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diff --git a/old/69019-h/69019-h.htm b/old/69019-h/69019-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 8e82027..0000000 --- a/old/69019-h/69019-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7195 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8" /> - <title> - Elements of Woodwork, by Charles A. King—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -h1 { - font-weight: normal; - word-spacing: .6em; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 3em; - letter-spacing: 0.2em; - } - -h2 {font-weight: normal; - word-spacing: 0.2em; - font-size: 130%;} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -.b2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} - - -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;} - -hr.r5 {width: 30%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 35%;} - - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 1em; - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 1em; -} -li.indx { - margin-top: .5em; - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 1em; -} -li.isub1 { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; -} - - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdlh {text-align: justify; - text-indent: -2em;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; -} /* page numbers */ - - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 90%; -} - -.c {text-align: center;} - -.sp {word-spacing: 0.3em;} - -.lsp {letter-spacing: 0.1em;} - -.xxlarge {font-size: 180%;} -.xlarge {font-size: 140%;} -.large {font-size: 120%;} -.down {font-size: 90%;} -.more {font-size: 80%;} -.med {font-size: 70%;} - -.mar {margin-left: 25%;} - -.ph2 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; - font-size: 140%; - margin-top: 1em; - word-spacing: 0.2em;} - - -.r {text-align: right; - margin-right: 2em;} - - -.l {text-align: left; - padding-left: 2em;} - -.caption {text-align: center; - font-size: 80%;} - -.caption1 {text-align: justify; - font-size: 80%; - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%;} - - -.pad {padding-left: 8em;} - -.pad1 {padding-left: 7em;} - - -.bbox {border-bottom: 1px solid; - border-left: 1px solid; - border-top: 1px solid; - border-right: 1px solid; - width: 80%; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto;} - -.bbox1 { - border-bottom: 1px solid; - border-left: 1px solid; - border-top: 1px solid; - border-right: 1px solid; - width: 80%; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - margin-top: 4em;} - -.ad {margin-right: 1em; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 0em;} - -.ad1 {margin-right: 1em; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-bottom: 0em;} - -.ad2 {margin-right: 1em; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-bottom: 1em;} - - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - - -.gesperrt -{ - letter-spacing: 0.2em; - margin-right: -0.2em; -} - -em.gesperrt -{ - font-style: normal; -} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - - -.figcenter1 { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; - margin-bottom: 6em; - margin-top: 6em; -} - -.figcenter2 { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; - margin-top: 2em; -} - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.figleft2 { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - - -.x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;} - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .figright {float: right;} - - - - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elements of woodwork, by Charles A. King</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Elements of woodwork</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Charles A. King</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 20, 2022 [eBook #69019]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Alan, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK ***</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="c p2 sp">KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY</p> - - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h1>ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</h1> - -<p class="c">BY</p> - -<p class="c xlarge sp">CHARLES A. KING</p> - -<p class="c med sp">DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING</p> -<p class="c med sp">EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN</p> - -<div class="figcenter1"> -<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c sp">NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO</p> - -<p class="c xlarge sp">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY -</p> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="bbox"> -<p class="c p2">KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="mar">ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</p> -<p class="mar">ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION</p> -<p class="mar">CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY</p> -<p class="mar">INSIDE FINISHING</p> -<p class="mar b2">HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS</p> - -</div> - -<p class="c more"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1911, by</span></p> -<p class="c down">CHARLES A. KING.</p> - -<p class="c more"><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London</span>.</p> -<p class="c more">W. P. I.</p> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> - -<p class="ph2">PREFACE TO THE SERIES</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended -as textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, technical, -or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the “Handbook -in Woodwork and Carpentry,” is for the use of teachers and -of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the -other four volumes.</p> - -<p>Of the pupils’ volumes, the first two, “Elements of Woodwork” -and “Elements of Construction,” are adapted to the needs of students -in manual-training schools, or in any institution in which -elementary woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational -handwork, or as preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in -carpentry or vocational training.</p> - -<p>The volumes “Constructive Carpentry” and “Inside Finishing” -are planned with special reference to the students of technical, -industrial, or trade schools, who have passed through the -work of the first two volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects -treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the prospective -and the finished workman.</p> - -<p>For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required -course, but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or -optional models under certain conditions, and for others who -have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they -see fit, this series will be found perfectly adaptable, regardless -of the grades taught. To accomplish this, the material has been -arranged by topics, which may be used by the teacher irrespective -of the sequence, as each topic has to the greatest extent possible -been treated independently.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span></p> - -<p>The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now -President of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement -and advice in preparing for and planning the series, and to -George R. Swain, Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay -City, Michigan, for valuable aid in revising the manuscript.</p> - -<p>Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodicals, -and the publications of the United States Departments of -Education and of Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the -author has gleaned from their pages.</p> - -<p class="r">CHARLES A. KING.</p> - -<p class="l"><span class="smcap">Bay City, Michigan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></span></p> - - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="ph2">PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> preparing this book, it has been the author’s purpose to -present, in as complete and concise form as possible, the knowledge -which every wood-worker should possess regarding the care -and use of his tools and the material upon which he employs -them.</p> - -<p>Whether an amateur, apprentice, or skilled workman, whether -a carpenter, boat builder, pattern maker, or wood carver, the elementary -knowledge of the construction of tools, of sharpening -them, and of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the -same. The structure of wood, and the necessity of applying its -peculiarities of grain and texture to the advantage of the work in -hand, also is the same upon all branches of woodwork.</p> - -<p>While innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented -to enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economically -both as to time and material, a study of them will prove -that they all operate upon a few simple principles, a knowledge -of which is not difficult to acquire, though skill and judgment in -the application of the tools can be attained only by continuous -and properly directed practice.</p> - -<p>It would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this -sort to describe these various devices, though in a schoolroom it -is a great advantage to have as many of them as practicable, not -for their use only, but that the students may become familiar -with their purposes and the applications of the fundamental principles -upon which each is based.</p> - -<p>The actual use of tools may be considered the A B C of woodwork, -as it bears the same relation to the finished product of the -workman as the alphabet bears to literature, the space between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span> -the mere mechanical facility in the use of either tools or alphabet, -being the result of the judgment, skill, and individuality of -either the workman or the author.</p> - -<p>Thus, if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described -in this volume, he will have little difficulty in using other and -more complex tools; and when he has mastered the principles -of construction involved in the exercises explained in the following -book of this series, the “Elements of Construction,” and the -correct use of the tools involved in making these, together with -their applications and combinations, he has acquired the fundamental -knowledge of all construction in wood.</p> - -<p class="r">CHARLES A. KING.</p> - -<p class="l"><span class="smcap">Bay City, Michigan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></span></p> - - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="ph2">TABLE OF CONTENTS</p> -</div> - -<table class="down"> - -<tr> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="med">PAGE</span></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. Growth of Wood.</span>—Kinds of trees used for lumber; -The formation of wood; Tissues; The medullary rays; The grain -in trees; Defects found in lumber; When to cut lumber</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c1">1</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Lumbering and Varieties of Wood.</span>—The manufacture -of lumber; To saw lumber of irregular dimensions; The -grading of lumber; The testing of lumber; Surveying or estimating -lumber; Qualities of wood</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c2">12</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Care of Lumber.</span>—The piling of lumber; Permanent -lumber ways; To minimize the warping of lumber; Weather-dried -lumber; Kiln-dried lumber; Moist air kilns; Induced draft kilns; -Results of the two systems; Filling a kiln; Length of time lumber -should be left in the kiln; The care of kiln-dried lumber; -Steaming wood; Preserving wood</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c3">45</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. Tools.</span>—How to purchase tools; Benches; Rules; -The try-square; The steel, or framing, square; The bevel; The -gauge; The hammer; The hatchet; The mallet; Saws; The knife -blade; Planes; Sharpening a plane; The jack plane; The jointer; -The smoothing plane; The block plane; The correct position; -Chisels; Gouges; The drawshave; The spokeshave; Bits; The -bitbrace, or stock; The screwdriver; Compasses, or dividers; Pliers; -The scraper; Edges; Nail sets; Wrenches; Handscrews; A grindstone; -Emery, corundum, carborundum; Whetstones; Files; -Saw filing</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c4">57</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. Glue and Sandpaper.</span>—Different kinds of glue; How -to use glue; The testing of sandpaper; How to use sandpaper</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c5">118</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI. Wood Finishing.</span>—Filling; Staining wood; Shellac; -Wax finishing; Oil finish; Varnish; Polishing; Brushes</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c6">128</a></td></tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span></p> - -<p class="ph2">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</p> -</div> - - -<table class="down"> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="med">FIG.</span></td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="med">PAGE</span></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Section of Yellow Pine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f2">2</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">Section of Oak Tree Trunk</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f3">5</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td class="tdl">Defects in Lumber</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f4">7</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Felling a Tree</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f5">12</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cutting Small Branches from Felled Spruce</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f6">13</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Skidway of Spruce Logs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f7">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Load of White Pine Logs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f8">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hauling Logs by Steel Cable</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f9">15</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Loading Logs from Shedway to Train</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f10">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td> - <td class="tdl">Boom of Logs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f11">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td> - <td class="tdl">Log Jam</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f12">17</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sawmill in the Big Tree District</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f13">18</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">Circular Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f14">20</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td> - <td class="tdl">Double Cut Band Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f15">21</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f16">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td> - <td class="tdl">Four Methods of Quartering</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f16">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">17.</td> - <td class="tdl">Lumber Scale</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f17">27</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">18.</td> - <td class="tdl">Beech and Sugar Maple Forest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f18">31</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">19.</td> - <td class="tdl">White Pine Forest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f19">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">20.</td> - <td class="tdl">Douglas Spruce Forest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f20">41</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">21.</td> - <td class="tdl">Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f21">43</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22.</td> - <td class="tdl">Permanent Lumber Ways</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f22">46</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">23.</td> - <td class="tdl">Warping of Lumber</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f23">48</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">24.</td> - <td class="tdl">Lumber piled in Double Courses</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f24">49</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">25.</td> - <td class="tdl">Manual-training Bench</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f25">58</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">26.</td> - <td class="tdl">Carpenter’s Bench</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f26">58</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">27.</td> - <td class="tdl">Two-foot, Four-fold Rule</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f27">59</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">28.</td> - <td class="tdl">Zigzag Rule</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f28">59</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">29.</td> - <td class="tdl">Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f29">60</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">30.</td> - <td class="tdl">Use of Two Try-squares to see if Piece of Wood is “Out of Wind”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f30">60</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">31.</td> - <td class="tdl">Position of Try-square when Making Line</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f31">61</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">32.</td> - <td class="tdl">Steel, or Framing, Square</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f32">62</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">33.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bevel and Steel Square</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f33">62</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">34.</td> - <td class="tdl">Marking Gauge</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f34">63</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">35.</td> - <td class="tdl">Marking Gauge in Use</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f35">64</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">36.</td> - <td class="tdl">Claw Hammer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f36">64</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">37.</td> - <td class="tdl">Toenailing and Tacking</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f37">65</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">38.</td> - <td class="tdl">Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail Set</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f38">66</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">39.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hatchet and Handaxe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f39">67</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">40.</td> - <td class="tdl">Mallets (Square-faced and Round)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f40">67</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">41.</td> - <td class="tdl">Saws—Rip-, Cutting-off, and Compass, or Keyhole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f41">68</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">42.</td> - <td class="tdl">Backsaw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f42">69</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">43.</td> - <td class="tdl">Use of the Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f43">71</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">44.</td> - <td class="tdl">Reset Saw Handle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f44">72</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">45.</td> - <td class="tdl">Knife Blades</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f45">72</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">46.</td> - <td class="tdl">Section of an Iron Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f46">73</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">47.</td> - <td class="tdl">Result of Using Plane with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f47">74</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">48.</td> - <td class="tdl">Result of Using Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f48">74</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">49.</td> - <td class="tdl">Setting a Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f49">76</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">50.</td> - <td class="tdl">Whetting and Grinding of Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f50">77</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">51.</td> - <td class="tdl">Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f51">78</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">52.</td> - <td class="tdl">Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f52">79</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">53.</td> - <td class="tdl">Shape of Edge of Plane Iron</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f53">80</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">54.</td> - <td class="tdl">Jack Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f54">81</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">55.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Guiding a Jointer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f55">83</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">56.</td> - <td class="tdl">Knuckle Joint Block Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f56">84</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">57.</td> - <td class="tdl">Use of the Block Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f57">84</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">58.</td> - <td class="tdl">Using Block Plane upon Small Pieces</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f58">85</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">59.</td> - <td class="tdl">Incorrect Use of Jack Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f59">86</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">60.</td> - <td class="tdl">Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f60">87</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">61.</td> - <td class="tdl">Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f61">87</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">62.</td> - <td class="tdl">Chisels</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f62">89</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">63.</td> - <td class="tdl">Drawshave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f63">90</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">64.</td> - <td class="tdl">Spokeshave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f64">90</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">65.</td> - <td class="tdl">Auger Bit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f65">91</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">66.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cross-handled Auger</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f66">91</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">67.</td> - <td class="tdl">German Bit and Twist Drill</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f67">92</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">68.</td> - <td class="tdl">Extension Bit and Center Bit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f68">92</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">69.</td> - <td class="tdl">Filing an Auger Bit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f69">93</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">70.</td> - <td class="tdl">Ratchet Bitbrace</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f70">94</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">71.</td> - <td class="tdl">Compasses</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f71">95</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">72.</td> - <td class="tdl">Calipers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f71">95</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">73.</td> - <td class="tdl">Pliers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f72">95</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">74.</td> - <td class="tdl">Nippers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f72">95</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">75.</td> - <td class="tdl">Scraper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f73">96</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">76.</td> - <td class="tdl">Edges of Scrapers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f76">97</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">77.</td> - <td class="tdl">Angle of Burnisher with Sides of Scraper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f77">97</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">78.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping Scraper for Sharpening</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f78">98</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">79.</td> - <td class="tdl">Top Views of the Angles of the Burnisher</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f79">99</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">80.</td> - <td class="tdl">Angle to be avoided in Sharpening Scraper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f80">100</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">81.</td> - <td class="tdl">Turning back the Edge of a Scraper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f81">100</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">82.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a Broad Surface</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f82">101</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">83.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within Small Area</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f83">101</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">84.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon an Edge</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f84">102</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">85.</td> - <td class="tdl">Monkey Wrench</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f85">103</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">86.</td> - <td class="tdl">Effect of the Unskillful Use of a Handscrew</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f86">103</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">87.</td> - <td class="tdl">Correct Use of Handscrew</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f87">104</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">88.</td> - <td class="tdl">Emery Wheel Dresser</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f88">106</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">89.</td> - <td class="tdl">Jointing a Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f89">109</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">90.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hand Saw Set</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f90">110</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">91.</td> - <td class="tdl">Anvil Saw Set</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f91">110</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">92.</td> - <td class="tdl">Angle of the File with the Edge of the Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f92">111</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">93.</td> - <td class="tdl">Angle of the File with the Sides of the Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f93">111</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">94.</td> - <td class="tdl">Results of Filings as shown in Fig. 93</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f94">112</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">95.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Carrying a File to obtain the Hook of a Cutting-off Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f95">112</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">96.</td> - <td class="tdl">Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f96">113</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">97.</td> - <td class="tdl">Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f97">124</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">98.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sandpapering Panel Work</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f98">126</a></td></tr> - -<tr> - <td class="tdr">99.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing down Shellac Finish</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#f99">134</a></td></tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - -<p class="ph2" id="c1">ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I</h2> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Growth of Wood</span></p> - - -<p><b>1. Kinds of trees used for lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The classification -of trees here considered is based upon the method by -which the trunk, or stem, of a tree is formed. The term -<i>exogenous</i> is applied to outside growers, around which a -layer of wood grows each year, and from which is cut the -lumber of commerce. As the wood-worker is interested -mainly in trees which grow by this method, we will do no -more than mention the <i>endogenous</i>, or inside-growing, trees -or plants of the nature of palm trees, cornstalks, etc., in -which the woody fiber is formed upon the inside of the -stem.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The new wood formed each year upon exogenous -trees is known as the <i>annual layer</i>, or <i>ring</i>; the separate -layers being more prominent in open-grained woods, such -as oak, ash, and chestnut, than in close-grained woods, -such as maple, cherry, poplar, and birch. It is the difference -in the character and structure of these layers -which makes some woods hard and others soft, some -with open and others with close grain, and which also, -with the coloring matter peculiar to each kind of wood, -causes its individuality and adaptability to certain uses.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> -(The color and odor of wood are caused by chemical combinations, -and are not part of the substance of the wood.)</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f2"> -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Section of Yellow -Pine.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, soft, cellular grain; <i>b</i>, hard, compact<br /> -grain.</p> -</div> - -<p>Each of these annual layers is composed of two parts, -the formation being shown in Fig. 1, in which the grain of -yellow pine is depicted. The soft, cellular, or open, grain, -<i>a</i>, is formed as the sap moves -upward in the spring, and the -hard, compact grain, <i>b</i>, is -formed later in the year. In -soft woods the open grain -predominates, while in hard -woods the compact grain is -more in evidence.</p> - -<p>The age of a tree may be -determined by counting these -annual rings upon the stump, -though a drouth during the -growing season may have at -some time so affected its -growth as to make some layers -indistinct, rendering it impossible -to be absolutely sure of the count. In a young tree -the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes -more mature.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The different kinds of timber which the carpenter -uses are cut from <i>deciduous</i>, or broad-leaf, trees, and from -<i>coniferous</i>, or needle-leaf, trees. This classification of trees -is based upon the difference in the forms of their leaves, -the former kind furnishing the ash, oak, walnut, beech, -birch, and other woods that are hard to work, as well as -poplar or white wood, linn or bass wood, and others which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> -are called hard woods, not in the sense that they are hard -to work, but because their method of growth is the same.</p> - -<p>The <i>coniferous</i> or <i>evergreen</i> trees furnish the cedars, -pines, hemlocks, spruces, firs, redwood, tamarack, cypress, -and a few other woods of the same nature. These -woods have a resin which is always present, no matter -how old or dry the wood may be, which explains their -superior weather-resisting qualities.</p> - -<p><b>2. The formation of wood.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) In the spring the sap -begins to flow upward, mainly through the open cells of -the cambium (the new growth in the stem, by which the -diameter of the tree is increased), and to some extent -through the sapwood. As it comes in contact with the -air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the -tree, (<b>B.</b>) it gives off water and oxygen, and absorbs -carbonic acid gas from the air, (<b>C.</b>) which is formed into -starch, sugar, oil, etc.; this in turn becomes part of the -sapwood, and forms the compact part of the annual ring, -completing the layer for that year.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) The wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the -sap, which gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells -are filled, when that layer becomes a part of the heartwood, -or that part of the tree which is inclosed within the -annual layers of sapwood.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) Both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are -filled with water or sap, which may be removed by seasoning, -but the sapwood of most trees used for building purposes -is not as good lumber as the heartwood, as it is -always susceptible to moisture. The exceptions to this -will be mentioned elsewhere.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) In all unseasoned lumber from 20 to 60 per cent of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -its weight is moisture, which must be evaporated before -the lumber has its highest commercial value. This may -be done by weather drying or by artificial means, the lumber -being treated in a specially constructed kiln.</p> - -<p><b>3. Tissues.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) A tree trunk is composed of four -different tissues, viz.:</p> - -<p>1. The <i>pith</i> (Fig. 2, <i>a</i>), a cellular tissue: this is worthless -and its presence in lumber is considered a defect.