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diff --git a/old/69019-0.txt b/old/69019-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ca54ff2..0000000 --- a/old/69019-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5156 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elements of woodwork, by Charles A. -King - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Elements of woodwork - -Author: Charles A. King - -Release Date: September 20, 2022 [eBook #69019] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Alan, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK *** - - - - - - KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY - - - ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK - - BY - - CHARLES A. KING - - DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING - EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO - - AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - - - - - KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY - - ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK - ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION - CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY - INSIDE FINISHING - HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS - - - COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY - CHARLES A. KING. - - ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON. - W. P. I. - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SERIES - - -This series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended as -textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, technical, -or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the “Handbook in -Woodwork and Carpentry,” is for the use of teachers and of normal -students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the other four -volumes. - -Of the pupils’ volumes, the first two, “Elements of Woodwork” and -“Elements of Construction,” are adapted to the needs of students in -manual-training schools, or in any institution in which elementary -woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational handwork, or as -preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in carpentry or -vocational training. - -The volumes “Constructive Carpentry” and “Inside Finishing” are planned -with special reference to the students of technical, industrial, or -trade schools, who have passed through the work of the first two -volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects treated are those which will -be of greatest value to both the prospective and the finished workman. - -For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required course, -but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or optional models -under certain conditions, and for others who have more liberty and are -able to make such changes as they see fit, this series will be found -perfectly adaptable, regardless of the grades taught. To accomplish -this, the material has been arranged by topics, which may be used by -the teacher irrespective of the sequence, as each topic has to the -greatest extent possible been treated independently. - -The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now President -of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement and advice -in preparing for and planning the series, and to George R. Swain, -Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay City, Michigan, for -valuable aid in revising the manuscript. - -Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodicals, and -the publications of the United States Departments of Education and of -Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the author has gleaned from -their pages. - -CHARLES A. KING. - -BAY CITY, MICHIGAN. - - - - -PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK - - -In preparing this book, it has been the author’s purpose to present, -in as complete and concise form as possible, the knowledge which every -wood-worker should possess regarding the care and use of his tools and -the material upon which he employs them. - -Whether an amateur, apprentice, or skilled workman, whether a -carpenter, boat builder, pattern maker, or wood carver, the elementary -knowledge of the construction of tools, of sharpening them, and -of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the same. The -structure of wood, and the necessity of applying its peculiarities of -grain and texture to the advantage of the work in hand, also is the -same upon all branches of woodwork. - -While innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented to -enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economically -both as to time and material, a study of them will prove that they -all operate upon a few simple principles, a knowledge of which is not -difficult to acquire, though skill and judgment in the application of -the tools can be attained only by continuous and properly directed -practice. - -It would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this sort to -describe these various devices, though in a schoolroom it is a great -advantage to have as many of them as practicable, not for their use -only, but that the students may become familiar with their purposes and -the applications of the fundamental principles upon which each is based. - -The actual use of tools may be considered the A B C of woodwork, as it -bears the same relation to the finished product of the workman as the -alphabet bears to literature, the space between the mere mechanical -facility in the use of either tools or alphabet, being the result of -the judgment, skill, and individuality of either the workman or the -author. - -Thus, if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described in -this volume, he will have little difficulty in using other and more -complex tools; and when he has mastered the principles of construction -involved in the exercises explained in the following book of this -series, the “Elements of Construction,” and the correct use of the -tools involved in making these, together with their applications -and combinations, he has acquired the fundamental knowledge of all -construction in wood. - -CHARLES A. KING. - -BAY CITY, MICHIGAN. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - CHAPTER I. GROWTH OF WOOD.--Kinds of trees used for lumber; - The formation of wood; Tissues; The medullary rays; The grain - in trees; Defects found in lumber; When to cut lumber 1 - - CHAPTER II. LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD.--The manufacture - of lumber; To saw lumber of irregular dimensions; The - grading of lumber; The testing of lumber; Surveying or estimating - lumber; Qualities of wood 12 - - CHAPTER III. CARE OF LUMBER.--The piling of lumber; Permanent - lumber ways; To minimize the warping of lumber; Weather-dried - lumber; Kiln-dried lumber; Moist air kilns; Induced draft kilns; - Results of the two systems; Filling a kiln; Length of time lumber - should be left in the kiln; The care of kiln-dried lumber; - Steaming wood; Preserving wood 45 - - CHAPTER IV. TOOLS.--How to purchase tools; Benches; Rules; - The try-square; The steel, or framing, square; The bevel; The - gauge; The hammer; The hatchet; The mallet; Saws; The knife - blade; Planes; Sharpening a plane; The jack plane; The jointer; - The smoothing plane; The block plane; The correct position; - Chisels; Gouges; The drawshave; The spokeshave; Bits; The - bitbrace, or stock; The screwdriver; Compasses, or dividers; Pliers; - The scraper; Edges; Nail sets; Wrenches; Handscrews; A grindstone; - Emery, corundum, carborundum; Whetstones; Files; - Saw filing 57 - - CHAPTER V. GLUE AND SANDPAPER.--Different kinds of glue; How - to use glue; The testing of sandpaper; How to use sandpaper 118 - - CHAPTER VI. WOOD FINISHING.--Filling; Staining wood; Shellac; - Wax finishing; Oil finish; Varnish; Polishing; Brushes 128 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. Section of Yellow Pine 2 - - 2. Section of Oak Tree Trunk 5 - - 3. Defects in Lumber 7 - - 4. Felling a Tree 12 - - 5. Cutting Small Branches from Felled Spruce 13 - - 6. Skidway of Spruce Logs 14 - - 7. Load of White Pine Logs 14 - - 8. Hauling Logs by Steel Cable 15 - - 9. Loading Logs from Shedway to Train 16 - - 10. Boom of Logs 16 - - 11. Log Jam 17 - - 12. Sawmill in the Big Tree District 18 - - 13. Circular Saw 20 - - 14. Double Cut Band Saw 21 - - 15. Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing 22 - - 16. Four Methods of Quartering 22 - - 17. Lumber Scale 27 - - 18. Beech and Sugar Maple Forest 31 - - 19. White Pine Forest 39 - - 20. Douglas Spruce Forest 41 - - 21. Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire 43 - - 22. Permanent Lumber Ways 46 - - 23. Warping of Lumber 48 - - 24. Lumber piled in Double Courses 49 - - 25. Manual-training Bench 58 - - 26. Carpenter’s Bench 58 - - 27. Two-foot, Four-fold Rule 59 - - 28. Zigzag Rule 59 - - 29. Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge 60 - - 30. Use of Two Try-squares to see if Piece of Wood is “Out of Wind” 60 - - 31. Position of Try-square when Making Line 61 - - 32. Steel, or Framing, Square 62 - - 33. Bevel and Steel Square 62 - - 34. Marking Gauge 63 - - 35. Marking Gauge in Use 64 - - 36. Claw Hammer 64 - - 37. Toenailing and Tacking 65 - - 38. Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail Set 66 - - 39. Hatchet and Handaxe 67 - - 40. Mallets (Square-faced and Round) 67 - - 41. Saws--Rip-, Cutting-off, and Compass, or Keyhole 68 - - 42. Backsaw 69 - - 43. Use of the Saw 71 - - 44. Reset Saw Handle 72 - - 45. Knife Blades 72 - - 46. Section of an Iron Plane 73 - - 47. Result of Using Plane with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron 74 - - 48. Result of Using Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly 74 - - 49. Setting a Plane 76 - - 50. Whetting and Grinding of Plane 77 - - 51. Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter 78 - - 52. Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron 79 - - 53. Shape of Edge of Plane Iron 80 - - 54. Jack Plane 81 - - 55. Method of Guiding a Jointer 83 - - 56. Knuckle Joint Block Plane 84 - - 57. Use of the Block Plane 84 - - 58. Using Block Plane upon Small Pieces 85 - - 59. Incorrect Use of Jack Plane 86 - - 60. Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane 87 - - 61. Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane 87 - - 62. Chisels 89 - - 63. Drawshave 90 - - 64. Spokeshave 90 - - 65. Auger Bit 91 - - 66. Cross-handled Auger 91 - - 67. German Bit and Twist Drill 92 - - 68. Extension Bit and Center Bit 92 - - 69. Filing an Auger Bit 93 - - 70. Ratchet Bitbrace 94 - - 71. Compasses 95 - - 72. Calipers 95 - - 73. Pliers 95 - - 74. Nippers 95 - - 75. Scraper 96 - - 76. Edges of Scrapers 97 - - 77. Angle of Burnisher with Sides of Scraper 97 - - 78. Method of Grasping Scraper for Sharpening 98 - - 79. Top Views of the Angles of the Burnisher 99 - - 80. Angle to be avoided in Sharpening Scraper 100 - - 81. Turning back the Edge of a Scraper 100 - - 82. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a - Broad Surface 101 - - 83. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within - Small Area 101 - - 84. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon an Edge 102 - - 85. Monkey Wrench 103 - - 86. Effect of the Unskillful Use of a Handscrew 103 - - 87. Correct Use of Handscrew 104 - - 88. Emery Wheel Dresser 106 - - 89. Jointing a Saw 109 - - 90. Hand Saw Set 110 - - 91. Anvil Saw Set 110 - - 92. Angle of the File with the Edge of the Saw 111 - - 93. Angle of the File with the Sides of the Saw 111 - - 94. Results of Filings as shown in Fig. 93 112 - - 95. Method of Carrying a File to obtain the Hook of a - Cutting-off Saw 112 - - 96. Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw 113 - - 97. Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface 124 - - 98. Sandpapering Panel Work 126 - - 99. Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing down Shellac Finish 134 - - - - -ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK - - -CHAPTER I - -GROWTH OF WOOD - - -=1. Kinds of trees used for lumber.=--(=A.=) The classification of -trees here considered is based upon the method by which the trunk, or -stem, of a tree is formed. The term _exogenous_ is applied to outside -growers, around which a layer of wood grows each year, and from which -is cut the lumber of commerce. As the wood-worker is interested mainly -in trees which grow by this method, we will do no more than mention the -_endogenous_, or inside-growing, trees or plants of the nature of palm -trees, cornstalks, etc., in which the woody fiber is formed upon the -inside of the stem. - -(=B.=) The new wood formed each year upon exogenous trees is known -as the _annual layer_, or _ring_; the separate layers being more -prominent in open-grained woods, such as oak, ash, and chestnut, than -in close-grained woods, such as maple, cherry, poplar, and birch. It -is the difference in the character and structure of these layers which -makes some woods hard and others soft, some with open and others with -close grain, and which also, with the coloring matter peculiar to each -kind of wood, causes its individuality and adaptability to certain -uses. (The color and odor of wood are caused by chemical combinations, -and are not part of the substance of the wood.) - -Each of these annual layers is composed of two parts, the formation -being shown in Fig. 1, in which the grain of yellow pine is depicted. -The soft, cellular, or open, grain, _a_, is formed as the sap moves -upward in the spring, and the hard, compact grain, _b_, is formed later -in the year. In soft woods the open grain predominates, while in hard -woods the compact grain is more in evidence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF YELLOW PINE. - -_a_, soft, cellular grain; _b_, hard, compact grain.] - -The age of a tree may be determined by counting these annual rings -upon the stump, though a drouth during the growing season may have at -some time so affected its growth as to make some layers indistinct, -rendering it impossible to be absolutely sure of the count. In a young -tree the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes more -mature. - -(=C.=) The different kinds of timber which the carpenter uses are cut -from _deciduous_, or broad-leaf, trees, and from _coniferous_, or -needle-leaf, trees. This classification of trees is based upon the -difference in the forms of their leaves, the former kind furnishing the -ash, oak, walnut, beech, birch, and other woods that are hard to work, -as well as poplar or white wood, linn or bass wood, and others which -are called hard woods, not in the sense that they are hard to work, but -because their method of growth is the same. - -The _coniferous_ or _evergreen_ trees furnish the cedars, pines, -hemlocks, spruces, firs, redwood, tamarack, cypress, and a few other -woods of the same nature. These woods have a resin which is always -present, no matter how old or dry the wood may be, which explains their -superior weather-resisting qualities. - -=2. The formation of wood.=--(=A.=) In the spring the sap begins to -flow upward, mainly through the open cells of the cambium (the new -growth in the stem, by which the diameter of the tree is increased), -and to some extent through the sapwood. As it comes in contact with the -air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the tree, (=B.=) -it gives off water and oxygen, and absorbs carbonic acid gas from the -air, (=C.=) which is formed into starch, sugar, oil, etc.; this in turn -becomes part of the sapwood, and forms the compact part of the annual -ring, completing the layer for that year. - -(=D.=) The wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the sap, which -gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells are filled, when that -layer becomes a part of the heartwood, or that part of the tree which -is inclosed within the annual layers of sapwood. - -(=E.=) Both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are filled with -water or sap, which may be removed by seasoning, but the sapwood of -most trees used for building purposes is not as good lumber as the -heartwood, as it is always susceptible to moisture. The exceptions to -this will be mentioned elsewhere. - -(=F.=) In all unseasoned lumber from 20 to 60 per cent of its weight -is moisture, which must be evaporated before the lumber has its highest -commercial value. This may be done by weather drying or by artificial -means, the lumber being treated in a specially constructed kiln. - -=3. Tissues.=--(=A.=) A tree trunk is composed of four different -tissues, viz.: - -1. The _pith_ (Fig. 2, _a_), a cellular tissue: this is worthless and -its presence in lumber is considered a defect. - -2. The _wood_, which includes the heartwood (_b_), the sapwood -(_c_), and the medullary rays (_g_). From this part of the tree the -commercially valuable lumber is taken. - -3. The _cambium_ (_d_), which is a thin layer between the sapwood (_c_) -and the bast (_e_). - -4. The _bark_, which includes both the bast (_e_) and the outer bark -(_f_). The bark of most trees is worthless, but that of chestnut, oak, -hemlock, and other trees which are rich in tannic acid is used in large -quantities by tanneries. - -(=B.