path: root/69019-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69019 ***

                KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY


                         ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK

                                  BY

                            CHARLES A. KING

                      DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING
                EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN

                            [Illustration]

                  NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO

                         AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY




                KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY

                        ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK
                        ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION
                        CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY
                        INSIDE FINISHING
                        HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS


                          COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
                           CHARLES A. KING.

                 ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON.
                               W. P. I.




PREFACE TO THE SERIES


This series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended as
textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, technical,
or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the “Handbook in
Woodwork and Carpentry,” is for the use of teachers and of normal
students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the other four
volumes.

Of the pupils’ volumes, the first two, “Elements of Woodwork” and
“Elements of Construction,” are adapted to the needs of students in
manual-training schools, or in any institution in which elementary
woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational handwork, or as
preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in carpentry or
vocational training.

The volumes “Constructive Carpentry” and “Inside Finishing” are planned
with special reference to the students of technical, industrial, or
trade schools, who have passed through the work of the first two
volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects treated are those which will
be of greatest value to both the prospective and the finished workman.

For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required course,
but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or optional models
under certain conditions, and for others who have more liberty and are
able to make such changes as they see fit, this series will be found
perfectly adaptable, regardless of the grades taught. To accomplish
this, the material has been arranged by topics, which may be used by
the teacher irrespective of the sequence, as each topic has to the
greatest extent possible been treated independently.

The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now President
of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement and advice
in preparing for and planning the series, and to George R. Swain,
Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay City, Michigan, for
valuable aid in revising the manuscript.

Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodicals, and
the publications of the United States Departments of Education and of
Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the author has gleaned from
their pages.

CHARLES A. KING.

BAY CITY, MICHIGAN.




PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK


In preparing this book, it has been the author’s purpose to present,
in as complete and concise form as possible, the knowledge which every
wood-worker should possess regarding the care and use of his tools and
the material upon which he employs them.

Whether an amateur, apprentice, or skilled workman, whether a
carpenter, boat builder, pattern maker, or wood carver, the elementary
knowledge of the construction of tools, of sharpening them, and
of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the same. The
structure of wood, and the necessity of applying its peculiarities of
grain and texture to the advantage of the work in hand, also is the
same upon all branches of woodwork.

While innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented to
enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economically
both as to time and material, a study of them will prove that they
all operate upon a few simple principles, a knowledge of which is not
difficult to acquire, though skill and judgment in the application of
the tools can be attained only by continuous and properly directed
practice.

It would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this sort to
describe these various devices, though in a schoolroom it is a great
advantage to have as many of them as practicable, not for their use
only, but that the students may become familiar with their purposes and
the applications of the fundamental principles upon which each is based.

The actual use of tools may be considered the A B C of woodwork, as it
bears the same relation to the finished product of the workman as the
alphabet bears to literature, the space between the mere mechanical
facility in the use of either tools or alphabet, being the result of
the judgment, skill, and individuality of either the workman or the
author.

Thus, if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described in
this volume, he will have little difficulty in using other and more
complex tools; and when he has mastered the principles of construction
involved in the exercises explained in the following book of this
series, the “Elements of Construction,” and the correct use of the
tools involved in making these, together with their applications
and combinations, he has acquired the fundamental knowledge of all
construction in wood.

CHARLES A. KING.

BAY CITY, MICHIGAN.




TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                                    PAGE

  CHAPTER I. GROWTH OF WOOD.--Kinds of trees used for lumber;
  The formation of wood; Tissues; The medullary rays; The grain
  in trees; Defects found in lumber; When to cut lumber                1

  CHAPTER II. LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD.--The manufacture
  of lumber; To saw lumber of irregular dimensions; The
  grading of lumber; The testing of lumber; Surveying or estimating
  lumber; Qualities of wood                                           12

  CHAPTER III. CARE OF LUMBER.--The piling of lumber; Permanent
  lumber ways; To minimize the warping of lumber; Weather-dried
  lumber; Kiln-dried lumber; Moist air kilns; Induced draft kilns;
  Results of the two systems; Filling a kiln; Length of time lumber
  should be left in the kiln; The care of kiln-dried lumber;
  Steaming wood; Preserving wood                                      45

  CHAPTER IV. TOOLS.--How to purchase tools; Benches; Rules;
  The try-square; The steel, or framing, square; The bevel; The
  gauge; The hammer; The hatchet; The mallet; Saws; The knife
  blade; Planes; Sharpening a plane; The jack plane; The jointer;
  The smoothing plane; The block plane; The correct position;
  Chisels; Gouges; The drawshave; The spokeshave; Bits; The
  bitbrace, or stock; The screwdriver; Compasses, or dividers; Pliers;
  The scraper; Edges; Nail sets; Wrenches; Handscrews; A grindstone;
  Emery, corundum, carborundum; Whetstones; Files;
  Saw filing        57

  CHAPTER V. GLUE AND SANDPAPER.--Different kinds of glue; How
  to use glue; The testing of sandpaper; How to use sandpaper        118

  CHAPTER VI. WOOD FINISHING.--Filling; Staining wood; Shellac;
  Wax finishing; Oil finish; Varnish; Polishing; Brushes             128




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


  FIG.                                                              PAGE

  1. Section of Yellow Pine                                            2

  2. Section of Oak Tree Trunk                                         5

  3. Defects in Lumber                                                 7

  4. Felling a Tree                                                   12

  5. Cutting Small Branches from Felled Spruce                        13

  6. Skidway of Spruce Logs                                           14

  7. Load of White Pine Logs                                          14

  8. Hauling Logs by Steel Cable                                      15

  9. Loading Logs from Shedway to Train                               16

  10. Boom of Logs                                                    16

  11. Log Jam                                                         17

  12. Sawmill in the Big Tree District                                18

  13. Circular Saw                                                    20

  14. Double Cut Band Saw                                             21

  15. Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing                                 22

  16. Four Methods of Quartering                                      22

  17. Lumber Scale                                                    27

  18. Beech and Sugar Maple Forest                                    31

  19. White Pine Forest                                               39

  20. Douglas Spruce Forest                                           41

  21. Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire                        43

  22. Permanent Lumber Ways                                           46

  23. Warping of Lumber                                               48

  24. Lumber piled in Double Courses                                  49

  25. Manual-training Bench                                           58

  26. Carpenter’s Bench                                               58

  27. Two-foot, Four-fold Rule                                        59

  28. Zigzag Rule                                                     59

  29. Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge                      60

  30. Use of Two Try-squares to see if Piece of Wood is “Out of Wind” 60

  31. Position of Try-square when Making Line                         61

  32. Steel, or Framing, Square                                       62

  33. Bevel and Steel Square                                          62

  34. Marking Gauge                                                   63

  35. Marking Gauge in Use                                            64

  36. Claw Hammer                                                     64

  37. Toenailing and Tacking                                          65

  38. Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail Set                             66

  39. Hatchet and Handaxe                                             67

  40. Mallets (Square-faced and Round)                                67

  41. Saws--Rip-, Cutting-off, and Compass, or Keyhole                68

  42. Backsaw                                                         69

  43. Use of the Saw                                                  71

  44. Reset Saw Handle                                                72

  45. Knife Blades                                                    72

  46. Section of an Iron Plane                                        73

  47. Result of Using Plane with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron         74

  48. Result of Using Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly           74

  49. Setting a Plane                                                 76

  50. Whetting and Grinding of Plane                                  77

  51. Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter             78

  52. Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron         79

  53. Shape of Edge of Plane Iron                                     80

  54. Jack Plane                                                      81

  55. Method of Guiding a Jointer                                     83

  56. Knuckle Joint Block Plane                                       84

  57. Use of the Block Plane                                          84

  58. Using Block Plane upon Small Pieces                             85

  59. Incorrect Use of Jack Plane                                     86

  60. Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane                          87

  61. Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane                             87

  62. Chisels                                                         89

  63. Drawshave                                                       90

  64. Spokeshave                                                      90

  65. Auger Bit                                                       91

  66. Cross-handled Auger                                             91

  67. German Bit and Twist Drill                                      92

  68. Extension Bit and Center Bit                                    92

  69. Filing an Auger Bit                                             93

  70. Ratchet Bitbrace                                                94

  71. Compasses                                                       95

  72. Calipers                                                        95

  73. Pliers                                                          95

  74. Nippers                                                         95

  75. Scraper                                                         96

  76. Edges of Scrapers                                               97

  77. Angle of Burnisher with Sides of Scraper                        97

  78. Method of Grasping Scraper for Sharpening                       98

  79. Top Views of the Angles of the Burnisher                        99

  80. Angle to be avoided in Sharpening Scraper                      100

  81. Turning back the Edge of a Scraper                             100

  82. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a
      Broad Surface                                                  101

  83. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within
      Small Area                                                     101

  84. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon an Edge       102

  85. Monkey Wrench                                                  103

  86. Effect of the Unskillful Use of a Handscrew                    103

  87. Correct Use of Handscrew                                       104

  88. Emery Wheel Dresser                                            106

  89. Jointing a Saw                                                 109

  90. Hand Saw Set                                                   110

  91. Anvil Saw Set                                                  110

  92. Angle of the File with the Edge of the Saw                     111

  93. Angle of the File with the Sides of the Saw                    111

  94. Results of Filings as shown in Fig. 93                         112

  95. Method of Carrying a File to obtain the Hook of a
      Cutting-off Saw                                                112

  96. Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw                           113

  97. Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface                          124

  98. Sandpapering Panel Work                                        126

  99. Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing down Shellac Finish    134




ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK


CHAPTER I

GROWTH OF WOOD


=1. Kinds of trees used for lumber.=--(=A.=) The classification of
trees here considered is based upon the method by which the trunk, or
stem, of a tree is formed. The term _exogenous_ is applied to outside
growers, around which a layer of wood grows each year, and from which
is cut the lumber of commerce. As the wood-worker is interested mainly
in trees which grow by this method, we will do no more than mention the
_endogenous_, or inside-growing, trees or plants of the nature of palm
trees, cornstalks, etc., in which the woody fiber is formed upon the
inside of the stem.

(=B.=) The new wood formed each year upon exogenous trees is known
as the _annual layer_, or _ring_; the separate layers being more
prominent in open-grained woods, such as oak, ash, and chestnut, than
in close-grained woods, such as maple, cherry, poplar, and birch. It
is the difference in the character and structure of these layers which
makes some woods hard and others soft, some with open and others with
close grain, and which also, with the coloring matter peculiar to each
kind of wood, causes its individuality and adaptability to certain
uses. (The color and odor of wood are caused by chemical combinations,
and are not part of the substance of the wood.)

Each of these annual layers is composed of two parts, the formation
being shown in Fig. 1, in which the grain of yellow pine is depicted.
The soft, cellular, or open, grain, _a_, is formed as the sap moves
upward in the spring, and the hard, compact grain, _b_, is formed later
in the year. In soft woods the open grain predominates, while in hard
woods the compact grain is more in evidence.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF YELLOW PINE.

_a_, soft, cellular grain; _b_, hard, compact grain.]

The age of a tree may be determined by counting these annual rings
upon the stump, though a drouth during the growing season may have at
some time so affected its growth as to make some layers indistinct,
rendering it impossible to be absolutely sure of the count. In a young
tree the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes more
mature.

(=C.=) The different kinds of timber which the carpenter uses are cut
from _deciduous_, or broad-leaf, trees, and from _coniferous_, or
needle-leaf, trees. This classification of trees is based upon the
difference in the forms of their leaves, the former kind furnishing the
ash, oak, walnut, beech, birch, and other woods that are hard to work,
as well as poplar or white wood, linn or bass wood, and others which
are called hard woods, not in the sense that they are hard to work, but
because their method of growth is the same.

The _coniferous_ or _evergreen_ trees furnish the cedars, pines,
hemlocks, spruces, firs, redwood, tamarack, cypress, and a few other
woods of the same nature. These woods have a resin which is always
present, no matter how old or dry the wood may be, which explains their
superior weather-resisting qualities.

=2. The formation of wood.=--(=A.=) In the spring the sap begins to
flow upward, mainly through the open cells of the cambium (the new
growth in the stem, by which the diameter of the tree is increased),
and to some extent through the sapwood. As it comes in contact with the
air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the tree, (=B.=)
it gives off water and oxygen, and absorbs carbonic acid gas from the
air, (=C.=) which is formed into starch, sugar, oil, etc.; this in turn
becomes part of the sapwood, and forms the compact part of the annual
ring, completing the layer for that year.

(=D.=) The wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the sap, which
gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells are filled, when that
layer becomes a part of the heartwood, or that part of the tree which
is inclosed within the annual layers of sapwood.

(=E.=) Both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are filled with
water or sap, which may be removed by seasoning, but the sapwood of
most trees used for building purposes is not as good lumber as the
heartwood, as it is always susceptible to moisture. The exceptions to
this will be mentioned elsewhere.

(=F.=) In all unseasoned lumber from 20 to 60 per cent of its weight
is moisture, which must be evaporated before the lumber has its highest
commercial value. This may be done by weather drying or by artificial
means, the lumber being treated in a specially constructed kiln.

=3. Tissues.=--(=A.=) A tree trunk is composed of four different
tissues, viz.:

1. The _pith_ (Fig. 2, _a_), a cellular tissue: this is worthless and
its presence in lumber is considered a defect.

2. The _wood_, which includes the heartwood (_b_), the sapwood
(_c_), and the medullary rays (_g_). From this part of the tree the
commercially valuable lumber is taken.

3. The _cambium_ (_d_), which is a thin layer between the sapwood (_c_)
and the bast (_e_).

4. The _bark_, which includes both the bast (_e_) and the outer bark
(_f_). The bark of most trees is worthless, but that of chestnut, oak,
hemlock, and other trees which are rich in tannic acid is used in large
quantities by tanneries.

(=B.=) The heartwood (_b_), or _duramen_, of most trees is the part
generally used by carpenters upon the best work. It is firm, compact,
and of the color and qualities characteristic of the wood.

(=C.=) The sapwood (_c_), or _alburnum_, is generally light-colored,
and in most building woods its presence is considered a defect, though
not in hickory, ash, maple, or yellow pine, and a few other woods;
in fact, in these woods it is often preferred to the heartwood for
many kinds of work on account of its color. The alburnum is filled
with the active elements of the sap, which are deposited as the sap
passes through the trees, and in time becomes part of the duramen, or
heartwood. The time required for sapwood to attain maturity ranges
from thirty to one hundred years, according to its kind and age.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECTION OF OAK TREE TRUNK.

_a_, pith; _b_, heartwood, or duramen; _c_, sapwood, or alburnum; _d_,
cambium; _e_, bast, or inner bark; _f_, outer bark, or corky layer;
_g_, medullary rays, or silver grain; _po_, plain oak; _qo_, quartered
oak.]

(=D.=) Outside of the sapwood (Fig. 2, _c_) is the cambium (_d_), which
furnishes the substance upon which the life of the tree depends. Here,
nourished by the richest sap, new cells are formed, which become either
sapwood or a part of the bast. (=E.=) At (_e_) is shown the bast or
inner bark, which is composed of a woody fiber combined with a tissue
of cells. This is elastic, which allows it to expand as the wood grows
beneath it. Outside of the bast is the bark (_f_), or outer covering,
which is of a corky nature, and protects the delicate vital parts of
the tree.

=4. The medullary rays.=--Every tree has _medullary rays_ (Fig. 2,
_g_), usually spoken of by wood-workers as the “silver streak,” or
“silver grain.” These rays connect the center of the tree with the
outside, and are more prominent in such woods as oak, beech, and
sycamore than in other woods. It is to take advantage of the beauty
which these medullary rays impart that so much quarter-sawed lumber is
used, though lumber sawed in this way is preferred for other reasons,
which will be discussed later.

In many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible to the naked
eye, as in pine, for instance, which has fifteen thousand to the square
inch. Aside from adding much to the beauty of the lumber, they also
give strength; if lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat,
it is apt to _check_, or crack, upon the line of the medullary rays.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DEFECTS IN LUMBER.

_a_, wind shakes or cup shakes; _b_, heart shakes; _c_, star shakes;
_d_, branch broken off, showing the method by which the annual layers
gradually cover broken branches; _e_, hard knot.]

=5. The grain in trees.=--In open or exposed situations trees usually
grow more or less gnarled or crooked, which tends to improve the
grain. The strength of lumber cut from trees grown as described is
impaired, however, as the wood is more cross-grained than that from
trees which grow in the heart of a forest, with practically the same
conditions on all sides. As forest trees are continually reaching up
for the sunlight, they grow taller and straighter, which makes it
possible for straighter-grained lumber to be cut from them, and as the
branches are at the top, where they receive the sunlight and air, there
are few cross-grained places.

When the annual rings are large, the grain is said to be _coarse_, and
if the rings are fine, the term _fine-grained_ is used to describe it.
When the direction of the fibers is nearly parallel with the sides and
the edges of the board, it is said to be _straight-grained_; when the
lumber is taken from a crooked tree, it is said to be _cross-grained_,
as the grain follows the shape of the log, while the board is sawed
straight. Cross-grained lumber is the handsomer; in this the fibers,
being at different angles with the surface of the board, form a variety
of figures, which add much to the beauty of the wood.

=6. Defects found in lumber.=--(=A.=) Some of the most common defects
found in lumber are _wind shakes_, or _cup shakes_ (Fig. 3, _a_), which
are cracks following the line of the porous part of the annual rings.
These are caused by the action of severe winds. (=B.=) _Heart shakes_
(Fig. 3, _b_) are cracks radiating from the center of the tree, and
may be found in any kind of wood, as they are the result of deficient
nutrition, or loss of vitality. (=C.=) _Star shakes_ (Fig. 3, _c_) are
caused by the shrinkage of the tree upon the outside, which is the
result of a long dry spell of intense cold, or of the deficient action
of the sap. Star shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon
the outside of the tree; the heart shakes are larger at the center.

Shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes are so numerous as
to make the log worthless.

(=D.=) _Discolorations_ are caused by decay which has at some time
gained a foothold, but which the tree was sufficiently vigorous to
overcome; or they may be due to imperfect or insufficient nutrition,
which generally results in the entire tree being affected instead of
small places upon the tree.

(=E.=) Timber grown in a damp, marshy locality is generally of a
poorer quality than that grown upon higher ground, as more water is
taken up by the roots than can be well assimilated, which prevents the
formation of healthy compact wood. Some woods are adapted to such soil,
the poplar or whitewood, willow, basswood, buckeye, and cypress being
denizens of moist or swampy places.

Trees growing where they are exposed to winds from one direction
are apt to assume a spiral growth, which renders the timber almost
worthless, as it is weak, and twists badly in drying.

(=F.=) Trees which have lumps appearing like growths upon them are
usually unhealthy. These lumps, or tumors, may be caused by defective
nutrition, checks, or shakes, or by the depredations of animals or
insects.

(=G.=) _Clefts_, or _splits_, in a tree may be caused by extreme cold,
heat, or drouth. They may extend into the tree several inches, and
while the blemish will always remain, showing a discoloration or other
defect, nature often repairs it so that the strength of the timber is
but slightly affected. If these clefts are not healed, rain may find
lodgment there, and the sap be so affected that the adjacent wood will
be destroyed, and this in time will destroy the tree.