</p> - -<p>2. The <i>wood</i>, which includes the heartwood (<i>b</i>), the -sapwood (<i>c</i>), and the medullary rays (<i>g</i>). From this part -of the tree the commercially valuable lumber is taken.</p> - -<p>3. The <i>cambium</i> (<i>d</i>), which is a thin layer between the -sapwood (<i>c</i>) and the bast (<i>e</i>).</p> - -<p>4. The <i>bark</i>, which includes both the bast (<i>e</i>) and -the outer bark (<i>f</i>). The bark of most trees is worthless, -but that of chestnut, oak, hemlock, and other trees which -are rich in tannic acid is used in large quantities by -tanneries.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The heartwood (<i>b</i>), or <i>duramen</i>, of most trees is -the part generally used by carpenters upon the best work. -It is firm, compact, and of the color and qualities characteristic -of the wood.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The sapwood (<i>c</i>), or <i>alburnum</i>, is generally light-colored, -and in most building woods its presence is considered -a defect, though not in hickory, ash, maple, or -yellow pine, and a few other woods; in fact, in these woods -it is often preferred to the heartwood for many kinds of -work on account of its color. The alburnum is filled -with the active elements of the sap, which are deposited -as the sap passes through the trees, and in time becomes -part of the duramen, or heartwood. The time required<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -for sapwood to attain maturity ranges from thirty to one -hundred years, according to its kind and age.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f3"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Section of Oak Tree Trunk.</span></p> -<p class="caption1"><i>a</i>, pith; <i>b</i>, heartwood, or duramen; <i>c</i>, sapwood, or alburnum; <i>d</i>, cambium; <i>e</i>, bast, or -inner bark; <i>f</i>, outer bark, or corky layer; <i>g</i>, medullary rays, or silver grain; <i>po</i>, plain oak; -<i>qo</i>, quartered oak.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Outside of the sapwood (Fig. 2, <i>c</i>) is the cambium -(<i>d</i>), which furnishes the substance upon which the -life of the tree depends. Here, nourished by the richest -sap, new cells are formed, which become either sapwood -or a part of the bast. (<b>E.</b>) At (<i>e</i>) is shown the bast or -inner bark, which is composed of a woody fiber combined -with a tissue of cells. This is elastic, which allows it to -expand as the wood grows beneath it. Outside of the -bast is the bark (<i>f</i>), or outer covering, which is of a corky -nature, and protects the delicate vital parts of the tree.</p> - -<p><b>4. The medullary rays.</b>—Every tree has <i>medullary -rays</i> (Fig. 2, <i>g</i>), usually spoken of by wood-workers as -the “silver streak,” or “silver grain.” These rays connect -the center of the tree with the outside, and are -more prominent in such woods as oak, beech, and sycamore -than in other woods. It is to take advantage of -the beauty which these medullary rays impart that so -much quarter-sawed lumber is used, though lumber sawed -in this way is preferred for other reasons, which will be -discussed later.</p> - -<p>In many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible -to the naked eye, as in pine, for instance, which has fifteen -thousand to the square inch. Aside from adding much to -the beauty of the lumber, they also give strength; if -lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat, it is -apt to <i>check</i>, or crack, upon the line of the medullary -rays.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f4"> -<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Defects in Lumber.</span></p> -<p class="caption1"><i>a</i>, wind shakes or cup shakes; <i>b</i>, heart shakes; <i>c</i>, star shakes; <i>d</i>, branch broken off, showing -the method by which the annual layers gradually cover broken branches; <i>e</i>, hard knot.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>5. The grain in trees.</b>—In open or exposed situations -trees usually grow more or less gnarled or crooked, which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span>tends to improve the grain. The strength of lumber -cut from trees grown as described is impaired, however, -as the wood is more cross-grained than that from trees -which grow in the heart of a forest, with practically the -same conditions on all sides. As forest trees are continually -reaching up for the sunlight, they grow taller and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -straighter, which makes it possible for straighter-grained -lumber to be cut from them, and as the branches are at -the top, where they receive the sunlight and air, there are -few cross-grained places.</p> - -<p>When the annual rings are large, the grain is said to be -<i>coarse</i>, and if the rings are fine, the term <i>fine-grained</i> is -used to describe it. When the direction of the fibers is -nearly parallel with the sides and the edges of the board, -it is said to be <i>straight-grained</i>; when the lumber is taken -from a crooked tree, it is said to be <i>cross-grained</i>, as the -grain follows the shape of the log, while the board is sawed -straight. Cross-grained lumber is the handsomer; in this -the fibers, being at different angles with the surface of -the board, form a variety of figures, which add much to the -beauty of the wood.</p> - -<p><b>6. Defects found in lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Some of the most -common defects found in lumber are <i>wind shakes</i>, or <i>cup -shakes</i> (Fig. 3, <i>a</i>), which are cracks following the line of -the porous part of the annual rings. These are caused -by the action of severe winds. (<b>B.</b>) <i>Heart shakes</i> (Fig. -3, <i>b</i>) are cracks radiating from the center of the tree, and -may be found in any kind of wood, as they are the result -of deficient nutrition, or loss of vitality. (<b>C.</b>) <i>Star -shakes</i> (Fig. 3, <i>c</i>) are caused by the shrinkage of the tree -upon the outside, which is the result of a long dry spell -of intense cold, or of the deficient action of the sap. Star -shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon the -outside of the tree; the heart shakes are larger at the -center.</p> - -<p>Shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes -are so numerous as to make the log worthless.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) <i>Discolorations</i> are caused by decay which has at -some time gained a foothold, but which the tree was -sufficiently vigorous to overcome; or they may be due to -imperfect or insufficient nutrition, which generally results -in the entire tree being affected instead of small -places upon the tree.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) Timber grown in a damp, marshy locality is generally -of a poorer quality than that grown upon higher -ground, as more water is taken up by the roots than -can be well assimilated, which prevents the formation -of healthy compact wood. Some woods are adapted to -such soil, the poplar or whitewood, willow, basswood, -buckeye, and cypress being denizens of moist or swampy -places.</p> - -<p>Trees growing where they are exposed to winds from -one direction are apt to assume a spiral growth, which -renders the timber almost worthless, as it is weak, and -twists badly in drying.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) Trees which have lumps appearing like growths -upon them are usually unhealthy. These lumps, or -tumors, may be caused by defective nutrition, checks, or -shakes, or by the depredations of animals or insects.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) <i>Clefts</i>, or <i>splits</i>, in a tree may be caused by extreme -cold, heat, or drouth. They may extend into the tree -several inches, and while the blemish will always remain, -showing a discoloration or other defect, nature often -repairs it so that the strength of the timber is but slightly -affected. If these clefts are not healed, rain may find -lodgment there, and the sap be so affected that the adjacent -wood will be destroyed, and this in time will destroy -the tree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>H.</b>) Eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these -clefts, the larvæ of which bore into the wood and destroy -it. (<b>I.</b>) If it were not for the birds and other natural -enemies of these insects, they would increase so rapidly -that the lumber supply would be seriously affected, and, -as it is, there are very few trees which are not injured to -some extent by wood borers. The United States Bureau -of Entomology estimates that the damage to trees by -these pests amounts to at least $100,000,000 annually.</p> - -<p>(<b>K.</b>) Sometimes (as at <i>d</i>, Fig. 3) branches die or are -broken off; this gives the elements access to the heart of -the tree and usually causes a permanent injury, as the -birds and other denizens of the forest frequently dig out -the rotten wood as soon as the weather has had time to -do its work, thus giving further opportunity for decay to -continue its destructive action. If this does not happen, -the wood will grow over the break after several years and -leave a loose knot in the heart of the tree, which will be -a decided blemish when the log is made into lumber. The -sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the defect, -as the annual rings will eventually close over the break.</p> - -<p>The hard knot at <i>e</i>, Fig. 3, is not a serious defect, unless -the wood is to be used for finish or where great strength -is required.</p> - -<p><b>7. When to cut lumber.</b>—Trees which are intended -for the use of wood-workers should not be felled while the -sap is in motion. If cut at any other time than midsummer -or in winter, the active sap is apt to sour and to -cause decay. Owing to the scarcity of lumber, or from -avarice, this precaution often is ignored, and trees are -felled at any time of year, regardless of their age; in such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -cases, much of the lumber lacks the essential qualities of -its kind.</p> - -<p>When a tree shows signs of dying at the top, it should be -cut down, as the quality of the lumber it contains will -deteriorate rapidly.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p> - -<p>1. What is meant by exogenous trees? In what kinds of wood are -the annual layers most prominent? Describe the formation of annual -layers. What causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of -wood? In the color and odor of wood? How may the age of a tree -be determined? Are the broadest annual layers found in young or in -old trees? From what class of trees does soft wood come? Hard wood?</p> - -<p>2. Describe the motion of sap. What forms the sapwood? With -what are the cells of the sapwood filled? Compare sapwood and heartwood.</p> - -<p>3. Describe the four different tissues in a tree. Describe the inner -bark.</p> - -<p>4. What are the medullary rays? In what woods are they most -prominent? How do they affect the strength of timber?</p> - -<p>5. What is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations? -Where are the straightest trees found? Why does the location of a -tree affect the grain? What is meant by <i>coarse</i>, <i>fine</i>, <i>straight</i>, and <i>cross-grained</i> -lumber?</p> - -<p>6. What causes wind shakes? Heart shakes? Star shakes? How -may they be distinguished from each other? What causes discolorations? -What is the usual character of timber grown upon marshy -ground? What woods are adapted to low ground? What sometimes -causes spiral growth? What do lumps and excrescences upon a tree -generally signify? What causes clefts in trees? What are the results -of clefts? Does nature perfectly repair the cleft? What is the usual -result of a branch being broken off?</p> - -<p>7. What is the per cent of moisture in green wood? Should very -young trees be cut? Why? How may the top of a tree show when it -should be felled? At what time of year should trees be cut?</p> -</div> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="c2">CHAPTER II</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Lumbering and Varieties of Wood</span></p> - - -<p><b>8. The manufacture of lumber</b>.—(<b>A.</b>) There are two -distinct processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial -purposes, <i>logging</i> and <i>sawing</i>; the former includes -all the steps from -felling the tree to the -delivery of the logs -at the sawmill; there -the logs are sawed -into boards, planks, -and timbers of certain -dimensions, -which are piled and -exposed to the sun -and air for a sufficient -time to allow a -large part of the -water in them to -evaporate, when the -lumber is said to be -“weather dried,” -and ready for shipment -to the consumer.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f5"> -<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.—Felling a Tree.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) If a lumber -concern desires to -begin operations in -one of the great forest -areas, a “land-looker” -or “timber-cruiser” -is sent to -spy out the land, -and to report upon -the probable yield of -timber within certain -areas, and the conditions -which would -aid or retard the -work of getting out -the logs. If the report -is favorable, the -standing timber may -be purchased by -“stumpage,” which means that a certain price will be -paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land -may be purchased outright, though in the early history of -lumbering cases have been known where these little formalities -were omitted.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f6"> -<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.—Cutting Small Branches from<br /> -Felled Spruce.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Camps are located at convenient points throughout the -boundary, roads are made through the woods, and foundations, -or “skidways,” built at right angles to them, to -receive the logs as they are hauled down the “travoy” -roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at -frequent distances for this purpose.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The above preparations completed, the work of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>felling the trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work -requires nice skill and judgment, as it is necessary that -the tree should fall so that it will cause the least damage -to itself and to surrounding trees. After the tree is down, -the branches are cut -close to the trunk (Fig. -5) and carried to one -side so that they will -not be in the way -of the horses. The -trunk is then sawed -into logs, twelve, fourteen, -sixteen, or eighteen -feet in length, -as the imperfections -and the length of the -tree trunk may allow. -Longer or shorter logs -are rarely cut except -for special purposes.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) One end of the -log is placed upon a -drag, or is gripped by -a pair of tongs, and -hauled to the nearest -travoy road and skidway, where it is piled (Fig. 6). -(<b>E.</b>) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon trucks, -cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8), -which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of -the country, or to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a -river (Fig. 10). If either of these latter methods of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> -transportation is employed, the logs are generally piled -upon another skidway until there is enough for a train -load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable -for them to be floated to the mill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f7"> -<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.—Skidway of Spruce Logs.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f8"> -<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.—Load of White Pine Logs.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f9"> -<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.—Hauling Logs by Steel Cable.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f10"> -<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.—Loading Logs from Shedway to Train.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f11"> -<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.—Boom of Logs.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f12"> -<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.—Log Jam.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally -the most dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to -face. A jam usually depends upon one key log, which, -if loosened, will allow the jam to break instantly. The -work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one -or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and -muscles, and possessed of the highest possible skill and -activity, or they cannot hope to break a large jam -and escape with their lives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f13"> -<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.—Sawmill in the Big Tree District.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives -its logs by both rail and river. In this case the -logs which come in by rail are rolled into the river, as -they can be more easily placed upon the chain feed of -the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in -which the logs are soaked before they are taken into the -mill; this draws the frost out of them, and allows them -to be worked much more easily.</p> - -<p>(<b>H.</b>) There are different types of sawmills, in which -the logs are worked into commercial shapes. The small -enterprises use portable mills, which are moved into the -woods and located upon a tract of land, remaining until -all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been sawed, and -then moved to another locality and the process repeated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p> - -<p>Large operations are conducted upon a different plan; -mills of a permanent type are erected as near the forest -as practicable, roads are built, tracks laid, and the logs -brought from the woods by one of the methods previously -illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes are built, -and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a -mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if -possible, as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by -any other method of transportation, though some of the -heavier woods will not float, and have to be handled on -land. (<b>I.</b>) The immersion of logs in water also improves -the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon -the sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, -and also facilitates the seasoning of the manufactured -product. If the log is left in the water until it becomes -water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not injured for -many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which -it is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage -of sunken logs has become an industry.</p> - -<p>(<b>J.</b>) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to -be cut is selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent -supply, and in the near future all extensive lumbering -operations will, beyond doubt, be conducted upon -a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless lumbering -is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the -supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the -demand.</p> - -<p>(<b>K.</b>) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed -into lumber of various dimensions by a circular saw -(Fig. 13); but in the larger mills, the band saw generally -is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double cut band sawmill,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut each time -the log is carried either way.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f14"> -<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.—Circular Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Besides -sawing dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, -and planks of different -thicknesses are -sawed, as follows: -1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”, -2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”; and -thicker, if desired.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) If lumber is -cut again from its -original dimensions, -it is said to be <i>resawed</i>. -When boards -or planks of the -above dimensions are -dressed on both sides, -they will be about -⅛” thinner; thus, a -board sawed 1” thick -will, when seasoned -and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2” plank will be but 1⅞” -or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed dimensions.</p> - -<p>Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually -comes under the head of dimension timber, which is not -used to the extent that it was formerly, as steel and concrete -are replacing it upon heavy work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f15"> -<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.—Double Cut Band Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber -is usually resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is -planed upon each side to the desired thickness. Boards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -for box stock and other special purposes are sometimes -sawed as thin as ¼”.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f16"> -<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.—Plain, -Slash, or Bastard -Sawing.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.—Four -Methods of -Quartering.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. -15 is known as <i>plain</i>, <i>slash</i>, or <i>bastard sawing</i>, and is -the cheapest way to cut logs, both as to time and waste. -The log is first squared to secure a bed upon which it may -lie while being sawed, -which also makes it unnecessary -to run each -board by the edging -saw to straighten the -edges. The slabs at <i>a</i> -are sawed into boards -as the log is squared, -and the bark, or “live -edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an inferior -grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they -are well worth saving, if large logs are being cut.</p> - -<p>In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment -is necessary to cut a log so that the greatest amount -of marketable lumber can be made from it. This is done -by cutting various sizes from a log, if it will not cut all of -one size without too much waste.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary -rays or silver grain, the log is sawed by one of the -methods shown in Fig. 16, the object being to bring the -rays as nearly parallel to the surface of the board as -possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain -which is so highly prized.</p> - -<p>The best results are obtained from sections <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>; this -method also gives the most waste. In plain sawed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -lumber, the boards from the middle of the log will -have the quarter grain; these are usually culled and -sold as quarter-sawed.</p> - -<p>Neither of these methods results in economy of time -or material, as about 25 per cent of each is used in -excess of that required in plain sawing; hence, quarter-sawed -lumber is more expensive than the plain, or bastard, -sawed.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not -only on account of its handsomer grain, but because it -holds its shape better than lumber sawed in any other -way, as the annual layers are approximately square -with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks -in the direction parallel with the annual layers, and -very little from the center to the outside of the tree, -it is obvious that there is much less shrinking and -warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which -is sawed plain.</p> - -<p>The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand -usage without the surface splintering much better than -does the common plain sawed material. Quarter-sawed -lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical grain,” -and “comb grained.”</p> - -<p><b>10. The grading of lumber.</b>—Custom varies somewhat -in different localities as to the grading of lumber, but -there are generally four grades, which are often subgraded -into qualities suitable for various uses.</p> - -<p>“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect, -though in large dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes -may be allowed. These blemishes in a board are -usually restricted to not more than one inch of sap, a small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one blemish -to a board is allowed.</p> - -<p>“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound -knots, an inch of sap, and one other blemish.</p> - -<p>“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound -knots, but two thirds of one side must be clear stock.</p> - -<p>“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the -cheapest work. One half of the board must be usable.</p> - -<p>In many cases the boards are graded by the width of -clear stock which can be taken out. There are tables -published by the different associations of lumber manufacturers -which give the gradings under which their lumber -has been measured and shipped, but as these vary -from time to time no permanent list can be given.</p> - -<p>The principal reason why there can be no permanent -grading of lumber is that the forests from which the finest -timber can be cut in marketable quantities are being -destroyed faster than they can be replaced by nature. In -anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry of -the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in -organizing government forest preserves, in educating the -people, and in promoting legislation aimed at the husbanding -of our forests. When we consider the abundance of high -grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous prices -which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this -movement should have begun during the days of our -grandfathers, instead of waiting until nearly all the best -lumber in the great forests east of the Mississippi had -been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by forest fires.</p> - -<p><b>11. The testing of lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Dry, sound stock, -if struck with the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -clear ringing response, while a wet or decaying piece will -give a dull response to the blow.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by -which, as well as by the grain, the student should learn -to distinguish the woods in common use. This may be -more easily done before the wood has been thoroughly -seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing -odor; if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates -that decay is present.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) If there is much variation in the color of timber, -or black and blue spots, the stick is probably diseased.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by -dryness or ventilation, and frequently may be cured by -soaking the wood in water for several days, or by steaming. -The disease of decay is cured also by chemical preservatives -being forced into lumber by pressure; this at -the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree.</p> - -<p>Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most -lumber, if permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, -will last almost indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining -timbers, and even to those which have no connection -with the one originally infected.</p> - -<p><b>12. Surveying or estimating lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) It is the -custom to consider any board less than one inch in thickness -as an inch board, and anything over one inch is -measured as so many inches and fractions of an inch. -For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch, -while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by -obtaining its surface measure, and increasing it by one half. -Thus, a plank 12’ long, 8” wide, and 1½” thick would have -twelve feet board measure in it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> - -<p>In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which -varies with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed -lumber, but this is not universal.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary -to obtain the fraction of a foot, board measure, for each -lineal foot. Thus, a piece of 2 × 4 (inches understood) -has two thirds of a foot for each foot in length; a 2 × 6 has -one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one third feet of -lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a -joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of -square feet, board measure, that the joist contains.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel -piece which can be cut from it is the width of the board -being measured; therefore the board should be surveyed -at the narrowest place. In measuring more expensive -lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common -use, the lumber scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is -made of thin, cleft hickory, about three feet long, with -one end large enough for a suitable handle; on the other -end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the -board while the scale is being read.</p> - -<p>The length of the board is marked near the handle, and -at the end of the socket of the metal head, as at <i>a</i>.</p> - -<p>In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held -against the edge of the board, as at <i>b</i>; the eye follows -along the same line of figures upon which the length of the -board is found, reading those figures nearest the width of -the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’ long -would, without further measuring or calculating, show that -the board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -12’ long, it would contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading -the middle line of figures, the board would be seen to contain -15’.</p> - -<p>In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest -figure, and when there is no difference, to alternate between -the lower and the higher figures upon different -boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or 9¼” wide -would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two -boards 8½” wide, of the same length as the above, would -be measured as having 8’ and 9’, respectively, in their -surfaces. In short, the fractions of a foot are not considered -in surveying the lumber in common use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f17"> -<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.—Lumber Scale.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>13. Qualities of wood.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Certain kinds of wood -are adapted for some purposes better than are others; -the wood-worker, therefore, should be familiar with the -qualities which conditions demand, and the kinds of woods -which have these qualities.</p> - -<p>Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it -should be cut from trees which grow to a size that will -allow large dimensions to be cut from them.</p> - -<p>For outside finish, the material should be wood which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -will stand the weather, can be easily worked, and will -hold its shape well.</p> - -<p>Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality -of durability, and should be of sufficient strength to resist -the strain which will be put upon them.</p> - -<p>Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of -good appearance. In providing lumber for inside finish, -care should be used that it has good grain and color, is -not too soft, and that it will hold its shape well. Almost -any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned, -but lumber which shrinks and warps badly is -unfit for finishing.</p> - -<p>Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and -which has the least tendency to warp and split.</p> - -<p>Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint -well, and be as free as possible from the tendency to warp, -split, and twist when exposed to the weather.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) All material used in framing a building should be -weather-dried in good drying weather for at least thirty -days for each inch in thickness, and that used for inside and -outside finish and floors should be thoroughly kiln-dried, -and kept in a dry place until ready for use. These conditions -are not always obtainable, but if the best results -are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible.</p> - -<p>The woods hereafter described comprise the principal -varieties used by the wood-workers of the United States.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) <i>Ash</i> (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained, -light-colored wood, in which the porous portions -of the annual rings are quite prominent, thus making it -somewhat coarse-grained.</p> - -<p>It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -weight and hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young -growth being much used in the manufacture of wagons, -machinery frames, and for similar purposes, as it is not -expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It -has a tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with -insects; therefore it is not suitable for building construction -or for contact with soil.</p> - -<p>Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, -and is plentiful in many localities. There are two kinds -of this wood recognized in commerce: the <i>white</i>, which is -light-colored, and the <i>black</i>, which is of a brownish tinge, -though there is little difference in the grain of the two. -Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best -part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in -the Northern states is generally tougher than that grown -farther south.</p> - -<p>The wood from the older and larger trees is not so -tough and hard as that from the younger growth, and is -much used for cabinet work and for interior finish. It -should be filled with a paste-filler, after which it may be -brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well -and is useful for the purposes mentioned.