=) The heartwood (_b_), or _duramen_, of most trees is the part -generally used by carpenters upon the best work. It is firm, compact, -and of the color and qualities characteristic of the wood. - -(=C.=) The sapwood (_c_), or _alburnum_, is generally light-colored, -and in most building woods its presence is considered a defect, though -not in hickory, ash, maple, or yellow pine, and a few other woods; -in fact, in these woods it is often preferred to the heartwood for -many kinds of work on account of its color. The alburnum is filled -with the active elements of the sap, which are deposited as the sap -passes through the trees, and in time becomes part of the duramen, or -heartwood. The time required for sapwood to attain maturity ranges -from thirty to one hundred years, according to its kind and age. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECTION OF OAK TREE TRUNK. - -_a_, pith; _b_, heartwood, or duramen; _c_, sapwood, or alburnum; _d_, -cambium; _e_, bast, or inner bark; _f_, outer bark, or corky layer; -_g_, medullary rays, or silver grain; _po_, plain oak; _qo_, quartered -oak.] - -(=D.=) Outside of the sapwood (Fig. 2, _c_) is the cambium (_d_), which -furnishes the substance upon which the life of the tree depends. Here, -nourished by the richest sap, new cells are formed, which become either -sapwood or a part of the bast. (=E.=) At (_e_) is shown the bast or -inner bark, which is composed of a woody fiber combined with a tissue -of cells. This is elastic, which allows it to expand as the wood grows -beneath it. Outside of the bast is the bark (_f_), or outer covering, -which is of a corky nature, and protects the delicate vital parts of -the tree. - -=4. The medullary rays.=--Every tree has _medullary rays_ (Fig. 2, -_g_), usually spoken of by wood-workers as the “silver streak,” or -“silver grain.” These rays connect the center of the tree with the -outside, and are more prominent in such woods as oak, beech, and -sycamore than in other woods. It is to take advantage of the beauty -which these medullary rays impart that so much quarter-sawed lumber is -used, though lumber sawed in this way is preferred for other reasons, -which will be discussed later. - -In many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible to the naked -eye, as in pine, for instance, which has fifteen thousand to the square -inch. Aside from adding much to the beauty of the lumber, they also -give strength; if lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat, -it is apt to _check_, or crack, upon the line of the medullary rays. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DEFECTS IN LUMBER. - -_a_, wind shakes or cup shakes; _b_, heart shakes; _c_, star shakes; -_d_, branch broken off, showing the method by which the annual layers -gradually cover broken branches; _e_, hard knot.] - -=5. The grain in trees.=--In open or exposed situations trees usually -grow more or less gnarled or crooked, which tends to improve the -grain. The strength of lumber cut from trees grown as described is -impaired, however, as the wood is more cross-grained than that from -trees which grow in the heart of a forest, with practically the same -conditions on all sides. As forest trees are continually reaching up -for the sunlight, they grow taller and straighter, which makes it -possible for straighter-grained lumber to be cut from them, and as the -branches are at the top, where they receive the sunlight and air, there -are few cross-grained places. - -When the annual rings are large, the grain is said to be _coarse_, and -if the rings are fine, the term _fine-grained_ is used to describe it. -When the direction of the fibers is nearly parallel with the sides and -the edges of the board, it is said to be _straight-grained_; when the -lumber is taken from a crooked tree, it is said to be _cross-grained_, -as the grain follows the shape of the log, while the board is sawed -straight. Cross-grained lumber is the handsomer; in this the fibers, -being at different angles with the surface of the board, form a variety -of figures, which add much to the beauty of the wood. - -=6. Defects found in lumber.=--(=A.=) Some of the most common defects -found in lumber are _wind shakes_, or _cup shakes_ (Fig. 3, _a_), which -are cracks following the line of the porous part of the annual rings. -These are caused by the action of severe winds. (=B.=) _Heart shakes_ -(Fig. 3, _b_) are cracks radiating from the center of the tree, and -may be found in any kind of wood, as they are the result of deficient -nutrition, or loss of vitality. (=C.=) _Star shakes_ (Fig. 3, _c_) are -caused by the shrinkage of the tree upon the outside, which is the -result of a long dry spell of intense cold, or of the deficient action -of the sap. Star shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon -the outside of the tree; the heart shakes are larger at the center. - -Shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes are so numerous as -to make the log worthless. - -(=D.=) _Discolorations_ are caused by decay which has at some time -gained a foothold, but which the tree was sufficiently vigorous to -overcome; or they may be due to imperfect or insufficient nutrition, -which generally results in the entire tree being affected instead of -small places upon the tree. - -(=E.=) Timber grown in a damp, marshy locality is generally of a -poorer quality than that grown upon higher ground, as more water is -taken up by the roots than can be well assimilated, which prevents the -formation of healthy compact wood. Some woods are adapted to such soil, -the poplar or whitewood, willow, basswood, buckeye, and cypress being -denizens of moist or swampy places. - -Trees growing where they are exposed to winds from one direction -are apt to assume a spiral growth, which renders the timber almost -worthless, as it is weak, and twists badly in drying. - -(=F.=) Trees which have lumps appearing like growths upon them are -usually unhealthy. These lumps, or tumors, may be caused by defective -nutrition, checks, or shakes, or by the depredations of animals or -insects. - -(=G.=) _Clefts_, or _splits_, in a tree may be caused by extreme cold, -heat, or drouth. They may extend into the tree several inches, and -while the blemish will always remain, showing a discoloration or other -defect, nature often repairs it so that the strength of the timber is -but slightly affected. If these clefts are not healed, rain may find -lodgment there, and the sap be so affected that the adjacent wood will -be destroyed, and this in time will destroy the tree. - -(=H.=) Eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these clefts, the -larvæ of which bore into the wood and destroy it. (=I.=) If it were -not for the birds and other natural enemies of these insects, they -would increase so rapidly that the lumber supply would be seriously -affected, and, as it is, there are very few trees which are not injured -to some extent by wood borers. The United States Bureau of Entomology -estimates that the damage to trees by these pests amounts to at least -$100,000,000 annually. - -(=K.=) Sometimes (as at _d_, Fig. 3) branches die or are broken off; -this gives the elements access to the heart of the tree and usually -causes a permanent injury, as the birds and other denizens of the -forest frequently dig out the rotten wood as soon as the weather has -had time to do its work, thus giving further opportunity for decay to -continue its destructive action. If this does not happen, the wood -will grow over the break after several years and leave a loose knot in -the heart of the tree, which will be a decided blemish when the log is -made into lumber. The sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the -defect, as the annual rings will eventually close over the break. - -The hard knot at _e_, Fig. 3, is not a serious defect, unless the wood -is to be used for finish or where great strength is required. - -=7. When to cut lumber.=--Trees which are intended for the use of -wood-workers should not be felled while the sap is in motion. If cut -at any other time than midsummer or in winter, the active sap is apt -to sour and to cause decay. Owing to the scarcity of lumber, or from -avarice, this precaution often is ignored, and trees are felled at any -time of year, regardless of their age; in such cases, much of the -lumber lacks the essential qualities of its kind. - -When a tree shows signs of dying at the top, it should be cut down, as -the quality of the lumber it contains will deteriorate rapidly. - - - SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES - - 1. What is meant by exogenous trees? In what kinds of wood are the - annual layers most prominent? Describe the formation of annual layers. - What causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of wood? In the - color and odor of wood? How may the age of a tree be determined? Are - the broadest annual layers found in young or in old trees? From what - class of trees does soft wood come? Hard wood? - - 2. Describe the motion of sap. What forms the sapwood? With what are - the cells of the sapwood filled? Compare sapwood and heartwood. - - 3. Describe the four different tissues in a tree. Describe the inner - bark. - - 4. What are the medullary rays? In what woods are they most prominent? - How do they affect the strength of timber? - - 5. What is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations? Where - are the straightest trees found? Why does the location of a tree - affect the grain? What is meant by _coarse_, _fine_, _straight_, and - _cross-grained_ lumber? - - 6. What causes wind shakes? Heart shakes? Star shakes? How may they - be distinguished from each other? What causes discolorations? What is - the usual character of timber grown upon marshy ground? What woods - are adapted to low ground? What sometimes causes spiral growth? What - do lumps and excrescences upon a tree generally signify? What causes - clefts in trees? What are the results of clefts? Does nature perfectly - repair the cleft? What is the usual result of a branch being broken - off? - - 7. What is the per cent of moisture in green wood? Should very young - trees be cut? Why? How may the top of a tree show when it should be - felled? At what time of year should trees be cut? - - - - -CHAPTER II - -LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD - - -=8. The manufacture of lumber=.--(=A.=) There are two distinct -processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial purposes, -_logging_ and _sawing_; the former includes all the steps from felling -the tree to the delivery of the logs at the sawmill; there the logs are -sawed into boards, planks, and timbers of certain dimensions, which are -piled and exposed to the sun and air for a sufficient time to allow a -large part of the water in them to evaporate, when the lumber is said -to be “weather dried,” and ready for shipment to the consumer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FELLING A TREE.] - -(=B.=) If a lumber concern desires to begin operations in one of the -great forest areas, a “land-looker” or “timber-cruiser” is sent to spy -out the land, and to report upon the probable yield of timber within -certain areas, and the conditions which would aid or retard the work -of getting out the logs. If the report is favorable, the standing -timber may be purchased by “stumpage,” which means that a certain price -will be paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land may be -purchased outright, though in the early history of lumbering cases have -been known where these little formalities were omitted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CUTTING SMALL BRANCHES FROM FELLED SPRUCE.] - -Camps are located at convenient points throughout the boundary, roads -are made through the woods, and foundations, or “skidways,” built at -right angles to them, to receive the logs as they are hauled down -the “travoy” roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at -frequent distances for this purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SKIDWAY OF SPRUCE LOGS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--LOAD OF WHITE PINE LOGS.] - -(=C.=) The above preparations completed, the work of felling the -trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work requires nice skill -and judgment, as it is necessary that the tree should fall so that it -will cause the least damage to itself and to surrounding trees. After -the tree is down, the branches are cut close to the trunk (Fig. 5) -and carried to one side so that they will not be in the way of the -horses. The trunk is then sawed into logs, twelve, fourteen, sixteen, -or eighteen feet in length, as the imperfections and the length of the -tree trunk may allow. Longer or shorter logs are rarely cut except for -special purposes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HAULING LOGS BY STEEL CABLE.] - -(=D.=) One end of the log is placed upon a drag, or is gripped by a -pair of tongs, and hauled to the nearest travoy road and skidway, where -it is piled (Fig. 6). (=E.=) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon -trucks, cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8), -which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of the country, or -to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a river (Fig. 10). If either -of these latter methods of transportation is employed, the logs are -generally piled upon another skidway until there is enough for a train -load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable for them to -be floated to the mill. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--LOADING LOGS FROM SHEDWAY TO TRAIN.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BOOM OF LOGS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LOG JAM.] - -(=F.=) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally the most -dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to face. A jam usually depends -upon one key log, which, if loosened, will allow the jam to break -instantly. The work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one -or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and muscles, and -possessed of the highest possible skill and activity, or they cannot -hope to break a large jam and escape with their lives. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--SAWMILL IN THE BIG TREE DISTRICT.] - -(=G.=) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives its logs -by both rail and river. In this case the logs which come in by rail are -rolled into the river, as they can be more easily placed upon the chain -feed of the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in which -the logs are soaked before they are taken into the mill; this draws the -frost out of them, and allows them to be worked much more easily. - -(=H.=) There are different types of sawmills, in which the logs are -worked into commercial shapes. The small enterprises use portable -mills, which are moved into the woods and located upon a tract of land, -remaining until all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been -sawed, and then moved to another locality and the process repeated. - -Large operations are conducted upon a different plan; mills of a -permanent type are erected as near the forest as practicable, roads -are built, tracks laid, and the logs brought from the woods by one of -the methods previously illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes -are built, and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a -mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if possible, -as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by any other method of -transportation, though some of the heavier woods will not float, and -have to be handled on land. (=I.=) The immersion of logs in water also -improves the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon the -sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, and also facilitates -the seasoning of the manufactured product. If the log is left in the -water until it becomes water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not -injured for many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which it -is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage of sunken logs has -become an industry. - -(=J.=) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to be cut is -selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent supply, and in -the near future all extensive lumbering operations will, beyond doubt, -be conducted upon a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless -lumbering is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the -supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the demand. - -(=K.=) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed into lumber -of various dimensions by a circular saw (Fig. 13); but in the larger -mills, the band saw generally is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double -cut band sawmill, in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut -each time the log is carried either way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--CIRCULAR SAW.] - -=9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.=--(=A.=) Besides sawing -dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, and planks of different -thicknesses are sawed, as follows: 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”, 2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”; -and thicker, if desired. - -(=B.=) If lumber is cut again from its original dimensions, it is said -to be _resawed_. When boards or planks of the above dimensions are -dressed on both sides, they will be about ⅛” thinner; thus, a board -sawed 1” thick will, when seasoned and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2” -plank will be but 1⅞” or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed -dimensions. - -Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually comes under the head -of dimension timber, which is not used to the extent that it was -formerly, as steel and concrete are replacing it upon heavy work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--DOUBLE CUT BAND SAW.] - -If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber is usually -resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is planed upon each side -to the desired thickness. Boards for box stock and other special -purposes are sometimes sawed as thin as ¼”. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PLAIN, SLASH, OR BASTARD SAWING.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--FOUR METHODS OF QUARTERING.] - -(=C.=) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. 15 is known as -_plain_, _slash_, or _bastard sawing_, and is the cheapest way to cut -logs, both as to time and waste. The log is first squared to secure -a bed upon which it may lie while being sawed, which also makes it -unnecessary to run each board by the edging saw to straighten the -edges. The slabs at _a_ are sawed into boards as the log is squared, -and the bark, or “live edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an -inferior grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they are well -worth saving, if large logs are being cut. - -In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment is necessary -to cut a log so that the greatest amount of marketable lumber can be -made from it. This is done by cutting various sizes from a log, if it -will not cut all of one size without too much waste. - -(=D.=) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary rays or silver -grain, the log is sawed by one of the methods shown in Fig. 16, the -object being to bring the rays as nearly parallel to the surface of -the board as possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain -which is so highly prized. - -The best results are obtained from sections _a_, _b_; this method also -gives the most waste. In plain sawed lumber, the boards from the -middle of the log will have the quarter grain; these are usually culled -and sold as quarter-sawed. - -Neither of these methods results in economy of time or material, as -about 25 per cent of each is used in excess of that required in plain -sawing; hence, quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain, -or bastard, sawed. - -(=E.=) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not only on account -of its handsomer grain, but because it holds its shape better than -lumber sawed in any other way, as the annual layers are approximately -square with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks in the -direction parallel with the annual layers, and very little from the -center to the outside of the tree, it is obvious that there is much -less shrinking and warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which -is sawed plain. - -The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand usage without -the surface splintering much better than does the common plain sawed -material. Quarter-sawed lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical -grain,” and “comb grained.” - -=10. The grading of lumber.=--Custom varies somewhat in different -localities as to the grading of lumber, but there are generally four -grades, which are often subgraded into qualities suitable for various -uses. - -“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect, though in large -dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes may be allowed. These -blemishes in a board are usually restricted to not more than one inch -of sap, a small sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one -blemish to a board is allowed. - -“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound knots, an inch of sap, -and one other blemish. - -“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound knots, but two thirds -of one side must be clear stock. - -“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the cheapest work. One -half of the board must be usable. - -In many cases the boards are graded by the width of clear stock -which can be taken out. There are tables published by the different -associations of lumber manufacturers which give the gradings under -which their lumber has been measured and shipped, but as these vary -from time to time no permanent list can be given. - -The principal reason why there can be no permanent grading of lumber is -that the forests from which the finest timber can be cut in marketable -quantities are being destroyed faster than they can be replaced by -nature. In anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry -of the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in organizing -government forest preserves, in educating the people, and in promoting -legislation aimed at the husbanding of our forests. When we consider -the abundance of high grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous -prices which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this -movement should have begun during the days of our grandfathers, instead -of waiting until nearly all the best lumber in the great forests east -of the Mississippi had been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by -forest fires. - -=11. The testing of lumber.=--(=A.=) Dry, sound stock, if struck with -the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a clear ringing response, -while a wet or decaying piece will give a dull response to the blow. - -(=B.=) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by which, as well -as by the grain, the student should learn to distinguish the woods -in common use. This may be more easily done before the wood has been -thoroughly seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing odor; -if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates that decay is -present. - -(=C.=) If there is much variation in the color of timber, or black and -blue spots, the stick is probably diseased. - -(=D.=) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by dryness or -ventilation, and frequently may be cured by soaking the wood in water -for several days, or by steaming. The disease of decay is cured also by -chemical preservatives being forced into lumber by pressure; this at -the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree. - -Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most lumber, if -permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, will last almost -indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining timbers, and even to those -which have no connection with the one originally infected. - -=12. Surveying or estimating lumber.=--(=A.=) It is the custom to -consider any board less than one inch in thickness as an inch board, -and anything over one inch is measured as so many inches and fractions -of an inch. For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch, -while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by obtaining its -surface measure, and increasing it by one half. Thus, a plank 12’ long, -8” wide, and 1½” thick would have twelve feet board measure in it. - -In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which varies -with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed lumber, but this is not -universal. - -(=B.=) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary to obtain the -fraction of a foot, board measure, for each lineal foot. Thus, a piece -of 2 × 4 (inches understood) has two thirds of a foot for each foot -in length; a 2 × 6 has one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one -third feet of lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a -joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of square feet, -board measure, that the joist contains. - -(=C.=) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel piece which -can be cut from it is the width of the board being measured; therefore -the board should be surveyed at the narrowest place. In measuring more -expensive lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board. - -(=D.=) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common use, the lumber -scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is made of thin, cleft hickory, -about three feet long, with one end large enough for a suitable handle; -on the other end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the -board while the scale is being read. - -The length of the board is marked near the handle, and at the end of -the socket of the metal head, as at _a_. - -In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held against the edge -of the board, as at _b_; the eye follows along the same line of figures -upon which the length of the board is found, reading those figures -nearest the width of the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’ -long would, without further measuring or calculating, show that the -board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were 12’ long, it would -contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading the middle line of figures, -the board would be seen to contain 15’. - -In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest figure, and -when there is no difference, to alternate between the lower and the -higher figures upon different boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or -9¼” wide would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two boards 8½” -wide, of the same length as the above, would be measured as having 8’ -and 9’, respectively, in their surfaces. In short, the fractions of a -foot are not considered in surveying the lumber in common use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--LUMBER SCALE.] - -=13. Qualities of wood.=--(=A.=) Certain kinds of wood are adapted -for some purposes better than are others; the wood-worker, therefore, -should be familiar with the qualities which conditions demand, and the -kinds of woods which have these qualities. - -Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it should be cut from -trees which grow to a size that will allow large dimensions to be cut -from them. - -For outside finish, the material should be wood which will stand the -weather, can be easily worked, and will hold its shape well. - -Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality of durability, -and should be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which will be -put upon them. - -Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of good appearance. -In providing lumber for inside finish, care should be used that it has -good grain and color, is not too soft, and that it will hold its shape -well. Almost any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned, but -lumber which shrinks and warps badly is unfit for finishing. - -Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and which has the -least tendency to warp and split. - -Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint well, and be -as free as possible from the tendency to warp, split, and twist when -exposed to the weather. - -(=B.=) All material used in framing a building should be weather-dried -in good drying weather for at least thirty days for each inch in -thickness, and that used for inside and outside finish and floors -should be thoroughly kiln-dried, and kept in a dry place until ready -for use. These conditions are not always obtainable, but if the best -results are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible. - -The woods hereafter described comprise the principal varieties used by -the wood-workers of the United States. - -(=C.=) _Ash_ (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained, -light-colored wood, in which the porous portions of the annual rings -are quite prominent, thus making it somewhat coarse-grained. - -It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium weight and -hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young growth being much used in -the manufacture of wagons, machinery frames, and for similar purposes, -as it is not expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It has a -tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with insects; therefore -it is not suitable for building construction or for contact with soil. - -Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, and is plentiful -in many localities. There are two kinds of this wood recognized in -commerce: the _white_, which is light-colored, and the _black_, which -is of a brownish tinge, though there is little difference in the grain -of the two. Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best -part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in the Northern -states is generally tougher than that grown farther south. - -The wood from the older and larger trees is not so tough and hard as -that from the younger growth, and is much used for cabinet work and for -interior finish. It should be filled with a paste-filler, after which -it may be brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well and -is useful for the purposes mentioned. - -(=D.=) _Apple_ (dec.) is not used for construction, as the proper -dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very stubborn to work. It is -one of the best woods known to resist splitting, and is much used for -chisel and saw handles. - -(=E.=) _Basswood_, or _linden_ (dec.), is a soft, porous wood, which -shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the backing of veneer -work, for drawer bottoms of the common grades of furniture, for case -backs, and similar purposes, and is also much used in the manufacture -of spools and other small articles which are made in large quantities. -In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings, and for other -work where strength is not needed, though for use in such places it -should be thoroughly seasoned, or the joints will open. - -If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. Steaming also -cures to a great extent the tendency of this wood to shrink and swell. - -(=F.=) _Beech_ (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the ability to -resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, as in plane stocks, -tool handles, and parts of machinery. In building work, it is used to -some extent for flooring and for inside finishing. It is used also for -furniture, though the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive -than other equally desirable woods. - -If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it decays rapidly; -if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction. - -Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and -are found to some extent in all of the states between the Great Lakes -and the Atlantic seaboard. - -(=G.=) _Birch_ (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. It is found -in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of the Eastern states and -Canada. There are two varieties recognized in commerce, the _red_ and -the _white birch_. The former is used considerably for inside finish -and for furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to imitate -cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any one but an expert. -When finished in its own natural color, it is a satisfactory wood for -the above uses, but as it ages, it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a -stubborn wood to work, it is not popular. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--BEECH AND SUGAR MAPLE FOREST.] - -_Canoe_, or _paper_, _birch_ is softer than the red variety, and is -used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and for the manufacture of -spools, dowels, and a large variety of small articles. - -(=H.=) _Butternut_ or _white walnut_ (dec.) has a good grain and color; -it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as are some harder woods, -for it has a tendency to string while being dressed to a fine surface. -It does not absorb moisture readily, and holds its shape under trying -conditions. - -Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and is used -considerably for furniture and for interior finish. - -(=I.