(=H.=) Eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these clefts, the
larvæ of which bore into the wood and destroy it. (=I.=) If it were
not for the birds and other natural enemies of these insects, they
would increase so rapidly that the lumber supply would be seriously
affected, and, as it is, there are very few trees which are not injured
to some extent by wood borers. The United States Bureau of Entomology
estimates that the damage to trees by these pests amounts to at least
$100,000,000 annually.

(=K.=) Sometimes (as at _d_, Fig. 3) branches die or are broken off;
this gives the elements access to the heart of the tree and usually
causes a permanent injury, as the birds and other denizens of the
forest frequently dig out the rotten wood as soon as the weather has
had time to do its work, thus giving further opportunity for decay to
continue its destructive action. If this does not happen, the wood
will grow over the break after several years and leave a loose knot in
the heart of the tree, which will be a decided blemish when the log is
made into lumber. The sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the
defect, as the annual rings will eventually close over the break.

The hard knot at _e_, Fig. 3, is not a serious defect, unless the wood
is to be used for finish or where great strength is required.

=7. When to cut lumber.=--Trees which are intended for the use of
wood-workers should not be felled while the sap is in motion. If cut
at any other time than midsummer or in winter, the active sap is apt
to sour and to cause decay. Owing to the scarcity of lumber, or from
avarice, this precaution often is ignored, and trees are felled at any
time of year, regardless of their age; in such cases, much of the
lumber lacks the essential qualities of its kind.

When a tree shows signs of dying at the top, it should be cut down, as
the quality of the lumber it contains will deteriorate rapidly.


 SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

 1. What is meant by exogenous trees? In what kinds of wood are the
 annual layers most prominent? Describe the formation of annual layers.
 What causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of wood? In the
 color and odor of wood? How may the age of a tree be determined? Are
 the broadest annual layers found in young or in old trees? From what
 class of trees does soft wood come? Hard wood?

 2. Describe the motion of sap. What forms the sapwood? With what are
 the cells of the sapwood filled? Compare sapwood and heartwood.

 3. Describe the four different tissues in a tree. Describe the inner
 bark.

 4. What are the medullary rays? In what woods are they most prominent?
 How do they affect the strength of timber?

 5. What is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations? Where
 are the straightest trees found? Why does the location of a tree
 affect the grain? What is meant by _coarse_, _fine_, _straight_, and
 _cross-grained_ lumber?

 6. What causes wind shakes? Heart shakes? Star shakes? How may they
 be distinguished from each other? What causes discolorations? What is
 the usual character of timber grown upon marshy ground? What woods
 are adapted to low ground? What sometimes causes spiral growth? What
 do lumps and excrescences upon a tree generally signify? What causes
 clefts in trees? What are the results of clefts? Does nature perfectly
 repair the cleft? What is the usual result of a branch being broken
 off?

 7. What is the per cent of moisture in green wood? Should very young
 trees be cut? Why? How may the top of a tree show when it should be
 felled? At what time of year should trees be cut?




CHAPTER II

LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD


=8. The manufacture of lumber=.--(=A.=) There are two distinct
processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial purposes,
_logging_ and _sawing_; the former includes all the steps from felling
the tree to the delivery of the logs at the sawmill; there the logs are
sawed into boards, planks, and timbers of certain dimensions, which are
piled and exposed to the sun and air for a sufficient time to allow a
large part of the water in them to evaporate, when the lumber is said
to be “weather dried,” and ready for shipment to the consumer.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FELLING A TREE.]

(=B.=) If a lumber concern desires to begin operations in one of the
great forest areas, a “land-looker” or “timber-cruiser” is sent to spy
out the land, and to report upon the probable yield of timber within
certain areas, and the conditions which would aid or retard the work
of getting out the logs. If the report is favorable, the standing
timber may be purchased by “stumpage,” which means that a certain price
will be paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land may be
purchased outright, though in the early history of lumbering cases have
been known where these little formalities were omitted.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CUTTING SMALL BRANCHES FROM FELLED SPRUCE.]

Camps are located at convenient points throughout the boundary, roads
are made through the woods, and foundations, or “skidways,” built at
right angles to them, to receive the logs as they are hauled down
the “travoy” roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at
frequent distances for this purpose.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SKIDWAY OF SPRUCE LOGS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--LOAD OF WHITE PINE LOGS.]

(=C.=) The above preparations completed, the work of felling the
trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work requires nice skill
and judgment, as it is necessary that the tree should fall so that it
will cause the least damage to itself and to surrounding trees. After
the tree is down, the branches are cut close to the trunk (Fig. 5)
and carried to one side so that they will not be in the way of the
horses. The trunk is then sawed into logs, twelve, fourteen, sixteen,
or eighteen feet in length, as the imperfections and the length of the
tree trunk may allow. Longer or shorter logs are rarely cut except for
special purposes.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HAULING LOGS BY STEEL CABLE.]

(=D.=) One end of the log is placed upon a drag, or is gripped by a
pair of tongs, and hauled to the nearest travoy road and skidway, where
it is piled (Fig. 6). (=E.=) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon
trucks, cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8),
which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of the country, or
to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a river (Fig. 10). If either
of these latter methods of transportation is employed, the logs are
generally piled upon another skidway until there is enough for a train
load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable for them to
be floated to the mill.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--LOADING LOGS FROM SHEDWAY TO TRAIN.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BOOM OF LOGS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LOG JAM.]

(=F.=) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally the most
dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to face. A jam usually depends
upon one key log, which, if loosened, will allow the jam to break
instantly. The work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one
or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and muscles, and
possessed of the highest possible skill and activity, or they cannot
hope to break a large jam and escape with their lives.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--SAWMILL IN THE BIG TREE DISTRICT.]

(=G.=) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives its logs
by both rail and river. In this case the logs which come in by rail are
rolled into the river, as they can be more easily placed upon the chain
feed of the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in which
the logs are soaked before they are taken into the mill; this draws the
frost out of them, and allows them to be worked much more easily.

(=H.=) There are different types of sawmills, in which the logs are
worked into commercial shapes. The small enterprises use portable
mills, which are moved into the woods and located upon a tract of land,
remaining until all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been
sawed, and then moved to another locality and the process repeated.

Large operations are conducted upon a different plan; mills of a
permanent type are erected as near the forest as practicable, roads
are built, tracks laid, and the logs brought from the woods by one of
the methods previously illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes
are built, and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a
mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if possible,
as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by any other method of
transportation, though some of the heavier woods will not float, and
have to be handled on land. (=I.=) The immersion of logs in water also
improves the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon the
sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, and also facilitates
the seasoning of the manufactured product. If the log is left in the
water until it becomes water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not
injured for many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which it
is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage of sunken logs has
become an industry.

(=J.=) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to be cut is
selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent supply, and in
the near future all extensive lumbering operations will, beyond doubt,
be conducted upon a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless
lumbering is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the
supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the demand.

(=K.=) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed into lumber
of various dimensions by a circular saw (Fig. 13); but in the larger
mills, the band saw generally is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double
cut band sawmill, in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut
each time the log is carried either way.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--CIRCULAR SAW.]

=9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.=--(=A.=) Besides sawing
dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, and planks of different
thicknesses are sawed, as follows: 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”, 2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”;
and thicker, if desired.

(=B.=) If lumber is cut again from its original dimensions, it is said
to be _resawed_. When boards or planks of the above dimensions are
dressed on both sides, they will be about ⅛” thinner; thus, a board
sawed 1” thick will, when seasoned and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2”
plank will be but 1⅞” or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed
dimensions.

Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually comes under the head
of dimension timber, which is not used to the extent that it was
formerly, as steel and concrete are replacing it upon heavy work.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--DOUBLE CUT BAND SAW.]

If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber is usually
resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is planed upon each side
to the desired thickness. Boards for box stock and other special
purposes are sometimes sawed as thin as ¼”.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PLAIN, SLASH, OR BASTARD SAWING.]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--FOUR METHODS OF QUARTERING.]

(=C.=) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. 15 is known as
_plain_, _slash_, or _bastard sawing_, and is the cheapest way to cut
logs, both as to time and waste. The log is first squared to secure
a bed upon which it may lie while being sawed, which also makes it
unnecessary to run each board by the edging saw to straighten the
edges. The slabs at _a_ are sawed into boards as the log is squared,
and the bark, or “live edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an
inferior grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they are well
worth saving, if large logs are being cut.

In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment is necessary
to cut a log so that the greatest amount of marketable lumber can be
made from it. This is done by cutting various sizes from a log, if it
will not cut all of one size without too much waste.

(=D.=) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary rays or silver
grain, the log is sawed by one of the methods shown in Fig. 16, the
object being to bring the rays as nearly parallel to the surface of
the board as possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain
which is so highly prized.

The best results are obtained from sections _a_, _b_; this method also
gives the most waste. In plain sawed lumber, the boards from the
middle of the log will have the quarter grain; these are usually culled
and sold as quarter-sawed.

Neither of these methods results in economy of time or material, as
about 25 per cent of each is used in excess of that required in plain
sawing; hence, quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain,
or bastard, sawed.

(=E.=) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not only on account
of its handsomer grain, but because it holds its shape better than
lumber sawed in any other way, as the annual layers are approximately
square with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks in the
direction parallel with the annual layers, and very little from the
center to the outside of the tree, it is obvious that there is much
less shrinking and warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which
is sawed plain.

The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand usage without
the surface splintering much better than does the common plain sawed
material. Quarter-sawed lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical
grain,” and “comb grained.”

=10. The grading of lumber.=--Custom varies somewhat in different
localities as to the grading of lumber, but there are generally four
grades, which are often subgraded into qualities suitable for various
uses.

“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect, though in large
dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes may be allowed. These
blemishes in a board are usually restricted to not more than one inch
of sap, a small sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one
blemish to a board is allowed.

“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound knots, an inch of sap,
and one other blemish.

“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound knots, but two thirds
of one side must be clear stock.

“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the cheapest work. One
half of the board must be usable.

In many cases the boards are graded by the width of clear stock
which can be taken out. There are tables published by the different
associations of lumber manufacturers which give the gradings under
which their lumber has been measured and shipped, but as these vary
from time to time no permanent list can be given.

The principal reason why there can be no permanent grading of lumber is
that the forests from which the finest timber can be cut in marketable
quantities are being destroyed faster than they can be replaced by
nature. In anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry
of the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in organizing
government forest preserves, in educating the people, and in promoting
legislation aimed at the husbanding of our forests. When we consider
the abundance of high grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous
prices which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this
movement should have begun during the days of our grandfathers, instead
of waiting until nearly all the best lumber in the great forests east
of the Mississippi had been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by
forest fires.

=11. The testing of lumber.=--(=A.=) Dry, sound stock, if struck with
the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a clear ringing response,
while a wet or decaying piece will give a dull response to the blow.

(=B.=) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by which, as well
as by the grain, the student should learn to distinguish the woods
in common use. This may be more easily done before the wood has been
thoroughly seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing odor;
if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates that decay is
present.

(=C.=) If there is much variation in the color of timber, or black and
blue spots, the stick is probably diseased.

(=D.=) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by dryness or
ventilation, and frequently may be cured by soaking the wood in water
for several days, or by steaming. The disease of decay is cured also by
chemical preservatives being forced into lumber by pressure; this at
the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree.

Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most lumber, if
permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, will last almost
indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining timbers, and even to those
which have no connection with the one originally infected.

=12. Surveying or estimating lumber.=--(=A.=) It is the custom to
consider any board less than one inch in thickness as an inch board,
and anything over one inch is measured as so many inches and fractions
of an inch. For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch,
while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by obtaining its
surface measure, and increasing it by one half. Thus, a plank 12’ long,
8” wide, and 1½” thick would have twelve feet board measure in it.

In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which varies
with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed lumber, but this is not
universal.

(=B.=) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary to obtain the
fraction of a foot, board measure, for each lineal foot. Thus, a piece
of 2 × 4 (inches understood) has two thirds of a foot for each foot
in length; a 2 × 6 has one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one
third feet of lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a
joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of square feet,
board measure, that the joist contains.

(=C.=) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel piece which
can be cut from it is the width of the board being measured; therefore
the board should be surveyed at the narrowest place. In measuring more
expensive lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board.

(=D.=) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common use, the lumber
scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is made of thin, cleft hickory,
about three feet long, with one end large enough for a suitable handle;
on the other end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the
board while the scale is being read.

The length of the board is marked near the handle, and at the end of
the socket of the metal head, as at _a_.

In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held against the edge
of the board, as at _b_; the eye follows along the same line of figures
upon which the length of the board is found, reading those figures
nearest the width of the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’
long would, without further measuring or calculating, show that the
board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were 12’ long, it would
contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading the middle line of figures,
the board would be seen to contain 15’.

In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest figure, and
when there is no difference, to alternate between the lower and the
higher figures upon different boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or
9¼” wide would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two boards 8½”
wide, of the same length as the above, would be measured as having 8’
and 9’, respectively, in their surfaces. In short, the fractions of a
foot are not considered in surveying the lumber in common use.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--LUMBER SCALE.]

=13. Qualities of wood.=--(=A.=) Certain kinds of wood are adapted
for some purposes better than are others; the wood-worker, therefore,
should be familiar with the qualities which conditions demand, and the
kinds of woods which have these qualities.

Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it should be cut from
trees which grow to a size that will allow large dimensions to be cut
from them.

For outside finish, the material should be wood which will stand the
weather, can be easily worked, and will hold its shape well.

Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality of durability,
and should be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which will be
put upon them.

Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of good appearance.
In providing lumber for inside finish, care should be used that it has
good grain and color, is not too soft, and that it will hold its shape
well. Almost any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned, but
lumber which shrinks and warps badly is unfit for finishing.

Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and which has the
least tendency to warp and split.

Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint well, and be
as free as possible from the tendency to warp, split, and twist when
exposed to the weather.

(=B.=) All material used in framing a building should be weather-dried
in good drying weather for at least thirty days for each inch in
thickness, and that used for inside and outside finish and floors
should be thoroughly kiln-dried, and kept in a dry place until ready
for use. These conditions are not always obtainable, but if the best
results are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible.

The woods hereafter described comprise the principal varieties used by
the wood-workers of the United States.

(=C.=) _Ash_ (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained,
light-colored wood, in which the porous portions of the annual rings
are quite prominent, thus making it somewhat coarse-grained.

It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium weight and
hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young growth being much used in
the manufacture of wagons, machinery frames, and for similar purposes,
as it is not expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It has a
tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with insects; therefore
it is not suitable for building construction or for contact with soil.

Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, and is plentiful
in many localities. There are two kinds of this wood recognized in
commerce: the _white_, which is light-colored, and the _black_, which
is of a brownish tinge, though there is little difference in the grain
of the two. Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best
part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in the Northern
states is generally tougher than that grown farther south.

The wood from the older and larger trees is not so tough and hard as
that from the younger growth, and is much used for cabinet work and for
interior finish. It should be filled with a paste-filler, after which
it may be brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well and
is useful for the purposes mentioned.

(=D.=) _Apple_ (dec.) is not used for construction, as the proper
dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very stubborn to work. It is
one of the best woods known to resist splitting, and is much used for
chisel and saw handles.

(=E.=) _Basswood_, or _linden_ (dec.), is a soft, porous wood, which
shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the backing of veneer
work, for drawer bottoms of the common grades of furniture, for case
backs, and similar purposes, and is also much used in the manufacture
of spools and other small articles which are made in large quantities.
In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings, and for other
work where strength is not needed, though for use in such places it
should be thoroughly seasoned, or the joints will open.

If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. Steaming also
cures to a great extent the tendency of this wood to shrink and swell.

(=F.=) _Beech_ (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the ability to
resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, as in plane stocks,
tool handles, and parts of machinery. In building work, it is used to
some extent for flooring and for inside finishing. It is used also for
furniture, though the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive
than other equally desirable woods.

If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it decays rapidly;
if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction.

Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and
are found to some extent in all of the states between the Great Lakes
and the Atlantic seaboard.

(=G.=) _Birch_ (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. It is found
in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of the Eastern states and
Canada. There are two varieties recognized in commerce, the _red_ and
the _white birch_. The former is used considerably for inside finish
and for furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to imitate
cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any one but an expert.
When finished in its own natural color, it is a satisfactory wood for
the above uses, but as it ages, it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a
stubborn wood to work, it is not popular.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--BEECH AND SUGAR MAPLE FOREST.]

_Canoe_, or _paper_, _birch_ is softer than the red variety, and is
used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and for the manufacture of
spools, dowels, and a large variety of small articles.

(=H.=) _Butternut_ or _white walnut_ (dec.) has a good grain and color;
it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as are some harder woods,
for it has a tendency to string while being dressed to a fine surface.
It does not absorb moisture readily, and holds its shape under trying
conditions.

Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and is used
considerably for furniture and for interior finish.

(=I.=) _Cedar_ (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two varieties, the
_red_ and the _white_. The former is used considerably for cooperage
and veneers, lead pencils, and for lining moth-proof drawers and
chests, as its strong odor and bitter taste protects it from the
ravages of insects. The supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and
it is now too expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it
for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this valuable timber
and of others, notably white and Georgia pine, has destroyed what would
have been a supply for all time, if the cutting had been properly
controlled.

White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior wood; it is
used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, and in the manufacture
of barrels and cigar boxes. It is a very durable wood, and shrinks but
little in drying. It is well adapted for burying, though not strong
enough to resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red
cedar, and makes a larger tree.

(=J.=) _Cherry_ (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. It is
much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it holds its shape
well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a fine finish. Its grain is
of fine, even texture, of reddish color, and often stained to imitate
mahogany. When well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the
genuine wood except by weight.

Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns which are to
stand rough usage. The tree is found in all of the states east of
Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, but it is becoming too scarce for
common use.

(=K.=) _Chestnut_ (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, adapted to use
in exposed situations. It is used a great deal for inside finish, as it
will take a fine polish, and as the figures formed by the grain make it
a very handsome wood for the purpose.

Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy strain, and will
shrink and crack badly in drying.

(=L.=) _Cypress_ (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our most
durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for outside work. It is
used extensively for shingles; roofs covered with cypress shingles
have been known to last for more than seventy-five years. The wood is
light, straight-grained, and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its
shape well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine in the
manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered by many to be
equal, if not superior, to that wood. It is much used in building small
boats, and for use in places where it will be exposed to dampness.
Eaves, troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than
those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, which are the
only woods having anti-decaying qualities equal to cypress.

Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions, and if it
were stronger and harder, it would be one of our best woods for framing
and finishing. It is used for the latter purpose to a considerable
extent, as it has a handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if
thoroughly seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If it
is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable extent, but if
forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. Sap is not considered
a blemish.

Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the Southern
states, the best of it coming from those bordering on the gulf.

(=M.=) _Elm_ (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to split. It
warps and checks to some extent in drying, but when well seasoned it
holds its shape as well as most woods in common use. It is susceptible
to a good polish, and is used a great deal for interior finish and
furniture, as it takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in
the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm stump. It is used
largely in cooperage, and stands contact with the soil satisfactorily.