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) <i>Apple</i> (dec.) is not used for construction, as the -proper dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very -stubborn to work. It is one of the best woods known to resist -splitting, and is much used for chisel and saw handles.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) <i>Basswood</i>, or <i>linden</i> (dec.), is a soft, porous wood, -which shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the -backing of veneer work, for drawer bottoms of the common -grades of furniture, for case backs, and similar purposes, -and is also much used in the manufacture of spools<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -and other small articles which are made in large quantities. -In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings, -and for other work where strength is not needed, -though for use in such places it should be thoroughly -seasoned, or the joints will open.</p> - -<p>If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. -Steaming also cures to a great extent the tendency of -this wood to shrink and swell.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) <i>Beech</i> (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the -ability to resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, -as in plane stocks, tool handles, and parts of machinery. -In building work, it is used to some extent for flooring and -for inside finishing. It is used also for furniture, though -the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive than -other equally desirable woods.</p> - -<p>If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it -decays rapidly; if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction.</p> - -<p>Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi -valleys, and are found to some extent in all of the -states between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) <i>Birch</i> (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. -It is found in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of -the Eastern states and Canada. There are two varieties -recognized in commerce, the <i>red</i> and the <i>white birch</i>. -The former is used considerably for inside finish and for -furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to -imitate cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any -one but an expert. When finished in its own natural color, -it is a satisfactory wood for the above uses, but as it ages, -it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a stubborn wood to -work, it is not popular.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f18"> -<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.—Beech and Sugar Maple Forest.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> - -<p><i>Canoe</i>, or <i>paper</i>, <i>birch</i> is softer than the red variety, -and is used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and -for the manufacture of spools, dowels, and a large variety -of small articles.</p> - -<p>(<b>H.</b>) <i>Butternut</i> or <i>white walnut</i> (dec.) has a good grain -and color; it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as -are some harder woods, for it has a tendency to string while -being dressed to a fine surface. It does not absorb moisture -readily, and holds its shape under trying conditions.</p> - -<p>Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and -is used considerably for furniture and for interior finish.</p> - -<p>(<b>I.</b>) <i>Cedar</i> (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two -varieties, the <i>red</i> and the <i>white</i>. The former is used considerably -for cooperage and veneers, lead pencils, and for -lining moth-proof drawers and chests, as its strong odor and -bitter taste protects it from the ravages of insects. The -supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and it is now too -expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it -for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this -valuable timber and of others, notably white and Georgia -pine, has destroyed what would have been a supply for -all time, if the cutting had been properly controlled.</p> - -<p>White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior -wood; it is used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, -and in the manufacture of barrels and cigar boxes. It is -a very durable wood, and shrinks but little in drying. It -is well adapted for burying, though not strong enough to -resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red -cedar, and makes a larger tree.</p> - -<p>(<b>J.</b>) <i>Cherry</i> (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. -It is much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -holds its shape well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a -fine finish. Its grain is of fine, even texture, of reddish -color, and often stained to imitate mahogany. When -well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the genuine -wood except by weight.</p> - -<p>Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns -which are to stand rough usage. The tree is found in all -of the states east of Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, -but it is becoming too scarce for common use.</p> - -<p>(<b>K.</b>) <i>Chestnut</i> (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, -adapted to use in exposed situations. It is used a great -deal for inside finish, as it will take a fine polish, and as -the figures formed by the grain make it a very handsome -wood for the purpose.</p> - -<p>Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy -strain, and will shrink and crack badly in drying.</p> - -<p>(<b>L.</b>) <i>Cypress</i> (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our -most durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for -outside work. It is used extensively for shingles; roofs -covered with cypress shingles have been known to last for -more than seventy-five years. The wood is light, straight-grained, -and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its shape -well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine -in the manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered -by many to be equal, if not superior, to that wood. -It is much used in building small boats, and for use in -places where it will be exposed to dampness. Eaves, -troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than -those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, -which are the only woods having anti-decaying qualities -equal to cypress.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p> - -<p>Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions, -and if it were stronger and harder, it would be one -of our best woods for framing and finishing. It is used for -the latter purpose to a considerable extent, as it has a -handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if thoroughly -seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If -it is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable -extent, but if forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. -Sap is not considered a blemish.</p> - -<p>Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the -Southern states, the best of it coming from those bordering -on the gulf.</p> - -<p>(<b>M.</b>) <i>Elm</i> (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to -split. It warps and checks to some extent in drying, but -when well seasoned it holds its shape as well as most woods -in common use. It is susceptible to a good polish, and is -used a great deal for interior finish and furniture, as it -takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in -the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm -stump. It is used largely in cooperage, and stands contact -with the soil satisfactorily.</p> - -<p>The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, -but is more abundant east of the Mississippi river.</p> - -<p>(<b>N.</b>) <i>Gum</i> (dec.), or, as it is more generally known, -<i>sweet gum</i>, is extensively used for interior finish upon the -better class of buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless -thoroughly seasoned, in which condition it is a very -satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong, cross-grained, -and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown, -and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly -in the Southern states.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>O.</b>) <i>Hemlock</i> (con.) is found in most of the Northern -states, and is used for scantlings, rough boards, under -floors, and for boarding preparatory to siding. It is a -fairly durable wood, but splits easily, and is apt to be full -of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly.</p> - -<p>(<b>P.</b>) <i>Hickory</i> (dec.) is the hardest native wood in common -use, and the toughest wood that we have; it is too -hard to be used for building material. It is flexible, and its -principal use is for wagon and carriage work, and for other -purposes where bent wood and great strength is required. -As it does not split easily, it is much used in the manufacture -of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring insects, -and these pests often destroy much valuable timber.</p> - -<p>Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in -fact the most desirable part of the tree, on account of its -creamy whiteness and great strength.</p> - -<p>(<b>Q.</b>) <i>Locust</i> (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the -country, and is a useful and durable wood. It is much -used for fence posts and, in damp locations, for railway -ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it has a yellowish -brown color which takes a polish well.</p> - -<p>(<b>R.</b>) <i>Maple</i> (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, -with a yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds -of maple, but the kind generally used for commercial -purposes is the <i>sugar</i> or <i>rock maple</i>. It does not shrink -excessively, seasons without serious checking, and from it -a very fine surface for polishing may be obtained. It is -much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as in -floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent -as a cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does -not resist decay as well as do some other woods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> - -<p>Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its -whiteness the sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood -for many uses.</p> - -<p><i>Bird’s-eye maple</i> is of this wood, but some peculiarity -in the growth of certain trees, believed by many to be caused -by woodpeckers, has caused the tree to have what seem -to be numerous small knots, known as curls or eyes. The -presence of these imparts a beauty which is possessed by no -other wood, and has never been successfully imitated.</p> - -<p>(<b>S.</b>) <i>Mahogany</i> (dec.) is an imported wood, and is -much used in the finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture -of fine furniture. It is of a rich red color, and has -a beautiful grain and other desirable qualities which make -it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its shape -remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in -every respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that -prevents it from being universally used.</p> - -<p>(<b>T.</b>) <i>Oak</i> (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It -is found abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, -and forms the larger part of our broad-leaved forests. -There are a number of species of oak, but they are in general -known to commerce as the <i>red</i> and the <i>white oak</i>. Nearly -all these trees are cut for commercial purposes, but the -white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of -oak is so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot -be distinguished after the work is finished, therefore -they are all put together and sold as a medium grade of -white oak for purposes where the strength of the genuine -is not required. This will generally account for the difference -in the grain and the color which is noticed in -handling the commercial white oak.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<p>Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble -in seasoning than white oak, though they both have to be -dried very carefully, or there may be checks and cracks -to such an extent that the wood will be ruined. Both -the red and the white oak are used extensively in finishing -and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly -upon the cheaper grades, as it is easier to work.</p> - -<p>The two varieties should never be used upon the same -job, unless the wood is to be stained a dark color, as -there is a marked difference in their appearance when -finished. White oak is much used for flooring, quartered -oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done.</p> - -<p>Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic -conditions, though if buried deeply, or in water, -where there is no alteration in moisture or dryness, it -gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great extent for -railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the future -is causing much speculation, as the end of the present -supply of white oak is already in sight.</p> - -<p>(<b>U.</b>) <i>Pine</i> (con.) in its different varieties is used more -than any other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all -parts of the United States and in Canada. Certain sections -of the country which were once covered with virgin -pine forests have, however, been so denuded of their -wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, -within a few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen -who cared more for their immediate profit than for -the prospective good of the nation, that instead of a permanent -and continual supply of this valuable wood, there -are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown -ruins of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -which this irremediable wrong was perpetrated against -posterity.</p> - -<p><i>White pine</i> is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly -seasoned will hold its shape better than any other wood -except mahogany. For these reasons, and on account of -its adaptability to gluing, it is used almost exclusively by -pattern makers. It is found in the Northern states and -in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows -the grade of pine known as “Carolina,” the <i>bastard</i> or -<i>yellow pine</i>. This belt extends from the Mississippi -valley to the Atlantic coast, and is of a width to include -Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder to work, -and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, -but it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is -capable of a fine finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard -nor so strong as “Georgia” pine, which is also known -commercially as <i>long-leaved pine</i>, <i>pitch pine</i>, or <i>hard pine</i>. -This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in the states -bordering upon the ocean and the gulf.</p> - -<p>Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the -two above described, being much stronger and more dense. -This is the wood which is used for heavy timbers of large -buildings, and the above described grades should never -be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting in work of -less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine -was intended. Although this wood is very hard and -strong, and is the best wood for heavy construction, as -has been stated, it should never be used in any place which -is not dry and well ventilated, as it will decay rapidly if -placed in a damp location, or where it will come in contact -with the earth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f19"> -<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.—White Pine Forest.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<p>There are several varieties of pine besides those above -mentioned. These are generally less desirable for finish -or for construction than is the white, yellow, or Carolina -pine, but they are used extensively for the common work -of light building, and by box factories.</p> - -<p>(<b>V.</b>) <i>Poplar</i> or <i>whitewood</i> (dec.) is cut from the tulip -tree, and is found principally in the Middle West and in -some parts of the South. It is of light weight and color, -with few knots, and is soft and easily worked. It is used -for the common grades of cabinet work, inside finishing, -veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and -its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. -It warps and shrinks considerably in seasoning, and -unless held in its place, it is apt to twist.</p> - -<p>(<b>W.</b>) <i>Redwood</i> (con.) is taken from the big trees on the -Pacific slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from -knots, and may be obtained in boards of any size which -it is possible to cut. It has the reputation of being one of -the best woods for use in trying conditions, or where it -will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.</p> - -<p>It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but -it is not apt to become very popular for inside finish, as it is -easily marred, and, although very soft, will, when thoroughly -dry, destroy the edge of tools quicker than many -harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive brown as -it ages, if it is finished in its natural color.</p> - -<p>It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, -as it resists decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of -the grain, and burns very slowly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f20"> -<img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.—Douglas Spruce Forest.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>X.</b>) <i>Spruce</i> (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and -in New England is used generally for framing light buildings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> -and for rough boarding. Its color is almost pure -white, and it has the valuable quality of holding nails -firmly. There is little difference between the heart and -the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is -difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and -twists badly in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable -for framing trusses, unless seasoned lumber is used.</p> - -<p>Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for -flooring, ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers -in immense quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory -wood for immersion, but if exposed to alternations of dryness -and moisture, it decays rapidly.</p> - -<p>(<b>Y.</b>) <i>Sycamore</i>, or <i>buttonwood</i> (dec.), is found in nearly -all parts of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern -states. It is a moderately stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained, -and quite difficult to smooth to a surface, as the -grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has also -a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, -but if well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no -more trouble than do other woods. It takes a good -polish, and is a desirable wood for inside finish.</p> - -<p>(<b>Z.</b>) <i>Walnut</i>, or <i>black walnut</i> (dec.), is found in all the -Middle and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, -of a chocolate color, and takes a fine finish. It is well -adapted to inside finish and to furniture work.</p> - -<p>At one time nearly all the best work was done in this -wood, but at present it is out of style, as oak and other -woods are more in favor. Like other varieties of our best -woods, this has been cut out, and is now too expensive to -be considered as anything but a fancy wood.</p> - -<p><i>White walnut</i> is described under butternut.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f21"> -<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.—Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span></p> - - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p> - -<p>8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations? -What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? -Why? Compare the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why -is scientific forestry a necessity?</p> - -<p>9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How -much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually -sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To -furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods -of quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to -economy. Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking -qualities. What are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber -is known?</p> - -<p>10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are -commonly graded.</p> - -<p>11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of -timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What -does it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board? -How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient -decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?</p> - -<p>12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber -over 1” in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To -what lengths are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should -a common board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate -the use of the lumber scale.</p> - -<p>13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of -timber for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside -finish? For shingles? For siding? How long should lumber -be dried before using? How should lumber for inside finish be cared -for while waiting for use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the -following kinds of lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, -cedar, cherry, chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, -maple, mahogany, oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.</p> -</div> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="c3">CHAPTER III</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Care of Lumber</span></p> - - -<p><b>14. The piling of lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) To the uninitiated it -may seem that the piling of lumber is work upon which it -is not necessary to expend much skill, but there are few -operations in which carelessness or ignorance will cause -more loss to a wood-worker.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The front end of a lumber pile should be higher -than the back, therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon -ground which falls away to the rear, or to build the ways -which support the pile so that the water which drives -into the pile will run out at the back end, and not stand -upon the boards, as this will cause discolorations.</p> - -<p><b>15. Permanent lumber ways.</b>—These should be built -by some method similar to that shown in Fig. 22. It is -not a good plan to lay timbers upon the ground, as they -will decay rapidly, and there will not be sufficient room -for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards of -the lower courses to dry out properly. The pile is also -apt to settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the -spring. Lumber should not be stacked above wet or -marshy ground; if necessary to stack it where the weeds -are of rank growth, the latter should be kept down.</p> - -<p>The ways should be built with a solid foundation, well -below the frost line, though this is rarely done except for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -permanent lumber storage. This is shown at <i>a</i>, Fig. 22, -in which it will be seen that the ways are built to stand a -heavy load; the space between the centers of the ways -should be about five feet, as multiples of this distance will -accommodate any length of boards.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f22"> -<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.—Permanent Lumber Ways.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>16. To minimize the warping of lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Do -not place lumber piles less than one foot apart, as it is -necessary that there should be a continuous circulation of -air through the pile in all directions. (See <i>b</i>, Fig. 22.)</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Lumber piles are usually four feet in width, and -should be built up with sticks of that length, which are -placed between the courses of boards. It is important -that these be placed directly over each other and the ways; -otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards, as -shown at <i>c</i>. It is such carelessness as this that causes a -great deal of loss. In piling very expensive lumber, the -front sticks should be laid so as to project a little over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -course of boards below, and the boards of the course -above should project the same distance over the stick, in -order to give the front of the pile an inclination to the -front, as shown at <i>d</i>, which will allow most of the rain-water -to drop clear of the boards below, instead of running -down the front and finding its way into the pile.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Square piles are sometimes built, but in these the -boards should be laid with large spaces between them, to -allow perfect circulation of air. It is obvious that in a pile -of this sort, the boards in the center of the pile will not -come in contact with the air as much as those on the outside, -and that consequently, unless carefully piled, the -boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead -of drying out, which usually results in decay.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) During the drying out process, all boards change -their form more or less, depending upon the shape of the -tree trunk, the kind and quality of the wood, the part of -the tree from which the log was cut, as well as its size and -age, the relation of the annual rings and medullary rays -to the surfaces of the board, the length of time since the -log was cut before being made into lumber, whether it -had lain in water for several months, and the method of -piling. Thus it will be seen that in every stage of preparing -lumber for market, a high degree of skill and -judgment is necessary to insure the best results.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f23"> -<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.—Warping of<br /> -Lumber.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The greatest deterioration in lumber, after it has been cut -and properly piled, is generally due to the tendency to -warp, the cause of which is indicated in Fig. 23, and which -may to great extent be minimized by skillful piling. If this -sketch is studied carefully, it will be noticed that the middle -board is thicker in the middle than it is at the edges, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -that the curves of its top and bottom sides are practically -uniform. This is because the annual layers are -at nearly a right angle with the sides of the board, which -causes the board to shrink in thickness, and very little -in width. This is due to the tendency of lumber -shrink around, or parallel with, the annual layers. -This tendency also causes the star -shakes, as at <i>c</i>, Fig. 3, which is -because the inner layers of the log, -being less than the outside layers in -circumference, and less exposed to -the dry air, do not shrink so fast nor -so much. This tendency is again -illustrated in Fig. 23, in which it will -be seen that because the outer -annual layers shrink faster, they -cause the outside of the board, or -the part which grew toward the outside of the tree, to -become narrower, and to assume a concave shape, while -the side nearer the center of the tree, or the inside of -the board, becomes convex. This is also the reason why -boards cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width -more than those cut nearer the center, which shrink in -thickness proportionately more than in width.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) For the purpose of taking advantage of the tendency -to warp, and applying it to its own remedy, boards -should be piled with the side which grew nearer the center -of the tree uppermost. This will help to correct the -tendency of the board to warp, as explained above, as the -side which would naturally assume the concave shape will -be underneath, and less likely to warp than if it were uppermost.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -This is not generally observed in stacking common -lumber, since it needs care and judgment to do it properly, -but it should be done if valuable lumber is being -handled.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f24"> -<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.—Lumber piled in Double<br /> -Courses.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Boards of practically the same width, if less than 7” -wide, are sometimes stacked in double courses, as shown -in Fig. 24, the outside of -the boards, or the sides -which grew nearer the outside -of the tree being placed -together, thus allowing the -inside of the boards, or the -sides which grew toward the -center of the tree, to receive more air than the sides which -are placed together, and therefore to dry out faster, which -will reduce the warping to a minimum. After a pile is -completed, it should be covered with old boards to protect -the top courses from the weather.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) A pile of valuable lumber should be restacked -every six or eight months, as the boards are apt to become -discolored where the lumber sticks are placed; in this -rehandling, the warped boards should be placed with the -concave side underneath.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) If lumber is cut in winter or midsummer, and -properly cared for, it is not apt to be injured by any rain -which may drive into the pile, if there is free circulation of -air; nor is it so liable to decay as lumber which is cut at -other times of the year.</p> - -<p><b>17. Weather-dried lumber.</b>—Lumber which has been -dried in the stack out of doors is not dry enough for use in -the manufacture of inside finish or furniture, as it has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -dried out only to the degree of moisture in the outside air. -If it is then worked up and placed in an artificially heated -house, the heat will cause more moisture to evaporate, -the wood to shrink, and the joints to open. For material -to be used in the frames of buildings, in wagons, or in -other places where the greatest possible strength is required, -not less than two years weather-drying is preferred, -as the material retains its full strength.</p> - -<p><b>18. Kiln-dried lumber.</b>—Lumber for furniture or for -inside finish should be seasoned by the process known as -“kiln-drying.” This means that lumber is exposed to a -temperature of from 120° to 200° F. by which the moisture -is extracted and evaporated. Lumber thus treated is -apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat -upon the fibers of the wood, which causes thousands of -minute fractures, and in many cases the life and the elasticity -of the lumber is destroyed. The results of kiln-drying -depend largely upon the kiln, and upon the skill -with which the lumber is piled, the heat applied, and the -rapidity of evaporation of the moisture regulated.</p> - -<p>For these reasons, much kiln-dried lumber is suitable -for use where but little strength is required and where -the color and the grain are the important points to -consider.</p> - -<p><b>19. Moist air kilns.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) There are two types of -dry kilns in common use: the <i>natural draft</i>, or moist air, -kilns, and the <i>induced draft</i> kilns. These two types are -made by different manufacturers, nearly all of whom use -certain devices of which they control the patents, and -which constitute the chief difference between their kiln -and those made by other manufacturers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The moist air kilns are so constructed as to -allow the freest possible circulation of the heated air, -and to provide opportunities for the moisture to be -expelled in accordance with certain natural laws, which -results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed -system of ventilation. These kilns operate upon the -principle that heated air circulating naturally through -lumber will become charged to a much greater degree with -moisture than if it were forced through rapidly, as in the -induced draft kilns. Thus, heated air by passing slowly -through a pile of lumber may become charged with moisture -nearly to the dew point.</p> - -<p>If the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that -point, by allowing the moisture to pass out as it accumulates, -with a small amount of heated air, which is -replaced with fresh air from the outside, it is claimed that -the boards will dry out from their centers. (<b>C.</b>) As the -warm, moist air which circulates through the pile will -keep the outsides of the boards moist, it will prevent case -hardening, or the hardening of the outsides of the boards. -This is caused by very warm dry air, which “cooks,” -or closes the pores of the surface of the boards, and this -prevents the outsides from shrinking, while the insides -will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the -boards.</p> - -<p>After the moisture is all out of the lumber, that held in -suspension will gradually pass out of the kiln, and the air -inside will become perfectly dry.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) It is claimed that all kinds of lumber in common -use may be put into this type of kiln perfectly -green, except oak and other very hard woods, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -should have at least thirty days’ drying under good drying -conditions for each inch in thickness. It is also claimed -that the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accelerated,—the -moisture being thoroughly extracted from the -lumber, the result being the same as though it were stacked -out of doors for several years,—and that the lumber has -lost none of its strength, elasticity, or characteristic color.