=) _Cedar_ (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two varieties, the -_red_ and the _white_. The former is used considerably for cooperage -and veneers, lead pencils, and for lining moth-proof drawers and -chests, as its strong odor and bitter taste protects it from the -ravages of insects. The supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and -it is now too expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it -for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this valuable timber -and of others, notably white and Georgia pine, has destroyed what would -have been a supply for all time, if the cutting had been properly -controlled. - -White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior wood; it is -used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, and in the manufacture -of barrels and cigar boxes. It is a very durable wood, and shrinks but -little in drying. It is well adapted for burying, though not strong -enough to resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red -cedar, and makes a larger tree. - -(=J.=) _Cherry_ (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. It is -much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it holds its shape -well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a fine finish. Its grain is -of fine, even texture, of reddish color, and often stained to imitate -mahogany. When well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the -genuine wood except by weight. - -Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns which are to -stand rough usage. The tree is found in all of the states east of -Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, but it is becoming too scarce for -common use. - -(=K.=) _Chestnut_ (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, adapted to use -in exposed situations. It is used a great deal for inside finish, as it -will take a fine polish, and as the figures formed by the grain make it -a very handsome wood for the purpose. - -Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy strain, and will -shrink and crack badly in drying. - -(=L.=) _Cypress_ (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our most -durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for outside work. It is -used extensively for shingles; roofs covered with cypress shingles -have been known to last for more than seventy-five years. The wood is -light, straight-grained, and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its -shape well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine in the -manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered by many to be -equal, if not superior, to that wood. It is much used in building small -boats, and for use in places where it will be exposed to dampness. -Eaves, troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than -those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, which are the -only woods having anti-decaying qualities equal to cypress. - -Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions, and if it -were stronger and harder, it would be one of our best woods for framing -and finishing. It is used for the latter purpose to a considerable -extent, as it has a handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if -thoroughly seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If it -is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable extent, but if -forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. Sap is not considered -a blemish. - -Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the Southern -states, the best of it coming from those bordering on the gulf. - -(=M.=) _Elm_ (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to split. It -warps and checks to some extent in drying, but when well seasoned it -holds its shape as well as most woods in common use. It is susceptible -to a good polish, and is used a great deal for interior finish and -furniture, as it takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in -the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm stump. It is used -largely in cooperage, and stands contact with the soil satisfactorily. - -The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, but is more -abundant east of the Mississippi river. - -(=N.=) _Gum_ (dec.), or, as it is more generally known, _sweet gum_, -is extensively used for interior finish upon the better class of -buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless thoroughly seasoned, in -which condition it is a very satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong, -cross-grained, and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown, -and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly in the -Southern states. - -(=O.=) _Hemlock_ (con.) is found in most of the Northern states, and -is used for scantlings, rough boards, under floors, and for boarding -preparatory to siding. It is a fairly durable wood, but splits easily, -and is apt to be full of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly. - -(=P.=) _Hickory_ (dec.) is the hardest native wood in common use, -and the toughest wood that we have; it is too hard to be used for -building material. It is flexible, and its principal use is for wagon -and carriage work, and for other purposes where bent wood and great -strength is required. As it does not split easily, it is much used in -the manufacture of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring -insects, and these pests often destroy much valuable timber. - -Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in fact the most -desirable part of the tree, on account of its creamy whiteness and -great strength. - -(=Q.=) _Locust_ (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the country, and -is a useful and durable wood. It is much used for fence posts and, in -damp locations, for railway ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it -has a yellowish brown color which takes a polish well. - -(=R.=) _Maple_ (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, with a -yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds of maple, but the -kind generally used for commercial purposes is the _sugar_ or _rock -maple_. It does not shrink excessively, seasons without serious -checking, and from it a very fine surface for polishing may be -obtained. It is much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as -in floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent as a -cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does not resist decay as -well as do some other woods. - -Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its whiteness the -sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood for many uses. - -_Bird’s-eye maple_ is of this wood, but some peculiarity in the growth -of certain trees, believed by many to be caused by woodpeckers, has -caused the tree to have what seem to be numerous small knots, known -as curls or eyes. The presence of these imparts a beauty which is -possessed by no other wood, and has never been successfully imitated. - -(=S.=) _Mahogany_ (dec.) is an imported wood, and is much used in the -finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture of fine furniture. It -is of a rich red color, and has a beautiful grain and other desirable -qualities which make it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its -shape remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in every -respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that prevents it from -being universally used. - -(=T.=) _Oak_ (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It is found -abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, and forms the larger -part of our broad-leaved forests. There are a number of species of -oak, but they are in general known to commerce as the _red_ and the -_white oak_. Nearly all these trees are cut for commercial purposes, -but the white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of oak is -so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot be distinguished -after the work is finished, therefore they are all put together and -sold as a medium grade of white oak for purposes where the strength -of the genuine is not required. This will generally account for the -difference in the grain and the color which is noticed in handling the -commercial white oak. - -Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble in seasoning -than white oak, though they both have to be dried very carefully, or -there may be checks and cracks to such an extent that the wood will -be ruined. Both the red and the white oak are used extensively in -finishing and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly upon the -cheaper grades, as it is easier to work. - -The two varieties should never be used upon the same job, unless the -wood is to be stained a dark color, as there is a marked difference in -their appearance when finished. White oak is much used for flooring, -quartered oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done. - -Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic conditions, -though if buried deeply, or in water, where there is no alteration in -moisture or dryness, it gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great -extent for railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the -future is causing much speculation, as the end of the present supply of -white oak is already in sight. - -(=U.=) _Pine_ (con.) in its different varieties is used more than any -other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all parts of the United -States and in Canada. Certain sections of the country which were once -covered with virgin pine forests have, however, been so denuded of -their wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, within a -few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen who cared more for -their immediate profit than for the prospective good of the nation, -that instead of a permanent and continual supply of this valuable wood, -there are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown ruins -of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of which this irremediable -wrong was perpetrated against posterity. - -_White pine_ is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly seasoned -will hold its shape better than any other wood except mahogany. For -these reasons, and on account of its adaptability to gluing, it is -used almost exclusively by pattern makers. It is found in the Northern -states and in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows the -grade of pine known as “Carolina,” the _bastard_ or _yellow pine_. This -belt extends from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic coast, and is -of a width to include Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder -to work, and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, but -it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is capable of a fine -finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard nor so strong as “Georgia” -pine, which is also known commercially as _long-leaved pine_, _pitch -pine_, or _hard pine_. This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in -the states bordering upon the ocean and the gulf. - -Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the two above -described, being much stronger and more dense. This is the wood which -is used for heavy timbers of large buildings, and the above described -grades should never be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting -in work of less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine -was intended. Although this wood is very hard and strong, and is the -best wood for heavy construction, as has been stated, it should never -be used in any place which is not dry and well ventilated, as it will -decay rapidly if placed in a damp location, or where it will come in -contact with the earth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--WHITE PINE FOREST.] - -There are several varieties of pine besides those above mentioned. -These are generally less desirable for finish or for construction than -is the white, yellow, or Carolina pine, but they are used extensively -for the common work of light building, and by box factories. - -(=V.=) _Poplar_ or _whitewood_ (dec.) is cut from the tulip tree, -and is found principally in the Middle West and in some parts of the -South. It is of light weight and color, with few knots, and is soft and -easily worked. It is used for the common grades of cabinet work, inside -finishing, veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and -its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. It warps and -shrinks considerably in seasoning, and unless held in its place, it is -apt to twist. - -(=W.=) _Redwood_ (con.) is taken from the big trees on the Pacific -slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from knots, and may be -obtained in boards of any size which it is possible to cut. It has the -reputation of being one of the best woods for use in trying conditions, -or where it will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture. - -It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but it is not apt -to become very popular for inside finish, as it is easily marred, and, -although very soft, will, when thoroughly dry, destroy the edge of -tools quicker than many harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive -brown as it ages, if it is finished in its natural color. - -It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, as it resists -decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of the grain, and burns very -slowly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--DOUGLAS SPRUCE FOREST.] - -(=X.=) _Spruce_ (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and in New -England is used generally for framing light buildings and for rough -boarding. Its color is almost pure white, and it has the valuable -quality of holding nails firmly. There is little difference between the -heart and the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is -difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and twists badly -in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable for framing trusses, -unless seasoned lumber is used. - -Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for flooring, -ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers in immense -quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory wood for immersion, but if -exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, it decays rapidly. - -(=Y.=) _Sycamore_, or _buttonwood_ (dec.), is found in nearly all parts -of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern states. It is a moderately -stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained, and quite difficult to smooth to -a surface, as the grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has -also a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, but if -well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no more trouble than -do other woods. It takes a good polish, and is a desirable wood for -inside finish. - -(=Z.=) _Walnut_, or _black walnut_ (dec.), is found in all the Middle -and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, of a chocolate -color, and takes a fine finish. It is well adapted to inside finish and -to furniture work. - -At one time nearly all the best work was done in this wood, but at -present it is out of style, as oak and other woods are more in favor. -Like other varieties of our best woods, this has been cut out, and is -now too expensive to be considered as anything but a fancy wood. - -_White walnut_ is described under butternut. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--RED SPRUCE AND BALSAM FIR KILLED BY FIRE.] - - - SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES - - 8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations? - What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? Why? Compare - the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why is scientific - forestry a necessity? - - 9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How - much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually - sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To - furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods of - quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy. - Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities. What - are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known? - - 10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are - commonly graded. - - 11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of - timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What does - it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board? - How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient - decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured? - - 12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber over 1” - in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To what lengths - are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should a common - board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate the use of the - lumber scale. - - 13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of timber - for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside finish? For - shingles? For siding? How long should lumber be dried before using? - How should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for - use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of - lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, cherry, - chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, maple, mahogany, - oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CARE OF LUMBER - - -=14. The piling of lumber.