The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, but is more
abundant east of the Mississippi river.

(=N.=) _Gum_ (dec.), or, as it is more generally known, _sweet gum_,
is extensively used for interior finish upon the better class of
buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless thoroughly seasoned, in
which condition it is a very satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong,
cross-grained, and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown,
and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly in the
Southern states.

(=O.=) _Hemlock_ (con.) is found in most of the Northern states, and
is used for scantlings, rough boards, under floors, and for boarding
preparatory to siding. It is a fairly durable wood, but splits easily,
and is apt to be full of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly.

(=P.=) _Hickory_ (dec.) is the hardest native wood in common use,
and the toughest wood that we have; it is too hard to be used for
building material. It is flexible, and its principal use is for wagon
and carriage work, and for other purposes where bent wood and great
strength is required. As it does not split easily, it is much used in
the manufacture of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring
insects, and these pests often destroy much valuable timber.

Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in fact the most
desirable part of the tree, on account of its creamy whiteness and
great strength.

(=Q.=) _Locust_ (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the country, and
is a useful and durable wood. It is much used for fence posts and, in
damp locations, for railway ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it
has a yellowish brown color which takes a polish well.

(=R.=) _Maple_ (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, with a
yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds of maple, but the
kind generally used for commercial purposes is the _sugar_ or _rock
maple_. It does not shrink excessively, seasons without serious
checking, and from it a very fine surface for polishing may be
obtained. It is much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as
in floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent as a
cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does not resist decay as
well as do some other woods.

Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its whiteness the
sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood for many uses.

_Bird’s-eye maple_ is of this wood, but some peculiarity in the growth
of certain trees, believed by many to be caused by woodpeckers, has
caused the tree to have what seem to be numerous small knots, known
as curls or eyes. The presence of these imparts a beauty which is
possessed by no other wood, and has never been successfully imitated.

(=S.=) _Mahogany_ (dec.) is an imported wood, and is much used in the
finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture of fine furniture. It
is of a rich red color, and has a beautiful grain and other desirable
qualities which make it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its
shape remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in every
respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that prevents it from
being universally used.

(=T.=) _Oak_ (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It is found
abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, and forms the larger
part of our broad-leaved forests. There are a number of species of
oak, but they are in general known to commerce as the _red_ and the
_white oak_. Nearly all these trees are cut for commercial purposes,
but the white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of oak is
so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot be distinguished
after the work is finished, therefore they are all put together and
sold as a medium grade of white oak for purposes where the strength
of the genuine is not required. This will generally account for the
difference in the grain and the color which is noticed in handling the
commercial white oak.

Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble in seasoning
than white oak, though they both have to be dried very carefully, or
there may be checks and cracks to such an extent that the wood will
be ruined. Both the red and the white oak are used extensively in
finishing and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly upon the
cheaper grades, as it is easier to work.

The two varieties should never be used upon the same job, unless the
wood is to be stained a dark color, as there is a marked difference in
their appearance when finished. White oak is much used for flooring,
quartered oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done.

Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic conditions,
though if buried deeply, or in water, where there is no alteration in
moisture or dryness, it gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great
extent for railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the
future is causing much speculation, as the end of the present supply of
white oak is already in sight.

(=U.=) _Pine_ (con.) in its different varieties is used more than any
other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all parts of the United
States and in Canada. Certain sections of the country which were once
covered with virgin pine forests have, however, been so denuded of
their wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, within a
few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen who cared more for
their immediate profit than for the prospective good of the nation,
that instead of a permanent and continual supply of this valuable wood,
there are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown ruins
of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of which this irremediable
wrong was perpetrated against posterity.

_White pine_ is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly seasoned
will hold its shape better than any other wood except mahogany. For
these reasons, and on account of its adaptability to gluing, it is
used almost exclusively by pattern makers. It is found in the Northern
states and in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows the
grade of pine known as “Carolina,” the _bastard_ or _yellow pine_. This
belt extends from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic coast, and is
of a width to include Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder
to work, and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, but
it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is capable of a fine
finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard nor so strong as “Georgia”
pine, which is also known commercially as _long-leaved pine_, _pitch
pine_, or _hard pine_. This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in
the states bordering upon the ocean and the gulf.

Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the two above
described, being much stronger and more dense. This is the wood which
is used for heavy timbers of large buildings, and the above described
grades should never be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting
in work of less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine
was intended. Although this wood is very hard and strong, and is the
best wood for heavy construction, as has been stated, it should never
be used in any place which is not dry and well ventilated, as it will
decay rapidly if placed in a damp location, or where it will come in
contact with the earth.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--WHITE PINE FOREST.]

There are several varieties of pine besides those above mentioned.
These are generally less desirable for finish or for construction than
is the white, yellow, or Carolina pine, but they are used extensively
for the common work of light building, and by box factories.

(=V.=) _Poplar_ or _whitewood_ (dec.) is cut from the tulip tree,
and is found principally in the Middle West and in some parts of the
South. It is of light weight and color, with few knots, and is soft and
easily worked. It is used for the common grades of cabinet work, inside
finishing, veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and
its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. It warps and
shrinks considerably in seasoning, and unless held in its place, it is
apt to twist.

(=W.=) _Redwood_ (con.) is taken from the big trees on the Pacific
slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from knots, and may be
obtained in boards of any size which it is possible to cut. It has the
reputation of being one of the best woods for use in trying conditions,
or where it will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.

It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but it is not apt
to become very popular for inside finish, as it is easily marred, and,
although very soft, will, when thoroughly dry, destroy the edge of
tools quicker than many harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive
brown as it ages, if it is finished in its natural color.

It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, as it resists
decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of the grain, and burns very
slowly.

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--DOUGLAS SPRUCE FOREST.]

(=X.=) _Spruce_ (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and in New
England is used generally for framing light buildings and for rough
boarding. Its color is almost pure white, and it has the valuable
quality of holding nails firmly. There is little difference between the
heart and the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is
difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and twists badly
in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable for framing trusses,
unless seasoned lumber is used.

Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for flooring,
ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers in immense
quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory wood for immersion, but if
exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, it decays rapidly.

(=Y.=) _Sycamore_, or _buttonwood_ (dec.), is found in nearly all parts
of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern states. It is a moderately
stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained, and quite difficult to smooth to
a surface, as the grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has
also a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, but if
well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no more trouble than
do other woods. It takes a good polish, and is a desirable wood for
inside finish.

(=Z.=) _Walnut_, or _black walnut_ (dec.), is found in all the Middle
and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, of a chocolate
color, and takes a fine finish. It is well adapted to inside finish and
to furniture work.

At one time nearly all the best work was done in this wood, but at
present it is out of style, as oak and other woods are more in favor.
Like other varieties of our best woods, this has been cut out, and is
now too expensive to be considered as anything but a fancy wood.

_White walnut_ is described under butternut.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--RED SPRUCE AND BALSAM FIR KILLED BY FIRE.]


 SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

 8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations?
 What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? Why? Compare
 the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why is scientific
 forestry a necessity?

 9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How
 much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually
 sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To
 furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods of
 quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy.
 Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities. What
 are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known?

 10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are
 commonly graded.

 11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of
 timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What does
 it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board?
 How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient
 decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?

 12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber over 1”
 in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To what lengths
 are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should a common
 board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate the use of the
 lumber scale.

 13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of timber
 for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside finish? For
 shingles? For siding? How long should lumber be dried before using?
 How should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for
 use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of
 lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, cherry,
 chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, maple, mahogany,
 oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.




CHAPTER III

CARE OF LUMBER


=14. The piling of lumber.=--(=A.=) To the uninitiated it may seem that
the piling of lumber is work upon which it is not necessary to expend
much skill, but there are few operations in which carelessness or
ignorance will cause more loss to a wood-worker.

(=B.=) The front end of a lumber pile should be higher than the back,
therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon ground which falls away
to the rear, or to build the ways which support the pile so that the
water which drives into the pile will run out at the back end, and not
stand upon the boards, as this will cause discolorations.

=15. Permanent lumber ways.=--These should be built by some method
similar to that shown in Fig. 22. It is not a good plan to lay timbers
upon the ground, as they will decay rapidly, and there will not be
sufficient room for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards
of the lower courses to dry out properly. The pile is also apt to
settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the spring. Lumber
should not be stacked above wet or marshy ground; if necessary to stack
it where the weeds are of rank growth, the latter should be kept down.

The ways should be built with a solid foundation, well below the frost
line, though this is rarely done except for permanent lumber storage.
This is shown at _a_, Fig. 22, in which it will be seen that the ways
are built to stand a heavy load; the space between the centers of the
ways should be about five feet, as multiples of this distance will
accommodate any length of boards.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--PERMANENT LUMBER WAYS.]

=16. To minimize the warping of lumber.=--(=A.=) Do not place lumber
piles less than one foot apart, as it is necessary that there should
be a continuous circulation of air through the pile in all directions.
(See _b_, Fig. 22.)

(=B.=) Lumber piles are usually four feet in width, and should be built
up with sticks of that length, which are placed between the courses of
boards. It is important that these be placed directly over each other
and the ways; otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards, as
shown at _c_. It is such carelessness as this that causes a great deal
of loss. In piling very expensive lumber, the front sticks should be
laid so as to project a little over the course of boards below, and
the boards of the course above should project the same distance over
the stick, in order to give the front of the pile an inclination to
the front, as shown at _d_, which will allow most of the rain-water to
drop clear of the boards below, instead of running down the front and
finding its way into the pile.

(=C.=) Square piles are sometimes built, but in these the boards should
be laid with large spaces between them, to allow perfect circulation
of air. It is obvious that in a pile of this sort, the boards in the
center of the pile will not come in contact with the air as much as
those on the outside, and that consequently, unless carefully piled,
the boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead of drying
out, which usually results in decay.

(=D.=) During the drying out process, all boards change their form
more or less, depending upon the shape of the tree trunk, the kind
and quality of the wood, the part of the tree from which the log was
cut, as well as its size and age, the relation of the annual rings and
medullary rays to the surfaces of the board, the length of time since
the log was cut before being made into lumber, whether it had lain in
water for several months, and the method of piling. Thus it will be
seen that in every stage of preparing lumber for market, a high degree
of skill and judgment is necessary to insure the best results.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--WARPING OF LUMBER.]

The greatest deterioration in lumber, after it has been cut and
properly piled, is generally due to the tendency to warp, the cause
of which is indicated in Fig. 23, and which may to great extent be
minimized by skillful piling. If this sketch is studied carefully, it
will be noticed that the middle board is thicker in the middle than
it is at the edges, and that the curves of its top and bottom sides
are practically uniform. This is because the annual layers are at
nearly a right angle with the sides of the board, which causes the
board to shrink in thickness, and very little in width. This is due
to the tendency of lumber shrink around, or parallel with, the annual
layers. This tendency also causes the star shakes, as at _c_, Fig.
3, which is because the inner layers of the log, being less than the
outside layers in circumference, and less exposed to the dry air, do
not shrink so fast nor so much. This tendency is again illustrated in
Fig. 23, in which it will be seen that because the outer annual layers
shrink faster, they cause the outside of the board, or the part which
grew toward the outside of the tree, to become narrower, and to assume
a concave shape, while the side nearer the center of the tree, or the
inside of the board, becomes convex. This is also the reason why boards
cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width more than those
cut nearer the center, which shrink in thickness proportionately more
than in width.

(=E.=) For the purpose of taking advantage of the tendency to warp, and
applying it to its own remedy, boards should be piled with the side
which grew nearer the center of the tree uppermost. This will help to
correct the tendency of the board to warp, as explained above, as the
side which would naturally assume the concave shape will be underneath,
and less likely to warp than if it were uppermost. This is not
generally observed in stacking common lumber, since it needs care and
judgment to do it properly, but it should be done if valuable lumber is
being handled.

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--LUMBER PILED IN DOUBLE COURSES.]

Boards of practically the same width, if less than 7” wide, are
sometimes stacked in double courses, as shown in Fig. 24, the outside
of the boards, or the sides which grew nearer the outside of the tree
being placed together, thus allowing the inside of the boards, or the
sides which grew toward the center of the tree, to receive more air
than the sides which are placed together, and therefore to dry out
faster, which will reduce the warping to a minimum. After a pile is
completed, it should be covered with old boards to protect the top
courses from the weather.

(=F.=) A pile of valuable lumber should be restacked every six or eight
months, as the boards are apt to become discolored where the lumber
sticks are placed; in this rehandling, the warped boards should be
placed with the concave side underneath.

(=G.=) If lumber is cut in winter or midsummer, and properly cared for,
it is not apt to be injured by any rain which may drive into the pile,
if there is free circulation of air; nor is it so liable to decay as
lumber which is cut at other times of the year.

=17. Weather-dried lumber.=--Lumber which has been dried in the stack
out of doors is not dry enough for use in the manufacture of inside
finish or furniture, as it has dried out only to the degree of
moisture in the outside air. If it is then worked up and placed in
an artificially heated house, the heat will cause more moisture to
evaporate, the wood to shrink, and the joints to open. For material to
be used in the frames of buildings, in wagons, or in other places where
the greatest possible strength is required, not less than two years
weather-drying is preferred, as the material retains its full strength.

=18. Kiln-dried lumber.=--Lumber for furniture or for inside finish
should be seasoned by the process known as “kiln-drying.” This means
that lumber is exposed to a temperature of from 120° to 200° F. by
which the moisture is extracted and evaporated. Lumber thus treated
is apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat upon the
fibers of the wood, which causes thousands of minute fractures, and in
many cases the life and the elasticity of the lumber is destroyed. The
results of kiln-drying depend largely upon the kiln, and upon the skill
with which the lumber is piled, the heat applied, and the rapidity of
evaporation of the moisture regulated.

For these reasons, much kiln-dried lumber is suitable for use where but
little strength is required and where the color and the grain are the
important points to consider.

=19. Moist air kilns.=--(=A.=) There are two types of dry kilns in
common use: the _natural draft_, or moist air, kilns, and the _induced
draft_ kilns. These two types are made by different manufacturers,
nearly all of whom use certain devices of which they control the
patents, and which constitute the chief difference between their kiln
and those made by other manufacturers.

(=B.=) The moist air kilns are so constructed as to allow the freest
possible circulation of the heated air, and to provide opportunities
for the moisture to be expelled in accordance with certain natural
laws, which results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed
system of ventilation. These kilns operate upon the principle that
heated air circulating naturally through lumber will become charged
to a much greater degree with moisture than if it were forced through
rapidly, as in the induced draft kilns. Thus, heated air by passing
slowly through a pile of lumber may become charged with moisture nearly
to the dew point.

If the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that point, by
allowing the moisture to pass out as it accumulates, with a small
amount of heated air, which is replaced with fresh air from the
outside, it is claimed that the boards will dry out from their centers.
(=C.=) As the warm, moist air which circulates through the pile will
keep the outsides of the boards moist, it will prevent case hardening,
or the hardening of the outsides of the boards. This is caused by
very warm dry air, which “cooks,” or closes the pores of the surface
of the boards, and this prevents the outsides from shrinking, while
the insides will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the
boards.

After the moisture is all out of the lumber, that held in suspension
will gradually pass out of the kiln, and the air inside will become
perfectly dry.

(=D.=) It is claimed that all kinds of lumber in common use may be
put into this type of kiln perfectly green, except oak and other very
hard woods, which should have at least thirty days’ drying under good
drying conditions for each inch in thickness. It is also claimed that
the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accelerated,--the moisture
being thoroughly extracted from the lumber, the result being the same
as though it were stacked out of doors for several years,--and that the
lumber has lost none of its strength, elasticity, or characteristic
color.

(=E.=) This method sometimes is applied by steam pipes extending
between each course of boards, and in this way the lumber is dried out
very rapidly. Lumber used in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly
weather-dried, or otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check
badly. In certain forms of these kilns, the lumber is saturated with
live steam after it is piled in the kiln, before the heat is turned on.

=20. Induced draft kilns.=--(=A.=) This system of kiln-drying consists
of a power-driven fan, which forces the heated air at a high rate of
speed through the spaces between and around the lumber piled in the
chamber.

(=B.=) Manufacturers have different devices for extracting the moisture
from the air after it has passed through the lumber piles. It may be
passed over condensing plates, or through coils of pipes in which
cold water is continually circulating, both of these devices being
for the purpose of extracting the moisture from the heated air. If
the moisture is separated from the air by condensation, it runs away,
but if not, a certain per cent of the heated air is expelled out of
doors, being replaced by fresh air. The air in the kiln, somewhat
cooled from contact with these cooled surfaces, is returned to the
heater, reheated, and again forced through the kiln, which operation is
repeated continuously and automatically. Thus the heated air becomes
charged with a small percentage of moisture each time it passes through
the kiln chamber; this moisture is extracted and the air is again
heated before beginning another circuit, instead of slow circulation
which allows the heated air to become saturated with moisture before it
is discharged, as in the moist air kiln.

The induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive equipment, as
the blower and the appliance which drive it are necessary in addition
to the equipment of the kiln itself, which would be similar in either
of the types of kiln described. Lumber to be dried in this form of kiln
must be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high temperature
of the kiln.

=21. Results of the two systems.=--While it is not the province of
this book to pass judgment upon the results of the different methods
or forms of dry kilns, it is obvious that the induced draft kiln is
the more expensive to operate, as the expense of running the blower is
avoided in the moist air system. In this latter type of kiln the steam
simply passes through the pipes, the condensation being returned to the
boiler to be reheated, so the only expense is that of maintaining the
fire to keep up a low pressure. In the daytime, or while the engine
which furnishes the power for the plant is running, the kilns of either
type may be heated by exhaust steam.

Many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with the results
obtained from either, while others are decided in their preference.

=22. Filling a kiln.=--In doing this, care should be used that there is
plenty of room for the air to circulate freely around and through the
pile--not less than 3” between the edges of the boards horizontally and
vertically, and one foot between the lumber and the wall or adjacent
pile. Each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the same
width over those of the course below, if possible, in order to keep a
vertical air space through the pile. In some cases the kiln is filled
by placing the boards edgeways.

=23. Length of time lumber should be left in the kiln.=--No one should
undertake to operate a kiln unless he understands perfectly the
particular make of the kiln that he is handling, for if the ventilation
is not correctly regulated, the entire charge of the kiln may become
mildewed, casehardened, checked, discolored, or dried unevenly. No rule
can be given for the time which lumber should be left in the kiln,
as it depends upon the condition of the lumber, temperature, kind of
lumber, dimensions, and ventilation. Generally speaking, if the kiln
is properly constructed and operated, from two to four days for each
inch in thickness of soft wood, and from two to three times as long,
at a lower temperature, for hard wood, is usually enough to extract
the moisture. It is, however, best to allow the lumber to stay in the
kiln, at a moderate temperature, from three days to two weeks after
the moisture is extracted, in order to harden and cook the solids of
the sap, as by so doing the lumber is not so liable to be influenced
by moisture in the future; this is the effect that long weather-drying
accomplishes.