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) This method sometimes is applied by steam pipes -extending between each course of boards, and in this -way the lumber is dried out very rapidly. Lumber used -in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly weather-dried, or -otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check -badly. In certain forms of these kilns, the lumber is -saturated with live steam after it is piled in the kiln, before -the heat is turned on.</p> - -<p><b>20. Induced draft kilns.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This system of kiln-drying -consists of a power-driven fan, which forces the -heated air at a high rate of speed through the spaces between -and around the lumber piled in the chamber.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Manufacturers have different devices for extracting -the moisture from the air after it has passed through -the lumber piles. It may be passed over condensing plates, -or through coils of pipes in which cold water is continually -circulating, both of these devices being for the purpose of -extracting the moisture from the heated air. If the -moisture is separated from the air by condensation, it runs -away, but if not, a certain per cent of the heated air is -expelled out of doors, being replaced by fresh air. The -air in the kiln, somewhat cooled from contact with these -cooled surfaces, is returned to the heater, reheated, and -again forced through the kiln, which operation is repeated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -continuously and automatically. Thus the heated air -becomes charged with a small percentage of moisture each -time it passes through the kiln chamber; this moisture is -extracted and the air is again heated before beginning -another circuit, instead of slow circulation which allows -the heated air to become saturated with moisture before -it is discharged, as in the moist air kiln.</p> - -<p>The induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive -equipment, as the blower and the appliance which drive -it are necessary in addition to the equipment of the kiln -itself, which would be similar in either of the types of kiln -described. Lumber to be dried in this form of kiln must -be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high -temperature of the kiln.</p> - -<p><b>21. Results of the two systems.</b>—While it is not the -province of this book to pass judgment upon the results -of the different methods or forms of dry kilns, it is obvious -that the induced draft kiln is the more expensive to operate, -as the expense of running the blower is avoided in -the moist air system. In this latter type of kiln the steam -simply passes through the pipes, the condensation being -returned to the boiler to be reheated, so the only expense -is that of maintaining the fire to keep up a low pressure. -In the daytime, or while the engine which furnishes the -power for the plant is running, the kilns of either type may -be heated by exhaust steam.</p> - -<p>Many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with -the results obtained from either, while others are decided -in their preference.</p> - -<p><b>22. Filling a kiln.</b>—In doing this, care should be -used that there is plenty of room for the air to circulate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -freely around and through the pile—not less than 3” -between the edges of the boards horizontally and vertically, -and one foot between the lumber and the wall or adjacent pile. -Each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the -same width over those of the course below, if possible, in -order to keep a vertical air space through the pile. In -some cases the kiln is filled by placing the boards edgeways.</p> - -<p><b>23. Length of time lumber should be left in the kiln.</b>—No -one should undertake to operate a kiln unless he -understands perfectly the particular make of the kiln that -he is handling, for if the ventilation is not correctly regulated, -the entire charge of the kiln may become mildewed, -casehardened, checked, discolored, or dried unevenly. -No rule can be given for the time which lumber should be -left in the kiln, as it depends upon the condition of the -lumber, temperature, kind of lumber, dimensions, and -ventilation. Generally speaking, if the kiln is properly -constructed and operated, from two to four days for -each inch in thickness of soft wood, and from two to -three times as long, at a lower temperature, for hard -wood, is usually enough to extract the moisture. It is, -however, best to allow the lumber to stay in the kiln, at -a moderate temperature, from three days to two weeks -after the moisture is extracted, in order to harden and -cook the solids of the sap, as by so doing the lumber is -not so liable to be influenced by moisture in the future; -this is the effect that long weather-drying accomplishes.</p> - -<p><b>24. The care of kiln-dried lumber.</b>—It is a common -mistake to allow lumber to lie in an open shed or other -place where it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, -and still call it kiln-dried. Lumber of this sort should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -be kept in a place where heat can be applied in damp -weather, and should be stacked in a close, compact pile, -so as to prevent the air from coming in contact with it.</p> - -<p><b>25. Steaming wood.</b>—This process makes wood pliable, -and adds to its durability by destroying the germs which -may cause decay; it also neutralizes, to a great extent, -the effect of the presence of sap. Steaming or immersing -wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency to shrink -and swell, and wood thus treated is not so apt to check -in seasoning. Steamed wood loses some of its original -strength on account of the effect of the high temperature -upon the fibers.</p> - -<p><b>26. Preserving wood.</b>—In order to preserve wood, it -is sometimes treated with creosote or other chemicals, -which are forced into the wood at a sufficient pressure to -cause them to permeate the wood thoroughly. This -treatment enables the wood to resist better the elements -and to keep away insects, which do a great deal of damage, -frequently honeycombing the wood with holes, with little -or no evidence of their presence upon the outside.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p> - -<p>14. What are some of the results of piling lumber carelessly? Should -the back and the front of the lumber pile be upon the same level? -Why?</p> - -<p>15. How should lumber ways be built? What kind of places should -be avoided in seeking a location for lumber piles?</p> - -<p>16. Should the piles be placed close to each other? How wide -should the piles be made? What is the objection to a square pile? -How thick should the lumber sticks be? How should they be placed? -What is the result if they are not carefully placed? How should the -sticks and the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -Why? What causes lumber to warp? Describe methods of piling -lumber to minimize warping. Should a lumber pile be allowed to stand -indefinitely? What is the proper time to cut lumber? Does it injure -lumber to allow a little rain to beat into the pile?</p> - -<p>17. What is meant by weather-dried lumber? Why is it not suitable -for furniture and for inside finish? How is this remedied? For -what purposes is weather-dried lumber the best?</p> - -<p>18. What is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber?</p> - -<p>19. What are the two methods of kiln-drying? Describe the principle -of the moist air kiln. What is claimed of it? How should hard -wood lumber be treated before being kiln-dried?</p> - -<p>20. Describe the induced draft system. What devices are used to -extract the moisture from the heated air? What are the main points -of difference between the two systems?</p> - -<p>21. What is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be -put in the two forms of kilns? Which is the more expensive system to -install and operate? How do users of the two systems compare them?</p> - -<p>22. How should lumber be stacked in the kiln?</p> - -<p>23. How long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow -the moisture to be extracted? How long to insure most permanent -results?</p> - -<p>24. How should kiln-dried lumber be cared for?</p> - -<p>25. What is the effect of steaming wood?</p> - -<p>26. How is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements -and from insects?</p> -</div> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="c4">CHAPTER IV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Tools</span></p> - - -<p><b>27. How to purchase tools.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The quality of the -tools used by the mechanic is of the greatest importance. -They should be selected carefully, and while it is the -poorest economy to buy anything but the best, the best -are not necessarily the most finely finished.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that -those made especially for some dealer, and bearing his -name, if sold for a less price than the best, are usually not -of the highest grade, and should be shunned. It is wisest -to buy standard makes, examining them carefully to be -sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of -steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in -the best grades of tools is made good upon complaint to -the dealer.</p> - -<p><b>28. Benches.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Figure 25 shows the type of bench -used in the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, -while that used by carpenters for ordinary work usually is -of the type shown in Fig. 26.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In many manual-training schools, the benches are -of the former type, and in the most completely equipped -schools, are fitted with locked drawers and closets for the -reception of tools, not only to keep the latter in condition -for use, but to insure that the set of tools is complete, and -to be able to place the responsibility for damage or loss.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f25"> -<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.—Manual-training Bench.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f26"> -<img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.—Carpenter’s Bench.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The <i>vises</i> should be of the modern, quick action -design, which, on account of the rapidity with which they -work, are superseding the old-fashioned wooden and iron -screw vises.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f27"> -<img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.—Two-foot, Four-fold Rule.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figright" id="f28"> -<img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.—Zigzag<br /> -Rule.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>29. Rules.</b>—The two-foot, four-fold <i>rule</i> (Fig. 27) is -the one generally used by carpenters. It is made of different -grades, the more expensive makes -being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and -12ths, and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“, -1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them. -Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate, -it is divided usually into 8ths and -16ths only. The form of rule shown in -Fig. 28 is becoming quite popular, as it -is longer. Since rules are easily lost or -broken, many workmen have a good rule -for scaling, and a cheaper one for general -work.</p> - -<p><b>30. The try-square</b> (<b>A.</b>) consists of the -beam (Fig. 29, <i>a</i>), which is generally of metal-lined -wood, and the blade (<i>b</i>), which is a thin piece of steel.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection -of this tool, as one which is not perfectly true may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>cause much trouble. To test a square, hold the beam -against a perfectly straight and square edge of a board -which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -entire length of the blade. Then turn the square over, -the other side up, and, holding the beam against the same -edge, move the blade to the line. If the jointed edge -of the board and the square are perfectly accurate, the -knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f29"> -<img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.—Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f30"> -<img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.—Use of Two Try-squares to See if Piece of Wood is “Out<br /> -of Wind.”</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figright" id="f31"> -<img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.—Position of Try-square when<br /> -Making Line.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The use of this -tool in squaring an -edge is shown in Fig. -29. The piece being -squared should be in -such a position that -the try-square will be -between the eye and -the light; in this way, -the slightest inaccuracy -may be detected. -In Fig. 31 is shown -the position of the -try-square when used -to make a line by the -edge of the blade. -If working from the -edge indicated, hold -the beam against the edge with the thumb, and at the -same time hold the blade down with one or two fingers, -using the others to steady the square in its place upon -the board. (<b>D.</b>) Two try-squares may be used to see if -a piece of wood is “out of wind” (<i>i</i> sounded as in kind) -by the method indicated in Fig. 30.</p> - -<p>Two pieces of wood known as <i>winding sticks</i>, of exactly -the same width and perfectly parallel, are often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -used in manual-training schools for this purpose; they -are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman generally -will use two steel squares if the piece is too large -to be sighted accurately without some aid of this sort.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f32"> -<img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.—Steel, or Framing, Square.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>31. The steel, or framing, square</b> (Fig. 32) is often -used as a try-square upon large work, though its most important -use is in framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable -in finding the lengths and the angles of rafters, -braces, etc. Its use for this -purpose will be explained -in “Constructive Carpentry.” -The long side of the -framing square is known as -the “blade,” and the short -side as the “tongue.”</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f33"> -<img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.—Bevel and Steel Square.</span></p> -<p class="caption">The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>32. The bevel</b> (Fig. 33) -may be set for use in marking -and testing any angle, -in the same manner that -the try-square is used upon -rectangular work. The -sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for -setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed -that the blade of the bevel rests upon the same figures -upon both the blade and the tongue of the square.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> - -<p><b>33. The gauge</b> (<b>A.</b>), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making -lines parallel to the face or working side or edge. -Usually it is made in four -pieces: the “head” (<i>a</i>), -which is held against the face -side or edge; the “stick” -(<i>bb</i>), upon which the head -moves; the “thumbscrew” -(<i>c</i>), which holds the head -firmly in its position upon -the stick; and the “point” -(<i>d</i>), which makes the desired -mark upon the wood.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f34"> -<img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.—Marking Gauge.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, the head; <i>bb</i>, the stick; <i>c</i>,<br /> the thumbscrew; -<i>d</i>, the point.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless -one is certain that the point is located accurately with -regard to the graduations upon the stick.</p> - -<p>The point should be sharpened to work with either a -push or pull cut, as at <i>e</i>.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, -and generally used with a push, though it is occasionally -pulled toward the worker. One should always work from -the face side of the piece.</p> - -<p>If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set -back, or the gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated, -which will govern the depth of the cut. Do not use -a dull gauge, or one with a round point like a pencil, as it -will tear the wood, instead of making a clean cut or scratch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f35"> -<img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.—Marking Gauge in Use.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>34. The hammer</b> (<b>A.</b>) is used by the average wood-worker -more than any other tool. The “face” (Fig. -36, <i>a</i>) and the “claws” (<i>b</i>) should be tempered carefully, -as they will either bruise or bend if too soft, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -break if too hard. The eye (<i>c</i>) is made longer than it is -wide, to prevent the head from turning on the handle, -and larger at the outside of the head than it is at the neck, -so that the handle may be firmly wedged in the eye or -socket. The neck (<i>d</i>), by extending upon the handle as it -does, adds much to the strength of the connection.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f36"> -<img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.—Claw Hammer.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, the face; <i>b</i>, the claws; <i>c</i>, the eye; <i>d</i>, the neck; <i>e</i>, grain of neck.</p> -</div> - -<p>The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained -hickory, elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped -easily.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p> - -<p>The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and -the annual layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at -the end, as at <i>c</i>. The handle should be fitted and wedged, -or “hung” in such a way that a nail may be driven home -in a flat surface without the knuckles striking, which -means that the center of the handle should be about parallel -with the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head -through the eye should exactly coincide with the long, or -major, axis of the ellipse at the end of the handle, as at <i>gg</i>, -or pounded fingers will result.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f37"> -<img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, toenailing; <i>b</i>, tacking.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>bell-faced</i> hammer is to be preferred to the <i>flat-faced</i> -type, as it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is -missed, though more skill is required to use it. Upon rough -work, the bell-faced hammer will sink the nail beneath the -surface without bruising the wood badly. Upon inside work, -the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a nail set.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the -habit of grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, -as this will give greater force to the -blow. Upon light work, the hand -will naturally slip a little toward -the head. Nails should generally -be driven in a slanting direction, -as they hold better than if driven -straight. When nails are driven as -shown at <i>a</i>, Fig. 37, it is called -“toenailing,” and when driven sufficiently -to hold, but not driven home, -as at <i>b</i>, they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven -this way when they are to be pulled out again, as in stay -laths, and in fastening pieces temporarily.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f38"> -<img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.—Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail<br /> -Set.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In forcing matched boards together, do not pound -directly upon the tongue edge of the board, but upon a -waste piece of the same material, as the tongue will be -bruised so that the -next board will not -form a good joint. -Care should be used -that the hammer -does not strike the -edge of the board -when the nail is -driven home. To -guard against this, a -nail set should be -used to sink the -head beneath the surface, -as in Fig. 38, so -that the next board -will come to its place -without trouble. -This is called “blind -nailing.”</p> - -<p><b>35. The hatchet</b> -(<b>A.</b>) is used for hewing -light work, for shingling; and as a heavy hammer, -though the face is rarely tempered to stand very heavy -usage (Fig. 39, <i>a</i>).</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) A <i>hand axe</i>, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, <i>b</i>), usually -is a better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of -greater weight, is better adapted for heavy work. A -hatchet or hand axe for general use should be sharpened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -as at <i>c</i>; but for hewing only, an edge like <i>d</i> will give the -best results.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f39"> -<img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—<i>a</i>, hatchet; <i>b</i>, hand axe.</p> -<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p> -</div> - -<p><b>36. The mallet.</b>—This tool should be used upon chisel -handles, as a hammer -will destroy the handle -in a very short time. -Mallets are of two -shapes, the <i>square-faced</i> -(Fig. 40, <i>a</i>) and the -<i>round</i> mallet (<i>b</i>), the -latter being preferred -by many workmen as it -will always strike a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while -the square-faced mallet sometimes will miss, and inflict a -painful blow upon the hand. In general, the handle of -a square-faced mallet is round, -which allows the mallet to turn -in the hand; if the handle were -made elliptical, like a hammer -handle, there would be less -likelihood of missing the chisel.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f40"> -<img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.—Mallets.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, square-faced mallet; <i>b</i>, round mallet.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>37. Saws.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The saws -used by the carpenter are for -cutting parallel with, or across, -the grain, or a combination of -the two, and all are composed -of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.”</p> - -<p>The teeth of a <i>ripsaw</i> (Fig. 41, <i>A</i>) are suitable for sawing -in a direction parallel with the general direction of the -grain. The points of different saws may be from one -third to one seventh of an inch apart, and form a series of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -chisels, the cutting edges of which are filed so that they -are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In action, -the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting -a little deeper than -the one preceding it.</p> - -<p>The <i>cutting-off -saw</i> (Fig. 41, <i>B</i>) has -from six to twelve -knife-pointed teeth -to an inch, the cutting -edges being -parallel to the sides -of the blade, and -filed so that the -point of the tooth -is upon the side -which is set beyond -the side of the blade.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f41"> -<img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>, <i>A.</i> <span class="smcap">Ripsaw.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>dd</i>, view and section of setting of teeth.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figleft2"> -<img src="images/fig41b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>, <i>B</i>. <span class="smcap">Cutting-off Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figleft2"> -<img src="images/fig41c.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>, <i>C</i>. <span class="smcap">Compass, or Keyhole, Saw.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.—Saws.</span><br /> -(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in<br /> -Fig. 41, the set of the teeth is exaggerated.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In all except the -finest saws, the -teeth are set; that -is, the points are -bent a very little in -such a way as to -make the cut wider -than the thickness -of the blade, so that -the saw may cut -through the wood -without binding, -which it could not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -do if the cut were the same thickness as the blade. The -blades of all high grade saws are thinner upon the back than -upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used upon the -finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges -of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary. -For general work, it will be found that the saw -will be much more efficient if it is given a set adapted to -the size of the teeth, or to the nature of the work it is expected -to do.</p> - -<p>The <i>compass</i>, or <i>keyhole</i>, <i>saw</i> (Fig. 41, <i>C</i>) is used where -it is necessary that the saw should cut both with and across -the grain. It is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off -saw, when a cut has to be made in the surface of a -board. This saw is used also in many places where it is -not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing curves. -In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or -cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and -the blade is made of soft metal. It may then be given -a heavy set, so that it will bend instead of breaking or -kinking, as it would be liable to do from the nature of its -work if made of tempered steel.</p> - -<p>Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is -desirable to carry as few tools as possible, have a narrow -20” or 22” saw sharpened like -a compass saw, which for -ordinary work is quite satisfactory -as either a cutting-off -or a ripsaw, thus making -another saw unnecessary.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f42"> -<img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.—Backsaw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>backsaw</i> (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is -filed like a cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -more hook, and it often has as many as fifteen teeth to the -inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as fine as is generally -used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of the saw, -and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the -back, as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually -straighten it.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon -the cutting edge than upon the back; this allows the saw -to be used upon very fine work with little or no setting. -See that the handle fits the hand, and that the saw hangs to -suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter concerning the -balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be described, -but which any one accustomed to using tools will -miss if a tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand.</p> - -<p>A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend -so that the point may be put through the handle, and -upon being released, instantly resume its shape. It should -bend evenly in proportion to the width and the gauge of -the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the blade -will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore -runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being -softer, is not expected to stand the above test.</p> - -<p>A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off -saw to be used upon coarse work; but for fine work, -a 22” blade, commonly known as a “panel saw,” is a convenient -size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is preferred by -many workmen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f43"> -<img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.—Use of the Saw.</span></p> -<p class="caption">Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work -most workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the -teeth of a hard saw are apt to break in setting, and its -edge, if it comes in contact with metal, requires filing just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -about as quickly -as that of a soft -saw, and is much -more difficult to -sharpen. If always -filed by an expert -filer, a hard saw is -superior in every -way to any other.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f44"> -<img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.—Reset Saw<br /> -Handle.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) The handle -of the saw should -be grasped firmly -by three fingers, -as in Fig. 43, with -the forefinger extended -along the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -side, thus making more room for the three fingers, and -giving better control of the saw. Very little strength -should be used in forcing a fine saw -to cut, as its own weight generally is -sufficient; if the saw is forced, it will -not run smoothly, but will bind, and -if a thin board is being worked, it is -apt to split. The saw should be used -from the face side of the material, so -that any splinters or variation will be upon the back side -and out of sight.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the -handles of their heavy saws by drilling holes through the -blade so that the handle may be fastened as close to -the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig. 44. This brings the -force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the cut, which -obviously allows a more economical application of force. -Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off -the trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will -be discussed later.)</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f45"> -<img src="images/fig45.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.—Knife Blades.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, used by wood-worker;<br /> -<i>B</i>, used in manual-training -schools.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>38. The knife blade</b> used by the wood-worker for general -work is similar to that shown in -Fig. 45, at <i>A</i>. That shown at <i>B</i> is the -form of blade in most common use in -manual-training schools, as it is better -adapted for whittling, its shape assisting -the student to some extent to prevent -the knife from following the grain.</p> - -<p><b>39. Planes.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The <i>plane</i> is the -most complex, as well as one of the most important, -tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high grade of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it -properly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f46"> -<img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.—Section of Iron Plane.</span></p> -<p class="caption1">1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap lever; 4<i>a</i>, cam; 5, cap screw; -6, frog; 6<i>a</i>, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, vertical adjusting nut; 8<i>a</i>, vertical adjusting screw; 9, -lateral adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 14, bolt -knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The only plane in use until recent years had a -wooden stock, and the iron was adjusted by blows with -a hammer; this form of plane has changed very little -since the first types were invented, as planes of ancient -times have been found which in all essentials are practically -the same as those in use to-day.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and -more convenient to use, though they will do no better -work than the wooden planes of our forefathers, which are -still preferred by many of the best workmen. The face of -an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is necessary -that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f47"> -<img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.—Result of Using Plane<br /> -with Improperly Adjusted Cap -Iron.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, -all constructed upon the same general principle as the -common bench plane which -we shall discuss later. These -planes are adjusted by screws -and levers, which are very -simple, and any one understanding -them may easily comprehend -the more intricate -molding or universal planes.</p> - -<p>The adjustment of the -modern plane may be understood -by a careful study of Fig. 46 and by comparing -it with the plane itself. The “cutter,” “iron,” or “bit” -(1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the tool, and -it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency -of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too -far from the edge of the iron, and if the cut is made against -the grain, the shaving will not break before it leads the -iron into the wood, as shown in -Fig. 47. If the cap iron is set -somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from -the edge of the cutter, according -to the wood being planed, -it will break the shaving nearly -as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, -and will result in a smooth, clean -surface. The closer the cap iron -is set to the edge, the smoother -the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby -made shorter.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f48"> -<img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.—Result of Using<br /> -Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted -Properly.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p> - -<p>It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron -(2) is set to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the -breaks will be, as in Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the -plane will cut. The plane “iron screw” (3) holds the edge of -the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap iron (2) in their -desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed against -the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the -“cam” (4<i>a</i>), holds the iron in its place, and presses the -cap iron (2) firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless -the cap iron fits the face of the cutter perfectly, the -plane will not work satisfactorily. The “frog” (6) -carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and may -be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the -“mouth” (6<i>a</i>), which should be no larger than is necessary -to allow the shavings to pass freely. The frog -rarely will require readjusting after it has been properly -located.