=--(=A.=) To the uninitiated it may seem that -the piling of lumber is work upon which it is not necessary to expend -much skill, but there are few operations in which carelessness or -ignorance will cause more loss to a wood-worker. - -(=B.=) The front end of a lumber pile should be higher than the back, -therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon ground which falls away -to the rear, or to build the ways which support the pile so that the -water which drives into the pile will run out at the back end, and not -stand upon the boards, as this will cause discolorations. - -=15. Permanent lumber ways.=--These should be built by some method -similar to that shown in Fig. 22. It is not a good plan to lay timbers -upon the ground, as they will decay rapidly, and there will not be -sufficient room for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards -of the lower courses to dry out properly. The pile is also apt to -settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the spring. Lumber -should not be stacked above wet or marshy ground; if necessary to stack -it where the weeds are of rank growth, the latter should be kept down. - -The ways should be built with a solid foundation, well below the frost -line, though this is rarely done except for permanent lumber storage. -This is shown at _a_, Fig. 22, in which it will be seen that the ways -are built to stand a heavy load; the space between the centers of the -ways should be about five feet, as multiples of this distance will -accommodate any length of boards. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--PERMANENT LUMBER WAYS.] - -=16. To minimize the warping of lumber.=--(=A.=) Do not place lumber -piles less than one foot apart, as it is necessary that there should -be a continuous circulation of air through the pile in all directions. -(See _b_, Fig. 22.) - -(=B.=) Lumber piles are usually four feet in width, and should be built -up with sticks of that length, which are placed between the courses of -boards. It is important that these be placed directly over each other -and the ways; otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards, as -shown at _c_. It is such carelessness as this that causes a great deal -of loss. In piling very expensive lumber, the front sticks should be -laid so as to project a little over the course of boards below, and -the boards of the course above should project the same distance over -the stick, in order to give the front of the pile an inclination to -the front, as shown at _d_, which will allow most of the rain-water to -drop clear of the boards below, instead of running down the front and -finding its way into the pile. - -(=C.=) Square piles are sometimes built, but in these the boards should -be laid with large spaces between them, to allow perfect circulation -of air. It is obvious that in a pile of this sort, the boards in the -center of the pile will not come in contact with the air as much as -those on the outside, and that consequently, unless carefully piled, -the boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead of drying -out, which usually results in decay. - -(=D.=) During the drying out process, all boards change their form -more or less, depending upon the shape of the tree trunk, the kind -and quality of the wood, the part of the tree from which the log was -cut, as well as its size and age, the relation of the annual rings and -medullary rays to the surfaces of the board, the length of time since -the log was cut before being made into lumber, whether it had lain in -water for several months, and the method of piling. Thus it will be -seen that in every stage of preparing lumber for market, a high degree -of skill and judgment is necessary to insure the best results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--WARPING OF LUMBER.] - -The greatest deterioration in lumber, after it has been cut and -properly piled, is generally due to the tendency to warp, the cause -of which is indicated in Fig. 23, and which may to great extent be -minimized by skillful piling. If this sketch is studied carefully, it -will be noticed that the middle board is thicker in the middle than -it is at the edges, and that the curves of its top and bottom sides -are practically uniform. This is because the annual layers are at -nearly a right angle with the sides of the board, which causes the -board to shrink in thickness, and very little in width. This is due -to the tendency of lumber shrink around, or parallel with, the annual -layers. This tendency also causes the star shakes, as at _c_, Fig. -3, which is because the inner layers of the log, being less than the -outside layers in circumference, and less exposed to the dry air, do -not shrink so fast nor so much. This tendency is again illustrated in -Fig. 23, in which it will be seen that because the outer annual layers -shrink faster, they cause the outside of the board, or the part which -grew toward the outside of the tree, to become narrower, and to assume -a concave shape, while the side nearer the center of the tree, or the -inside of the board, becomes convex. This is also the reason why boards -cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width more than those -cut nearer the center, which shrink in thickness proportionately more -than in width. - -(=E.=) For the purpose of taking advantage of the tendency to warp, and -applying it to its own remedy, boards should be piled with the side -which grew nearer the center of the tree uppermost. This will help to -correct the tendency of the board to warp, as explained above, as the -side which would naturally assume the concave shape will be underneath, -and less likely to warp than if it were uppermost. This is not -generally observed in stacking common lumber, since it needs care and -judgment to do it properly, but it should be done if valuable lumber is -being handled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--LUMBER PILED IN DOUBLE COURSES.] - -Boards of practically the same width, if less than 7” wide, are -sometimes stacked in double courses, as shown in Fig. 24, the outside -of the boards, or the sides which grew nearer the outside of the tree -being placed together, thus allowing the inside of the boards, or the -sides which grew toward the center of the tree, to receive more air -than the sides which are placed together, and therefore to dry out -faster, which will reduce the warping to a minimum. After a pile is -completed, it should be covered with old boards to protect the top -courses from the weather. - -(=F.=) A pile of valuable lumber should be restacked every six or eight -months, as the boards are apt to become discolored where the lumber -sticks are placed; in this rehandling, the warped boards should be -placed with the concave side underneath. - -(=G.=) If lumber is cut in winter or midsummer, and properly cared for, -it is not apt to be injured by any rain which may drive into the pile, -if there is free circulation of air; nor is it so liable to decay as -lumber which is cut at other times of the year. - -=17. Weather-dried lumber.=--Lumber which has been dried in the stack -out of doors is not dry enough for use in the manufacture of inside -finish or furniture, as it has dried out only to the degree of -moisture in the outside air. If it is then worked up and placed in -an artificially heated house, the heat will cause more moisture to -evaporate, the wood to shrink, and the joints to open. For material to -be used in the frames of buildings, in wagons, or in other places where -the greatest possible strength is required, not less than two years -weather-drying is preferred, as the material retains its full strength. - -=18. Kiln-dried lumber.=--Lumber for furniture or for inside finish -should be seasoned by the process known as “kiln-drying.” This means -that lumber is exposed to a temperature of from 120° to 200° F. by -which the moisture is extracted and evaporated. Lumber thus treated -is apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat upon the -fibers of the wood, which causes thousands of minute fractures, and in -many cases the life and the elasticity of the lumber is destroyed. The -results of kiln-drying depend largely upon the kiln, and upon the skill -with which the lumber is piled, the heat applied, and the rapidity of -evaporation of the moisture regulated. - -For these reasons, much kiln-dried lumber is suitable for use where but -little strength is required and where the color and the grain are the -important points to consider. - -=19. Moist air kilns.=--(=A.=) There are two types of dry kilns in -common use: the _natural draft_, or moist air, kilns, and the _induced -draft_ kilns. These two types are made by different manufacturers, -nearly all of whom use certain devices of which they control the -patents, and which constitute the chief difference between their kiln -and those made by other manufacturers. - -(=B.=) The moist air kilns are so constructed as to allow the freest -possible circulation of the heated air, and to provide opportunities -for the moisture to be expelled in accordance with certain natural -laws, which results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed -system of ventilation. These kilns operate upon the principle that -heated air circulating naturally through lumber will become charged -to a much greater degree with moisture than if it were forced through -rapidly, as in the induced draft kilns. Thus, heated air by passing -slowly through a pile of lumber may become charged with moisture nearly -to the dew point. - -If the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that point, by -allowing the moisture to pass out as it accumulates, with a small -amount of heated air, which is replaced with fresh air from the -outside, it is claimed that the boards will dry out from their centers. -(=C.=) As the warm, moist air which circulates through the pile will -keep the outsides of the boards moist, it will prevent case hardening, -or the hardening of the outsides of the boards. This is caused by -very warm dry air, which “cooks,” or closes the pores of the surface -of the boards, and this prevents the outsides from shrinking, while -the insides will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the -boards. - -After the moisture is all out of the lumber, that held in suspension -will gradually pass out of the kiln, and the air inside will become -perfectly dry. - -(=D.=) It is claimed that all kinds of lumber in common use may be -put into this type of kiln perfectly green, except oak and other very -hard woods, which should have at least thirty days’ drying under good -drying conditions for each inch in thickness. It is also claimed that -the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accelerated,--the moisture -being thoroughly extracted from the lumber, the result being the same -as though it were stacked out of doors for several years,--and that the -lumber has lost none of its strength, elasticity, or characteristic -color. - -(=E.=) This method sometimes is applied by steam pipes extending -between each course of boards, and in this way the lumber is dried out -very rapidly. Lumber used in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly -weather-dried, or otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check -badly. In certain forms of these kilns, the lumber is saturated with -live steam after it is piled in the kiln, before the heat is turned on. - -=20. Induced draft kilns.=--(=A.=) This system of kiln-drying consists -of a power-driven fan, which forces the heated air at a high rate of -speed through the spaces between and around the lumber piled in the -chamber. - -(=B.=) Manufacturers have different devices for extracting the moisture -from the air after it has passed through the lumber piles. It may be -passed over condensing plates, or through coils of pipes in which -cold water is continually circulating, both of these devices being -for the purpose of extracting the moisture from the heated air. If -the moisture is separated from the air by condensation, it runs away, -but if not, a certain per cent of the heated air is expelled out of -doors, being replaced by fresh air. The air in the kiln, somewhat -cooled from contact with these cooled surfaces, is returned to the -heater, reheated, and again forced through the kiln, which operation is -repeated continuously and automatically. Thus the heated air becomes -charged with a small percentage of moisture each time it passes through -the kiln chamber; this moisture is extracted and the air is again -heated before beginning another circuit, instead of slow circulation -which allows the heated air to become saturated with moisture before it -is discharged, as in the moist air kiln. - -The induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive equipment, as -the blower and the appliance which drive it are necessary in addition -to the equipment of the kiln itself, which would be similar in either -of the types of kiln described. Lumber to be dried in this form of kiln -must be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high temperature -of the kiln. - -=21. Results of the two systems.=--While it is not the province of -this book to pass judgment upon the results of the different methods -or forms of dry kilns, it is obvious that the induced draft kiln is -the more expensive to operate, as the expense of running the blower is -avoided in the moist air system. In this latter type of kiln the steam -simply passes through the pipes, the condensation being returned to the -boiler to be reheated, so the only expense is that of maintaining the -fire to keep up a low pressure. In the daytime, or while the engine -which furnishes the power for the plant is running, the kilns of either -type may be heated by exhaust steam. - -Many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with the results -obtained from either, while others are decided in their preference. - -=22. Filling a kiln.=--In doing this, care should be used that there is -plenty of room for the air to circulate freely around and through the -pile--not less than 3” between the edges of the boards horizontally and -vertically, and one foot between the lumber and the wall or adjacent -pile. Each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the same -width over those of the course below, if possible, in order to keep a -vertical air space through the pile. In some cases the kiln is filled -by placing the boards edgeways. - -=23. Length of time lumber should be left in the kiln.=--No one should -undertake to operate a kiln unless he understands perfectly the -particular make of the kiln that he is handling, for if the ventilation -is not correctly regulated, the entire charge of the kiln may become -mildewed, casehardened, checked, discolored, or dried unevenly. No rule -can be given for the time which lumber should be left in the kiln, -as it depends upon the condition of the lumber, temperature, kind of -lumber, dimensions, and ventilation. Generally speaking, if the kiln -is properly constructed and operated, from two to four days for each -inch in thickness of soft wood, and from two to three times as long, -at a lower temperature, for hard wood, is usually enough to extract -the moisture. It is, however, best to allow the lumber to stay in the -kiln, at a moderate temperature, from three days to two weeks after -the moisture is extracted, in order to harden and cook the solids of -the sap, as by so doing the lumber is not so liable to be influenced -by moisture in the future; this is the effect that long weather-drying -accomplishes. - -=24. The care of kiln-dried lumber.=--It is a common mistake to allow -lumber to lie in an open shed or other place where it will absorb -moisture from the atmosphere, and still call it kiln-dried. Lumber -of this sort should be kept in a place where heat can be applied in -damp weather, and should be stacked in a close, compact pile, so as to -prevent the air from coming in contact with it. - -=25. Steaming wood.=--This process makes wood pliable, and adds to -its durability by destroying the germs which may cause decay; it also -neutralizes, to a great extent, the effect of the presence of sap. -Steaming or immersing wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency -to shrink and swell, and wood thus treated is not so apt to check in -seasoning. Steamed wood loses some of its original strength on account -of the effect of the high temperature upon the fibers. - -=26. Preserving wood.