=24. The care of kiln-dried lumber.=--It is a common mistake to allow
lumber to lie in an open shed or other place where it will absorb
moisture from the atmosphere, and still call it kiln-dried. Lumber
of this sort should be kept in a place where heat can be applied in
damp weather, and should be stacked in a close, compact pile, so as to
prevent the air from coming in contact with it.

=25. Steaming wood.=--This process makes wood pliable, and adds to
its durability by destroying the germs which may cause decay; it also
neutralizes, to a great extent, the effect of the presence of sap.
Steaming or immersing wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency
to shrink and swell, and wood thus treated is not so apt to check in
seasoning. Steamed wood loses some of its original strength on account
of the effect of the high temperature upon the fibers.

=26. Preserving wood.=--In order to preserve wood, it is sometimes
treated with creosote or other chemicals, which are forced into the
wood at a sufficient pressure to cause them to permeate the wood
thoroughly. This treatment enables the wood to resist better the
elements and to keep away insects, which do a great deal of damage,
frequently honeycombing the wood with holes, with little or no evidence
of their presence upon the outside.


 SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

 14. What are some of the results of piling lumber carelessly? Should
 the back and the front of the lumber pile be upon the same level? Why?

 15. How should lumber ways be built? What kind of places should be
 avoided in seeking a location for lumber piles?

 16. Should the piles be placed close to each other? How wide should
 the piles be made? What is the objection to a square pile? How thick
 should the lumber sticks be? How should they be placed? What is the
 result if they are not carefully placed? How should the sticks and
 the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile? Why? What
 causes lumber to warp? Describe methods of piling lumber to minimize
 warping. Should a lumber pile be allowed to stand indefinitely? What
 is the proper time to cut lumber? Does it injure lumber to allow a
 little rain to beat into the pile?

 17. What is meant by weather-dried lumber? Why is it not suitable
 for furniture and for inside finish? How is this remedied? For what
 purposes is weather-dried lumber the best?

 18. What is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber?

 19. What are the two methods of kiln-drying? Describe the principle of
 the moist air kiln. What is claimed of it? How should hard wood lumber
 be treated before being kiln-dried?

 20. Describe the induced draft system. What devices are used to
 extract the moisture from the heated air? What are the main points of
 difference between the two systems?

 21. What is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be
 put in the two forms of kilns? Which is the more expensive system to
 install and operate? How do users of the two systems compare them?

 22. How should lumber be stacked in the kiln?

 23. How long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow the
 moisture to be extracted? How long to insure most permanent results?

 24. How should kiln-dried lumber be cared for?

 25. What is the effect of steaming wood?

 26. How is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements and
 from insects?




CHAPTER IV

TOOLS


=27. How to purchase tools.=--(=A.=) The quality of the tools used by
the mechanic is of the greatest importance. They should be selected
carefully, and while it is the poorest economy to buy anything but the
best, the best are not necessarily the most finely finished.

(=B.=) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that those made
especially for some dealer, and bearing his name, if sold for a
less price than the best, are usually not of the highest grade, and
should be shunned. It is wisest to buy standard makes, examining them
carefully to be sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of
steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in the best grades
of tools is made good upon complaint to the dealer.

=28. Benches.=--(=A.=) Figure 25 shows the type of bench used in
the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, while that used by
carpenters for ordinary work usually is of the type shown in Fig. 26.

(=B.=) In many manual-training schools, the benches are of the former
type, and in the most completely equipped schools, are fitted with
locked drawers and closets for the reception of tools, not only to keep
the latter in condition for use, but to insure that the set of tools
is complete, and to be able to place the responsibility for damage or
loss.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--MANUAL-TRAINING BENCH.]

[Illustration: FIG. 26.--CARPENTER’S BENCH.]

(=C.=) The _vises_ should be of the modern, quick action design, which,
on account of the rapidity with which they work, are superseding the
old-fashioned wooden and iron screw vises.

[Illustration: FIG. 27.--TWO-FOOT, FOUR-FOLD RULE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 28.--ZIGZAG RULE.]

=29. Rules.=--The two-foot, four-fold _rule_ (Fig. 27) is the one
generally used by carpenters. It is made of different grades, the more
expensive makes being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and 12ths,
and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“, 1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them.
Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate, it is divided usually
into 8ths and 16ths only. The form of rule shown in Fig. 28 is becoming
quite popular, as it is longer. Since rules are easily lost or broken,
many workmen have a good rule for scaling, and a cheaper one for
general work.

=30. The try-square= (=A.=) consists of the beam (Fig. 29, _a_), which
is generally of metal-lined wood, and the blade (_b_), which is a thin
piece of steel.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.--POSITION OF TRY-SQUARE IN SQUARING AN EDGE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--USE OF TWO TRY-SQUARES TO SEE IF PIECE OF WOOD
IS “OUT OF WIND.”]

(=B.=) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of this tool,
as one which is not perfectly true may cause much trouble. To test a
square, hold the beam against a perfectly straight and square edge of a
board which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the entire
length of the blade. Then turn the square over, the other side up, and,
holding the beam against the same edge, move the blade to the line. If
the jointed edge of the board and the square are perfectly accurate,
the knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--POSITION OF TRY-SQUARE WHEN MAKING LINE.]

(=C.=) The use of this tool in squaring an edge is shown in Fig.
29. The piece being squared should be in such a position that the
try-square will be between the eye and the light; in this way, the
slightest inaccuracy may be detected. In Fig. 31 is shown the position
of the try-square when used to make a line by the edge of the blade. If
working from the edge indicated, hold the beam against the edge with
the thumb, and at the same time hold the blade down with one or two
fingers, using the others to steady the square in its place upon the
board. (=D.=) Two try-squares may be used to see if a piece of wood is
“out of wind” (_i_ sounded as in kind) by the method indicated in Fig.
30.

Two pieces of wood known as _winding sticks_, of exactly the same width
and perfectly parallel, are often used in manual-training schools for
this purpose; they are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman
generally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large to be
sighted accurately without some aid of this sort.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--STEEL, OR FRAMING, SQUARE.]

=31. The steel, or framing, square= (Fig. 32) is often used as a
try-square upon large work, though its most important use is in
framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable in finding the
lengths and the angles of rafters, braces, etc. Its use for this
purpose will be explained in “Constructive Carpentry.” The long side of
the framing square is known as the “blade,” and the short side as the
“tongue.”

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--BEVEL AND STEEL SQUARE.

The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.]

=32. The bevel= (Fig. 33) may be set for use in marking and testing any
angle, in the same manner that the try-square is used upon rectangular
work. The sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for
setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed that the blade
of the bevel rests upon the same figures upon both the blade and the
tongue of the square.

=33. The gauge= (=A.=), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making lines
parallel to the face or working side or edge. Usually it is made in
four pieces: the “head” (_a_), which is held against the face side or
edge; the “stick” (_bb_), upon which the head moves; the “thumbscrew”
(_c_), which holds the head firmly in its position upon the stick; and
the “point” (_d_), which makes the desired mark upon the wood.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--MARKING GAUGE.

_a_, the head; _bb_, the stick; _c_, the thumbscrew; _d_, the point.]

(=B.=) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless one is
certain that the point is located accurately with regard to the
graduations upon the stick.

The point should be sharpened to work with either a push or pull cut,
as at _e_.

(=C.=) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, and generally
used with a push, though it is occasionally pulled toward the worker.
One should always work from the face side of the piece.

If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set back, or the
gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated, which will
govern the depth of the cut. Do not use a dull gauge, or one with a
round point like a pencil, as it will tear the wood, instead of making
a clean cut or scratch.

=34. The hammer= (=A.=) is used by the average wood-worker more than
any other tool. The “face” (Fig. 36, _a_) and the “claws” (_b_) should
be tempered carefully, as they will either bruise or bend if too soft,
or break if too hard. The eye (_c_) is made longer than it is wide, to
prevent the head from turning on the handle, and larger at the outside
of the head than it is at the neck, so that the handle may be firmly
wedged in the eye or socket. The neck (_d_), by extending upon the
handle as it does, adds much to the strength of the connection.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--MARKING GAUGE IN USE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--CLAW HAMMER.

_a_, the face; _b_, the claws; _c_, the eye; _d_, the neck; _e_, grain
of neck.]

The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained hickory,
elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped easily.

The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and the annual
layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at the end, as at _c_. The
handle should be fitted and wedged, or “hung” in such a way that a nail
may be driven home in a flat surface without the knuckles striking,
which means that the center of the handle should be about parallel with
the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head through the eye should
exactly coincide with the long, or major, axis of the ellipse at the
end of the handle, as at _gg_, or pounded fingers will result.

The _bell-faced_ hammer is to be preferred to the _flat-faced_ type, as
it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is missed, though more
skill is required to use it. Upon rough work, the bell-faced hammer
will sink the nail beneath the surface without bruising the wood badly.
Upon inside work, the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a
nail set.

[Illustration: FIG. 37.

_a_, toenailing; _b_, tacking.]

(=B.=) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the habit of
grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, as this will give
greater force to the blow. Upon light work, the hand will naturally
slip a little toward the head. Nails should generally be driven in a
slanting direction, as they hold better than if driven straight. When
nails are driven as shown at _a_, Fig. 37, it is called “toenailing,”
and when driven sufficiently to hold, but not driven home, as at _b_,
they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven this way when they are
to be pulled out again, as in stay laths, and in fastening pieces
temporarily.

[Illustration: FIG. 38.--BLIND NAILING AND USE OF A NAIL SET.]

In forcing matched boards together, do not pound directly upon the
tongue edge of the board, but upon a waste piece of the same material,
as the tongue will be bruised so that the next board will not form a
good joint. Care should be used that the hammer does not strike the
edge of the board when the nail is driven home. To guard against this,
a nail set should be used to sink the head beneath the surface, as in
Fig. 38, so that the next board will come to its place without trouble.
This is called “blind nailing.”

=35. The hatchet= (=A.=) is used for hewing light work, for shingling;
and as a heavy hammer, though the face is rarely tempered to stand very
heavy usage (Fig. 39, _a_).

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_a_, hatchet; _b_, hand axe.

(For explanation, see text.)]

(=B.=) A _hand axe_, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, _b_), usually is a
better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of greater weight,
is better adapted for heavy work. A hatchet or hand axe for general use
should be sharpened as at _c_; but for hewing only, an edge like _d_
will give the best results.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--MALLETS.

_a_, square-faced mallet; _b_, round mallet.]

=36. The mallet.=--This tool should be used upon chisel handles, as a
hammer will destroy the handle in a very short time. Mallets are of two
shapes, the _square-faced_ (Fig. 40, _a_) and the _round_ mallet (_b_),
the latter being preferred by many workmen as it will always strike
a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while the square-faced mallet
sometimes will miss, and inflict a painful blow upon the hand. In
general, the handle of a square-faced mallet is round, which allows the
mallet to turn in the hand; if the handle were made elliptical, like a
hammer handle, there would be less likelihood of missing the chisel.

[Illustration: FIG. 41, _A._ RIPSAW.

_dd_, view and section of setting of teeth.

FIG. 41, _B_. CUTTING-OFF SAW.

FIG. 41, _C_. COMPASS, OR KEYHOLE, SAW.

FIG. 41.--SAWS.

(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in Fig. 41, the set
of the teeth is exaggerated.)]

=37. Saws.=--(=A.=) The saws used by the carpenter are for cutting
parallel with, or across, the grain, or a combination of the two, and
all are composed of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.”

The teeth of a _ripsaw_ (Fig. 41, _A_) are suitable for sawing in a
direction parallel with the general direction of the grain. The points
of different saws may be from one third to one seventh of an inch
apart, and form a series of chisels, the cutting edges of which are
filed so that they are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In
action, the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting a little
deeper than the one preceding it.

The _cutting-off saw_ (Fig. 41, _B_) has from six to twelve
knife-pointed teeth to an inch, the cutting edges being parallel to the
sides of the blade, and filed so that the point of the tooth is upon
the side which is set beyond the side of the blade.

In all except the finest saws, the teeth are set; that is, the points
are bent a very little in such a way as to make the cut wider than
the thickness of the blade, so that the saw may cut through the wood
without binding, which it could not do if the cut were the same
thickness as the blade. The blades of all high grade saws are thinner
upon the back than upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used
upon the finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges
of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary.
For general work, it will be found that the saw will be much more
efficient if it is given a set adapted to the size of the teeth, or to
the nature of the work it is expected to do.

The _compass_, or _keyhole_, _saw_ (Fig. 41, _C_) is used where it is
necessary that the saw should cut both with and across the grain. It
is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off saw, when a cut has
to be made in the surface of a board. This saw is used also in many
places where it is not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing
curves. In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or
cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and the blade is
made of soft metal. It may then be given a heavy set, so that it will
bend instead of breaking or kinking, as it would be liable to do from
the nature of its work if made of tempered steel.

Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is desirable to carry
as few tools as possible, have a narrow 20” or 22” saw sharpened like a
compass saw, which for ordinary work is quite satisfactory as either a
cutting-off or a ripsaw, thus making another saw unnecessary.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--BACKSAW.]

The _backsaw_ (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is filed like a
cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather more hook, and it often has
as many as fifteen teeth to the inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as
fine as is generally used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of
the saw, and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the back,
as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually straighten it.

(=B.=) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon the cutting
edge than upon the back; this allows the saw to be used upon very fine
work with little or no setting. See that the handle fits the hand,
and that the saw hangs to suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter
concerning the balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be
described, but which any one accustomed to using tools will miss if a
tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand.

A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend so that the point
may be put through the handle, and upon being released, instantly
resume its shape. It should bend evenly in proportion to the width and
the gauge of the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the
blade will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore
runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being softer, is not expected
to stand the above test.

A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off saw to be
used upon coarse work; but for fine work, a 22” blade, commonly known
as a “panel saw,” is a convenient size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is
preferred by many workmen.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--USE OF THE SAW.

Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.]

(=C.=) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work most
workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the teeth of a hard saw
are apt to break in setting, and its edge, if it comes in contact with
metal, requires filing just about as quickly as that of a soft saw,
and is much more difficult to sharpen. If always filed by an expert
filer, a hard saw is superior in every way to any other.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--RESET SAW HANDLE.]

(=D.=) The handle of the saw should be grasped firmly by three fingers,
as in Fig. 43, with the forefinger extended along the side, thus
making more room for the three fingers, and giving better control of
the saw. Very little strength should be used in forcing a fine saw to
cut, as its own weight generally is sufficient; if the saw is forced,
it will not run smoothly, but will bind, and if a thin board is being
worked, it is apt to split. The saw should be used from the face side
of the material, so that any splinters or variation will be upon the
back side and out of sight.

(=E.=) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the handles of
their heavy saws by drilling holes through the blade so that the handle
may be fastened as close to the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig.
44. This brings the force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the
cut, which obviously allows a more economical application of force.
Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off the
trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will be discussed
later.)

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--KNIFE BLADES.

_A_, used by wood-worker;

_B_, used in manual-training schools.]

=38. The knife blade= used by the wood-worker for general work is
similar to that shown in Fig. 45, at _A_. That shown at _B_ is the form
of blade in most common use in manual-training schools, as it is better
adapted for whittling, its shape assisting the student to some extent
to prevent the knife from following the grain.

[Illustration: FIG. 46.--SECTION OF IRON PLANE.

1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap
lever; 4_a_, cam; 5, cap screw; 6, frog; 6_a_, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8,
vertical adjusting nut; 8_a_, vertical adjusting screw; 9, lateral
adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and
nut; 14, bolt knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.]

=39. Planes.=--(=A.=) The _plane_ is the most complex, as well as one
of the most important, tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high
grade of skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it
properly.

(=B.=) The only plane in use until recent years had a wooden stock, and
the iron was adjusted by blows with a hammer; this form of plane has
changed very little since the first types were invented, as planes of
ancient times have been found which in all essentials are practically
the same as those in use to-day.

(=C.=) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and more convenient
to use, though they will do no better work than the wooden planes of
our forefathers, which are still preferred by many of the best workmen.
The face of an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is
necessary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally.

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--RESULT OF USING PLANE WITH IMPROPERLY ADJUSTED
CAP IRON.]

(=D.=) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, all constructed
upon the same general principle as the common bench plane which we
shall discuss later. These planes are adjusted by screws and levers,
which are very simple, and any one understanding them may easily
comprehend the more intricate molding or universal planes.

The adjustment of the modern plane may be understood by a careful study
of Fig. 46 and by comparing it with the plane itself. The “cutter,”
“iron,” or “bit” (1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the
tool, and it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency
of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too far from the edge of
the iron, and if the cut is made against the grain, the shaving will
not break before it leads the iron into the wood, as shown in Fig. 47.
If the cap iron is set somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the
cutter, according to the wood being planed, it will break the shaving
nearly as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, and will result in a
smooth, clean surface. The closer the cap iron is set to the edge, the
smoother the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby
made shorter.

[Illustration: FIG. 48.--RESULT OF USING PLANE WITH CAP IRON ADJUSTED
PROPERLY.]

It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron (2) is set
to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the breaks will be, as in
Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the plane will cut. The plane “iron
screw” (3) holds the edge of the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap
iron (2) in their desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed
against the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the “cam”
(4_a_), holds the iron in its place, and presses the cap iron (2)
firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless the cap iron fits the
face of the cutter perfectly, the plane will not work satisfactorily.
The “frog” (6) carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and
may be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the “mouth”
(6_a_), which should be no larger than is necessary to allow the
shavings to pass freely. The frog rarely will require readjusting after
it has been properly located.

The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) in or out
simultaneously, which governs the projection, or “set,” of the edge of
the cutter (1) beyond the face, or “sole” (_b_) of the “plane stock,”
and thus the thickness of the shaving which the plane will cut. The
“adjusting nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8_a_) and operates
the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for the purpose of
forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of the width of the face
(b) of the plane. The two “frog screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in
the position which will make the throat (6_a_) of the desired size.

The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the other parts of
the plane are as follows: “handle” (11); “knob” (12); “handle bolt” and
“nut” (13); “knob bolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,”
or “stock” (16).

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--SETTING A PLANE.]

The face, or sole, of the plane (_b_) must be perfectly straight, or
good work cannot be done. The ends of the plane (_h_ and _t_) are
called the “heel” and “toe,” respectively. The “mouth” of the plane
(between 6_a_ and 2) must be kept clear of shavings, or it may become
clogged.

(=E.=) In setting a plane, do not pass the fingers over the face, or
sole, as cut fingers may result. Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 49,
and look toward the light, when the exact projection of the cutter may
be seen. Notice the position of the fingers of the left hand, and that
the eye glances from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to
make the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a plane, and
in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness should be avoided.

=40. Sharpening a plane.=--(=A.=) An important part of this process
is _the grinding of the cutter_. Set the cap back about ⅛” from the
edge of the iron, and use it as a guide by which to grind the iron
perfectly square, as at _A_, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept
perfectly square, and never touched except to fit it to the cutter,
or, if it is too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file
the top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in order
skillfully, the cap will need care only upon rare occasions.

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--WHETTING AND GRINDING OF PLANE.

(For explanation, see text.)]