</p> - -<p>The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) -in or out simultaneously, which governs the projection, -or “set,” of the edge of the cutter (1) beyond the face, or -“sole” (<i>b</i>) of the “plane stock,” and thus the thickness -of the shaving which the plane will cut. The “adjusting -nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8<i>a</i>) and operates -the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for -the purpose of forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of -the width of the face (b) of the plane. The two “frog -screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in the position which -will make the throat (6<i>a</i>) of the desired size.</p> - -<p>The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the -other parts of the plane are as follows: “handle” (11); -“knob” (12); “handle bolt” and “nut” (13); “knob<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -bolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,” -or “stock” (16).</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f49"> -<img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.—Setting a Plane.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The face, or sole, of the plane (<i>b</i>) must be perfectly -straight, or good work cannot be done. The ends of the -plane (<i>h</i> and <i>t</i>) are -called the “heel” and -“toe,” respectively. -The “mouth” of the -plane (between 6<i>a</i> -and 2) must be kept -clear of shavings, -or it may become -clogged.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) In setting a -plane, do not pass -the fingers over the -face, or sole, as cut -fingers may result. -Hold the plane as -shown in Fig. 49, -and look toward the -light, when the exact -projection of the cutter may be seen. Notice the position -of the fingers of the left hand, and that the eye glances -from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to make -the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a -plane, and in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness -should be avoided.</p> - -<p><b>40. Sharpening a plane.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) An important part of -this process is <i>the grinding of the cutter</i>. Set the cap -back about ⅛” from the edge of the iron, and use it as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -guide by which to grind the iron perfectly square, as at -<i>A</i>, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept perfectly square, -and never touched except to fit it to the cutter, or, if it is -too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file the -top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in -order skillfully, the cap -will need care only upon -rare occasions.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f50"> -<img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.—Whetting and Grinding of<br /> -Plane.</span></p> -<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The cutter should be -held firmly to the grindstone -or emery wheel -and kept moving from -side to side to prevent -wearing the stone in -one place. The grinding -should all be done -upon the beveled side of -the cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an -angle of about 20° (as at <i>B</i>, Fig. 50), more rather than -less, as a thinner edge is apt to “chatter,” or vibrate, if -it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many workmen use -a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any -device which holds the tool firmly at the same place on -the stone will do for a rest.</p> - -<p>In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should -be loosened and the cap iron carried back until the screw -stops at the top of the slot of the bit, as at <i>C</i>, Fig. 50. -The screw is then tightened with the fingers to hold the -cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the iron, though -some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while -whetting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f51"> -<img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the -surface of the oilstone, as shown at <i>C</i>, Fig. 50, the iron -being grasped as in Fig. 51. Keep the right wrist rigid -and allow the arm to swing from the shoulder, bending -only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion may -be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve -the bevel. Though the bevel may be maintained better -by imparting a short circular motion to the plane iron, or -to any edge tool which is being sharpened, it seems an awkward -and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an -expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds -that a stroke made nearly the entire length of the stone -will impart an edge quicker, and after the knack has been -acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as well.</p> - -<p>Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work -upon the farther end, as in this way the stone may be -kept true much longer than if one place upon it is used all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -the time. This will also minimize the danger of pulling -the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will -generally make regrinding necessary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f52"> -<img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, -or the top of the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in -Fig. 52, holding it down with the fingers of the left hand, -using the right hand only to move the iron back and forth. -Care should be used that under no circumstances is the -face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from the stone. -At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care -is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its -perfectly straight surface at the edge, as the slightest -deviation from absolute accuracy at this place will prevent -the cap iron from fitting properly, which will cause endless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -trouble, as the shavings will be forced between the -cap and the face of the iron (see <b>C.</b> of this topic).</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f53"> -<img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.—Shape<br /> -of Edge of<br /> -Plane Iron.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter -has an important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine -the edge divided into three equal parts: the middle part -should be perfectly straight, or almost imperceptibly -rounded; the two outside thirds -should be slightly and gradually rounded -until the corners of the iron are so short that -there will be no danger of their projecting -below the face of the plane. This gives -the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in -Fig. 53, which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape -shown is about that which would be seen if a moderately -coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be -fitted so carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter -that, if necessary, it may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch -from the cutting edge, though this would rarely be required -except upon very cross-grained wood.</p> - -<p>In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very -fine, sharp file should be used. The filing must all be -done upon the under side of the cap iron, at the places -where it rests upon the face or top of the cutter; or, if -preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but unless -there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint -is perfected by the use of a file, this method is not -recommended.</p> - -<p>If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be -sharpened and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01” -or less in thickness of bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -ash, or similar wood may be smoothed. It is not wise, -however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane -sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a -scraper and sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most -economical way to smooth woods of such nature.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions -which cause it; simply digging out the shavings -is useless. An improperly fitted cap iron is one of the -principal causes of trouble; the cutter may be ground so -thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard place, -the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance -under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage -of a wooden plane over the modern iron plane, as in -the former the iron is much thicker and stiffer. The -cap iron may be so thick that it causes the shavings to -curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the -front, which will make the mouth too small. This latter -may be remedied by moving the frog back, but in a -wooden plane, the mouth and the throat would have to -be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear themselves -properly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f54"> -<img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.—Jack Plane.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>41. The jack plane</b> (Fig. 54) generally is 15” long, -and its ordinary use is for the purpose of roughing out a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -piece of wood for jointing or smoothing. If it is properly -sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing plane, or as a -jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as good -work as any plane.</p> - -<p>The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and -the cap set farther back than in the other planes, especially -if it is to be used upon rough work.</p> - -<p><b>42. The jointer.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This tool is from 20” to 26” -long, and is used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to -fit them together. The shape of the edge of the cutter -of this plane should be but slightly elliptical, less so than -the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two latter are -fitted for doing very fine work.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, -it should be carried to one side or the other of its face as -may be necessary to take advantage of the elliptically -shaped edge of the cutter, by cutting a shaving thicker on -one edge than on the other, thus making the edge of the -board square with the face side.</p> - -<p>To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be -made in the center of both the iron and the width of the -face of the plane. The plane should be held as shown -in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the plane, the -tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding -the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place -upon its edge.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f55"> -<img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.—Method of Guiding a Jointer.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>43. The smoothing plane</b> (<b>A.</b>) is of the same type and -mechanism as those described above, though it is but -9 or 10” long; if satisfactory work is expected from it, -it must be kept in good order, with the cap iron perfectly -fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -time to insure that the plane should be continually in -readiness to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood, -as a plane to do the latter kind of work well is unnecessary -upon softer or straight-grained wood. For ordinary -work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆” from the -edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the -edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer -the work that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary -work is so cross-grained or knurly that it cannot be -smoothed economically, if a properly sharpened and adjusted -plane is used.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f56"> -<img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.—Knuckle Joint Block Plane.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly -the entire width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, -elliptically shaped edge must be maintained. In using a -plane or any kind of -cutting tool, the direction -of the grain -of the wood should -be carefully studied, -and every advantage -taken of it to facilitate -the work.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f57"> -<img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.—Use of the Block Plane.</span></p> -<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p> -</div> - -<p><b>44. The block -plane</b> (knuckle joint -cap, Fig. 56) (<b>A.</b>) is constructed upon a somewhat different -principle than the planes above described, as the adjusting -nut (<i>a</i>) under the cutter at the rear end of the plane is -raised or lowered to withdraw -or advance the bit, -and thus govern the cut of -the tool. The size of the -mouth is controlled by a -movable section of the face -at <i>b</i>. This plane has no -cap iron, as the use for -which it is intended makes -it unnecessary. The block -plane is used across the -end of the wood, at right -angles with the general direction of the grain. The iron, -or cutter, is so placed in the stock of the plane that its -cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut as possible,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this -method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to -resist the chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f58"> -<img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.—Using Block Plane upon Small<br /> -Pieces.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts -from edge to edge, -or chips will be -broken off at the corners; -instead, plane -from each edge, and -stop the stroke before -the other edge -is reached; reverse -the plane and work -from the other direction, -as shown at <i>A</i>, -<i>B</i>, Fig. 57. Another -and workmanlike -way of using -the block plane upon -small pieces is shown -in Fig. 58. Work -from each edge as described -above, turning -the piece over -for each stroke. In sharpening the block plane iron, -the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel -carefully maintained.</p> - -<p><b>45. The correct position.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) In using planes or -any edge tools, a position should be taken which will -furnish sufficient resistance to the pressure required for -making the cut, as the pressure should be applied firmly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -and steadily. With experience, the correct position will -be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually -upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired -easily, and the young workman should learn to work in as -nearly an erect position as possible, for if the bending of -the shoulders is persisted in, a permanent stoop will result. -Stand facing the work and clear of the bench in -order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f59"> -<img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.—Incorrect Use of Jack -Plane.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Do not allow the -plane to drop over the -end of the board at either -the beginning or the end -of the stroke, as indicated -at <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, Fig. 59. To prevent -this, the hand should be kept upon that part of -the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of -the stroke, the weight should be upon the front end of the -plane, as in Fig. 60, and at the end of the stroke upon the -rear end, or upon the handle, as in Fig. 61. Begin and end -each stroke with a lifting motion instead of allowing the -plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane -should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump; -this is caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving -heavier than the plane should cut, or, if the cap iron is -fitted and adjusted properly, by a dull iron. A cutter will -jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly against the frog. -In drawing the plane back after making a stroke, carry it -upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat -upon its face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as -when it is cutting, or possibly more.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f60"> -<img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.—Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f61"> -<img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.—Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is -possible, and take no more shavings off than is necessary -to attain the desired results. The young workman should -make a study of the grain and the peculiarities of the -different kinds of lumber upon which he works, losing no -opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities -of every available wood.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, -and much is often lost, by working with dull tools; tools -should be sharpened often and thoroughly. This is of the -utmost importance, for even with the tools in the best -possible order, it will require much care and skill to do -good work.</p> - -<p><b>46. Chisels.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Carpenters’ chisels are used for -paring and mortising; the paring chisel should be light, -smoothly finished, and ground with a sharper bevel than -that used for mortising, for which the heaviest chisel is -none too strong.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according -to the method by which the blade and handle is joined. -The tanged firmer chisel (Fig. 62, <i>A</i>) is the older form, and -is not so strong as the more recently designed socket chisel -(<i>B</i>). For light work, the tanged chisel is preferred by -many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it -is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to -catch upon the edge of the wood when the tool is used. -The beveled-edge chisel (<i>C</i>) is a favorite tool with pattern -makers; and the mortise, or framing chisel (<i>D</i>), is designed -for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of one each -of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”, -1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called -a “slice” or “slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon -heavy work.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f62"> -<img src="images/fig62.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.—Chisels.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, tanged firmer chisel; <i>B</i>, socket<br /> -chisel; <i>C</i>, beveled-edge chisel; <i>D</i>,<br /> -mortise, or framing chisel.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard -wood and of any convenient shape, as these should not be -pounded upon. Although they -are occasionally used for cutting -small mortises, it is not a good -practice unless the tops of the -handles are protected by leather -or fiber tops. Mortising chisels -should have handles of the toughest -wood obtainable, preferably -hickory, with leather nailed with -small brads upon the top to protect -the wood. If a leather -washer is fastened to the handle -by a pin or dowel, the wood will -in time pound down and the -leather be broken out and destroyed, -while if braided upon -the handle, the leather may be renewed as often as necessary. -An iron ring, or ferrule, is used by many to prevent -the handle from splitting, but this will bruise the face of the -mallet. A hammer should never be used upon any sort -of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly destroyed, -but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. -In fitting the handle to the chisel blade, care should be -used that they are in perfect alignment, as otherwise a -sharp blow may break the blade.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -at an angle of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be -apt to break upon coming in contact with a knot. A -paring chisel may be ground as -thin as 20°, as it does not have -to stand heavy blows, and a better -edge for the purpose may -thus be obtained. In whetting a -chisel, the bevel must be carefully -maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, -like the face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to -work to a line.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f63"> -<img src="images/fig63.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.—Drawshave.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>47. Gouges</b> may in general be described in the same way -as chisels, except that they are curved instead of flat. -The terms “inside” and “outside,” used in describing -them, indicate whether they are ground upon the inside -or the outside of the curve.</p> - -<p><b>48. The drawshave</b> (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting -curves, in chamfering, and for roughing out work. The -patent drawshave, with folding handles, is a safer tool to -keep in the tool box, as the edge is protected, but it is not -as satisfactory for general work as the ordinary rigid-handled -tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood should -be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands -when the tool is not in use.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f64"> -<img src="images/fig64.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.—Spokeshave.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>49. The spokeshave</b> (Fig. 64) -should not be used in any place -where a plane can be used, but -only upon concave or convex -surfaces; when used, it maybe either pushed or pulled.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f65"> -<img src="images/fig65.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.—Auger Bit.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>50. Bits</b> (<b>A.</b>) are of many different types, the most common -being the <i>auger bit</i> (Fig. 65). The use of the “worm”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> -(<i>a</i>) is to draw the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy -pressure upon the bit unnecessary. The “lips” (<i>bb</i>) -make an incision on the -wood below the cut made -by the “cutters” (<i>cc</i>), which -take the shavings out and -into the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f66"> -<img src="images/fig66.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.—Cross-handled Auger.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that -the bit is removed before the shavings clog in the twist, -which will happen if the hole becomes full of shavings -which cannot be lifted out. Should clogging occur, do -not use a great deal of strength in trying to back the bit -out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull -it out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient -strength cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being -straight over the center of the bit from the “chuck,” not -from the head of the bitbrace.</p> - -<p>After boring the hole to -the desired depth, do not -turn the bit backward to -remove it, as shavings will -be left in the hole, but give -it one turn back to loosen the -worm, then turn as though -boring the hole deeper, lifting -under the head of the -bitbrace in the meantime, -by which process the shavings -will be lifted out. These -bits are numbered from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of -an inch. Sizes larger than these are known as augers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f67"> -<img src="images/fig67.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, German bit;<br /> -<i>B</i>, twist drill.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross -handles, as in Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient -leverage to make the bit cut the wood; these -are called augers. The form shown is known -as a “Ford auger.”</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) The <i>German bit</i> (Fig. 67, <i>A</i>) is used for -boring small holes for screws and nails, and -has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our forefathers, -as its action is much more rapid. Its -progression in sizes is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds -of an inch; this tool is also called a <i>screw bit</i>.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f68"> -<img src="images/fig68.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, extension bit;<br /> -<i>B</i>, center bit.</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) The <i>twist drill</i> (Fig. 67, <i>B</i>) is a valuable -tool; every carpenter should own an -assortment of twist drills for use in places -where other bits may come in -contact with iron. The sizes -range from ¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds. -The round shank drill may be purchased -in any size up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) The <i>extension bit</i> (Fig. 68, <i>A</i>) is a -very convenient tool for boring a hole of -any size within certain limits, and is at -times extremely valuable.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) The <i>center bit</i> (Fig. 68, <i>B</i>) is often -used in boring holes through thin material -which would be apt to be split if an auger -bit were used.</p> - -<p>(<b>H.</b>) In filing an auger bit, it should be -held as shown in Fig. 69, and a small, fine -file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of the -cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the -cutter, be sure that its under side back of the cutting -edge is filed enough -to clear the wood -after the cutter has -entered it.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f69"> -<img src="images/fig69.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.—Filing an Auger Bit.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In doing this, it -should be remembered -that the bit progresses -into the wood -as it cuts, and unless -the under side of the -cutter is filed properly, -it will bear upon -the wood beneath it, -back of the cutting -edge, and prevent the -bit from advancing. -To remedy this, be -sure that the cutter -is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from -the edge to the beginning of the twist.</p> - -<p>(<b>I.</b>) If the lips (Fig. 65, <i>bb</i>) are filed off, an auger bit -bores into the end wood easily.</p> - -<p><b>51. The bitbrace, or stock.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This tool is used -to hold the bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn -the bit into the wood. Bitbraces are made of different -sizes, and with different devices for holding the “tangs” of -the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10” swing -bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or -kinds of bits alternately.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f70"> -<img src="images/fig70.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.—Ratchet Bitbrace.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the -ordinary brace only in the ratchet attachment. It is an -indispensable tool to an up-to-date workman, as it may -be used in many places -where an ordinary brace -would be useless; for general -work, however, being -heavier, it is less convenient -than the plain brace.</p> - -<p><b>52. The Screwdriver</b> (<b>A.</b>) -is one of the most important -tools in a carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of -finely tempered steel, for if too soft, it will turn over, and -if too hard, it will break. The edge should be as thick -as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to have as much -strength as possible.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory -as one with an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible -to obtain as good a grip upon the former as upon -the latter; a round handle, planed flat upon the two -opposite sides, is quite commonly used.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) <i>Ratchet screwdrivers</i> are useful in many places where -it is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent -quick-action screwdrivers on the market which are suitable -only for certain kinds of light work, as what is gained in -speed is lost in power. The screwdriver bit is a short -screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace; it is essential -in doing economical work, as screws may be driven -much more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable -on account of its greater leverage in driving heavy -screws.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p> - -<div class="figright" id="f71"> -<img src="images/fig71.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span> <span class="smcap pad">Fig. 72.</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Compasses.</span> <span class="smcap pad1">Calipers.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>53. Compasses, or dividers</b> (Fig. 71), are used to draw -circles and curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is -meant the process of fitting -a piece of wood to an uneven -surface. <i>Calipers</i> (Fig. 72) -are used to measure the outside -of a round or oval -object. Those shown are -known as “outside” calipers; -“inside” calipers, or -those used for measuring the -inside of a hole, have straight -legs. These tools ordinarily -are not considered a part of -a carpenter’s kit, as they are generally used upon work -requiring more exact measurements. Wood-workers’ tools -are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than 16ths of -an inch; hence, the ordinary -methods of measuring will -usually give sufficiently accurate -results.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f72"> -<img src="images/fig72.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span> <span class="smcap pad1">Fig. 74.</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Pliers.</span> <span class="smcap pad1">Nippers.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>54. Pliers.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) These are -indispensable little tools (Fig. -73), and every workman -should own a pair. Those -combining several tools are -most useful; cheap tools of -this sort are usually worthless.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) <i>Nippers</i> (Fig. 74) are -made to cut wire, but not to pull nails. Being tempered -for cutting, those of good quality are hard and brittle,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which -work a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased.</p> - -<p><b>55. The scraper</b> is one of the most useful tools in the -kit of the carpenter who works upon hard wood. This -tool may be purchased, or made of a very hard saw; it -must be of hard, tough -steel, or the edge will not -last. A scraper should -be about 3” × 5”, which -is a convenient size for -grasping with the hand. -Many workmen make -handles for their scrapers -(Fig. 75, <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>), -but cabinet makers, and -others who use them continually, -generally prefer -to use them without -handles. If a large surface -is to be scraped, it -is well to have a handle -of a leather palm (Fig. -75, <i>C</i>). This is a piece of leather of suitable size and -shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the -action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed -through the hole, and the broad part of the palm hangs -between the scraper and the thick of the hand. For scraping -floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, <i>D</i>) will be found valuable, -though if much of this work is to be done, it will be -the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping -machines.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f73"> -<img src="images/fig73.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.—Scraper.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, handles for scraper; <i>C</i>, leather palm;<br /> -<i>D</i>, scraper plane.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p> - -<div class="figright" id="f76"> -<img src="images/fig76.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.—Edges<br /> -of<br /> -Scrapers.</span></p> -<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, beveled<br /> -edge; <i>B</i>, square<br /> -edge.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>56. Edges.</b>—There are two forms of edges used in -sharpening scrapers,—the <i>square</i> and the <i>beveled</i> edge; -in sharpening either of these, the edge should be filed, -whetted, and turned with a burnisher, which -imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, <i>A</i> -and <i>B</i>, which shows enlarged views of the two -forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye glances -along the edge of a properly sharpened -scraper, the edge will appear slightly curved; -this edge must be given it by filing. After -the scraper is filed, each corner which is to -be turned must be whetted to a perfectly -keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of -sharpening a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle -with the sides of the scraper.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f77"> -<img src="images/fig77.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.—Angle<br /> -of Burnisher<br /> -with<br /> -Sides of<br /> -Scraper.</span></p> -<p class="caption"></p> -</div> - -<p>By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing -the particles of steel which form the corner over so that -they will form a wire edge which will stand at an angle with -the sides of the scraper. When the edge has been skillfully -turned, it will cut like a very finely sharpened -and adjusted plane, and will work either with -or against the grain without tearing the wood.</p> - -<p>Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher -with the sides of the scraper, as at <i>a</i>, Fig. 77, -and as in Fig. 78, which indicates approximately -the angle at which it should be held -across the edge when seen in the view illustrated -of either a square or beveled-edge -scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The -stroke must be from the bottom, up, as indicated. At <i>A</i>, -Fig. 79, is shown the top view of the burnisher as it makes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -each of the strokes in turning the edge of a square edge -scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an angle of -about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f78"> -<img src="images/fig78.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.—Method of Grasping Scraper<br /> -for Sharpening.