=--In order to preserve wood, it is sometimes -treated with creosote or other chemicals, which are forced into the -wood at a sufficient pressure to cause them to permeate the wood -thoroughly. This treatment enables the wood to resist better the -elements and to keep away insects, which do a great deal of damage, -frequently honeycombing the wood with holes, with little or no evidence -of their presence upon the outside. - - - SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES - - 14. What are some of the results of piling lumber carelessly? Should - the back and the front of the lumber pile be upon the same level? Why? - - 15. How should lumber ways be built? What kind of places should be - avoided in seeking a location for lumber piles? - - 16. Should the piles be placed close to each other? How wide should - the piles be made? What is the objection to a square pile? How thick - should the lumber sticks be? How should they be placed? What is the - result if they are not carefully placed? How should the sticks and - the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile? Why? What - causes lumber to warp? Describe methods of piling lumber to minimize - warping. Should a lumber pile be allowed to stand indefinitely? What - is the proper time to cut lumber? Does it injure lumber to allow a - little rain to beat into the pile? - - 17. What is meant by weather-dried lumber? Why is it not suitable - for furniture and for inside finish? How is this remedied? For what - purposes is weather-dried lumber the best? - - 18. What is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber? - - 19. What are the two methods of kiln-drying? Describe the principle of - the moist air kiln. What is claimed of it? How should hard wood lumber - be treated before being kiln-dried? - - 20. Describe the induced draft system. What devices are used to - extract the moisture from the heated air? What are the main points of - difference between the two systems? - - 21. What is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be - put in the two forms of kilns? Which is the more expensive system to - install and operate? How do users of the two systems compare them? - - 22. How should lumber be stacked in the kiln? - - 23. How long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow the - moisture to be extracted? How long to insure most permanent results? - - 24. How should kiln-dried lumber be cared for? - - 25. What is the effect of steaming wood? - - 26. How is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements and - from insects? - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -TOOLS - - -=27. How to purchase tools.=--(=A.=) The quality of the tools used by -the mechanic is of the greatest importance. They should be selected -carefully, and while it is the poorest economy to buy anything but the -best, the best are not necessarily the most finely finished. - -(=B.=) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that those made -especially for some dealer, and bearing his name, if sold for a -less price than the best, are usually not of the highest grade, and -should be shunned. It is wisest to buy standard makes, examining them -carefully to be sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of -steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in the best grades -of tools is made good upon complaint to the dealer. - -=28. Benches.=--(=A.=) Figure 25 shows the type of bench used in -the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, while that used by -carpenters for ordinary work usually is of the type shown in Fig. 26. - -(=B.=) In many manual-training schools, the benches are of the former -type, and in the most completely equipped schools, are fitted with -locked drawers and closets for the reception of tools, not only to keep -the latter in condition for use, but to insure that the set of tools -is complete, and to be able to place the responsibility for damage or -loss. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--MANUAL-TRAINING BENCH.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--CARPENTER’S BENCH.] - -(=C.=) The _vises_ should be of the modern, quick action design, which, -on account of the rapidity with which they work, are superseding the -old-fashioned wooden and iron screw vises. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--TWO-FOOT, FOUR-FOLD RULE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--ZIGZAG RULE.] - -=29. Rules.=--The two-foot, four-fold _rule_ (Fig. 27) is the one -generally used by carpenters. It is made of different grades, the more -expensive makes being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and 12ths, -and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“, 1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them. -Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate, it is divided usually -into 8ths and 16ths only. The form of rule shown in Fig. 28 is becoming -quite popular, as it is longer. Since rules are easily lost or broken, -many workmen have a good rule for scaling, and a cheaper one for -general work. - -=30. The try-square= (=A.=) consists of the beam (Fig. 29, _a_), which -is generally of metal-lined wood, and the blade (_b_), which is a thin -piece of steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--POSITION OF TRY-SQUARE IN SQUARING AN EDGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--USE OF TWO TRY-SQUARES TO SEE IF PIECE OF WOOD -IS “OUT OF WIND.”] - -(=B.=) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of this tool, -as one which is not perfectly true may cause much trouble. To test a -square, hold the beam against a perfectly straight and square edge of a -board which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the entire -length of the blade. Then turn the square over, the other side up, and, -holding the beam against the same edge, move the blade to the line. If -the jointed edge of the board and the square are perfectly accurate, -the knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--POSITION OF TRY-SQUARE WHEN MAKING LINE.] - -(=C.=) The use of this tool in squaring an edge is shown in Fig. -29. The piece being squared should be in such a position that the -try-square will be between the eye and the light; in this way, the -slightest inaccuracy may be detected. In Fig. 31 is shown the position -of the try-square when used to make a line by the edge of the blade. If -working from the edge indicated, hold the beam against the edge with -the thumb, and at the same time hold the blade down with one or two -fingers, using the others to steady the square in its place upon the -board. (=D.=) Two try-squares may be used to see if a piece of wood is -“out of wind” (_i_ sounded as in kind) by the method indicated in Fig. -30. - -Two pieces of wood known as _winding sticks_, of exactly the same width -and perfectly parallel, are often used in manual-training schools for -this purpose; they are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman -generally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large to be -sighted accurately without some aid of this sort. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--STEEL, OR FRAMING, SQUARE.] - -=31. The steel, or framing, square= (Fig. 32) is often used as a -try-square upon large work, though its most important use is in -framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable in finding the -lengths and the angles of rafters, braces, etc. Its use for this -purpose will be explained in “Constructive Carpentry.” The long side of -the framing square is known as the “blade,” and the short side as the -“tongue.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--BEVEL AND STEEL SQUARE. - -The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.] - -=32. The bevel= (Fig. 33) may be set for use in marking and testing any -angle, in the same manner that the try-square is used upon rectangular -work. The sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for -setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed that the blade -of the bevel rests upon the same figures upon both the blade and the -tongue of the square. - -=33. The gauge= (=A.=), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making lines -parallel to the face or working side or edge. Usually it is made in -four pieces: the “head” (_a_), which is held against the face side or -edge; the “stick” (_bb_), upon which the head moves; the “thumbscrew” -(_c_), which holds the head firmly in its position upon the stick; and -the “point” (_d_), which makes the desired mark upon the wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--MARKING GAUGE. - -_a_, the head; _bb_, the stick; _c_, the thumbscrew; _d_, the point.] - -(=B.=) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless one is -certain that the point is located accurately with regard to the -graduations upon the stick. - -The point should be sharpened to work with either a push or pull cut, -as at _e_. - -(=C.=) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, and generally -used with a push, though it is occasionally pulled toward the worker. -One should always work from the face side of the piece. - -If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set back, or the -gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated, which will -govern the depth of the cut. Do not use a dull gauge, or one with a -round point like a pencil, as it will tear the wood, instead of making -a clean cut or scratch. - -=34. The hammer= (=A.=) is used by the average wood-worker more than -any other tool. The “face” (Fig. 36, _a_) and the “claws” (_b_) should -be tempered carefully, as they will either bruise or bend if too soft, -or break if too hard. The eye (_c_) is made longer than it is wide, to -prevent the head from turning on the handle, and larger at the outside -of the head than it is at the neck, so that the handle may be firmly -wedged in the eye or socket. The neck (_d_), by extending upon the -handle as it does, adds much to the strength of the connection. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--MARKING GAUGE IN USE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--CLAW HAMMER. - -_a_, the face; _b_, the claws; _c_, the eye; _d_, the neck; _e_, grain -of neck.] - -The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained hickory, -elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped easily. - -The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and the annual -layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at the end, as at _c_. The -handle should be fitted and wedged, or “hung” in such a way that a nail -may be driven home in a flat surface without the knuckles striking, -which means that the center of the handle should be about parallel with -the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head through the eye should -exactly coincide with the long, or major, axis of the ellipse at the -end of the handle, as at _gg_, or pounded fingers will result. - -The _bell-faced_ hammer is to be preferred to the _flat-faced_ type, as -it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is missed, though more -skill is required to use it. Upon rough work, the bell-faced hammer -will sink the nail beneath the surface without bruising the wood badly. -Upon inside work, the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a -nail set. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37. - -_a_, toenailing; _b_, tacking.] - -(=B.=) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the habit of -grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, as this will give -greater force to the blow. Upon light work, the hand will naturally -slip a little toward the head. Nails should generally be driven in a -slanting direction, as they hold better than if driven straight. When -nails are driven as shown at _a_, Fig. 37, it is called “toenailing,” -and when driven sufficiently to hold, but not driven home, as at _b_, -they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven this way when they are -to be pulled out again, as in stay laths, and in fastening pieces -temporarily. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--BLIND NAILING AND USE OF A NAIL SET.] - -In forcing matched boards together, do not pound directly upon the -tongue edge of the board, but upon a waste piece of the same material, -as the tongue will be bruised so that the next board will not form a -good joint. Care should be used that the hammer does not strike the -edge of the board when the nail is driven home. To guard against this, -a nail set should be used to sink the head beneath the surface, as in -Fig. 38, so that the next board will come to its place without trouble. -This is called “blind nailing.” - -=35. The hatchet= (=A.=) is used for hewing light work, for shingling; -and as a heavy hammer, though the face is rarely tempered to stand very -heavy usage (Fig. 39, _a_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_a_, hatchet; _b_, hand axe. - -(For explanation, see text.)] - -(=B.=) A _hand axe_, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, _b_), usually is a -better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of greater weight, -is better adapted for heavy work. A hatchet or hand axe for general use -should be sharpened as at _c_; but for hewing only, an edge like _d_ -will give the best results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--MALLETS. - -_a_, square-faced mallet; _b_, round mallet.] - -=36. The mallet.=--This tool should be used upon chisel handles, as a -hammer will destroy the handle in a very short time. Mallets are of two -shapes, the _square-faced_ (Fig. 40, _a_) and the _round_ mallet (_b_), -the latter being preferred by many workmen as it will always strike -a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while the square-faced mallet -sometimes will miss, and inflict a painful blow upon the hand. In -general, the handle of a square-faced mallet is round, which allows the -mallet to turn in the hand; if the handle were made elliptical, like a -hammer handle, there would be less likelihood of missing the chisel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41, _A._ RIPSAW. - -_dd_, view and section of setting of teeth. - -FIG. 41, _B_. CUTTING-OFF SAW. - -FIG. 41, _C_. COMPASS, OR KEYHOLE, SAW. - -FIG. 41.--SAWS. - -(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in Fig. 41, the set -of the teeth is exaggerated.)] - -=37. Saws.=--(=A.=) The saws used by the carpenter are for cutting -parallel with, or across, the grain, or a combination of the two, and -all are composed of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.” - -The teeth of a _ripsaw_ (Fig. 41, _A_) are suitable for sawing in a -direction parallel with the general direction of the grain. The points -of different saws may be from one third to one seventh of an inch -apart, and form a series of chisels, the cutting edges of which are -filed so that they are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In -action, the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting a little -deeper than the one preceding it. - -The _cutting-off saw_ (Fig. 41, _B_) has from six to twelve -knife-pointed teeth to an inch, the cutting edges being parallel to the -sides of the blade, and filed so that the point of the tooth is upon -the side which is set beyond the side of the blade. - -In all except the finest saws, the teeth are set; that is, the points -are bent a very little in such a way as to make the cut wider than -the thickness of the blade, so that the saw may cut through the wood -without binding, which it could not do if the cut were the same -thickness as the blade. The blades of all high grade saws are thinner -upon the back than upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used -upon the finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges -of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary. -For general work, it will be found that the saw will be much more -efficient if it is given a set adapted to the size of the teeth, or to -the nature of the work it is expected to do. - -The _compass_, or _keyhole_, _saw_ (Fig. 41, _C_) is used where it is -necessary that the saw should cut both with and across the grain. It -is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off saw, when a cut has -to be made in the surface of a board. This saw is used also in many -places where it is not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing -curves. In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or -cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and the blade is -made of soft metal. It may then be given a heavy set, so that it will -bend instead of breaking or kinking, as it would be liable to do from -the nature of its work if made of tempered steel. - -Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is desirable to carry -as few tools as possible, have a narrow 20” or 22” saw sharpened like a -compass saw, which for ordinary work is quite satisfactory as either a -cutting-off or a ripsaw, thus making another saw unnecessary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--BACKSAW.] - -The _backsaw_ (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is filed like a -cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather more hook, and it often has -as many as fifteen teeth to the inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as -fine as is generally used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of -the saw, and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the back, -as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually straighten it. - -(=B.=) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon the cutting -edge than upon the back; this allows the saw to be used upon very fine -work with little or no setting. See that the handle fits the hand, -and that the saw hangs to suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter -concerning the balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be -described, but which any one accustomed to using tools will miss if a -tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand. - -A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend so that the point -may be put through the handle, and upon being released, instantly -resume its shape. It should bend evenly in proportion to the width and -the gauge of the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the -blade will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore -runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being softer, is not expected -to stand the above test. - -A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off saw to be -used upon coarse work; but for fine work, a 22” blade, commonly known -as a “panel saw,” is a convenient size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is -preferred by many workmen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--USE OF THE SAW. - -Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.] - -(=C.=) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work most -workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the teeth of a hard saw -are apt to break in setting, and its edge, if it comes in contact with -metal, requires filing just about as quickly as that of a soft saw, -and is much more difficult to sharpen. If always filed by an expert -filer, a hard saw is superior in every way to any other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--RESET SAW HANDLE.] - -(=D.=) The handle of the saw should be grasped firmly by three fingers, -as in Fig. 43, with the forefinger extended along the side, thus -making more room for the three fingers, and giving better control of -the saw. Very little strength should be used in forcing a fine saw to -cut, as its own weight generally is sufficient; if the saw is forced, -it will not run smoothly, but will bind, and if a thin board is being -worked, it is apt to split. The saw should be used from the face side -of the material, so that any splinters or variation will be upon the -back side and out of sight. - -(=E.=) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the handles of -their heavy saws by drilling holes through the blade so that the handle -may be fastened as close to the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig. -44. This brings the force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the -cut, which obviously allows a more economical application of force. -Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off the -trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will be discussed -later.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--KNIFE BLADES. - -_A_, used by wood-worker; - -_B_, used in manual-training schools.] - -=38. The knife blade= used by the wood-worker for general work is -similar to that shown in Fig. 45, at _A_. That shown at _B_ is the form -of blade in most common use in manual-training schools, as it is better -adapted for whittling, its shape assisting the student to some extent -to prevent the knife from following the grain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--SECTION OF IRON PLANE. - -1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap -lever; 4_a_, cam; 5, cap screw; 6, frog; 6_a_, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, -vertical adjusting nut; 8_a_, vertical adjusting screw; 9, lateral -adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and -nut; 14, bolt knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.] - -=39. Planes.=--(=A.=) The _plane_ is the most complex, as well as one -of the most important, tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high -grade of skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it -properly. - -(=B.=) The only plane in use until recent years had a wooden stock, and -the iron was adjusted by blows with a hammer; this form of plane has -changed very little since the first types were invented, as planes of -ancient times have been found which in all essentials are practically -the same as those in use to-day. - -(=C.=) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and more convenient -to use, though they will do no better work than the wooden planes of -our forefathers, which are still preferred by many of the best workmen. -The face of an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is -necessary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--RESULT OF USING PLANE WITH IMPROPERLY ADJUSTED -CAP IRON.] - -(=D.=) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, all constructed -upon the same general principle as the common bench plane which we -shall discuss later. These planes are adjusted by screws and levers, -which are very simple, and any one understanding them may easily -comprehend the more intricate molding or universal planes. - -The adjustment of the modern plane may be understood by a careful study -of Fig. 46 and by comparing it with the plane itself. The “cutter,” -“iron,” or “bit” (1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the -tool, and it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency -of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too far from the edge of -the iron, and if the cut is made against the grain, the shaving will -not break before it leads the iron into the wood, as shown in Fig. 47. -If the cap iron is set somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the -cutter, according to the wood being planed, it will break the shaving -nearly as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, and will result in a -smooth, clean surface. The closer the cap iron is set to the edge, the -smoother the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby -made shorter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--RESULT OF USING PLANE WITH CAP IRON ADJUSTED -PROPERLY.] - -It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron (2) is set -to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the breaks will be, as in -Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the plane will cut. The plane “iron -screw” (3) holds the edge of the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap -iron (2) in their desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed -against the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the “cam” -(4_a_), holds the iron in its place, and presses the cap iron (2) -firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless the cap iron fits the -face of the cutter perfectly, the plane will not work satisfactorily. -The “frog” (6) carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and -may be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the “mouth” -(6_a_), which should be no larger than is necessary to allow the -shavings to pass freely. The frog rarely will require readjusting after -it has been properly located. - -The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) in or out -simultaneously, which governs the projection, or “set,” of the edge of -the cutter (1) beyond the face, or “sole” (_b_) of the “plane stock,” -and thus the thickness of the shaving which the plane will cut. The -“adjusting nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8_a_) and operates -the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for the purpose of -forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of the width of the face -(b) of the plane. The two “frog screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in -the position which will make the throat (6_a_) of the desired size. - -The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the other parts of -the plane are as follows: “handle” (11); “knob” (12); “handle bolt” and -“nut” (13); “knob bolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,” -or “stock” (16). - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--SETTING A PLANE.] - -The face, or sole, of the plane (_b_) must be perfectly straight, or -good work cannot be done. The ends of the plane (_h_ and _t_) are -called the “heel” and “toe,” respectively. The “mouth” of the plane -(between 6_a_ and 2) must be kept clear of shavings, or it may become -clogged. - -(=E.=) In setting a plane, do not pass the fingers over the face, or -sole, as cut fingers may result. Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 49, -and look toward the light, when the exact projection of the cutter may -be seen. Notice the position of the fingers of the left hand, and that -the eye glances from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to -make the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a plane, and -in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness should be avoided. - -=40. Sharpening a plane.=--(=A.=) An important part of this process -is _the grinding of the cutter_. Set the cap back about ⅛” from the -edge of the iron, and use it as a guide by which to grind the iron -perfectly square, as at _A_, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept -perfectly square, and never touched except to fit it to the cutter, -or, if it is too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file -the top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in order -skillfully, the cap will need care only upon rare occasions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--WHETTING AND GRINDING OF PLANE. - -(For explanation, see text.)] - -The cutter should be held firmly to the grindstone or emery wheel and -kept moving from side to side to prevent wearing the stone in one -place. The grinding should all be done upon the beveled side of the -cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an angle of about 20° -(as at _B_, Fig. 50), more rather than less, as a thinner edge is apt -to “chatter,” or vibrate, if it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many -workmen use a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any device -which holds the tool firmly at the same place on the stone will do for -a rest. - -In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should be loosened -and the cap iron carried back until the screw stops at the top of the -slot of the bit, as at _C_, Fig. 50. The screw is then tightened with -the fingers to hold the cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the -iron, though some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while -whetting. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--WHETTING OR OILSTONING THE BEVELED SIDE OF A -CUTTER.] - -The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the surface of the -oilstone, as shown at _C_, Fig. 50, the iron being grasped as in Fig. -51. Keep the right wrist rigid and allow the arm to swing from the -shoulder, bending only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion -may be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve the bevel. -Though the bevel may be maintained better by imparting a short circular -motion to the plane iron, or to any edge tool which is being sharpened, -it seems an awkward and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an -expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds that a stroke made -nearly the entire length of the stone will impart an edge quicker, and -after the knack has been acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as -well. - -Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work upon the farther -end, as in this way the stone may be kept true much longer than if one -place upon it is used all the time. This will also minimize the danger -of pulling the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will -generally make regrinding necessary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--WHETTING OR OILSTONING THE PLAIN SIDE OF THE -PLANE IRON.] - -When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, or the top of -the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in Fig. 52, holding it -down with the fingers of the left hand, using the right hand only -to move the iron back and forth. Care should be used that under no -circumstances is the face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from -the stone. At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care -is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its perfectly -straight surface at the edge, as the slightest deviation from absolute -accuracy at this place will prevent the cap iron from fitting properly, -which will cause endless trouble, as the shavings will be forced -between the cap and the face of the iron (see =C.= of this topic). - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--SHAPE OF EDGE OF PLANE IRON.] - -(=B.=) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter has an -important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine the edge divided into -three equal parts: the middle part should be perfectly straight, or -almost imperceptibly rounded; the two outside thirds should be slightly -and gradually rounded until the corners of the iron are so short that -there will be no danger of their projecting below the face of the -plane. This gives the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 53, -which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape shown is about that which -would be seen if a moderately coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49. - -(=C.=) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be fitted so -carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter that, if necessary, it -may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch from the cutting edge, though -this would rarely be required except upon very cross-grained wood. - -In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very fine, sharp -file should be used. The filing must all be done upon the under side -of the cap iron, at the places where it rests upon the face or top of -the cutter; or, if preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but -unless there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint is -perfected by the use of a file, this method is not recommended. - -If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be sharpened -and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01” or less in thickness of -bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut, ash, or similar wood may be smoothed. -It is not wise, however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane -sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a scraper and -sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most economical way to smooth -woods of such nature. - -(=D.=) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions which -cause it; simply digging out the shavings is useless. An improperly -fitted cap iron is one of the principal causes of trouble; the cutter -may be ground so thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard -place, the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance -under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage of a wooden -plane over the modern iron plane, as in the former the iron is much -thicker and stiffer. The cap iron may be so thick that it causes the -shavings to curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the front, -which will make the mouth too small. This latter may be remedied by -moving the frog back, but in a wooden plane, the mouth and the throat -would have to be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear -themselves properly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--JACK PLANE.] - -=41. The jack plane= (Fig. 54) generally is 15” long, and its ordinary -use is for the purpose of roughing out a piece of wood for jointing or -smoothing. If it is properly sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing -plane, or as a jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as -good work as any plane. - -The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and the cap set -farther back than in the other planes, especially if it is to be used -upon rough work. - -=42. The jointer.