1450.)] - -The general appearance of the women’s dress is well shown by a figure -opposite to that of the Samourai. The dress is almost exactly like that -of the men, except that the materials are generally finer, and the sash -which confines the garments to the waist is very broad, and gathered -up into a large and peculiar knot, almost exactly like the “panier” -of European fashion. Both sexes wear stockings made like mittens, and -having a separate place for the reception of the great toe. Without -this provision they would not be able to wear the peculiar sandals and -clogs of the country, which are held on the foot by a Y-shaped strap, -the fork of which passes between the great and the second toe. The -clogs that are worn by the women very much resemble those of the Malays -in general shape, and, awkward as they look, are easily manageable -after a little practice. Some clogs in my collection elevate the foot -of the wearer six inches above the ground, but I have found that -walking, or rather shuffling, in them is not at all difficult. - -The chief distinction between masculine and feminine attire lies in -the hair. Whereas the men shave nearly the whole of the head, the -women allow their hair to grow, and even add to it when they do not -possess a sufficient amount to produce the extraordinary forms into -which they twist their locks. Various fashions of hair-dressing -prevail in different parts of the country, but in all cases the women -take extraordinary pains with their heads, and twist their hair -into elaborate and fantastic patterns, which scarcely any European -hairdresser could equal. - -Hair-pins are very fashionable, not so much for the purpose of -confining the locks in their places, as of mere adornment. The pins -are of enormous size, seven or eight inches in length, and half an -inch wide, and are made of various substances, such as tortoise shell, -carved wood, and ivory. Some of the most characteristic hair-pins are -made of glass. They are hollow, and nearly filled with some colored -liquid, so that at every movement of the wearer an air bubble runs from -one end of the pin to the other. Sometimes a woman will wear a dozen or -more of these pins in her hair, so that at a little distance her head -looks as if a bundle of firewood had been stuck loosely into it. - -Having pleasing features by nature, it may be expected that the women -do their best to disfigure them by art. The soft pale brown of their -complexions is made ghastly and hideous by white paint, with which the -face, neck, and bust are thickly covered. The natural pink of the lips -is rendered disgusting by a layer of red paint, the white teeth are -blackened, and the eyebrows are pulled out. This style of adornment -belongs only to the married women, so that a really pretty girl will in -a few hours transform herself into a repulsive hag. - -Mr. Oliphant, in the work which has already been mentioned, gives -rather a humorous reason for this strange custom. “The first impression -of the fair sex which the traveller receives in a Japanese crowd is in -the highest degree unfavorable; the ghastly appearance of the faces and -bosoms, thickly coated with powder, the absence of eyebrows, and the -blackened teeth, produce a most painful and disagreeable effect. Were -it not for this abominable custom, Japanese women would probably rank -high among Eastern beauties, certainly far before Chinese. - -“All Japanese writers whom I have read upon the subject affirm that to -have no eyebrows and black teeth is considered a beauty in Japan, and -that the object of the process is to add to the charms of the fair one. -The result of my inquiry and observation, however, rather led me to -form an opposite conclusion. - -“In the first place, young ladies do not, as a rule, neglect any -opportunity of improving their looks; but no Japanese young ladies, -even after they are ‘out,’ think of taking this method of increasing -their powers of fascination; they color their lips and cheeks, and deck -their hair, but it is not until they have made a conquest of some lucky -swain, that, to prove their devotion to him, they begin to blacken -their teeth and pull out their eyebrows. - -“He, privileged being, is called upon to exhibit no such test of his -affection: on the contrary, his lawful wife having so far disfigured -herself as to render it impossible that she should be attractive to -any one else, seems to lose her charms for her husband as well. So -he places her at the head of his establishment; and adds to it an -indefinite number of handmaidens, who neither pull out their eyebrows -nor blacken their teeth. Hence it seems not difficult to account for -the phenomenon which is universally admitted, that while Japanese wives -are celebrated for their virtue, their husbands are no less notorious -for their licentiousness.” - -While upon the subject of dress, we must not pass unnoticed the -extraordinary ideas which the Japanese have on the subject. Possessed -as they are of much taste in dress, and having certain complete -costumes for various ranks, it seems very remarkable that they are -utterly indifferent to clothing considered in the light of covering. -They attach no sense of indelicacy to exposure of the person, and men, -women, and children may be seen bathing exposed to the sight of every -passer-by. - -Even their public baths, though some of them have two doors, one for -men and one for women, are common to both sexes, and in those baths -which are specially set apart for women the attendant is often a man. -Sometimes there is a partition, about breast high, to separate the -sexes, but the usual baths have no such refinement. The baths are -merely shallow pans or depressions in the floor, in which the bathers -sit while they pour over themselves abundant supplies of hot and cold -water. Baths of this nature are attached to all the “tea-houses,” so -that travellers can refresh themselves with a bath, in true Homeric -style, before they take their meals. And, in Homeric style also, the -attendants are women. The baths are known by a dark blue strip of -cloth which hangs like a banner over the doorway. Europeans, when they -first visit the country, are rather surprised when they pass along the -streets to see a whole family “tubbing” in front of their houses, or, -when they pass a public bath, to see the inmates run out to look at the -strangers; but they very soon become used to such spectacles, and think -no more of them than do the Japanese themselves. - -Sir Rutherford Alcock, in dealing with this subject, and illustrating -it by a Japanese drawing representing a bath tenanted by a man, a boy, -and five women, makes the following remarks: “Men and women steaming -in the bathing-houses raise themselves to the open bars of the lattice -fronts to look out, the interior behind them presenting a view very -faithfully represented in the following sketch by a native artist. - -“In reference to which, I cannot help feeling there is some danger of -doing injustice to the womanhood of Japan if we judge them by _our_ -rules of decency and modesty. Where there is no _sense_ of immodesty, -no consciousness of wrong-doing, there is, or may be, a like absence -of any sinful or depraving feeling. It is a custom of the country. -Fathers, brothers, and husbands all sanction it; and from childhood the -feeling must grow up as effectually shielding them from self-reproach -or shame, as their sisters in Europe in adopting low dresses in the -ball-room, or any other generally adopted fashion of garments or -amusements. There is much in the usual appearance and expression -of Japanese women to lead to this conclusion. Any one of the real -performers in the above scene,--a bathing saturnalia as it may appear -to us,--when all is over, and the toilet completed, will leave the -bath-door a very picture of womanly reserve and modesty.” - -Certainly, no women can be more decently clad than those of Japan, as -we may see by any of the multitudinous native drawings; and that they -should attach no sense of decency to the dress, or indecency to its -absence, is one of the many strange characteristics of this remarkable -and enigmatic country. - -The travelling dress of the women is little more than their ordinary -costume, _plus_ a large flat hat, which serves as a parasol. Japanese -picture books abound with illustrations of women travelling, and, -multitudinous as they are, each has always some characteristic point, -and no two are exactly alike. Sometimes we see the women sauntering -quietly along the river bank, sometimes they are being carried across -the river on the shoulders of men, or, if they be of importance, -in “norimons” or chairs borne by six or eight coolies. Some of the -drawings depict women as sitting in boats, as being caught in a heavy -snow or rain storm (see illustration), as walking by moonlight, and as -they appear when riding. - -[Illustration] - -The attitude and general appearance of a female equestrian in Japan -differ considerably from those of an European. Side-saddles are -unknown, the fair rider perching herself upon a saddle which lifts -her high above the back of the animal, concealing her body downward, -holding on tightly by the front part of the saddle, and, in fact, -giving herself a look very much resembling that of a gayly attired -monkey on horseback, as shown on the next page. This mode of riding is -even followed by the opposite sex, the retainers of the high nobles -sitting in their lofty saddles in very much the same attitude as that -employed by the women, and being in consequence absolutely useless, -except in looks, as cavalry. - -Yet, when they choose, the Japanese can ride tolerably, as is shown by -the fact of a game which is played among them, in which the competitors -are all mounted. In this game the players have to contend against -very great disadvantages. In the first place, the horses which they -bestride are wretched animals, mere rough ponies, and the accoutrements -are so clumsy, that it is a wonder how the horse can be guided at -all. According to our ideas, a horse is guided by the pressure of the -leg and the touch of the rein, but the Japanese saddles render such -guidance impossible. - -The former mode is prevented by the shape of the saddle, which has -large flaps of stiff leather hanging so low that the heel or knee of -the rider has no effect upon the animal; and the latter mode is nearly -as impossible as the former, by reason of the bit and the fashion of -riding. The bit is a mere light snaffle placed loosely in the mouth, -and the reins are used, not so much for the purpose of guiding the -horse, as of keeping the rider in his seat. The horsemen grasp a rein -tightly in each hand, and so hang to the bit. The natural consequence -is, that the mouths of the horses are nearly as tough as the leather -saddle-flaps, and the animals always go with their noses in the air, so -as to counteract the perpetual haul on the bridle. - -The game which is played under these untoward conditions is a sort of -mall. A large space is marked out, and at each end is a curtain. At -some few feet from the ground a circular hole is cut in the curtain. -Each player is furnished with a long-handled, small-headed racket, -almost exactly resembling that which is employed by the North American -Indians in their ball play, described on page 1324. The object of the -game is to pick up the ball from the ground with the racket, and to -throw it through the hole. In order that there may be no doubt whether -the ball has really passed through the hole, a net is hung loosely -on the opposite side of the hole, and receives the ball. The players -arrange themselves in two parties, distinguished by colors, and the -chief point of the game is to pursue the opponent as he is galloping -triumphantly toward the goal, and knock the ball out of the racket just -as he is going to throw it through the hole. - -[Illustration] - -The stirrups used by the Japanese are very curious in shape, and not -at all like the ordinary models. Their general outline resembles that -of the letter S, the foot being thrust into the opening as far as it -will go. The comparatively small stirrups used by Europeans are as -troublesome to the Japanese as would be the tiny triangular stirrups of -Patagonia to an English rider. - -The strangest part of horse equipment in Japan is, however, the shoe. -Our idea of a horseshoe is a metallic plate to protect the horse -against hard ground. The Japanese shoe is made of plaited straw, and -is, in fact, nothing more than a straw sandal tied to the foot, giving -it a very clumsy appearance. As may be imagined, their shoes never -last very long, and on a stony road are soon cut to pieces. The rider, -therefore, takes a supply of shoes with him, and renews them as fast as -they are worn out. Indeed, a journey is often roughly calculated as a -distance of so many shoes. - -Under such circumstances, it is not surprising that the horse is seldom -used in travelling. None but a poor noble will condescend to ride from -one place to another, as it might be supposed that he could not afford -the retinue which is required to carry him. Sometimes a nobleman will -condescend to ride in public, but then his horse must be held by two -grooms, who tug continually at the poor animal’s mouth, and shout -continually, “Chai! chai!” _i. e._ gently, for haste is always thought -undignified by the Japanese, and a person of consideration would suffer -a great infraction of dignity if he allowed himself to hurry over the -road. - -For those who can afford so expensive a luxury, the usual mode of -conveyance is a sort of palanquin called a Norimon. It is a square -cage, hung from a pole, and carried by four men, two in front and two -behind. For Japanese travellers this is a very comfortable conveyance, -but for Europeans, who are not accustomed to the crouching attitude so -characteristic of the Japanese, even a short journey in a norimon is a -source of torture, the unfortunate passenger finding great difficulty -in getting into the machine, and, when the journey is over, almost as -much difficulty in getting out again, his limbs being stiff and cramped -by the position into which they have been forced. - -The pole of the norimon is stout, and very long; and it is a matter of -rivalry between young and fashionable men to have their norimon poles -as long and as profusely decorated as possible. When the coolies carry -the norimon, they hoist it on their shoulders at a signal from their -master, and step along at some three miles an hour. In many parts the -coolies much resemble the palanquin bearers of India, but are in this -respect superior, that they travel in silence, and do not weary the -soul of their master by the perpetual grunts and moans with which the -Indian bearers are accustomed to lighten their journey. - -Uncomfortable as is the norimon, there is a popular conveyance which -is even more painful to European limbs. This is called the Cango, and -it bears about the same relationship to the norimon as a wheelbarrow -does to a carriage. Indeed, if the reader can imagine the wheel, the -legs, and handle of a wheelbarrow to be removed, and the body of the -machine to be hung from a pole, he can form some idea of a cango. In -the norimon the inmate has to crouch, in the cango he has almost to tie -himself in a knot. Yet the Japanese limbs are so supple, that cango -employers travel for many successive hours without being in the least -oppressed by the attitude which they are compelled to assume. Cangos -are largely used in Japan, and are indeed what cabs are to Londoners, -the norimons supplying the place of carriages. - -When a great noble or Daimio travels, he always uses the norimon, -partly because it is the most luxurious conveyance which he knows, and -partly because it gives him an excuse for displaying the strength of -his retinue, which is about the only mode of ostentation known to the -Japanese. The norimon is preceded by some of the men called Samourais, -or Yaconins, _i. e._ men who are permitted to attach themselves -to his service, and thereby to gain the privilege of wearing two -swords. As their master passes along, they continually utter the word -“Shitanirio!” _i. e._ kneel down, whereupon every one that hears it -must at once prostrate himself on the ground, or remain erect at his -peril. The most serious quarrels that have arisen between strangers -and the natives in Japan have originated in this custom, the strangers -either not knowing the custom, or refusing to comply with it lest they -should compromise the dignity of their nation. Refusing to obey such an -order is sure to cause a quarrel, and is likely to end in loss of life, -as the Yaconins who give the order to kneel are always ready to enforce -obedience with their swords. - -Around the norimon is a crowd of servants, each wearing his master’s -badge on his back, and each armed according to his rank. Some led -horses generally accompany the procession, so that the great man may -ride when he is tired of the norimon, and a number of coolies bear -umbrellas covered with waterproof cases, and large boxes on poles. -These boxes are almost invariably empty, but are conventionally -supposed to contain the stores of baggage without which so great a -man could not be expected to stir. Superior officers in norimons, -and inferior officers on horseback, accompany the procession, for -which a passage is kept by a number of men fantastically dressed in -harlequin-like suits of various colors. Each of them carries a long -iron rod, to which are attached a number of rings made of the same -metal. As they walk they strike the end of the rod against the ground -at each step, so that a clashing sort of jingle is produced, and -strikes awe into the people. - -That the Japanese should be such poor horsemen is very singular, -considering the marvellous perfection to which they have brought other -athletic exercises. As “acrobats” the performers are far superior to -those of any other nation, performing the most audacious and apparently -impossible feats with an absolute precision which quite removes any -idea of danger. - -Until the Japanese gymnasts came to this country, we were inclined to -treat the accounts of travellers as exaggerated, but they proved to be -capable of performing any feats which our professional athletes could -achieve, and many others which they never even dreamt of attempting. -For example, nothing seems much more difficult than for a man to lie -on his back and balance on the soles of his feet a ladder thirty feet -high. But when we add that to the top of the ladder a second ladder was -attached at right angles, like the top of the letter F, and that a boy -went up and down the ladder, and even crawled to the end of the cross -piece and there hung by his instep, while the ladder was balanced on -the soles of the reclining man’s feet, we appear to be romancing rather -than relating a fact. Yet this astonishing performance was repeated -day after day, and nothing was more wonderful than the elaborate -perfection and finish of the performance. The heavy ladder was placed -on the upturned feet, and in a moment it was as steady as if it had -been planted in the ground. Though, owing to the crosspiece, it was -considerably inclined, its steadiness was not impaired, and even when -the boy ascended and descended it, causing the centre of gravity to be -continually altered, there was not the slightest wavering perceptible. - -So with the other feats achieved by these remarkable performers. -Everything was done with the deliberation which forms an essential -part of the Japanese nature, but there were no needless delays, and -whether the man was balancing the ladder on his feet, or whether he was -spinning tops and making them act as if they were rational beings, or -whether he was making two paper butterflies flutter about as if they -were real insects, the same quiet perfection characterized the whole of -the performance, and every feat was done with such consummate ease that -it looked as if it really required no skill at all. The extraordinary -life which the Japanese performers contrive to infuse into inanimate -objects is almost incredible. Had not the feat been actually seen, it -would be scarcely possible to believe that a top could be spun, and -then launched off to perform the following feats without being even -touched:-- - -It ascended an inclined plane to a temple, the doors of which were -closed. It knocked open one of the doors, entered the temple, waited -inside some time, and then knocked open another door at right angles -to the former, and emerged. It then went over an inclined bridge, -entered another temple, and went up stairs, emerging at an upper story. -It then proceeded along an inclined plane standing at right angles -to the temple, and passed over a drawbridge, which was immediately -lifted, leaving a gap over which the top had to pass in order to get -back again. However, by the loosing of a catch, the top was flung over -the gap, and went on as gayly as ever, finishing with entering a third -temple, ringing a bell inside, coming out again, and running over two -more bridges into the hands of the spinner, having traversed some forty -feet, besides the work in the temples. - -The same man spun a top upon the edge of a sword, making it pass from -one end of the blade to the other. He flung the top in the air and -threw the string at it: the top caught the middle of the string by the -peg, wound itself up, and was again flung into the air, spinning faster -than before. It was then caught on the slender stem of a pipe, along -which it ran as if alive, was passed behind the back, and caught again -in front, and lastly, was received upon the hem of the sleeve, made to -spin up the garment, over the neck and shoulders, and down the sleeve -of the opposite side. It was also made to spin upon a slight string -stretched from the wall, and to pass backward and forward as long as -the spinner chose. - -Some of these tops required no string, but were merely spun with the -hand; they could be taken up and put down again, still spinning, or -they could be stood on their heads and still spin, or they could be -built into a perfect edifice of tops, three or four spinning upon -each other, sometimes each leaning in a different direction, and then -being brought upright by a touch of the ever-ready fan. The concluding -feat was a very curious one. Some thirty feet above the heads of the -spectators was hung a model of a temple, from which depended a string. -The chief top-spinner then took a small but very heavy top, wound up -its string, and flung the top in the air, drawing back the arm so that -the top came flying into his hand. He went under the temple, gave the -pendent string a half turn round the peg, and away went the top into -the temple, bursting open its doors, and flinging out a quantity of -rose leaves, which came fluttering down round the top as it descended -the string, and fell into the hands of the performer. - - - - -CHAPTER CLVII. - -JAPAN--_Concluded_. - -MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. - - - SUMPTUARY LAWS -- SYSTEM OF ESPIONAGE -- THE DUPLICATE EMPIRE -- - POWERS OF THE TYCOON AND MIKADO -- THE DAIMIOS AND THEIR RETAINERS - -- THE TWO SWORDS -- LONINS, OR OUTLAWS -- JAPANESE FENCERS -- - DEFENSIVE ARMOR -- ARCHERY -- THE HAPPY DESPATCH -- PUBLIC EXECUTIONS - -- ARCHITECTURE -- REASONS FOR ITS FRAGILITY -- PRECAUTIONS AGAINST - FIRE -- SIMPLE HABITS OF THE JAPANESE -- AMUSEMENTS AND GAMES -- - WRESTLERS -- THEATRES IN JAPAN -- CURIOUS ARRANGEMENT OF PLAYS -- - THE TEA-HOUSES AND THEIR ATTENDANTS -- JAPANESE ART -- THE PORTABLE - INKSTAND -- THE CRANE, HERON, AND STORK -- THE SNOW-CLOAK -- SILK - MADE BY NOBLES. - -In Japan there is a tolerably strict code of sumptuary laws, certain -modes of dress and the power of carrying certain weapons being denied -to all except the privileged classes. We will, therefore, take a hasty -glance at the different ranks in Japan. - -With regard to all official ranks a duplicate system exists throughout -the kingdom. At the head of the government there are two emperors,--the -civil emperor, or Tycoon, and the spiritual emperor, or Mikado. The -former of these potentates (whose title is sometimes spelled as -Siogoon) is the real administrator of the empire, although he is -nominally inferior to the Mikado, an inferiority which is carefully -marked by certain visits of ceremony paid to the Mikado, but is not -allowed to proceed beyond mere etiquette. - -Indeed, the powers of the Tycoon himself are practically limited, -though theoretically unbounded, and the government is in fact exercised -by the nobles, through a double council, one of which is chosen by the -emperor, and the other selected by the nobles from themselves. Every -man who is employed in the duties of government has his duplicate, or -“shadow,” as he is called; he is subject to espionage on every side, -and is himself a spy on others. - -This system, uncomfortable as it may appear, has its advantages. -According to Mr. Oliphant: “One most beneficial result arising from -this universal system of espionage--for it extends through all classes -of society--is the entire probity of every government _employé_. So -far as we could learn or see, they were incorruptible. When men can -neither offer nor receive bribes; when it is almost impossible, even -indirectly, to exercise corrupt influences, there is little fear of -the demoralization of public departments of the state. In this respect -Japan affords a brilliant contrast to China, and even to some European -countries. So long as this purity exists, even though purchased at the -cost of secret espial, there can be little cause to fear the decadence -of Japan.” - -It is as well to mention in this place that the word Tycoon, or Tai-kû, -is not of Japanese but of Chinese origin, and that it came into use -through its insertion in an official document, the unlucky minister who -employed it having in consequence fallen into disgrace and poverty. The -name of Tycoon is never applied to him by the Japanese, who use instead -the title which has been conferred upon him by his nominal superior, -the Mikado. - -The Mikado, or spiritual emperor, is held in the greatest veneration, -and many of the honors paid to him are almost identical with those -which are rendered to the Grand Lama of Thibet. He is too sacred to -touch the earth with his feet, and is carried on men’s shoulders on the -rare occasions when he moves from one part of the palace to another. -Outside it he never goes. He is too holy to wear any garment twice, or -to use any article a second time, and, should any one venture to wear -or use a garment or utensil sanctified by his touch, he would bring -down on himself the vengeance of heaven. Consequently, every garment -that he has worn or every wooden utensil which he has employed is -burned, and those which are made of earthenware are broken. - -A similar rule extends to his wives, of whom he has twelve, one of -them being the head wife or queen. A curious piece of etiquette is -practised by the wives of the Mikado. All other women dress their hair -into fantastic shapes, but the Mikado’s wives are obliged to allow -their hair to flow at length down their backs. In consequence of the -innumerable restrictions to which he is subjected, the Mikado generally -becomes tired of his comfortless rank, and resigns in favor of his heir. - -Next come the Daimios or nobles, who, as among ourselves, are of -different ranks, and who are the real rulers of the country. The -difficulties which foreigners have experienced in Japan have almost -invariably been caused by the Daimios, who fear that their position as -feudal nobles may be endangered by the introduction of foreigners into -the country. The greater Daimios are as formidable as were the great -barons of early English history, and in like manner keep vast numbers -of armed retainers. There is a general idea that in Japan every man -wears a pair of swords. This is far from being the case, as none are -permitted to wear even one sword unless he be in the service of the -State. Even the wealthiest merchant may not wear a sword unless he is -enrolled among the retainers of a Daimio, and, as the privilege is a -great one, it is purchased for a certain annual sum. This indirect -tribute is a lucrative source of income to the Daimios, and enables -them to maintain the enormous retinue with which they are surrounded. - -The higher classes in Japan are privileged to wear a garment called -the “hakkama.” This is much like the huge petticoat trousers of the -French Zouave, and is indeed a very full and abundantly plaited -petticoat, sewed together in the middle, and gathered in at the knees. -The wearers are inordinately proud of this garment, and, though one of -the unprivileged classes may purchase the right to carry a sword, no -expenditure of money will enable a man to wear the hakkama. - -The most troublesome of the retainers are the Yaconins or Samourais, -men who have been admirably described by Sir Rutherford Alcock in his -“Capital of the Tycoon”:-- - -“All of a certain rank are armed with this formidable weapon projecting -from their belt; swords, like everything else in Japan, to our worse -confusion, being double, without much or any obvious distinction -between military and civil, or between Tycoon’s officers and Daimios’ -retainers. These are the classes which furnish suitable specimens -of that extinct species of the race in Europe still remembered as -_Swashbucklers_,--swaggering, blustering bullies; many cowardly enough -to strike an enemy in the back, or cut down an unarmed and inoffensive -man; but also supplying numbers ever ready to fling their own lives -away in accomplishing a revenge, or carrying out the orders of their -chief. - -“They are all entitled to the privilege of two swords, rank and file, -and are saluted by the unprivileged (professional, mercantile, and -agricultural classes) as _Sama_, or Lord. With a rolling straddle in -his gait, reminding one of Mr. Kinglake’s graphic description of the -Janissary, and due to the same cause,--the heavy, projecting blades -at his waist, and the swaddling clothes round his body,--the Japanese -Samourai or Yaconin moves on in a very ungainly fashion, the hilts of -his two swords at least a foot in advance of his person, very handy, -to all appearance, for an enemy’s grasp. One is a heavy, two-handed -weapon, pointed and sharp as a razor; the other short, like a Roman -sword, and religiously kept in the same serviceable state. - -“In the use of these he is no mean adept. He seldom requires a second -thrust with the shorter weapon, but strikes home at a single thrust, -as was fatally proved at a later period; while with the longer weapon -he severs a limb at a blow. Such a fellow is a man to whom all -peace-loving subjects and prudent people habitually give as wide a -berth as they can. Often drunk, and always insolent, he is to be met -with in the quarters of the town where the tea-houses most abound; or -returning about dusk from his day’s debauch, with a red and bloated -face, and not over-steady on his legs, the terror of all the unarmed -population and street dogs. Happy for the former, when he is content -with trying the edge of a new sword on the quadrupeds; and many a poor -crippled animal is to be seen limping about, slashed over the back, or -with more hideous evidences of brutality. But, at other times, it is -some coolie or inoffensive shopkeeper, who, coming unadvisedly between -‘the wind and his nobility,’ is just as mercilessly cut down at a blow.” - -In some sort of a way, each noble is responsible for the acts of his -retainers. Therefore, if any of these men determine upon some act -which they know will compromise their master,--say the assassination -of some one whom he dislikes,--they formally divest themselves of his -protection, and become “lonins,” or outlaws, or almost exactly the -same as the “masterless-men” of the feudal English days. Each of them -carries with him a paper on which his renunciation is written, and to -perform such an act is thought extremely honorable. Nearly all the men -who murdered Europeans were lonins. - -The swords which these men wear in virtue of their rank are most -formidable weapons, the temper of the steel, the balance of the weapon, -and the slight curve of the edge, being all that can be desired. -They are finished with the utmost care, and every part receives the -minutest attention. A very beautiful specimen of the shorter sword -was presented to me by C. Allen, Esq., of Blackheath. It measures -two feet four inches in total length, of which the handle occupies -nearly nine inches. This roomy handle of the Japanese sword presents -a remarkable contrast with the small and cramped hilts of the Indian -weapons. It affords an admirable grasp for the hand, being covered with -diamond-shaped patterns of silken cord twisted over a basis of rough -skate-skin. The blade is a little more than an inch in width, and even -after a stay of many years in this country, is as bright as a mirror -and sharp as a razor. - -Indeed, for a hand-to-hand encounter, it would be difficult to find a -more formidable weapon, even the kookery of India being inferior to -it, as being heavier and less manageable. It is equally adapted for -thrusting or cutting, and is so effective for the former purpose that -one of these swords has been driven completely through a man’s body by -a single thrust. The balance of the weapon is admirable, and, though it -is somewhat unsightly, it can be managed with perfect ease. - -The amount of labor that has been bestowed on this particular weapon is -really astonishing. The effect is not in the least obtrusive, and it -is only by close examination that its beauties can be seen. The blade -is left entirely without ornament, its excellence being shown by its -high polish and sharp edge. But, with the exception of the blade, every -portion of the weapon has its ornament. On the guard is represented a -buffalo grazing under a tree, the groundwork being of bronze, and the -leaves of the tree and the herbage being gold. Between the silken cords -of the hilt and the skate-skin are inserted two beautifully executed -models, in bronze, of a bow and arrows, the feathers of the arrows -and wrappings of the head being gilt. One of these models is inserted -on either side of the hilt, which is terminated by a richly engraved -bronze ornament. - -In the upper part of the sheath is kept a small knife, somewhat similar -in shape to that which is kept in the chopstick-case of the Chinese. -The handle of the knife is bronze, and is adorned with the figure of -a crayfish, beautifully wrought in gold, together with a banner and -one or two other devices. The sheath itself is a wonderful piece of -workmanship. At a little distance it looks as if it were covered with -dark-brown leather; but a closer inspection shows that it is entirely -covered with a minute and delicate pattern that looks as if it had -been traced with a needle’s point, and must have cost the artist a very -considerable expenditure of labor. - -The larger sword is made after precisely the same pattern, except that -it is four feet in length, and must be used with both hands. With one -of these swords a Japanese will strike off a limb at a single blow; -and so sharp are they, that an executioner, in beheading a criminal, -scarcely raises the sword a foot for his stroke. The Japanese swordsmen -practise the use of their weapon by means of sham swords, with which -they fence, the combatants padding their limbs and sides, and covering -their faces with wire masks. They have a very dangerous cut, which is -made by the mere motion of unsheathing the sword, and takes effect at a -distance where an inexperienced person would think himself safe. - -So good is the temper of these weapons, that a Japanese has been known -to sever a thick iron bolt with a single blow, the edge of the sword -not showing the slightest indication of the severe test to which it had -been put. The Japanese name for the large sword is “ken”; that of the -shorter, “kattan.” - -Defensive armor was at one time much worn by the Japanese, though -at the present day the introduction of improved firearms has caused -them to abandon armor, except for purposes of show. A complete suit -of Japanese armor is shown on page 1469. It is made of multitudinous -plates hung upon cloth, and profusely ornamented by gilding. Though -very light, it is strong enough to resist the blow of the long sword, -though it is worse than useless against rifled fire-arms. Indeed, -had it not been for the recent disuse of protective armor, we should -scarcely have been able to procure a suit; but, finding their suits of -mail to be practically useless, the Japanese nobles very generously -presented many of them to their foreign guests, and allowed others to -be sold. - -The oddest part of the suit is the helmet, with its appendages. The -fantastic crest is very light, being made of exceedingly thin material, -covered with gilding; and is so slight that a blow with a stick would -crush it. Perhaps the reader may wonder at the beards which apparently -depend from the chins of the soldiers. The fact is, the helmet is -furnished with a very complete visor, shaped like a mask, which covers -the whole of the face, and is decorated with a large gray beard and -mustache, in order to strike terror into the beholders. - -The bow is a favorite weapon with the Japanese, who expend nearly as -much labor upon it as they do upon the sword. It is mostly japanned in -black, and adorned with various decorations. Some of these bows are -very powerful, and are strung in rather a peculiar manner, the archer -placing the lower end of the bow on the ground, and grasping the upper -end with his right hand. He plants his right foot on the middle of the -bow, bends it with the united powers of his foot and right hand, and -with his left slips the string into its place. The arrows are made like -those of China, but, in accordance with the national character of the -people, are more highly finished. - -One of the strangest weapons used by the Japanese is the war fan. Like -the Chinese, the Japanese are never without the fan, and are obliged, -by force of long habit, to take it into battle. The fan which is kept -for this purpose has its sheath made of iron, and is of very large -size, so that if the warrior be surprised without his sword, he is sure -to have his fan ready by way of a club. These fans are decorated with -the national emblem, a red sun on a black ground. - -In connection with the Japanese weapons must be mentioned some of their -modes of punishment. The first is the celebrated Hara-kiri, or Happy -Despatch, and consists of suicide by ripping open the abdomen with two -cuts in the form of a cross. Only the upper classes are privileged to -perform the Happy Despatch, and to them it is in reality a privilege. -If a Japanese official has failed in some duty, or committed some -act which is likely to call upon him the anger of his superiors, he -applies for permission to perform the Hara-kiri. At the appointed time, -he assembles his friends, dresses himself in white, as a token of -innocence, gives an entertainment, and makes a speech upon the position -in which he is placed. He then takes the fatal knife, and as he raises -his clothing for the purpose of inflicting the wounds, a good swordsman -comes behind him, bearing a two-handed sword or “ken.” The victim -begins the Hara-kiri, but, as soon as he has made a slight incision, -his head is swept off, so that death is not the result of the horrid -wounds in the abdomen. - -Sometimes, however, when time presses, the victim is obliged to perform -the Hara-kiri as he can, and in that case dies from the self-inflicted -wounds. For example, in several cases where assassination has been -attempted, and notably in the celebrated attack on the British -Legation, when the would-be assassins were chased on the succeeding -day, it was found that three of them had committed the Hara-kiri, two -of whom were already dead, but one was still living and was captured. -In these cases the weapon used for the purpose is the shorter sword, or -“kattan.” - -When a man has committed the Hara-kiri, he is supposed to have died an -honorable death, and so to have earned for himself a reputation as a -brave man. His family are proud of him, and his memory is reverenced. -But should he lose his life by the hand of the executioner, his whole -property is confiscated, his family falls under ban, and his name is -held as infamous. It will be seen, therefore, that the Hara-kiri is -really a very great privilege, especially among a people so entirely -indifferent to life as the Japanese. - -Public executions are very simply carried out. The criminal is taken -to the spot on a horse, and when he arrives, is bound, and made to -kneel on the ground over a hole which is to receive his head. The -executioner, who uses the “ken” above named, arranges the culprit’s -head in the proper position, and, apparently without any effort, -decapitates the man with a blow. The old traveller Purchas very neatly -expresses the mode of execution by a single word. After narrating -the preliminaries, he states that the criminal “holds out his head, -presently _wiped_ off.” - -Crucifixion is employed by the Japanese as well as by the Chinese, and -is mostly reserved for high treason. Minor punishments are not much in -vogue, inasmuch as a theft above a certain sum entails the penalty of -death, and so does a theft of a smaller sum if repeated. Flogging and -banishment are sometimes employed as punishments. The dreadful tortures -to which the earlier Christian missionaries and their converts were -subjected appear to be reserved for political and religious offenders. - -The architecture of the Japanese is rather peculiar. Owing to the -physical condition of the country, and its liability to earthquakes, -the houses are not remarkable for size or beauty. Private houses are -never of any great height, a little exceeding forty feet being the -utmost limit. They are built of wood, and, wherever possible, are only -one story in height. They have a very ingenious mode of dividing their -houses into rooms. Instead of using permanent walls for that purpose, -they prefer folding screens made of wood and paper, so that they can -alter at will the size and shape of the rooms. - -The floors are covered with mats, which serve also as measurements. -They are beautifully made of straw and rushes, are several inches in -thickness, and by law obliged to be exactly of the same dimensions, -_i. e._ one “kin,” or seven feet four and a half inches in length, and -half as much in breadth. The window frames are movable, and, instead of -glass, are filled with oiled paper, mica, and the translucent shell of -the great pearl oyster. The partitions of the houses and all the posts -are curiously varnished and painted, and the Japanese, essentially -a cleanly people, are very careful in keeping the interior of their -houses in the best possible order. Like many Orientals, they always -remove their sandals before entering a house, and no one even enters a -shop without slipping off his shoes. - -The roof is also of wood, and is generally composed of thick boards, -which are kept in their places by wooden pegs, or by heavy stones laid -upon them. The ends of the roof project considerably beyond the walls, -so that they protect the doorways from the sun. On the roof of each -house is kept a tub full of water, and near at hand is a broom, so -that, in case of a fire, all the wooden roofs are at once drenched with -water. The extremely inflammable nature of the materials renders this -precaution needful; and, in addition, there are cisterns and tubs kept -in the streets, together with tolerably effective fire-engines. - -The furniture of the houses is on the same simple plan as the edifices -themselves. A Japanese, no matter what his rank or wealth, has but -little furniture. From the highest Daimio to the ordinary workman, -the furniture of the houses is much the same. The room is bare, and -floored by mats; a few shelves hold some cups and saucers, and there -are generally several small trays on stands. This, with a few coverlids -and a small pillow, made of wood and having a padding on the top, -constitutes the furniture of the living-room. As to the kitchen, one or -two small movable stoves, a few pans of metal, and some brooms, are all -that are needed. - -The Japanese cannot in the least understand why their Western visitors -should encumber themselves with such quantities of furniture, which, -to them, are not only useless, but absolutely in their way. They need -neither tables, chairs, sideboards, nor bedsteads, and care nothing for -large and handsome rooms. - -Some years ago, when preparations were made for the reception of a -British Consul in Hakodadi, it was almost impossible to find any place -that could accommodate him. However, after much trouble, a locality -was found. After the arrangements had been made, the Japanese Governor -rose, took Sir R. Alcock by the hand, and led him through a corridor to -a little room, or rather closet, nine feet by six, and quietly remarked -that in that room his successor would be installed. - -Sir R. Alcock has some very pertinent remarks on this subject: “As -we slowly wended our way through the streets, I had full opportunity -of observing the absence of all the things _we_ deem so essential -to comfort, and which crowd our rooms almost to the exclusion, and -certainly to the great inconvenience, of the people who are intended to -occupy them, as well as to the detriment of the