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>At <i>B</i>, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge -of a bevel edge scraper; the student will notice that the -angles are similar to -those shown at <i>A</i>, -except that the first -stroke is made at -nearly the same angle -as the bevel of the -scraper. An edge -may often be turned -at one stroke, and -more than three -should rarely be necessary. -If more than -three are made, the -edge may be turned -too far, which is -worse than not being -turned enough. The -strokes should be -made in the order -indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; -otherwise it will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results.</p> - -<p>The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this -stage of the work cannot be described, but can only be -discovered by practice. A steady, moderate pressure is -all that is needed, but care should be used that the angle -of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> -will give an edge suitable for common counter or table -tops, hardwood floors, and similar work, if the skill to use -the burnisher properly has been acquired.</p> - -<p>The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil -or with the end of the tongue, as this assists it to slide over -the edge of the scraper without scratching.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f79"> -<img src="images/fig79.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.—Top Views of<br /> -the Angles of the<br /> -Burnisher.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different -shaped edge should be made; it should be whetted to four -perfectly square and keen corners, -each of which will furnish an edge. -This is a more difficult method of -sharpening a scraper, but it gives -four edges suitable for fine work. -The edge should be turned by carrying -the burnisher as shown at <i>A</i>, Fig. -79, making the strokes at the different -angles in the order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening -any scraper, care should be used that no strokes -are made back of the square, as stroke <i>bc</i> of Fig. 80. -Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated -at <i>a</i>, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two -or three strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper.</p> - -<p>To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is -necessary. This tool should be made of the hardest steel, -and is often made by the workman himself of an old file, -ground perfectly smooth and polished. Perhaps the most -satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of the wood-worker -may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to a -handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow -chisel or gouge may be used, though these are rather -clumsy. The burnishers found in stores are generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft, and any steel -which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher for -sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut -into it, instead of turning over.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f80"> -<img src="images/fig80.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.—Angle<br /> -to be Avoided<br /> -in Sharpening<br /> -Scraper.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If satisfactory results are not obtained, -there may be several causes: the scraper -may not be of just the right temper or texture; -the burnisher may be soft or rough; -the edge may not have been turned over -evenly, or it may have been turned over -too far, as indicated in an exaggerated way -at <i>a</i>, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying -the burnisher around too far, as shown by -the line <i>bc</i>. This may be remedied by using the awl point -as shown at <i>d</i>, Fig. 81, holding the scraper and burnisher -in about the same relative positions as indicated, guiding -the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried on -the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher -its entire length. In this way the edge may be turned -back to its correct angle, when a very light touch in the -usual way will generally make the desired edge.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f81"> -<img src="images/fig81.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.—<br /> -Turning<br /> -Back the<br /> -Edge of a<br /> -Scraper.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If either the scraper or the burnisher is not -of the right texture, throw it away, as it is -worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may -be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge -of the scraper is rough, it may be turned back -again by laying the scraper flat upon the -bench, the rough side up, and the burnisher -passed over it several times; then proceed as -with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory -as it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -again, especially if the corner has been turned several -times.</p> - -<p>Though it may seem from the above explanation of the -methods of sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex -operation, it will be -seen that it is not a -difficult matter, if it -is once worked out; -usually it requires a -little time and practice -to acquire the -knack that will make -it possible to do it -surely and well.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f82"> -<img src="images/fig82.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a<br /> -Broad Surface.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="f83"> -<img src="images/fig83.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within<br /> -a Small Area.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figleft" id="f84"> -<img src="images/fig84.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.—Method of Grasping Scraper<br /> -when Working upon an Edge.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In using a scraper, -it may be grasped as -shown in Figs. 82, 83, -84, as best suits the -work being done, and -the strokes should be -with the grain. In -using this tool, as in -the use of most others, -the easiest way generally is the most efficient. As the -young workman gains experience, he will gradually acquire -the correct methods to use his tools for all the various -purposes within their scope.</p> - -<p><b>57. Nail sets</b> are for the purpose of “setting” the nails, -or for sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to -stand the hard usage to which they are subjected, they -must be very carefully tempered. The best form of nail<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as it is not -so apt to slip off of the head of the nail.</p> - -<p><b>58. Wrenches</b> are of many kinds and patterns and of -every conceivable use, but -that known as the “monkey,” -or “Coe’s,” wrench -(Fig. 85) is perhaps the most -convenient for general work -and has not been supplanted by any of more recent -invention.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f85"> -<img src="images/fig85.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.—Monkey Wrench.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>59. Handscrews</b> (<b>A.</b>), if of good material and well made, -will stand any legitimate use, and if properly used and -cared for, will last a lifetime. However, a novice or a -careless workman often destroys them rapidly by allowing -the jaws to be under strain while in the position shown in -Fig. 86, which -will probably -break the middle -screw, and perhaps -both.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f86"> -<img src="images/fig86.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.—Effect of the Unskillful Use of a<br /> -Handscrew.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In using -handscrews for -gluing, the jaws -should be set to -nearly the size -of the material -which is to be -placed between -them, before the glue is spread. In placing the handscrews -upon the work, the outside screw should be turned -back so that it will not prevent the jaws from being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. -This will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the -outside screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only -position in which handscrews should be allowed to remain.</p> - - - -<p>In opening or closing -a handscrew, the -middle screw should -be held in the left -hand, and the outside -screw in the right, -as in Fig. 87; the -screws should then be -grasped so that they -will not turn in the -hand and the handscrew -revolved in -the desired direction. -Never put unnecessary -strain upon -handscrews, nor leave -them with a heavy -strain upon them for a very long time.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f87"> -<img src="images/fig87.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.—Correct Use of Handscrew.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used -than is necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work -should be glued unless the joints fit well. In any case, -the outside screw should be turned back a quarter or a half -a turn after the glue has set; this will relieve the strain, -and add much to the life of the handscrew.</p> - -<p>In gluing work which requires several handscrews to -hold it while the glue is setting, the handles of the outside -screws all should point one way, which allows the work to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -be handled much more easily, as the handles of the middle -screws will form an even bearing upon the floor. If this -is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken -when a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, -as the weight of the work will rest upon the screws which -bear upon the floor.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be -treated with beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead -mixed with oil or with wax. The latter compound is very -dirty; the former lubricates the screws perfectly. The -screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot.</p> - -<p><b>60.</b> (<b>A.</b>) <b>A grindstone</b> of good quality, from 20” to 26” -in diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and -should be used frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools -is much increased if they are kept well ground, and much -time may be saved in whetting them.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true -and round, and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite -satisfactorily determined by examining several and selecting -the coarsest, as that will doubtlessly be a fast cutting -stone.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) The stone should be carefully centered and -mounted upon a frame; the face may be kept true by -means of a file or other hard steel being held against it -as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe revolved from -side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a -stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made -softer and heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of -true.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone -continually, or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -keep the tool moving from side to side. If properly -cared for, a stone will hold its face indefinitely.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f88"> -<img src="images/fig88.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.—Emery Wheel Dresser.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>61. Emery, corundum, carborundum</b>, and other artificial -abrasive wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone, -as they cut much more rapidly. Any one not -accustomed to using them must be careful that the temper -of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a high -rate of speed, and a tool in -unskillful hands is easily -burned. To avoid this, the -tool should be held lightly -but firmly against the stone, -and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery -wheel burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing; -for this purpose a diamond emery wheel dresser is the -best, but on account of its cost, various devices have -been patented to accomplish the same result, one of which -is illustrated in Fig. 88.</p> - -<p><b>62. Whetstones.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) These are used to give to a tool -the keen edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The -natural stone in most common use is the “Washita stone,” -which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains, and is thought -by many to be the best natural stone for the general use -of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the -best quality is of even texture.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is -finer and harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive, -however, and is better adapted to the use of -woodcarvers and engravers than to the use of wood-workers -in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the best of -the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -its use. There are other natural stones, but none so -generally used as the above. The purchase of a natural -stone is to a great extent a lottery, as only about one -stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free from -cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper -upon a board, and rub the stone over it until it has -been ground down. The best place, however, to true up -a whetstone is upon the horizontal stone of a marble -worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in diameter, -mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed -pieces of marble to be ground to a flat surface.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) <i>Artificial oilstones</i>, made of emery, corundum, -carborundum, and other artificial abrasives, are coming -rapidly into use, and, as in the case of grindstones, eventually -will supplant all others in many occupations, as -they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of -any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. -They are also able to resist many accidents which would -destroy a natural stone.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) <i>Slip stones</i> are used to sharpen gouges and curved -tools of all kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. -An oblong stone, 8” × 2” × 1”, is the size of stone in most -general use by the wood-worker, and should be fitted into -a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it clean. It -may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman, -though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set -on its edge.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) The use of the oilstone is described under topic -<b>40, A.</b> The oil used should be a kind that will not gum; -its purpose is to prevent the glassiness which is caused by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -the friction of the tool over the stone. Common machine -oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and kerosene, or -coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil -suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils -will give satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone -cleaner, thereby adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose -lubricates quite as well as any of those above-mentioned.</p> - -<p><b>63.</b> (<b>A.</b>) <b>Files</b> are used for many purposes by wood-workers. -An assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper, -or three-cornered, files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files; -8”, 10”, and 12” round files; and 8” and 12” half round wood -files and rasps should be in every carpenter’s kit. The -4” slim taper files should be used upon the finer saws, and -the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are used -by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it -is necessary to have a few warding and knife files to use -upon keys and odd jobs, and also to sharpen bits.</p> - -<p>Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and -for every purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to -stand lead or soft brass, and should never be used upon -anything harder.</p> - -<p>In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow -it to drag, as it is injured thereby about as much as when -it is cutting.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) There are a great many other tools and appliances -used by the wood-worker with which the workman should -be familiar, but it is not necessary to describe them, -as the above-mentioned are the most essential tools -common to all forms of woodworking. There is no important -principle involved in the construction, care, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -use of woodworking tools which is not discussed in this -chapter, and the student who becomes thoroughly familiar -with the matter treated will have little trouble in learning -to handle other tools.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f89"> -<img src="images/fig89.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.—Jointing a Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>64. Saw filing.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This is an accomplishment -which every young wood-worker should master, as its -possession will save expense and inconvenience, and add -much to his efficiency as a workman.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine -the edge carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length; -if they are not, they should be jointed. This is done by -using a flat file held perfectly square in a block, as shown in -Fig. 89. One or two light strokes usually will be enough -to make all the teeth of the same length. The edge of -the saw should round slightly in the middle, say about -⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, -it should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little -at each time for several filings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f90"> -<img src="images/fig90.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.—Hand Saw Set.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly -set. This may be done by a <i>saw set</i>, of which there are -several patterns in use; these are all of two types, the -<i>hand set</i> (Fig. 90), and the -<i>anvil set</i> (Fig. 91). Either of -these forms is efficient, but -as it is more convenient, the -hand set is more commonly -used. Do not give the saw -too much set, or it will not -cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly on the back -side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking -the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must -be applied. The point of the teeth only should be set, -and care should be used that the blade of the saw is not -sprung, which will be apt to result from setting the teeth -too far from the point.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f91"> -<img src="images/fig91.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.—Anvil Saw<br /> -Set.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>A saw to be used upon green lumber should have -coarser teeth and more set than one which is to be used -upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A panel saw intended -for use upon fine finishing work -usually is ground so thin upon the -back that it needs little or no set. -Some workmen set a saw so heavily -that it will do for several filings; -while this is satisfactory for a soft saw -to be used upon common work, it is not -a good plan to treat a fine, hard saw -this way, though the latter may be touched up once or twice.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f92"> -<img src="images/fig92.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.—Angle of the File<br /> -with the Edge of the<br /> -Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) In filing, it is important that the file should be -carried at the same angle the entire length of both sides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -of the blade. For a cutting-off saw, the file should be -carried at an angle with the side of the blade of from 60° -for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown in Fig. 92; -and for general work, at an angle -about halfway between the two. -The file may be carried horizontally, -as at <i>aa</i>, Fig. 93, which -makes all the teeth of the same -size; as at <i>A</i>, Fig. 94; or it may be -carried as at <i>bb</i>, Fig. 93, which will -make the teeth of the shape shown -at <i>B</i>, Fig. 94. The latter method -is preferred by many workmen, as -it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening -its life a little. There is no difference in the efficiency of -the saws filed by these methods, but if filed as at <i>bb</i>, Fig. -93, it is more difficult to keep the teeth of the same size, -and to make a good-looking job.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f93"> -<img src="images/fig93.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.—Angle of the<br /> -File with the Sides<br /> -of the Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be -held more or less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according -to the hook which it is desired that -the teeth shall have. The more -hook a saw has, the faster it will -cut, but the cut will be rougher in -proportion. Experience is necessary -to discover just the right angles at -which the file should be held; after -considerable practice, the file will -naturally drop into the correct position.</p> - -<p>File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect -point, one half of the filing being done from each side; file<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> -the entire length from one side, then reverse the saw and -file from the other side. This cannot always be the exclusive -practice if a saw is in very bad shape, because if the -teeth are of uneven sizes, care must -be used, and more filed from some -teeth than from others. It may, in -such a case, be necessary to go over -the saw two or three times, but it -should be done very carefully, so that -the bevel of the teeth may be preserved -and their length kept the same. Observe each -tooth, and press toward the point or the handle of the -saw, as may be necessary. The file should be carried -with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting -or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of -the saw, and the back of the tooth next ahead on the -nearer side with the same stroke. If the point of the saw -is carried toward the handle of the saw, it makes the teeth -chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It -also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life -of a file, as the continuous -chatter against its teeth -will soon break them, and -destroy the file.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="f94"> -<img src="images/fig94.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.—Results of<br /> -Filings as at</span> <i>aa</i> <span class="smcap">and</span><br /> -<i>bb</i>, <span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>A ripsaw requires more -set than a cutting-off saw, -and if, as usual, the file -is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may -be filed from one side.</p> - -<p>After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly -flat surface, and given a light touch with a flat file or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> -whetstone, to remove the burr caused by the file, as in -Fig. 96.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="f95"> -<img src="images/fig95.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.—Method of Carrying a File<br /> -to obtain the Hook of a Cutting-off<br /> -Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination -of the rip- and the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of -both as occasion requires. The teeth should be nearly -as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the front teeth filed -at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In -filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a -little lower than horizontal. Figure 41, <i>C</i>, shows three -views of the teeth of a compass saw.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f96"> -<img src="images/fig96.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.—Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p> - -<p>27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a -good, serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially -for some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to -follow in buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?</p> - -<p>28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.</p> - -<p>29. Describe the rule in common use.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></p> - -<p>30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be -used in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?</p> - -<p>31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.</p> - -<p>32. Describe the bevel and its use.</p> - -<p>33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the -gauge be depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is -useful?</p> - -<p>34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly -tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened -to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. -How should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that -they will hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving -up ceiling or matched boards? How and why should nail heads be -sunk below the joint surface?</p> - -<p>35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening -a hatchet.</p> - -<p>36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare -two forms of mallets.</p> - -<p>37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw. -After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a -cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of -both? For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are -other saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the -backsaw. How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What -kind of saw is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the -back of a saw compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? -What test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What -are the best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard -and a medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much -force should be used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the -handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily?</p> - -<p>38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why -is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for -whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?</p> - -<p>39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe -the mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -the condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so -that one may see the adjustment of the cutter?</p> - -<p>40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may -a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side -of the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be -ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where -should the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the -bit be held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm -while whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing -unevenly? What motion should be avoided in whetting? What -is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the -cap iron? What is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?</p> - -<p>41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way -does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?</p> - -<p>42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What -should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should -a plane be carried to joint an edge square?</p> - -<p>43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be -the position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How -should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?</p> - -<p>44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with -the above planes.</p> - -<p>45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of -any sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders? -What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end -of the strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull -tools? How should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?</p> - -<p>46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities -and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should a -mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why? -Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring -and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a slice, or -slick?</p> - -<p>47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and -an outside gouge?</p> - -<p>48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> -of the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the -edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?</p> - -<p>49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.</p> - -<p>50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the -different parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging -of a bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, -how should it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German -bit; of a twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe -the method of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part -of a bit should never be filed? Why?</p> - -<p>51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the -ratchet brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?</p> - -<p>52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screwdriver? -What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value -of a screwdriver bit?</p> - -<p>53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.</p> - -<p>54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use? -Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?</p> - -<p>55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper? -Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.</p> - -<p>56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for -rough work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when -the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is -not sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to -the grain?</p> - -<p>57. Describe the best form of nail set.</p> - -<p>58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?</p> - -<p>59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position -of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How -should handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?</p> - -<p>60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should -a grindstone be trued?</p> - -<p>61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be -guarded against in the use of an emery wheel?</p> - -<p>62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is -commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> -kinds. How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming -into use? Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and -edgeways. What forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of -oils are used for oil or whetstones?</p> - -<p>63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files -generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.</p> - -<p>64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of -the cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate -the process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and -fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be -carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying the -file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle with -the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw? If the -saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished -point when going over it the first time? What should be the direction -of the point of the file while it is cutting? Compare the set of the ripsaw -and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare the teeth of the compass -saw with those of others.</p> -</div> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="c5">CHAPTER V</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Glue and Sandpaper</span></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">65. Different kinds of glue.</span>—(<b>A.</b>) Wood-workers use -both <i>liquid</i> and <i>sheet</i> or <i>stick</i> glue, but as the former -requires little skill in its use, we will deal principally with -the latter, which is made of hides, sinews, bones, and -waste material of slaughterhouses. Different grades of -glue are made of various kinds of refuse, but the processes -of treating them all are similar.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The material from which glue is to be made is -steeped in lime water at low temperature, or subjected to -a chemical treatment for a sufficient time to separate the -fat from the fiber. The latter is then washed in clean -water and boiled down to gelatin, which is spread upon -wires to dry and harden, when it is ready for use.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) <i>Ground glue</i> makes up more readily than that -which comes in sheets, and therefore is preferred by many -workmen. It is frequently adulterated, but if made upon -honor, it is as good as the glue from which it is made, and -does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time in a damp -place. As it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground -glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks, -many workmen prefer not to use it unless sure of its -quality.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) The highest-priced glue is not always the best for -all purposes, and a dealer who handles different grades can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -generally advise which should be used, though the medium -grade in common use is usually satisfactory for general -work.