The cutter should be held firmly to the grindstone or emery wheel and
kept moving from side to side to prevent wearing the stone in one
place. The grinding should all be done upon the beveled side of the
cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an angle of about 20°
(as at _B_, Fig. 50), more rather than less, as a thinner edge is apt
to “chatter,” or vibrate, if it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many
workmen use a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any device
which holds the tool firmly at the same place on the stone will do for
a rest.

In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should be loosened
and the cap iron carried back until the screw stops at the top of the
slot of the bit, as at _C_, Fig. 50. The screw is then tightened with
the fingers to hold the cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the
iron, though some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while
whetting.

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--WHETTING OR OILSTONING THE BEVELED SIDE OF A
CUTTER.]

The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the surface of the
oilstone, as shown at _C_, Fig. 50, the iron being grasped as in Fig.
51. Keep the right wrist rigid and allow the arm to swing from the
shoulder, bending only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion
may be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve the bevel.
Though the bevel may be maintained better by imparting a short circular
motion to the plane iron, or to any edge tool which is being sharpened,
it seems an awkward and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an
expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds that a stroke made
nearly the entire length of the stone will impart an edge quicker, and
after the knack has been acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as
well.

Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work upon the farther
end, as in this way the stone may be kept true much longer than if one
place upon it is used all the time. This will also minimize the danger
of pulling the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will
generally make regrinding necessary.

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--WHETTING OR OILSTONING THE PLAIN SIDE OF THE
PLANE IRON.]

When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, or the top of
the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in Fig. 52, holding it
down with the fingers of the left hand, using the right hand only
to move the iron back and forth. Care should be used that under no
circumstances is the face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from
the stone. At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care
is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its perfectly
straight surface at the edge, as the slightest deviation from absolute
accuracy at this place will prevent the cap iron from fitting properly,
which will cause endless trouble, as the shavings will be forced
between the cap and the face of the iron (see =C.= of this topic).

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--SHAPE OF EDGE OF PLANE IRON.]

(=B.=) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter has an
important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine the edge divided into
three equal parts: the middle part should be perfectly straight, or
almost imperceptibly rounded; the two outside thirds should be slightly
and gradually rounded until the corners of the iron are so short that
there will be no danger of their projecting below the face of the
plane. This gives the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 53,
which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape shown is about that which
would be seen if a moderately coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49.

(=C.=) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be fitted so
carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter that, if necessary, it
may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch from the cutting edge, though
this would rarely be required except upon very cross-grained wood.

In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very fine, sharp
file should be used. The filing must all be done upon the under side
of the cap iron, at the places where it rests upon the face or top of
the cutter; or, if preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but
unless there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint is
perfected by the use of a file, this method is not recommended.

If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be sharpened
and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01” or less in thickness of
bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut, ash, or similar wood may be smoothed.
It is not wise, however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane
sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a scraper and
sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most economical way to smooth
woods of such nature.

(=D.=) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions which
cause it; simply digging out the shavings is useless. An improperly
fitted cap iron is one of the principal causes of trouble; the cutter
may be ground so thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard
place, the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance
under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage of a wooden
plane over the modern iron plane, as in the former the iron is much
thicker and stiffer. The cap iron may be so thick that it causes the
shavings to curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the front,
which will make the mouth too small. This latter may be remedied by
moving the frog back, but in a wooden plane, the mouth and the throat
would have to be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear
themselves properly.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--JACK PLANE.]

=41. The jack plane= (Fig. 54) generally is 15” long, and its ordinary
use is for the purpose of roughing out a piece of wood for jointing or
smoothing. If it is properly sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing
plane, or as a jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as
good work as any plane.

The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and the cap set
farther back than in the other planes, especially if it is to be used
upon rough work.

=42. The jointer.=--(=A.=) This tool is from 20” to 26” long, and is
used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to fit them together. The
shape of the edge of the cutter of this plane should be but slightly
elliptical, less so than the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two
latter are fitted for doing very fine work.

(=B.=) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, it should
be carried to one side or the other of its face as may be necessary
to take advantage of the elliptically shaped edge of the cutter, by
cutting a shaving thicker on one edge than on the other, thus making
the edge of the board square with the face side.

To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be made in the center
of both the iron and the width of the face of the plane. The plane
should be held as shown in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the
plane, the tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding
the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place upon its edge.

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--METHOD OF GUIDING A JOINTER.]

=43. The smoothing plane= (=A.=) is of the same type and mechanism as
those described above, though it is but 9 or 10” long; if satisfactory
work is expected from it, it must be kept in good order, with the cap
iron perfectly fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend
the time to insure that the plane should be continually in readiness
to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood, as a plane to do the
latter kind of work well is unnecessary upon softer or straight-grained
wood. For ordinary work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆”
from the edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the
edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer the work
that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary work is so cross-grained
or knurly that it cannot be smoothed economically, if a properly
sharpened and adjusted plane is used.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--KNUCKLE JOINT BLOCK PLANE.]

(=B.=) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly the entire
width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, elliptically
shaped edge must be maintained. In using a plane or any kind of cutting
tool, the direction of the grain of the wood should be carefully
studied, and every advantage taken of it to facilitate the work.

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--USE OF THE BLOCK PLANE.

(For explanation, see text.)]

=44. The block plane= (knuckle joint cap, Fig. 56) (=A.=) is
constructed upon a somewhat different principle than the planes above
described, as the adjusting nut (_a_) under the cutter at the rear end
of the plane is raised or lowered to withdraw or advance the bit, and
thus govern the cut of the tool. The size of the mouth is controlled by
a movable section of the face at _b_. This plane has no cap iron, as
the use for which it is intended makes it unnecessary. The block plane
is used across the end of the wood, at right angles with the general
direction of the grain. The iron, or cutter, is so placed in the stock
of the plane that its cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut
as possible, with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this
method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to resist the
chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood.

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--USING BLOCK PLANE UPON SMALL PIECES.]

(=B.=) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts from edge to
edge, or chips will be broken off at the corners; instead, plane from
each edge, and stop the stroke before the other edge is reached;
reverse the plane and work from the other direction, as shown at _A_,
_B_, Fig. 57. Another and workmanlike way of using the block plane upon
small pieces is shown in Fig. 58. Work from each edge as described
above, turning the piece over for each stroke. In sharpening the block
plane iron, the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel
carefully maintained.

=45. The correct position.=--(=A.=) In using planes or any edge tools,
a position should be taken which will furnish sufficient resistance to
the pressure required for making the cut, as the pressure should be
applied firmly and steadily. With experience, the correct position
will be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually
upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness.

(=B.=) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired easily, and the
young workman should learn to work in as nearly an erect position
as possible, for if the bending of the shoulders is persisted in, a
permanent stoop will result. Stand facing the work and clear of the
bench in order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing.

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--INCORRECT USE OF JACK PLANE.]

(=C.=) Do not allow the plane to drop over the end of the board at
either the beginning or the end of the stroke, as indicated at _A_,
_B_, Fig. 59. To prevent this, the hand should be kept upon that part
of the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of the stroke,
the weight should be upon the front end of the plane, as in Fig. 60,
and at the end of the stroke upon the rear end, or upon the handle, as
in Fig. 61. Begin and end each stroke with a lifting motion instead of
allowing the plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane
should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump; this is
caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving heavier than the plane
should cut, or, if the cap iron is fitted and adjusted properly, by a
dull iron. A cutter will jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly
against the frog. In drawing the plane back after making a stroke,
carry it upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat upon its
face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as when it is cutting, or
possibly more.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--BEGINNING THE STROKE WITH A JACK PLANE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--ENDING THE STROKE WITH A JACK PLANE.]

(=D.=) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is possible,
and take no more shavings off than is necessary to attain the desired
results. The young workman should make a study of the grain and the
peculiarities of the different kinds of lumber upon which he works,
losing no opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities of
every available wood.

(=E.=) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, and much is
often lost, by working with dull tools; tools should be sharpened often
and thoroughly. This is of the utmost importance, for even with the
tools in the best possible order, it will require much care and skill
to do good work.

=46. Chisels.=--(=A.=) Carpenters’ chisels are used for paring and
mortising; the paring chisel should be light, smoothly finished, and
ground with a sharper bevel than that used for mortising, for which the
heaviest chisel is none too strong.

(=B.=) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according to the method by
which the blade and handle is joined. The tanged firmer chisel (Fig.
62, _A_) is the older form, and is not so strong as the more recently
designed socket chisel (_B_). For light work, the tanged chisel is
preferred by many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it
is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to catch upon the
edge of the wood when the tool is used. The beveled-edge chisel (_C_)
is a favorite tool with pattern makers; and the mortise, or framing
chisel (_D_), is designed for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of
one each of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”, 1”,
1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”.

(=C.=) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called a “slice” or
“slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon heavy work.

[Illustration: FIG. 62.--CHISELS.

_A_, tanged firmer chisel; _B_, socket chisel; _C_, beveled-edge
chisel; _D_, mortise, or framing chisel.]

(=D.=) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard wood and of any
convenient shape, as these should not be pounded upon. Although they
are occasionally used for cutting small mortises, it is not a good
practice unless the tops of the handles are protected by leather or
fiber tops. Mortising chisels should have handles of the toughest wood
obtainable, preferably hickory, with leather nailed with small brads
upon the top to protect the wood. If a leather washer is fastened to
the handle by a pin or dowel, the wood will in time pound down and the
leather be broken out and destroyed, while if braided upon the handle,
the leather may be renewed as often as necessary. An iron ring, or
ferrule, is used by many to prevent the handle from splitting, but
this will bruise the face of the mallet. A hammer should never be used
upon any sort of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly
destroyed, but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. In fitting
the handle to the chisel blade, care should be used that they are in
perfect alignment, as otherwise a sharp blow may break the blade.

(=E.=) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground at an angle
of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be apt to break upon
coming in contact with a knot. A paring chisel may be ground as thin as
20°, as it does not have to stand heavy blows, and a better edge for
the purpose may thus be obtained. In whetting a chisel, the bevel must
be carefully maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, like the
face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to work to a line.

[Illustration: FIG. 63.--DRAWSHAVE.]

=47. Gouges= may in general be described in the same way as chisels,
except that they are curved instead of flat. The terms “inside” and
“outside,” used in describing them, indicate whether they are ground
upon the inside or the outside of the curve.

=48. The drawshave= (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting curves, in
chamfering, and for roughing out work. The patent drawshave, with
folding handles, is a safer tool to keep in the tool box, as the edge
is protected, but it is not as satisfactory for general work as the
ordinary rigid-handled tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood
should be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands when
the tool is not in use.

[Illustration: FIG. 64.--SPOKESHAVE.]

=49. The spokeshave= (Fig. 64) should not be used in any place where a
plane can be used, but only upon concave or convex surfaces; when used,
it maybe either pushed or pulled.

[Illustration: FIG. 65.--AUGER BIT.]

=50. Bits= (=A.=) are of many different types, the most common being
the _auger bit_ (Fig. 65). The use of the “worm” (_a_) is to draw
the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy pressure upon the bit
unnecessary. The “lips” (_bb_) make an incision on the wood below the
cut made by the “cutters” (_cc_), which take the shavings out and into
the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole.

[Illustration: FIG. 66.--CROSS-HANDLED AUGER.]

(=B.=) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that the bit is
removed before the shavings clog in the twist, which will happen if
the hole becomes full of shavings which cannot be lifted out. Should
clogging occur, do not use a great deal of strength in trying to back
the bit out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull it
out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient strength
cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being straight over the center of
the bit from the “chuck,” not from the head of the bitbrace.

After boring the hole to the desired depth, do not turn the bit
backward to remove it, as shavings will be left in the hole, but give
it one turn back to loosen the worm, then turn as though boring the
hole deeper, lifting under the head of the bitbrace in the meantime, by
which process the shavings will be lifted out. These bits are numbered
from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of an inch. Sizes larger than
these are known as augers.

[Illustration: FIG. 67.

_A_, German bit; _B_, twist drill.]

(=C.=) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross handles, as in
Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient leverage to make the
bit cut the wood; these are called augers. The form shown is known as a
“Ford auger.”

(=D.=) The _German bit_ (Fig. 67, _A_) is used for boring small holes
for screws and nails, and has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our
forefathers, as its action is much more rapid. Its progression in sizes
is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds of an inch; this tool is also called a
_screw bit_.

[Illustration: FIG. 68.

_A_, extension bit; _B_, center bit.]

(=E.=) The _twist drill_ (Fig. 67, _B_) is a valuable tool; every
carpenter should own an assortment of twist drills for use in places
where other bits may come in contact with iron. The sizes range from
¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds. The round shank drill may be purchased in any size
up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch.

(=F.=) The _extension bit_ (Fig. 68, _A_) is a very convenient tool
for boring a hole of any size within certain limits, and is at times
extremely valuable.

(=G.=) The _center bit_ (Fig. 68, _B_) is often used in boring holes
through thin material which would be apt to be split if an auger bit
were used.

(=H.=) In filing an auger bit, it should be held as shown in Fig. 69,
and a small, fine file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of
the cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened,
as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the cutter, be sure
that its under side back of the cutting edge is filed enough to clear
the wood after the cutter has entered it.

[Illustration: FIG. 69.--FILING AN AUGER BIT.]

In doing this, it should be remembered that the bit progresses into
the wood as it cuts, and unless the under side of the cutter is filed
properly, it will bear upon the wood beneath it, back of the cutting
edge, and prevent the bit from advancing. To remedy this, be sure that
the cutter is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from
the edge to the beginning of the twist.

(=I.=) If the lips (Fig. 65, _bb_) are filed off, an auger bit bores
into the end wood easily.

=51. The bitbrace, or stock.=--(=A.=) This tool is used to hold the
bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn the bit into the wood.
Bitbraces are made of different sizes, and with different devices for
holding the “tangs” of the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10”
swing bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or
kinds of bits alternately.

[Illustration: FIG. 70.--RATCHET BITBRACE.]

(=B.=) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the ordinary brace
only in the ratchet attachment. It is an indispensable tool to an
up-to-date workman, as it may be used in many places where an ordinary
brace would be useless; for general work, however, being heavier, it is
less convenient than the plain brace.

=52. The Screwdriver= (=A.=) is one of the most important tools in a
carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of finely tempered steel,
for if too soft, it will turn over, and if too hard, it will break. The
edge should be as thick as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to
have as much strength as possible.

(=B.=) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory as one with
an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible to obtain as
good a grip upon the former as upon the latter; a round handle, planed
flat upon the two opposite sides, is quite commonly used.

(=C.=) _Ratchet screwdrivers_ are useful in many places where it
is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent quick-action
screwdrivers on the market which are suitable only for certain kinds
of light work, as what is gained in speed is lost in power. The
screwdriver bit is a short screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace;
it is essential in doing economical work, as screws may be driven much
more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable on account of its
greater leverage in driving heavy screws.

[Illustration: FIG. 71.

COMPASSES.]

[Illustration: FIG. 72.

CALIPERS.]

=53. Compasses, or dividers= (Fig. 71), are used to draw circles and
curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is meant the process
of fitting a piece of wood to an uneven surface. _Calipers_ (Fig.
72) are used to measure the outside of a round or oval object. Those
shown are known as “outside” calipers; “inside” calipers, or those
used for measuring the inside of a hole, have straight legs. These
tools ordinarily are not considered a part of a carpenter’s kit, as
they are generally used upon work requiring more exact measurements.
Wood-workers’ tools are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than
16ths of an inch; hence, the ordinary methods of measuring will usually
give sufficiently accurate results.

[Illustration: FIG. 73.

PLIERS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 74.

NIPPERS.]

=54. Pliers.=--(=A.=) These are indispensable little tools (Fig. 73),
and every workman should own a pair. Those combining several tools are
most useful; cheap tools of this sort are usually worthless.

(=B.=) _Nippers_ (Fig. 74) are made to cut wire, but not to pull
nails. Being tempered for cutting, those of good quality are hard and
brittle, lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which work
a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased.

[Illustration: FIG. 75.--SCRAPER.

_A_, _B_, handles for scraper; _C_, leather palm; _D_, scraper plane.]

=55. The scraper= is one of the most useful tools in the kit of the
carpenter who works upon hard wood. This tool may be purchased, or made
of a very hard saw; it must be of hard, tough steel, or the edge will
not last. A scraper should be about 3” × 5”, which is a convenient
size for grasping with the hand. Many workmen make handles for their
scrapers (Fig. 75, _A_ and _B_), but cabinet makers, and others who
use them continually, generally prefer to use them without handles.
If a large surface is to be scraped, it is well to have a handle of a
leather palm (Fig. 75, _C_). This is a piece of leather of suitable
size and shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the
action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed through the hole,
and the broad part of the palm hangs between the scraper and the thick
of the hand. For scraping floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, _D_) will
be found valuable, though if much of this work is to be done, it will
be the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping
machines.

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--EDGES OF SCRAPERS.

_A_, beveled edge; _B_, square edge.]

=56. Edges.=--There are two forms of edges used in sharpening
scrapers,--the _square_ and the _beveled_ edge; in sharpening either of
these, the edge should be filed, whetted, and turned with a burnisher,
which imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, _A_ and _B_, which
shows enlarged views of the two forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye
glances along the edge of a properly sharpened scraper, the edge will
appear slightly curved; this edge must be given it by filing. After the
scraper is filed, each corner which is to be turned must be whetted to
a perfectly keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of sharpening
a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle with the sides of the
scraper.

[Illustration: _Front View_

FIG. 77.--ANGLE OF BURNISHER WITH SIDES OF SCRAPER.]

By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing the particles of
steel which form the corner over so that they will form a wire edge
which will stand at an angle with the sides of the scraper. When
the edge has been skillfully turned, it will cut like a very finely
sharpened and adjusted plane, and will work either with or against the
grain without tearing the wood.

Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher with the sides of the
scraper, as at _a_, Fig. 77, and as in Fig. 78, which indicates
approximately the angle at which it should be held across the edge
when seen in the view illustrated of either a square or beveled-edge
scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The stroke must be
from the bottom, up, as indicated. At _A_, Fig. 79, is shown the top
view of the burnisher as it makes each of the strokes in turning the
edge of a square edge scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an
angle of about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle.

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--METHOD OF GRASPING SCRAPER FOR SHARPENING.]

At _B_, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge of a bevel
edge scraper; the student will notice that the angles are similar to
those shown at _A_, except that the first stroke is made at nearly the
same angle as the bevel of the scraper. An edge may often be turned at
one stroke, and more than three should rarely be necessary. If more
than three are made, the edge may be turned too far, which is worse
than not being turned enough. The strokes should be made in the order
indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; otherwise it
will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results.

The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this stage of the work
cannot be described, but can only be discovered by practice. A steady,
moderate pressure is all that is needed, but care should be used that
the angle of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This
will give an edge suitable for common counter or table tops, hardwood
floors, and similar work, if the skill to use the burnisher properly
has been acquired.

The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil or with the end of
the tongue, as this assists it to slide over the edge of the scraper
without scratching.

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--TOP VIEWS OF THE ANGLES OF THE BURNISHER.]