proprietor’s purse. - -“If European joints could only be made supple enough to enable their -owners to dispense with sofas and chairs, and, _par conséquence_, -with tables; and we were hardy enough to lie on straw mats, six feet -by three, stuffed with fine straw, and beautifully made with a silk -border, so as to form a sort of reticulated carpet for rooms of any -size; the solution of that much-debated question, the possibility of -marrying on 400_l._ a year, might certainly be predicted with something -like unanimity in favor of matrimony. The upholsterer’s bill can never -offer any impediment to a young couple in Japan. - -“Their future house is taken, containing generally three or four -little rooms, in which clean mats are put. Each then brings to the -housekeeping a cotton stuffed quilt, and a box of wearing apparel for -their own personal use; a pan to cook the rice, half-a-dozen larger -cups and trays to eat off, a large tub to bathe and wash in are added, -on the general account: and these complete the establishment.” - -Such being the simplicity of the house and furniture, it is evident -that loss by fire--an event by no means uncommon--is not nearly so -severe as is the case with us. The Japanese have, however, a very -sincere dread of fire, and at the end of every principal street there -is an elevated station, furnished with a bell, by means of which -information can be given as to the part of the city in which the fire -rages, so that all can go to assist in extinguishing it. Fires are of -almost daily occurrence, and whole streets are levelled at a time. -The Japanese take these fires as a matter of course, and look on the -destruction of an entire quarter with characteristic equanimity. -Indeed, they calculate that, taking one part with another, Yeddo is -burned down once in every seven years; and so they build their houses -with the least possible expense, considering them to be sooner or later -food for fire. - -Of the amusements of the Japanese only a very short account can be -given. First among them must be placed the calm and contemplative -amusement of the pipe, in which the Japanese indulge largely. The pipe -which they use is very small, the bowl being scarcely large enough to -contain a moderately sized pea. The tobacco is very mild, something -like Turkish tobacco, and it is smoked by drawing the vapor into the -lungs, so that the whole of the tobacco is consumed at one inhalation. -The ashes are then turned out of the pipe, which is replaced in its -case, and the smoke is leisurely exhaled. A Japanese will smoke thirty -or forty such pipes in a morning. - -Games for children are almost identical with those used in England; the -ball, the shuttlecock, the stilt, the kite, and the hoop, being all -common toys. As for adults, they have dice, the theatre, the wrestling -matches. The dice are prohibited by law, and therefore they are made so -minute as to be easily concealed. A pair of dice and their box are so -small that they can be concealed between the tips of two fingers, the -dice being barely the tenth of an inch in diameter, and the box just -large enough to hold them. - -The wrestling matches are very singular performances. The wrestlers -are the strangest imaginable beings, being fattened to the last -possible degree, so that they seem incapable of any feats of activity. -Yet one of these elephantine men took in his arms a sack of rice -weighing a hundred and twenty-five pounds, and turned repeated -somersaults with as much ease as any light and unencumbered gymnast -could do. The wrestlers are kept by the Daimios, who are very proud of -them, and fond of exhibiting their powers. Each wrestler is supplied -with several attendants, and clad in magnificent garments, the -privilege of wearing two swords being also accorded to them. When they -perform, all their robes are removed, leaving them in the wrestler’s -garb, a fringed apron, embroidered with the cognizance of their patron. - -In wrestling, they try, not only to throw their antagonist, but to push -him out of the arena, a man who is forced beyond the boundary being -held as vanquished. One of these encounters is vividly described by an -American traveller. - -“They were, in fact, like a pair of fierce bulls, whose nature they had -not only acquired, but even their look and movements. As they continued -to eye each other, they stamped the ground heavily, pawing as it were -with impatience, and then, stooping their huge bodies, they grasped -handfuls of the earth, and flung it with an angry toss over their -backs, or rubbed it impatiently between their massive palms, or under -their stalwart shoulders. They now crouched down low, still keeping -their eyes fixed upon one another, and watching each movement, when, in -a moment, they had both simultaneously heaved their massive frames in -opposing force, body to body, with a shock that might have stunned an -ox. - -“The equilibrium of their monstrous persons was hardly disturbed by -the encounter, the effect of which was barely visible in the quiver -of the hanging flesh of their bodies. As they came together, they had -flung their brawny arms about each other, and were now entwined in a -desperate struggle, with all their strength, to throw their antagonist. -Their great muscles rose with the distinct outline of the sculptured -form of a colossal Hercules, their bloated faces swelled up with gushes -of red blood, which seemed almost to burst through the skin, and their -bodies palpitated with savage emotion as the struggle continued. At -last one of the antagonists fell with his immense weight upon the -ground, and, being declared vanquished, he was assisted to his feet and -conducted out of the ring.” - -The theatres much resemble those of the Chinese, the building being a -mere temporary shed, and the parts of the women taken by young lads. -The plays last for some two hours, and the Japanese have a very odd -plan of arranging them. Suppose that five plays are to be acted in a -day: the performers go through the first act of the first play, then -the first act of the second play, and so on, until they have taken -in succession the first act of every play. They then take the second -act of each play, and so on until the whole are concluded. The object -of this custom is, to enable spectators to see one act, go away, and -come again in time for the next act. Often, however, the spectators -remain throughout the entire day, and in that case refreshments are -openly consumed. It is also thought correct for ladies to change their -dress as often as possible during the day, so that there is as much -change of costume in front of the stage as upon it. In these plays -there is generally a considerable amount of love-making, and a still -greater amount of fighting, the “terrific combat” being an acknowledged -essential of the Japanese stage. - -Perhaps the most characteristic and most perplexing institution of -Japan is that of the Tea-house. In many points the whole tone of -thought differs so much in Japan from anything that we Westerns have -learned, that it is scarcely possible for two so diverse people to -judge each other fairly. We have already seen that nudity conveys no -ideas of indecency to a Japanese, the people having been accustomed to -it from infancy, and thinking no more of it than do infants. In the -tea-houses we find a state of things which in Europe would be, and -rightly, stigmatized as national immorality: in Japan it is taken as a -matter of course. These tea-houses are situated in the most picturesque -spots, and are furnished with every luxury. The extraordinary part of -them is, that the attendants are young women, who are sold for a term -of years to a life of vice. They are purchased by the proprietors of -the tea-houses, and instructed in various accomplishments, so as to -make them agreeable companions. No sort of infamy attaches to them, men -of high rank taking their wives and families to the tea-houses, so that -they may benefit by the many accomplishments of the attendants. - -When the term of servitude is over, the girls retire from their -business, and may re-enter their families without losing the regard -of their relatives. Many enter a Buddhist order of mendicant nuns, -but the greater number find husbands. It is one of the most startling -characteristics of this strange people that institutions such as this -should exist, and yet that female virtue should be so highly valued. -No sooner does one of these girls marry, than she is supposed to begin -her life afresh, and, no matter what may have been their previous -lives, no wives are more faithful than those of the Japanese. The only -resting-point in this mass of contradiction is, that, though the girls -incur no shame for the course of life into which they have been sold, -the keepers of the tea-houses are looked upon as utterly infamous, and -no one of respectability will associate with them. - -That the men should resort to such places is no matter of surprise, but -that they should be accompanied by their wives is rather remarkable. - -Sometimes the husbands prefer to go without their wives, and in that -case the ladies are apt to resent the neglect. The accompanying -illustration is copied from a Japanese book in my collection, and is a -good example of the humorous power which a Japanese artist can put into -his work. The engraving tells its own story. Two husbands are going -off together, and are caught by their wives. The different expressions -thrown into the faces and action of the truants are admirably -given,--the surprise and horror of the one, who has evidently allowed -his wife to be ruler in the house, and the dogged determination of the -other to get away, are rendered with such force that no European artist -could surpass the effect. - -[Illustration: CAPTURE OF THE TRUANTS.] - -We cannot take leave of this remarkable people without a few remarks -upon the state of art among them. The Japanese are evidently an -art-loving people. Fond as they are of the grotesque in art, they are -capable of appreciating its highest qualities; and, indeed, a Japanese -workman can scarcely make any article of ordinary use without producing -some agreeable combination of lines in color. - -Even the pen, or rather the brush, with which they write is enclosed in -an ingenious and decidedly artistic case. The case is made of bronze, -and consists of a hollow stem and a square bowl closed by a lid. The -bowl contains India ink, and into the hollow stem the pen is passed. -When not in use the pen is slipped into the stem, and the lid is closed -and kept down by twisting over it the string which hangs from the end -of the case, and which is decorated with a ball of agate. - -One reason for the excellence of Japanese art is, that the artists, -instead of copying from each other, invariably go to nature for their -models. They have teachers just as we do, but the great object of these -professors is to teach their pupils how to produce the greatest effect -with the fewest lines. Book after book may be seen entirely filled with -studies for the guidance of the young artists, in which the master has -depicted various scenes with as few lines as possible. One of these -books is entirely filled with studies of falling rain, and, monotonous -as the subject may seem, no two drawings are in the least alike, and a -separate and forcible character is given to each sketch. Another book -has nothing but outlines of landscape scenery, while some are entirely -filled with grass-blades, some bending in the wind, others beaten -down by rain, and others flourishing boldly upright. The bamboo is -another favorite subject; and so highly do the Japanese prize the skill -displayed by a master, that they will often purchase at a high price a -piece of paper with nothing on it but a few strokes of the brush, the -harmony of the composition and the balance of the different lines of -beauty being thoroughly appreciated by an artistic eye. - -Studying as the Japanese do in the school of nature, they are -marvellously apt at expressing attitude, whether of man, beast, or -bird. They never have any difficulty in disposing of the arms of their -figures, and, no matter what may be the action, there is always an ease -about it which betrays the artist’s hand even in the rudest figures. -Among living objects the crane appears to be the special favorite of -the Japanese, its popularity being shared, though not equalled, by the -stork and the heron. - -These birds are protected both by law and popular opinion, and -in consequence are so tame that the native artists have abundant -opportunities of studying their attitudes, which they do with a patient -love for the subject that is almost beyond praise. No figure is so -frequently introduced in Japanese art as the crane, and so thoroughly -is the bird understood, that it is scarcely possible to find in all -the figures of cranes, whether cast in bronze, drawn on paper, or -embossed and painted on articles of furniture, two specimens in which -the attitude is exactly the same. With us, even the professional -animal painters are apt to take a sketch or two, and copy them over -and over again, often repeating errors as well as excellences, while -the Japanese artist has too genuine a love for his subject to descend -to any such course. Day by day he studies his living models, fills -his book with sketches taken rapidly, but truly, and so has always -at hand a supply of genuine and original attitudes. In order to show -how admirably the Japanese artist can represent the crane, I have -introduced below drawings of some beautiful specimens in Sir Hope -Grant’s collection. - -[Illustration: CANDLESTICK AND CENSERS. (From Sir Hope Grant’s -Collection.)] - -The reader cannot fail to perceive the consummate knowledge of the bird -which is displayed in these figures, while the perfection of the work -and the delicate finish of the detail are almost beyond praise. Nothing -can be more true to nature than the three attitudes there shown. In one -case, the bird stands upright and contemplative on one leg, after the -manner of its kind. In the second instance, the bird is standing on a -tortoise, and, as the neck is thrown into action, both legs are used -for support. Then, in the flying bird, whose body serves as a censer, -the attitude of the outspread wings and outstretched legs is just as -true to nature as the others, all the attitudes having been undoubtedly -taken from nature. - -The porcelain of the Japanese is singularly beautiful, and sometimes -is adorned with ornaments which may be reckoned under the head of -“conceits.” For instance, a cup will be adorned with a representation -of pleasure boats on the river. With a needle the tiny windows of the -boats can be raised, when a party of ladies and gentlemen drinking tea -are discovered inside the boat. Sometimes a little tortoise may be seen -reposing quietly at the bottom of the cup, until the hot tea is poured -into it, when the creature rises to the surface, shaking its head and -kicking with its legs as if in pain from the hot liquid. - -In Japanese pictures certain curious figures may be seen, looking as -if human beings had been wrapped in a bundle of rushes. This strange -costume is the snow-cloak of the ordinary Japanese. For mere rain the -Japanese generally wear a sort of overcoat made of oiled paper, very -thin, nearly transparent, and very efficient, though it is easily -torn. But when a snow-storm comes on, the Japanese endues another -garment, which is made in a way equally simple and effective. - -A sort of skeleton is made of network, the meshes being about two -inches in diameter. Upon each point of the mesh is tied a bunch of -vegetable fibre, like very fine grass, the bundles being about as -thick as an ordinary pencil where they are tied, and spreading toward -the ends. The garment thus made is exceedingly light, and answers its -purpose in the most admirable manner. The bunches of fibres overlapping -each other like the tiles of a house, keep the snow far from the body, -while any snow that may melt simply runs along the fibres and drops to -the ground. To wet this snow cloak through is almost impossible, even -the jet of a garden engine having little effect upon it except when -quite close, while no amount of snow would be able to force a drop of -water through the loose texture of the material. - -The Japanese silks have long been celebrated, but there is one kind -of which scarcely anything is known in England. During Lord Elgin’s -mission to Japan, a number of rolls of silk were presented to the -members of the embassy. They were all in strips about three yards -long and one wide, so that they seemed to be useless. They happened, -however, to be exceedingly valuable; in fact, absolutely priceless, -as no money could buy them. They were made by exiled nobles, who were -punished by being sent to the island of Fatsizio, where they spend -their time in making these peculiar silks. No one below a certain rank -is allowed to wear the silk which has been woven by noble fingers, or -even to have the fabric in the house, and in consequence not a piece -ever even found its way to the shops. - -The subject of Japanese art is most interesting, but we must now close -our notice, and proceed to the next people on our list. - - - - -CHAPTER CLVIII. - -SIAM. - -GOVERNMENT--DRESS--RELIGION. - - - DUPLEX GOVERNMENT -- PERSONAL CHARACTER OF THE KING -- THE LATE FIRST - KING AND HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS -- APPEARANCE OF THE SIAMESE -- THE MODE - OF ARRANGING THE HAIR -- DRESS OF BOTH SEXES -- CEREMONIES IN SIAM - -- AUDIENCE OF A NOBLE -- ACTORS AND THEIR COSTUMES -- AN ACTRESS IN - ROYAL ROBES -- THE ARISTOCRATIC ELBOW -- PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CRIME - -- SYSTEM OF PUNISHMENT -- RELIGION OF SIAM -- THE WHITE ELEPHANT, - AND REASON OF THE HONORS THAT ARE PAID TO IT -- HAIRS OF THE TAIL -- - ARCHITECTURE OF SIAM -- THE FUNERAL PILE. - -In the empire of SIAM, and its dependent kingdoms, Laos and Cambodia, -we find the principle of the duplex rule which we have already seen -existing in Japan, though in these cases the distinction between the -two kings is merely one of dignity, and has nothing to do with the -secular and spiritual element, as in Japan. In Siam, the two kings are -mostly near relations, and often brothers; and sometimes, though by no -means as a rule, the Second King becomes First King on the death of his -superior. Practically, the whole of the royal power is vested in the -first King, the secondary ruler being, although enjoying royal rank, -nothing more than the first subject in the land. - -In China and Japan, the personal character of the king seems to -exercise but little influence over the people. This is not the case -with Siam, in which country the influence of the king pervades the -whole of the realm, and is of infinite importance for good or evil. -The Siamese have been very fortunate in the king who lately held the -First Throne. As is the custom with the Siamese kings, he spent a -series of years in a Buddhist monastery, secluding himself from all -society, even from that of his own children. During twenty-seven years -he devoted himself to the studies which he thought would fit him for -his future office; and when he mounted the throne in 1851, being -then about forty-seven years of age, he astonished every one by his -learning. He had made himself master of the history and geography of -his own country; he was good enough astronomer to calculate eclipses, -and determine the latitude and longitude of a place. He could speak -and write English so well, that he was a valued contributor to the -scientific journals of Hong Kong, and, on account of his writings, was -elected a member of the Asiatic Society. He was a fair Latin and French -scholar, was thoroughly acquainted with all the various dialects of -Siam and Indo-China, and was also learned in Sanscrit, a language of -which he was very fond. - -He was always desirous of attracting to him any English people who -could give him instruction, and showed his preference for Great Britain -by invariably wearing a Glengary cap, except on occasions of ceremony, -when he had to wear the heavy national crown; and, strange to say, -to judge from several photographic portraits of the King in various -costumes, the Glengary cap suits his countenance better than any other -headdress. The full Siamese name of the King was Phra Chomklau chau yu -hua; but the Sanscrit form, which he always used, was Somdetch Phra -Paramendra Maha Mongkut. He generally signed his name as S. P. P. M. -Mongkut. His name before he came to the throne was Chau Fa Yai. The -death of this wise ruler and accomplished gentleman was a very severe -loss to Siam, and was felt even among the scientific societies of -Europe. - -A portrait of this remarkable man is given on the 1469th page, dressed -in the costume which he usually wore. The Glengary cap gives a -curiously Europeanized look to his face; but as, contrary to the habit -of the bare-headed Siamese, he constantly wore it, he is drawn with it -upon his head. I possess portraits of him in several dresses, but that -which he generally wore is selected as being the most characteristic of -the man. - -His brother, Chau Fa Noi, was by universal consent made the Second -King, or Wanqua. When he received the crown, he took the name of -Somdetch Piu Klau Chau yu hua. The choice was in both cases an -excellent one, the brothers resembling each other in their love of -literature, and their anxiety to promote the welfare of their people by -the arts of peace, and not of war. - -We will now turn to the general appearance of the Siamese. - -They are rather small, but well proportioned, and their color is a -warm olive. The hair of the men is shaved, except a tuft upon the top -of the head, which is kept rather short; and the hair being black and -coarse, the tuft looks as if a short brush had been stuck on the head. -According to Siamese ideas, the tuft resembles the closed lotus flower. -This tuft is held in the highest esteem; and for any one even to give -indications of approaching the head-tuft of a great man, is considered -either as a deadly insult or a mark of utter ignorance of manners. -When a young Siamese comes of age, the head-tuft is shaved with great -ceremonies, the relations being called together, priests being invited -to recite prayers and wash the head of the young man, and all the -family resources being drawn upon for the feast. The exact moment of -the shaving is announced by a musket shot. After the tuft is removed, -the lad is sent to the pagodas to be taught by the priests, and many -of them never leave these quiet retreats, but enter the ranks of the -regular priesthood. - -Even the women wear the hair-tuft, but in their case the hair is -allowed to grow to a greater length, and is carefully oiled and tended. -The woman’s head-tuft is said to represent the lotus flower opened. -The head is seldom covered, the cap worn by King S. Phra Mongkut being -quite an exceptional instance. As for clothing, the Siamese care but -little for it, though the great people wear the most costly robes on -state occasions. But even the highest mandarins content themselves -during the warmer months of the year with the single garment called the -Pa-nung. This is a wide strip of strong Indian chintz, generally having -a pattern of stars upon a ground of dark blue, green, red or chocolate. -When worn, “the Siamese place the middle of this, when opened, to the -small of the back, bringing the two ends round the body before, and the -upper edges, being twisted together, are tucked in between the body and -the cloth. The part hanging is folded in large plaits, passed between -the legs, and tucked in behind as before.” (See Bowring’s “Kingdom and -People of Siam.”) - -Sometimes the men have a white cloth hanging loosely over their -shoulders, and occasionally throw it over their heads. When walking in -the open air, a broad palm-leaf hat is used to keep off the sunbeams, -and is worn by both sexes alike. - -There is very little difference in the dress of the sexes. When very -young, girls wear a light and airy costume of turmeric powder, which -gives them a rich yellow hue, and imparts its color to everything -with which they come in contact. Up to the age of ten or eleven, they -generally wear a slight gold or silver string round the waist, from the -centre of which depends a heart-shaped piece of the same metal, and, -when they reach adult years, they assume the regular woman’s dress. -This consists of the chintz or figured silk wrapper, which, however, -falls little below the knees, and a piece of lighter stuff thrown over -one shoulder and under the other. This latter article of dress is, -however, of little importance, and, even when used, it often falls off -the shoulder, and is not replaced. Even the Queen of Siam, when in -state dress, wears nothing but these two garments. As a rule, the feet -are bare, embroidered slippers being only occasionally used by great -people. - -The appearance of the king in his royal robes may be seen from the -portrait of a celebrated actress on the next page. In Siam, as in -China, the actors are dressed in the most magnificent style, and -wear costumes made on the pattern of those worn by royalty. To all -appearance, they are quite as splendid as the real dresses, for -gilding can be made to look quite as well as solid gold, and sham -jewels can be made larger and more gorgeous than real gems. The reader -will notice that upon the fingers the actress wears inordinately long -nail-preservers, which are considered as indicating that the nails -beneath are of a proportionate length. - -The actors in the king’s theatre are all his own women, of whom he has -some six or seven hundred, together with an average of five attendants -to each woman. No male is allowed to enter this department of the -palace, which is presided over by ladies chosen from the noblest -families in the land. These plays are all in dumb show, accompanied by -music, which in Siam is of a much sweeter character than is usual in -that part of the world. Besides the chief actors, at least a hundred -attendants assist in the play, all being magnificently attired. The -play is continued _ad infinitum_. When any of the spectators become -wearied, they retire for a while, and then return, and it is thought a -compliment to the principal guest to ask him the hour at which he would -like the play to be stopped. - -[Illustration: KING OF SIAM. (See page 1467.)] - -[Illustration: ARMOR. (See page 1460.)] - -[Illustration: ACTRESS. (See page 1468.)] - -The veritable crown is shaped much like the mock ornaments of the -actress. The King brought for the inspection of Sir J. Bowring the -crown used at his coronation. It is very heavy, weighing about four -pounds, and is of enormous value, being covered with valuable diamonds, -that which terminates the peak being of very great size and splendor. -The King also exhibited the sword of state, with its golden scabbard -covered with jewels. When the sword is drawn, it is seen to be double, -one blade being inserted into the other, as into a second sheath. The -inner blade is of steel, and the outer of a softer metal. The handle is -of wood, and, like the sheath, is profusely adorned with jewels. - -The Siamese are among the most ceremonious people, and in this respect -equal, even if they do not surpass, the Chinese and Japanese. Their -very language is a series of forms, by which persons of different rank -address each other; and, although there may be no distinction of dress -between a nobleman and a peasant, the difference of rank is marked far -more strongly than could be done by mere dress. It is an essential -point of etiquette, for example, that the person of inferior rank -should always keep his head below that of his superior. - -Should a man of low degree meet a nobleman, the former will stoop -at the distance of thirty or forty yards, sink on his knees as his -superior approaches, and finally prostrate himself on his face. Should -he wish to present anything to his superior, he must do so by pushing -it along the ground, and, indeed, must carry out in appearance the -formal mode of address in which he likens himself to a worm. Just as -the peasants grovel before the nobles, so do the nobles before the -king; and if either of them has a petition to offer, he must put it in -a jar, and so crawl and push it along the ground as humbly as if he -were a mere peasant. Siamese artists are fond of depicting the various -modes of approaching a superior, and never forget to indicate the great -man by two points. In the first place, he sits erect, while the others -crouch; and, in the second, he leans on his left arm, and bends the -left elbow inward. This most strange and ungraceful attitude is a mark -of high birth and breeding, the children of both sexes being trained to -reverse the elbow-joint at a very early age. - -As may be expected from the progress of civilization, the Siamese have -a tolerably complete code of laws, which are administered by regularly -appointed officers. The laws are rather severe, though not much more -so than were our own a century ago. Murder, for example, is punished -with death; and in every case of murder or suicide, the houses within a -circle of eighty yards from the spot on which the crime was committed -are considered responsible, and fined heavily. This curious law forces -the people to be very cautious with regard to quarrels, and to check -them before the two antagonists become sufficiently irritated to seek -each other’s life. This respect for human life contrasts strongly with -the utter indifference with which it is regarded in China and Japan. - -Nobles of very high rank are exempt from capital punishment in one -way, _i. e._ their blood may not be shed; but, if guilty of a capital -offence, they are put into sacks, and beaten to death with clubs made -of sandal wood. Some punishments are meant to inflict ignominy. Such, -for example, is that of a bonze, or priest, who is detected in breaking -his vow of chastity. He is taken to a public place, stripped of his -sacred yellow robe, flogged until the blood streams down his back, and -then kept in the king’s stables for the rest of his life, employed in -cutting grass for the elephants. - -Another similar punishment is inflicted on laymen. A cangue is fastened -round his neck, his hands and wrists are chained, and he is taken -round the city, preceded by drums and cymbals. The worst part of the -punishment is, that he is compelled to proclaim his crime aloud as he -passes through the streets; and if he ceases to do so, or drops his -voice, he is beaten severely with the flat of a sword. Prisoners are -mostly employed on public works, and at night they are all fastened -together with one long chain. - -Of the religion of the Siamese it is impossible to treat, because -Buddhism is far too wide and intricate a subject to be discussed in a -few pages. There is, however, one modification of this religion which -must be mentioned; namely, the divine honors paid to the White Elephant. - -By the Siamese, these animals are thought to be the incarnations -of some future Buddha, and are accordingly viewed with the deepest -respect. The fortunate man who captures a white elephant sends the news -to the capital, and in return for the auspicious news is thenceforth -freed, with his posterity, from all taxation and liability to military -service. A road is cut through the forest, and a magnificent raft is -built on the Meinam River, for the reception of the sacred animal. When -the elephant reaches the raft, he is taken on board under a splendid -canopy, and kept in good temper by gifts of cakes and sweetmeats. -Meanwhile, a noble of the highest rank, sometimes even the First King -himself, goes in a state barge to meet the elephant, accompanied by -a host of boats with flags and music, and escorts the sacred animal -to the capital, each boat trying to attach a rope to the raft. When -arrived, the animal is taken to the palace, when he receives some -lofty title, and is then led to the magnificent house prepared for -him, where, to the end of his life, he is petted and pampered and has -everything his own way, the king himself deeming it an honor if the -sacred beast will condescend to feed out of his hand. On the head of -the elephant is placed a royal crown, his tusks are encircled with -precious rings, and a royal umbrella is carried over him when he goes -to bathe. - -When the animal dies, the hairs of the tail are reserved as relics of -a divine incarnation, and the body is buried with royal honors. The -hairs of the tail are set in golden handles, profusely adorned with -precious stones; and the reader may possibly remember that the First -King, Somdetch Phra Mongkut, sent one of these tufts to Queen Victoria, -as a priceless proof of the estimation in which he held her. The King -also gave the ambassador, Sir J. Bowring, a few hairs from the tail, as -a gift about equal to that of the Garter in England, and when, to the -great grief of the nation, the elephant died in 1855, the King sent Sir -J. Bowring, as a further mark of his favor, a small piece of the skin -preserved in spirits of wine. - -The color of the elephant is not really white, but a sort of pale, -brick-dust red. Albino animals of all kinds are venerated by the -Siamese, the white monkey being in rank next to the white elephant. -This veneration is so marked that a talapoin--a sort of preaching -fakir--who will not condescend to salute the King himself, bows humbly -if he should see even a white cock, much more a white monkey. - -The architecture of Siam deserves a brief notice. It possesses some -of the characteristics of Chinese, Japanese, and Burmese, but has -an aspect that belongs peculiarly to itself. Ordinary houses are of -comparatively small dimensions, but the temples are often of enormous -size, and in their way are exceedingly beautiful. They are full of -lofty and gabled roofs, five or six of which often rise above each -other, in fantastic beauty, so as to lead the eye upward to the central -tower. This is always a sort of spire or pinnacle, which is made of -a succession of stories, and is terminated by the slender emblem of -sovereignty, namely, an ornament that looks like a series of spread -umbrellas placed over each other, and become less and less as they -approach the summit. The whole of the tower is profusely adorned with -grotesque statues in strange attitudes, and there is scarcely a square -foot which is undecorated in some way or other. - -The palaces are built on much the same model, and their gates are often -guarded by gigantic figures carved in stone. At the door of the Hall -of Audience at Bangkok are two figures made of granite. They are sixty -feet in height, and represent men with the tails of fish projecting -from the spine. In fact, they are almost exact reproductions of the -Assyrian Dagon, as it is represented on the Nineveh sculptures. - -The funeral pile on (or rather in) which is burned the body of a king -or any of the royal family, is built on the same principle as the -temples, and is in fact a temple, though made of combustible materials. -There is before me a photograph of the funeral pile which was made for -the body of the First King’s son, and another of a pile erected for the -purpose of consuming the body of his wife. They are very similar in -appearance, being temples made of wood and canvas, covered with gilt -paper. They are about a hundred and twenty feet in height, and on the -photograph, where the nature of the material is not shown, look like -magnificent specimens of Siamese architecture. - -The central spire, terminated with its royal emblem, rises in the -centre, and round it are clustered gables, roofs, pinnacles, and -pillars, in bewildering profusion. - -The door is guarded by two gigantic statues, and the body lies in -the centre of the building, hidden by curtains. On account of the -flimsiness of the materials, to all the pinnacles are attached slight -ropes, which are fastened firmly to the ground, so that they act like -the “stays” of a ship’s mast. Inflammable as are the wood, paper, and -canvas of which the edifice is made, they are rendered still more so by -being saturated with oil, tar, and similarly combustible substances. -Vast, therefore, as is the building, a very short time suffices to -consume it, and the intense heat reduces the corpse to a mere heap of -ashes, which are gathered together, and solemnly placed in the temple -dedicated to that purpose. - - - - -CHAPTER CLIX. - -ANCIENT EUROPE. - -THE SWISS LAKE-DWELLERS. - - - DISCOVERY OF THE DWELLINGS AND RELICS -- MODE OF BUILDING THE HOUSES - -- POPULATION OF THE LAKES -- GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE RELICS. - -Many of my readers may be aware of the remarkable discovery that was -made in 1853-4, showing that even in Europe there lived, at one time, -a race of men having exactly the same habits as the swamp-dwellers of -New Guinea, or the lake-dwellers of Maracaibo on the Amazon. During -the winter months of those two years, the weather in Switzerland was -very dry and very cold, so that the rivers did not receive their usual -supplies of water. Consequently, the water in the lakes fell far below -its usual level, and this disclosed the remarkable fact that in those -lakes had once been assemblages of human habitations, built upon piles -driven into the bed of the lake. - -These houses, appropriately called “Pfahlbauten,” or Pile-buildings, -were, as their name implies, built upon piles; and it is a most -interesting fact, that not only have the piles been discovered, on -which the houses were built, but also fragments of the walls of -those houses; many specimens of the weapons and implements of the -inhabitants, their ornaments, and even their food, have been brought to -light, after having been buried for centuries beneath the water. - -The resemblance, not to say the identity, between many articles found -under the waters of the Swiss lakes and those which are still used by -savage tribes of the Western hemisphere is absolutely startling; and -not the least remarkable point about the relics which have just been -discovered is, that several of them are identical with inventions which -we fondly deem to be modern. - -The chief part of these lake-dwellings was constructed during the Stone -period, _i. e._ a period when axes, spear-heads, etc., were made of -stone, the use of fire being unknown. This is proved by the quantity of -stone weapons and implements which have been found in the lakes. That -various improvements have been made in the architecture is also shown -by the difference in details of construction. - -From the relics that have been discovered, it is easy to see what these -lake-dwellings must have been. They were built on a scaffolding made of -piles driven into the bed of the lake, and connected with cross-beams, -so as to make the foundation for a platform. Upon this platform the -huts themselves were built. They were mostly circular, and the walls -were made of wattle, rendered weather-tight by the clay which could be -obtained in any quantity from the bed of the lake. - -The reason for building these edifices is analogous to the feeling -which induces military engineers to surround their forts with moats -filled with water. In those primitive times, man waged an unequal war -against the wild animals, such as the bear, the wolf, and the boar, and -in consequence, these lacustrine habitations proved to be strongholds -which such enemies could not assault. It is natural, also, that persons -thus threatened should congregate together, and in consequence we find -that in one lake alone, that of Neufchâtel, a population of some five -thousand had congregated. - -A vast number of relics of this bygone age have been recovered from -the lakes, and are of absorbing interest to the anthropologist. In the -first place, the original piles have been discovered, still standing, -and several have been drawn, in order to ascertain the depth to which -they were driven. Portions of the wattled walls of the huts have also -been found, together with great numbers of stone implements, denoting -a very early age. Great quantities of pottery have also been found, -the crescent being a favorite ornament, and several utensils of a -crescentic shape having been discovered. - -Then, as time went on, men improved upon their earlier works, and -took to metal instead of stone, as examples of which may be mentioned -the wonderful series of metallic objects that have been found in the -lakes. There are axes, spears and arrow-heads, necklaces, bracelets, -and hair-pins, and--most remarkable--there is the very article that was -patented some years since as the “Safety Pin” for nurseries. - -As to the food which these people ate, we have abundant evidence in -the way of bones belonging to various animals, and--strangest of -all--specimens of bread have been discovered. As may be supposed, the -bread in question was of the coarsest possible character, the grains -of corn being roasted, slightly ground, and then pressed into lumps, -which may by courtesy be termed cakes. Even fruits have been found -ready cut and prepared for consumption, the apple being the most -plentiful of these fruits. Seeds of different fruits, such as the plum, -the raspberry, and the blackberry, have been found, together with the -shells of hazel and beech-nuts, showing that all these different fruits -were used for food in the olden times now so long passed away. - - - - -CHAPTER CLX. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE MAKONDÉ. - - - DR. LIVINGSTONE’S LAST EXPEDITION -- MAKONDÉ -- JUNGLE -- NATIVES - WILLING TO WORK -- THEIR FOOD -- NUMBER REDUCED BY SLAVE TRADE -- - MODE OF SALUTATION -- PERSONAL APPEARANCE -- MAKONDÉ WITHOUT A - PARAMOUNT CHIEF -- METAMBWÉ -- MATUMORA THEIR CHIEF -- THEIR IDEA - OF GOD -- TATTOOING -- RAIN SCARCELY KNOWN ON THE EAST COAST -- - THE MAKOA, KNOWN BY HALF-MOON FIGURE -- A RAIN-MAKER -- VILLAGES - REMARKABLE FOR CLEANLINESS -- POTTERY, HOW MADE -- SINGULAR CUSTOM. - -When this work was published, the celebrated explorer, Dr. David -Livingstone, who had done so much in opening to the civilized world -the great continent of Africa, had disappeared in its interior. In the -beginning of 1866 he started from Zanzibar, on the East Coast, on that -journey which at length terminated with his life in the village of -Ilala, in April, 1873. By the providential preservation of his journal -we are favored with the results of his explorations, and learn of the -tribes and peoples whom he visited, and has described with so truthful -and fascinating a pen. - -No inconsiderable portion of this work is derived from the travels of -Dr. Livingstone. It seems important, therefore, that his contribution -to a knowledge of the uncivilized races, made since this work was -issued, should, so far as our space will permit, be appended to it. - - * * * * * - -In March, 1866, Dr. Livingstone, having left Zanzibar, arrived in -Mikindany Bay, which is about twenty-five miles north of the Rovuma -River. Starting from Pemba, on the north side of the bay, April 4th, he -entered the country of the Makondé. - -The path lay in a valley with well-wooded heights on each side; and -with the tall grass towering over the head, and now and then a jungle -to be cleared, and no air stirring, the entrance upon his seven years’ -journeying was difficult and oppressive. - -In passing through the jungles, though they offered no obstruction to -foot-passengers, it was necessary to heighten and widen the paths for -the tall camels. The Makondé of the village were very willing to aid -Livingstone in this work, as wood-cutters or carriers. He organized a -party of about ten jolly young men, paying each a yard of calico per -day. Being accustomed to make clearing-places for their gardens, they -worked with a will. They were perfectly satisfied with their small -compensation. Using tomahawks, climbing and young trees disappeared -before their steady and vigorous blows like clouds before the sun. -This work, however, told upon them in two or three days. The tallest -men became exhausted soonest. Not being a meat-eating people, except -one is fortunate enough to kill a wild hog or antelope, their physical -strength was not equal to any prolonged demand for hard work. They will -not eat the flesh of beasts like that of the leopard and lion, which is -readily eaten by other tribes, and the reason they give is, that these -animals devour men. Such a fact refutes the allegation that this tribe -are guilty of cannibalism. - -In the open spaces were cleared gardens for maize, cassava, and -sorghum. The soil being very fertile and with no rocks, very heavy -crops of these products are obtained. The cassava bushes grow to the -height of six or seven feet. Food is very plenty and cheap. Just before -Livingstone’s visit, they had been ravaged by the Mazitu, who had -carried away many of their people as slaves. The Mehambwé, a branch -of the Makondé tribe, had also three months before been invaded, and -robbed of all their food, so that they were obliged to send in every -direction for provisions. - -The Makondé have been very greatly diminished in numbers since the -slave trade was introduced, one village making war upon another, -kidnapping as many as possible to sell them to the Arab slave-dealers. -They ascribe diseases and death to witches, and when one of a village -dies, the whole population move off, saying “That is a bad spot.” -They pray to their mothers when dying or overtaken by any disaster. -Livingstone’s Somalie guide, Ben Ali, represented that they had no idea -of a deity or a future state, and believe in nothing but medicine. -All the head men of the villages pretend to be or are really doctors. -Livingstone, however, discovered some consciousness of the existence -of a God. They get large quantities of the gum-copal, which attracts -the coast Arabs as an article of commerce. The people have the belief -that in the vicinity of the kumbé, or gum-copal trees, the more ancient -trees stood and must have dropped their gum upon the ground. They -therefore dig for it, and will give as a reason for want of success at -any time, “In digging, none may be found one day, but Mulungu (God) may -give it to us on the next.” - -Bhang, which is a species of hemp, is not smoked, but only tobacco. -They raise no sheep or goats, but only fowls, pigeons, and ducks. -Honey is so abundant that a gallon-pot and four fowls were given for -two yards of calico. One of their modes of salutation is to catch each -others’ hands and say, “Ai! ai!” but the more common custom is to take -hold of the right hand and say, “Marhaba” (welcome). - -The Makondé are all independent of each other, and have no paramount -chief. Their physical characteristics are well-formed limbs and body, -small hands and feet, medium height, and manly bearing. Their lips are -full but not excessively thick; their foreheads are compact, narrow, -and low; the _alæ nasi_ are expanded laterally. - - -THE MATAMBWÉ TRIBE. - -The Matambwé, whose country extends up to Ngomano, seem to be a branch -of the Makondé, and are very numerous. Their country stretches far to -the south, and abounds with copal trees and elephants. - -Matumora, the chief at Ngomano, was a tall, well-proportioned man, with -a countenance severe in expression, on account of the wrinkles on his -forehead. In character he is much superior to other chiefs. He is often -resorted to for defence against oppression. He had been assailed on all -sides by slave-hunters, but had never taken captives nor engaged in any -way in the slave trade. His customary politeness was quite remarkable -toward Livingstone and his party. He took them over the Loendi River. -Sitting on the bank of the river till all their goods were carried -over, and then going over with Livingstone in the same canoe, he -opened a fish-basket in a weir and gave Livingstone the contents, and -afterward some sorghum. And yet a short time previously he had been -robbed of all his corn in an attack of the Mazitu, and was obliged to -take refuge in Marumba, a rocky island in Rovuma. He had never seen a -European before he met Livingstone. - -When Matumora was asked whether the Matambwé believed in God, he -replied that “he did not know him, and the people must not be asked -if they pray to him, because they would imagine I desired them to be -killed. When they pray they first offer a little meal.” They have great -reverence for the Deity, and they say, “We don’t know him,” in order to -avoid speaking irreverently, as that may injure the country. The name -with them is “Mulungu.” Machochera, a head man, said afterward, that -“God is not good because he kills so many people.” - -The marks on their foreheads and bodies are intended as ornaments -and to give beauty in the dance; they also have a sort of heraldic -significance, for by them one can tell to what tribe or portion of -a tribe a man belongs. The tattoo or tembo of the Matambwé of Upper -Makondé is very similar to the drawings of the old Egyptians, wavy -lines, such as the ancients used to indicate water, trees, and gardens, -enclosed in squares. The tattoo has been transmitted from father to -son, but the meaning seems now to be lost. It shows very clearly in -persons of light complexion, who are quite common among these tribes. - -The Matambwé file their front teeth to points, but the Machinga, a -Waiyau tribe, leave two points on the front teeth, and knock out one of -the middle incisors above and below. - -It is quite remarkable that the trade in rum is almost unknown on -the East Coast of Africa, though it is so common on the West Coast. -It cannot be that the religious convictions of the Arabs have had -any influence in producing this result. The Portuguese south of Cape -Delgado are the personification of what is mercenary and mean. They -would even “sell their grandfathers as well as rum,” Livingstone -sharply says, “if they could make money by the transaction.” They have -built distilleries for making a vile liquor from the fruit of the -cashew and other fruits and grains; but the business is a failure. They -will furnish their slaves with “mata bicho,” which signifies “kill -the creature” or “craving within,” and the natives will drink it if -given to them; but there is no such passion for intoxicating drinks as -to render the manufacture profitable. The use of rum, so common in all -political transactions on the West Coast, has no counterpart with the -chiefs of the East Coast. - - -THE MAKOA TRIBE. - -One part of the Makondé, known as Makoa or Makoané, are distinguished -by a half-moon figure tattooed on the forehead or elsewhere. Many of -the men have their faces tattooed in double raised lines about half an -inch in length. Charcoal is rubbed into the incisions and the flesh is -pressed out so that the cuts are raised above the surface. This gives -them an ugly and ferocious look. The people, however, are kindly in -their feelings, and conferred favors with no apparent object of being -remunerated by calico and beads. They were in constant dread of the -invasion of the Mahiba from across the Rovuma, who steal their women -for the Ibo slave-market. It is impossible to realize the terror in -young and old inspired by these Mazitu: if they shake their shields, -the people are beside themselves and fly like frightened sheep. - -A doctress or rain-maker in the village of Nyamba presented a large -basket of soroko, or “mung” as it is called in India, and a fowl. Her -tall and finely-proportioned form was profusely tattooed all over, her -hips and buttocks being elaborately marked. There was no apparent shame -in the exposure of these parts. The women as well as the men delight in -the ornamentation of the tattoo. - -The villages are remarkable for their cleanliness, and the people -are intelligent, kindly, and courteous. One began to talk during a -religious service, but when Livingstone said “Kusoma Mlungu,” “We -wish to pray to God,” he immediately desisted, and all were silent -and respectful. They seem to be free from the debasing and brutal -wickedness, the selfishness and treachery, which characterize so many -of the barbarous tribes in Africa and elsewhere. - -Stone-boiling is not known to these tribes, but ovens are made in -ant-hills. For baking the heads of large game, as the zebra, feet -of the elephant, and hump of the rhinoceros, they excavate holes in -the ground. Fire is produced by drilling between the hands, a custom -universal among the natives. They wet the blunt end of the upright -stick with the tongue, so that when dipped in the sand some particles -of saliva will adhere, and this is then inserted into the horizontal -stick. The wood of a wild fig-tree is generally used because igniting -so readily. - -Their pottery for cooking and other uses is made by the women, the form -being fashioned by the eye, no machine ever being used. The foundation -or bottom is first made, the clay being scraped by a piece of bone or -bamboo. Leaving the vessel to dry during the night, a piece is added -to the rim the next day, and according as the air is dry and favorable -several rounds may be added. The whole is then carefully smoothed off -and is ready to be thoroughly sun-dried. They usually embellish their -pots for two or three inches near the rim before they are hardened. The -ornamentation is in imitation of basket work. - -The art of pottery seems to have been known to the Africans from the -earliest times, for fragments are discovered everywhere among the -oldest fossil bones of the country. - -Near many of the villages may be seen a wand bent, with both ends -inserted in the ground. A quantity of medicine is buried beneath it. If -sickness occur in a village, the men go to the place, wash themselves -with the medicine and water, creep through under the wand, and then -bury the medicine, and, as they think, the evil influence too. The wand -is thought to be a protection against evil spirits, enemies, and wild -beasts. - - - - -CHAPTER CLXI. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE WAIYAU. - - - THEIR CURIOSITY -- APPEARANCE OF THE WOMEN -- MATAKA’S RECEPTION OF - LIVINGSTONE -- REMARKABLE DECISION OF THIS CHIEF -- HIS VIEWS OF - SLAVE TRADE -- THE WAIYAU WILLING AGENTS OF THE ARAB SLAVE DEALERS -- - INCIDENT SHOWING THE DREADFUL WRONG OF THIS BUSINESS -- LIVINGSTONE’S - RESCUE OF AKOSAKONÉ -- IRON-SMELTING POPULATION -- AGRICULTURAL - PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRY -- WORK HONORABLE AMONG THE WAIYAU -- THEIR - PERSONAL APPEARANCE. - -The country occupied by this tribe is somewhat mountainous, and the -land, sloping for a mile down to the south bank of the Rovuma, teems -with an immense population. When Livingstone passed through this -district (July 1, 1866) some were cutting down trees and burning them -in order to make gardens; others were moving their grain, of which they -had stored large quantities, to new places. - -The Waiyau, as a tribe, have a great deal of curiosity, staring at -strangers, and sometimes showing great rudeness. Large crowds of people -came to gaze upon Livingstone and his party, bursting into laughter at -the remarks which were made in regard to the appearance and conduct -of their visitors. They would gather round his tent to peer into it. -This rude curiosity was very annoying and could be abated by only one -method: sudden rising to the feet would produce a stampede of the women -and children. - -In person, the women are strong and well-built, having large limbs. The -fashion in ornament is blue and black beads, with arm-coils of brass -wire. These people strive to copy the Arabs as nearly as possible in -dress and chewing tobacco with “nora” lime instead of betel-nuts. The -gaudy prints were, however, sought by some, though the tribes in the -interior are desirous of strength rather than show in the fabrics they -buy. - -The town of Mataka, one of the petty Waiyau chiefs, is situated in an -elevated valley about twenty-seven hundred feet above the sea, and is -surrounded with mountains. It consisted of about a thousand houses when -Livingstone was there. There were many other villages near. - -Mataka kept Livingstone waiting in the veranda of his house, and at -length made his appearance, smiling good-naturedly. About sixty years -of age, he was dressed as an Arab. He seemed to possess considerable -humor, for his people would often greet his remarks with laughter. His -courtesy was shown by giving Livingstone a large square house to live -in and sending him generous donations of food, as porridge, meat, and -milk. - -A number of his men had gone without his knowledge to Nyassa, and in -a foray stolen both cattle and people; but when they returned with -their spoil, Mataka peremptorily ordered all to be sent back. When he -went up to see Livingstone soon after, he told of what he had done. -Livingstone replied that it was “the best piece of news he had heard in -the country.” Delighted with this testimony, he turned to his people, -and asked if they heard what was said by the white stranger among them. -He then repeated Livingstone’s remark, and added, “You silly fellows -think me wrong to restore the captives, but all wise men approve of -it.” He then reproached them most severely for their disgraceful -conduct. Livingstone gave Mataka a trinket as a remembrancer of his -honorable conduct toward the Nyassa. He replied that he would always -act in a similar manner. His conduct is surely deserving the highest -commendation because it was spontaneous and contrary to the custom of -other chiefs and the prevailing spirit of the people. One day he asked -Livingstone what he ought to take to secure some gold if he should go -to Bombay. The reply was, “Ivory.” He rejoined, “Would not slaves be a -good speculation?” The answer was, “If you take slaves there for sale, -they will put you in prison.” The idea of his being “in durance vile” -was not quite compatible with his consciousness of personal dignity -and superiority; and as his countenance fell, the laugh of his people, -who heard what was said, was turned against him. It was a new thing -for these almost defenceless people, familiar, as they were, with -the scenes of pillage and barbarity, to hear these protests against -stealing and selling others into slavery. Ready as they were to regard -Mataka’s sayings as witty and to reward them with their approval, it -was no small satisfaction to them to have him impaled on Livingstone’s -sharp rejoinder. They probably had but a vague idea of the guilt of the -traffic, but the suffering and loss of life they had witnessed, and -all of which might perhaps become their own bitter experience any day, -made the matter one of personal safety, and this was an idea they could -fully comprehend. - -Mataka, though now in his later years desiring quiet, had been actively -engaged in slave wars. The Waiyau generally are the most ready -coadjutors of the slave traders in their nefarious business. The Arab -merchants arriving at a Waiyau village show the goods they have brought -to the elders, who tell them to tarry there and enjoy themselves. - -This means that slaves enough will soon be procured to pay for the -merchandise. A raid against the Manganja, a peaceable, unwarlike tribe, -who have few guns, is undertaken. The Waiyau, being provided with guns -by the Arabs, easily accomplish their purpose, and the caravan is -re-enforced with captive men and women for the slave market. - -Nor are Mataka’s people always the assailants. Makanjela, another -Waiyau chief, about a third of the way from Mtendé’s to Mataka, unable -to reach the Manganja, will kidnap from Mataka if any of his tribe are -found outside of their own district. He has forfeited the friendship of -all his neighbors by his plundering from them and selling their people. -All who for any reason cross their borders are seized and sold, and so -bitter feuds are engendered and perpetuated by frequent forays. - -The following incident gives a glimpse of the wide-spread and dreadful -curse of the African tribes, viz., the slave trade; it also illustrates -the conduct of Livingstone and his uniform protest against the traffic -wherever he went. Though we shall treat this subject more fully in -another chapter, yet the circumstance referred to may properly find a -place here. - -One morning, as Livingstone relates the story, when he and his -party were proceeding on their way, they were loudly accosted by a -well-dressed woman, upon whose neck a heavy, slave-taming stick had -just been fastened. Her manner was so dignified and earnest in telling -of the cruel wrong inflicted upon her that all stopped to listen to -her case. She was a near relative of Chirikaloma, and was on her way -up the river to meet her husband, when the old man, in whose house she -was a prisoner, had seized her, taken her servant away, and reduced -her to the helpless and degraded condition in which she was first seen -by Livingstone. Her captor said in defence of his conduct that she was -running away from Chirikaloma, and he would be displeased if she was -not secured for him. - -The presence of several slave-traders near by led Livingstone to -the conviction that she was seized that she might be sold to them. -He accordingly gave the old man a piece of cloth, to propitiate -Chirikaloma if he should be offended, and told him to say that -Livingstone was ashamed to see one of his relatives in a slave-stick, -and would take her to her husband. He also explained to the head men in -the village what he had done and sent messengers to Chirikaloma so that -he might not misunderstand the proceeding. - -The appearance of the woman and her numerous beads gave evidence of -her being a lady among her tribe. Her high spirit was also seen when, -after she was liberated, she went into the house of her captor to get -her basket and calabash, in spite of the resistance of the virago wife -of the old man. But the sympathy of all was with her, and she came off -victorious. During the whole journey Akosakoné (this was her name) -acted like a lady, being modest in all her conduct, and sleeping at a -fire apart from the men. In every village she enlisted the sympathy of -the people by relating the gross insult that had been put upon her. -She was also of great service to Livingstone, and abundantly repaid -him for the interposition in her behalf. Being of fine address, she -could buy twice as much food as any of the men with the same quantity -of cloth. If any injustice was attempted against Livingstone or his -men, she would plead in their behalf, and when carriers were needed -she volunteered to carry a bag of beads on her head. Her husband was -brother of Chimseia, a chief to whom she introduced Livingstone, and -induced him to be generous toward the travellers on account of the -great service rendered to her. When she and Livingstone parted, her -expressions of gratitude were profuse, and it was evident that the -kindness done in rescuing her from the doom of slavery was neither -undervalued nor undeserved. - -To the northeast of Moembe, Livingstone found an extensive tract -of valuable land, which retained numerous evidences of having once -supported a very large iron-smelting and agricultural population. The -clay pipes that are put in the nozzles of their bellows are found -everywhere. So, too, the ridges on which were planted beans, cassava, -maize, and sorghum are visible still, and evince the industrious habits -of the people. Pieces of broken pottery, with their rims embellished -by rude designs in imitation of basket-work, show the handiwork of the -women. - -The cattle of this region are a small breed, with various colors, and -their milk is greatly valued by the Waiyau. The sheep are generally -black in color but large in size. This tribe have no other useful -domestic animals, except fowls and pigeons, unless the miserable -village curs to be found everywhere be included in this category. The -fertility of the soil is manifested by the great size of its products. -The sweet potatoes become very large, and so abundant were they that -Livingstone bought two loads of them for three cubits and two needles. -The maize grows to a remarkable size, one cob bearing sixteen hundred -seeds. The character of the soil, the coolness of the climate, the -abundance of water, and the means of building square houses, combine to -render this region one of the most delightful for residence. It is an -elevated and attractive country, about thirty-four hundred feet above -the level of the sea. - -South of Lake Nyassa Livingstone visited another chief, Mukaté. He and -Mponda and Kabinga were the only chiefs of the Waiyau then engaged -in the slave trade, making periodical raids upon the Manganja and -the Maravi. Mukaté’s village is about eight hundred feet above the -lake. The heights, so far as the eye could see, were covered with -villages, and the population, though very large, seemed to revel in -plenty. Mukaté’s house and those of the other Waiyau chiefs were square -buildings, both substantial and convenient. He and all his people wear -the beard trained upon the chin, after the Arab style. - -Livingstone had long discussions with this chief about the slave -trade. The barbarities and horrors of the business, so visible to all -in the skulls scattered along the way, the desolate villages, the -sufferings of those who perish in the journey to the coast, the murders -committed,--all these frightful evils Mukaté tried to dismiss with a -laugh, as if they were of little consequence; but his conscience was -not altogether dead, and his people, many of them, were anxious that he -should abandon his raids in the interest of the Kilwa slave dealers. - -The religious notions of this people are very crude. The traditions -they have are that they came from the west originally, and that -their forefathers taught them to make nets and kill fish. No moral -instruction seems to have been transmitted, and they have no idea of -a teacher above them. With no book, and never having heard of such a -thing till Livingstone’s visit, with no carvings or writing on the -rocks, they are sunk in mental darkness, though surrounded by such -abundance of the earth’s riches. Their ancestors had never taught them -anything of their condition after death, though they had heard it said -of those who died that “God took them.” - -The differences between the Waiyau and the Manganja, of whom there -is an account in a preceding part of this work, are very marked. The -exactions and superciliousness of the Waiyau indicate that they regard -themselves the dominant race. Though they are continually making raids -upon their neighbors, for the sake of the slave trade, yet they are -inferior to them in many respects. - -The Waiyau have round, apple-shaped heads, understand the use of -fire-arms, and with dash and courage easily overpower the Manganja, who -use only bows and arrows, and are a more peaceable, as they are a more -intelligent and ingenious race. Fond of roving, scattered and broken by -their slave wars and internal feuds, they make little if any progress -in the matters of husbandry, but by their greater bravery and restless -spirit, they are successful in their plundering forays among their -neighbors, who are made tributary to their selfish schemes in stocking -the slave markets on the coast. - -Among the tribes of the Waiyau, especially Mpondas and Kabingas, -agricultural labor is esteemed; all cultivate the ground, from the -chief down. Mponda was in his garden at work when Livingstone reached -his village. With this example before the people there is no disgrace -attached to such work. Vast stores of grain are raised by these tribes, -though they are given to roving and marauding. Notwithstanding they -plundered the Manganja of their large breed of humped cattle, yet -they do not milk them, and accordingly the number dwindled from the -thousands of former times to a few hundreds. The idea of drinking -milk, with these tribes, is one to excite disgust. A boy will undergo -chastisement rather than milk a goat. - -Their method of making salt is to lixiviate the soil that is -impregnated with it and boil the water that filters through a tuft of -grass placed in a hole in the bottom of a pot till all is evaporated. -A residuum of salt is left. Hundreds of people may be seen at times -engaged in the manufacture of this needful article. - -The Waiyau, though not a handsome race, have not the prognathous -appearance of those on the West Coast. Their foreheads are compact, but -not receding; their lips are full, and with the women an additional -thickness is given by a small lip-ring. This would not alone so much -disfigure their faces, but they file their teeth to points, which gives -a hideous look. They are strong and equal to the work which belongs to -them. The men are large, sturdy fellows, capable of great endurance. A -rite obtains among them similar to that which distinguished the Jews. -This is performed at the age of puberty, and the young man then takes a -new name. This custom dates back to a period previous to the coming of -the Arabs, and its origin is accordingly unknown. - - - - -CHAPTER CLXII. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE BABISA AND BABEMBA. - - - APPEARANCE OF THE BABISA -- MODE OF SALUTATION -- COWARDICE AND - FALSEHOOD -- THE RAIN DANCE -- THEIR IMPLEMENTS -- THEIR FOOD -- - THEIR SUSPICION -- SLAVE TRADE -- DEGRADED CONDITION -- LOCALITY - OF THE BABEMBA -- ROMANTIC SCENERY -- LAWSUIT BEFORE THE CHIEF -- - NSAMA’S TERRITORY -- A BRAVE AND SUCCESSFUL WARRIOR -- HIS BREACH OF - PUBLIC LAW -- HIS PUNISHMENT BY THE ARABS -- PEACE-MAKING -- MARRIAGE - OF HIS DAUGHTER -- BRIEF HONEYMOON -- CASEMBÉ’S TOWN -- LIVINGSTONE’S - RECEPTION -- APPEARANCE OF CASEMBÉ -- HIS BARBAROUS PUNISHMENTS -- - UNDERGROUND HOUSES IN RUA -- SINGULAR SUPERSTITIONS -- CASEMBÉ’S JUST - DECISION -- THE UNFAITHFUL WIFE SOLD AS A SLAVE -- HATRED OF THE - SLAVE TRADER -- BELIEF IN A LIFE AFTER DEATH -- APPEARANCE OF THE - BABEMBA -- THE TYPICAL NEGRO. - -The territory occupied by The Babisa is the district northwest of Lake -Nyassa, lying between the parallels 10° and 12° south latitude. - -Moanzabamba was the founder of this tribe. The singular plaits of hair -which are worn as a head-dress, and look like large ears, was the -curious style originating with this chief. - -This tribe resembles in many respects the Bushmen or Hottentots. Their -roving habits indicate Bushman blood. They have round, bullet-shaped -heads, short, pug noses, and an upward slant of the eyes. The mode -of salutation among the men is to lie down upon the back, and while -clapping the hands make a disagreeable, half-kissing sound with the -lips. - -They are destitute of courage, yet possess considerable craft and -prefer to tell falsehoods rather than the truth. They seem to be more -inclined to answer questions by misstatements than to give correct -replies. - -Their want of valor subjects them to frequent invasions of the Mazitu. -In order to escape starvation in consequence of the plundering raids -of their enemies, they cultivate small patches, some ten yards in -diameter, at wide intervals in the forest. They plant millet and -pumpkins, as it is difficult for the Mazitu to carry off these. The -Babisa dismantle their huts and take the thatch to their gardens, where -they live till the harvest is over. This exposure of the framework to -the rains and sun helps to destroy the vermin that may always be found -in the dwellings of this tribe. When the party is a strong one they -build their sheds so as to form a circle and have but one opening. -The ridgepole, or rather a series of ridgepoles, constitutes one long -shed with no partitions in the roof-shaped hut. The women have a dance -called the rain-dance in which their faces are smeared with meal, and -they carry axes and endeavor to imitate the male voice in their singing. - -Their implements of husbandry are exceedingly rude. The hoe they use -is made of wood in a kind of V shape, or it is a branch with another -springing out of it, about an inch in diameter at the sharp point. With -this they claw the soil after the seed has been scattered. Their food -consists principally of wild fruits, leaves, roots, and mushrooms. Of -the latter they choose some five or six kinds and reject the others. -One species grows to some six inches in diameter, is pure white with -a blush of brown in the centre, and is very palatable when roasted. -The natives readily distinguish the good from the poisonous. One trait -very prominent in the character of the Babisa is their distrust. Full -of suspicion they demand payment in advance for what they sell. Their -distrust of all others develops into dishonesty in themselves; to use -Livingstone’s words, “They give nothing to each other for nothing.” If -this enlargement of mind be produced by commerce, commend me to the -untrading African. Like the Makoa, this tribe possess a very dull sense -of delicacy and politeness. Some tribes, like the Babemba, will retire -when food is presented to any one. - -They are engaged in the slave trade, and its effects are seen in the -depopulation of their country, their neglect of husbandry, on account -of the raids they fear, and their consequent poverty and almost -starvation. Famine and famine prices everywhere obtain, and the people -do not see that their own roving and slaving habits are the cause of -their being so degraded and reduced to the condition of dependents of -the Babemba. They are, as Livingstone briefly says, “a miserable, lying -lot of serfs.” - - -THE BABEMBA TRIBE. - -LOBISA, Lobemba, Ulungu, and Itawa-Lunda are the names by which the -portions of an elevated region between the parallels 11° and 8° S. -and meridian 28° 53° Lon. E. are known. The altitude of this section -of country is from four thousand to six thousand feet above the level -of the sea. It is the water-shed between the Loangwa, a tributary of -the river Zambesi, and several rivers which flow toward the north. It -abounds in forest lands and is watered by numerous rivulets. The soil -is remarkably fertile, yielding abundantly wherever cultivated. Lake -Liemba, which lies in this basin, is, however, twenty-five hundred feet -above the level of the sea. The land around this lake is very steep, -the rocks in many instances running from a height of two thousand feet -down to the surface of the lake. The tops, sides, and bottom of these -cliffs are covered with wood and grass. - -The scenery of this region is romantic and very beautiful. The Acasy, a -stream about fifty feet wide, comes down the cliffs, forming cascades -by leaping three hundred feet at a time, exciting the admiration and -wonder of the traveller. Buffalos, elephants, and antelopes are found -in great abundance on these slopes, and in the waters of the lake -crocodiles, hippopotami, and fish of various kinds. - -The lake is from fifteen to twenty miles broad and from forty to fifty -long, sending out an arm some two miles wide toward Tanganyika, of -which it may be only a branch. Groves of palm-oil and other trees may -be found on the banks of the lake. These palm-trees are large and -fruitful. Livingstone saw a cluster from one carried past the door of -his hut that required two men to bear it. Though there are villages -around this lake yet most of the natives live on two islands, where -they raise goats, cultivate the soil, and catch fish. - -Livingstone had an opportunity to hear a case tried in Lobemba, before -the chief. An old man talked an hour, the chief all the while listening -and maintaining a grave and dignified deportment. When the trial was -finished he gave his decision in about five minutes. Thereupon the -successful party went away lullilooing. The custom with the attorneys -in such cases is to turn the back upon the chief or judge, then lie -down upon the ground, clapping the hands. Saluting him in this way they -then are prepared to make their appeal or argument. - -The chief Nsama, a very old man when Livingstone saw him, had a good -head and face and an enormous abdomen. He was so large and helpless his -people had to carry him. Women were constantly in attendance pouring -pombé into him. - -This tribe is very much more warlike than any of those south of them. -They dig deep ditches around their villages and stockade them also. -Their politeness is manifested in their retiring when food is presented -to any one. - -Nsama’s territory is called Itawa, and is generally cleared of trees -for cultivation, lying about three thousand feet above the sea. The -river Chiséra, a mile and a half broad, gives off its water to the -Kalongosi, a feeder of Lake Moero. This is about twelve miles broad, -having on the east and west sides lofty, tree-covered mountains. -The western range is part of the country Rua Moero. What is of most -interest about this lake is that it forms one of a chain of lakes -linked by a river some five hundred miles in length. First, the -Chambeze rises in the country of Mambwé, northeast of Molembé. Flowing -southwest and west, till it reaches latitude 11° S. and longitude 29° -E., it forms Lake Bemba or Bangueolo; emerging thence it takes the name -Luapala and flows down to fall into Moero. Going out of this lake, -it is known by the name of Lualaba, as it flows northwest to form -another lake named Urengué or Ulengé. No positive information could be -ascertained as to whether it enters Tanganyika or a lake beyond that. - -Nsama had been a brave and successful warrior, and was regarded as -invincible, but his power had waned and he was defeated by a party -of twenty Arabs with guns. Some of them got within the stockade, and -though Nsama’s men were very numerous they were overcome and soon fled -carrying the bloated carcass of their chief. - -The defeat of Nsama caused a great panic among the various tribes of -the region. He had been the ablest and most successful warrior at -the head of a brave and warlike people. That this “Napoleon,” before -whom none could stand, should be conquered, created a surprise and a -revolution in the minds of the people, and the superiority of guns -over bows and arrows had to be acknowledged by those little inclined to -admit the fact. But as the people have considerable intelligence they -cannot resist the logic of events. It seems that Nsama had given great -offence by some outrage upon the Arab traders, and was charged with -“having broken public law by attacking people who brought merchandise -into the country.” But though it was difficult to ascertain whether the -Arabs were the aggressors or Nsama, the feud raged till the former had -punished him by an ignominious defeat, routing a large number, besides -killing some fifty, with the loss of about the same number by the Arab -assailants. The consequences of the quarrel were most disastrous. His -son was captured, and his country, which was but lately so densely -peopled, seemed as if deserted, the inhabitants having scattered -in various directions to escape the plunder of their goods and the -stealing of their wives and children for the slave-market. - -The peacemaking between these hostile parties absorbed three and a half -months, thus delaying Livingstone, as it was not thought safe for him -to enter Nsama’s territory till a reconciliation was effected. A custom -of drinking each other’s blood is one of the formalities of making -peace. But this did not altogether avail. - -At length, as a final method of settling the difficulty, Nsama promised -his daughter as wife to Hamees. So one afternoon, she who was to be a -reconciler of the hostile parties came riding pick-a-back on a man’s -shoulders. Livingstone describes her as “a nice, modest, good-looking -young woman, her hair rubbed all over with _nkola_, a red pigment made -from the cam-wood and much used as an ornament. She was accompanied by -about a dozen young and old female attendants, each carrying a small -basket with some provisions, as cassava, ground-nuts, etc. The Arabs -were all dressed in their finery, and the slaves, in fantastic dresses, -flourished swords, fired guns, and yelled. When she was brought to -Hamees’ hut she descended and with her maids went into the hut. She and -her attendants had all small, neat features. I had been sitting with -Hamees, and now rose up and went away. As I passed him he spoke thus to -himself, ‘Hamees Wadim Tagh! see to what you have brought yourself.’” -But the condition he so much deprecated was not of long duration. -The next day he set off with his new wife to make a visit upon his -father-in-law, and was soon met by two messengers informing him that -he must delay his visit. Yet when he went, Nsama would not admit him -into the stockade unless he would lay aside gun and sword. But these -conditions Hamees would not submit to. Soliciting guides from Nsama, -yet he was annoyed by the chief’s delay and vacillation, although -he had promised them. At length having secured them and making -preparations for their journey, Hamees’ wife, supposing an attack -upon her father was contemplated, decamped with the guides by night, -forsaking her new Arab husband after a honeymoon of only a week, and -without ceremony, relieving him of the humiliating attitude of marrying -a negro wife for the sake of peace. - -Not far from the lower part of Moero, and near the north end of the -lakelet Mofwé is Casembé’s town. This covers about a mile square -of cassava plantations. Some of the huts have square enclosures of -reeds, but the whole resembles a rural village more than a town. The -population, judged from the huts scattered irregularly over the space, -was about a thousand. The court or palace of Casembé was an enclosure -about two hundred yards by three hundred long; within this hedge of -high reeds was the large hut of the chief and smaller huts for his -domestics. The queen’s hut, with other small huts, was behind that of -Casembé. In the reception that he gave Livingstone he sat before his -hut on a square seat placed on lion and leopard skins. “He was dressed -in a coarse blue and white Manchester print edged with red baize, and -arranged in large folds so as to look like crinoline put on wrong side -foremost. His arms, legs, and head were covered with sleeves, leggings, -and cap made of various colored beads in neat patterns; a crown of -yellow feathers surmounted his cap. Each of his head men came forward -shaded by a huge, ill-made umbrella and followed by his dependents, -made obeisance to Casembé and sat down on his right and left. Various -bands of musicians did the same. When called upon, I rose and bowed, -and an old councillor with his ears cropped, gave the chief as full an -account as he had been able to gather of the English in general and my -antecedents in particular. My having passed through Lunda and visited -chiefs of whom he scarcely knew anything excited most attention. He -assured me I was welcome to his country to go where I liked and do -what I chose. We then went (two boys carrying his train behind him) to -an inner apartment, where the articles of my present were exhibited -in detail. They consisted of eight yards of orange-colored serge, a -large striped table-cloth, another large cloth made at Manchester in -imitation of west-coast manufacture, which never fails to excite the -admiration of Arabs and natives, and a large, richly gilded comb for -the back hair, such as ladies wore fifty years ago. As Casembé’s and -Nsama’s people cultivate the hair into large knots behind, I was sure -that this article would tickle the fancy. Casembé expressed himself -pleased and again bade me welcome. Casembé has an ungainly look and -an outward squint in each eye. A number of human skulls adorned the -entrance to his court-yard, and great numbers of his principal men -having their ears cropped and some with their hands lopped off showed -his barbarous way of making his ministers attentive and honest.” - -The Portuguese visited Casembé many years before Livingstone’s visit. -Each Casembé builds a new town. The last seven Casembés had their -towns within seven miles of the present. These Casembés have differed -very widely in character. Pereira, an early traveller, states that -the Casembé of his time had twenty thousand trained soldiers, watered -his streets daily, and sacrificed twenty human victims every day. -Livingstone, however, saw no evidence of human sacrifices. The present -Casembé had but a small following, and was very poor. When he usurped -power some five years before, the region was thickly populated. But -his barbarity in punishment of offences--cropping the ears, cutting -off the hands, and other mutilations, selling children for small -misdemeanors--gradually drove many of his people into neighboring -countries to escape his brutal tyranny. As there is no rendition of -fugitives, this is the method of the oppressed who can no longer endure -the tyrant. Casembé is so selfish that he has reduced himself to -poverty. If any of his people killed elephants he would not share with -them the profits from the sale of the ivory. Accordingly the successful -hunters, aggrieved by this selfish robbery, have gone elsewhere or -abandoned the chase, and the chief now has no tusks to sell to the Arab -traders from Tanganyika. The predecessor of the present Casembé treated -Major Monteiro, the traveller, so badly that the Portuguese have not -ventured so far into Central Africa since. - -West of Casembé’s country is Katanga. The people smelt copper ore into -large bars, shaped like the letter I. These bars are found in great -abundance, weighing from fifty to a hundred pounds. The natives draw -the copper into wire for armlets and leglets. There are also traces of -gold in this region. - -One of the most remarkable of the vegetable products of this region -is a potato that belongs to the pea family. Its flowers emit a very -grateful fragrance. The tuber is oblong, like our common potato, and -it is easily propagated from cuttings of the root or stalk. It tastes, -when cooked, like our potato, but has some bitterness when unripe. It -is a good remedy for nausea when raw. It is found only on the uplands -and cannot endure a hot climate. - -A very remarkable feature of the country is the stone under-ground -houses in Rua. They are very extensive, running along mountain-sides -for twenty miles. The door-ways, in some cases, are level with the -ground, in others, a ladder is needed to climb up to them. Inside, -these houses are very large, and in one part a rivulet flows. They are -probably natural formations, though there are many indications of their -being artificial. - -It is a widely-spread superstition that if a child cuts its upper front -teeth before the lower it is unlucky, and it is therefore killed. If -a child be seen to turn from one side to the other in sleep, it is -killed. A child having any of these defects is called an Arab’s child, -because the Arabs have none of these superstitions. Such children are -readily given to the Arabs, fearing ill-luck, “milando” or guilt to the -family if they be kept. They never sell their children to slavers, but -part with them to avoid the misfortunes they apprehend, their fears -being caused by these superstitious notions. - -If Casembé dream of any man twice or three times the man is supposed -to be practising secret arts against his chief, and is accordingly put -to death. If one be pounding or cooking food for him, silence must be -invariably preserved. At Katanga the people are afraid to dig for gold, -because, as they believe, it was hidden there in the earth by “Ngolu,” -which means, as the Arabs say, Satan, and also departed spirits. - -The fear of death among this people is universal and very strong. -They never molest the wagtails, believing, if one be killed, death -would visit and destroy them. The whydah birds are protected by this -same superstitious notion that death would ensue if they be harmed. -The people are everywhere degraded and oppressed by these and similar -notions, which seem very absurd to us, and yet, after all, are not -much more unreasonable and silly than some of the superstitions that -are cherished by people in civilized countries. Are there not many -believers still in the efficacy of the horse-shoe over the door? Who -would not rather see the new moon over his right shoulder, as the token -of better luck than if seen over the left? Do not multitudes forbear -to undertake a journey or any new enterprise on Friday, because they -regard it an unlucky day? - -Unless he has swilled beer or _pombé_ to excess, Casembé is a chief -of very considerable good sense. His decisions often evince an -independence and wisdom that show him to be worthy of his place at the -head of the people. The Arabs are enthusiastic in his praise. A case -of _crim. con._ was brought before him involving an Arab’s slave. An -effort was made to arrange the matter privately by offering cloths, -beads, and another slave. The complainant declined every proposition; -but Casembé dismissed the case by saying to the complainant, “You send -your women to entrap the strangers in order to get a fine, but you will -get nothing.” This verdict was exceedingly gratifying to the Arabs, and -the owner of the slave especially. - -Kapika, an old chief, had charged his young and handsome wife with -infidelity, and in punishment thereof had sold her as a slave. But the -spectacle of a woman of high rank in the slave-gang greatly excited the -ladies of Lunda, and learning from her that she was really a slave, -they clapped their hands on their mouths, in a way peculiar to them -and expressive of horror and indignation. The hard fate of the young -chieftainess evoked the sympathy of all the people. Kapika’s daughters -brought her refreshments, offers were made by one and another to redeem -her with two and even three slaves; but Casembé, who is very rigorous -in his treatment of all violations of chastity, said, “No; though ten -slaves be offered, she must go.” Possibly a fear that he might lose his -own queen, if such infidelities were not severely punished, may have -led him to his stern and inexorable decision. Pérembé, the oldest man -in Lunda, had a young wife who was sold as a punishment; but she was -redeemed. The slave-trader is undoubtedly a means of making the young -wives of some of these old men faithful to their marriage. - -The people, however, are not kindly disposed toward the slave -dealer, who is used as a means of punishing those who have family -feuds,--as a wife with her husband, or a servant with his master. In -cases of jealousy, revenge, or real criminality, they are the ready -instrumentalities for effecting the just or the unjust punishment. The -slaves are said to be generally criminals, and are sold in revenge or -as a punishment. - -The incident narrated below indicates the belief of the Africans in a -future state,--a belief, however, around which cluster the darkest and -saddest superstitions. The reader will see how the miseries and wrongs -of their life shaped and colored their anticipations of the life to -come. The hope of avenging the barbarities they endured inspired them -with a sort of ghastly satisfaction, so that they blended songs with -their sufferings. - -“Six men slaves,” as Livingstone relates the incident, “were singing as -if they did not feel the weight and degradation of the slave-sticks. I -asked the cause of their mirth, and was told that they rejoiced at the -idea of coming back after death, and haunting and killing those who had -sold them. Some of the words I had to inquire about; for instance, the -meaning of the words, ‘To haunt and kill by spirit power’; then it was, -‘Oh! you sent me off to _manga_ (sea-coast), but the yoke is off when I -die, and back I shall come to haunt and to kill you.’ Then all joined -in the chorus, which was the name of each vender. It told not of fun, -but of the bitterness and tears of such as were oppressed, and on the -side of the oppressors there was a power.--There be higher than they! - -“The slave owner asked Kapika’s wife if she would return to kill -Kapika. The others answered to the names of the different men with -laughter. Her heart was evidently sore: for a lady to come so low down -is to her grievous. She has lost her jaunty air, and is, with her -head shaved, ugly; but she never forgets to address her captors with -dignity, and they seem to fear her.” - -In personal appearance the Babemba are very handsome, many of them -having heads as finely formed as the majority of Europeans. They are -distinguished by small hands and feet, and have none of the gross -ugliness of the Congo tribes of West Africa, who are with most persons -the typical negroes. - -Dr. Livingstone’s observations led him to adopt the opinion which -Winwood Reade formed,--that the ancient Egyptian is the type of the -negro race, and not the awkward forms and hideous features of the West -Coast tribes. It is probable that this beautiful and romantic region -was the real home of the negro. The women excited the admiration of the -Arabs by the charms of their full forms and delicate features. The only -drawback was the result of a fashion among them, as is often the case -among their civilized sisters: they file their teeth to points, and -this “makes their smile like that of a crocodile.” - - - - -CHAPTER CLXIII. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE MANYUEMA COUNTRY. - - - LIVINGSTONE’S DEPARTURE FROM UJIJI -- LORD OF THE PARROT -- GRAPHIC - PICTURE -- MOENÉKUSS AND HIS SONS -- FEAR OF THE MANYUEMA -- THEIR - HORRIBLE DEEDS -- REMARKABLE BEAUTY OF THE COUNTRY -- AGRICULTURE OF - THE PEOPLE -- THEIR VILLAGES -- DWELLINGS -- THE WOMEN CLEVER TRADERS - -- THEIR VALUE AS WIVES -- RITE OF CIRCUMCISION -- LARGE POPULATION - -- THE CHITOKA -- VIVID DESCRIPTION OF MARKET-DAY -- DREADFUL - MASSACRE. - -The Manyuema country, for which Livingstone set out on the 12th of -July, 1869, from Ujiji, the Arab settlement on Lake Tanganyika, had -till then never been visited by any white man. It will be seen that its -people differ from any of the tribes on the East Coast. Thinking that -this portion of Africa, hitherto untravelled by foot of civilized man, -must abound in ivory, the Arab merchants were desirous of securing the -rich stores awaiting the earliest adventurers. Livingstone accompanied -the first of these bands of Ujijan traders who entered this new field. -The distance from Lake Tanganyika to Bambarré or Moenékuss (the -paramount chief of the Manyuema) is about forty days’ travel. - -The light-gray parrot with red tail which is so common in this -region, and which is called Kuss or Koos, gives this chief his name, -which means Lord of the Parrot. The pronunciation by the Manyuema is -Monanjoose. This district is in the large bend of the Lualaba River, -which is much larger here than at Mpwéto’s, near Moero Lake. - -The course taken by the great explorer led over a very uneven country. -It was up and down hills perpetually; now into dells filled with -enormous trees, some of which were twenty feet in circumference and -sixty or seventy feet to the first branches; then, rising upon some -commanding height, the vast valley Jorumba lay before him with all its -remarkable beauty. There were many villages dotted over the slopes -of these mountains. One had been destroyed, showing by the hard clay -walls and square form of the houses that it belonged to the Manyuema. -A graphic picture of the country and its scenery is given by Dr. -Livingstone. “Our path lay partly along a ridge, with a deep valley on -each side. On the left the valley was filled with primeval forests, -into which elephants, when wounded, escape completely. The bottom -of this great valley was two thousand feet below us. Then ranges of -mountains, with villages on their bases, rose as far as they could -reach. On our right there was another deep but narrow gorge, and -mountains much higher than on the ridge close adjacent. Our ridge wound -from side to side, and took us to the edge of deep precipices,--first -on the right, then on the left, till down we came to the villages of -chief Monandenda. The houses were all filled with fire-wood, and each -had a bed on a raised platform in an inner room. - -“The paths are very skilfully placed on the tops of ridges of hills, -and all gulleys are avoided; otherwise the distance would be doubled -and the fatigue greatly increased. The paths seem to have been used for -ages; they are worn deep on the heights, and in the hollows a little -mound rises on each side, formed by the feet tossing a little soil -on one side. Many villages teeming with a prodigious population were -passed on the route.” - -Approaching a village they were met by a company of natives beating -a drum. This is a signal of peace: if war be meant the attack is -stealthy. The people are friendly if they have not been assailed and -plundered by the Arabs. The arrows used are small, made of strong -grass-stalks, and poisoned; those for elephants and buffaloes are large -and poisoned also. The two sons of Moenékuss, who had lately died, had -taken his place. As there were signs of suspicion on their part, the -ceremony of mixing blood was performed. This consists in making a small -incision on the forearm of each person and then mixing the bloods and -making declarations and vows of friendship. Moenembagg, the elder of -the two sons, and the spokesman on all important occasions said, “Your -people must not steal: we never do,”--which was no unwarrantable claim -in behalf of his tribe. Blood in a small quantity was then conveyed -from one to the other by a fig-leaf. “No stealing of fowls or of men,” -said this chief. “Catch the thief and bring him to me. One who steals a -person is a pig,” said Mohamad. Stealing, however, began on our side, a -slave purloining a fowl. “They had good reason,” says Livingstone, “to -enjoin honesty upon us. They think that we have come to kill them; we -light on them as if from another world; no letters come to tell who we -are or what we want. We cannot conceive their state of isolation and -helplessness, with nothing to trust but their charms and idols, both -being bits of wood.” - -The village huts are very inconvenient, with low roofs and low -door-ways. The men build them, but the women have to keep them well -supplied with fire-wood and water. They carry their burdens in large -baskets hung to the shoulders, like some of the fish-women in European -cities. - -Other tribes live in great terror of the Manyuema, whom they represent -as man-eaters. A woman’s child crept into the corner of the hut to eat -a banana. The mother, having missed him, at once suspected that the -Manyuema had kidnapped him to eat him. She ran in a frenzy through the -camp, screaming “Oh, the Manyuema have stolen my child to make meat of -him! Oh, my child eaten! Oh! Oh!” - -Two fine-looking young men made a visit to Livingstone one day. After -preliminary questions about his country, such as “Where is it?” they -asked whether people die there, and where they go after death. “Who -kills them? Have you no charm (_buanga_) against death?” They were told -that his people pray to the Great Father Mulungu, and he hears them, -all which seemed to satisfy their curiosity as very reasonable. - -The bloody and murderous propensity of the Bambarré people is evinced -by the most horrible deeds. If a man be at work alone in the field he -is almost sure of being slain. When they tell of each other’s deeds -the heart sickens at the recital. Kandahara, brother of old Moenékuss, -murdered three women and a child and also a trading-man, for no reason -but to eat their bodies. - -“The head of Moenékuss is said to be preserved in a pot in his house, -and all public matters are gravely communicated to it, as if his -spirit dwelt therein; his body was eaten; the flesh was removed from -the head and eaten too. His father’s head is said to be kept also. In -other districts graves show that sepulture is customary, but here no -grave appears. Some admit the existence of this practice, but others -deny it. In the Metamba country, adjacent to the Lualaba, a quarrel -with a wife often ends in the husband killing her and eating her heart -mixed up in a huge mess of goat’s flesh; this has the charm character. -Fingers are taken as charms in other parts, but in Bambarré alone is -the depraved taste the motive for cannibalism.” - -The country inhabited by the Manyuema, which means forest people, -is surpassingly beautiful. Livingstone gives this description in -his journal: “Palms crown the loftiest heights of the mountains and -their gracefully bended fronds wave beautifully in the wind; and the -forests, usually about five miles broad between groups of villages, are -indescribable. Climbers, of cable size, in great number, are hung among -the gigantic trees; many unknown wild-fruits abound, some the size of a -child’s head, and strange birds and monkeys are everywhere. - -“The soil is very rich, and the people, although isolated by old feuds -that are never settled, cultivate largely. They have selected a kind of -maize that bends its fruit-stalk round into a hook, and hedges, some -eighteen feet high, are made by inserting poles which sprout, like -Robinson Crusoe’s hedge, and never decay. Lines of climbing plants -are tied so as to go along from pole to pole, and the maize-cobs are -suspended to these by their own hooked fruit-stalk. As the corncob -is forming, the hook is turned round so that the fruit-leaves of it -hang down and form a thatch for the grain beneath or inside of it. -This upright granary forms a solid looking wall round the village. -The people are not stingy, but take down maize and hand it to the men -freely. Plantains, cassava, and maize are the chief food. - -“The hoeing of the Manyuema is very superficial, being little better -than the scraping of the soil. They leave the roots of maize, dura, -ground-nuts, sweet potatoes, to find their way into the soft, rich -earth. There is no need of plowing for ground-nuts, and cassava will -resist the encroachments of grass for years. Rice will yield one -hundred and twenty fold of increase, showing the wonderful fertility of -the land. If kept free from weeds, the soil yields its grains and roots -in the rankest profusion; pumpkins, melons, meleza, plantains, bananas, -all flourish most abundantly. The Bambarré, however, are indifferent -husbandmen, planting but a few things. The Balégga, like the Bambarré, -rely chiefly upon plantains and ground-nuts. Their principal amusement -is playing with parrots. - -“It is the custom among this people to make approaches to the villages -as difficult as possible. The hedges, which sprout and grow into a -living fence, are covered with a sort of calabash, with its broad -leaves, so that nothing appears of the fence outside. - -“The villages are perched in the talus of each great range, so as to -secure quick drainage. The streets generally run east and west in order -that the heat of the sun may rapidly dissipate the moisture. The houses -are mostly in line with meeting-houses at each end, fronting the middle -of the street. The walls of these houses are of well-beaten clay, -protected from the weather by the roof, the rafters of which are often -the leaf-stalk of palms, split so as to be thin. The roofs are low, -but well thatched with a leaf resembling that of the banana, but more -durable. The leaf-stalk has a notch made in it of two or three inches -lengthwise. This hooks to the rafters.” - -These dwellings inside are very comfortable, and until the Arabs -visited this tribe, vermin were unknown. Bugs and vermin go wherever -the Arabs and Suaheli go. - -“Where the southeast rains abound, the Manyuema place the back side of -their houses to this quarter, and protect the walls by carrying the low -roof considerably below the top of the walls. These clay walls will -last for ages, and men often return after long years of absence to -restore the portions that may have been washed away. Each housewife has -from twenty-five to thirty earthen pots strung to the ceiling by neat, -cord-swinging trestles, and often as many neatly-made baskets hung up -in the same way, filled with fire-wood.” - -The women are good traders, and ready for a bargain, bringing loads -of provisions to exchange for beads. They are very strong, one basket -three feet high being a woman’s load. They wear no dress, and their -hair is plaited in the form of a basket behind. It is first rolled into -a very large coil, then wound around something till it is eight or ten -inches long, projecting from the back of the head. - -The Manyuema buy their wives from each other. A pretty girl costs ten -goats. When brought to the husband’s house, the new wife stays five -days, then goes back and remains five days at home. The husband then -goes for her again, and she remains with him afterward. - -The remark is a common one among the Arabs, “If we had Manyuema wives, -what beautiful children we should beget.” The men are usually handsome, -and the women many of them are beautiful,--hands and feet, limbs and -forms, perfect in shape, and the color light-brown. The women dress in -a kilt of many folds of gaudy _lambas_. The orifices of the nose are -widened by snuff-taking. Those addicted to the habit push the snuff as -far up as possible with finger and thumb. The only filing of the teeth -is a small space between the two upper front teeth. Yet with these -disfigurements, Livingstone adds, “I would back a company of Manyuema -men to be far superior in shape of head and generally in physical form -too, against the whole Anthropological Society.” - -Among all the Manyuema the rite of circumcision is performed upon the -male children. If a head man’s son is to be operated on, an experiment -is first made on a slave. Certain times of the year are regarded as -unfavorable. If the trial prove successful, they go into the forest, -beat drums, and have a feast. Unlike all other Africans they do not -hesitate to speak about the rite even in the presence of women. - -The inquiry very naturally arises, Whence came this custom? It seems to -link this tribe, but lately unknown by all civilized peoples, dwelling -in the interior of the great African continent, to a memorable people -of whom this rite is the distinguishing characteristic. But, doubtless, -somewhere and somehow along the centuries, this ancient rite of the -Jewish people was communicated to this tribe. - -Children in Manyuema do not creep, as those in civilized lands on their -knees, but begin by putting forward one foot and using one knee; they -will use both feet and both hands, but never both knees. An Arab child -will do the same, never creeping, but getting up on both feet and -holding on till he can walk. - -The country swarms with villages. At some places the people are -civil and generous, but at others, where the palm-trees flourish and -palm-toddy is abundant, the people are consequently degraded and -disagreeable, often inclined to fight on account of real or imaginary -offences. - -The Manyuema will not buy slaves, except females to make wives of them. -They prefer to let their ivory rot than exchange it with the Arab -traders for male slaves, who are generally criminals. - -Iron bracelets are the usual medium of exchange and coarse beads and -cowries. Copper is much more highly prized, and for a bracelet of this -metal three fowls and three and a half baskets of maize are given. - -Effigies of men made of wood may often be seen in Manyuema. Some are -of clay, and cone-like, with a small hole in the top. They are called -_Bathata_ (fathers or ancients), and the name of each is carefully -preserved. Ancient or later chiefs are thus kept in remembrance. The -natives are very careful to have the exact pronunciation of the name. -On certain occasions goat’s flesh is offered to them by the old men. No -young person and no women are permitted to partake. The flesh of the -parrot, though often eaten by old men, is forbidden to young men, with -the belief that if eaten by them their children will have the waddling -gait of this bird. - -The banks of the Lualaba are thickly peopled. One of the best methods -of judging in regard to the number of the inhabitants is a visit to -the _chitoka_ or market. This is attended principally by women. They -hold market one day, and then have an interval of three days, going -to other markets in other places. All prefer to buy and sell in the -market rather than elsewhere. If one says, “Come, sell me that fowl -or cloth,” the answer is, “Come to the _chitoka_,” or market-place. -This market is an important and cherished institution in Manyuema. -The large numbers inspire confidence, and also help to maintain or -enforce justice between the traffickers. “To-day,” adds Livingstone, -“the market contained over a thousand people carrying earthen pots and -cassava, grass-cloth, fishes, and fowls. They were alarmed at my coming -among them, and were ready to flee. Many stood afar off in suspicion.” -At another time he counted over seven hundred passing his hut on their -way to market. It is the supreme pleasure of these women to haggle and -joke, to laugh and chaffer. The sight of the throng is a peculiar one: -women, some old, some young and beautiful, are mingled together. - -All chiefs claim the privilege of shaking hands; that is, they touch -the hand held out with their palm, then clap two hands together, then -touch again and clap again, and the ceremony is ended. - -Livingstone gives this description of market-day in Manyuema: “The -market is a busy scene; every one is in dead earnest; little time -is lost in friendly greetings. Venders of fish run along with -potsherds full of snails or small fishes, or young _Clarias capensis_, -smoke-dried and spitted on twigs, or other relishes, to exchange for -cassava-roots, dried after being steeped about three days in water; -potatoes, vegetables or grain, bananas, flour, palm-oil, fowls, salt, -pepper. Each is intensely eager to barter food for relishes, and makes -strong assertions as to the goodness or badness of everything; the -sweat stands in beads on their faces; cocks crow briskly even when -strung over the shoulder, with their heads hanging down, and pigs -squeal; iron knobs, drawn out at each end to show the goodness of the -metal, are exchanged for cloth of the muabe-palm. They have a large -funnel of basket-work below the vessel holding the wares, and slip the -goods down, if they are not to be seen. - -“They deal fairly, and when differences arise they are easily settled -by the men interfering or pointing to me; they appeal to each other -and have a strong sense of natural justice. With so much food changing -hands among the three thousand attendants, much benefit is derived. -Some come from twenty to twenty-five miles. The men flaunt about in -gaudy-colored _lambas_ of many-folded kilts; the women work hardest; -the potters slap and ring their earthenware all around, to show that -there is not a single flaw in them. I bought two finely-shaped earthen -bottles of porous earthenware, to hold a gallon each, for one string -of beads. The women carry huge loads of them in their funnels above -the baskets strapped to the shoulders and foreheads, and their hands -are full besides. The roundness of the vessels is wonderful, seeing -no machine is used. No slave could be induced to carry half so much -as they do willingly. It is a scene of the finest natural acting -imaginable,--the eagerness with which all sorts of assertions are made; -the earnestness with which, apparently, all creatures above, around, -and beneath are called on to attest the truth of what they allege; -and then the intense surprise and withering scorn cast on those who -despise their goods: but they show no concern when the buyers turn up -their noses at them. Little girls run about selling cups of water for -a few small fishes to the half-exhausted, wordy combatants. To me it -was an amusing scene. I could not understand the words that flowed -off their glib tongues, but the gestures were too expressive to need -interpretation. - -“Dugumbé’s horde tried to domineer over these market-women. ‘I shall -buy that,’ said one. ‘These are mine,’ said another. ‘No one must touch -these but me,’ said a third. They soon learned, however, that they -could not monopolize nor coerce, but must deal fairly. These women are -very clever traders, stand by each other, and will not submit to nor -allow overreaching by any one.” - -But this cheerful scene of eager and active life was doomed to -be darkened by a dreadful deed of bloodshed and horror. We leave -Livingstone to narrate in his graphic way the story of this merciless -and unpardonable massacre of unoffending women:-- - -“It was a hot and sultry day, and when I went into the market I saw -Adie and Manilla and three of the men who had lately come with Dugumbé. -I was surprised to see these three with their guns, and felt inclined -to reprove them, as one of my men did, for bringing weapons into the -market; but I attributed it to their ignorance. It being very hot I was -walking away to go out of the market, when I saw one of the fellows -haggling about a fowl and seizing hold of it. Before I had got thirty -yards out, the discharge of two guns in the middle of the crowd told -me that slaughter had begun. Crowds dashed off from the place and -threw down their wares in confusion and ran. At the same time that -the three opened fire on the mass of people near the upper end of the -market-place, volleys were discharged from a party down near the creek -on the panic-stricken women who dashed at the canoes. These, some fifty -or more, were jammed in the creek. The men forgot their paddles in the -terror that seized all. The canoes were not to be got out, for the -creek was too small for so many. Men and women, wounded by the balls, -poured into them and leaped and scrambled into the water, shrieking. -A long line of heads in the river showed that great numbers struck out -for an island a full mile off. In going toward it they had put the left -shoulder to the current of about two miles an hour. If they had struck -away diagonally to the opposite bank, the current would have aided -them, and though nearly three miles off, some would have gained land; -as it was, the heads above water showed the long line of those that -would inevitably perish. - -“Shot after shot continued to be fired on the helpless and perishing. -Some of the long line of heads disappeared quietly, while other poor -creatures threw their arms high, as if appealing to the great Father -above, and sank. One canoe took in as many as it could hold, and all -paddled with hands and arms; three canoes, got out in haste, picked up -sinking friends until all went down together and disappeared. One man -in a long canoe, which could have held forty or fifty, had clearly lost -his head; he had been out in the stream before the massacre began, and -now paddled up the river nowhere, and never looked to the drowning. By -and by all the heads disappeared; some had turned down stream toward -the bank and disappeared. Dugumbé put people into one of the deserted -vessels to save those in the water, and rescued twenty-one; but one -woman refused to be taken on board, thinking that she was to be made -a slave: she preferred the chance of life by swimming, to the lot -of a slave. The Bagenya women are experts in the water, as they are -accustomed to dive for oysters, and those who went down stream may have -escaped; but Arabs themselves estimated the loss of life at between -three hundred and thirty and four hundred people. The shooting parties -near the canoes were so reckless they killed two of their own people; -and a Banyamwezi follower who got into a deserted canoe to plunder, -fell into the water, went down, then came up again, and down to rise no -more. - -“My first impulse was to pistol the murderers, but Dugumbé protested -against my getting into a blood-feud, and I was thankful afterward that -I took his advice. - -“After the terrible affair in the water this party of Tagamoio’s, who -were the chief perpetrators, continued to fire on the people and burn -their villages. As I write I hear the loud wails on the left bank over -those who are there slain, ignorant of their many friends now in the -depths of the Lualaba. Oh, let Thy kingdom come! No one will ever know -the exact loss on this bright, sultry summer morning. It gave me the -impression of being in hell. All the slaves in the camp rushed at the -fugitives on land and plundered them; women were for hours collecting -and carrying loads of what had been thrown down in terror. - -“Some escaped to me and were protected. Dugumbé saved twenty-one, and -of his own accord liberated them. They were brought to me and remained -over night near my house. I sent men with our flag to save some, for -without a flag they might have been victims, for Tagamoio’s people were -shooting right and left like fiends. I counted twelve villages burning -this morning. I asked the question of Dugumbé and others, ‘Now, for -what is all this murder?’ All blamed Manilla as its cause, and in one -sense he was the cause; but it is hardly credible that they repeat that -it is in order to be avenged on Manilla for making friends with head -men, he being a slave. The wish to make an impression in the country as -to the importance and greatness of the new-comers was the most potent -motive; but it was terrible that the murdering of so many should be -contemplated at all. It made me sick at heart. Who could accompany -Dugumbé and Tagamoio to Lomané and be free from blood-guiltiness? - -“I proposed to Dugumbé to catch the murderers and hang them up in -the market-place as our protest against the bloody deeds before the -Manyuema. If, as he and others added, the massacre was committed by -Manilla’s people he would have consented, but it was done by Tagamoio’s -people and others of the party headed by Dugumbé. - -“This slaughter was peculiarly atrocious as we have always heard that -women coming to and from market have never been known to be molested. -Even when two districts are engaged in actual hostilities ‘the women’ -say they ‘pass among us to market unmolested,’ nor has one ever been -known to be plundered by the men. These nigger Moslems are inferior to -the Manyuema in justice and right. The people under Hasani began the -superwickedness of capture and pillage of all indiscriminately. Dugumbé -promised to send over men to order Tagamoio’s men to cease firing and -burning villages. They remained over among the ruins, feasting on goats -and fowls, all night, and next day continued their infamous work till -twenty-seven villages were destroyed. - -“I restored thirty of the rescued to their friends.... An old man -called Kabolo came for his old wife. I asked her if this was her -husband; she went to him and put her arms lovingly around him and said -‘Yes.’ I gave her five strings of beads to buy food, all her stores -being destroyed with her house. She bowed down and put her forehead to -the ground as thanks, and old Kabolo did the same; the tears stood in -her eyes as she went off. - -“The murderous assault on the market-people felt to me like Gehenna -without the fire and brimstone; but the heat was oppressive, and the -firearms pouring their iron bullets on the fugitives was not an inapt -representation of burning in the bottomless pit.” - - - - -CHAPTER CLXIV. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE MANYUEMA--_Concluded_. - - - THEIR BLOOD-THIRSTY CHARACTER -- BRUTAL CUSTOMS -- UNTRUTHFUL BUT - HONEST -- FEAR OF GUNS -- BAD REPUTATION -- CANNIBALISM -- ONLY - ENEMIES EATEN -- ABUNDANCE OF FOOD -- WANT OF POLITICAL COHESION -- - NO PROGRESS -- THE SAFURA -- THE COUNTRY UNHEALTHY -- THE SOKO -- - LIVINGSTONE’S GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION. - -The Manyuema do not lack in industry and energy. In their villages they -are orderly, courteous and kind toward each other. But if a man of -another district ventures into a village, it is in peril of his life; -he is not regarded as one of their tribe, and is almost sure to be -killed. Those who served as guides to Livingstone would desert him as -they approached a village, not daring to go near those between whom and -their own people there was a bitter feud. The head men of the villages, -in a strange blindness, often enlist by gifts of ivory the Arab traders -to inflict punishment upon their enemies. Livingstone passed through -eleven villages that had been burned, and all on account of one string -of beads,--a mournful illustration of the barbarities committed. - -The better he became acquainted with this people the more convinced was -he of their degraded and blood-thirsty character. He noticed at one -time a pretty woman, the young wife of Monasimba. Ten goats were given -for her. Her friends, not satisfied, came and tried to obtain another -goat. This being refused they enticed her away. She became sick and -died a few days afterward, yet no one expressed one word of regret for -the beautiful young creature, but all the grief was for the loss of the -goats. “Oh, our ten goats! Our ten goats! Oh, oh!” - -Monasimba went to his wife, and after washing he may appear among men. -If no widow can be obtained, he must sit naked behind his house till -some one happens there; all the clothes he wore are thrown away. The -man who killed a woman goes free; he offered his grandmother to be -killed in his stead, and after a great deal of talk nothing was done to -him. They are the lowest of the low especially in blood-thirstiness. - -A strong man among them is lawless, doing whatever he lists without any -remonstrance or resistance by the head man. Thus, for example, a man’s -wife was given away to another for ten goats, and then his child was -sold also. For goats and cattle this people will do any mean or brutal -thing. - -Livingstone has to record this testimony after discovering some new -proofs respecting the debasement of this people: “The Manyuema are the -most bloody, callous savages I know. One puts a scarlet feather from a -parrot’s tail on the ground, and challenges those near to stick it in -the hair. He who accepts this challenge must kill a man or a woman. - -“Another custom is that none dare wear the skin of the musk-cat -(_ngawa_) unless he has murdered somebody. Guns alone prevent their -killing us all, and for no reason either; some will kill people in -order to be permitted to wear the red tail-feathers of the parrot in -their hair. Yet these are not ugly-looking like the West Coast negroes, -for many of the men have as finely formed heads as can be found in -London. We English, if naked, would make but poor figures beside the -strapping forms and finely-shaped limbs of Manyuema men and women.” - -So blood-thirsty are the people that travellers are asked everywhere -that some of their fellow-men be killed. They are afraid to go to -villages three or four miles off, because there are murderers of -fathers and mothers and other relations living there. The moral -condition of this people is one of pre-eminent degradation. - -They are far from being a generous people. Hassani, a Moslem trader, -told Dr. Livingstone that no Manyuema had ever presented him with a -mouthful of food, not even a potato or banana, though he had made many -presents to them. They are untruthful as a people, but very honest. -No articles are even purloined by them. If a fowl or goat be lost or -anything else, it may be known that an Arab slave is the thief. It is a -somewhat remarkable fact that Livingstone and the Arab merchants kept -their fowls in the Manyuema villages, to prevent their being stolen by -their own slaves. A conscientious, rigorous sense of justice, allied -with their blood-thirstiness, is a singular feature in the character of -this tribe. - -The Manyuema have great fear of guns. Often a man will borrow one to -help him settle a dispute. Going with it on his shoulder he can readily -adjust the difficulty by the fear the weapon inspires, even though it -is known by his opponent that he could not use it. - -Though the presence of guns will always awaken such terror, yet if -their enemies be armed only with spears, however numerous, these men -are brave. It is a common expression “The Manyuema are bad.” They are -exceedingly cruel among themselves, but their reputation for badness is -in no small degree caused by the representations of the Arab traders, -who plunder them in every possible way. It is no wonder that some -badness should be manifested when their huts are appropriated without -leave, compensation, or thanks. Firewood, pots, baskets, food, in -fact everything is taken that they fancy. The women usually flee into -the forest, to return only after the invaders have gone, but to find -their possessions plundered or destroyed. If treated kindly, they make -overtures of friendship by gifts of provisions and fruits. The Arabs -will eat up all they can lay hands on, and then say, “The Manyuema are -bad, very bad.” - -In respect to cannibalism, it is the fact that the Manyuema eat only -their foes and those who are killed in war. Some have alleged that -captives also are eaten, and that a slave is bought with a goat to be -eaten, but there is doubt of the truth of this assertion. From the most -careful observation, Livingstone concluded that it is only those slain -in battle who are eaten, and this in revenge. Mokandira said, “The meat -is not nice; it makes one dream of the dead man.” - -On the west of Lualaba it is thought that men eat those bought for the -purpose of a feast. All unite in saying that human flesh is saltish, -and needs very little condiment. - -At the market a stranger appeared who had ten human under-jaw bones -hung on a string over his shoulder. When interrogated he professed to -have killed and eaten the owners, and he showed with his knife how -he had cut them up. When disgust was expressed at his recital he and -others laughed. - -A great fight had taken place at Muanampunda’s, and Livingstone saw -the meat cut up to be cooked. The natives betrayed a shame about the -matter, and said, “Go on, and let our feast alone.” They eat their -foes to inspire courage. It will seem very remarkable that this custom -prevails, for there is no want of food of all kinds. The country is -full of it, overflowing with farinaceous products, with meat and every -variety of fish, and they have stimulating luxuries in palm-toddy, -tobacco or _bange_. With nature so lavish of her gifts, showing that -cannibalism is not the result of want or starvation, it must be merely -a depraved appetite that craves for meat that we call “high.” - -“They are said to bury a dead body for a couple of days in the soil -in a forest, and in that time, owing to the climate, it soon becomes -putrid enough to regale the strongest stomachs.” - -The great necessity of this people is some bond of union or national -life. But there is no supreme chief in Manyuema or Balegga, and thus -the tribe is disintegrated. Each head man regards himself as _mologhwe_ -or chief, however small his village, even if only four or five huts, -and so is independent. This explains the fact of no political cohesion -among the people. Jealousy and fear of each other among the head men -are the great obstacles to their uniting for the common welfare. With -no unity of interest, no concert of action, no ruler to whom all must -pay allegiance, it is inevitable that offences must come, and feuds and -wars will follow. Crimes against person or property cannot be punished -except by revenge, reprisal, war, in which blood is shed. Enmities are -thus caused between neighboring villages that last for generations, -resulting in a vast amount of rapine and suffering. In this condition -of mutual hostility they become the easy prey of the Arab adventurers, -succumbing to their extortion and rapacity with only the feeblest -resistance. - -No progress or improvement is made among this tribe; they seem to have -come to a permanent stand-still. The influence of intelligent and wise -chiefs does not avail to start them out of the degradation into which -their character and life have crystallized. Moenékuss was a sagacious -ruler, ambitious to improve the condition of his people. He paid smiths -to teach his sons how to work in copper and iron, but he could never -inspire them with his own generous and far-seeing spirit. They could -not emulate his virtues, being devoid of all magnanimity, sagacity, or -ambition. - -The disease called _safura_, the result of clay or earth eating, is -quite common among the Manyuema. Though slaves are more addicted to -this habit, yet it is not confined to them. They do not eat clay in -order to end their lives and their sufferings. The Manyuema women eat -it when pregnant, and many who do not lack food will form this fatal -appetite. The disease shows itself in swollen feet, loss of flesh, and -haggard face. The victim walks with great difficulty on account of -shortness of breath and weakness, and yet persists in eating till death -terminates his life. Only by the most powerful drastics and entire -abstinence from clay-eating can a cure be effected after one has become -diseased with _safura_. - -The Manyuema country is unhealthy, not so much from fevers as from a -general prostration caused by the damp, cold, and indigestion. This -debility is ascribed by some to the maize, which is the common food, -producing weakness of the bowels or choleraic purging. Ulcers form on -any part of the body that is abraded, and they are like a spreading -fungus, for the matter adhering to any part of the body forms a fresh -centre of propagation. These ulcers will eat very rapidly if not -allowed quiet. They are exceedingly difficult of healing, eating into -the bone, especially on the shins. Many slaves die of them. Rheumatism -is frequent, and many of the natives die of it. Tape-worm is common, -and no remedy is known to the Arabs or natives. - -One of the animals found in Manyuema is so remarkable as to require -some special notice. It is undoubtedly a new species of the chimpanzee, -and not the gorilla. The stuffed specimen of the latter in the British -Museum was seen by Susi and Chuma, Livingstone’s men, and they, -familiar with the sight of sokos, pronounced them unlike the gorilla, -yet as large and as strong. - -The description, by Livingstone, of this animal is so graphic and -interesting that we give it below in full:--“They often go erect, but -place the hand on the head, as if to steady its body. When thus seen -the soko is an ungainly beast. The most sentimental young lady would -not call him a ‘dear,’ but a bandy-legged, pot-bellied, low-looking -villain, without a particle of the gentleman in him. - -“Other animals, especially the antelopes, are graceful, and it is -pleasant to see them, either at rest or in motion. The natives also are -well-made, lithe, and comely to behold, but the soko, if large, would -do well to stand for a picture of the devil. - -“He takes away my appetite by his disgusting bestiality of appearance. -His light-yellow face shows off his ugly whiskers and faint apology for -a beard; the forehead, villainously low, with high ears, is well in the -background of the great dog-mouth; the teeth are slightly human, but -the canines show the beast by their large development. - -“The hands, or rather the fingers, are like those of the natives. The -flesh of the feet is yellow, and the eagerness with which the Manyuema -devour it leaves the impression that eating sokos was the first stage -by which they arrived at being cannibals. They say the flesh is -delicious. The soko is represented by some to be extremely knowing, -successfully stalking men and women while at their work, kidnapping -children and running up trees with them. - -“He seems to be amused by the sight of the young native in his arms, -but comes down when tempted by a bunch of bananas, and as he lifts that -drops the child; the young soko in such a case would cling closely to -the armpit of the elder. One man was cutting out honey from a tree, and -naked, when a soko suddenly appeared and caught him, then let him go. -A man was hunting, and missed in his attempt to stab a soko; it seized -the spear and broke it, then grappled with the man, who called to his -companions, ‘Soko has caught me!’ The soko bit off the ends of his -fingers and escaped unharmed. Both men are now alive at Bambarré. - -“The soko is so cunning, and has such sharp eyes that no one can stalk -him in front, without being seen; hence, when shot, it is always in the -back. When surrounded by men and nets, he is generally speared in the -back too; otherwise, he is not a very formidable beast. He is nothing, -as compared in power of damaging his assailant, to a leopard or lion, -but is more like a man unarmed, for it does not occur to him to use his -canine teeth, which are long and formidable. - -“Numbers of them come down in the forest within a hundred yards of our -camp, and would be unknown but for giving tongue like fox-hounds: this -is their nearest approach to speech. A man hoeing was stalked by a soko -and seized. He roared out, but the soko giggled and grinned, and left -him as if he had done it in play. A child caught up by a soko is often -abused by being pinched and scratched and let fall. - -“The soko kills the leopard occasionally by seizing both paws and -biting them so as to disable them; he then goes up a tree, groans -over his wounds, and sometimes recovers, while the leopard dies. At -other times both soko and leopard die. The lion kills him at once, and -sometimes tears his limbs off, but does not eat him. The soko eats no -flesh; small bananas are his dainties, but not maize. His food consists -of wild fruits, which abound. One, staféné, or Manyuema mamwa, is like -large, sweet sop, but indifferent in taste and flesh. The soko brings -forth at times twins. A very large soko was seen by Mohamad’s hunters -sitting picking his nails. They tried to stalk him, but he vanished. - -“Some Manyuema think that their buried dead rise as sokos, and one was -killed, with holes in his ears, as if he had been a man. He is very -strong and fears guns, but not spears; he never catches women. - -“Sokos collect together and make a drumming noise, some say with hollow -trees, then burst forth into loud yells, which are well imitated by the -natives’ embryotic music. When men hear them, they go to the sokos; but -sokos never go to men with hostility. Manyuema say, ‘Soko is a man, and -nothing bad in him.’ - -“If a man has no spear the soko goes away satisfied; but if wounded he -seizes the wrist, lops off the fingers and spits them out, slaps the -cheeks of his victim, and bites without breaking the skin. He draws out -a spear (but never uses it), and takes some leaves and stuffs them into -his wound to staunch the blood. He does not wish an encounter with an -armed man. He sees women do him no harm, and never molests them; a man -without a spear is nearly safe from him. - -“They live in communities of about ten, each having his own female. -An intruder from another camp is beaten off with their fists and loud -yells. If one tries to seize the female of another he is caught on the -ground, and all unite in boxing and biting the offender. A male often -carries the child, especially if they are passing from one patch of -forest to another over a grassy space; he then gives it to the mother.” - -Sometime after the soko hunt, which gave rise to the striking portrait -of the beast that Livingstone has left, Katomba presented to him a -young soko that had been caught when its mother was killed. “She sits -eighteen inches high; has fine, long black hair all over, which was -pretty, so long as it was kept in order by her dam. She is the least -mischievous of all the monkey tribe I have seen, and seems to know -that in me she has a friend, and sits quietly on the mat beside me. In -walking the first thing I observed is, that she does not tread on the -palms of her hands, but on the backs of the second line of bones of -the hands; in doing this the nails do not touch the ground, nor do the -knuckles. She uses the arms thus supported crutch-fashion, and hitches -herself along between them; occasionally, one hand is put down before -the other, and alternates with the feet, or she walks upright, and -holds up a hand to any one to carry her; if refused she turns her face -down and makes grimaces of the most bitter human weeping, wringing her -hands, and sometimes adding a fourth hand or foot to make the appeal -more touching. Grass or leaves she draws around her to make a nest, -and resents any one meddling with her property. She is a most friendly -little beast, and came up to me at once, making her chirrup of welcome, -smelled my clothing, and held out her hand to be shaken. I slapped her -palm without offence, though she winced. She began to untie the cord, -with which she was afterward bound, with fingers and thumbs in quite a -systematic way, and on being interfered with by a man, looked daggers, -and screaming, tried to beat him with her hands. She was afraid of his -stick and faced him, putting her back to me as a friend. She holds out -her hand for people to lift her up and carry her quite like a spoiled -child, then bursts into a passionate cry, somewhat like that of a -kite, wrings her hands quite naturally, as if in despair. She eats -everything, covers herself with a mat to sleep, and makes a nest of -grass or leaves, and wipes her face with a leaf.” - -A soko alive is thought by the natives to be a good charm for rain. -There being a drought, one was caught; but the captor met with the -usual fate of those men who, without weapons, contend with this animal; -he lost the ends of his fingers and toes. - - - - -CHAPTER CLXV. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -UNYAMWEZI. - - - SIGNIFICATION OF UNYAMWEZI -- EXTENT OF ITS TERRITORY -- CHARMING - SCENERY -- STANLEY’S DESCRIPTION -- TREES OF FOREST -- FRUIT-BEARING - TREES -- THE “MEDICINE MAN” -- CREDULITY OF THE PEOPLE -- DISEASE -- - PEN-PORTRAIT OF A MNYAMWEZI -- THE YANKEE OF AFRICA -- LOVE OF MUSIC - -- SINGULAR CUSTOMS IN REGARD TO BIRTH AND BURIAL -- OLD AGE SELDOM - SEEN -- PROBABLE EXTINCTION OF THIS TRIBE. - -Although an extended and interesting account of the people of Unyamwezi -has been given in a former portion of this work (see page 386), we -think our readers will be grateful for the additional sketch of them -compiled from Stanley’s “Travels and Adventures in Central Africa,” -resulting from his romantic and successful expedition in search of -Livingstone. - -The name Wanyamwezi, or Banyamwezi, as Livingstone gives it, is -derived, he says, from an ivory ornament of the shape of the new moon, -hung to the neck, with a horn reaching round over either shoulder. -The tradition is that their forefathers came from the sea coast, and -when people inquired after them they said, “We mean the men of the -moon ornament.” This ornament is worn very extensively now and a large -amount of ivory is used in its manufacture. Sometimes, however, the -curved tusks of hippopotami are substituted for ivory. - -If the name referred to the “moon ornament” as the people think, the -name would be Ba or Wamwezi, but Banyamwezi means probably Ba, _they or -people_, Nya, _place_, Mwezi, _moon_, people of the moon locality or -moonland. - - NOTE.--M is a prefix to denote a person of any country, as, for - example, M-jiji, a native of Jiji. U is a prefix to denote the - country, as U-jiji, meaning the country of the Jiji. Wa denotes - persons, thus, Wa-jiji, means people of the Jiji. Wa-nya-mwezi, the - people of Mwezi. - -The pronunciation of this word, Unyamwezi, by the natives is -Oo-nya-mwezi. Its meaning, according to the African explorers, Krapf, -Burton, Speke, is “Country of the Moon.” Mr. Desbrough Cooley thinks -it means “Lord of the World,” and its orthography, he thinks, should -be Monomoezi. Mr. Stanley, however, differs from them all, and gives -the following as the reason for his interpretation: There once lived -a powerful and successful king in Ukalaganza, the original name of -the country as known to the western tribes. His name was Mwezi, and -after his death his sons contended for the possession of his power. -The portions they secured as the result of their wars were named from -them. The people of the central portion, Ukalaganza, accepting the one -whom the old king had appointed his successor, came to be known at -length as Children of Mwezi, and the country as Unyamwezi, while the -other districts were called Konongo, Sagozi, Gunda, Simbiri, etc. This -theory, so in conflict with the opinion of other travellers, Stanley -bases upon a tradition related to him by the old chief of Masangi, -which lies on the road to Mfuto. He confirms it also by the fact that -the name of the king of Urundi is Mwezi, and the name of almost every -village in Africa is named from some chief either living or dead. - -This country contains about 24,500 square miles, and is divided into -districts known as Unyanyembe, the most populous, Ugunda, Usagara, -Ugara, Nguru, Usongo, etc. - -No portion of East or Central Africa equals Unyamwezi in beauty of -scenery. The blending of its forests with the clearings and plains, -the rocky elevations here and there seen rising above the vari-colored -leafage that lies like a carpet widely extended, constitute a view -of unusual attraction. Though there are no majestic mountains, no -picturesque or startling scenes, and a journey through the country does -not awaken the emotion of sublimity, yet the landscape, as far as the -eye can stretch in every direction, is one so lovely as to be forever -remembered. - -Stanley in describing it says, “The foliage is of all the colors of -the prism; but as the woods roll away into the distance, the calm, -mysterious haze enwraps them in its soft shroud, paints them first a -light blue, then gradually a deeper blue, until, in the distance, there -appears but a dim looming, and on gazing at its faded contour we find -ourselves falling into a day-dream, as indistinct in its outline as -the view which appears in the horizon. I defy any one to gaze on such -a scene without wishing his life would fade away as serenely as the -outlines of the forests of Unyamwezi.” - -These forests abound with a great variety of trees, the wood of which, -according to the peculiarity of each, is made useful by the natives. - -The mkurongo is harder and more lasting than hickory and is susceptible -of a very high polish. The pestle for pounding grain is made of this -tree. - -The bark from which their cloth is made comes from the mbugu. After -being thoroughly soaked, it is pounded and then dried and rubbed, so -that it resembles felt. The natives sometimes make ropes from this -bark, and also round boxes for storing grain. These they ornament in -various ways. - -Another tree, called the imbite, is capable of being ornamentally -carved, when made into the shape of doors and pillars. As it also emits -an agreeable odor, this quality, with its beautiful color, makes it a -choice and favorite wood. Stanley mentions some twenty other varieties, -most of which are made subservient to some useful purpose. These trees -abound everywhere in equatorial Africa. - -From the Guinea palm-tree the natives extract an intoxicating liquor, -called “tembo.” A toddy which they call “zogga” is made from plantains. - -There are various fruit-bearing trees in Central Africa, and the kinds -of grapes, some of which are poisonous, are numerous. The common -articles of food among the different tribes are sorghum, sesame, -millet, and maize or Indian corn, pulse, beans, and rice, with many -kinds of fish. There is one kind called “dogara,” which, though one -of the smallest, contributes more than any other to the food of the -people. It is minute, a kind of white-bait, and is caught in nets in -great quantities, in Lake Tanganyika. They are then dried in the sun or -salted, and often become an article of commerce as far as Unyanyembe. - -Belief in the power of the “medicine man” is almost unlimited. The -natives thought Stanley was able to make rain; that, with some -preparation, he could kill all the people of Mirambo, a hostile chief -who was making frequent raids upon them. They would carry their sick -to him, believing he could cure them. It was only by his most earnest -and positive assertion that he possessed no such power that he could -satisfy them. One old man took to him a fine, fat sheep and a dish of -vegetables, to enlist his services in curing a chronic dysentery, but -he refused them, disclaiming any ability to help him. - -This credulity of the people is the basis of the wide and sometimes -terrible sway of the “medicine man” in Africa. Says Stanley, “No -hunting expedition of Wanyamwezi starts without having consulted the -_mganga_ (medicine man), who, for a consideration, supplies them with -charms, potions, herbs, and blessings. A bit of the ear of a zebra, the -blood of a lion, the claw of a leopard, the lip of a buffalo, the tail -of a giraffe, the eyebrow of a harte-beest, are treasures not to be -parted with save for a monetary value. To their necks are suspended a -bit of quartz, polished and of triangular shape, and pieces of carved -wood, and an all-powerful talisman in the shape of a plant, sewed up -jealously in a small leathern pouch.” - -The same diseases to which civilized peoples are subject prevail in -Central and East Africa. The most terrible scourge of all is the -small-pox; its ravages are seen everywhere on the line of caravans and -in the depopulation of villages. A rigorous quarantine is attempted, -yet multitudes die by this foul and fearful disease. If any of a -caravan become sick with it, they are left in the wilderness, as the -caravan can not stop. The poor sufferers will not be received into any -village. They therefore betake themselves to the jungle, with store of -food and water, and there await the issue of recovery or death,--most -frequently the latter. The skulls bleaching in the air on the line of -every caravan indicate the ravages made by this loathsome disease. - -Mr. Stanley thinks the Wanyamwezi are the most remarkable tribe in -Central Africa. His fine characterization of them, given below, is -taken from his interesting book, “How I found Livingstone.” - -“A beau ideal of a Mnyamwezi to me will be a tall, long-limbed black -man, with a good-natured face, always with a broad smile upon it; -displaying in the upper row of teeth a small hole, which was cut out -when he was a boy to denote his tribe; with hundreds of long, wiry -ringlets hanging down his neck; almost naked, giving me a full view -of a form which would make an excellent model for a black Apollo. I -have seen many of this tribe in the garb of the freedmen of Zanzibar, -sporting a turban of new American sheeting, or wearing the long -_diskdasheh_ (shirt) of the Arab, presenting as fine and intelligent an -appearance as any Msawahili from the Zanzibar coast,--but I cannot rid -myself of my ideal. - -“A Mnyamwezi is the Yankee of Africa; he is a born trader and -traveller. From days immemorial his tribe has monopolized the carrying -of goods from one country to another. The Mnyamwezi is the camel, the -horse, the mule, the ass, the beast of burden to which all travellers -anxiously look to convey their luggage from the coast to the far -African interior. The Arab can go nowhere without his help; the white -traveller, bound on an exploring trip, cannot travel without him.... -He is like the sailor, having his habitat in certain sailors’ boarding -houses in great seaport towns, and, like the sailor, is a restless -rover. The sea-coast to a Mnyamwezi is like New York to an English -sailor. At New York the English sailor can re-ship with higher pay; so -can the Mnyamwezi re-hire himself on the coast, for a return trip, at -a higher rate than from Unyamwezi to the sea. He is in such demand, -and during war time so scarce, that his pay is great, ranging from -thirty-six to one hundred yards of cloth. A hundred of these _bites de -somme_ will readily cost the traveller 10,000 yards of cloth even as -far as Unyanyembe, a three months’ journey, and 10,000 yards of cloth -represent $5,000 in gold. - -“The Wanyamwezi, weighted with the bales of Zanzibar, containing -cottons and domestics from Massachusetts, calicoes from England, prints -from Muscat, cloths from Cutch, beads from Germany, brass wire from -Great Britain, may be found on the Lualaba, in the forests of Ukawendi, -on the hills of Uganda, the mountains of Karagwah, on the plains of -Urori, on the plateau of Ugogo, in the park lands of Ukonongo, in the -swamps of Useguhha, in the defiles of Usagara, in the wilderness of -Ubena, among the pastoral tribes of the Watuta, trudging along the -banks of the Rufigi, in slave-trading Kilwa,--everywhere throughout -Central Africa. - -“While journeying with caravans they are docile and tractable; in their -villages they are a merry-making set; on trading expeditions of their -own they are keen and clever; as Ruga-Ruga they are unscrupulous and -bold; in Ukonongo they are hunters; in Usukuma they are drovers and -iron smelters; in Lunda they are energetic searchers for ivory; on the -coast they are a wondering and awe-struck people.” - -The Wanyamwezi are very industrious and quite ingenious. They -smelt their iron, and make their weapons of war and implements of -agriculture. They are ready to exchange their hatchets, bill-hooks, -spears, bows, etc., for cloth. It is a common sight,--the peddler -endeavoring to make a barter trade with his various wares. He will sell -a first-class bow for four yards of sheeting, and two yards will buy a -dozen arrows. - -They are quite clever smiths and manufacture iron and copper wire. The -process is as follows: a heavy piece of iron with a funnel-shaped hole -is firmly fixed in the fork of a tree. A fine rod is then thrust into -it and a line attached to the first few inches which can be coaxed -through. A number of men haul on this line singing and dancing in tune -and thus it is drawn through the first drill; it is subsequently passed -through others to render it finer. Excellent wire is the result. - -Love of music is one of the characteristics of this tribe, as of almost -all Africans. Though the music is rude, yet those who hear it are not -usually the most accomplished and fastidious critics. It therefore has -its uses and merits. Sometimes it is made the vehicle of satire or -humor. The latest scandal or sensation is incorporated into the song, -for many of the people have the faculty of the improvisatore, and so -contribute to the amusement or interest of their villages by these -allusions to or criticisms of matters of public concern or personal -gossip. - -The women are generally very homely and coarse, unlike those of the -Batusi who are very often beautiful. Their chief ornament is of the -half-moon shape. They are not generous having learned the Arab adage -“nothing for nothing” yet they are respectful in deportment. - -This tribe have some very singular customs in regard to birth and -burial. “When a child is born,” says Mr. Stanley, “the father cuts the -caul, and travels with it to the frontier of his district, and there -deposits it under the ground; if the frontier be a stream, he buries -it on the banks; then taking the root of a tree, he conveys it, on his -return, and buries it at the threshold of his door. He then invites his -friends to a feast that he has prepared. He kills an ox or half a dozen -goats, and distributes pombe. The mother, when approaching childbirth, -hastens to the woods, and is there attended by a female friend. - -“After death the Wanyamwezi remove the body into the jungle, or, if a -person of importance, bury it in a sitting posture, or on its side, as -in Wagogo. On the march the body is merely thrown aside and left for -a prey to the hyena, the cleanest scavenger of the forest. When death -has taken away a member of a family, it is said by the relatives of the -deceased, that the ‘Miringu has taken him or her,’ or, ‘He or she is -lost,’ or, ‘It is God’s work.’” - -Very few old men are seen in Central Africa. There are the evidences in -every village of premature age, such as gray hair and bent forms. The -Wanyamwezi seem to be diminishing in numbers. What with emigration to -other tribes, the hardships of the life of travel and burden-bearing to -which many of them are exposed, and the ravages of the slave wars in -which their chiefs are engaged, this people is evidently dying out. It -is a saddening spectacle, this decay and disappearance of one of the -most intelligent and capable tribes of Africa. - -It is the testimony of Stanley that “eight out of ten of the bleached -skulls along the line of commerce in the interior are those of the -unfortunate Wanyamwezi, who succumbed to the perils and privations -attending the footsteps of every caravan. What a power in the land -might not a philanthropic government make of these people! What a -glorious testimony to the charity of civilization might they not -become! What docile converts to the gospel truths through a practical -missionary would they not make!” - - - - -CHAPTER CLXVI. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -UVINZA AND UHHA. - - - UVINZA, ITS LOCATION -- MODE OF SALUTATION -- GREAT MUTWARE OF - KIMENYI -- HIS EXTORTION -- THE CARAVAN STOPPED -- LONG PARLEY WITH - CHIEF MIONVU -- MIONVU’S SPEECH -- STANLEY’S REPLY -- MIONVU’S DEMAND - FOR TRIBUTE -- THE CHIEF INFLEXIBLE -- STANLEY ENRAGED, BUT POWERLESS - -- CONSULTATION WITH HIS MEN -- THEIR COUNSEL OF PEACE ADOPTED -- - ENORMOUS BONGA PAID -- STANLEY’S STORES SADLY REDUCED -- BOLD PLAN TO - ESCAPE THE ROBBERS -- ITS SUCCESS -- LIVINGSTONE FOUND. - -On the north of Unyanyembe is Uvinza, a rugged and somewhat -mountainous country. Its numerous ravines and ridges, while imparting -picturesqueness to the views, do not however contribute to its -productiveness. It is but poorly watered, the banks of Malagarazi -River being almost the only portion of great fertility. It has many -salt pans, from which the people manufacture their salt. Crossing the -Malagarazi, new customs and peculiarities greet the traveller. The -method of salutation is singular and tiresome. As persons approach, -they stretch out both hands to each other, uttering the words “Wake, -wake!” They then seize each other by the elbows, and rubbing each -other’s arms, say rapidly, “Wake, wake, waky, waky!” and finally -terminate the tiresome formula with grunts of “Huh, huh!” as token -of satisfaction. They dress in cloth when able to purchase it of the -caravans; but if poor, they use “goat-skins, suspended by a knot -fastened over the shoulder and falling over one side of their bodies.” - -After many perils and delays Stanley entered the Uhha country. The -boundary between Uvinza and Uhha, is a narrow, dry ditch. Numerous -small villages could be seen, without the usual defence of a stockade, -indicating that the people were living in quiet and without fear of -marauders. Halting at Kawanga he soon learned from the chief that he -was “the great _Mutware_ of Kimenyi under the king, and therefore the -tribute-gatherer for his Kiha majesty.” As an illustration of the -African character and the difficulties of travelling in the interior, -we give the narrative in Stanley’s own words:-- - -“He declared he was the only one in Kimenyi, an eastern division of -Uhha, who could demand tribute, and that it would be very satisfactory -to him and a saving of trouble to ourselves if we settled his claim of -twelve _doti_ of good cloth at once. We did not think it the best way -of proceeding, however, knowing as we did the character of the native -African; so we at once proceeded to diminish the demand, but after six -hours’ hot argument the _mutware_ only reduced it by two. This claim -was then settled upon the understanding that we should be allowed to -travel through Uhha, as far as Rusugi River, without being further -mulcted. - -“Leaving Kawanga early in the morning and continuing our march over -the boundless plain we were marching westward, joyfully congratulating -ourselves that within five days we should see that which I had come -far from civilization and through so many difficulties to see, and -were about passing a cluster of villages with all the confidence which -men possess against whom no one has further claim or word to say, when -I noticed two men darting from a group of natives, who were watching -us, and running toward the head of the expedition, with the object, -evidently, of preventing further progress. - -“The caravan stopped, and I walked forward to ascertain the cause from -the two natives. I was greeted politely by the two Wahha with the -usual _yambos_, and was then asked, ‘Why does the white man pass by the -village of the King of Uhha without salutation and a gift? Does not the -white man know that there lives a king in Uhha to whom the Wangwana and -Arabs pay something for the right of passage?’ - -“‘Why, we paid last night to the chief of Kawanga, who informed us he -was the man deputed by the King of Wahha to collect the toll.’ - -“‘How much did you pay?’ - -“‘Ten _doti_ of good cloth.’ - -“‘Are you sure?’ - -“‘Quite sure. If you ask him he will tell you so.’ - -“‘Well!’ said one of the Wahha, a fine, handsome, intelligent-looking -youth, ‘it is our duty to the king to halt you here until we find out -the truth of this. Will you walk to our village and rest yourselves, -under the shade of the trees until we can send messengers to Kawanga?’ - -“‘No, the sun is but an hour high, and we have far to travel; but in -order to show you we do not seek to pass through your country without -doing that which is right, we will rest where we now stand, and we will -send with your messenger two of our soldiers, who will show you the man -to whom we paid the cloth.’ - -“The messenger departed; but in the meantime the handsome youth, who -turned out to be a nephew of the king, whispered some order to a lad, -who immediately hastened away, with the speed of an antelope, to the -cluster of villages we had just passed. The result of this errand, -as we soon saw, was the approach of a body of warriors, about fifty -in number, headed by a tall, fine-looking man, who was dressed in a -crimson robe, called _joho_, two ends of which were tied in a knot over -the left shoulder; a new piece of American sheeting was folded like a -turban around his head, and a large, curved piece of polished ivory was -suspended to his neck. He and all his people were armed with spears and -bows and arrows, and their advance was marked with a deliberation that -showed they felt perfect confidence in any issue that might transpire. - -“The gorgeously-dressed chief was a remarkable man in appearance. His -face was oval in form, with high cheek-bones, eyes deeply sunk, a -prominent and bold forehead and a well-cut mouth; he was tall in figure -and perfectly symmetrical. - -“When near to us he hailed me with the words ‘Yambo, bana?’ (How do you -do, master?) in quite a cordial tone. - -“I replied cordially also, ‘Yambo, mutware?’ (How do you do, chief?) - -“We, myself and men, interchanged _yambos_ with his warriors, and there -was nothing to indicate that the meeting was of a hostile character. - -“The chief seated himself, his haunches resting on his heels, and -laying down his bow and arrows by his side, his men did likewise. I -seated myself on a bale, and each of my men sat down on their loads, -forming quite a semi-circle. The Wahha slightly outnumbered my party, -but while they were armed with only bows and arrows, spears and -knob-sticks, we were armed with rifles, muskets, revolvers, pistols, -and hatchets. - -“All were seated, and deep silence was maintained by the assembly. Then -the chief spoke: ‘I am Mionvu, the great _Mutware_ of Kimenyi and am -next to the king, who lives yonder,’ pointing to a large village near -some naked hills, about ten miles to the north. ‘I have come to talk -with the white man. It has always been the custom of the Wangwana and -the Arabs to make a present to the king when they pass through his -country. Does not the white man mean to pay the king’s dues? Why does -the white man halt in the road? Why will he not enter the village of -Lukomo, where there are food and shade, where we can discuss this thing -quietly? Does the white man mean to fight? I know well he is stronger -than we are. His men have guns, and the Wahha have but bows and arrows -and spears; but Uhha is large and our villages are many. Let him look -about him everywhere: all is Uhha, and our country extends much farther -than he can see or walk in a day. The King of Uhha is strong, yet he -wishes friendship only with the white man. Will the white man have war -or peace?’ A deep murmur of assent followed this speech of Mionvu from -his people and disapprobation, blended with uneasiness, from my men.” - -Stanley replied as follows:-- - -“‘Mionvu, the great _Mutware_, asks me if I have come for war. When did -Mionvu ever hear of white men warring against black men? Mionvu must -understand that white men are very different from the black. White men -do not leave their country to fight the black people, neither do they -come here to buy ivory or slaves. They come to make friends with the -black people; they come to search for rivers and lakes and mountains; -they come to discover what countries, what peoples, what rivers, what -lakes, what forests, what plains, what mountains and hills are in your -country, that when they go back they may tell the white kings and -men and children. The white people are different from the Arabs and -Wangwana, the white people know everything and are very strong; when -they fight the Arabs and Wangwana run away. We have great guns which -thunder, and when they shoot the earth trembles; we have guns which -carry bullets further than you can see. Even with these little things -(pointing to my revolvers) I could kill ten men quicker than you could -count. I could kill Mionvu now, yet I talk to him as a friend. I wish -to be a friend to Mionvu and to all black people. Will Mionvu say what -I can do for him?’ - -“As these words were translated to him, imperfectly I suppose but still -intelligibly, the faces of the Wahha showed how well they appreciated -them. Once or twice I thought I detected something like fear, but -my assertions that I desired peace and friendship with them soon -obliterated all such feelings.” - -Mionvu replied,-- - -“‘The white man tells me he is friendly: why does he not come to our -village? Why does he stop on the road? The sun is hot. Mionvu will not -speak here any more. If the white man is a friend he will come to the -village.’ - -“‘We must stop now. It is noon. You have broken our march. We will -go and camp in your village,’ I said, at the same time rising, and -pointing to the men to take up their loads. - -“We were compelled to camp, there was no help for it; the messengers -had not returned from Kawanga. Having arrived at his village, Mionvu -cast himself at full length under the scanty shade afforded by a few -trees without the _boma_. About 2 P. M. the messengers returned, saying -it was true the chief of Kawanga had taken ten cloths, not however for -the King of Uhha, but for himself. - -“Mionvu, who, evidently, was keen-witted and knew perfectly what he was -about, now roused himself and began to make miniature fagots of thin -canes, ten to each fagot, and shortly he presented ten of these small -bundles, which together contained one hundred, to me, saying, ‘Each -stick represents a cloth.’ The amount of the _bonga_ required by the -King of Uhha was _one hundred cloths_,--nearly two bales. - -“Recovering from our astonishment, which was almost indescribable, -we offered _ten_. ‘Ten to the King of Uhha! Impossible. You do not -stir from Lukomo until you pay one hundred,’ exclaimed Mionvu in a -significant manner. - -“I returned no answer, but went to my hut, which Mionvu had cleared -for my use, and Bombay, Asmani, Mabruski, and Chowpereh were invited -to come to me for consultation. Upon my asking them if we could not -fight our way through Uhha, they became terror-stricken, and Bombay, -in imploring accents, asked me to think well what I was about to do, -because it was useless to enter on a war with the Wahha. Said he, ‘Uhha -is a plain country; we cannot hide anywhere. Every village will rise -all about us; and how can forty-five men fight thousands of people? -Think of it, my dear master, and do not throw your life away for a few -rags of cloth.’ - -“‘Well, but, Bombay, this is robbery. Shall we give the fellow -everything he asks? He might as well ask me for all the cloth and all -my guns without letting him see that we can fight.’ - -“‘No, no, dear master; don’t think of it for a moment. Pay Mionvu what -he asks and let us go away from here. This is the last place we shall -have to pay, and in four days we shall be in Ujiji.’ - -“‘Did Mionvu tell you that this is the last place we should have to -pay?’ - -“‘He did, indeed.’” - -Each of the others whom Stanley had chosen as counsellors advised him -to yield to the extortion of Mionvu and pay rather than provoke a fight. - -“‘Pay, _bana_,’ said Chowpereh. ‘It is better to get along quietly in -this country. If we were strong enough they would pay us.’ - -“‘Well, then, Bombay and Asmani, go to Mionvu, and offer him twenty; if -he will not take twenty, give him thirty; if he refuses thirty, give -him forty; then go up to eighty, slowly; make plenty of talk; not one -_doti_ more. I swear to you, I will shoot Mionvu if he demands more -than eighty. Go, and remember to be wise.’ - -“I will cut the matter short. At 9 P. M. sixty-four _doti_ were handed -over to Mionvu for the King of Uhha, six _doti_ for himself, and five -_doti_ for his sub,--altogether seventy-five _doti_, a bale and a -quarter. - -“No sooner had we paid than they began to fight amongst themselves over -the booty. At dawn we were on the road, very silent and sad.” - -After a four hours’ march, crossing the Kanengi River, they entered -the _boma_ of Kahirigi, and were told that the brother of the King of -Uhha lived there. This roused the apprehension that another exaction -of _bonga_ would be made, despite Mionvu’s assertion that his was -the last. The king’s brother demanded thirty _doti_, or half a bale. -Stanley was in a rage, ready and willing to fight and die rather than -be “halted by a set of miserable, naked robbers.” - -He was also informed that there were five more chiefs about two hours’ -distance apart from each other. This intelligence led him to adopt a -plan of evading this extortion. Accordingly, arrangements were secretly -made for leaving the usual route and taking to the jungle; and though -the plan came near being defeated several times, yet at length success -crowned the adventurous undertaking, and Stanley “had passed the -boundary of wicked Uhha and entered Ukaranga,--an event that was hailed -with extravagant shouts of joy.” - -He saw inevitable ruin before him if his cloth was to be filched -from him at this rate by other chiefs. Beggary or bravery was the -alternative. He chose the latter. In a few days afterward he found -Livingstone at Ujiji. - - - - -CHAPTER CLXVII. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE MONBUTTOO. - - - DR. SCHWEINFURTH, THE DISCOVERER OF THIS TRIBE -- THEIR LOCALITY -- - THEIR GOVERNMENT -- KINGS DOGBERRA AND MUNZA -- BONGWA AND HIS WIFE - VISIT DR. SCHWEINFURTH -- RECEPTION OF SCHWEINFURTH BY IZINGERRIA -- - PIPES OF THE MONBUTTOO -- THEIR ACCURACY OF JUDGMENT -- WONDERFUL - BEAUTY OF THE COUNTRY -- KING MUNZA’S COURT -- ARROWS OF THE - MONBUTTOO -- DRESS AND MARTIAL EQUIPMENTS -- NEGLECT OF AGRICULTURE - -- SPHERE OF THE WOMEN -- SUBJECTION OF THE MEN -- UNCHASTITY OF BOTH - SEXES -- THEIR CANNIBALISM. - -Dr. G. A. Schweinfurth, a young German explorer, having received -a grant of money from the Humboldt Institution in 1868, landed in -Egypt and thence penetrated the “heart of Africa.” Following out the -footsteps of Sir Samuel Baker, he took a westerly course and passing -through the country of Niam-niam (of which there is an account on -pages 440-444) he visited the hitherto unknown kingdom of Monbuttoo. -His scientific and ethnological discoveries have placed his name among -the eminent explorers of the African continent, and the results of his -explorations, published under the title, “In the Heart of Africa,” are -given to the public in a style that is rarely equalled. - -On the south of the Niam-niam territory, between the parallels of 3° -and 4° north lat. and 28° and 29° east long. there is a district of -some 4,000 square miles inhabited by a people differing widely from -the usual type of the negro race. They are of a brownish complexion, -and are in many respects superior to the tribes of Central Africa. -They are generally called Monbuttoo, though the name of Gurrugurroo is -applied by the ivory traders. It is derived from the custom universal -among this people of piercing their ears. The density of population, -estimated from the observations of Dr. Schweinfurth, is probably not -exceeded by any portion of the continent. If the average be, as he -thought, at least two hundred and fifty inhabitants to a square mile, -the aggregate must be about a million people. - -The government of this tribe, when Dr. Schweinfurth visited it, was in -the hands of two chieftains who had divided the sovereignty between -them. Dogberra was the king of the Eastern Division, while the Western -was under the sway of Munza, a more powerful and capable man. His -father was Tikkibah, who was the sole ruler of the Monbuttoo country, -but had been murdered by Dogberra, his brother, some thirteen years -before. - -Nembey, a local chieftain under Dogberra, was visited by Schweinfurth -as soon as he entered the Monbuttoo territory, and showed his friendly -disposition by going to the hut of the explorer with his wives and -carrying a present of poultry. Schweinfurth was treated in the same -friendly way by Bongwa, another chief whose district he entered. This -Bongwa was subject to pay tribute to Munza and Dogberra alike, as his -possessions were contiguous to those of the rival kings. - -Bongwa, attended by his wife, made a visit to the camp of Schweinfurth -and permitted him the unusual privilege of taking a sketch of both -himself and his better-half. Madame Bongwa took her seat on a Monbuttoo -bench, clad in nothing save “a singular band like a saddle-girth -across her lap, in the fashion of all the women of the country.” Her -complexion was several shades lighter than that of her husband. The -tattooing upon her person was quite remarkable and consisted of two -different kinds. A portion ran over the bosom and shoulders, forming a -line and ornament just where our ladies wear their lace collars, which -terminated in large crosses on the breast. The other pattern was traced -over the stomach, and stood out in such relief that it must have been -made by a hot iron. “It consisted of figures set in square frames, -and looked like the tracery which is sculptured on cornices and old -arches. Bodkins of ivory projected from her towering chignon, which was -surmounted by a plate as large as a dollar, fastened on by a comb with -fine teeth manufactured of porcupine-quills.” - -The reception of Dr. Schweinfurth and his party by Izingerria, King -Munza’s viceroy and brother, was so hospitable as to be worthy of -narration. It was somewhat late in the afternoon that they made their -entrance into the viceroy’s mbanga. Both sides of the roadway were -thronged with wondering people who were attracted by curiosity to see -the white strangers. The officials were arrayed in full state, their -hats ornamented with plumes waving in the air. Their shield-bearers -accompanied them, and benches were brought so that they might receive -their guests with ease and sit comfortably to observe their appearance -in the interview. - -When Schweinfurth visited Izingerria in the evening at his dwelling, -he found him sitting on his bench in the open space, surrounded by -his chief men. It is a custom of the country that all persons of any -distinction, heads of families and officials, when they pay a visit, -take with them their slaves who carry their benches, because, unlike -the Turks, the Munbuttoo consider it very unbecoming to sit upon the -ground even though it be covered with mats. The bench is indispensable. -The women sit on stools having only one leg. Having been made -acquainted with this custom, Schweinfurth always gave instructions that -some of his party should accompany him carrying his cane chair. - -In this interview they sat opposite each other, and by a double -translation were enabled to confer together till late in the night. -There were none of the usual expression of hospitalities. Even the -explorer’s cigars did not attract the natives, though they smoke -tobacco excessively, nor did they offer the accustomed eleusine beer. - -The Monbuttoo pipes, though of a primitive character are ingenious and -serviceable. They are made of the mid-rib of a plantain leaf generally, -though the upper classes often use a metal tube, some five feet long -and made by their smiths. “The lower extremity of the pipe is plugged -up and an opening is made in the side, near the end, into which is -inserted a plantain leaf twisted up and filled with tobacco. This -extemporized bowl is changed as often as requisite, sometimes every few -minutes, by the slaves who are kept in attendance. The only tobacco -that is known here is the Virginian.” Pipes constructed in this novel -way have a decided merit in modifying the rankness of the tobacco as -perfectly as if it had been inhaled through the water-reservoir of a -narghileh. - -It excited the wonder of Dr. Schweinfurth that the natives could so -accurately, by the indication of the finger, point to any particular -place. Their skill in telling the hour of the day by the elevation of -the sun was equally surprising. He could rarely detect an error of -more than half an hour in their conjectures. On the plains and deserts -like those of Nubia a straight course is often pursued for many miles -without the least variation. The exactitude of their estimate is so -remarkable that if a lance be laid upon the ground the path to which -it directs will lead with scarcely a hair’s-breadth deviation to the -destination desired. This singular precision of judgment has been -observed and mentioned by other African travellers. - -Munza’s kingdom which Schweinfurth at length entered lies about midway -between the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean in the “heart of Africa.” The -description of this remote region, hitherto unvisited by the white man, -we give in his own language:-- - -“Nothing could be more charming than that last day’s march, which -brought us to the limit of our wanderings. The twelve miles which -led to Munza’s palace were miles enriched by such beauty as might be -worthy of Paradise. The plantain groves harmonized so perfectly with -the clustering oil-palms that nothing could surpass the perfection of -the scene; whilst the ferns that adorned the countless stems in the -background of the landscape enhanced the charms of the tropical groves. -A clear and invigorating atmosphere contributed to the enjoyment of it -all, refreshing water and grateful shade being never far away. In front -of the native dwellings towered the splendid fig-trees of which the -spreading coronets defied the passage of the sun. The crowds of bearers -made their camp around the stem of a colossal _Cordia Abyssinica_, -which stood upon the open space in front of the abode of the local -chief and reminded me of the Abyssinian villages, where this tree is -cultivated.... These trees with their goodly coronets of spreading -foliage are the survivors from generations that are gone, and form a -comely ornament in well-nigh all the villages of the Monbuttoo. - -“And then, finally, conspicuous amidst the massy depths of green was -descried the palace of the king. Halting on the hither side of a -stream at a place clear of trees they fixed their camp. In front was -visible a sloping area covered with a multitude of huts, some in a -conical shape and others like sheds. Surmounting all with ample courts, -broad and imposing, unlike anything we had seen since we left the -edifices of Cairo, upreared itself the spacious pile of King Munza’s -dwelling.” - -The king is invested with large prerogatives, and always appears in -great state, accompanied with a numerous body of courtiers. Whenever he -leaves his residence he is attended by hundreds of his retinue, besides -his special body-guard, and a large number of trumpeters, drummers, and -subordinates with great iron bells lead the procession. Munza had three -viceroys in the persons of his brothers, and next to them were the -sub-chiefs who were governors of the provinces, and generally selected -from the numerous members of the blood royal. - -The subordinate chiefs, to whom are assigned separate and well-defined -portions of the Monbuttoo territory, are accustomed to surround -themselves with the tokens of authority and state, little inferior to -those of their respective kings. - -Next to them in rank are the chief officers of state, five in number. -“These are the keeper of the weapons, the master of the ceremonies, the -superintendent of the commissariat stores, the master of the household -to the royal ladies, and the interpreter for intercourse with strangers -and foreign rulers.” Besides, there is a vast number of civil officers -and overseers in various districts of the land to guard the interests -and maintain the prerogatives and dignity of the sovereign. In addition -to the courtiers there are numerous officials assigned to special -duties, such as private musicians, trumpeters and buglers, eunuchs and -jesters, ballad singers and dancers, who are retained to give splendor -to the court and furnish amusement on public and festal occasions. -There are also stewards whose duty is to maintain order at the feasts, -and they are authorized to inflict bodily chastisement if any be guilty -of disturbance and indecorum. - -The arrows of the Monbuttoo differ from those of other tribes except -the A-Banga, by being furnished at the extremity of the shaft with -two wings. These are made either of pieces of plantain leaves or of -hairs of the tail of the genet. The points, when not of iron, are made -of a kind of wood that is almost as hard as iron. The shaft consists -of the firm, reedy steppe-grass, and is about the size of a common -lead-pencil. Schweinfurth says, “by a cruel refinement of skill, which -might almost be styled diabolical, they contrive to place one of the -joints of the reed just below the barbs, with the design that the -arrow should break off short as soon as it has inflicted the wound, -making it a very difficult matter to extract the barbs from the flesh. -The usual method of extracting a lance head is to take a knife and make -a sufficiently large incision in the wounded muscle for the barb to be -withdrawn, but, in fact, the result generally is that very jagged and -troublesome wounds are inflicted.” - -The Monbuttoo resemble the A-Banga in their dress and martial -equipments. They have the custom of piercing the ears of both sexes so -that quite a large stick can be run through the opening. In order to -effect this the concave portion of the ear is cut out. This tribe, as -well as the A-Banga, have by this peculiarity received the name from -the Nubians of Gurrugurroo (derived from the word gurgur, which means -“bored,”) to distinguish them from Niam-niam. Both the first-mentioned -tribes practise circumcision, while the latter allow no mutilation of -the human body. - -This people, living in so remote and secluded a region, and having no -intercourse with Mohammedan or Christian nations, have never learned -the art of weaving. Accordingly their clothing is made of the bast from -the bark of the fig-trees, which are so much prized that they may be -seen contiguous to almost every hut. The custom of wearing skins, which -obtains among the Niam-niam, does not exist among this tribe save when -a fancy dress is needed for dancers. There is a singular absence of -domestic animals among the Monbuttoo, with the exception of the little -dogs known as the “nessey,” and their poultry. They do not engage in -cattle-breeding, and have only one specimen of the swine family, the -potamochoerus, which they keep in a half-tame state. - -Their supply of meat for food is obtained in their hunting expeditions, -their taste giving preference to the flesh of elephants, buffaloes, -wild boars, and antelopes. As they understand the art of preserving -meat they are not under the necessity of keeping cattle or resorting -constantly to the field to supply their ever-recurring wants. - -There is very little that can be called agriculture among them, the -soil producing very abundantly and without the need of much care or -cultivation. Besides, it is somewhat remarkable that what is the -common feed of the tribes in the interior of Africa, viz. sorghum and -pencillaria, are entirely disregarded by this people. They are too -idle to devote any time to the raising of cereals. The cultivation of -plantain, which is common, requires very little attention; all that -is requisite is to let the old plants die down where they are and -simply stick the young shoots in the ground after it has been softened -by rain. The Monbuttoo exhibit a remarkable discrimination in the -selection of plants, being able to tell whether a shoot will bear fruit -or not, and thus avoid those not worth the trouble of planting,--a -faculty that would be of great service to gardeners everywhere. There -are only a few plants that they cultivate at all, and these are such -as require but the least possible exertion. The sesame, earthnuts, -sugar-canes, and tobacco constitute the bulk of their products from the -soil. - -This work of tillage and of gathering the harvest is the sphere of the -women, the men spending the day in lounging, talking, and smoking, -except when engaged in war or the hunt. They avoid all labor. In the -morning they may be seen reclining under the shade of the oil-palms -upon their carved benches and regaling themselves with tobacco. In the -middle of the day they betake themselves to the cool halls where they -can give utterance to their opinions with entire freedom. These groups -form an animated picture of the social life of these distant people. -Their vivacity and gesticulation are truly visible in all these noonday -gatherings of the Monbuttoo men. - -The manufacture of pottery is also here confined exclusively to the -women as in other parts of Africa. The men however are the smiths, and -they share the work of basket-making and wood-carving with the women. -The greater portion of the manual labor, it will be seen, is performed -by the weaker sex. While, however, they are subjected to this servile -labor, the relation of wives to their husbands is one of independence -and authority. - -The subjection of men was illustrated by the answer made when they -were solicited to sell anything: “Oh, ask my wife; it is hers.” -Polygamy prevails among this people, and very little regard is paid -to the obligations of marriage. Considering their intelligence and -general improvement in some of the arts of civilization, rendering -them superior to most other tribes, the character of the women, in -respect to deportment and chastity, is an anomaly. They suffer greatly -in comparison with the Niam-niam women, who are modest and retiring. -The conduct of the men and women toward each other is one of offensive -laxity. Many of the latter indulged in gross obscenity, and the -immodesty of this sex, generally, far exceeded anything Schweinfurth -had seen among other tribes, even the lowest. The contrast of this -general freedom and unchastity, with so much that is commendable and -interesting in the character of the Monbuttoo, excited his surprise. - -In the culinary arts they exhibit a very considerable superiority -over the African tribes. Yet blended with this higher culture in the -mode of preparing their food there is another horrid anomaly. Human -fat is in universal use among them, and this leads us to consider -their cannibalism. Among no people of the continent is the eating -of human flesh so much a recognized and systematic custom as among -the Monbuttoo. The testimony of Dr. Schweinfurth we give in his own -language: “Surrounded as the Monbuttoo are by a number of people -who are blacker than themselves, and who, being inferior to them in -culture, are consequently held in great contempt, they have just the -opportunity which they want for carrying on expeditions of war or -plunder that result in the acquisition of a booty which is especially -coveted by them, consisting of human flesh. The carcasses of all who -fall in battle are distributed upon the battle-field, and are prepared -by drying for transport to the homes of the conquerors. They drive -their prisoners before them without remorse, as butchers would drive -sheep to the shambles, and those are only reserved to fall victims on -a later day to their horrible and sickening greediness. During our -residence at the court of Munza, the general rumor was quite current, -that nearly every day some little child was sacrificed to supply his -meal. It would hardly be expected that many opportunities would be -afforded to strangers of witnessing the natives at their repast, and -to myself there occurred only two instances when I came upon any of -them whilst they were actually engaged in preparing human flesh for -consumption. The first of these happened by my coming unexpectedly upon -a number of young women who had a supply of boiling hot water upon -the clay floor in front of the doorway of a hut, and were engaged in -the task of scalding the hair off the lower half of a human body. The -operation, so far as it was effected, had changed the black skin into a -fawny gray, and the disgusting sight could not fail to make me think of -the soddening and scouring of our fatted swine. On another occasion I -was in a hut and observed a human arm hanging over the fire, obviously -with the design of being at once dried and smoked. - -“Incontrovertible tokens and indirect evidence of the prevalence of -cannibalism were constantly turning up at every step we took. On one -occasion Mohammed and myself were in Munza’s company, and Mohammed -designedly turned the conversation to the topic of human flesh, and put -the direct question to the king, how it happened at this precise time, -while we were in the country, there was no consumption of human flesh? -Munza expressly said, ‘that being aware that such a practice was held -in aversion by us, he had taken care that it should only be carried on -in secret.’” - -There was no opportunity granted to any of Schweinfurth’s caravan of -seeing the Monbuttoo at their meals. The Nubians had conscientious -scruples which forbade their partaking food with these cannibals. The -others, belonging to inferior native tribes, as the Mittoo or Bonga -servants, were regarded as unworthy, being uncircumcised and savages, -to sit at meal with the Monbuttoo. - -Schweinfurth bought, with pieces of copper, quite a number of human -skulls, that are now in the Anatomical Museum, in Berlin,--the -unquestionable proofs that this people are unsurpassed in their -devotion to this degrading and horrible practice; yet they are a -remarkable and in many respects a noble race of men, “who display a -certain national pride, and are endowed with an intellect and judgment -such as few natives of the African wilderness can boast, men to whom -one may put a reasonable question and who will return a reasonable -answer.” - - - - -CHAPTER CLXVIII. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -THE PYGMIES. - - - A TRADITION OF THE CENTURIES -- AN ETHNOLOGICAL QUESTION SETTLED -- - DR. SCHWEINFURTH’S DISCOVERY OF THE AKKA RACE -- HIS INTERVIEW WITH - ADIMOKOO -- WAR-DANCE OF THE LITTLE PYGMY -- CORPS OF AKKA WARRIORS - -- DR. SCHWEINFURTH’S PYGMY PROTEGÉ, NSEWUE -- PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES - OF THE AKKA -- THEIR RESEMBLANCE TO THE BUSHMEN -- DR. SCHWEINFURTH’S - CONCLUSIONS IN REGARD TO THE ORIGIN OF THE PYGMIES. - -One of the chief results of Dr. Schweinfurth’s travels in Africa is -the solution of a problem that for thousands of years has remained -without any satisfactory answer. The ethnological question respecting -the existence of a dwarf race in Central Africa, which has occasioned -so much discussion, this traveller has forever settled. The classical -writers of the centuries gone make mention of the Pygmies. The poet of -the Iliad alludes to them as though the fact of their existence had -been long and well-known. Historians like Herodotus and Aristotle, as -well as the poets, give similar testimony. For three or four centuries -before the Christian era, the Greeks seem to have fully believed in the -existence of a dwarf race in equatorial Africa. - -So, too, modern travellers on the Nile have much to say about these -small people. Du Chaillu asserts that he met them in Ashango Land. -Knapf says he saw one on the eastern coast. But despite all the ancient -traditions from the earlier ages and the testimony of recent explorers, -the existence of such a race has been stoutly denied. It has been -regarded as the “immortal myth of poetry,” over which scholars and -travellers have fought a long and, till recently, only a drawn battle. -To Dr. Schweinfurth is to be ascribed the credit of having turned the -tide of this conflict and caused victory to perch on the banners of -those who have believed in the veritable existence of the Pygmy race. - -This traveller found that his Nubian attendants never wearied of -talking about the Automoli or dwarfs, whose country they were daily -approaching. It seemed strange that they should be so thoroughly -possessed with the conviction of the existence of such a people. They -would state, with the utmost confidence, that south of the Niam-niam -land lived a race not more than three feet in height and wearing beards -so long as to reach to their knees. They described them as armed with -lances and accustomed to creep beneath the bellies of elephants and -kill them, so adroitly managing their own movements as to avoid any -injury from the trunk of the infuriated beasts. This skill, it was -represented, made them of great service to the ivory traders. The -name assigned them was “Shebber-diginto,” meaning the growth of the -elongated beard. - -That those of Dr. Schweinfurth’s attendants and servants who had been -attached to the Niam-niam expedition should be such firm believers in -the fact of a dwarf race that they never described the wonders and -splendors of the court of the cannibal kings without referring to and -describing the Pygmies who filled the office of court buffoons, excited -the surprise of the traveller, and awakened the keenest desire to -solve, if possible, the vexed question of the ages. He could not resist -the impression that there must be some substantial basis for these -unequivocal and positive assertions of the natives. The way in which -his doubts were all dispelled and this ethnological problem of the -centuries solved is graphically described by him:-- - -“Several days elapsed after my taking up my residence by the palace -of the Monbuttoo king without my having a chance to get a view of the -dwarfs, whose fame had so keenly excited my curiosity. My people, -however, assured me that they had seen them. I remonstrated with them -for not having secured me an opportunity of seeing for myself, and -for not bringing them into contact with me. I obtained no other reply -but that the dwarfs were too timid to come. After a few mornings my -attention was arrested by a shouting in the camp, and I learned that -Mohammed had surprised one of the Pygmies in attendance upon the king, -and was conveying him, in spite of a strenuous resistance, straight to -my tent. I looked up, and _there_, sure enough, was the strange little -creature, perched upon Mohammed’s right shoulder, nervously hugging his -head, and casting glances of alarm in every direction. Mohammed soon -deposited him in the seat of honor. A royal interpreter was stationed -at his side. Thus, at last, was I able veritably to feast my eyes upon -a living embodiment of the myths of some thousand years. - -Eagerly, and without loss of time, I proceeded to take his portrait. -I pressed him with innumerable questions, but to ask for information -was an easier matter altogether than to get an answer. There was the -greatest difficulty in inducing him to remain at rest, and I could -only succeed by exhibiting a store of presents. Under the impression -that the opportunity before me might not occur again, I bribed the -interpreter to exercise his influence to pacify the little man, to set -him at his ease, and to induce him to lay aside any fear of me that he -might entertain. Altogether we succeeded so well that in a couple of -hours the Pygmy had been measured, sketched, feasted, presented with -a variety of gifts, and subjected to a minute catechism of searching -questions. - -His name was Adimokoo. He was the head of a small colony, which was -located about half a league from the royal residence. With his own -lips I heard him assert that the name of his nation was Akka, and I -further learned that they inhabit large districts to the south of the -Monbuttoo, between lat. 2° and 1° N. A portion of them are subject -to the Monbuttoo king, who, desirous of enhancing the splendor of -his court by the addition of any available natural curiosities, had -compelled several families of the Pygmies to settle in the vicinity. - -My Niam-niam servants, sentence by sentence, interpreted to me -everything that was said by Adimokoo to the Monbuttoo interpreter, who -was acquainted with no dialects but those of his own land. - -In reply to my question put to Adimokoo as to where his country was -situated, pointing toward the south-south-east, he said, “Two days’ -journey and you come to the village of Mummery; on the third day you -will reach the River Nalobe; the fourth day you arrive at the first of -the villages of the Akka.” - -The patience of Adimokoo having been exhausted by the persistent and -prolonged questioning of Dr. Schweinfurth, he made a sudden, violent -effort to escape from his curious inquisitor, but being surrounded by -so many in the tent his attempt was fruitless. After some persuasion -he was prevailed upon to go through with some of the war-dances -characteristic of his race. His dress was like that of the Monbuttoo, -and he was armed with a small lance and a bow and arrow. The height of -this interesting representative of the Pygmies was four feet and ten -inches, which is about the average measurement of these small people. -Dr. Schweinfurth was familiar with the war-dances of the Niam-niam, -and they had excited his astonishment by the wonderful evolutions -displayed; but the exhibition that this dwarf gave surpassed all he had -ever seen. Notwithstanding his bandy legs and large, bloated belly and -his age, his rapid and dexterous movements were simply marvellous. The -spectators were convulsed with laughter at the grotesque expressions -that accompanied the leaps and various attitudes assumed by this little -fellow. - -Dr. Schweinfurth won the confidence of Adimokoo, and loading him with -presents sent him away, expressing the desire to see others of his -people, and promising that they should lose nothing by making him -a visit. Having overcome their fear of the stranger, some of them -visited him almost every day. It is to be regretted that Schweinfurth’s -sudden departure from the Monbuttoo territory interrupted his study of -this singular and interesting race, and prevented him from learning -all their peculiarities. A somewhat amusing incident occurred which -corroborates Dr. Schweinfurth’s discovery. Mummery, brother and viceroy -of King Munza, was returning from a campaign against the Momvoo. Among -his soldiers was a corps of Akka warriors, the Akka being tributary to -him. Dr. Schweinfurth had occasion to pass through the village where -these troops were halted. Just as he reached the open space in front -of the royal halls he found himself surrounded by what he supposed to -be a throng of rude, insulting boys. They pointed their arrows at him -and made a show of fight, and treated him with so much disrespect as -to excite his indignation. But his Niam-niam attendants immediately -corrected his misapprehension. “They are Tikkitikki” (the Niam-niam -word for Akka), said they. “You imagine that they are boys, but in -truth they are men; nay, men that can fight.” Mummery discovering the -situation, at once relieved Schweinfurth’s fears. The strange spectacle -of such a company of trained warriors, yet all so small, deeply -impressed the mind of the traveller, and he resolved to inspect their -camp the next morning. But his purpose was defeated, for Mummery and -all his followers took an early departure; and thus, as Schweinfurth -says, “‘like the baseless fabric of a vision,’ this people, so near -and yet so unattainable, had vanished into the thin obscurity of the -innermost continent.” - -None of the measurements taken of these Pygmies much exceeded four -feet and ten inches, except in instances in which they were descended -from the Monbuttoo by intermarriages. Dr. Schweinfurth secured one of -these little men and made him his _protégé_, departing from an hitherto -invariable rule, allowing Nsewue (this being the name of the little -Akka), to be the companion of his meals, a privilege he never allowed -to any other native African. - -The race of dwarfs does not differ materially from surrounding tribes, -except in size. They have a redder or brighter complexion, and reports -of travellers vary in regard to the growth of the hair. The Niam-niam, -however, uniformly represent the Pygmies as having long beards, and yet -Schweinfurth never found this characteristic in any of the Akka who -came under his notice. - -The head of the Akka is disproportionately large and is balanced on -a weak, thin neck. The upper portion of the body is long; the chest -being flat and much contracted, widens out in the lower part, to -support the huge belly. From behind, their bodies seem to form a curve -that resembles the letter S. Turning their feet inward, unlike other -Africans, who walk straight, they have a waddling gait. Nsewue could -never carry a dish without spilling a part of its contents, as every -step was a kind of lurch, and he was a good representative of the -physical peculiarities of his race. - -The structure of their hands is singularly delicate and handsome. The -most marked peculiarity of these people is the shape of the skull and -head. The prognathous character of the face is developed to a large -degree, the facial angles in the two portraits that Schweinfurth gives, -being 60° and 66° respectively. “The snout-like projection of the jaw, -with an unprotruding chin and a wide, almost spherical skull and gaping -lips, suggest a resemblance to the ape. In these peculiarities the -Akka and Bushmen of South Africa exhibit undeniable resemblances. We -conclude this account of the Pygmies with the summary into which their -discoverer has briefly embodied his opinion in regard to the origin of -the Akka and their relationship to other African peoples. - -“Scarcely a doubt,” says he, “can exist but that all these people, -like the Bushmen of South Africa, may be considered as the scattered -remains of an aboriginal population now becoming extinct; and their -isolated and sporadic existence bears out the hypothesis. For centuries -after centuries, Africa has been experiencing the effects of many -immigrations; for thousands of years one nation has been driving out -another, and as the result of repeated subjugations and interminglings -of race with race, such manifold changes have been introduced into the -conditions of existence that the succession of new phases, like the -development in the world of plants, appears almost, as it were, to open -a glimpse into the infinite. - -“Incidentally, I have just referred to the Bushmen, those notorious -natives of the South African forests who owe their name to the -likeness which the Dutch colonists conceived they bore to the ape, -as the prototype of the human race. I may further remark that their -resemblance to the equatorial Pygmies is in many points very striking. -Gustav Fritsch, the author of a standard work upon the natives of -South Africa, first drew my attention to the marked similarity between -my portraits of the Akka and the general type of the Bushmen, and so -satisfied did I become in my own mind, that I feel quite justified (in -my observations upon the Akka) in endeavoring to prove that all the -tribes of Africa, whose proper characteristic is an abnormally low -stature, belong to one and the self-same race.” - - - - -CHAPTER CLXIX. - -AFRICA--_Continued_. - -GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AFRICAN RACE. - - - BEADS AS CURRENCY -- MOST POPULAR KINDS -- MODE OF BECKONING -- - NATIVE SURGERY -- RELIGION -- IDOLS, REPRESENTING DECEASED KINDRED -- - COMMUNION WITH DEPARTED SPIRITS -- THEIR RETURN TO AVENGE INJURIES - -- SINGULAR CUSTOMS -- THE MILANDO -- WOMEN THE PRINCIPAL CAUSE -- - THE DREAD OF RIDICULE -- POLITENESS A TRAIT OF THE AFRICANS -- MODES - OF SALUTATION -- THE NATURAL KINDNESS OF AFRICAN TRIBES -- THEIR - BARBARITY CAUSED BY WRONGS AGAINST THEM -- THEIR KINDNESS TOWARD - LIVINGSTONE -- MISTAKE OF SPEKE -- CHILD SELLING -- EDUCATION OF THE - WORLD -- AFRICANS QUICK TO RECOGNIZE GOODNESS. - -In concluding the description of the tribes of Eastern and Central -Africa of which we have learned from the pages of Livingstone, -Schweinfurth and Stanley, we present some general features and -characteristics not confined merely to one tribe. - -It is well-known to our readers that beads are a most important part -of the currency throughout Africa; but it is not so well-known that -great judgment must be exercised in the selection of them in regard to -size and color. These are far from being matters of indifference to the -natives, and fashions obtain among them as inexorable and fatal to the -trader oftentimes as the fashions among civilized peoples. With few -exceptions the beads used in Africa are manufactured in Venice. If not -informed in regard to the prevalent fashion among a people whom the -traveller is intending to visit, he will be likely to load himself with -what cannot be exchanged at all, and will prove utterly valueless. - -The following nomenclature and description of the most valuable and -popular beads are derived from Chuma and Susi, those faithful servants -of Dr. Livingstone who came to England bearing the precious remains of -their beloved master. - -“The beads that the Waiyau prefer are exceedingly small, the size of -a mustard seed and of various colors, but they must be opaque; among -them, dull, white chalk varieties called ‘catchokolo’ are valuable -besides black and pink named respectively ‘bububu’ and ‘sekundereché,’ -(the dregs of pombé). One red bead of various sizes, which has a -white centre, is always valuable in any part of Africa. It is called -‘samisami’ by the Suahélé, ‘chitakaraka’ by the Waiyau, ‘mangazi’ -(blood) by the Nyassa, and was found popular even among the Manyuema, -under the name of ‘masokantussi,’ (birds’ eyes). It is interesting -to observe that one peculiar, long bead, recognized as common in the -Manyuema land, is only sent to the west coast of Africa, and never to -the east. On Chuma’s pointing to it as a sort found at the extreme -limit explored by Livingstone, it was at once seen that he must have -touched that part of Africa which begins to be within the reach of the -traders in the Portuguese settlements. - -“‘Machua kangu’ (guinea fowls’ eyes) is another popular variety; and -the ‘moiompio’ (new heart), a large, pale-blue bead, is a favorite -among the Wabisa; but by far the most valuable of all is a small, -white, oblong bead which when strung looks like the joints of the -cane-root, from which it takes its name ‘salami’ (canes). Susi says -that one pound weight of these beads would buy a tusk of ivory at the -south end of Tanganyika, so big that a strong man could not carry it -more than two hours. - -“Africans all beckon to a person with the hand in a way very different -from that of Europeans and Americans. We beckon with the hand _supine_, -or the palm up, but they with the palm down. This mode arises from -their idea of beckoning, which is to lay the hand on the person and so -draw him toward them. If the person wished for be near, the beckoner -puts out his right hand on a level with his heart and makes the motion -of catching the other, by shutting the fingers and drawing him to -himself. If the person be farther off, this motion is increased by -lifting the right hand as high as he can; he then brings it down with -a sweep toward the ground, the hand being held prone during all the -operation. Their method of assent is entirely opposite from ours. -We nod assent bringing the chin down: they lift it to signify their -concurrence. This raising of the chin, though not appearing so strange -after becoming familiar with the custom, is yet not so natural as the -use of the hand in beckoning.” - -As the servants of Livingstone were faithfully bearing his dead body -from the interior of Africa to the coast, they reached a village of the -Kawendé people. A present of a cow was made to the caravan; but she -must be caught. These animals being very wild, a hunt was undertaken. -Saféné, firing recklessly, unfortunately wounded one of the villagers, -fracturing his thigh-bone. The process adopted for setting the broken -limb is so peculiar that we give its description as an illustration of -native surgery. - -“First of all, a hole was dug, say two feet deep and four in length, -in such a manner that the patient could sit in it with his legs out -before him. A large leaf was then bound round the fractured thigh, and -earth thrown in, so that the patient was buried up to the chest. The -next act was to cover the earth which lay over the man’s legs with a -thick layer of mud; then plenty of sticks and grass were collected and -a fire lighted on the top, directly over the fracture. To prevent the -smoke from smothering the sufferer, they held a tall mat as a screen -before his face, and the operation went on. After some time the heat -reached the limbs under ground. Bellowing with fear and covered with -perspiration, the man implored them to let him out. The authorities, -concluding he had been under treatment a sufficient time, quickly -burrowed down and lifted him from the hole. He was now held perfectly -fast, while two strong men stretched the wounded limb with all their -might. Splints duly prepared were afterward bound round it, and we must -hope that in due time benefit accrued; but as the ball passed through -the limb, we must have doubts on the subject. The villagers told Chuma -that after the Banyamwezi engagements they constantly treated bad -gun-shot wounds in this way with perfect success.” - -In respect to religion of the African tribes, it is the belief that -there is a power superior to man, which is sometimes beneficent, and -sometimes evil, and to be dreaded. This is the elementary belief, -arising from the feelings of dependence on a divine or unseen power, -yet with a vague conception of the attributes of this power, and -so idols may come to be regarded as the modes or channels for its -manifestation. - -In Central Africa an idol may be found in almost every village. It -is made of wood, and resembles the people in features, marking, and -fashion of the hair. Some are in the houses, others have little huts -made for them. They are called _Nkisi_ by the Bahemba, and _Kalubi_ by -the people of Rua. Presents of pombé, flour, bhang, tobacco are made to -the idol and a fire is lighted for it to smoke by. - -They represent the departed father or mother, and it is thought that -they are gratified by the offerings made to their representatives. -Casembe has many of these _nkisi_; one with long hair, named Motombo, -is carried in front when he takes the field. Sometimes the names of -dead chiefs are given to them. It is doubtful whether prayers are -ever offered to these idols. The Arabs, who are familiar with their -language, assert that they have no prayers and think that death is the -end of the man. There are, however, evidences of a belief in a Superior -Power. Some think there are two Superior Beings,--Rua above, who kills -people, and Rua below, who carries them away after death. - -The existence of and communion with departed spirits is deeply imbedded -in the faith of the African and has been from time immemorial. The -keenest distress is felt in the prospect of any bodily mutilation or -burning of the body after death. They regard these as bars to their -intercourse with relatives that survive; they think they would thereby -be unable to aid those they love or retaliate upon those who have -wronged them. As we have seen, this hope inspires the slaves to sing -in their bondage, giving them a kind of enjoyment in their anticipated -revenge upon those who have captured or cruelly treated them. - -This is a prevalent belief among the tribes in the interior. Their -conception of the future state is that a desire for vengeance upon -enemies still alive on earth is the ruling purpose and passion, -and hence there is a superstitious horror connected with the dead. -This was one of the most serious dangers imperilling the success of -Livingstone’s faithful servants, in their endeavor to bring the dead -body of their master out of Central Africa and deliver it up to his -kindred and his native land. - -The religion of the African is therefore an effort to propitiate those -who show that they are able to revisit the earth and torment and work -mischief by any unfortunate accident or the opening of a war. All their -ceremonies hinge upon this belief. Accordingly chief and people make -common cause against those who, in going through their territory, lose -any of their number by death. Such events are regarded as most serious -offences, and therefore excite the strongest apprehension of the -natives and unite them as one in hostilities against those who thus are -brought into conflict with their superstition. - -In some of the villages a singular custom prevails in regard to the -dead. When a child or relative dies, a small miniature hut, about two -feet high, is built and very neatly thatched and plastered. If any food -especially palatable be cooked, or beer be brewed, a portion of it is -placed in this tiny hut for the departed soul, that is believed to -enjoy it. - -Another peculiarity of these uncivilized Africans is not without some -counterpart among more intelligent and self-styled civilized people. -A chief whose town Livingstone entered was absent on some _milando_. -Livingstone writes in connection with this circumstance that “these -_milandos_ are the business of their lives. They are like petty -lawsuits; if one trespasses on his neighbor’s rights in any way it -is a _milando_, and the head men of all the villages are called to -settle it. Women are a fruitful source of _milando_.” If an intelligent -African traveller should visit this country to learn the customs and -traits of the people he might possibly conclude that the truth of -Livingstone’s last statement is not applicable only to equatorial -Africa. A few ears of Indian corn had been taken by a person, and -Chitikola had been called a full day’s journey off to settle this -_milando_. He administered muave[2] and the person vomited; therefore -innocence was clearly established. In cases of _milando_ they rely on -the most distant connections and relations to plead their cause, and -seldom are they disappointed, though time at certain seasons is felt by -all to be precious. - - [2] The ordeal poison. - -Another characteristic of the African is that he cannot withstand -ridicule and sneers. He is extremely sensitive to any manifestations of -derision, and is restive under criticism. Livingstone describes this -trait in this way:-- - -“When any mishap occurs in the march (as when a branch tilts a load -off a man’s shoulder), all who see it set up a yell of derision; if -anything is accidentally spilled or one is tired and sits down, the -same yell greets him, and all are excited thereby to exert themselves. -They hasten on with their loads and hurry with the sheds they build, -the masters only bringing up the rear and helping any one who may be -sick. The distances travelled were quite as much as the masters or we -could bear.” - -Sensitive as Africans are to anything like derision or depreciation, -they are naturally mindful of what is due to others. Such a disposition -is the foundation of politeness. Livingstone, passing through a village -of Manyuema, saw a newly-married couple standing with arms around each -other very lovingly, but “no one joked or poked fun at them.” - -The Africans, as a race, are distinguished for politeness, and their -modes of salutation indicate courtesy and deference. In Ulungu, the -custom “among relations is to place the hands around each other’s -chests, kneeling; they then clap their hands close to the ground. Some -more abject individuals kiss the soil before the chief. The generality -kneel only, with the forearms close to the ground and the head bowed -down to them, saying ‘O Ajadla, chiusa, Mari a bwéno!’ - -“The Usanga say ‘Ajé senga.’ The clapping of hands to superiors and -even equals is in some villages a perpetually occurring sound. Aged -persons are usually saluted. How this extreme deference to each other -could have arisen, I cannot conceive; it does not seem to be fear of -each other that elicits it. Even the chiefs inspire no fear, and those -cruel old platitudes about governing savages by fear seem unknown; yet -governed they certainly are, and upon the whole very well. The people -were not very willing to go to punish Nsama’s breach of public law; -yet, on the decision of its chiefs, they went, and came back,--one -with a wooden stool, another with a mat, a third with a calabash of -ground-nuts or some dried meat, a hoe or a bow,--poor, poor pay for a -fortnight’s hard work, hunting fugitives and burning villages.” - -The African people have naturally a great deal of kindness of -disposition. They are not treacherous, savage, and blood-thirsty -without some cause. Their bitter and sore experience from the Arab -traders has made them suspicious of all strangers, and has transformed -their native kindness into sullen hatred and a desire for vengeance -upon their enemies. - -Moenemokata, an Arab who had travelled among African tribes more -extensively than any of his race, said to Livingstone, “If a man go -with a good-natured, civil tongue, he may pass through the worst people -in Africa unharmed.” It is a remarkable fact that Livingstone, who -traversed so large a portion of the great continent of Africa, and -visited so many tribes widely differing in spirit and character, never -resorted to violence. In no instance during his long wanderings and his -manifold perils among these heathen people did he use his weapon to the -injury of the natives. - -Even in Manyuema, among the people that all said “are bad, very bad,” -blood-thirsty cannibals, if none of them had been wronged by the Arab -traders, plundered and spoliated, they would not be so inspired with -feelings of malice and revenge. Livingstone had little difficulty in -obtaining what he needed. He says, “None of the people are ferocious -without cause.” It was a quite frequent occurrence for old men to come -forward to him with bananas as a present, saying as he passed, with -trembling accents, “Bolongo, bolongo!” (Friendship, friendship). If -he paused to return the favor by some gift, others ran for plantains -or palm-toddy. The Arabs would seize what they wished, demand food -peremptorily, and eat it without one word of thanks, and then say to -Livingstone, “They are bad. Don’t give them anything.” “Why, what -badness is there in giving food?” Livingstone replied. “Oh! they like -you, but hate us.” - -Much of the barbarity and badness of these African tribes may be -ascribed to the heartlessness, falsehood, pillage, and murder by the -Mohammedan slave-dealers. Livingstone gives in his journal these -incidents to show the characteristic kindness of the African race:-- - -“When we were on the Shiré, we used to swing the ship into mid-stream -every night in order to let the air which was put in motion by the -water pass from end to end. Musa’s brother-in-law stepped into the -water one morning in order to swim off for a boat, and was seized by a -crocodile. The poor fellow held up his hands imploringly, but Musa and -the rest allowed him to perish. On my denouncing his heartlessness, -Musa replied, ‘Well, no one tell him to go in there.’ When at Senna, -a slave-woman was seized by a crocodile; four Makololo rushed in -unbidden and rescued her, though they knew nothing about her. From long -intercourse both with Johanna men and Makololo, I take these incidents -as typical of the two cases. Those of mixed blood possess the vices of -both races and the virtues of neither.” - -Speke, at Kasangé Islet, made this statement, viz., “The mothers of -these savage people have infinitely less affection than many savage -beasts of my acquaintance. I have seen a mother-bear galled by frequent -shots, obstinately meet her death by repeatedly returning under fire -while endeavoring to rescue her young from the grasp of intruding -men. But here, for a simple loin-cloth or two, human mothers eagerly -exchanged their little offspring, delivering them into perpetual -bondage to my Beluch soldiers.”--SPEKE, pp. 234, 235. - -Livingstone contradicts this statement as a general one, and thinks it -was only a single and exceptional case. His inquiries, put to Arabs -who have travelled most extensively among the African tribes, failed -to elicit any corroboration of this assertion of Speke, except in the -very infrequent case of a child cutting the upper front teeth before -the under, and because such a child is thought to be _moiko_ (unlucky), -and certain to bring death into the family. It is called an Arab child, -and sold to the first Arab, or even left at his door. The Arabs knew of -no child-selling except under these circumstances, which seldom occur, -and the transaction, accordingly, grows out of a superstition. “Speke -had only two Beluch soldiers with him, and the idea that they loaded -themselves with infants stamps this tale as fabulous. He may have seen -one sold,--an extremely rare and exceptional case, but the inferences -drawn are just like that of the Frenchman who thought the English so -partial to suicide in November that they might be seen suspended from -trees in the common highways.” - -Livingstone well says, “The education of the world is a terrible one, -and it has come down on Africa with relentless vigor from most remote -times. What the African will become after this awfully hard lesson is -learned, is among the future developments of Providence. When He who -is higher than the highest, accomplishes His purposes, this will be a -wonderful country, and again something like that which it was of old, -when Zerah and Tirhaka flourished and were great.” - -Among the reflections inspired by his desire for the redemption of -Africa which the missionary explorer was in the habit of recording from -time to time in his journal, we find tributes to the character of these -benighted men. The following is one of these testimonies by him who, -better than any other man, knew the African race:-- - -“No jugglery or sleight-of-hand, as was recommended to Napoleon III, -would have any effect in the civilization of Africa. They have too much -good sense for that. Nothing brings them to place thorough confidence -in Europeans but a long course of well-doing. They believe readily -in the supernatural as effecting any new process or feat of skill, -for it is part of their original faith to ascribe everything above -human agency to unseen spirits. Goodness or unselfishness impresses -their minds more than any kind of skill or power. They say ‘You have -different hearts from ours; all black men’s hearts are bad, but yours -are good.’ The prayer for a new heart and right spirit at once commends -itself as appropriate.” - - NOTE.--These facts offer a solution of a great national problem - in regard to an uncivilized race on this continent. Selfish, - unscrupulous government traders, whiskey-venders, etc., all say that - the “Indian is bad, very bad,” a remorseless savage, and should be - summarily exterminated. The Arab merchants and slave-dealers say the - Manyuema are bad. The parallel is close and not complimentary to - the conduct of the civilized race that has plundered the Red Man, - debauched him with fire-water, and provoked retaliation and war by - its breach of treaties and its seizure of the lands solemnly pledged - to the Indians as their permanent home. See pages 1331, 2. - - - - -CHAPTER CLXX. - -AFRICA--_Concluded_. - -THE SLAVE-TRADE. - - - THE UNLIKENESS OF RACES -- LIVINGSTONE’S PROTEST AGAINST MAN-SELLING - -- DISCUSSIONS WITH AFRICAN CHIEFS -- THEIR EXCUSES FOR SLAVE-TRADE - -- HORRORS OF THE TRAFFIC -- ARAB RAGE AND ATROCITIES -- A STRANGE - DISEASE -- BROKEN-HEARTEDNESS -- AN ENGLISH SAILOR’S OPINION -- - BARBARITIES OF SLAVE-TRADE NOT OVERSTATED -- THE GELLAHBAS -- THE - PETTY SLAVE-TRADERS -- WHOLESALE MERCHANTS -- THE FAKIS -- COST - OF SLAVES -- TERRITORIES AND TRIBES THAT SUPPLY THE SLAVE-MARKETS - -- PROFITS OF THE TRAFFIC -- STANLEY’S TESTIMONY -- LIVINGSTONE’S - GREAT DESIRE -- NO HOPE FOR AFRICA WHILE SLAVE TRADE EXISTS -- - WESTERN COAST EMANCIPATED -- WORK TO BE DONE -- GRAND FUTURE OF - AFRICA -- DUTY OF ENGLAND AND AMERICA -- THE OPEN SORE OF THE WORLD - -- LIVINGSTONE’S LAST APPEAL -- MEMORABLE WORDS ON HIS TABLET IN - WESTMINSTER ABBEY. - -The unlikeness of races that in many respects are similar, and the -tenacity with which peculiar ideas and customs are maintained are facts -abundantly verified in this work. The strange fantasy that one can -have property in his fellow-man, which includes the right to control -his thoughts, conduct, life, and sell him to another as a slave, is -cherished by some tribes and wholly repudiated by others. The Arabs -excluded, the Manganja and Waiyau are the only two families of slavers -in that part of Central Africa which finds its outlet at the great -slave-market of Zanzibar. No idea of slavery exists among the Kaffirs -or Zulus and Bechuanas. - -Livingstone, the heroic and world-renowned explorer, availed himself -of every opportunity to protest against the selling of their people -by the African chiefs. He sought to educate them by kindly counsels -and arguments, so that they would be able to see the wrong and ruin -they were bringing upon themselves and their subjects by wars with -neighboring tribes, and the selling of captives to the mercenary Arabs. - -When among the Waiyau he had long discussions with the chief, Mukatè. -To counteract the effect of Livingstone’s influence the slave-drivers -had represented to the natives that his object in capturing and -releasing their slaves was to make them of his own religion; but the -terrible evils of the slave trade, the ruined villages, the numerous -bones and skulls bleaching in the sun along every path, the fearful -sufferings of those who falter and perish on the journey to the coast, -the rapine, plunder, and wholesale murder of neighboring tribes in -order to secure captives for sale to Arab merchants, all these direful -evidences of the terrible curse of the country Mukatè could not deny. -He would often end the discussion by dismissing these facts with -a laugh. A headman, who was Livingstone’s guide for a mile or two, -whispered to him, “Speak to Mukatè to give his forays up.” - -The chiefs and people were fertile in excuses for their participation -in the slave traffic. One said that the Arabs, who come and tempt them -with fine clothes, are the cause of their man-selling. Livingstone -replied, “Very soon you will have none to sell. Your country is -becoming a jungle, and all the people who do not die on the road -will be making gardens for Arabs at Kilwa and elsewhere.” The common -argument in defence of the business by African chiefs was, “What could -we do without Arab cloth?” “Do what you did before the Arabs came -into the country,” was Livingstone’s answer. But the greed for cloth, -which the natives are too indolent to spin and weave, overmasters all -the latent humanity and reason of the chiefs, and keeps up a chronic -condition of war and spoliation, decimating the population of the -country and transforming some of its fairest districts into deserts. -In order to have the means to buy the coveted cloth, one village makes -an incursion upon another, and thus there is almost perpetual pillage, -kidnapping, and murder. The village whose chief is victorious at one -time is, in its turn, sacked and burned by a stronger party. And so the -traveller through the country often passes the ruins of what were once -populous and pleasant villages of unoffending people. - -From village to village the missionary traveller carried his lessons -and appeals, sowing the good seed, with confidence that it would -sometime bear fruit in the regeneration of his beloved Africa. “It is -but little we can do,” is his sad reflection when among the Waiyau; -“but we lodge a protest in the heart against a vile system, and time -may ripen it.” His counsels to those unenlightened, tempted, and -misguided people were not all lost, however impervious they seemed, -generally, to moral considerations and appeals. Visiting Kimsuma, a -chief on the Nyassa, he received this gratifying testimony. Kimsuma -told him it was by following the advice given in his former visit, and -not selling the people as slaves, that his village had grown to three -times its former size. - -Women faint, starving, dying by the roadside--the dead bodies of those -of former gangs who could not march longer--were the frequent and -painful sights that Livingstone beheld as he moved on toward Central -Africa. - -A slave-gang is usually composed of men and women, and children of -a tender age. The adults are fastened into the heavy slave-sticks, -weighing from thirty to forty pounds. From these there is no escape. -The younger are secured by thongs that pass around the neck of each. -Multitudes die on the journey to the coast, overpowered by the burden -of the slave-stick. The following fact illustrates how thoroughly all -sentiments of sympathy and humanity, and every idea of justice are -destroyed by this traffic in human life. In reply to Livingstone’s -inquiry why people were tied to trees and left to die, as he had -seen on his way, there was the usual answer that this was the work -of the Arabs, because they are enraged when their slaves can go no -farther, and prefer they should die rather than have their freedom -if they should, perchance, be succored and recover. The numerous -empty slave-sticks scattered along the road led Livingstone to the -conviction, though the natives denied the charge, that they make it -a practice to follow the slave-caravans, and cut off the sticks from -those who falter in the march, in order to steal and sell them over -again, and so obtain an additional quantity of cloth. Another fact, -revealing the atrocious wickedness of these Arab man-stealers, is -also stated by Livingstone. Those who sink under the burden of the -slave-stick, or from sickness fall by the way, are not unfrequently -murdered. In vexation and rage at the loss of the money value of the -slaves, the Arab drivers will shoot or stab them. It was no uncommon -sight which met the eye of the philanthropic traveller, that of some -dead or dying African, weltering, perhaps, in a pool of blood, or tied -to a tree by the neck. - -“The strangest disease,” says Livingstone, “I have seen in this country -is broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been kidnapped -and made slaves.” Of a large gang that had been captured by Syde bin -Habib, many died three days after they crossed the Lualaba. Enduring -their chains till then, when they saw the broad river rolling between -them and their old homes, they lost all spirit and hope. They ascribed -their only pain to the heart, and placed their