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) It is impossible to give infallible rules for testing -glue in the stick, or to say that glue should be of any -special color, or that it should be either transparent or -opaque; but, in general, glue suitable for ordinary work -will be of a reddish, yellowish, or light brownish color, clear -and transparent, and not offensive to either taste or smell, -though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely -opaque. Good glue will swell in cold water, but will not -dissolve until it has nearly reached the boiling point. It -will also absorb more water than will poor glue, and is -therefore more economical. Any test which depends upon -the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable, as -a somewhat damp, good glue will not stand this test as -well as a poor glue that is very dry. If conditions are the -same, and comparison is possible, it is fairly safe to assume -that if a good glue is cut with a sharp knife, a hard, elastic -shaving will result, while a poor glue will give a shaving -which is extremely brittle, and will break into little pieces.</p> - -<p>A safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces -of the same kind of wood, 1” square and about 12” long, -fit them perfectly end to end in pairs, and glue as many -of them together as there are samples of glue to be tested. -After the glue is thoroughly hard, clamp one of the pieces -of each pair to a bench top, with the joint coinciding with -the edge. Hang a pail about 10” from the joint on the -piece which projects over the edge of the bench, and allow -sand to run into it slowly, until the joint breaks. Repeat -this process with each pair which has been glued up, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will furnish -a basis of comparison between the different varieties -of glue tested.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) Glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water -before being put into a glue pot, which should be a double -vessel, with the glue in the inside pot, and the hot water or -steam in the outer jacket. In making up glue, it should be -brought to the boiling point until melted, and then removed -from the heat, for if kept continually hot, it loses much -of its strength by being cooked too much, as this makes -continual thinning necessary.</p> - -<p>If time will not permit, the preliminary soaking may be -dispensed with, and the hard glue put at once in the hot -water, in which case it must be stirred frequently while -melting, or it will form a mass. If the water boils out of -the outside kettle, and the glue burns, throw it away, as it -is worthless.</p> - -<p>Glue should be thinned with cold water, after which it -should be allowed to become thoroughly heated before -using; in the shops, this is not always done, as there may -not be time to allow the glue to become heated again; -therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue -with hot water.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) Paint brushes, or other brushes in which the -bristles are set in glue, are not suitable for use in hot glue, -and those made especially for this purpose should be -purchased. For very small brushes, a strip of basswood -bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from -the end; these are satisfactory for small work.</p> - -<p><b>66. How to use glue.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Glue should be used as -hot as possible, and of about the consistency of cream.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> -The pieces to be glued should be heated thoroughly and -the gluing done in a warm room.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In factories, where it is possible, the gluing is done -in a specially fitted room which contains all necessary -appliances. Vertical and horizontal coils of steam pipes -surround the room, both to furnish heat for the room, and -for the purpose of heating the material to be glued, which -should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for -more than a few seconds. In a room of this sort, the -temperature is maintained at from 110° to 130° F.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) If the best possible results are wanted, a <i>scratch -plane</i> should be used. This is a tool similar to a smoother, -only its cutter is nearly vertical, and it has teeth like a -fine saw which will scratch the wood, thus giving a better -hold for the glue.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) It is important that all clamps, handscrews, and -other appliances which are likely to be needed should be -set as nearly as possible the desired size, and so arranged -as to be reached easily, for when the glue is applied, there -should not be the slightest hesitation or delay in getting -the work together and the clamps on. The utmost speed -and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot -glue; therefore everything during the process of the -work should be foreseen and provision made for it before -the glue is applied, for if the glue is even slightly chilled, -the work will not be so well done, and the efficiency of the -glue will be greatly diminished. A novice should never -attempt more than the simplest work, unless working with -a competent man.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) The glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with -a brush of suitable size,—a large one for broad surfaces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> -and a small one for small work. Glue should not be -thrown about wastefully; enough should be used to cover -the surface completely but not thickly.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) In using handscrews, it is of the greatest importance -that the jaws be kept parallel as described in Topic -<b>59</b>; care must be used that more strain is not placed upon -the handscrews and clamps than is necessary to bring the -joint together.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) Cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in -furniture repairing, gluing up intricate work, and in -places where it is impracticable to use hot glue either -on account of its setting too rapidly, or where heat is -not available. Liquid glue does not hold as well nor as -permanently as hot glue when properly used, but for many -kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory.</p> - -<p>(<b>H.</b>) In gluing rosewood, or other woods of a greasy -nature, the glue should be thinned with vinegar, which will -cut the grease. Another method of making glue hold on -wood of this sort is to chalk both members of the joint -thoroughly, and let it stand for two or three hours, when -it should be wiped off. This absorbs the grease on the -surface of the wood, which allows the glue to take hold. -In all gluing, do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint -any more than necessary, as the grease and perspiration -will prevent the best results from being obtained.</p> - -<p><b>67. The testing of sandpaper.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Sandpaper is -made by covering paper with a thin layer of glue, over -which is spread evenly a layer of ground flint or glass; -over this is spread another coating of glue, which firmly -fastens the sand to the paper.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In buying sandpaper, pass the finger over it to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> -see if the sand is firmly fastened. Be sure that the paper -is neither flimsy nor brittle. Coarse particles of sand are -sometimes found upon sandpaper which renders it worthless; -these can be detected only by use, unless they are -very prominent.</p> - -<p><b>68. How to use sandpaper.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Sandpaper is made -in numbers, 00, 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3. Numbers 00 and 0 -are very fine, and are used in rubbing down shellac and -varnish. Numbers ½ and 1 are used in sandpapering -mahogany and other fancy woods, and number 1½ is used -upon all building finish but the finest; the coarser numbers -are used upon floors, outside finish, and other coarse -work which is to be painted, though for a very nice floor, -1½ is used, rarely anything finer. It is a fallacy to think -that the finer the sandpaper used, the finer the job will be, -since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make -a glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like -the rest of the work. Sandpapering is as apt to detract -from the work as it is to improve it, for unless used very -skillfully, the character of angles and small surfaces will be -changed, though it may seem that the damage is so slight -as to be imperceptible. In using sandpaper, the workman -should guard against rounding off square corners or destroying -the form of surfaces; a raw corner, however, -should be removed with a few light, careful strokes, as a -perfectly sharp corner will always be more or less ragged.</p> - -<p><i>The one who knows</i> will always notice the omissions of -details of this sort, and will attribute such imperfections -to lack of skill or knowledge on the part of the workman. -It is for the one who knows, that all work should be done—not -for the casual observer—and these apparently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> -insignificant details, rather than the part of the work -which may seem of more importance, form the basis by -which one workman judges the work of another. In -nothing do small things count more than in making or -destroying a workman’s reputation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f97"> -<img src="images/fig97.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.—Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Keep the sandpaper dry, and stored in a dry place, -as moisture softens the glue so that the sand may be easily -rubbed off. In handling sandpaper, care should be taken -that the sanded sides are not rubbed together.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) In preparing to sandpaper a flat surface, or for -general work, a sheet of sandpaper should be torn in -halves the short way of the paper, and one half should -be folded back to back, and held (not tacked) around the -block with the hand, as in Fig. 97. The act of grasping -the block for the work will hold the sandpaper, and any -device for holding the sandpaper on the block is worthless, -being considered by the workman as a mark of the -novice. The block should be about 3” × 4” × ⅞”, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> -may be made of wood, cork, fiber, or any material which -suits the taste of the workman.</p> - -<p>If there is much sandpapering of moldings to be done, -it is best to make blocks which will fit the contour of them, -as it is very hard on the hands to do this work for very -long at a time, though nothing has ever been invented -which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers. A piece -of sandpaper <i>should never be used on a piece of work until -all the cutting by edge tools has been done</i>, as the particles of -sand will enter the grain of the wood, and any edge tools -used upon it afterward will be quickly dulled. Do not -use a piece of sandpaper so large that any part of it will -not be under perfect control, as loose ends will scratch the -wood, and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appearance. -Always work parallel with the grain, and be sure -that all plane marks and rough places are thoroughly -rubbed down. In order to do this well, it is often necessary -to use considerable muscle. This part of the work calls -for good judgment, for unless sandpapered enough, there -will be places which will show when the finish is spread -on the work, though they may have been invisible before. -No one can tell as well as the workman himself when sufficient -sandpapering has been done, though it may be evident -to any one who knows the signs whether or not the -work has been done judiciously. Upon a coarse job it is -usually allowable, and sometimes desirable, to sandpaper -across the grain, especially if the work is to be painted.</p> - -<p>In order to impress it upon the student, we will repeat -that <i>too much care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper</i>, -for much oftener will an amateur injure a piece of work -than improve it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> - -<div class="figright" id="f98"> -<img src="images/fig98.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.—Sandpapering Panel<br /> -Work.</span></p> -<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) In sandpapering panel work, as in Fig. 98, the -panels (<i>a</i>) should be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered, -and the edges of the stiles (<i>b</i>), rails (<i>d</i>), and muntins (<i>e</i>) -should be treated the same way -before the panel work is put together; -an exception to this in -regard to the panels may be made -if the panel frame is constructed -in such a way as to allow the panels -to be put in place after it is together, -in which case the panels -may be smoothed at any time. -Upon very fine work the panels -are sometimes polished before -being put in place, as it is difficult -for the finisher to work into the corners after the panels -are in place. After the faces of the stiles, rails, and muntins -have been planed and scraped, they should be sandpapered -in the order named, working with the sandpaper over a -sharp-cornered block close to the edges of the pieces, -being careful not to drag the paper over the face of the -pieces which join at right angles. The stiles, rails, and -muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which -they are mentioned. If the sandpaper runs over the rails -a little when sandpapering the muntins, or over the stiles -when sanding the rails, it will do no harm, as a couple of -light, careful strokes parallel with the grain will be sufficient -to remove any scratches which may be made.</p> - -<p>In sanding mahogany, or any wood of which the grain -rubs up, make the strokes in one direction only, instead -of back and forth. Sometimes wax is rubbed in to hold<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -the grain down upon cheap work, but this is not recommended, -as that place will not take the stain or the finish -like the rest of the wood. A very thin coat of shellac is -used for the same purpose; this is less objectionable, but -should be avoided if possible.</p> - - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p> - -<p>65. Of what material is glue made? Describe briefly the process -of making glue. What kind of glue is best for general work? Is -ground glue always reliable? What is the chief advantage in its use? -Is high-priced glue always the best for all purposes? What should be -the appearance of good glue? How should it act in cold water? When -cut with a knife? When broken? Compare the amount of water -absorbed by a good and a poor glue. How should a glue pot be constructed? -What will be the result if the glue pot boils dry? Describe -brushes suitable for use in gluing. What kind of bark makes a good -brush for small work? How is it prepared for use?</p> - -<p>66. Describe the condition of glue when ready for use. What tool -is used to increase the strength of the joint? In preparing for gluing, -what preparations should be made? How should wood be treated for -use in gluing up wood of a greasy nature?</p> - -<p>67. Describe the manufacture of sandpaper. What is used for sand? -How select sandpaper?</p> - -<p>68. For what kind of work is sandpaper numbers 00 and 0 used? -Numbers 1/2 and 1? What number of sandpaper is used upon general -work? What will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place, or -becomes wet? What should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used -upon flat surfaces, and for general work? How should moldings be -sandpapered? What should be guarded against in working around -sharp corners? Should sandpaper be carried with or across the grain? -What exceptions? How should panel work be sandpapered? How -should panels and the edges of stiles, rails, and muntins be treated -before gluing up? How should sandpaper be used upon grain which -rubs up? How are panels sometimes treated upon fine work? Why?</p> -</div> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="c6">CHAPTER VI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Wood Finishing</span></p> - -<p><b>69. Filling.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) After wood has been smoothed and -made ready to receive the finish, it is prepared by <i>filling</i>, -by which is meant the process of filling the grain so that -the finish itself will not soak in. This, if well done, -makes it possible to do as good a job of finishing with -two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of wood -with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open-grained -woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need -filling, as before the process of filling was discovered, the -open grain, or cellular part of the wood, had to be filled -by shellac, or other expensive material, before there was -a surface suitable to receive the polish. (<b>B.</b>) There are -two forms of filler—<i>the paste</i>, which is for use upon open-grained -woods, and <i>the liquid</i>, which is adapted to filling -the pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry, -etc., and which takes the place of one coat of the more expensive -shellac or other finish. The paste may be purchased -ready-made, and colored to suit the taste, or it may be -made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and any dry -colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingredients -should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed -with boiled linseed oil to a thick paste; to this should be -added as much japan drier as there is of the oil, or one -quarter as much as there is of the paste. The whole may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene -to a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily, -but it should still be quite thick.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the -surface of the wood must be covered, and the filling -thoroughly worked into the grain. After this has been -done, the wood should be allowed to stand a few minutes, -until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems to -stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when -it should be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing -across the grain wherever possible. Do not use cloth until -cleaning up after the filler is all off, as it is more apt to -take the filling out of the grain than either excelsior or -shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a -sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several -hours, or over night, before the finish is applied, as otherwise -the moisture in the filler may cause the finish to -bubble. Care should be used that the filling does not -stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be very difficult -to remove it; hence, it is best not to spread any more than -can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that -there is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is -applied, as it is difficult to match colors.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and -as evenly as possible, as the laps will be apt to show -through the finish which is spread over it.</p> - -<p><b>70. Staining wood</b> (<b>A.</b>) is for the purpose of imparting -some other than the natural color to the wood.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is -used which will color the wood before it is filled, though -upon general work, it is the custom to color the stain only.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -This does not make the work all of one color, as the cells -of the wood will retain more filling than will the harder -part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain may -be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is -being treated, it should be filled after being stained. -Close-grained woods are ready for the finish as soon as the -stain has dried. Stains which will do the work satisfactorily -may be made of various chemicals. There are -also many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can -be purchased in as small packages as desired, offering the -student a large range of colors from which to select.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by -mixing dry colors with turpentine or benzine, and a little -boiled oil and japan to bind the color. These stains should -be applied the same as the filler, but not allowed to become -so hard before cleaning off, or there will be light places -rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should -be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are -no places left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the -finish will make them muddy.</p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) A very good <i>old cherry</i> stain may be made by mixing -Venetian red and rose pink until the desired shade is -produced.</p> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) <i>Black walnut</i> may be imitated by mixing burnt -umber with turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish -tinge is desired, a little burnt sienna may be added; this -is a much better color than can be produced by umber -alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes a -good walnut stain.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as -a vehicle, as a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -which is impossible with any stain that has oil in -it. The objection to using water is that the grain of the -wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded smooth -before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection, -water stains are used extensively upon the best work.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) The rich mahogany stain which is so much admired -may be made by mixing the same colors as mentioned -in (<b>D.</b>), and adding carmine until the desired color -is obtained. An oil stain will not give the best results, -therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of gum -arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or -less of the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion -of mucilage. This stain should be cleaned off the same as -the oil stain above described.</p> - -<p>(<b>H.</b>) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid; -other woods may be darkened or aged by using ammonia, -potash, or a strong solution of tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of -silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives a beautiful brown.</p> - -<p>(<b>I.</b>) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts -of permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dissolved -in water; as many coats as desired may be applied, -sanding with number 00 sandpaper between the coats. -Better results are obtained if the stain is applied hot.</p> - -<p>(<b>J.</b>) A beautiful green of any intensity may be produced -by mixing verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and -applying hot. Several coats may be necessary, sanding -between the coats. The indigo should be used cautiously, -or the green may have too much of a bluish cast.</p> - -<p>(<b>K.</b>) A rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution -of logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied -in coats in the order named. Each solution should be hot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>L.</b>) <i>Ebony</i> may be obtained by giving any close-grained -wood, cherry preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using -a weak solution, and after that has dried and been sanded, -a coat of solution of nutgalls. If the iron is too strong, a -white efflorescence will appear, which in open-grained -woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this is -objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler.</p> - -<p>(<b>M.</b>) <i>Shellac</i> (see <b>71, A.</b>) and boneblack, if well mixed, -make an ebony finish which is often used upon common -work; black varnish sometimes is used the same as black -shellac, but for the best work these are not satisfactory, -as they do not strike into the wood to the same extent as -do acid, turpentine, or water stain.</p> - -<p><b>71. Shellac.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This is a product of Africa and -South America. It is the combination of a secretion of -the female of a small insect and the sap of a tree, in the -bark of which the insect deposits its eggs. The gum thus -formed is gathered, and after passing through various refining -processes becomes the shellac known to commerce. -It is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol, -when it is ready for use. Some of the best furniture is -finished with shellac, and unless continuously exposed to -moisture or hard usage, the finish is practically everlasting.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable -to, neither does its luster dim by exposure to the various -gases present in every house, which are due to domestic -causes, though most varnishes will do this after some years.</p> - -<p>Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satisfactory, -though three coats generally will improve the -work sufficiently to make it advisable to apply the extra -coat. Shellac should not be laid in too thick coats, or it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -will pit badly in drying, and make work in rubbing to a -surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are -spread, though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying -thin coats is that the wood may be covered more evenly, -and there will be fewer runs and laps visible. Shellac -should always be laid with quick strokes, never working -over a place already covered; for this work, use a brush as -large as possible to do the work without clumsiness.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the -other, each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sandpaper, -or with pulverized pumice stone before the next -coat is spread. For this purpose, a sheet of sandpaper -should be cut into eighths, and one of these pieces folded -in the center of its long dimension, and held in the hand -as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching -the surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a -surface with pumice stone, it should be applied with hair-cloth, -or with harness maker’s felt, moistened with oil or -water; but for ordinary work, sandpaper will give satisfaction, -and as it is more convenient, it is much used.</p> - -<p>If the best results are desired, the last coat should be -rubbed with pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above, -though boiled oil is satisfactory; and for ordinary work, -number 00 sandpaper is used, though it is liable to show -scratches. After the rubbing is done, the oil should be -wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone dusted -on and polished with a clean, soft cloth. Many finishers -use the palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches. -If a dead, or mat, finish is desired, the final rubbing should -be done with water, used sparingly, as oil imparts a high -gloss, if the work is well done.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p> - -<p>(<b>D.</b>) Care should be used on any kind of work upon -which waste or oily rags are used; these rags should be -gathered and burned unless they are wanted again soon, -in which case they may be spread out separately; since, -if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into -a waste box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a -case of spontaneous combustion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="f99"> -<img src="images/fig99.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.—Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing Down Shellac<br /> -Finish.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(<b>E.</b>) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all -kinds is very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of -a rubbed finish. Moreover, any dust settling upon moist -varnish is held, giving the surface an effect of countless -minute points; rubbing removes these, and gives the -smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -the most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of -a built-up polish, is not considered good taste; the use of -muscle and a very little oil, applied at intervals during a -term of years, gives a polish and a beauty which can be -obtained by no other method, and it is to attain this ideal -in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist.</p> - -<p>(<b>F.</b>) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed -through, as the pressure will naturally be more upon the -corners than upon a broad surface. This may be avoided by -using care that the pressure is not applied so as to bear -on the corner; grasp the rubbing material in such a way -that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99, -or the finish may be badly scratched; this applies especially -to the corners. The rubbing should always be -in the direction parallel with the grain of the wood.</p> - -<p>(<b>G.</b>) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it -may be repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare -wood with fine sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to -the same condition as the rest of the wood before the first -coat of finish was applied. Using the same finishing -material as the finish of the rest of the piece, lay a very -thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched, being -careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This -ridge may be drawn out by a small camel’s-hair brush, and -the patch left until thoroughly dried; then apply another -patch a little larger than the first one, treating the edge -as in the first patch. Continue this until the finish is built -up to the same thickness as that of which it is a part. -This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the -same finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to -rub through the old finish at the edge of the patch. As it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -is the corners which are most liable to be rubbed through, -this process will not generally be difficult of application; -all that is necessary to secure a successful patch is to use -care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the -different patches.</p> - -<p><b>72. Wax finishing</b> is a good method of finishing any -kind of hard or dark-colored wood; (<b>A.</b>) it does not give -as satisfactory results, however, as do some other methods -of finishing, upon soft or light-colored wood. There are -a number of different kinds of wax finishes which can be -purchased in almost any desired quantity, (<b>B.</b>) but an -economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by -dissolving as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on -a cent in a half pint of turpentine or gasolene heated in -a water or steam double vessel. After this is clear, cut -up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a thimble, and -allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when it -is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities -by using the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight -vessel, it will keep indefinitely.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as -smoothly and as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand -until it has become quite hard, when it should be polished -with a soft rag which is free from lint. As many coats as -desired may be applied, each coat being treated in the -same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another -method of applying this finish, and which gives satisfactory -results upon broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag, -and rub the wax on the wood, rubbing until it is dry. -This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a brush upon -work where there are many corners to finish around.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span></p> - -<p>One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may -be brightened if it becomes dim by going over it with a -soft cloth, or it may be renewed and improved by another -coat at slight expense and little trouble.</p> - -<p>This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor -made of a wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed.</p> - -<p><b>73.</b> (<b>A.</b>) <b>Oil finish</b> is perhaps the most simple way to -finish a piece of furniture; it is best adapted to hard, -dark woods. The material is made by mixing a quarter -of a pint of turpentine with seven eighths of a quart of -boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly over the -surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it -as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should -be brought to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle, -as the finish should stand about ten hours, during which -time a thin film or skin will form, which must be removed -by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint, should be -used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave -their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken -care of, and is used to some extent in finishing the most -artistic furniture, being especially adapted to finishing -mahogany. It has a character peculiarly its own, and -exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost -any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally -oiled, it improves with age and care. This finish was used -in olden times, and the care of generations gives a polish -attainable by no other method.</p> - -<p><b>74. Varnish</b> forms the finish which is used most commonly -upon all grades and kinds of work. (<b>A.</b>) The -different grades are made of various vegetable gums and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> -resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with boiled oil. A -cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling -resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums -may be treated the same way; the varnish used upon the -best work, for instance, is made from copal, a vegetable -product of the tropics. By a very careful process of boiling, -straining, and ripening, extending over months, -copal is made into the product which is used so extensively -upon furniture finishing, carriages, etc.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to -about 80° F., the dust should be laid by sprinkling, and -there should be no drafts of air, nor flies or other insects -to light upon it, if the best results are desired.</p> - -<p>(<b>C.</b>) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat -as in shellac, a thick coat should be applied. This may be -done by using a thick, heavy brush; some prefer a heavy, -round brush, and others think they can obtain the best -results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the hairs, the -better the results obtained.