If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different shaped edge
should be made; it should be whetted to four perfectly square and keen
corners, each of which will furnish an edge. This is a more difficult
method of sharpening a scraper, but it gives four edges suitable for
fine work. The edge should be turned by carrying the burnisher as shown
at _A_, Fig. 79, making the strokes at the different angles in the
order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening any scraper, care should
be used that no strokes are made back of the square, as stroke _bc_ of
Fig. 80. Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated
at _a_, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two or three
strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper.

To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is necessary.
This tool should be made of the hardest steel, and is often made
by the workman himself of an old file, ground perfectly smooth and
polished. Perhaps the most satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of
the wood-worker may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to
a handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow chisel or
gouge may be used, though these are rather clumsy. The burnishers found
in stores are generally unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft,
and any steel which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher
for sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut into it, instead of
turning over.

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ANGLE TO BE AVOIDED IN SHARPENING SCRAPER.]

If satisfactory results are not obtained, there may be several causes:
the scraper may not be of just the right temper or texture; the
burnisher may be soft or rough; the edge may not have been turned
over evenly, or it may have been turned over too far, as indicated in
an exaggerated way at _a_, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying
the burnisher around too far, as shown by the line _bc_. This may be
remedied by using the awl point as shown at _d_, Fig. 81, holding
the scraper and burnisher in about the same relative positions as
indicated, guiding the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried
on the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher its entire
length. In this way the edge may be turned back to its correct angle,
when a very light touch in the usual way will generally make the
desired edge.

[Illustration: FIG. 81.--TURNING BACK THE EDGE OF A SCRAPER.]

If either the scraper or the burnisher is not of the right texture,
throw it away, as it is worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may
be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge of the scraper is rough,
it may be turned back again by laying the scraper flat upon the bench,
the rough side up, and the burnisher passed over it several times; then
proceed as with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory as
it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over again, especially
if the corner has been turned several times.

[Illustration: FIG. 82.--METHOD OF GRASPING THE SCRAPER WHEN WORKING
UPON A BROAD SURFACE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 83.--METHOD OF GRASPING THE SCRAPER WHEN WORKING
WITHIN A SMALL AREA.]

Though it may seem from the above explanation of the methods of
sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex operation, it will be
seen that it is not a difficult matter, if it is once worked out;
usually it requires a little time and practice to acquire the knack
that will make it possible to do it surely and well.

[Illustration: FIG. 84.--METHOD OF GRASPING SCRAPER WHEN WORKING UPON
AN EDGE.]

In using a scraper, it may be grasped as shown in Figs. 82, 83, 84,
as best suits the work being done, and the strokes should be with the
grain. In using this tool, as in the use of most others, the easiest
way generally is the most efficient. As the young workman gains
experience, he will gradually acquire the correct methods to use his
tools for all the various purposes within their scope.

=57. Nail sets= are for the purpose of “setting” the nails, or for
sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to stand the hard usage
to which they are subjected, they must be very carefully tempered. The
best form of nail set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as
it is not so apt to slip off of the head of the nail.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.--MONKEY WRENCH.]

=58. Wrenches= are of many kinds and patterns and of every conceivable
use, but that known as the “monkey,” or “Coe’s,” wrench (Fig. 85)
is perhaps the most convenient for general work and has not been
supplanted by any of more recent invention.

=59. Handscrews= (=A.=), if of good material and well made, will stand
any legitimate use, and if properly used and cared for, will last a
lifetime. However, a novice or a careless workman often destroys them
rapidly by allowing the jaws to be under strain while in the position
shown in Fig. 86, which will probably break the middle screw, and
perhaps both.

[Illustration: FIG. 86.--EFFECT OF THE UNSKILLFUL USE OF A HANDSCREW.]

(=B.=) In using handscrews for gluing, the jaws should be set to nearly
the size of the material which is to be placed between them, before the
glue is spread. In placing the handscrews upon the work, the outside
screw should be turned back so that it will not prevent the jaws from
being slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. This
will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the outside
screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only position in which
handscrews should be allowed to remain.

[Illustration: FIG. 87.--CORRECT USE OF HANDSCREW.]

In opening or closing a handscrew, the middle screw should be held
in the left hand, and the outside screw in the right, as in Fig. 87;
the screws should then be grasped so that they will not turn in the
hand and the handscrew revolved in the desired direction. Never put
unnecessary strain upon handscrews, nor leave them with a heavy strain
upon them for a very long time.

If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used than is
necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work should be glued
unless the joints fit well. In any case, the outside screw should be
turned back a quarter or a half a turn after the glue has set; this
will relieve the strain, and add much to the life of the handscrew.

In gluing work which requires several handscrews to hold it while the
glue is setting, the handles of the outside screws all should point
one way, which allows the work to be handled much more easily, as the
handles of the middle screws will form an even bearing upon the floor.
If this is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken when
a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, as the weight of the
work will rest upon the screws which bear upon the floor.

(=C.=) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be treated with
beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead mixed with oil or with wax.
The latter compound is very dirty; the former lubricates the screws
perfectly. The screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot.

=60.= (=A.=) =A grindstone= of good quality, from 20” to 26” in
diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and should be used
frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools is much increased if
they are kept well ground, and much time may be saved in whetting them.

(=B.=) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true and round,
and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite satisfactorily
determined by examining several and selecting the coarsest, as that
will doubtlessly be a fast cutting stone.

(=C.=) The stone should be carefully centered and mounted upon a frame;
the face may be kept true by means of a file or other hard steel
being held against it as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe
revolved from side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a
stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made softer and
heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of true.

(=D.=) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone continually,
or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead, keep the tool moving
from side to side. If properly cared for, a stone will hold its face
indefinitely.

[Illustration: FIG. 88.--EMERY WHEEL DRESSER.]

=61. Emery, corundum, carborundum=, and other artificial abrasive
wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone, as they cut much
more rapidly. Any one not accustomed to using them must be careful
that the temper of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a
high rate of speed, and a tool in unskillful hands is easily burned.
To avoid this, the tool should be held lightly but firmly against the
stone, and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery wheel
burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing; for this purpose a
diamond emery wheel dresser is the best, but on account of its cost,
various devices have been patented to accomplish the same result, one
of which is illustrated in Fig. 88.

=62. Whetstones.=--(=A.=) These are used to give to a tool the keen
edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The natural stone in most common
use is the “Washita stone,” which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains,
and is thought by many to be the best natural stone for the general use
of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the best quality is
of even texture.

(=B.=) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is finer and
harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive, however, and is
better adapted to the use of woodcarvers and engravers than to the use
of wood-workers in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the
best of the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by its
use. There are other natural stones, but none so generally used as the
above. The purchase of a natural stone is to a great extent a lottery,
as only about one stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free
from cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities.

(=C.=) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper upon
a board, and rub the stone over it until it has been ground down. The
best place, however, to true up a whetstone is upon the horizontal
stone of a marble worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in
diameter, mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed pieces of
marble to be ground to a flat surface.

(=D.=) _Artificial oilstones_, made of emery, corundum, carborundum,
and other artificial abrasives, are coming rapidly into use, and, as in
the case of grindstones, eventually will supplant all others in many
occupations, as they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of
any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. They are
also able to resist many accidents which would destroy a natural stone.

(=E.=) _Slip stones_ are used to sharpen gouges and curved tools of all
kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. An oblong stone, 8” × 2”
× 1”, is the size of stone in most general use by the wood-worker, and
should be fitted into a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it
clean. It may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman,
though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set on its edge.

(=F.=) The use of the oilstone is described under topic =40, A.= The
oil used should be a kind that will not gum; its purpose is to prevent
the glassiness which is caused by the friction of the tool over the
stone. Common machine oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and
kerosene, or coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil
suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils will give
satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone cleaner, thereby
adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose lubricates quite as well
as any of those above-mentioned.

=63.= (=A.=) =Files= are used for many purposes by wood-workers. An
assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper, or three-cornered,
files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files; 8”, 10”, and 12” round
files; and 8” and 12” half round wood files and rasps should be in
every carpenter’s kit. The 4” slim taper files should be used upon the
finer saws, and the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are
used by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it is necessary
to have a few warding and knife files to use upon keys and odd jobs,
and also to sharpen bits.

Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and for every
purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to stand lead or soft brass,
and should never be used upon anything harder.

In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow it to drag, as it
is injured thereby about as much as when it is cutting.

(=B.=) There are a great many other tools and appliances used by
the wood-worker with which the workman should be familiar, but it
is not necessary to describe them, as the above-mentioned are the
most essential tools common to all forms of woodworking. There is no
important principle involved in the construction, care, and use of
woodworking tools which is not discussed in this chapter, and the
student who becomes thoroughly familiar with the matter treated will
have little trouble in learning to handle other tools.

[Illustration: FIG. 89.--JOINTING A SAW.]

=64. Saw filing.=--(=A.=) This is an accomplishment which every young
wood-worker should master, as its possession will save expense and
inconvenience, and add much to his efficiency as a workman.

(=B.=) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine the edge
carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length; if they are
not, they should be jointed. This is done by using a flat file held
perfectly square in a block, as shown in Fig. 89. One or two light
strokes usually will be enough to make all the teeth of the same
length. The edge of the saw should round slightly in the middle, say
about ⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, it
should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little at each time
for several filings.

[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HAND SAW SET.]

(=C.=) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly set. This
may be done by a _saw set_, of which there are several patterns in use;
these are all of two types, the _hand set_ (Fig. 90), and the _anvil
set_ (Fig. 91). Either of these forms is efficient, but as it is more
convenient, the hand set is more commonly used. Do not give the saw too
much set, or it will not cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly
on the back side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking
the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must be applied.
The point of the teeth only should be set, and care should be used that
the blade of the saw is not sprung, which will be apt to result from
setting the teeth too far from the point.

[Illustration: FIG. 91.--ANVIL SAW SET.]

A saw to be used upon green lumber should have coarser teeth and more
set than one which is to be used upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A
panel saw intended for use upon fine finishing work usually is ground
so thin upon the back that it needs little or no set. Some workmen set
a saw so heavily that it will do for several filings; while this is
satisfactory for a soft saw to be used upon common work, it is not a
good plan to treat a fine, hard saw this way, though the latter may be
touched up once or twice.

[Illustration: FIG. 92.--ANGLE OF THE FILE WITH THE EDGE OF THE SAW.]

(=D.=) In filing, it is important that the file should be carried at
the same angle the entire length of both sides of the blade. For a
cutting-off saw, the file should be carried at an angle with the side
of the blade of from 60° for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown
in Fig. 92; and for general work, at an angle about halfway between the
two. The file may be carried horizontally, as at _aa_, Fig. 93, which
makes all the teeth of the same size; as at _A_, Fig. 94; or it may be
carried as at _bb_, Fig. 93, which will make the teeth of the shape
shown at _B_, Fig. 94. The latter method is preferred by many workmen,
as it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening its life a
little. There is no difference in the efficiency of the saws filed by
these methods, but if filed as at _bb_, Fig. 93, it is more difficult
to keep the teeth of the same size, and to make a good-looking job.

[Illustration: FIG. 93.--ANGLE OF THE FILE WITH THE SIDES OF THE SAW.]

In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be held more or
less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according to the hook which it is
desired that the teeth shall have. The more hook a saw has, the faster
it will cut, but the cut will be rougher in proportion. Experience is
necessary to discover just the right angles at which the file should be
held; after considerable practice, the file will naturally drop into
the correct position.

[Illustration: FIG. 94.--RESULTS OF FILINGS AS AT _aa_ AND _bb_, FIG.
93.]

File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect point, one
half of the filing being done from each side; file the entire length
from one side, then reverse the saw and file from the other side. This
cannot always be the exclusive practice if a saw is in very bad shape,
because if the teeth are of uneven sizes, care must be used, and more
filed from some teeth than from others. It may, in such a case, be
necessary to go over the saw two or three times, but it should be done
very carefully, so that the bevel of the teeth may be preserved and
their length kept the same. Observe each tooth, and press toward the
point or the handle of the saw, as may be necessary. The file should be
carried with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting
or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of the saw, and the
back of the tooth next ahead on the nearer side with the same stroke.
If the point of the saw is carried toward the handle of the saw, it
makes the teeth chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It
also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life of a file,
as the continuous chatter against its teeth will soon break them, and
destroy the file.

[Illustration: FIG. 95.--METHOD OF CARRYING A FILE TO OBTAIN THE HOOK
OF A CUTTING-OFF SAW.]

A ripsaw requires more set than a cutting-off saw, and if, as usual,
the file is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may be
filed from one side.

After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly flat surface,
and given a light touch with a flat file or a whetstone, to remove the
burr caused by the file, as in Fig. 96.

[Illustration: FIG. 96.--REMOVING THE BURR AFTER FILING A SAW.]

The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination of the rip- and
the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of both as occasion requires.
The teeth should be nearly as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the
front teeth filed at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In
filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a little lower
than horizontal. Figure 41, _C_, shows three views of the teeth of a
compass saw.


 SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

 27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a good,
 serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially for
 some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to follow in
 buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?

 28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.

 29. Describe the rule in common use.

 30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be used
 in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?

 31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.

 32. Describe the bevel and its use.

 33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the gauge be
 depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is useful?

 34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly
 tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened
 to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. How
 should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that they will
 hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or
 matched boards? How and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint
 surface?

 35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening a
 hatchet.

 36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare two
 forms of mallets.

 37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw.
 After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a
 cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of both?
 For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are other
 saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the backsaw.
 How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What kind of saw
 is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the back of a saw
 compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? What test
 should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What are the
 best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard and a
 medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much force should be
 used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the handles of their saws
 to make the saws run more easily?

 38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why is the
 form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for
 whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?

 39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe the
 mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be the
 condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so that
 one may see the adjustment of the cutter?

 40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may a
 grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side of
 the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be
 ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where should
 the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the bit be
 held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm while
 whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly?
 What motion should be avoided in whetting? What is the correct shape
 of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the cap iron? What is
 apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?

 41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way does the
 edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?

 42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What
 should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should
 a plane be carried to joint an edge square?

 43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be the
 position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How should
 edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?

 44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the
 above planes.

 45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any
 sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders?
 What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the
 strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull tools? How
 should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?

 46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities
 and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should
 a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why?
 Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the
 paring and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a
 slice, or slick?

 47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and an
 outside gouge?

 48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility of
 the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the edge of
 a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?

 49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.

 50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the different
 parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging of a
 bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, how should
 it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German bit; of a
 twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe the method
 of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part of a bit should never be
 filed? Why?

 51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the ratchet
 brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?

 52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a
 screwdriver? What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value
 of a screwdriver bit?

 53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.

 54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use?
 Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?

 55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper?
 Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.

 56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for rough
 work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when the edge of
 the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is not
 sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to the
 grain?

 57. Describe the best form of nail set.

 58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?

 59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position
 of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How should
 handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?

 60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should a
 grindstone be trued?

 61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be guarded
 against in the use of an emery wheel?

 62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is
 commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the two kinds.
 How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming into use?
 Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways. What
 forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of oils are used for
 oil or whetstones?

 63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files
 generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.

 64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of the
 cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate the
 process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and
 fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be
 carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying
 the file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle
 with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a
 ripsaw? If the saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to
 bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time? What
 should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting?
 Compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare
 the teeth of the compass saw with those of others.




CHAPTER V

GLUE AND SANDPAPER


65. DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLUE.--(=A.=) Wood-workers use both _liquid_
and _sheet_ or _stick_ glue, but as the former requires little skill
in its use, we will deal principally with the latter, which is made of
hides, sinews, bones, and waste material of slaughterhouses. Different
grades of glue are made of various kinds of refuse, but the processes
of treating them all are similar.

(=B.=) The material from which glue is to be made is steeped in lime
water at low temperature, or subjected to a chemical treatment for a
sufficient time to separate the fat from the fiber. The latter is then
washed in clean water and boiled down to gelatin, which is spread upon
wires to dry and harden, when it is ready for use.

(=C.=) _Ground glue_ makes up more readily than that which comes in
sheets, and therefore is preferred by many workmen. It is frequently
adulterated, but if made upon honor, it is as good as the glue from
which it is made, and does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time
in a damp place. As it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground
glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks, many workmen
prefer not to use it unless sure of its quality.

(=D.=) The highest-priced glue is not always the best for all purposes,
and a dealer who handles different grades can generally advise which
should be used, though the medium grade in common use is usually
satisfactory for general work.

(=E.=) It is impossible to give infallible rules for testing glue in
the stick, or to say that glue should be of any special color, or
that it should be either transparent or opaque; but, in general, glue
suitable for ordinary work will be of a reddish, yellowish, or light
brownish color, clear and transparent, and not offensive to either
taste or smell, though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely
opaque. Good glue will swell in cold water, but will not dissolve until
it has nearly reached the boiling point. It will also absorb more water
than will poor glue, and is therefore more economical. Any test which
depends upon the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable, as
a somewhat damp, good glue will not stand this test as well as a poor
glue that is very dry. If conditions are the same, and comparison is
possible, it is fairly safe to assume that if a good glue is cut with
a sharp knife, a hard, elastic shaving will result, while a poor glue
will give a shaving which is extremely brittle, and will break into
little pieces.

A safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces of the same
kind of wood, 1” square and about 12” long, fit them perfectly end to
end in pairs, and glue as many of them together as there are samples of
glue to be tested. After the glue is thoroughly hard, clamp one of the
pieces of each pair to a bench top, with the joint coinciding with the
edge. Hang a pail about 10” from the joint on the piece which projects
over the edge of the bench, and allow sand to run into it slowly, until
the joint breaks. Repeat this process with each pair which has been
glued up, and the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will
furnish a basis of comparison between the different varieties of glue
tested.

(=F.=) Glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water before being
put into a glue pot, which should be a double vessel, with the glue
in the inside pot, and the hot water or steam in the outer jacket. In
making up glue, it should be brought to the boiling point until melted,
and then removed from the heat, for if kept continually hot, it loses
much of its strength by being cooked too much, as this makes continual
thinning necessary.

If time will not permit, the preliminary soaking may be dispensed with,
and the hard glue put at once in the hot water, in which case it must
be stirred frequently while melting, or it will form a mass. If the
water boils out of the outside kettle, and the glue burns, throw it
away, as it is worthless.

Glue should be thinned with cold water, after which it should be
allowed to become thoroughly heated before using; in the shops, this is
not always done, as there may not be time to allow the glue to become
heated again; therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue
with hot water.

(=G.=) Paint brushes, or other brushes in which the bristles are set in
glue, are not suitable for use in hot glue, and those made especially
for this purpose should be purchased. For very small brushes, a strip
of basswood bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from the
end; these are satisfactory for small work.

=66. How to use glue.=--(=A.=) Glue should be used as hot as possible,
and of about the consistency of cream. The pieces to be glued should
be heated thoroughly and the gluing done in a warm room.