hands on their breasts, -exactly over that organ. Some slavers expressed surprise that they -should die, seeing that they had plenty to eat and no work. “Children -would keep up with remarkable endurance; but if, perchance, passing -near a village, and hearing the sound of dancing and the merry tinkle -of the small drums, the memories of home and happy days would prove too -much for them; they cried and sobbed, the ‘broken heart’ came on, and -they rapidly sank.” - -The atrocity of the system was forcibly expressed by an English sailor, -who had opportunity of seeing the slave-traders in their business. -“Shiver my timbers, mate, if the devil don’t catch these fellows, we -might as well have no devil at all!” - -“The Ujiji slavers,” he says, “like the Kilwa and Portuguese, are the -vilest of the vile. It is not a trade, but a system of consecutive -murders. They go to plunder and kidnap, and every trading-trip is -nothing but a foray.” His idea at first that there were degrees in -the atrocities and sufferings inflicted upon the slaves, and that the -barbarities perpetrated by the Portuguese of Tette are absent from the -slave traffic, as conducted by the Arabs, was wholly corrected. The -better he came to know the system, the more convinced was he that it is -everywhere and by whomsoever pursued only a story of murder, horror, -and destruction. - -“While endeavoring to give some account of the slave-trade in East -Africa,” says Livingstone, “it was necessary to keep far within the -truth in order not to be thought guilty of exaggeration. To overdraw -its evils is simply an impossibility. The sights I have seen, though -common incidents of the traffic, are so nauseous that I always -strive to drive them from memory. In the case of most disagreeable -recollections, I can succeed in time in consigning them to oblivion; -but the slaving scenes come back unbidden, and make me start up at -dead of night horrified by their vividness.” After an assault upon a -village, in which several were killed and women and children captured, -he writes in his diary these words: “I am heart-sore and sick of human -blood.” - -The Gellahbas, as the slave-dealers of Equatorial Africa are called, -are first the petty traders, who, with a small stock of goods, start -forth each with his ass or bullock, on which he rides from village to -village. His cloth will purchase two or three slaves, and exchanging -the donkey for one or two more, the return is commenced on foot. His -slaves are compelled to carry all the articles needed on the journey. -His stock in trade, worth perhaps $25, has been exchanged for four or -five slaves, that will bring in Khartoom $250. And yet the journeys of -these speculative traders are not always lucrative to the peddler. If -the donkey chance to die, the enterprise is a failure, as his goods -have to be sold at a ruinous sacrifice. The slaves also frequently -escape, and thus loss is entailed. Schweinfurth says of them, “Their -powers of endurance are wonderful. I repeatedly asked them what induced -them to leave their homes to suffer the greatest hardships in a strange -land, for the sake of pursuing an occupation attended with so much -pecuniary hazard. ‘We want groosh,’ they would reply. Too lazy to work -at home, it is the irresistible propensity to traffic in human beings -that impels them to this toilsome life. - -Besides these travelling traders, there are also wholesale -slave-merchants, who have their agents or partners permanently -established in the large Scribas. These traverse the country protected -by a large retinue of armed slaves, and with long trains of oxen and -asses, loaded with goods for exchange, they are able to purchase -large numbers of slaves. Generally these agents are priests or Fakis, -though this name is usually applied to those who interpret the -Scriptures. Strange as it may seem, and almost incredible, it is an -incontrovertible fact that this slave business is included among the -secondary occupations of these Fakis, and with very few exceptions -they are more or less involved in the iniquitous traffic. To multiply -facilities for securing slaves, they act as retail dealers, brokers, -quacks, match-makers, and school-masters. The richer and more -intelligent class act as directors of schools, or are proprietors of -inns, where they have sub-agents to advance their interests. “The -doctrines of the Prophet,” says Schweinfurth, “are taught in their -schools, and the merissa-shops are dedicated in a large degree to the -worship of Venus. But in spite of everything, these people are held in -the greatest veneration. - -“A few words will suffice to exhibit these holy men in their true -colors. With the _Suras_ of the Koran in hand, they rove all over the -country, leading what might be termed a life of perpetual prayer. -But the wide difference between faith and practice is exemplified in -the unrighteous dealings of these Fakis. Never did I see slaves so -mercilessly treated as by these fanatics, and yet they would confer -upon the poor souls, whom they purchased, like stolen goods, for a mere -bagatelle, the most religious of names, such as _Allagabo_ (_i. e._, -‘given of God’).” Schweinfurth, who had witnessed their abominable -cruelties, adds that their treatment of the sick and dying was “such as -a common scavenger would not inflict upon a dying dog.” - -He mentions another hideous atrocity connected with their business--the -emasculation of boys so as to fit them for the position of the eunuch. -It is perpetrated as soon after capture as convenient, and though -attempted only upon children of a tender age, it is said that four -fifths of those thus mutilated perish from the injuries they receive. -This infernal crime,--which is committed principally by the Fakis, who -traverse the country with the Koran in one hand and the operating-knife -in the other, is peculiar to Moslem slavery alone, and specially -entitles it to be called an accursed system, deserving to be swept from -the earth in the fiery indignation of all civilized peoples. - -There is another class who supply the slave-markets of the East. -This consists of the colonized slave-dealers, who live on their own -property. These are the only ones who penetrate beyond the Scribas into -the negro countries with bands of armed men, and return with great -caravans of slaves. - -The price paid for slaves varies of course, according to the difficulty -of obtaining them, and as cotton, the principal medium of exchange, -fluctuates in value. In 1871 Schweinfurth found that _sittahsi_ -(literally six spans high), that is children eight or ten years of -age, were bought for £1 10_s._, or about $7.00 in our currency. Women -slaves, if specially attractive, cost double this price. - -As an illustration of how cheap is human life among some tribes, -Livingstone mentions the case of an elderly woman and her son, about -three years old, who were bought for six yards of calico, the child -being regarded twice as valuable as the mother. After the raids of -slave-dealers, when the villages are pillaged and famine succeeds, -boys and girls are often bought for a few handfuls of maize. Vigorous -and healthy women who are ugly are cheaper than young girls, and old -women have little value, and are bought for a trifle. Men are seldom -purchased, because more difficult to manage or to transport. It will be -remembered that the principal object for which slaves are held in the -East is not their capability for labor. - -Nationality, also, is an element affecting the price of slaves. Of -those brought from the Bahr-el-Ghazal districts the Bongo are most -in demand, because they are easily taught, faithful, good-looking, -and industrious. The Niam-niam girls are more costly than the Bongo -slaves, but they are so rarely in the market it is not easy to state -their price. The Mittoo are of the least value, because so ugly, and -the Babucker are so spirited and resolute that they are rarely sought. -No kindness and no appeals avail to subdue their love of freedom or -repress their struggles to escape. The Loobah and Abaka tribes are like -them in this respect. The demand for slaves by the Mohammedan residents -of the Western territories, as the Kredy Golo and Sehre, who greatly -exceed the aboriginal population, is sufficient of itself to sustain a -very considerable slave-trade. The number of the private slaves owned -by the Moslems who have settled in various portions of Northern Africa -Schweinfurth estimated to be about sixty thousand. - -But this number is small compared with those who, along all the -highways, are brought out of the interior to the great slave markets -to supply the insatiable and licentious demands of Egypt, Arabia, -Persia, and Asiatic Turkey. It is these, the prey of Arab rapacity or -the pitiable and powerless victims of the selfishness and inhumanity of -their fellow Africans, that form the numerous caravans moving toward -the coast. It is these that drain and depopulate the tribes of Eastern -and Central Africa. It is thus their very life blood is sacrificed to -the luxurious caprices and sensuality of the Moslem race. - -The territories that supply the slave-trade in northeastern Africa -(Nile district) are the Galla countries to the south of Abyssinia, -between latitude 3° and 8° north, the region between the white and blue -Niles, Azoa, in the centre of Abyssinia, and its northwestern frontier, -and the upper district of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. But the most fruitful -sources of supply are the negro countries to the south of Darfoor. -During the last forty years there has been an exodus from the numerous -and unprotected Kredy tribes of 12,000 to 15,000 annually, to minister -to the lust or laziness of the Mohammedans of the East. And the -territories west of the Niam-niam tribe have been the principal supply -in the northern part of Africa. This energetic race, under their king -Mofio, has made constant raids upon their neighbors, thus furnishing -vast numbers for exchange with Arab slave-merchants. - -There is a portion of the country called Mrima or Sawahili, and -formerly Zanguebar. The latter name will be recognized by older readers -as that of a strip of sea coast from the mouth of Jub to Cape Delgado, -or from the equator to S. lat. 10° 41´. This part of Eastern Africa now -attracts the attention of the civilized world because of its connection -with the slave-trade. By means of its ports three fourths of the slaves -kidnapped or purchased in the interior are shipped abroad. Here is the -famous port of Kilwa, “the hornets’ nest,” as Stanley names it, the -great _entrepot_ of slave-traders, who have received such scathing -condemnation in Livingstone’s journals. - -Zanzibar, an island near the east coast in lat. 6° S., is, however, the -principal mart to which the ivory and slave merchants gather from the -interior of Africa. The Banyans, who are among the more influential -residents, are the principal traders in slaves, and have accumulated -great wealth. Here tens of thousands of Africans are annually sold, -some to be transported to the Spanish West Indies, but the great -majority to Arabia. - -The profits of this infamous traffic are so enormous as to offer -a resistless temptation to the cupidity of the unscrupulous. The -lucrative character of a business, though fraught with terrible evils -and wrongs, has, not unfrequently, overcome the conscience, humanity, -and even the religion of those acknowledged to be civilized if not -Christian. The statements of the most trustworthy travellers in -regard to the profitableness of the slave-trade tax the credulity of -the most sceptical. The estimate that Mr. Stanley has given, as the -result of a careful observation, must, we think, be accepted. “We will -suppose,” says he, “for the sake of illustrating how trade with the -interior is managed, that the Arab conveys by his caravan $5,000 worth -of goods; at Unyanyembe, the goods are worth $10,000; at Ujiji they -are worth $15,000, or have trebled in price. Seven dollars and fifty -cents will purchase a slave in the markets of Ujiji, who will bring in -Zanzibar thirty dollars. Ordinary men slaves may be purchased for six -dollars who will sell for twenty-five dollars on the coast. We will -say he purchases slaves to the full extent of his means; from these -he will realize about $14,000, leaving a net profit of $9,000 from -an investment of $5,000, in one trip from Zanzibar to Ujiji. It is -from such a traffic that the Banyans have come to be ranked among the -wealthiest of the 200,000 residents of Zanzibar.” - -Livingstone was intensely absorbed with the passion for exploration, -and longed to be the discoverer that should solve the great -geographical problem which has enlisted the curiosity and toil of -centuries, viz., the sources of the Nile. During eight years in his -last expedition, he traversed Central Africa, enduring sufferings and -sacrifices inexpressible, holding on with a fortitude and inflexibility -never surpassed, till he sank down in death at Ilala, May 1, 1873. But -this most illustrious of African explorers, when in weariness he was -journeying toward Bangweolo for the last time, eager to learn some -fact that would settle the great enigma with which Africa has baffled -the nations and the ages, writes, “The discovery of the true source of -the Nile is nothing to me except as it may be turned to the advantage -of Christian missions.” So, too, in a letter that he sent by Stanley -to Mr. Bennett, of New York, he writes, “If my disclosures regarding -the terrible Ujijian slavery should lead to the suppression of the -East Coast slave-trade, I shall regard that as a greater matter by far -than the discovery of all the Nile sources together. This fine country -is blighted as with a curse from above, in order that the slavery -privileges of the Sultan of Zanzibar may not be infringed.” - -It may safely be asserted that, had it not been for the slave-trade, -this indomitable, sagacious, philanthropic traveller would have -succeeded in laying the foundation for Christian missions in Central -Africa, and also have given to the civilized world the discovery it has -so laboriously sought. No progress can be made in the arts or commerce, -no social and moral development among the African tribes can be secured -so long as this system, the offspring of Moslem cupidity and lust, is -permitted to desolate this fair land. - -Stricken, suffering Africa! Despoiled and desolated by stronger and -more civilized nations for centuries, her youth, her strength, her -life-blood on the Western Coast, subsidized by force and barbarities -unspeakable to minister to the comfort and affluence of England, Spain, -and America! But the awful scourge that freighted the slave-ships of -the Great Republic and caused the horrors of “the middle passage” has -been, through the combined agency of England and America, inspired -by the appeals of the philanthropic spirit of the last half-century, -utterly suppressed. The Western Coast of that great continent has been -emancipated, and is fast being regenerated. Instead of slave-ships in -the lagoons and harbors waiting for the return of their armed crews -from raids upon the villages along the coast and in the interior, thus -stealing annually in the middle of the last century not less than -100,000 human beings, there are now populous villages springing up, the -inhabitants of which are engaged in peaceful pursuits, and making rapid -progress in all the arts and comforts of civilized life. The slave-ship -is exchanged for the school-house, and with this most formidable -barrier removed, the redemption of Western Africa has begun. - -That “fine country,” as Livingstone calls it, is needed with its -measureless riches for the world’s commerce and civilization. Its -gigantic, wide-spreading curse is the slave-trade. Eastern and Central -Africa still, over large portions of territory, is blighted with this -“sum of all villanies.” Its history has darker shades than any human -pencil can portray. Livingstone has told it, and startled the civilized -world with the story of murders innumerable and horrors unutterable, -of perpetual inter-tribal wars, instigated by the rapacious Arabs, so -that captives, numerous and cheap, may be kidnapped or bought for the -slave-markets of the coast. - -This Mohammedan abomination is a standing, shameless affront to the -civilization of the great Christian powers of the earth. Commerce, -Humanity, Christianity, demand that it be blotted out. The progress -that has been made but recently in this country and Great Britain, -in respect to the doctrine of human rights and the claims of the -African people, indicates the duty of these powerful nations to this -long-benighted and sorely-stricken race. When this powerful barrier -against commerce, industry, science, education, Christianity is -removed, what will be the glory and grandeur of this great continent, -with its numberless population “stretching out their hands unto God,” -its uncivilized races transformed into Christian and prosperous -peoples, ministering to the world’s advancement by the inexhaustible -treasures with which the Creator has endowed their broad and beautiful -land! - -Exactly one year before the death of the most eminent explorer of the -century, Dr. Livingstone, he finished, so his journal informs us, -a letter to the _New York Herald_, in which he endeavors to enlist -American enterprise and philanthropy in the suppression of the East -Coast slave-trade of Africa. The last words of the letter are these: -“All I can add in my loneliness is, may Heaven’s rich blessing come -down on every one, American, English, or Turk, who will help to heal -the open sore of the world.” No words could more perfectly represent -the life and spirit of this missionary traveller; and these--his appeal -to the American people--were chosen to be inscribed upon the tablet -erected to his memory near his grave in Westminster Abbey. - -Loving America, rejoicing in her triumph over slavery, grateful to her -for rescuing him, when lost to the civilized world, by her brave and -adventurous Stanley, he bequeathes his great life-work, the fervent -aspiration of his heart, to her Christian zeal. And England, his own -country, takes that memorable invocation and inscribes it as the most -expressive memorial of the life and character of her noble son where -he is laid to rest among the great and renowned ones of her history. -Thus the devoted missionary, the world-known, world-honored explorer -of the vast continent of Africa, to which he had given his long and -laborious service, entrusts to Great Britain and America united, the -accomplishment of the noble undertaking that absorbed and consecrated -his life, viz., - - THE REGENERATION OF AFRICA. - - - - -CHAPTER CLXXI. - -CENTRAL ASIA. - -THE KAKHYENS. - - - HIGHLANDERS OF WESTERN CHINA -- PATRIARCHAL GOVERNMENT -- TRIBUTE - PAID TO THE CHIEF -- ARCHITECTURE OF THE KAKHYENS -- PERSONAL - APPEARANCE -- THEIR PRINCIPAL WEAPON -- SERVILE LOT OF WOMEN -- THE - MEETWAY OR DIVINER -- EXTRAORDINARY MANIFESTATIONS -- FAVORABLE - PREDICTIONS -- SEVERE ORDEAL OF THE ASPIRANT TO THE POSITION OF - MEETWAY -- MARRIAGE CEREMONIES -- COST OF A WIFE -- PUNISHMENT FOR - INFIDELITY -- RITES ATTENDING BIRTH OF A CHILD -- BURIAL RITES -- - SERVICES OF THE TOOMSA -- THE DEATH-DANCE -- A CRUEL CUSTOM -- - RELIGION OF THE KAKHYENS -- THE VARIOUS NATS OR DEITIES -- MORAL - CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KAKHYENS -- THEIR KIDNAPPING -- CHARITABLE - EXPLANATION. - -For many years the attention of the British Government has been -directed to the consideration of an overland route to Western China. -To avoid the long and perilous voyage by the Straits and the Indian -Ocean seemed to be an object fraught with so many commercial advantages -as to repay almost any endeavor to accomplish it. Accordingly in -January, 1868, the government of India sent an expedition, under the -command of Col. Edward B. Sladen, from the royal city of Mandalay, on -the Irrawaddy, to explore the unknown country beyond. The narrative -of the expedition, written by Dr. John Anderson, its medical officer -and naturalist, has recently been given to the public. The only use -our limits permit us to make of it, interesting though it is, is to -introduce to our readers the Kakhyens, or the wild Highlanders of that -distant and little known region of Western China. - -The Kakhyens are a race of mountaineers inhabiting the hills that bound -the Irrawaddy basin. They are probably cognate with the hill tribes of -the Mishmees and Nagas. They call themselves Chingpaw, or “men,” and -Kakhyens is their Burmese appellation. - -Among this people the patriarchal government has universally prevailed. -Each clan has its hereditary chief, assisted by _pawmines_, or -lieutenants, who determine all questions about which the people are at -variance. The youngest son is entitled to the office of chieftain; and -if there be no sons, it descends to the youngest brother. The eldest -sons inherit the rank of _pawmine_. - -The chief of a clan exacts toll of all travellers through his -territory, and its payment secures his friendship and protection, -and accordingly that of his people. The slaves who were stolen as -children or kidnapped as adults belong to the _tsawbwa_, or head man -of the clan. The females are concubines, and the men, if obedient -and industrious, are kindly treated, their children being regarded -as members of the chieftain’s family. A basket of rice is the annual -tribute due the chief from every family, and if a buffalo be killed, a -quarter must be presented to him. - -With singular good taste the Kakhyens build their villages near a -mountain stream in a sheltered glen, or a row of houses climbs some -gentle slope. - -These are constructed of bamboo in an oblong form, with closely matted -sides, and raised on piles several feet from the ground. The roof is -thatched with grass and slopes nearly to the earth; the eaves being -propped by bamboo posts form a portico which is used at night as a -stable for pigs, ponies, and fowls, and as a lounging place for the -men during the day. These houses are generally built so as to face -eastward, and in size are about one hundred and fifty to two hundred -feet in length by forty to fifty feet in breadth. The front room is -devoted to hospitality and reserved for guests. Those in the rear are -occupied by different families more or less connected by blood or -marriage. - -Owing to the admixture of Shan and Burmese blood, there are two styles -of face among these people, but the most common, that of the true -Chingpaw, has these characteristics. The face is round and short, with -a low forehead and prominent molars. The slightly oblique eyes, with a -wide space between, the broad nose and thick, protruding lips, give a -look of ugliness to their faces; but this is relieved considerably by -an expression of good-nature and kindness. There is a disproportionate -shortness of the legs, though they are slight, and otherwise well -formed. The Kakhyen possess remarkable agility. The young girls bound -along the hill paths with great fleetness, and bring down from the -mountains loads of wood and lumber that would task the strength of -full-grown Englishmen. With many attractions in personal appearance, -yet it is the universal custom never to change a garment till it be -worn out. Their clothes and persons are never washed, and they, both -women and men, leave their hair uncombed, so that it becomes a thick, -matted mass upon the head. A piece of bamboo or of embroidered red -cloth is inserted in the lobe of the ear; sometimes a piece of paper is -used, and old newspapers are in great demand. Around the leg, below the -knee, they wear a number of rattan rings. - -The _dah_, or knife, is the invariable companion of these Highlanders. -“Half sheathed in wood and suspended to a rattan hoop covered with -embroidered cloth and adorned by a leopard’s tooth, it is slung over -the right shoulder so as to bring the hilt in front ready to the grasp -of the right hand.” The most common style of knife is short and broad, -widening from the hilt to the tip. This is called by the Burmese “the -Kakhyen’s chief,” because of the dexterity with which it is handled -by these mountaineers. It is the instrument for carving and tracing -ornaments on pipes and other articles, as well as the weapon which is -relied upon for attack or defence. With it the Kakhyen settles his -dispute, and employs it with marvellous readiness against his visible -enemies or the invisible nats or deities. They have other arms, such as -the matchlock and a cross-bow, with poisoned arrows. - -Though some of the more industrious of the men aid the women in their -agricultural labor, yet it is characteristic of these hill men that -they dislike work, and all the toil and drudgery are the lot of the -women. The custom of the men is to wander from house to house and from -village to village, to gossip and drink and smoke. Having no inventive -talent, they do not work in metal, their _dahs_ even, though they are -the indispensable attendants of the Kakhyens, being made by the Shans -of the Hotha Valley. Their artistic work does not exceed the simplest -designs of tracery in straight lines and the rude figures of bird and -animal. - -The Kakhyens never undertake any enterprise or begin a journey without -seeking to learn the will of the nats, through a meetway or diviner. -Sala, a Ponline chief, whose co-operation Col. Sladen desired, -privately intimated that the nats must be propitiated before any -advance into his country was begun. He and his party were accordingly -invited to the ceremony for ascertaining through a meetway, the will of -the demons in regard to their expedition. Dr. Anderson thus describes -it:-- - -“Accordingly after dinner we all adjourned to the hall of the -_tsawbwa’s_ new house, and reclining on mats brought by his wife, -chatted for some time with the chiefs and headmen assembled round the -fire. The meetway now entered and seated himself on a small stool, in -one corner, which had been through sprinkled with water; he then blew -through a small tube, and throwing it from him, with a deep groan, -fell into an extraordinary state of tremor; every limb quivered, and -his feet beat a literal ‘devil’s tattoo’ on the bamboo flooring. He -groaned as if in pain, tore his hair, passed his hand with maniacal -gestures over his head and face, then broke into a short, wild chant, -interrupted with sighs and groans, his features appearing distorted -with madness or rage, while the tones of his voice changed to an -expression of anger or fury. During this extraordinary scene, which -realized all one had read of demoniacal possession, the _tsawbwa_ -and his _pawmines_ occasionally addressed him in low tones, as if -soothing or deprecating the anger of the dominant spirit, and at last -the _tsawbwa_ informed Sladen that the nats must be propitiated with -an offering. Fifteen rupees and some cloth were produced. The silver -on a bamboo, sprinkled with water, and the cloth on a platter of -plantain leaves were humbly laid at the diviner’s feet; but with one -convulsive jerk of the legs rupees and cloth were instantly kicked -away, and the medium, by increased convulsions and groans, intimated -the dissatisfaction of the nats with the offering. The _tsawbwa_ in -vain supplicated for its acceptance, and then signified to Sladen that -more rupees were required, and that the nats mentioned sixty as the -propitiatory sum. Sladen tendered five more, with an assurance that no -more would be given. The amended offering was again, but more gently, -pushed away, of which no notice was taken. After another quarter of -an hour, during which the convulsions and groans gradually grew less -violent, a dried leaf, rolled into a cone and filled with rice, was -handed to the meetway. He raised it to his forehead several times, and -then threw it on the floor; a _dah_, which had been carefully washed, -was next handed to him, and treated the same way, and after a few -gentle sighs he rose from his seat and, laughing, signed us to look at -his legs and arms, which were very tired. The oracle was in our favor, -and predictions of all manner of success were interpreted to us as the -utterances of the inspired diviner.” - -The ordeal which a young man, who shows some signs of the diviner’s -gift, has to undergo before becoming an accredited meetway is an -extremely difficult one. “A ladder is prepared, the steps of which -consist of sword-blades with the sharp edges turned upward, and this is -reared against a platform thickly set with sharp spikes. The barefooted -novice ascends the perilous path to fame, and seats himself on the -spikes without any apparent inconvenience; he then descends by the same -ladder, and if, after having been carefully examined, he is pronounced -free from any trace of injury he is thenceforward accepted as a true -diviner.” - -Purchase and abduction, which constitute so prominent a part of the -nuptial rites of many races, also enter very largely into the marriage -ceremonies of the Kakhyens. A rich Kakhyen pays for his wife, a female -slave, ten pieces of silver, ten spears, ten buffaloes, ten _dahs_, -a gong, two suits of clothes, a matchlock, and an iron cooking-pot. -Clothes and presents of silver are given by him to the bridesmaids, and -he must pay all the expenses of the marriage feast. - -Preliminary to a marriage the diviner or _toomsa_ is consulted in -regard to the fortune of the intended bride; some portion of her -dress or some ornament is obtained and given to the seer, who then -predicts her destiny. If his report be favorable, messengers are sent -with presents to the girl’s parents to make proposals and learn from -them the amount of the dowry required; if these terms be accepted, -the bridegroom sends two messengers to inform the bride’s parents -that such a day is selected for the marriage. These are feasted, and -then attended on their return by two of her kindred, who agree to be -prepared for the marriage. “When the day comes five young men set out -from the bridegroom’s village to that of the bride, where they wait -till nightfall in a neighboring house. At dusk the bride is brought -thither by one of the stranger girls, as it were, without the knowledge -of her parents, and told that these men have come to claim her. They -all set out for the bridegroom’s village. In the morning, the bride is -placed under a closed canopy outside the bridegroom’s house. Presently -there arrives a party of young men from her village to search, as they -say, for one of their girls who has been stolen. They are invited to -look under the canopy, and bidden, if they will, to take the girl away, -but they reply, ‘It is well, let her remain where she is.’ While a -buffalo, etc., are being killed as a sacrifice, the bridegroom hands -over the dowry, and shows the _trousseau_ prepared for his bride. -Meanwhile, the _toomsa_, or officiating priest has arranged bunches of -fresh grass, pressed down with bamboos at regular intervals, so as to -form a carpet between the canopy and the bridegroom’s house.” - -At every marriage there is an invocation to the household nats, and -a libation of sheroo and water. The grass-path over which the bride -passes from the canopy is sprinkled with the blood of fowls. Boiled -eggs, ginger, and dried fish are offered to the household deities. This -ends the ceremony. The bridegroom is merely a spectator of all these -rites. Then a grand feast follows. In addition to the usual fare, such -as plantains, rice, fish, and pork, the flesh of the buffalo, offered -in sacrifice, and that of the barking deer are provided for the guests. -These viands, together with liberal supplies of sheroo and the Chinese -samshu, are the preparations for the dance. Various musical instruments -are employed to contribute to the entertainment of the occasion; and -the marriage feast ends at length, like all their festal gatherings, in -drunkenness and often in a brutal quarrel. - -Female infidelity after marriage the Kakhyens regard as a crime -punishable by death, which the aggrieved husband may inflict at any -time upon both the offenders. If a wife elope the husband is entitled -to damages double the amount of the marriage dowry, and this the -kinsmen of the wife’s seducer must make good or incur the penalty of a -feud. - -The household nats are propitiated the day after the birth of a child -by the sacrifice of a hog and offerings of sheroo. The _toomsa_, the -slayer and the cook, and the head of the household only share in the -flesh; but the entrails, with eggs, fish, and ginger, are put upon the -altars so that the villagers may partake. All are invited, and sheroo -is offered in the order of seniority. When the feast is over the oldest -man among the guests rises, and pointing to the child announces its -name. - -The peculiarities of their burial rites can best be given in the -language of Dr. Anderson: “When a Kakhyen dies the news is announced -by a discharge of matchlocks. This is a signal for all to repair to -the house of death. Some cut bamboos and timber for the coffin, others -prepare for the funeral rites. A circle of bamboos is driven into the -ground slanting outward, so that the upper circle is much wider than -the base. To each a small flag is fastened, grass is placed between -this circle and the house, and the _toomsa_ scatters grass over the -bamboos and pours a libation of sheroo. A hog is then slaughtered, and -the flesh cooked and distributed, the skull being fixed on one of the -bamboos. The coffin is made of the hollowed trunk of a large tree, -which the men fell with their _dahs_. Just before its fall a fowl is -killed by being dashed against the tottering stem. The place where -the head is to rest is blackened with charcoal and a lid constructed. -The body is washed and dressed in new clothes. Some of the pork, -boiled rice, and sheroo are placed before it, and a piece of silver is -inserted in the mouth to pay ferry dues over the streams the spirit -may have to cross. It is then coffined and carried to the grave, amidst -the discharge of firearms. The old clothes of the deceased are laid -on the mound, and sheroo is poured out, the best being drunk by the -friends around it. In returning the mourners strew ground-rice along -the path, and when near the village they cleanse their legs and arms -with fresh leaves. Before re-entering the house all are lustrated with -water by the _toomsa_ with an asperge of grass, pass over a bundle -of grass sprinkled with the blood of a fowl, sacrificed during their -absence to the spirit of the dead. Eating and drinking wind up the day. -Next morning an offering of a hog and sheroo is made to the spirit of -the dead man, and a feast and dance are held till late at night and -resumed in the morning. A final sacrifice of a buffalo in honor of -the household nats then takes place, and the _toomsa_ breaks down the -bamboo fence, after which the final death-dance successfully drives -forth the spirit, which is believed to have been still lingering round -its former dwelling.” - -In the death-dance all classes and ages participate,--men, women, and -children,--each carrying a small stick with which they beat time as -they move round the hall with measured step, which is a sort of prance -and side-shuffle. The drummers vigorously beat their instruments, and -ever and anon the dancers burst into loud yells and increase the speed -and violence of their movements. - -No funeral rites are granted to those who are killed by shot or steel. -Such are buried in jungles, their bodies being merely wrapped in mats. -A small, open hut is constructed over the grave for the occupancy of -the spirits, and a _dah_, bag, and basket are deposited there for them. -So, too, those dying of small-pox and women dying in child-birth are -refused the usual rites of burial. A strange superstition possesses -the people respecting the mother and her unborn child,--they are -supposed to become a terrible compound vampire. All the young people -hurry from the house in terror, and the diviner is summoned to discover -what animal the evil spirit will devour, and with what other it will -transmigrate. The first animal is sacrificed and a part of the flesh -put before the corpse. The other animal indicated by the _toomsa_ is -hung, and a grave is dug in the direction to which the head of the -animal pointed when dead. The clothes and ornaments of the deceased are -deposited in the grave and the other property is burned upon it, and a -small hut is built over it. - -These singular rites indicate in some degree the prominent idea in -the religion of this wild race. There is a universal and irresistible -belief in good and evil spirits, and the ancient forms of worshipping -them are retained. All missionary endeavors to produce any change in -their religious thought and customs have been fruitless. There is a -belief in a future existence and a vague conception of a Supreme Author -of all things. - -“The objects of worship are the nats, benign or malignant,--the first -such as Sinlah, the sky spirit, who gives rain and good crops; Chan and -Shitah, who cause the sun and moon to rise. These they worship because -their fathers did so and told their children that they were good. -Cringwan is the beneficent patron of agriculture; but the malignant -nats must be bribed not to ruin the crops. When the ground is cleared -for sowing, Masoo is appeased with pork and fowls burned at the foot -of the village altars; when the paddy is eared, buffaloes and pigs are -sacrificed to Cajat. A man about to travel is placed under the care of -Muron, the _toomsa_, after due sacrifices, requesting him to tell the -other nats not to harm that man. Neglect of Mowlain will result in the -want of _compraw_, or silver, the great object of a Kakhyen’s desire; -and if hunters forbear offerings to Chilong some one will be killed by -stag or tiger. Chilong and Muron are two of ten brothers who have an -especial interest in Kakhyen affairs, and another, named Phee, is the -guardian of the night. Every hill, forest, and stream has its own nat -of greater or less power; every accident or illness is the work of some -malignant or vindictive one of ‘these viewless ministers.’ - -The character of this race of mountaineers is not attractive. They -are not brave as warriors, but are quarrelsome and revengeful, and if -atonement for a wrong be not made they perpetuate a feud implacably. -They do not seek an open, fair fight, but lie in wait and attack -stealthily, springing like the tiger upon their foes. Anderson -touches their portrait with these dark lines,--“lazy, thievish, and -untrustworthy.” - -Their thieving propensity extends to man-stealing. They are the -kidnappers of the country. - -Dr. Anderson, however, charitably intimates that perhaps the moral -deterioration of these fierce, cruel highlanders may be the result -of “the knavish injustice of the Chinese traders, or the high-handed -extortion and wrong on the part of the Burmese.” The readers of this -work will remember many and sad proofs in these sketches of the -uncivilized races, that tribes, possessing naturally many excellent -traits, have been transformed and degraded into most selfish, brutal, -and cruel people by the pillage and piracy of their neighbors, and -sometimes by the rapacity and fraud of those that are called civilized -and Christian nations. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Abyssinia, 641. - - Accawaios, So. America, 1222. - - Admiralty Islanders, 970. - - Adoption of Parents, Namaquas, 279. - - AGRICULTURE among the - Badema, 367. Bakalai, 492. Batoka, 350. Bayeye, 338. Bouka, 971. - Dinka, 470. Djour, 448. Fuegians, 1168. Gani, 430. Guianans, - 1246. Hebrides, New, 972. Hottentots, 231. Kaffirs, 138, 139-144. - Manganjas, 355. Ovambos, 319. Shekiani, 522. Wasagara, 407. Watusi, - 409. - - Ahitas, Philippine Islands, 920. - - Ahts, Vancouver’s Island, 1354. - - Ajitas, Philippine Islands, 920. - - Alapu-ches, Chili, S. A., 1190. - - Alfoërs, New Guinea, 905. - - Alfouras, New Guinea, 905. - - Amaharas, Africa, 667. - - Amakosa, Africa, 12. - - Amaponda, Africa, 12. - - Amaswazi, Africa, 12. - - Amatonga, Africa, 12. - - Amazonians, So. Am., 1215. - - Amazons, Africa, 567. - - Amazulu, Africa, 12. - - Amulets, see Charms. - - AMUSEMENTS among the - Ahts, 1336. Apono, 487. Araucanians, 1204. Australians, 748-753. - Bayeye, 339. Bechuanas, 293, 297. Begharmis, 639. Bosjesmans, - 262-4. Camma, 509. Co-yukons, 1375. Damaras, 313. Dory, 917. Dyaks, - 1141-1144. Esquimaux, 1349. Fanti, 553. Fijians, 954. Gallas, 671. - Ghoorkas, 1424. Guianans, 1252-1255. Hottentots, 234-236. Indians, - N. A., 1285-1298, 1320-1325. Ishogo, 479. Japanese, 1454, 1462. - Kaffirs, 144-147. Korannas, 270. Madi, 433. Makololo, 335. Malemutes, - 1374. Maories, 845. Marquesans, 1049. Namaquas, 278. Ovambos, 320. - Pelew Islanders, 1108. Samoans, 1026. Sandwich Islanders, 1092-1096. - Shooas, 629. Tahitans, 1062, 1063. Tasmanians, 753. Tibboos, 633. - Tongans, 995, 996, 1004. Tuaricks, 634. Tungusi, 1380. Wanyoro, 426. - Wanyamuezi, 390-393. Waraus, 1261. Watusi, 409. Zealanders, New, - 818-822. - - Ancient Europe, 1473. - - Andamaners, 888. - - Anecdote of Korannas, 269. - - Anecdotes of Bosjesmans, 267. - - Aneiteum, New Hebrides, 975. - - Angolese, Africa, 380. - - ANIMALS of - Australia, 701. Guiana, 1222. Fondness for in Guiana, 1258. Dogs of - Esquimaux, 1346. Of Africa, 126. Of Kaffirs, 127, 140. Of India, - 1416-1421. - - Apingi, Africa, 488. - - Apono, Africa, 484. - - Aprons of Kaffirs, Africa, 48. - - Arabs, Africa, 687. - - Araucanians, S. A., 1190. - - Arawaks, Guiana, 1222. - - ARCHITECTURE of - Abyssinia, 667. Ahts, 1369. Ancient Europe, 1473. Andamaners, 892. - Apono, 487. Australians, 784-786. Bakalai, 491. Balonda, 378. B ari, - 464. Bayeye, 339. Bechuanas, 297, 299. Bedouins, 682. Begharmis, 635. - Bonny, 601. Bornabi, 1103. Bornuese, 626. Bosjesmans, 251. Britain, - New, 970. Caledonians, New, 884. Dahome, 562. Damaras, 310-311. - Dor, 447. Dory, 914. Dyaks, 1149-1150. Egbas, 592. Esquimaux, 1335. - Fijians, 956. Fuegians, 1165. Gani, 429. Guianans, 1245-1270. Guinea, - New, 912. Hassaniyeh, 686. Hervey Islanders, 1037. Hottentots, 227, - 228. Hovas, 690. Indians, N. A., 1329. Ingeletes, 1375. Ireland, New, - 970. Ishogos, 476. Japanese, 1461. Kaffirs, 56, 62, 207. Kanemboos, - 627. Kingsmill Islanders, 1038. Madi, 433. Makololo, 328. Malagasy, - 690. Malemutes, 1374. Maories, 866. Mapuchés, 1192. Marquesans, - 1049. Mexicans, 1272. Nicobarians, 896. Niuans, 1056. Nubians, - 674. Obongos, 482. Ostiaks, 1384. Outanatas, 901. Ovambos, 316. - Patagonians, 1185. Pelew Islanders, 1108. Samoans, 1031. Shekiani, - 522. Shillooks, 472. Shooas, 629. Siamese, 1472. Society Islanders, - 1073. Tungusi, 1379. Waganda, 419. Wanyamuezi, 389. Waraus, 1268. - Wazaramo, 406. - - Armor of Japanese, 1460. - - Art of Japanese, 1465. - - Ashangos, Africa, 480. - - Ashanti, Africa, 554. - - Ashira, Africa, 496. - - Assagais, Kaffir, Africa, 94, 100. - - Aurora, description of, 1352. - - Australia, Polynesia, 694. - - Ayhuttisahts, Vancouver’s Island, 1354. - - - B. - - Badema, Africa, 367. - - Baenda-pezi, or Go-Nakeds, Batoka, 349. - - Bahurotsi, Africa, 280. - - Bakalai, Africa, 491. - - Bakoba, Africa, 337. - - Bakwains, Africa, 280. - - Balonda, Africa, 369. - - Balondo, Africa, 369. - - Bamairis, Africa, 286. - - Bamangwato, Africa, 295. - - Bantus, Africa, 11. - - Banyai, Africa, 361. - - Barber, Chinese, 1427. - - Barea, Africa, 668. - - Bari, Africa, 462. - - Barolongs, Africa, 280. - - Bathing, Japanese, 1453, 1454. - - Batlapis, Africa, 280. - - Batlares, Africa, 286. - - Batoanas, Africa, 337. - - Batoka, Africa, 348. - - Batonga, Africa, 348. - - Bayeye, Africa, 337. - - Beauty, see Women. - - Bechuanas, Africa, 280. - - Bedouins, Africa, 681. - - Begharmis, Africa, 635. - - Betrothal, see Marriage. - - Blackfeet, North America, 1273. - - Bonny, Africa, 600. - - Bornabi, Caroline Islands, 1103. - - Bornuese, Africa, 620. - - Bosjesman, Africa, 242. - - Bouka, Polynesia, 971. - - Brahmins, India, 1408. - - Britain, New, Polynesia, 969. - - Brumer’s Island, Australasia, 907. - - Bubes, Africa, 610. - - BURIAL of the dead among - Abyssinians, 659. Ahitas, 921. Ahts, 1373. Ajitas, 921. Alfoërs, - 906. Angolese, 328-383. Apingi, 490. Apono, 488. Araucanians, - 1210. Ashira, 503. Australians, 772-777. Balonda, 380. Bari, 464. - Bechuanas, 300. Camma, 520. Co-yukons, 1375. Dahome, 588. Damaras, - 314. Dory, 917. Dyaks, 1160. Esquimaux, 1351. Fanti, 550. Fijians, - 965-967. Of Fijian chief, 965. Hottentots, 241. Indians, N. A., 1330. - Kaffir, 200-295. Karague, 405. Kingsmill Islanders, 1043. Krumen, - 548. Latookas, 459. Makololo, 336. Manganjas, 360. Marquesans, - 1051. Mincopies, 895. Mpongwé, 527. Nicobarians, 897. Niuans, 1056. - Obongos, 483. Patagonians, 1189. Pelew Islanders, 1109. Samoïedes, - 1382. Siamese, 1472. Sioux, 1330. Society Islanders, 1076. Sowrahs, - 1389. Tongans, 1004. Waganda, 421. Wanyamuezi, 396. Wanyoro, 428. - Wazaramo, 406. Zealand, New, 869-874. - - Bushman, Africa, 242. - - Button, Chinese, 1429. - - - C. - - Caledonians, New, 883. - - Camanchees, N. A., 1289. - - Camma, Africa, 504. - - CANNIBALISM among - Ahts, 1372. Andamaners, 891. Australians, 747. In Britain, New, 970. - Bonny, 602. Caledonia, New, 885. Among Caribs, 1240. Fans, 530-535. - Fijians, 942-946. Fuegians, 1167. In Ireland, New, 970. Among Isle - of Pines Men, 887. Kingsmill Islanders, 1040. Maories, 834-837. - Marquesans, 1051. Niuans, 1056. Papuans, 900. Samoans, 1022-1023. - Sandwich Islanders, 1091. Society Islanders, 1073. Solomon Islanders, - 968. Tanna, 972. Tungusi, 1379. - - CANOES, making and skill in management of, among - Admiralty Islanders, 971. Ahts, 1362. Australians, 701-717. Batoka, - 349. Bayeye, 338. Bouka, 971. Brumer Islanders, 908-911. Caledonians, - New, 829. Dyaks, 1136. Esquimaux, 1344. Fanti, 549. Fijians, 932. - Fuegians, 1168. In Guinea, New, 913. Among Indians, N. A., 1325. - Krumen, 544. Makoba, 340. Makololo, 327. Maories, 825. Marquesans, - 1051. Mincopies, 890. Nicobarians, 897. Niuans, 1056. Outanatas, - 902. Papuans, 900. Pelew Islanders, 1107. Samoans, 1020. In San - Christoval, 970. Among Society Islanders, 1074, Solomon Islanders, - 969. Waraus, 1222, 1262. - - Caribs, Guiana, S. A., 1222. - - Caroline Islands, 1100. - - CASTE, among - Damaras, 312. Karague, 399. Khonds, 1393. Sowrahs, 1385. Zealanders, - New, 792. - - Catlin’s portrait of Indian dandy, 1279. - - CATTLE of the - Balonda, 376. Bosjesmans, 254. Damaras, 310. Hottentots, 233. - Kaffirs, 66-71. Kytch, 439. Latookas, 454. Malagasy, 690. Namaquas, - 277. Shooas, 629. Watusi, 409. - - CEREMONIES, connected with - Accession of son, Damaras, 314. Battle, before and after, New - Zealand, 851. Becoming men, Australians, 761-764. Birth, Abyssinians, - 658. Fijians, 954, New Zealanders, 816. Burial of King, Fijians, 967. - Cementing friendship, Balondos, 378. Cooking war dish, Ashangos, - 480. Coronation, Congoese, 616, Mpongwé, 527. Customs, Dahomans, - 573. Death of King, Tongans, 993-994. Death and Mourning, Camma, - 520. Drinking kava, Tongans, 985-990. Entering boyhood, Kaffirs, 18. - Fallen in war, Caledonians, New, 886. Feast of First Fruits, Tongans, - 990-993. Funeral of Finow, Tongans, 998. Going to War, Bechuanas, - 292. Head-worship, Dahomans, 587. Homage to Manono, Samoans, 1022. - Initiation of Cannibal, Malemutes, 1372. Kangaroo, Australians, - 762. King, appearing before, Dahomans, 574. Making brotherhood, - Australians, 767, Araucanians, 1205. Marriage, Kaffirs, 86, Samoans, - 1031, Sowrahs, 1386. M’paza, or twin, Ishogos, 479. Moon, full, - Camma, 510, Fans, 539. Moon, New, Karagne, 401, Mincopies, 895. - Mourning, Australians, 772. Ox of the Girl, Kaffirs, 86. Ox of the - Surplus, Kaffirs, 86. Receiving Guests, Waganda, 419. Reception into - “Mides,” N. A. Indians, 1310. Religious, Abyssinians, 658, Esquimaux, - 1350. “Rupack,” Pelew Islanders, 1104. Sacrificial, Kaffirs, 172, - Society Islanders, 1075. Setting apart “piai” men, Guiana, 1263. - Shedding of blood, Dyaks, 1159. Sickness, Tongans, 998. Society of - hunters, Australians, 763. Sprinkling water, Dahomans, 588, New - Zealand, 817. Tow-tow, Tongans, 994-995. Visiting, Fijians, 940. - - CHARMS among - Abyssinians, 665, 666. Angolese, 381. Apingi, 490. Australians, 771. - Bechuanas, 292. Dyaks, 1158. Fans, 539. Indians, N. A., 1313. Kaffir, - 181-183. Karague, 402. Namaquas, 277. Nubians, 674. Waganda, 419. - Wanyoro, 428. - - Charming serpents, India, 1416. - - Cherokees, No. America, 1331. - - Chickasaws, No. America, 1319. - - CHILDREN, treatment of among - Andamaners, 892. Arawaks, 1247. Australians, 757, 758. Bakalai, 492. - Co-yukons, 1375. Esquimaux, 1349. Fijians, 954. Flat-heads, 1319, - 1320. Indians, Gran Chaco, 1214. Indians, N. A., 1319. Ingeletes, - 1375. Ishogo, 479. Kaffir, 16-18. Madi, 433. Mapuchés, 1192. - Outanatas, 901. Patagonians, 1186. Samoans, 1009. Wanyamuezi, 393. - Zealanders, New, 816, 817. - - Chinese, China, 1426. - - Chinnooks, No. America, 1319. - - Choctaws, No. America, 1319. - - Chopsticks, Chinese, 1431. - - Christie’s sketch, Bosjesman, 266. - - Chuanas, Africa, 280. - - CLEANLINESS among - Abyssinians, 667. Bakalai, 492, 493. Esquimaux, 1333. Fuegians, 1168. - Kaffirs, 45. Madi, 430. Manganjas, 359. Ostiaks, 1384. Wanyamuezi, - 393. Wanyoro, 422-426. Waraus, 1258. Watusi, 409. - - Commi, Africa, 504. - - COMPLEXION of - Abyssinians, 642. Ahitas, 290. Ahts, 1355. Angolese, 380. Apingi, - 488. Australians, 694. Bakalai, 492. Balondo, 370. Batoka, 348. - Begharmis, 636. Bosjesmans, 243. Bouka, 971. Caledonians, New, - 883. Camma, 505. Djibbas, 464. Dyaks, 1111. Egbas, 590. Esquimaux, - 1333. Fans, 529. Fanti, 549. Fijians, 922. Fuegians, 1162. Gallas, - 671. Hebrides, New, 972. Hervey Islanders, 1032. Hottentots, 217. - Hovas, 690. Indians, Gran Chaco, 1211. Indians, N. Am. 1273. - Isle of Pines Men, 887. Japanese, 1449. Karague, 399. Kingsmill - Islanders, 1038. Krumen, 545. Makololo, 327. Marquesans, 1047. - Mundurucús, 1215. Neam-Nam, 442. Nicobarians, 896. Nubians, 673. - Obongos, 482. Outanatas, 900. Papuans, 898. Patagonians, 1172. Pelew - Islanders, 1104. Samoans, 1008. Sandwich Islanders, 1081. Shekiani, - 522. Siamese, 1468. Solomon Islanders, 968. Tahitans, 1058. Tanna - Islanders, 972. Tongans, 977. Vaté Islanders, 972. Waraus, 1222. - Zealanders, New, 792. - - Congoese, Africa, 614. - - Cooking, see Food. - - Cook’s Islanders, Polynesia, 1032. - - Co-yukons, Alaska, 1375. - - Cree tribe, North America, 1313. - - Creeks, North America, 1331. - - Crow tribe, North America, 1273. - - “Crowing” of Damaras, 310. - - Crucifixion, Chinese, 1439. - - Crucifixion, Japanese, 1461. - - CRUELTY to aged among - Fijians, 954. Indians, 1320. Namaquas, 278. To prisoners, Fijians, - 954. - - Customs, Dahome, 573. - - CUSTOMS, curious, of - Alfoërs, 906. Araucanians, 1205. Ashanti, Yam and Adai, 559. - Caledonians, New, 887. Dyaks, 1136. Fijians, Loloku of the sail, 967. - Guianans, 1247. Hervey Islanders, 1034. Kanemboos, 627. Kingsmill - Islanders, 1040. Marquesans, 1049. Obongos, domestic, 482. Ovambos, - at meals, 322. Tahitans, 1061. Tchuktchi, 1378. Tongans, 982. - - - D. - - Dacotahs, North America, 1307. - - Dahomans, Africa, 561. - - Damaras, Africa, 304. - - Dancing, see Amusements. - - DANCES of - Ahts, doctor’s nook, 1366, roof, 1366. Apono, giant, 487. Arawaks, - puris, 1252. Australians, kuri, 748, palti, 752, kangaroo, 752, - pedeku, 751, frog, 751, corrobboree, 752. Bechuanas, 297. Bosjesmans, - 262. Camma, gorilla, 509. Damaras, 313. Dyaks, sword, 1143, war, - 1143, head, 1143. Esquimaux, 1349. Fans, full moon, 539. Fijians, - 955. Guianans, maquarri, 1255. Hottentots, melon, 235. Indians, N. - A., scalp, 1286, buffalo, 1297, ball-play, 1320, pipe, 1320, beggar’s - bear, 1320, dog, 1320, eagle, 1323, braves, 1323, green corn, 1323, - snow-shoe, 1323, slave, 1323. Kaffir, wedding, 55. Korannas, 270. - Latookas, funeral, 459. Madi, 433. Malemutes, 1374. Marquesans, 1049. - New Guinea, war, 917. New Zealand, war, 845. Niuans, war, 1055. Pelew - Islanders, 1108. Samoans, wedding, 1031. Shooas, 668. Tasmanians, - 753. Tungusi, 1380. Wanyamuezi, 390. Watusi, 409. - - Dankallis, Africa, 671. - - Delawares, North America, 1331. - - Dingan, Kaffir chief, visit to, 91. - - Dingan at home, 207. - - Dinkas, Africa, 469. - - Djibba, Africa, 464. - - Djour, Africa, 448. - - Dog eater, initiation of, Ahts, 1371. - - Dôr, Africa, 444. - - Dory, Africa, 914. - - DRESS among - Abyssinians, 642-647. Accawaios, 1222. Admiralty Islanders, 970. - Ahts, 1355. Andamaners, 889. Apingi, 489. Apono, 484. Ashango, 480. - Ashanti, 554. Ashira, 496. Australians, 699-705. Bakalai, 492. - Balonda, 370. Bari, 463, 464. Batoka, 348. Bayeye, 339. Bechuanas, - 284. Bedouins, 681. Bonny, 603. Bornabi, 1103. Bornuese, 621. - Bosjesmans, 246. Bouka, 971. Britain, New, 969. Brumer’s Islanders, - 907. Bubes, 610. Caledonians, New, 883. Caribs, 1222. Chinese, 1429. - Congoese, 616. Co-yukons, 1375. Dahomans, 568. Damaras, 306. Dinkas, - 469. Djibbas, 467. Dor, 447. Dory, 914. Dyaks, 1112-1116-1118. Egbas, - 591. Esquimaux, 1334. Fans, 529. Fanti, 549. Fijians, 926-928. - Fuegians, 1162. Gallas, 671. Gani, 430. Guianans, 1256-1258. - Hebrides, New, 972. Hervey Islanders, 1032. Hottentots, 222. Hovas, - 690. Indians, Gran Chaco, 1212. Indians, North America, 1275, 1276. - Ireland, New, 969. Ishogos, 479. Isle of Pines Men, 887. Japanese, - kami-samo, 1449-1453. Kaffirs, 28-51, 53, change of on betrothal, - Kaffir, 51. Kanemboos, 627. Karague, 405. Khonds, 1389. Kingsmill - Islanders, 1038. Korannas, 270. Krumen, 545. Kytch, 436. Latookas, - 453. Madi, 430-433. Makoba, 339. Makololo, 327. Malagasy, 690. - Malemutes, 1374. Manganja, 356. Mapuchés, 1190-1191. Marquesans, - 1044. Mpongwé, 524. Musguese, 639. Namaquas, 275. Neam-Nam, 442. - Nicobarians, 896. Niuans, 1055. Nubians, 673. Nuehr, 468. Obbo, - 434. Obongos, 482. Outanatas, 900. Ovambos, 316. Papuans, 900. - Patagonians, 1173. Pelew Islanders, 1104. Romanzoff Islanders, 1100. - Samoans, 1009, 1013, 1014. Samoïedes, 1383. Sandwich Islanders, - 1081. Shillooks, 472. Shir, 461. Shooas, 630. Siamese, 1468. Solomon - Islanders, 969. Soumaulis, 672. Sowrahs, 1386. Tahitans, 1059. - Tibboos, 630. Tongans, gnatoo, 977. Tuaricks, 634. Vaté Islanders, - 972. Wagogo, 385. Wanyamuezi, 386. Waraus, 1269. Wasagara, 407. - Watusi, 408. Wazaramo, 406. Zealanders, New, 807-813. - - DRINKS, intoxicating, of - Abyssinia, 657. Apingi, 490. Apono, 484. Ashira, 498. Araucanians, - 1203. Balonda, 377. Chinese, 1429. Congoese, 616. Dyaks, 1145. Fans, - 539. Guianans, 1251. Kaffir, 152. Karague, 400, 401. Krumen, 546. - Manganja, 359. Wanyamuezi 393, 394. Waraus, 1269. - - Dust signals of Outanatas, 902. - - Dutulu, adventures of, 69. - - Dyaks, Land, Borneo, 1110. - - Dyaks, Sea, 1110. - - - E. - - Eastern Islands, 1100. - - Economy of Chinese, 1443. - - Egbas, Africa, 590. - - Elephant catching, Bayeye, 338. - - Elephant, white, Siam, 1471. - - Endurance, see Strength. - - Errumanga, New Hebrides, 975. - - Esquimaux, N. America, 1333. - - ETIQUETTE among - Abyssinians, 657. Ashiras, 498. Araucanians, 1205. Balonda. 377. - Batokas, 350. Bonny, 601. Cammas, 505-509. Dahomans, 566, 585. - Fijians, 940, 941. Japanese, 1459. Kaffir, 87, 148, 160. Makololo, - 326. Maories, 824, 850. Mapuchés, 1193. Samoans, 1009. Siamese, 1471. - Tahitans, 1069. Waganda, 410. Wanyanmuezi, 389. Waraus, 1261. Watusi, - 408. - - Europe, Ancient, 1473. - - - F. - - Fans, Africa, 529. - - Fans, Chinese, 1430. - - Fans, war, Japanese, 1461. - - Fanti, Africa, 548. - - FEASTS of - Abyssinians, raw flesh, 656. Abyssinians, wedding, 658. Ahts, 1364. - Arawaks, piwarri, 1252. Chinese, of lanterns, 1431. Fans, marriage, - 536. Fijians, given to gods, 942. Fuegians, 1167. Indians, N. A., - dog, 1330. Kaffir, first fruits, 172. Malemutes, 1374. Samoans, - wedding, 1031. Waikato, hui, 827. - - Feet of women, Chinese, 1428. - - Female soldiers, Dahomans, 567. - - Fetishes, Ashanti, 559. - - Fijians, Australia, 922. - - FIRE-MAKING among - Australians, 786. Dyaks, 1151. Fuegians, 1168. Kaffir, 100. - - FISHING among - Ahts, 1356-1361. Australians, 710, 728. Badema, with nets, 367. - Balonda, 377. Bayeye, 388. Chinese, with cormorants, 1444. Dyaks, - 1118, 1132. Esquimaux, 1343. Fijians, turtle, 931. Fuegians, 1166. - Guinea, New, 913. Hervey Islanders, 1637. Kanemboos, 627. Malemutes, - whale, 1361, salmon, 1360. Maories, 830-833. Marquesans, 1051. - Ostiaks, 1384. Ovambo, 320. Samoans, 1026. Sandwich Islanders, 1086. - Shillooks, 472. - - Flat Heads, N. America, 1319. - - FOOD of, and modes of eating among - Abyssinians, 655. Ahts, 1364. Andamaners, 891. Angolese, manioc, - 381. Araucanians, 1200. Ashira, 497. Australians, turtle and snakes, - 702-714. Bakalai, 492. Balonda, manioc, 376. Banyai, 366. Bechuanas, - 296. Bedouins, 684. Bosjesmans, 252. Caledonians, New, 885. Chinese, - bird-nests, 1432. Damaras, 313. Dyaks, 1118-1144. Esquimaux, 1336, - special dainties, 1337. Fans, 534. Fijians, 941, 942. Fuegians, 1166, - 1168. Guianans, 1248, 1249. Hervey Islanders, 1037. Hottentots, 232, - 233. Kaffir, 131, 132, 147-151, 157. Kytch, 439. Makololo, 326. - Mandingoes, 608. Maories, 827-834. Mpongwé, 524. Mundurucús, 1220. - Neam-Nam, 442. Ovambo, 322. Patagonians, 1185. Samoans, palolo, 1030, - 1031. Sandwich Islanders, 1086. Shir tribe, 462. Shoas, 668. Swiss - Lake-dwellers, 1474. Tungusi, 1380. Wanyamuezi, 394. Wanyoro, 426. - Waraus, 1269. - - Form of women, Hottentots, 218. - - Fox tribe, N. America, 1323. - - Fuegians, Tierra del Fuego, 1161. - - Funerals, see Burial. - - FURNITURE, - Japanese, 1462. Kaffir, 206. See Architecture. - - - G. - - Gallas, Africa, 671. - - GAMES of - Abyssinians, the ladies, 653. Araucanians, pelican, 1204. Avas, - 1204. Dyaks, 1141-1143. Fijians, 954. Indians, N. A., archery, 1285, - chung-chee, 1324, al-kol-lock, 1324, pagessan, or bowl, 1324, ball, - 1324, leaping rock, 1329. Japanese, children’s, 1462. Japanese mall, - 1454, ladder balancing, 1456, top spinning, 1456, butterfly trick, - 1456. Makololo, children’s, 332. New Zealand children’s, 818. Society - Islanders, children’s, 1095. Wanyamuezi, children’s, 393. - - Gani, Africa, 429. - - Ghou Damup, Africa, 304. - - Ghoorkas, India, 1395. - - Gilbert Islands, 1100. - - Gold washing, Ashanti, 555. - - Gonaquas, Africa, 274. - - Goura, musical instrument, Bosjesmans, 264. - - GOVERNMENT, mode of among - Abyssinians, 649. Ajitas, 920. Alfoërs, 905. Angolese, 380. Balonda, - 369. Banyai, 361. Bechuanas, 286. Bornuese, 621. Camina, 504-506. - Dory, 914. Fijians, 934. Fuegians, 1171. Indians, N. A., 1275. - Kingsmill Islanders, 1040. Krumen, 546. Makololo, 331. Manganja, 355. - Mapuchés, 1194. Mpongwé, 524. Ovambo, 321. Shekiani, 521. Shillooks, - 473. Tasmanians, 754. Tongans, 981. Wanyoro, 422. - - GOZA’S - Portrait, 35. Young Warriors, 35. And his Wives, 75. - - Grapple plant, 214. - - Griquas, Africa, 274. - - Guiana, So. America, 1221. - - Guinea, New, Africa, 898. - - - H. - - HAIR-DRESSING, mode of among - Abyssinians, 642-648. Ahts, 1355. Australians, 705. Balonda, 370. - Batoka, 348. Bornuese, 620. Brumer’s Islanders, 907. Chinese 1426. - Egbas, 590. Esquimaux, 1335. Fanti, 549. Fijians, 922, 925. Fuegians, - 1162. Gallas, 671. Gani, queue, 430. Hovas, 690. Indians, Gran Chaco, - 1212. Indians, N. A., 1273, 1274. Ishogos, 475. Japanese, 1450-1453. - Khonds, 1389. Krumen, 545. Mandans, 1274, 1275. Mapuchés, 1191. - Musguese, 639. Niuans, 1055. Nubians, 674. Papuans, 898. Samoans, - 1014. Sandwich Islanders, 1085. Siamese, 1468. Soumaulis, 672. - Sowrahs, 1386. Tahitans, 1059. Zealanders, New, 814. - - Hamoa, Navigator’s Island, 1008. - - Hamran Arabs, Africa, 675. - - Haraforas, New Guinea, 905. - - Hara-kiri, Japan, 1461. - - Harem of Kaffir, 76. - - Hassaniyehs, Africa, 686. - - HEAD-DRESSES of - Ahts, 1365. Fijians, waterproof, 926. Guianans, feather, 1255. - Indians, N. A., 1276. Ishogos, 475. Kaffir, 41. Mapuchés, 1191. - Marquesans, 1048. Samoans, 1013. - - Head hunting, Dyaks, 1135. - - Hebrides, New, Polynesia, 971. - - Hervey Islands, Polynesia, 1032. - - Hindoo’s, India, 1395. - - HONESTY of the - Apono, 484. Ashira, 497. Australians, 695, 696. Barea, 668. Bayeye, - 337. Bechuanas, 284, 285. Caledonians, New, 886. Esquimaux, 1351. - Indians, East, 1399, 1400. Krumen, 546. Latookas, 459. Makoba, - 339. Makololo, 326. Outanatas, 902. Ovambos, 315. Samoans, 1008. - Shillooks, 473. Society Islanders, 1065. Tuaricks, 634. - - Hopo, the elephant trap, 895. - - HORSES of - Indians, N. A., 1296, 1297. - - HORSEMANSHIP of - Araucanians, 1196. Camanchees, 1289, 1290. Crows, 1274. Hamran - Arabs, 676. Indians, Gran Chaco, 1212. Indians, North America, 1325. - Japanese, 1454, 1455. Patagonians, 1174. - - HOSPITALITY of - Abyssinians, 655. Ajitas, 920. Apingi, 490. Batoka, 353. Esquimaux, - 1351. Fuegians, 1171. Gani, 429. Ishogos, 480. Jakuts, 1379. Kaffir, - 16. Makololo, 326. Manganja, 355. Maories, 827. Samoans, 1008. Shoas, - 667. Shooas, 629. Tahitans, 1060. Tchuktchi, 1378. Wazaramo, 406. - Zealand, New, 826. - - Hottentots, Africa, 217. - - Hovas, Africa, 690. - - Huili-chés, South America, 1190. - - HUNTING among - Ahts, deer, 1355. Araucanians, 1198. Ashira, 502. Australians, - 717-725. Badema, with nets, 367. Batoka, 353. Banyai, hippopotamus - and elephant, 362-365. Bayeye, 338. Bosjesmans, ostrich, 252-253. - Camma, 509. Dahomans, 571. Dinkas, 470. Dor, 444-446. Dyaks, - 1131-1133. Esquimaux, seal, deer, fox, wolf, bear, 1338-1344. Fans, - elephant, gorilla, 533-542. Ghoorkas, 1396. Guianans, 1223-1270. - Hamran Arabs, elephant, lion, hippopotamus, buffalo, 675-677. - Hottentots, 231. Indians, North America, buffalo, 1293-1296. Indians, - Asia, elephant, deer, 1418. Kaffir, antelope, giraffe, elephant, - rhinoceros, lion, buffalo, 126-138. Kanemboos, 627. Makoba, 341. - Neam-Nam, elephant, 443. Ostiaks, 1384. Patagonians, 1178-1182. - Samoans, 1029. Samoïedes, 1383. Shooas, buffalo, elephant, 628. - Tasmanians, 753. Tungusi, 1379. - - - I. - - Illinoans, Borneo, 1112. - - India, Asia, 1395. - - Indians, Gran Chaco, 1211. - - Indians, North American, 1273. - - INDUSTRY of - Bubes, 610. Congoese, 616. Dyaks, 1118. Fanti, 548. Guianans, 1222. - Manganja, 355. Ostiaks, 1384. Ovambo, 319. Watusi, 409. Zealanders, - New, 826. - - Ingeletes, Alaska, N. A., 1374. - - Ireland, New, Australasia, 969. - - Ishogos, Africa, 475. - - Isi-baya, of Kaffir, 66. - - Isle of Pines Men, 887. - - Issikoko, or head ring, Kaffir, 41. - - - J. - - Japanese, Japan, 1449. - - Jakuts, Siberia, Asia, 1379. - - Jukahiri, Siberia, Asia, 1377. - - - K. - - KAFFIR, AFRICA, 11. - Chivalry of, 42. Picturesque aspect of, 42. Perfume of, 42. - Gallantry, 55. Ostentation, 59. Harem, inmates, etc., 62. Dread of - death, 76. Law of inheritance, 78. Courtship, 79. Names, mode of - choosing, 88, 89. Boaster, fate of, 89. Love of Justice, 149. Love of - honey, 154. Fondness for tobacco, 166. Torture for bewitching, 185. - Sleeping accommodations, 206. - - Kanemboos, Africa, 627. - - Karague, 399. - - KATCHIBA, - Chief of Obbo, 434. His family, 435. His character, 435. His palace, - 435. Treatment of guests, 435. - - Katema, the Balonda Chief, 376. - - Kaveaks, Siberia, 1375. - - Kingsmill Islanders, Polynesia, 1038. - - Knob kerry of Kaffir, 106. - - Kona’s Illness and its results, 185. - - Kora, Africa, 269. - - Korannas, Africa, 269. - - Koraquas, Africa, 269. - - Kraal of Kaffir, 54. - - Krumen, Africa, 544. - - Kytch, Africa, 436. - - - L. - - LANGUAGE of - Ajitas, 921. Bosjesmans, “clicks,” 242. Fijians, court, 939. - Fuegians, 1171. Hottentots, “clicks,” 234. Ingeletes, 1375. Kaveaks, - 1375. Malemutes, 1375. Mandingoes, 607. New Zealand, sacred, 857. - Siamese, 1471. - - Lanterns, Chinese, 1430. - - Lasso, Araucanians, 1197. - - Lasso, North Am. Indians, 1296. - - Latookas, Africa, 453. - - LAWS, code of among - Abyssinians, 653. Alfoërs, 906. Australians, 747. In Britain, New, - 969. Fiji, 935. Ireland, New, 969. Karague, 405. Makololo, 331. - Niuans, 1056. Samoans, 1016-1024. Siamese, 1471. Waganda, 410. - Zealanders, New, 798. - - LEGENDS of - Apono, 488. Areois, 1080. Balonda, 379. Bubes, 610. Chinese, 1429. - Fanti, 549. Fijians, 934. Guianans, 1264-1267. Indians, N. A., 1313. - Kaffirs, 141, 169. Mandans, 1301. Maories, 858. Namaquas, 276. New - Zealanders, 829. Niuans, 1052. Society Islanders, 1065. - - LIFE, human, value of, among - Bechuanas, 285. Dahomans, 567, 579. Fans, 539. Tenacity of among - Hottentots, 240. Waganda, 413. - - Lloyd’s account of Australians, 789. - - - M. - - Macoushies, Guiana, S. A., 1221. - - Madagascar, Africa, 690. - - Madi, Africa, 430. - - Mah-to-toh-pa, exploits of, 1286, 1287. - - Makoba, Africa, 339. - - Makololo, Africa, 324. - - Malagasy, Africa, 690. - - Malays, Malaisia, 920. - - Malemutes, Alaska, N. A., 1374. - - Malicolo, New Hebrides, 975. - - Mandans, N. America, 1301. - - Mandingoes, Africa, 607. - - Manenko in command, Balondo, 375. - - Manganjas, Africa, 355. - - Mantatees, Africa, 286. - - Mantchu Tartars, Tartary, 1422. - - MANUFACTURES, skill in among - Ahts, 1355. Apingi, 489. Araucanians, 1205. Arawaks, 1233-1235. - Australians, 726. Banyai, 366, 367. Bechuanas, 280-283. Djour, 451. - Dyaks, 1151-1156. Esquimaux, 1349. Fans, 532. Fijians, 929-931. - Guinea, New, 914. Hervey Islanders, 1033. Hottentots, 226, 228. - Kaffirs, 45-47, 95-99, 148-154, 206-212. Latookas, 455. Macoushies, - 1221. Maories, 880. Mpongwé, 528. Samoans, 1015. Shir, 462. Swiss - Lake-dwellers, 1474. Tongans, 977. - - Maories, New Zealand, 824. - - Mapuchés, So. America, 1190. - - Mara-chés, So. America, 1190. - - Marksmen of Arawaks, 1235. - - Marquesas Islands, 1044. - - MARRIAGE among - Abyssinians, 658. Ajitas, 921. Alfoërs, 906. Andamaners, 888, 892. - Angolese, 382. Apingi, 489. Araucanians, abduction of bride, 1199, - 1200. Arawaks, 1247. Australians, 755. Banyai, 362. Bornuese, 626. - Bosjesmans, 244. Bubés, 613. Dahomans, 586. Damaras, 313. Dory, - 917. Dyaks, 1137-1141. Esquimaux, 1349. Fans, 536. Fijians, 955. - The Fijian bride, 956. Among Ghoorkas, carrying off bride, 1394. - Hassaniyeh, 686. Hottentots, 233. Indians, N. A., 1316. Ingeletes, - 1375. Kaffirs, bridegroom on approval, 77-87. In Karague, 402. - Among Krumen, earning wives, 546, 547. Kytch, 439. Makololo, 328. - Mandingoes, 608. Namaquas, 277. Obongos, 482. Ostiaks, 1385. Ovambos, - 322. Patagonians, 1183. Samoans, 1031. Samoïedes, 1383. Sowrahs, - 1386. Tungusi, 1380. Waganda, 413, 414. Zealanders, New, 818. - - Marshall Islanders, 1100. - - Mbondemo, Africa, 521. - - Mbicho, Africa, 521. - - Mbousha, Africa, 521. - - Medicine, see Treatment of Sick. - - Medicine bag, N. A. Indians, 1308. - - MEDICINE MEN, of - Ahts, 1371. N. A. Indians, 1307-1309. Kaffirs, 17. - - Mendana Islands, 1044. - - Mexico, North America, 1271. - - Minatarees, North America, 1274. - - Mincopie girls, 895. - - Mincopies, Andaman Islands, 889. - - Mirage, notions of Hassaniyeh, 688. - - Mirror Ink of Hassaniyeh, 689. - - Mnande’s burial, 202. - - Moheenda, Africa, 399. - - Mongolians, Asia, 1422. - - Monkey Men, New Guinea, 900. - - MOURNING among - Abyssinians, 659. Australians, 772. Australians, widow’s cap, 777. - Bakalai, “keen,” 495. Camma, 520. Damaras, 314. Dyaks, 1160. - Esquimaux, 1351. Fijians, 967. Flat-heads, mourning cradle, 1320. - Indians, N. A., 1329. Mpongwé, 524. New Zealand, tangi, 869. - - Mpongwé, Africa, 524. - - Muchlahts, Vancouver’s Island, 1354. - - Mumbo Jumbo, of Bonny, 603. - - Mundurucús, S. America, 1215. - - Musguese, Africa, 639. - - MUSIC of - Balonda, 375. Bosjesman, 263-265. Chinese, 1446. Damaras, 313. - Kaffirs, 208. Korannas, 273. - - MUSICAL Instruments of - Abyssinians, 660. Balonda, 375. Batoka, 353. Bechuanas, 297. - Bosjesmans, goura, guitar, drum, 264-265. Camma, 509. Chinese, - 1445. Dor, 448. Dory, 917. Esquimaux, 1351. Fans, 540. Guianans, - 1264. Indians, N. A., 1330. Kaffirs, 55, 208-211. In Karague, 405. - Among Latookas, 459-460. Madi, 433. Malagasy, 693. Shillooks, 474. - Tahitans, 1062. Zealanders, New, 822. - - - N. - - Namaquas, Africa, 274. - - NAMES among - Araucanians, exchanging of, 1209. Bosjesmans, 244. Kaffirs, mode of - choosing, 88, praise and birth, 89. Krumen, 546. Maganjas, changing, - 360. New Zealanders, signification of, and changing, 817. - - Neam-Nam, Africa, 440. - - Necklace, talismanic, Kaffir, 199. - - Negritos, Philippine Islands, 920. - - New Britain, Australasia, 969. - - New Caledonia, Australasia, 883. - - New Guinea, Africa, 898. - - New Hebrides, Polynesia, 971. - - New Ireland, Australasia, 969. - - New Zealand, Australasia, 792. - - Nga-te-kahuhuna, New Zealand, 796. - - Nicobarians, Nicobar Islands, 896. - - Niué, Polynesia, 1052. - - North American Indians, 1273. - - Nubia, Africa, 673. - - Nuehr tribe, Africa, 468. - - - O. - - Obbo, Africa, 434. - - Obongos, Africa, 482. - - Oerlams, Africa, 274. - - Ohyahts, Vancouver’s Island, 1354. - - Ojibbeways, North America, 1329. - - Omens, see Superstitions. - - ORDEALS of the - Angolese, 382. Ashira, the ring, 502. Batoka, 353. Bechuanas, boys, - 292, for girls, 295. Camma, drinking m’boundou, 515. Caribs, 1240. - Conguese, drinking poison, 615. Dacotahs, medicine men, 1307. Dyaks, - diving, 1159, boiling water, 1159, salt, 1159, snails, 1159. Mandans, - on reaching manhood, 1301, suspension, 1303, last race, 1304. - Mundurucús, of gloves, 1216. - - Order of the Scar, Bechuanas, 289. - - ORNAMENTS of - Abyssinians, 646, 647. Admiralty Islanders, 970. Ahts, lip, - 1355. Araucanians, 1197. Ashango, 481. Ashanti, 555. Australians, - dibbi-dibbi nose-bone, turtle scar, 703, 704. Balonda, 373. Bayeye, - 339. Bechuanas, 284. Bedouins, 683. Bornabi, 1103. Bosjesmans, 249. - Caledonians, New, 883. Co-yukons, nose, 1375. Damaras, 306. Dinkas, - 470. Djibba, scalp-lock, 467. Djour, 451. Dor, lip, 447. Dyaks, - earrings, etc., 1111-1117. Egbas, 591. Fanti, 549. Fijians, 926. - Fuegians, 1165. Gani, 430. Ghoorkas, 1399. Hebrides, New, 972. Hervey - Islanders, 1033. Hottentots, 225. Indians, N. A., wampum, 1280, 1329. - Isle of Pines Men, 887. Japanese, hair-pins, 1453. Kaffirs, 33-55, - 198. Kanemboos, 627. Kaveak, 1374. Khonds, 1389. Latookas, lips, 453, - 454. Madi, 433. Makololo, 327. Malemutes, to-took, 1374. Manganjas, - 356. Mapuchés, breast-pin, 1191. Marquesans, 1048. Mpongwé, 524. - Musguese, lip, 639. Namaquas, 275. Neam-Nam, 442. Nubians, 674. - Nuehr, 468. Obbo, 434. Outanatas, 901. Ovambos, 316. Pelew Islanders, - bone bracelet, 1104. Romanzoff Islanders, 1100. Sandwich Islanders, - 1082. Shillooks, 472. Shir, 462. Solomon Islanders, 969. Sowrahs, - necklaces, 1386. Swiss Lake-dwellers, 1474. Tongans, whales’ teeth, - 978. Tungusi, 1379. Vaté Islanders, 972. Wagogo, 385. Wanyamuezi, - “sambo” rings, 386. Watusi, 409. Wazaramo, 406. Zealanders, New, 813, - 814. - - Ostiaks, Siberia, Asia, 1384. - - Otaheitans, Society Islands, 1058. - - Outanatas, New Guinea, 900. - - Ovaherero, Africa, 315. - - Ovambos, Africa, 315. - - Ovampos, Africa, 315. - - Ovaquangari, Africa, 320. - - Ovat-jumba, Africa, 305. - - Oyos, Africa, 566. - - Ox of the girl, Kaffirs, 86. - - Ox of the surplus, Kaffirs, 86. - - - P. - - PAIN, indifference to of the - Bosjesmans, 250. Damaras, 306. Guianans, 1254. - - Panda, song in honor of, 89. - - Papuans, New Guinea, 898. - - Pasuen, Africa, 529. - - Patagonians, South America, 1172. - - Patagonians, life among, 1184. - - Pehuen-chés, So. America, 1190. - - Pelele, or lip ring, Manganjas, 359. - - Pelew Islands, 1104. - - PENALTIES or PUNISHMENTS among - Caribs, 1241. Chinese, cangue, 1436, finger-squeezing, 1436, - beating with bamboo, 1436, strangulation, 1439, crucifixion, 1439, - decapitation, 1440, cutting into pieces, 1440, sawn asunder, 1440. - Japanese, crucifixion, 1461, hara-kiri, 1461. Patagonians, 1186. - Niuans, 1056. Samoans, beating in sacks, 1023. Siamese, 1471. - - PIPES of - Australians, 701. Bosjesmans, 244. Chinese, 1442. Co-yukons, 1377. - Crees, calumet, 1313. Japanese, 1462. Kaffirs, 163-166. Malemutes, - 1370. See Smoking. - - POISON - upon arrows of Ajitas, 920. Araucanians, 1229-1236. Bosjesmans, 260. - Mundurucús, 1234. In wells, Bosjesmans, 261. Drank by Mr. Moffat, - 261, grub, the N’gwa, 258, hyarri, Mundurucús, 1234, upas, Dyaks, - 1120, wourali, 1228. - - Poison grub, the N’gwa, 258. Wourali, 1228. - - POLITENESS of - Batokas, 350. Bedouins, 683. In Karague, 399. Of Tchuktchi, 1378. - Watusi, 409. - - POLYGAMY among - Australians, 755. Bornuese, 626. Egbas, 593. Fijians, 935. Guianans, - 1246, 1247. Hottentots, 233. Ingeletes, 1375. Kaffirs, 75, 76. - Makololo, 328. Niuans, 1056. Shillooks, 473. Tchuktchi, 1378. - - Ponda, Africa, 12. - - Porcelain, Japanese, 1465. - - Pritchard’s adventure with wild boar, 1029. - - Prophetess, Kaffir, 189. - - PROPHETS, among - Kaffirs, 175-180, 186-189, 195. Preparation of, 176. Consultation of, - 180. Curing sickness, Bechuanas, 292. False, 190. - - - R. - - RACES, causes of, and reflections upon decay and extinction of - Australians, 790, 791. Esquimaux, 1353. New Zealanders, 880. N. Am. - Indians, 1331, 1332. - - RAIN-MAKING among - Kaffirs, 126, 192-194. Namaquas, 277. - - Rangitani, New Zealand, 796. - - RANK, distinction of among - Bosjesmans, 244. Japanese, 1459. Pelew Islanders, 1104. Tahitans, - 1061. - - RELIGION of - Abyssinians, 660-664. Ahts, 1370. Ajitas, 921. Angolese, 332. - Apingi, 490. Apono, 488. Araucanians, 1209. Ashangos, 481. Ashanti, - 559. Ashira, 501. Australians, 778. Bakalai, 494. Balonda, 379. - Banyai, 367. Batokas, 353. Bechaunas, 291. Bedouins, 685. Britain, - New, 970. Bornuese, 625. Cammas, 510. Congoese, 615. Dahomans, 562, - 586. Damaras, 314. Dyaks, 1110, 1157. Egbas, 594. Esquimaux, 1349. - Fans, 539. Fanti, 550. Fijians, 960-964. Fuegians, 1171. Guianans, - 1263. Hervey Islanders, 1037. Hottentots, 234. Indians, East, 1407. - Indians, N. A., 1301, 1313. Ireland, New, 970. Kaffirs, 169-171. - Krumen, 547. Malagasy, 693. Mandingoes, 607. Manganjas, 360. Maories, - 856-858. Namaquas, 276. Ovambos, 322. Patagonians, 1186. Pelew - Islanders, 1108. Samoïedes, 1381. Sandwich Islanders, 1096. Siamese, - 1471. Society Islanders, 1064-1071. Tongans, 1004. Tungusi, 1380. - Waganda, 420. Wanyamuezi, 395. Wanyoro, 427. Wazaramo, 406. - - Rewards, honorary, Chinese, 1441. - - Riccarees, N. America, 1319. - - Rob Roy, a Kaffir, 69. - - Romanzoff Island, 1100. - - - S. - - SACRIFICES among - Araucanians, 1209. Ashanti, instruments of, 559. Co-yukons, 1376. - Dahomans, 578-582. In India, suttee, 1407-1410, sacred noose, 1411, - juggernaut, 1411, drowning in Ganges, 1413, beasts substituted for - human, 1413. Indians, N. A., 1309, 1314. Kaffirs, animal, 171, 172. - Khonds, “meriah,” 1389-1392. Samoïedes, 1382. Society Islanders, - 1074. Sowrahs, 1389. Tahitans, 1075. Tongans, 997-1001. Waganda, 420. - - Sacs, N. America, 1323. - - SALUTATION, mode of, among - Ashira, 498. Balonda, 373. Brumer’s Islanders, 907. Egbas, 591. - Esquimaux, 1349. Gani, 429. Hassaniyeh, 686. In Karague, 399. Among - Makololo, 326. Manganjas, 356. Nuehr, 469. Ovambo, 322. Wanyamuezi, - 389. Watusi, 409. Zealanders, New, 823. - - Samoans, Polynesia, 1008. - - Samoïedes, Siberia, 1381. - - San Christoval, Solomon Islands, 970. - - Sandal wood, Aneiteum, 975. - - Sandwich Islands, 1081. - - Saqua, Africa, 251. - - Savage Island, 1052. - - Scalping, mode of, 1285, 1286. - - Sea Dyaks, Borneo, 1110. - - Sechuanas, Africa, 280. - - Senecas, N. America, 1288. - - Shekiani, Africa, 521. - - Shields of Kaffirs, 108. - - Shillooks, Africa, 472. - - Shir, Africa, 461. - - Shoas, Africa, 667. - - Shooas, Africa, 628. - - Siam, Asia, 1467. - - SICK, treatment of among - Angolese, 381. Araucanians, 1205. Ashira, 501. Australians, 769-771. - Damaras, 205. Hottentots, 233-240. Kaffirs, 183, 184, 190. Korannas, - 274. Makoba, 347. Makololo, 336. Maories, 862. Mundurucús, 1219. - Namaquas, 277. Patagonians, 1184. Tongans, 997. Tuaricks, 634. - - Sickness, theory of, Angolese, 382. - - Silks of Japanese, 1466. - - Singing, see Amusements. - - Sioux, N. America, 1274. - - SLAVERY among - Ashira, 501. Dory, 914. Gallas, 671. Malagasy, 693. Musguese, 639. - Zealanders, New, 797. - - Sledges, of Esquimaux, 1345. - - Sleep, power of, Hottentot, 233. - - SMOKING among - Ahts, 1370. Ashira, 501. Australians, 701. Batokas, 350. Bayeye, - hemp, 339. Bosjesmans, 244, 262. Chinese, opium, 1441. Crees, - calumet, 1313. Damaras, hemp or dagha, 165. Dor, “bark quids,” 452. - Djours, 452. Indians, N. A., 1313. Japanese, 1462. Kaffirs, 163-166. - Makololo, 336. Mundurucús, “enchanted” cigars, 1219. Patagonians, - 1183. Tchutkchi, 1377. Wanyamuezi, 393. - - “Smoking horses,” Indians, 1290. - - Snake Worship, Dahomans, 565. - - Snake cooking and eating, Australians, 717. - - Snake charming, India, 1416. - - Snow-shoes of N. A. Indians, 1294, 1295. - - Snuff boxes, Kaffir, 161. - - Snuff taking, Kaffir, 159. - - Society Islands, 1057. - - Solomon Islands, 968. - - SONGS, - Esquimaux, amna-aya, 1349. Kaffir, war, 90, 147, 208. Makanna’s - gathering, 197. New Zealand, canoe, 853. New Zealand, tattoo, 802. - See Amusements. - - Soumaulis, Abyssinia, 671. - - Sowrahs, India, 1385. - - STRENGTH of - Dyaks, 1115. Esquimaux, 1334. Fuegians, 1166. Waraus, 1261. - - SUCCESSION, law of, among - Angolese, 380. Arawaks, 1247. Ashanti, 556. Fijians, 935. Indians, N. - A., 1275. In Karague, 400. Among Ovambos, 322. Waganda, 416. - - SUPERSTITION among - Ahts, 1372. Angolese, 382. Apingi, 490. Arabs, 687-689. Araucanians, - 1205. Ashangos, 481. Ashira, 502. Australians, 745, 778-783. Bakalai, - 493. Banyai, 366. Bedouins, 685. Bonny, 604. Camma, 510-515. Caribs, - 1241. Damaras, 314. Dyaks, 1131, 1157-1159. Egbas, 594. Esquimaux, - 1350. Fans, 539. Fanti, 550. Fijians, 960-965. Guianans, 1264. - Kaffirs, 88, 172, 190, 191. Makoba, 346. Malagasy, 693. Mandingoes, - 609. Maories, 856-858, 864. Pelew Islanders, 1108. Samoïedes, 1383. - Shekiani, 523. Society Islanders, 1079, 1080. Tahitans, 1058. - Tongans, 1007. Waganda, 419. Wanyamuezi, 395. Wanyoro, 427. Wazaramo, - 406. - - Swazi, Africa, 12. - - SWIMMING among - Alfoërs, 911. Bosjesmans, 255. Indians, North America, 1330. - Marquesans, 1051. Sandwich Islanders, 1086, 1087, 1092. Tongans, 1006. - - Swiss Lake-dwellers, 1473. - - - T. - - Taboo of Banyai, 367. - - Taboo, see Tapu. - - Tahitans, Society Islands, 1058. - - Tanna Island, New Hebrides, 972. - - Taranakis, New Zealand, 850. - - Tapu of Maories, 863-868. - - Tartars, Mantchu, Asia, 1422. - - Tasmanians, Van Dieman’s Land, 753. - - TATTOOING among - Abyssinians, 648. Apingi, 489. Arawaks, 1222. Australians, 704. - Bedouins, 683. Bornabi, 1103. Bornuese, 620. Brumer’s Islanders, - 907. Dahomans, 589 Dyaks, 1111, 1117. Egbas, 591. Esquimaux, 1334. - Fans, 530. Fijians, 926. In Guinea, New, 911. Among Japanese, - 1450. Kingsmill Islanders, 1038. Manganjas, 359. Marquesans, 1044. - Mundurucús, 1215. Niuans, 1055. Pelew Islanders, 1104. Romanzoff - Islanders, 1100. Samoans, 1010-1013. Sandwich Islanders, 1085. - Soumaulis, 672. Tahitans, 1059. Wanyamuezi, 389. Watusi, 409. - Zealanders, New, 800, 806. - - Tchaka, suspected of death of mother, 124. - - Tchaka’s vision, Kaffir chief, 170. - - Tchaka at funeral of mother, 202. - - Tchuktchi, Siberia, 1377. - - Tea of Chinese, 1432. - - Tea houses, Japanese, 1464. - - Te Ohie, a native priest, 857. - - Theatres of Japanese, 1463. - - Thieves of Ghoorkas, 1399, 1400. - - Thugs of India, 1410. - - Tibboos, Africa, 630. - - Tigre, Africa, 667. - - Tikis, New Zealand, 861. - - TOBACCO among - Kaffirs, 159-162, 166. Mundurucús, snuff, paricu, 1220. New - Zealanders, 850. - - Tools, see Manufactures. - - Tongans, Polynesia, 976. - - Toquahts, Vancouver’s Island, 1354. - - TORTURE, modes of among - Chinese, 1436. Hindoos, 1414. N. A. Indians, 1288. - - TRAINING by East Indians of - Antelopes, 1420, elephants, 1418, falcons, 1416, stags, 1420. - - TRANSMIGRATION, belief in by - Australians, 780. Makoba, 346. Shekiani, 523. - - TRAVELLING, mode of, - Japan, 1455-1456. - - TREES of - Africa, thorns, 213, grapple plant, 214, wait-a-bit, hook and prick, - and monkey ropes, 215. Aneiteum, sandal wood, 975. Australia, grass, - 726. Borneo, nipa palm, 1150, Upas, Borneo, 1120. Guiana, ita palm, - 1268. Hova, travellers, 693. Tierra del Fuego, Antarctic beech, 1167. - - Tuaricks, Africa, 634. - - Tungusi, Siberia, Asia, 1379. - - - U. - - Uzaramo, Africa, 406. - - Uzinto, adventures of, 80. - - - V. - - Vancouver’s Island, N. A., 1354. - - Vaté, New Hebrides, 972. - - - W. - - Waganda, Africa, 410. - - Wagogo, Africa, 384. - - Wahuma, Africa, 399. - - Waikatos, New Zealand, 850. - - Wanganja, Africa, 355. - - Wanyambo, Africa, 399. - - Wanyamuezi, Africa, 386. - - Wanyoro, Africa, 422. - - War, see sacrifice, Songs, Warfare. - - Waraus, Guiana, S. A., 1222. - - WARFARE among - Araucanians, 1199. Ashangos, 480. Australians, 744, 745. Balonda, - 378. Barea, 671. Bari, 462. Batoka, 354. Bechuanas, 289. Bedouins, - 681, 684. Begharmis, 635. Bornuese, 622. Bosjesmans, 254. - Caledonians, New, 885. Camma, 506. Caribs, 1239, 1242. Chinese, 1433. - Congoese, 615. Dahomans, 567. Dinkas, 469. Djibbas, 467. Dor, 445. - Dory, 914. Dyaks, 1119, 1131-1135. Egbas, 593. Fans, 531. Fijians, - 952, 953. Fuegians, 1165. Gallas, 671. Ghoorkas, 1396. Hervey - Islanders, 1034. Hottentots, 239. Illinoans, 1112. Indians, Gran - Chaco, 1213. Indians, N. A., 1281. Kaffirs, 19, 92, 113-125, 196-198. - Kingsmill Islanders, 1039. Latookas, 455, 456. Mantchu Tartars, - 1422, 1423. Maories, 838, 846-850. Marquesans, 1050. Musguese, - 640. Neam-Nam, 443. Nubians, 674. Pelew Islanders, 1107. Samoans, - 1016-1020. Sandwich Islanders, 1091. Society Islanders, 1073. - Soumaulis, 671. Tibboos, 633. Tongans, 984, 985. Waganda, 414, 415. - Wagogo, 385. Wazaramo, 406. See Dances. - - Waterton’s story of Arawaks, 1230. - - Wasagara, Africa, 407. - - Watusi, Africa, 408. - - Watuta tribes, Africa, 402. - - Wazaramo, Africa, 406. - - WEAPONS of - Abyssinians, 646-647. Ahts, 1355. Ajitas, 920. Andamaners, 889. - Apono, 487. Araucanians, bolas, 1197. Ashangos, 480. Ashanti, - 556. Australians, throw stick, kangaroo rat, boomerang, 719-724, - 728-743. Balonda, 378. Banyai, axe, 366. Bari, 464. Bechuanas, 289. - Bedouins, 681. Begharmis, 635. Bornuese, 623. Bosjesmans, 257, 261. - Bouka, 971. Britain, New, 970. Caledonians, New, 884. Chinese, - jingall, cross-bow, 1433-1436. Congoese, 615. Dahomans, 561, 571. - Damaras, 312. Dinkas, 469. Djibbas, 464. Dor, 444. Dyaks, sumpitan, - or blowgun, parang-ihlang, kris, 1119-1131. Esquimaux, harpoon, - 1339. Fans, 531. Fijians, 948-952. Fuegians, 1165. Ghoorkas, - kookery, 1395. Guianans, 1223-1236. Guinea, New, 913. Hamran Arabs, - 675. Hebrides, New, 972. Hervey Islanders, 1034. Hottentots, 232. - Illinoans, 1112. Indians, East, 1400-1406. Indians, Gran Chaco, - armor, 1212. Indians, N. A., tomahawk, 1282. Ireland, New, 970. - Ishogos, 476. Japanese, sword, 1459. Kaffirs, 93, 94, 100-113. - Karague, 399. Khonds, axe, 1392. Kingsmill Islanders, 1039. Latookas, - 453. Madi, 433. Mantchu Tartars, bows, 1423. Maories, 838-844. - Marquesans, 1050. Mincopies, bow, 890. Musguese, 639. Neam-Nam, - 443. Nicobarians, 896. Niuans, 1055. Nubians, peculiar sword, 673. - Outanatas, 901. Ovambos, 319. Papuans, 900. Patagonians, bolas, - 1174-1178. Pelew Islanders, 1107. Samoans, 1019. Sandwich Islands, - 1088. Shekiani, 521. Shir, 461. Society Islanders, 1073. Soumaulis, - 671. Sowrahs, 1386. Swiss Lake-dwellers, 1474. Tibboos, 633. Vaté, - 972. Waraus, 1269. - - Wedding, see Dances, Marriage. - - Weezees, Africa, 386. - - Western Islands, 1100. - - WITCHCRAFT among - Araucanians, 1206. Ashanti, 560. Bakalai, 493. Camma, 515-520. - Caribs, 1241. Esquimaux, 1350. Fans, 539. Kaffirs, 184, 188. Maories, - 861. Shekiani, 522. Waganda, 410. Wanyamuezi, 395. - - WOMEN, condition of among - Angolese, 381. Ashira, 496. Australians, 695, 756. Banyai, 362. - Bonny, 603. Brumer’s Islanders, 908. Congoese, 616. Dahomans, 589. - Damaras, singular caps of married, 313. Dyaks, 1118. Fijians, 956. - Gani, 430. Guianans, 1246. Indians, Gran Chaco, 1214. Indians, - North America, 1319. Isle of Pines Men, 887. Kaffirs, 24-27, 90. In - Karague, 402. Among Latookas, 455. Makololo, 327. Musguese, 639. - Ostiaks, 1385. Patagonians, 1186. Samoans, 1014. Samoïedes, 1383. - Sandwich Islanders, 1082-1086. Shooas, 630. Tahitans, 1058. Tongans, - 983. Waganda, 413. Wanyoro, 426. Wanyoro, fattening of, 426. - - - Z. - - Zealanders, New, Australasia, 792. - - Zingian Tribes, Africa, 12. - - Zulus, Africa, 12. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Unless listed under Changes below, the language used in this e-book - is that of the source document, including inconsistencies, archaic - and unusual spelling and hyphenation, pejorative and offensive terms, - etc. Non-English names, words and phrases in particular are not - always spelled correctly or consistently. Factual errors have not - been corrected. - - The differences in wording between the Table of Contents and the - chapter headings in the text have not been standardised. The same - applies to the List of Illustrations and the illustration captions - in the text. The order of illustrations in the List of Illustrations - is not always the same as the order in which they are presented in - the book. What appear as major divisions in the Table of Contents are - part of the chapter titles in the text. The original work contains a - Table of Contents per Volume, the List of Illustrations in Volume I, - and the Index in Volume II; for ease of reference, all of these have - been included in both volumes. - - The differences in structure and wording between the Table of - Contents and the chapter headings in the text have been retained. - Auto-generated Tables of Contents may therefore differ from the - original one. The same applies to the List of Illustrations and the - illustration captions in the text. The order of illustrations in the - List of Illustrations is not always the same as the order in which - they are presented in the book. - - Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their - settings, not all elements may display as intended. - - Page 814, ... shown at figs. 4 and 5, ...: there is no fig. 5 in the - illustration. - - Page 839, ... lowly and laboriously ground into shape ...: possibly - an error for ... slowly and laboriously ground into shape .... - - Page 840, ... fig. 1 of the illustration “Merais,” ... and similar - figure numbers: the illustration has no numbered figures. - - Page 951, paragraph starting Fig. 3 is a club, ...: reference letters - a and b are not present in the illustration. - - Page 966, Convulsion strongly on the part of the poor creature ...: - the source for this quote (Williams’s and Calvert’s book) reads: - Convulsive struggles on the part of the poor creature .... - - Page 993, ... the right that has just been concluded ...: possibly an - error for ... the rite that has just been concluded .... - - Page 1030, ... the annelid called the Palolo (Palolo viridis): - possibly an error for Palola viridis. - - Page 1040, reference to figs. _a_ and _b_: the reference letters are - not present in the illustration. - - Page 1050, bèche-demer: bêche-de-mer, sea cucumber. - - Page 1131, If the reader will look at figure 2 ...: there are no - reference numbers in the illustration. - - Page 1204, “There was much shouting and shuffling, ...: the closing - quote mark is lacking. - - Page 1295: ... call the “bimikibison,” ... changed to ... called the - “bimikibison,” .... - - Page 1355, ... some of which are shown in the illustrations on page - 1357 ...: there is but a single bow in the illustrations. - - Page 1369, ... stout posts about twelve feet in diameter ...: as - printed in the source document; possibly an error for twelve inches. - - Page 1371, “Before the prodigy finally retires ...: the closing quote - mark is lacking. - - Page 1401, ... but smaller in principle: possibly an error for ... - but similar in principle. The specimen which is shown in Fig. 1 - of the illustration: there is no Fig. 1 in the illustration; the - description refers to the left hand bow. - - Page 1402, Fig. 2 of the illustration: there is no Fig. 2 in the - illustration; the description refers to the right hand bow. - - Page 1407: ... which has been subject to British dominion ... changed - to ... which have been subject to British dominion .... - - Page 1475, ... except one is fortunate enough ...: as printed in the - source document. - - Page 1508, “Several days elapsed ...: the closing quote mark is - lacking. - - Page 1517, “Their powers of endurance ...: the closing quote mark is - lacking. - - Page 1523, “The objects of worship are the nats ...: the closing - quote mark is lacking. - - - Changes - - Illustrations amd (foot)notes have been moved out of text paragraphs. - - Index, illustration captions, table of contents, list of - illustrations and lists of subjects per chapter: some entries have - been corrected slightly to conform to the spelling in the main text. - - Some minor obvious formatting, typographical and punctuation errors - and misprints have been corrected silently. Some superfluous repeated - words have been deleted. - - Indented text under illustrations has been transcribed from the - illustration for the sake of legibility, and does not occur as text - in the source document. - - McGillivray, M’Gillivray and M‘Gillivray have been standardised to - M’Gillivray; guacho and gaucho to gaucho - - Page 828: E Toki changed to E’ Toki. - - Page 838: Chapter title NEW ZEALAND--_Continued._ inserted. - - Page 870: ... at the pah of Hurewenua ... changed to ... at the pah - of Huriwenua ... - - Page 881: Number (3.) inserted. - - Page 932: ... refer to illustration No. 1, on the 924th page ... - changed to ... refer to illustration No. 2, on the 924th page .... - - Page 949: Number (3.) inserted. - - Page 1055: closing double quote mark inserted after ... a loud and - hideous howl. - - Page 1082: Gualtheria changed to Gaultheria. - - Page 1129: (4.) BORNESE SHIELD changed to (2.) BORNESE SHIELD as - referred to in text. - - Page 1160: opening double quote marks inserted before Unfortunate - moment! - - Page 1193: closing double quote marks inserted after Hué! - - Page 1204: closing double quote mark inserted after their ... own - national game of Pelican. - - Page 1255: WEATHER HEADDRESSES changed to FEATHER HEADDRESSES. - - Page 1264: maraka changed to marakka as elsewhere. - - Page 1333: Chapter heading CHAPTER CXL. inserted. - - Page 1377: closing double quote mark inserted after ... over the - naked tundras. - - Page 1391: closing single quote mark inserted after ... we shall - perform your obsequies. - - Page 1402: ... Fig. 2 of illustration 0, on page 000 ... changed to - ... Fig. 2 of the illustration, on page 1394. - - Page 1459: ... a heavy, two-handled weapon ... changed to ... a - heavy, two-handed weapon .... - - Page 1513: closing double quote mark inserted after ... as the - masters or we could bear. - - Page 1518: closing double quote mark inserted after ... the 200,000 - residents of Zanzibar. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE UNCIVILIZED RACES OF MEN IN -ALL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD; VOL. 2 OF 2 *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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