</p> - -<p>The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to -cover the entire surface, if possible, and spread or flowed -very quickly. The brush should then be wiped out in -the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried, go over the -surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb; wipe -this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing -is left but a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly, -it will prevent all runs and streaks which result from unskillful -workmanship.</p> - -<p>When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00 -sandpaper, pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of -pumice stone (carriage painter’s method), and repeat the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -process until the desired body of varnish is obtained. Rub -down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as much time -between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish -is, the better and more durable the work will be when -completed.</p> - -<p><b>75. Polishing.</b>—This term applies to the process by -which a polish is built up by rubbing, or “ragging” as -workmen sometimes call it. The piece to be polished -should receive two or three coats of shellac or varnish, -which should be rubbed down to a surface, when it is -ready for the polish.</p> - -<p>To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a -piece of old, soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cotton -waste; or the end of a roll of cloth may be covered -by the piece which is to do the actual polishing. Provide -a cup of moderately thin shellac and another of boiled oil, -of which about one quarter is turpentine; or better, a cup -of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the -oil and allow it to soak in completely, then do the same -with the shellac. Now dip the pad again into the shellac, -and with the finger put on a single drop of oil, and rub -lightly upon the work, with a circular motion, or if the -work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the -work is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end -of the stroke, as the instant between the end of one stroke -and the beginning of the return may be enough to allow the -shellac to stick and make a hole in the surface, which will -be difficult to repair; begin and end the stroke with a sweeping -motion. The idea of this method of polishing is to bring -the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for lubricating, -as the less oil used, the better will be the polish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span></p> - -<p><b>76. Brushes.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) If brushes are to be used for stain -or for filling, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do, -a flat brush being preferred upon ordinary work. For -shellac and varnish, the finer the brush, the better the -results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the best practice -to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will permit, -as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a -smaller brush, and have fewer “laps.” Chisel-pointed, -flat brushes, from 1½” to 2½” in width, will be found satisfactory -for the work of schools and amateurs, but upon -professional work, brushes from 3½” to 5” often are used.</p> - -<p>(<b>B.</b>) The care of the brushes is an important part of -the work of those who use them, as neglect or carelessness -may destroy a valuable brush overnight. Unless a brush -is going to be used again the next day, it is always best to -clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint, or varnish -brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush, -use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To -obtain the best results, all brushes should be washed in -hot, soapy water, and afterward rinsed in clean water; in -general, however, this latter precaution may be dispensed -with, unless the brushes are to be laid away indefinitely. -Unless the above precautions have been taken, care should -be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed -from one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its -side for more than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direction -is easily given the bristles, and the brushes may be -quickly destroyed by a little carelessness or negligence.</p> - -<p>Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better -results than new brushes; therefore they should be treated -with every possible consideration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></p> - -<p>Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if -they are hung up so that they will not rest upon their -bristles, this is the best way to keep them when they are -in almost constant daily use.</p> - - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p> - -<p>69. Why is wood filler used? Describe paste filler. Describe the -process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid filler -and the process of spreading it.</p> - -<p>70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results -of staining and filling and of filling alone? How may stains for open-grained -woods be mixed and used? Describe a simple cherry or mahogany -stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to -a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How -may woods be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown -stain; of a good green stain; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing. -For what purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used?</p> - -<p>71. Of what does shellac finish consist? What is the source of supply -of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the -application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better? -Why is rubbing down necessary? Demonstrate. What precautions -should be taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should be -guarded against in rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of -sandpaper? Describe and demonstrate patching.</p> - -<p>72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demonstrate -two methods of applying wax finish.</p> - -<p>73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities.</p> - -<p>74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal conditions -for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of -flowing varnish.</p> - -<p>75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing.</p> - -<p>76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of work. -How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general treatment -of a brush? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use?</p> -</div> -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p> - -<p class="ph2">INDEX</p> -</div> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Age of tree, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alburnum, <i>see</i> Sapwood.</li> - -<li class="indx">Annual layer, formation of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">covering over breaks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in quarter-sawed lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shrinking around, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apple wood, description of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arkansas stone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ash, description of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Auger, cross-handled, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Auger bit, described, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Axe, hand, described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Backsaw, described, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Balsam fir, illustrated, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Band saw, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bark, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#f3">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basswood (or linden), description of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bast, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bastard sawing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beech, description of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bell-faced hammer, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Benches, types of, described, <a href="#Page_57">57-59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bevel, described, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bill stuff, sawing of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birch, description of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bird’s-eye maple, description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bitbrace, or stock, described, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ratchet, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bits, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black walnut, <i>see</i> Walnut.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black walnut stain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blemishes, in grading lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blind nailing, described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Block plane, description and use of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boards, sawing of, to dimension, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">surveying or estimating of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">measuring of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for siding, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">piling of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brushes, for gluing, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for staining and filling, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, <a href="#Page_97">97-100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Butternut (or white walnut), description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buttonwood, <i>see</i> Sycamore.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Cable, hauling logs by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calipers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cam, of plane, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cambium, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canoe birch, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cap iron, of plane, use of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cap screw, of plane, use of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carborundum, as grindstone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as oilstone, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carpenter’s bench, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cedar, description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cellular grain of wood, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Center bit, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Checking, or cracking, of lumber, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cherry, description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to darken, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chestnut, description of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chisels, described, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Circular saw, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Claw hammer, described, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clefts, or splits, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Close-grained woods, filling of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">staining of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coarse-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Color of wood, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comb-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Common boards, grading of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">measuring of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compasses, or dividers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coniferous trees, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corundum, as grindstone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as oilstone, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cross-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Culls, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cup shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cutting-off saw, described, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cypress, description of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Decay of tree, how prevented, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deciduous trees, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Defects in lumber, <a href="#Page_7">7-10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dimension timber, sawing of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Discolorations in lumber, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dividers, <i>see</i> Compasses.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drawshave, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Duramen, <i>see</i> Heartwood.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ebony stain, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edge, squaring an, with try-square, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edges, square and beveled, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elm, description of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emery, as grindstone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as oilstone, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a plane, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Endogenous trees, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Estimating lumber, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exogenous trees, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Extension bit, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Files, description and use of, <a href="#Page_108">108-113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Filler, how to make, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to spread, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fine-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Finishing woods, <a href="#Page_128">128-141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flooring, best grades of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Framing, lumber for, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Framing square, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Gauge, description and use of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">German bit, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glue, different kinds of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">testing of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to use, <a href="#Page_120">120-122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gouges, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grading of lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grain of woods, cause of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">kinds of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Close-grained, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a plane, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">described, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ground glue, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gum (sweet gum), description of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Hammer, described, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Handscrews, use of, <a href="#Page_103">103-105</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hard wood, cause of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hatchet, described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hemlock, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heart shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heartwood, formation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hickory, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Insects, injurious to trees, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inside finish, lumber for, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Jack plane, described, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, <a href="#Page_86">86-88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jointer, described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jointing a saw, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Joists or scantling, surveying of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Keyhole saw, <i>see</i> Compass saw.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kiln, filling a, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">length of time lumber should be left in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kiln-dried lumber, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kilns, moist air, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">induced draft, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Knife blades, described, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Linden, <i>see</i> Basswood.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liquid filler, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Locust, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Logging, <a href="#Page_12">12-19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lumber, unseasoned, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">checking, or cracking of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">defects in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grain of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when to cut, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">manufacture of, <a href="#Page_12">12-23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grading of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">testing of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">surveying or estimating of, <a href="#Page_25">25-27</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">piling of, <a href="#Page_45">45-49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">weather-dried, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">kiln-dried, <a href="#Page_50">50-54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> special subjects.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lumbering, processes of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Mahogany, description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sanding of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mallets, described, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manual-training bench, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maple, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sugar maple, illustrated, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medullary rays, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sawing woods having, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moisture, in lumber, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moldings, sandpapering of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monkey wrench, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Nail set, use of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">burnisher made from, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nailing, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nippers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Oak, tree trunk, section of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">plain and quartered, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Odor of wood, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oil finish, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oilstones, artificial, use of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Open-grained woods, filling of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">staining of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Out of wind,” <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outside finish, lumber for, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Panel work, sandpapering, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paper birch, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paste filler, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Piling of lumber, <a href="#Page_45">45-49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pine, yellow, section of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of different varieties of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pine logs, load of white, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pith, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plain sawing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plane, adjusting mechanism of, <a href="#Page_73">73-75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">other parts of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sharpening a, <a href="#Page_76">76-81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Planes, description and use of, <a href="#Page_72">72-88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pliers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polishing, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poplar (or whitewood), description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Position, in using tools, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Preserving wood, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prices, sliding scale of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Quarter-sawed lumber, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ratchet bitbrace, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ratchet screwdrivers, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Redwood, description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rift-sawed lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ripsaw, described, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rule, use of, in setting gauge, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Sandpaper, testing of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to use, <a href="#Page_123">123-127</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Finishing.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sap, motion of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">allowed, in grading lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sapwood, formation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saw filing, described, <a href="#Page_109">109-113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saw handle, reset, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saw set, hand and anvil, described, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sawing of lumber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18-23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sawmills, types of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saws, description and use of, <a href="#Page_67">67-72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scale used in measuring lumber, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scraper, description of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sharpening of, <a href="#Page_97">97-102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scratch plane, for use in gluing, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Screwdriver, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shellac, use of, <a href="#Page_132">132-136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shingles, quality of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silver grain, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skidways, use of, <a href="#Page_13">13-17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slash sawing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slip stones, use of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smoothing plane, described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soft wood, cause of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spokeshave, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spruce, cutting of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> (figs. <a href="#f6">5</a>, <a href="#f7">6</a>);</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Staining wood, <a href="#Page_129">129-132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Star shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steaming wood, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steel, or framing, square, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stock, <i>see</i> Bitbrace.</li> - -<li class="indx">Straight-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stumpage, explanation of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sugar maple forest, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Surveying of lumber, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sycamore (or buttonwood), description of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Tacking, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Testing of lumber, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Timbers to be buried, quality of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toenailing, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tools, how to purchase, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description and use of, <a href="#Page_57">57-108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Travoy road, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tree trunk, tissues of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">annual layer of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grain of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">age of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">defects in, <a href="#Page_8">8-10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when to cut, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">felling of, <a href="#Page_12">12-15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">decay of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> special subjects.</li> - -<li class="indx">Try-square, description and use of, <a href="#Page_59">59-62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Twist drill, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Varnish, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vertical-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vises, on benches, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Walnut, black, description of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">white, <i>see</i> Butternut.</li> - -<li class="indx">Walnut stain, black, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Warping of lumber, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Washita stone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Waste, care in use of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wax finishing, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ways, permanent lumber, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weather-dried lumber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whetstones, description and use of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whetting and grinding of plane, <a href="#Page_77">77-80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitewood, <i>see</i> Poplar.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wind shakes, or cup shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Winding sticks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wood, growth of, <a href="#Page_1">1-11</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grain of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">color of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">odor of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">soft and hard, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">qualities of, <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">varieties of, <a href="#Page_29">29-42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">steaming, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">preserving, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filling grain of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">staining, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> special subjects.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wrenches, described, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span></p></div> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="c xxlarge">VOCATIONAL EDUCATION</p> - - -<p class="c">By JOHN M. GILLETTE, Professor of Sociology in the<br /> -State University of North Dakota</p> - -<p class="c">$1.00</p></div> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="ad">In this volume is presented for teachers, superintendents, -and teachers’ reading circles an illuminating discussion of -the present general movement for vocational education. -By this phrase is meant not only industrial education; but all -the training courses needed to meet the practical demands of -life.</p> - -<p class="ad1">¶ The author explains at some length the principles, demands, -and methods of vocational education; he states the -grounds upon which hopes of success may reasonably rest; -he indicates some actual results gained by schools conducted -on more practical lines; and he points out others which -would follow upon the reorganization of our educational system -in general.</p> - -<p class="ad1">¶ The vocationalizing of the schools has regard to the constitution, -inclination and ability of the individual, and is intended -to give him suitable training for his niche in life, to -show him how he can make the most of himself and in what -line he can prove himself most productive to society. At -the same time, this scheme of education does not ignore the -informational, the cultural, and the disciplinary aspects—it -insists that the individual be fitted for good citizenship.</p> - -<p class="ad2">¶ The introduction of vocational education into the public -school system of the United States, with the curriculum adapted -to the chief kinds of occupation belonging to each community, -will mean greater development and power for the -country. From vocational education, introduced to meet the -differing community needs, will result greater efficiency and -better appreciation of the schools, increased attendance of -pupils, greater compensation for teachers, greater productiveness, -higher wages, and improved society.</p></div> - -<div class="bbox"> -<p class="c sp lsp xlarge">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p></div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p></div> - -<div class="bbox1"> - -<p class="c xxlarge sp">AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-<br /> -BOOK OF THEORETICAL<br /> -MECHANICS</p> - - -<p class="c ad">By GEORGE A. MERRILL, B.S., Principal of the -California School of Mechanical Arts, and Director of -the Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco</p> - -<p class="c">$1.50</p> - -</div> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="ad">MERRILL’S MECHANICS is intended for the upper -classes in secondary schools, and for the two lower -classes in college. Only a knowledge of elementary -algebra, plane geometry, and plane trigonometry is required -for a thorough comprehension of the work.</p> - -<p class="ad1">¶ By presenting only the most important principles and -methods, the book overcomes many of the difficulties now -encountered by students in collegiate courses who take up -the study of analytic mechanics, without previously having -covered it in a more elementary form. It treats the subject -without the use of the calculus, and consequently does not -bewilder the beginner with much algebraic matter, which -obscures the chief principles.</p> - -<p class="ad1">¶ The book is written from the standpoint of the student -in the manner that experience has proved to be the one -most easily grasped. Therefore, beyond a constant endeavor -to abide by the fundamental precepts of teaching, no one -method of presentation has been used to the exclusion of -others. The few necessary experiments are suggested and -outlined, but a more complete laboratory course can easily be -supplied by the instructor.</p> - -<p class="ad2">¶ The explanation of each topic is followed by a few well-chosen -examples to fix and apply the principles involved. A -number of pages are devoted to the static treatment of force, -with emphasis on the idea of action and reaction. Four-place -tables of the natural trigonometric functions are included.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="c sp lsp xlarge">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p></div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span></p></div> - -<div class="bbox1"> - -<p class="c xxlarge sp">ELEMENTS OF<br /> -DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY</p> - - -<p class="c ad">By ALBERT E. CHURCH, LL.D., late Professor of -Mathematics, United States Military Academy, and -GEORGE M. BARTLETT, M.A., Instructor in -Descriptive Geometry and Mechanism, University of -Michigan.</p> - -<p class="c">$2.25</p> - -<p class="c">Part I. Orthographic Projections. $1.75</p></div> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="ad">This is a modern treatment of descriptive geometry with -applications to spherical projections, shades and shadows, -perspective, and isometric projections, for the use of -technical schools and colleges. Though based upon Professor -Church’s Descriptive Geometry, and retaining as much as -possible the original lucidity and conciseness, this work differs -from it quite widely.</p> - -<p class="ad2">Among the salient features of the book are the following: -The figures and text are included in the same volume, each -figure being placed beside the corresponding text; General -cases are preferred to special ones; A sufficient number of -problems are solved in the third angle to familiarize the student -with its use; A treatment of the profile plane of projection -is introduced; Many exercises for practice have been -introduced; Several new problems have been added; The old -figures have been redrawn, and many of them have been improved; -Several of the more difficult elementary problems -have been illustrated by pictorial views; In the treatment of -curved surfaces, all problems relating to single-curved surfaces -are taken up first, then those relating to warped surfaces, and -finally those relating to surfaces of revolution. 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