(=B.=) In factories, where it is possible, the gluing is done in a
specially fitted room which contains all necessary appliances. Vertical
and horizontal coils of steam pipes surround the room, both to furnish
heat for the room, and for the purpose of heating the material to be
glued, which should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for
more than a few seconds. In a room of this sort, the temperature is
maintained at from 110° to 130° F.

(=C.=) If the best possible results are wanted, a _scratch plane_
should be used. This is a tool similar to a smoother, only its cutter
is nearly vertical, and it has teeth like a fine saw which will scratch
the wood, thus giving a better hold for the glue.

(=D.=) It is important that all clamps, handscrews, and other
appliances which are likely to be needed should be set as nearly as
possible the desired size, and so arranged as to be reached easily, for
when the glue is applied, there should not be the slightest hesitation
or delay in getting the work together and the clamps on. The utmost
speed and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot glue;
therefore everything during the process of the work should be foreseen
and provision made for it before the glue is applied, for if the glue
is even slightly chilled, the work will not be so well done, and the
efficiency of the glue will be greatly diminished. A novice should
never attempt more than the simplest work, unless working with a
competent man.

(=E.=) The glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with a brush of
suitable size,--a large one for broad surfaces and a small one for
small work. Glue should not be thrown about wastefully; enough should
be used to cover the surface completely but not thickly.

(=F.=) In using handscrews, it is of the greatest importance that the
jaws be kept parallel as described in Topic =59=; care must be used
that more strain is not placed upon the handscrews and clamps than is
necessary to bring the joint together.

(=G.=) Cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in furniture
repairing, gluing up intricate work, and in places where it is
impracticable to use hot glue either on account of its setting too
rapidly, or where heat is not available. Liquid glue does not hold as
well nor as permanently as hot glue when properly used, but for many
kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory.

(=H.=) In gluing rosewood, or other woods of a greasy nature, the glue
should be thinned with vinegar, which will cut the grease. Another
method of making glue hold on wood of this sort is to chalk both
members of the joint thoroughly, and let it stand for two or three
hours, when it should be wiped off. This absorbs the grease on the
surface of the wood, which allows the glue to take hold. In all gluing,
do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint any more than necessary,
as the grease and perspiration will prevent the best results from being
obtained.

=67. The testing of sandpaper.=--(=A.=) Sandpaper is made by covering
paper with a thin layer of glue, over which is spread evenly a layer
of ground flint or glass; over this is spread another coating of glue,
which firmly fastens the sand to the paper.

(=B.=) In buying sandpaper, pass the finger over it to see if the
sand is firmly fastened. Be sure that the paper is neither flimsy nor
brittle. Coarse particles of sand are sometimes found upon sandpaper
which renders it worthless; these can be detected only by use, unless
they are very prominent.

=68. How to use sandpaper.=--(=A.=) Sandpaper is made in numbers,
00, 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3. Numbers 00 and 0 are very fine, and are
used in rubbing down shellac and varnish. Numbers ½ and 1 are used in
sandpapering mahogany and other fancy woods, and number 1½ is used upon
all building finish but the finest; the coarser numbers are used upon
floors, outside finish, and other coarse work which is to be painted,
though for a very nice floor, 1½ is used, rarely anything finer. It is
a fallacy to think that the finer the sandpaper used, the finer the
job will be, since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make a
glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like the rest of
the work. Sandpapering is as apt to detract from the work as it is to
improve it, for unless used very skillfully, the character of angles
and small surfaces will be changed, though it may seem that the damage
is so slight as to be imperceptible. In using sandpaper, the workman
should guard against rounding off square corners or destroying the form
of surfaces; a raw corner, however, should be removed with a few light,
careful strokes, as a perfectly sharp corner will always be more or
less ragged.

_The one who knows_ will always notice the omissions of details of
this sort, and will attribute such imperfections to lack of skill or
knowledge on the part of the workman. It is for the one who knows,
that all work should be done--not for the casual observer--and these
apparently insignificant details, rather than the part of the work
which may seem of more importance, form the basis by which one workman
judges the work of another. In nothing do small things count more than
in making or destroying a workman’s reputation.

[Illustration: FIG. 97.--USE OF SANDPAPER UPON A BROAD SURFACE.]

(=B.=) Keep the sandpaper dry, and stored in a dry place, as moisture
softens the glue so that the sand may be easily rubbed off. In handling
sandpaper, care should be taken that the sanded sides are not rubbed
together.

(=C.=) In preparing to sandpaper a flat surface, or for general work, a
sheet of sandpaper should be torn in halves the short way of the paper,
and one half should be folded back to back, and held (not tacked)
around the block with the hand, as in Fig. 97. The act of grasping the
block for the work will hold the sandpaper, and any device for holding
the sandpaper on the block is worthless, being considered by the
workman as a mark of the novice. The block should be about 3” × 4” ×
⅞”, and may be made of wood, cork, fiber, or any material which suits
the taste of the workman.

If there is much sandpapering of moldings to be done, it is best to
make blocks which will fit the contour of them, as it is very hard on
the hands to do this work for very long at a time, though nothing has
ever been invented which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers. A
piece of sandpaper _should never be used on a piece of work until all
the cutting by edge tools has been done_, as the particles of sand will
enter the grain of the wood, and any edge tools used upon it afterward
will be quickly dulled. Do not use a piece of sandpaper so large that
any part of it will not be under perfect control, as loose ends will
scratch the wood, and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appearance.
Always work parallel with the grain, and be sure that all plane marks
and rough places are thoroughly rubbed down. In order to do this well,
it is often necessary to use considerable muscle. This part of the work
calls for good judgment, for unless sandpapered enough, there will be
places which will show when the finish is spread on the work, though
they may have been invisible before. No one can tell as well as the
workman himself when sufficient sandpapering has been done, though it
may be evident to any one who knows the signs whether or not the work
has been done judiciously. Upon a coarse job it is usually allowable,
and sometimes desirable, to sandpaper across the grain, especially if
the work is to be painted.

In order to impress it upon the student, we will repeat that _too much
care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper_, for much oftener will an
amateur injure a piece of work than improve it.

[Illustration: FIG. 98.--SANDPAPERING PANEL WORK.

(For explanation, see text.)]

(=D.=) In sandpapering panel work, as in Fig. 98, the panels (_a_)
should be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered, and the edges of the
stiles (_b_), rails (_d_), and muntins (_e_) should be treated the
same way before the panel work is put together; an exception to this
in regard to the panels may be made if the panel frame is constructed
in such a way as to allow the panels to be put in place after it is
together, in which case the panels may be smoothed at any time. Upon
very fine work the panels are sometimes polished before being put in
place, as it is difficult for the finisher to work into the corners
after the panels are in place. After the faces of the stiles, rails,
and muntins have been planed and scraped, they should be sandpapered
in the order named, working with the sandpaper over a sharp-cornered
block close to the edges of the pieces, being careful not to drag the
paper over the face of the pieces which join at right angles. The
stiles, rails, and muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which
they are mentioned. If the sandpaper runs over the rails a little when
sandpapering the muntins, or over the stiles when sanding the rails, it
will do no harm, as a couple of light, careful strokes parallel with
the grain will be sufficient to remove any scratches which may be made.

In sanding mahogany, or any wood of which the grain rubs up, make the
strokes in one direction only, instead of back and forth. Sometimes wax
is rubbed in to hold the grain down upon cheap work, but this is not
recommended, as that place will not take the stain or the finish like
the rest of the wood. A very thin coat of shellac is used for the same
purpose; this is less objectionable, but should be avoided if possible.


 SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

 65. Of what material is glue made? Describe briefly the process of
 making glue. What kind of glue is best for general work? Is ground
 glue always reliable? What is the chief advantage in its use? Is
 high-priced glue always the best for all purposes? What should be the
 appearance of good glue? How should it act in cold water? When cut
 with a knife? When broken? Compare the amount of water absorbed by a
 good and a poor glue. How should a glue pot be constructed? What will
 be the result if the glue pot boils dry? Describe brushes suitable for
 use in gluing. What kind of bark makes a good brush for small work?
 How is it prepared for use?

 66. Describe the condition of glue when ready for use. What tool is
 used to increase the strength of the joint? In preparing for gluing,
 what preparations should be made? How should wood be treated for use
 in gluing up wood of a greasy nature?

 67. Describe the manufacture of sandpaper. What is used for sand? How
 select sandpaper?

 68. For what kind of work is sandpaper numbers 00 and 0 used? Numbers
 1/2 and 1? What number of sandpaper is used upon general work? What
 will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place, or becomes
 wet? What should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used upon flat
 surfaces, and for general work? How should moldings be sandpapered?
 What should be guarded against in working around sharp corners? Should
 sandpaper be carried with or across the grain? What exceptions? How
 should panel work be sandpapered? How should panels and the edges of
 stiles, rails, and muntins be treated before gluing up? How should
 sandpaper be used upon grain which rubs up? How are panels sometimes
 treated upon fine work? Why?




CHAPTER VI

WOOD FINISHING


=69. Filling.=--(=A.=) After wood has been smoothed and made ready to
receive the finish, it is prepared by _filling_, by which is meant
the process of filling the grain so that the finish itself will not
soak in. This, if well done, makes it possible to do as good a job of
finishing with two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of
wood with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open-grained
woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need filling, as before the
process of filling was discovered, the open grain, or cellular part of
the wood, had to be filled by shellac, or other expensive material,
before there was a surface suitable to receive the polish. (=B.=)
There are two forms of filler--_the paste_, which is for use upon
open-grained woods, and _the liquid_, which is adapted to filling the
pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry, etc., and which
takes the place of one coat of the more expensive shellac or other
finish. The paste may be purchased ready-made, and colored to suit the
taste, or it may be made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and
any dry colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingredients
should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed with boiled linseed oil to
a thick paste; to this should be added as much japan drier as there
is of the oil, or one quarter as much as there is of the paste. The
whole may then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene to
a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily, but it should
still be quite thick.

(=C.=) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the surface of
the wood must be covered, and the filling thoroughly worked into the
grain. After this has been done, the wood should be allowed to stand
a few minutes, until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems
to stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when it should
be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing across the grain
wherever possible. Do not use cloth until cleaning up after the filler
is all off, as it is more apt to take the filling out of the grain than
either excelsior or shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a
sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several hours, or
over night, before the finish is applied, as otherwise the moisture in
the filler may cause the finish to bubble. Care should be used that
the filling does not stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be
very difficult to remove it; hence, it is best not to spread any more
than can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that there
is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is applied, as it is
difficult to match colors.

(=D.=) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and as evenly as
possible, as the laps will be apt to show through the finish which is
spread over it.

=70. Staining wood= (=A.=) is for the purpose of imparting some other
than the natural color to the wood.

(=B.=) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is used which
will color the wood before it is filled, though upon general work, it
is the custom to color the stain only. This does not make the work all
of one color, as the cells of the wood will retain more filling than
will the harder part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain
may be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is being treated,
it should be filled after being stained. Close-grained woods are ready
for the finish as soon as the stain has dried. Stains which will do the
work satisfactorily may be made of various chemicals. There are also
many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can be purchased in as
small packages as desired, offering the student a large range of colors
from which to select.

(=C.=) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by mixing dry colors
with turpentine or benzine, and a little boiled oil and japan to bind
the color. These stains should be applied the same as the filler, but
not allowed to become so hard before cleaning off, or there will be
light places rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should
be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are no places
left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the finish will make them
muddy.

(=D.=) A very good _old cherry_ stain may be made by mixing Venetian
red and rose pink until the desired shade is produced.

(=E.=) _Black walnut_ may be imitated by mixing burnt umber with
turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish tinge is desired, a little
burnt sienna may be added; this is a much better color than can be
produced by umber alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes
a good walnut stain.

(=F.=) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as a vehicle, as
a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained which is impossible
with any stain that has oil in it. The objection to using water is that
the grain of the wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded
smooth before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection,
water stains are used extensively upon the best work.

(=G.=) The rich mahogany stain which is so much admired may be made
by mixing the same colors as mentioned in (=D.=), and adding carmine
until the desired color is obtained. An oil stain will not give the
best results, therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of
gum arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or less of
the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion of mucilage. This
stain should be cleaned off the same as the oil stain above described.

(=H.=) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid; other woods may
be darkened or aged by using ammonia, potash, or a strong solution of
tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives
a beautiful brown.

(=I.=) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts of
permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dissolved in water; as
many coats as desired may be applied, sanding with number 00 sandpaper
between the coats. Better results are obtained if the stain is applied
hot.

(=J.=) A beautiful green of any intensity may be produced by mixing
verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and applying hot. Several coats
may be necessary, sanding between the coats. The indigo should be used
cautiously, or the green may have too much of a bluish cast.

(=K.=) A rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution of
logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied in coats in the
order named. Each solution should be hot.

(=L.=) _Ebony_ may be obtained by giving any close-grained wood, cherry
preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using a weak solution, and after
that has dried and been sanded, a coat of solution of nutgalls. If
the iron is too strong, a white efflorescence will appear, which in
open-grained woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this
is objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler.

(=M.=) _Shellac_ (see =71, A.=) and boneblack, if well mixed, make
an ebony finish which is often used upon common work; black varnish
sometimes is used the same as black shellac, but for the best work
these are not satisfactory, as they do not strike into the wood to the
same extent as do acid, turpentine, or water stain.

=71. Shellac.=--(=A.=) This is a product of Africa and South America.
It is the combination of a secretion of the female of a small insect
and the sap of a tree, in the bark of which the insect deposits its
eggs. The gum thus formed is gathered, and after passing through
various refining processes becomes the shellac known to commerce. It
is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol, when it is ready
for use. Some of the best furniture is finished with shellac, and
unless continuously exposed to moisture or hard usage, the finish is
practically everlasting.

(=B.=) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable to, neither
does its luster dim by exposure to the various gases present in every
house, which are due to domestic causes, though most varnishes will do
this after some years.

Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satisfactory, though
three coats generally will improve the work sufficiently to make it
advisable to apply the extra coat. Shellac should not be laid in too
thick coats, or it will pit badly in drying, and make work in rubbing
to a surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are spread,
though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying thin coats is that
the wood may be covered more evenly, and there will be fewer runs and
laps visible. Shellac should always be laid with quick strokes, never
working over a place already covered; for this work, use a brush as
large as possible to do the work without clumsiness.

(=C.=) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the other,
each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sandpaper, or with
pulverized pumice stone before the next coat is spread. For this
purpose, a sheet of sandpaper should be cut into eighths, and one of
these pieces folded in the center of its long dimension, and held in
the hand as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching the
surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a surface with
pumice stone, it should be applied with hair-cloth, or with harness
maker’s felt, moistened with oil or water; but for ordinary work,
sandpaper will give satisfaction, and as it is more convenient, it is
much used.

If the best results are desired, the last coat should be rubbed with
pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above, though boiled oil is
satisfactory; and for ordinary work, number 00 sandpaper is used,
though it is liable to show scratches. After the rubbing is done, the
oil should be wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone
dusted on and polished with a clean, soft cloth. Many finishers use the
palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches. If a dead, or
mat, finish is desired, the final rubbing should be done with water,
used sparingly, as oil imparts a high gloss, if the work is well done.

(=D.=) Care should be used on any kind of work upon which waste or oily
rags are used; these rags should be gathered and burned unless they are
wanted again soon, in which case they may be spread out separately;
since, if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into a waste
box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a case of spontaneous
combustion.

[Illustration: FIG. 99.--METHOD OF GRASPING SANDPAPER IN RUBBING DOWN
SHELLAC FINISH.]

(=E.=) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all kinds is
very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of a rubbed finish.
Moreover, any dust settling upon moist varnish is held, giving the
surface an effect of countless minute points; rubbing removes these,
and gives the smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon the
most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of a built-up
polish, is not considered good taste; the use of muscle and a very
little oil, applied at intervals during a term of years, gives a polish
and a beauty which can be obtained by no other method, and it is to
attain this ideal in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist.

(=F.=) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed through, as
the pressure will naturally be more upon the corners than upon a broad
surface. This may be avoided by using care that the pressure is not
applied so as to bear on the corner; grasp the rubbing material in such
a way that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99, or the
finish may be badly scratched; this applies especially to the corners.
The rubbing should always be in the direction parallel with the grain
of the wood.

(=G.=) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it may be
repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare wood with fine
sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to the same condition as the
rest of the wood before the first coat of finish was applied. Using
the same finishing material as the finish of the rest of the piece,
lay a very thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched,
being careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This ridge may
be drawn out by a small camel’s-hair brush, and the patch left until
thoroughly dried; then apply another patch a little larger than the
first one, treating the edge as in the first patch. Continue this until
the finish is built up to the same thickness as that of which it is
a part. This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the same
finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to rub through the
old finish at the edge of the patch. As it is the corners which are
most liable to be rubbed through, this process will not generally be
difficult of application; all that is necessary to secure a successful
patch is to use care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the
different patches.

=72. Wax finishing= is a good method of finishing any kind of hard
or dark-colored wood; (=A.=) it does not give as satisfactory
results, however, as do some other methods of finishing, upon soft
or light-colored wood. There are a number of different kinds of wax
finishes which can be purchased in almost any desired quantity, (=B.=)
but an economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by dissolving
as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on a cent in a half pint
of turpentine or gasolene heated in a water or steam double vessel.
After this is clear, cut up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a
thimble, and allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when
it is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities by using
the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight vessel, it will keep
indefinitely.

(=C.=) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as smoothly and
as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand until it has become quite
hard, when it should be polished with a soft rag which is free from
lint. As many coats as desired may be applied, each coat being treated
in the same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another method
of applying this finish, and which gives satisfactory results upon
broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag, and rub the wax on the wood,
rubbing until it is dry. This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a
brush upon work where there are many corners to finish around.

One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may be brightened
if it becomes dim by going over it with a soft cloth, or it may be
renewed and improved by another coat at slight expense and little
trouble.

This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor made of a
wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed.

=73.= (=A.=) =Oil finish= is perhaps the most simple way to finish
a piece of furniture; it is best adapted to hard, dark woods. The
material is made by mixing a quarter of a pint of turpentine with seven
eighths of a quart of boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly
over the surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it
as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should be brought
to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle, as the finish should
stand about ten hours, during which time a thin film or skin will form,
which must be removed by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint,
should be used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave
their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain.

(=B.=) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken care of, and
is used to some extent in finishing the most artistic furniture, being
especially adapted to finishing mahogany. It has a character peculiarly
its own, and exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost
any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally oiled, it
improves with age and care. This finish was used in olden times, and
the care of generations gives a polish attainable by no other method.

=74. Varnish= forms the finish which is used most commonly upon all
grades and kinds of work. (=A.=) The different grades are made of
various vegetable gums and resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with
boiled oil. A cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling
resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums may be treated
the same way; the varnish used upon the best work, for instance, is
made from copal, a vegetable product of the tropics. By a very careful
process of boiling, straining, and ripening, extending over months,
copal is made into the product which is used so extensively upon
furniture finishing, carriages, etc.

(=B.=) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to about 80° F., the
dust should be laid by sprinkling, and there should be no drafts of
air, nor flies or other insects to light upon it, if the best results
are desired.

(=C.=) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat as in shellac,
a thick coat should be applied. This may be done by using a thick,
heavy brush; some prefer a heavy, round brush, and others think they
can obtain the best results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the
hairs, the better the results obtained.

The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to cover the entire
surface, if possible, and spread or flowed very quickly. The brush
should then be wiped out in the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried,
go over the surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb; wipe
this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing is left but
a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly, it will prevent all
runs and streaks which result from unskillful workmanship.

When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00 sandpaper,
pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of pumice stone (carriage
painter’s method), and repeat the process until the desired body of
varnish is obtained. Rub down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as
much time between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish is,
the better and more durable the work will be when completed.

=75. Polishing.=--This term applies to the process by which a polish
is built up by rubbing, or “ragging” as workmen sometimes call it. The
piece to be polished should receive two or three coats of shellac or
varnish, which should be rubbed down to a surface, when it is ready for
the polish.

To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a piece of old,
soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cotton waste; or the end
of a roll of cloth may be covered by the piece which is to do the
actual polishing. Provide a cup of moderately thin shellac and another
of boiled oil, of which about one quarter is turpentine; or better, a
cup of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the oil and allow
it to soak in completely, then do the same with the shellac. Now dip
the pad again into the shellac, and with the finger put on a single
drop of oil, and rub lightly upon the work, with a circular motion,
or if the work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the work
is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end of the stroke,
as the instant between the end of one stroke and the beginning of the
return may be enough to allow the shellac to stick and make a hole
in the surface, which will be difficult to repair; begin and end the
stroke with a sweeping motion. The idea of this method of polishing is
to bring the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for
lubricating, as the less oil used, the better will be the polish.

=76. Brushes.=--(=A.=) If brushes are to be used for stain or for
filling, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do, a flat brush being
preferred upon ordinary work. For shellac and varnish, the finer the
brush, the better the results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the
best practice to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will
permit, as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a smaller
brush, and have fewer “laps.” Chisel-pointed, flat brushes, from 1½” to
2½” in width, will be found satisfactory for the work of schools and
amateurs, but upon professional work, brushes from 3½” to 5” often are
used.

(=B.=) The care of the brushes is an important part of the work of
those who use them, as neglect or carelessness may destroy a valuable
brush overnight. Unless a brush is going to be used again the next day,
it is always best to clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint,
or varnish brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush,
use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To obtain the
best results, all brushes should be washed in hot, soapy water, and
afterward rinsed in clean water; in general, however, this latter
precaution may be dispensed with, unless the brushes are to be laid
away indefinitely. Unless the above precautions have been taken, care
should be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed from
one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its side for more
than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direction is easily given
the bristles, and the brushes may be quickly destroyed by a little
carelessness or negligence.

Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better results
than new brushes; therefore they should be treated with every possible
consideration.

Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if they are hung
up so that they will not rest upon their bristles, this is the best way
to keep them when they are in almost constant daily use.


 SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

 69. Why is wood filler used? Describe paste filler. Describe the
 process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid
 filler and the process of spreading it.

 70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results
 of staining and filling and of filling alone? How may stains for
 open-grained woods be mixed and used? Describe a simple cherry or
 mahogany stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to
 a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How may woods
 be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown stain; of a
 good green stain; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing. For what
 purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used?

 71. Of what does shellac finish consist? What is the source of supply
 of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the
 application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better?
 Why is rubbing down necessary? Demonstrate. What precautions should be
 taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should be guarded against in
 rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of sandpaper? Describe
 and demonstrate patching.

 72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demonstrate
 two methods of applying wax finish.

 73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities.

 74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal
 conditions for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of
 flowing varnish.

 75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing.

 76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of
 work. How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general
 treatment of a brush? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use?




INDEX


  Age of tree, 2.

  Alburnum, _see_ Sapwood.

  Annual layer, formation of, 1, 2, 3;
    covering over breaks, 9, 10;
    in quarter-sawed lumber, 23;
    shrinking around, 48.

  Apple wood, description of, 29.

  Arkansas stone, 106.

  Ash, description of, 28.

  Auger, cross-handled, 91.

  Auger bit, described, 91;
    filing of, 92, 93.

  Axe, hand, described, 66.


  Backsaw, described, 69.

  Balsam fir, illustrated, 43.

  Band saw, 19.

  Bark, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.

  Basswood (or linden), description of, 29.

  Bast, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.

  Bastard sawing, 22.

  Beech, description of, 30, 31.

  Bell-faced hammer, described, 65.

  Benches, types of, described, 57-59.

  Bevel, described, 62.

  Bill stuff, sawing of, 22.

  Birch, description of, 30, 32.

  Bird’s-eye maple, description of, 36.

  Bitbrace, or stock, described, 93;
    ratchet, described, 94.

  Bits, described, 90.

  Black walnut, _see_ Walnut.

  Black walnut stain, 130.

  Blemishes, in grading lumber, 23, 24.

  Blind nailing, described, 66.

  Block plane, description and use of, 84.

  Boards, sawing of, to dimension, 20;
    surveying or estimating of, 25;
    measuring of, 26;
    for siding, 28;
    piling of, 48, 49.

  Brushes, for gluing, 120;
    for staining and filling, 140.

  Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, 97-100.

  Butternut (or white walnut), description of, 32.

  Buttonwood, _see_ Sycamore.


  Cable, hauling logs by, 15.

  Calipers, described, 95.

  Cam, of plane, 73, 75.

  Cambium, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.

  Canoe birch, 32.

  Cap iron, of plane, use of, 74.

  Cap screw, of plane, use of, 73, 75.

  Carborundum, as grindstone, 106;
    as oilstone, 107.

  Carpenter’s bench, 57, 58.

  Cedar, description of, 32.

  Cellular grain of wood, 2.

  Center bit, described, 92.

  Checking, or cracking, of lumber, 6, 8.

  Cherry, description of, 32;
    stain, 130;
    how to darken, 131.

  Chestnut, description of, 33.

  Chisels, described, 88.

  Circular saw, 19, 20.

  Claw hammer, described, 64.

  Clefts, or splits, 9.

  Close-grained woods, filling of, 128;
    staining of, 130.

  Coarse-grained lumber, 8.

  Color of wood, 2, 25.

  Comb-grained lumber, 23.

  Common boards, grading of, 26;
    measuring of, 26.

  Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, 68;
    filing of, 113.

  Compasses, or dividers, described, 95.

  Coniferous trees, 2, 3.

  Corundum, as grindstone, 106;
    as oilstone, 107.

  Cross-grained lumber, 8.

  Culls, 24.

  Cup shakes, 7, 8.

  Cutting-off saw, described, 68;
    filing of, 111.

  Cypress, description of, 33.


  Decay of tree, how prevented, 25.

  Deciduous trees, 2.

  Defects in lumber, 7-10.

  Dimension timber, sawing of, 20, 22.

  Discolorations in lumber, 9, 24.

  Dividers, _see_ Compasses.

  Drawshave, described, 90.

  Duramen, _see_ Heartwood.


  Ebony stain, 132.

  Edge, squaring an, with try-square, 60, 61.

  Edges, square and beveled, 97.

  Elm, description of, 34.

  Emery, as grindstone, 106;
    as oilstone, 107.

  Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77.

  Endogenous trees, 1.

  Estimating lumber, 25.

  Exogenous trees, 1.

  Extension bit, described, 92.


  Files, description and use of, 108-113.

  Filler, how to make, 128;
    how to spread, 129.

  Fine-grained lumber, 8.

  Finishing woods, 128-141.

  Flooring, best grades of, 23, 28.

  Framing, lumber for, 27, 28, 50.

  Framing square, 62.


  Gauge, description and use of, 63, 64.

  German bit, described, 92.

  Glue, different kinds of, 118;
    testing of, 119;
    how to use, 120-122.

  Gouges, described, 90.

  Grading of lumber, 23.

  Grain of woods, cause of, 1, 2, 6, 7;
    kinds of, 8.
    _See also_ Close-grained, etc.

  Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77;
    described, 105.

  Ground glue, 118.

  Gum (sweet gum), description of, 34.


  Hammer, described, 63.

  Handscrews, use of, 103-105, 122.

  Hard wood, cause of, 1, 2.

  Hatchet, described, 66.

  Hemlock, description of, 35.

  Heart shakes, 7, 8.

  Heartwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5.

  Hickory, description of, 35.


  Insects, injurious to trees, 10, 25.

  Inside finish, lumber for, 28.


  Jack plane, described, 81;
    use of, 86-88.

  Jointer, described, 82.

  Jointing a saw, 109.

  Joists or scantling, surveying of, 26.


  Keyhole saw, _see_ Compass saw.

  Kiln, filling a, 53;
    length of time lumber should be left in, 54.

  Kiln-dried lumber, 28, 50-54.

  Kilns, moist air, 50;
    induced draft, 52.

  Knife blades, described, 72.


  Linden, _see_ Basswood.

  Liquid filler, 128.

  Locust, description of, 35.

  Logging, 12-19.

  Lumber, unseasoned, 3;
    checking, or cracking of, 6;
    defects in, 7, 8;
    grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8;
    when to cut, 10;
    manufacture of, 12-23;
    grading of, 23, 24;
    testing of, 24, 25;
    surveying or estimating of, 25-27;
    piling of, 45-49;
    weather-dried, 49;
    kiln-dried, 50-54.
    _See also_ special subjects.

  Lumbering, processes of, 12.


  Mahogany, description of, 36;
    sanding of, 126;
    stain, 131.

  Mallets, described, 67.

  Manual-training bench, 57, 58.

  Maple, description of, 35;
    sugar maple, illustrated, 31.

  Medullary rays, 4, 5, 6;
    sawing woods having, 22.

  Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, 50.

  Moisture, in lumber, 4.

  Moldings, sandpapering of, 125.

  Monkey wrench, 103.


  Nail set, use of, 66, 102;
    burnisher made from, 99.

  Nailing, described, 65, 66.

  Nippers, described, 95.


  Oak, tree trunk, section of, 5;
    plain and quartered, 5;
    description of, 36.

  Odor of wood, 2, 25.

  Oil finish, 137.

  Oilstones, artificial, use of, 107.

  Open-grained woods, filling of, 128;
    staining of, 129.

  “Out of wind,” 60, 61.

  Outside finish, lumber for, 27, 28.


  Panel work, sandpapering, 126.

  Paper birch, 32.

  Paste filler, 128.

  Piling of lumber, 45-49.

  Pine, yellow, section of, 2;
    description of different varieties of, 36.

  Pine logs, load of white, 14.

  Pith, of tree trunk, 4, 5.

  Plain sawing, 22.

  Plane, adjusting mechanism of, 73-75;
    other parts of, 75, 76;
    sharpening a, 76-81.

  Planes, description and use of, 72-88.

  Pliers, described, 95.

  Polishing, 139.

  Poplar (or whitewood), description of, 40.

  Position, in using tools, 85.

  Preserving wood, 55.

  Prices, sliding scale of, 26.


  Quarter-sawed lumber, 22, 23, 48.


  Ratchet bitbrace, described, 94.

  Ratchet screwdrivers, described, 94.

  Redwood, description of, 40.

  Rift-sawed lumber, 23.

  Ripsaw, described, 67;
    filing of, 112.

  Rule, use of, in setting gauge, 63.

  Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, 59.


  Sandpaper, testing of, 122;
    how to use, 123-127.
    _See also_ Finishing.

  Sap, motion of, 3;
    allowed, in grading lumber, 23.

  Sapwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5.

  Saw filing, described, 109-113.

  Saw handle, reset, 72.

  Saw set, hand and anvil, described, 110.

  Sawing of lumber, 12, 18-23.

  Sawmills, types of, 18.

  Saws, description and use of, 67-72.

  Scale used in measuring lumber, 26, 27.

  Scraper, description of, 96;
    sharpening of, 97-102.

  Scratch plane, for use in gluing, 121.

  Screwdriver, described, 94.

  Shellac, use of, 132-136.

  Shingles, quality of, 28.

  Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, 23, 48.

  Silver grain, 5, 6, 22.

  Skidways, use of, 13-17.

  Slash sawing, 22.

  Slip stones, use of, 107.

  Smoothing plane, described, 82.

  Soft wood, cause of, 1, 2.

  Spokeshave, described, 90.

  Spruce, cutting of, 13, 14 (figs. 5, 6);
    description of, 40.

  Staining wood, 129-132.

  Star shakes, 7, 8, 48.

  Steaming wood, 55.

  Steel, or framing, square, 62.

  Stock, _see_ Bitbrace.

  Straight-grained lumber, 8.

  Stumpage, explanation of, 13.

  Sugar maple forest, 31.

  Surveying of lumber, 25.

  Sycamore (or buttonwood), description of, 42.


  Tacking, described, 65.

  Testing of lumber, 24.

  Timbers to be buried, quality of, 28.

  Toenailing, described, 65.

  Tools, how to purchase, 57;
    description and use of, 57-108.

  Travoy road, 13, 15.

  Tree trunk, tissues of, 4.

  Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, 1, 2;
    annual layer of, 1;
    grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8;
    age of, 2;
    defects in, 8-10;
    when to cut, 10;
    felling of, 12-15;
    decay of, 25.
    _See also_ special subjects.

  Try-square, description and use of, 59-62, 71.

  Twist drill, described, 92.


  Varnish, 137.

  Vertical-grained lumber, 23.

  Vises, on benches, 59.


  Walnut, black, description of, 42;
    white, _see_ Butternut.

  Walnut stain, black, 130.

  Warping of lumber, 48.

  Washita stone, 106.

  Waste, care in use of, 134.

  Wax finishing, 136.

  Ways, permanent lumber, 45.

  Weather-dried lumber, 12, 28, 49.

  Whetstones, description and use of, 106.

  Whetting and grinding of plane, 77-80.

  Whitewood, _see_ Poplar.

  Wind shakes, or cup shakes, 7, 8.

  Winding sticks, 61.

  Wood, growth of, 1-11;
    grain of, 1, 2;
    color of, 2, 4;
    odor of, 2;
    soft and hard, 1, 2;
    qualities of, 27-29;
    varieties of, 29-42;
    steaming, 55;
    preserving, 55;
    filling grain of, 128;
    staining, 129.
    _See also_ special subjects.

  Wrenches, described, 103.




VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

By JOHN M. GILLETTE, Professor of Sociology in the State University of
North Dakota

$1.00


In this volume is presented for teachers, superintendents, and
teachers’ reading circles an illuminating discussion of the present
general movement for vocational education. By this phrase is meant not
only industrial education; but all the training courses needed to meet
the practical demands of life.

¶ The author explains at some length the principles, demands, and
methods of vocational education; he states the grounds upon which hopes
of success may reasonably rest; he indicates some actual results gained
by schools conducted on more practical lines; and he points out others
which would follow upon the reorganization of our educational system in
general.

¶ The vocationalizing of the schools has regard to the constitution,
inclination and ability of the individual, and is intended to give
him suitable training for his niche in life, to show him how he can
make the most of himself and in what line he can prove himself most
productive to society. At the same time, this scheme of education
does not ignore the informational, the cultural, and the disciplinary
aspects--it insists that the individual be fitted for good citizenship.

¶ The introduction of vocational education into the public school
system of the United States, with the curriculum adapted to the chief
kinds of occupation belonging to each community, will mean greater
development and power for the country. From vocational education,
introduced to meet the differing community needs, will result greater
efficiency and better appreciation of the schools, increased attendance
of pupils, greater compensation for teachers, greater productiveness,
higher wages, and improved society.


AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY




AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF THEORETICAL MECHANICS

By GEORGE A. MERRILL, B.S., Principal of the California School of
Mechanical Arts, and Director of the Wilmerding School of Industrial
Arts, San Francisco

$1.50


MERRILL’S MECHANICS is intended for the upper classes in secondary
schools, and for the two lower classes in college. Only a knowledge of
elementary algebra, plane geometry, and plane trigonometry is required
for a thorough comprehension of the work.

¶ By presenting only the most important principles and methods, the
book overcomes many of the difficulties now encountered by students in
collegiate courses who take up the study of analytic mechanics, without
previously having covered it in a more elementary form. It treats the
subject without the use of the calculus, and consequently does not
bewilder the beginner with much algebraic matter, which obscures the
chief principles.

¶ The book is written from the standpoint of the student in the
manner that experience has proved to be the one most easily grasped.
Therefore, beyond a constant endeavor to abide by the fundamental
precepts of teaching, no one method of presentation has been used to
the exclusion of others. The few necessary experiments are suggested
and outlined, but a more complete laboratory course can easily be
supplied by the instructor.

¶ The explanation of each topic is followed by a few well-chosen
examples to fix and apply the principles involved. A number of pages
are devoted to the static treatment of force, with emphasis on the idea
of action and reaction. Four-place tables of the natural trigonometric
functions are included.


AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY




ELEMENTS OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY

By ALBERT E. CHURCH, LL.D., late Professor of Mathematics, United
States Military Academy, and GEORGE M. BARTLETT, M.A., Instructor in
Descriptive Geometry and Mechanism, University of Michigan.

$2.25

Part I. Orthographic Projections. $1.75


This is a modern treatment of descriptive geometry with applications to
spherical projections, shades and shadows, perspective, and isometric
projections, for the use of technical schools and colleges. Though
based upon Professor Church’s Descriptive Geometry, and retaining as
much as possible the original lucidity and conciseness, this work
differs from it quite widely.

Among the salient features of the book are the following: The figures
and text are included in the same volume, each figure being placed
beside the corresponding text; General cases are preferred to special
ones; A sufficient number of problems are solved in the third angle
to familiarize the student with its use; A treatment of the profile
plane of projection is introduced; Many exercises for practice have
been introduced; Several new problems have been added; The old figures
have been redrawn, and many of them have been improved; Several of the
more difficult elementary problems have been illustrated by pictorial
views; In the treatment of curved surfaces, all problems relating to
single-curved surfaces are taken up first, then those relating to
warped surfaces, and finally those relating to surfaces of revolution.
Experience proves this order to be a logical one, as the procedure is
from the simple to the more complex. Also the student is more quickly
prepared for work on intersections and developments.


AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY




DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS

Published Complete and in Sections


We issue a Catalogue of High School and College Text-Books, which we
have tried to make as valuable and as useful to teachers as possible.
In this catalogue are set forth briefly and clearly the scope and
leading characteristics of each of our best text-books. In most cases
there are also given testimonials from well-known teachers, which have
been selected quite as much for their descriptive qualities as for
their value as commendations.

¶ For the convenience of teachers this Catalogue is also published in
separate sections treating of the various branches of study. These
pamphlets are entitled: English, Mathematics, History and Political
Science, Science, Modern Languages, Ancient Languages, and Philosophy
and Education.

¶ In addition we have a single pamphlet devoted to Newest Books in
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¶ Teachers seeking the newest and best books for their classes are
invited to send for our Complete High School and College Catalogue, or
for such sections as may be of greatest interest.

¶ Copies of our price lists, or of special circulars, in which these
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¶ All correspondence should be addressed to the nearest of the
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Boston, Atlanta, San Francisco.


AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY




  Transcriber’s Notes:

  Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.

  Small capitals have been capitalised.

  Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.

  Perceived typographical errors have been changed.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69019 ***