=--(=A.=) This tool is from 20” to 26” long, and is -used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to fit them together. The -shape of the edge of the cutter of this plane should be but slightly -elliptical, less so than the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two -latter are fitted for doing very fine work. - -(=B.=) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, it should -be carried to one side or the other of its face as may be necessary -to take advantage of the elliptically shaped edge of the cutter, by -cutting a shaving thicker on one edge than on the other, thus making -the edge of the board square with the face side. - -To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be made in the center -of both the iron and the width of the face of the plane. The plane -should be held as shown in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the -plane, the tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding -the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place upon its edge. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--METHOD OF GUIDING A JOINTER.] - -=43. The smoothing plane= (=A.=) is of the same type and mechanism as -those described above, though it is but 9 or 10” long; if satisfactory -work is expected from it, it must be kept in good order, with the cap -iron perfectly fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend -the time to insure that the plane should be continually in readiness -to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood, as a plane to do the -latter kind of work well is unnecessary upon softer or straight-grained -wood. For ordinary work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆” -from the edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the -edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer the work -that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary work is so cross-grained -or knurly that it cannot be smoothed economically, if a properly -sharpened and adjusted plane is used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--KNUCKLE JOINT BLOCK PLANE.] - -(=B.=) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly the entire -width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, elliptically -shaped edge must be maintained. In using a plane or any kind of cutting -tool, the direction of the grain of the wood should be carefully -studied, and every advantage taken of it to facilitate the work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--USE OF THE BLOCK PLANE. - -(For explanation, see text.)] - -=44. The block plane= (knuckle joint cap, Fig. 56) (=A.=) is -constructed upon a somewhat different principle than the planes above -described, as the adjusting nut (_a_) under the cutter at the rear end -of the plane is raised or lowered to withdraw or advance the bit, and -thus govern the cut of the tool. The size of the mouth is controlled by -a movable section of the face at _b_. This plane has no cap iron, as -the use for which it is intended makes it unnecessary. The block plane -is used across the end of the wood, at right angles with the general -direction of the grain. The iron, or cutter, is so placed in the stock -of the plane that its cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut -as possible, with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this -method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to resist the -chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--USING BLOCK PLANE UPON SMALL PIECES.] - -(=B.=) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts from edge to -edge, or chips will be broken off at the corners; instead, plane from -each edge, and stop the stroke before the other edge is reached; -reverse the plane and work from the other direction, as shown at _A_, -_B_, Fig. 57. Another and workmanlike way of using the block plane upon -small pieces is shown in Fig. 58. Work from each edge as described -above, turning the piece over for each stroke. In sharpening the block -plane iron, the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel -carefully maintained. - -=45. The correct position.=--(=A.=) In using planes or any edge tools, -a position should be taken which will furnish sufficient resistance to -the pressure required for making the cut, as the pressure should be -applied firmly and steadily. With experience, the correct position -will be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually -upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness. - -(=B.=) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired easily, and the -young workman should learn to work in as nearly an erect position -as possible, for if the bending of the shoulders is persisted in, a -permanent stoop will result. Stand facing the work and clear of the -bench in order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--INCORRECT USE OF JACK PLANE.] - -(=C.=) Do not allow the plane to drop over the end of the board at -either the beginning or the end of the stroke, as indicated at _A_, -_B_, Fig. 59. To prevent this, the hand should be kept upon that part -of the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of the stroke, -the weight should be upon the front end of the plane, as in Fig. 60, -and at the end of the stroke upon the rear end, or upon the handle, as -in Fig. 61. Begin and end each stroke with a lifting motion instead of -allowing the plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane -should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump; this is -caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving heavier than the plane -should cut, or, if the cap iron is fitted and adjusted properly, by a -dull iron. A cutter will jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly -against the frog. In drawing the plane back after making a stroke, -carry it upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat upon its -face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as when it is cutting, or -possibly more. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--BEGINNING THE STROKE WITH A JACK PLANE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--ENDING THE STROKE WITH A JACK PLANE.] - -(=D.=) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is possible, -and take no more shavings off than is necessary to attain the desired -results. The young workman should make a study of the grain and the -peculiarities of the different kinds of lumber upon which he works, -losing no opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities of -every available wood. - -(=E.=) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, and much is -often lost, by working with dull tools; tools should be sharpened often -and thoroughly. This is of the utmost importance, for even with the -tools in the best possible order, it will require much care and skill -to do good work. - -=46. Chisels.=--(=A.=) Carpenters’ chisels are used for paring and -mortising; the paring chisel should be light, smoothly finished, and -ground with a sharper bevel than that used for mortising, for which the -heaviest chisel is none too strong. - -(=B.=) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according to the method by -which the blade and handle is joined. The tanged firmer chisel (Fig. -62, _A_) is the older form, and is not so strong as the more recently -designed socket chisel (_B_). For light work, the tanged chisel is -preferred by many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it -is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to catch upon the -edge of the wood when the tool is used. The beveled-edge chisel (_C_) -is a favorite tool with pattern makers; and the mortise, or framing -chisel (_D_), is designed for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of -one each of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”, 1”, -1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”. - -(=C.=) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called a “slice” or -“slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon heavy work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--CHISELS. - -_A_, tanged firmer chisel; _B_, socket chisel; _C_, beveled-edge -chisel; _D_, mortise, or framing chisel.] - -(=D.=) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard wood and of any -convenient shape, as these should not be pounded upon. Although they -are occasionally used for cutting small mortises, it is not a good -practice unless the tops of the handles are protected by leather or -fiber tops. Mortising chisels should have handles of the toughest wood -obtainable, preferably hickory, with leather nailed with small brads -upon the top to protect the wood. If a leather washer is fastened to -the handle by a pin or dowel, the wood will in time pound down and the -leather be broken out and destroyed, while if braided upon the handle, -the leather may be renewed as often as necessary. An iron ring, or -ferrule, is used by many to prevent the handle from splitting, but -this will bruise the face of the mallet. A hammer should never be used -upon any sort of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly -destroyed, but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. In fitting -the handle to the chisel blade, care should be used that they are in -perfect alignment, as otherwise a sharp blow may break the blade. - -(=E.=) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground at an angle -of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be apt to break upon -coming in contact with a knot. A paring chisel may be ground as thin as -20°, as it does not have to stand heavy blows, and a better edge for -the purpose may thus be obtained. In whetting a chisel, the bevel must -be carefully maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, like the -face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to work to a line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--DRAWSHAVE.] - -=47. Gouges= may in general be described in the same way as chisels, -except that they are curved instead of flat. The terms “inside” and -“outside,” used in describing them, indicate whether they are ground -upon the inside or the outside of the curve. - -=48. The drawshave= (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting curves, in -chamfering, and for roughing out work. The patent drawshave, with -folding handles, is a safer tool to keep in the tool box, as the edge -is protected, but it is not as satisfactory for general work as the -ordinary rigid-handled tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood -should be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands when -the tool is not in use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--SPOKESHAVE.] - -=49. The spokeshave= (Fig. 64) should not be used in any place where a -plane can be used, but only upon concave or convex surfaces; when used, -it maybe either pushed or pulled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--AUGER BIT.] - -=50. Bits= (=A.=) are of many different types, the most common being -the _auger bit_ (Fig. 65). The use of the “worm” (_a_) is to draw -the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy pressure upon the bit -unnecessary. The “lips” (_bb_) make an incision on the wood below the -cut made by the “cutters” (_cc_), which take the shavings out and into -the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--CROSS-HANDLED AUGER.] - -(=B.=) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that the bit is -removed before the shavings clog in the twist, which will happen if -the hole becomes full of shavings which cannot be lifted out. Should -clogging occur, do not use a great deal of strength in trying to back -the bit out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull it -out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient strength -cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being straight over the center of -the bit from the “chuck,” not from the head of the bitbrace. - -After boring the hole to the desired depth, do not turn the bit -backward to remove it, as shavings will be left in the hole, but give -it one turn back to loosen the worm, then turn as though boring the -hole deeper, lifting under the head of the bitbrace in the meantime, by -which process the shavings will be lifted out. These bits are numbered -from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of an inch. Sizes larger than -these are known as augers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. - -_A_, German bit; _B_, twist drill.] - -(=C.=) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross handles, as in -Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient leverage to make the -bit cut the wood; these are called augers. The form shown is known as a -“Ford auger.” - -(=D.=) The _German bit_ (Fig. 67, _A_) is used for boring small holes -for screws and nails, and has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our -forefathers, as its action is much more rapid. Its progression in sizes -is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds of an inch; this tool is also called a -_screw bit_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. - -_A_, extension bit; _B_, center bit.] - -(=E.=) The _twist drill_ (Fig. 67, _B_) is a valuable tool; every -carpenter should own an assortment of twist drills for use in places -where other bits may come in contact with iron. The sizes range from -¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds. The round shank drill may be purchased in any size -up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch. - -(=F.=) The _extension bit_ (Fig. 68, _A_) is a very convenient tool -for boring a hole of any size within certain limits, and is at times -extremely valuable. - -(=G.=) The _center bit_ (Fig. 68, _B_) is often used in boring holes -through thin material which would be apt to be split if an auger bit -were used. - -(=H.=) In filing an auger bit, it should be held as shown in Fig. 69, -and a small, fine file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of -the cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened, -as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the cutter, be sure -that its under side back of the cutting edge is filed enough to clear -the wood after the cutter has entered it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--FILING AN AUGER BIT.] - -In doing this, it should be remembered that the bit progresses into -the wood as it cuts, and unless the under side of the cutter is filed -properly, it will bear upon the wood beneath it, back of the cutting -edge, and prevent the bit from advancing. To remedy this, be sure that -the cutter is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from -the edge to the beginning of the twist. - -(=I.=) If the lips (Fig. 65, _bb_) are filed off, an auger bit bores -into the end wood easily. - -=51. The bitbrace, or stock.=--(=A.=) This tool is used to hold the -bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn the bit into the wood. -Bitbraces are made of different sizes, and with different devices for -holding the “tangs” of the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10” -swing bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or -kinds of bits alternately. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--RATCHET BITBRACE.] - -(=B.=) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the ordinary brace -only in the ratchet attachment. It is an indispensable tool to an -up-to-date workman, as it may be used in many places where an ordinary -brace would be useless; for general work, however, being heavier, it is -less convenient than the plain brace. - -=52. The Screwdriver= (=A.=) is one of the most important tools in a -carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of finely tempered steel, -for if too soft, it will turn over, and if too hard, it will break. The -edge should be as thick as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to -have as much strength as possible. - -(=B.=) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory as one with -an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible to obtain as -good a grip upon the former as upon the latter; a round handle, planed -flat upon the two opposite sides, is quite commonly used. - -(=C.=) _Ratchet screwdrivers_ are useful in many places where it -is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent quick-action -screwdrivers on the market which are suitable only for certain kinds -of light work, as what is gained in speed is lost in power. The -screwdriver bit is a short screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace; -it is essential in doing economical work, as screws may be driven much -more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable on account of its -greater leverage in driving heavy screws. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71. - -COMPASSES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72. - -CALIPERS.] - -=53. Compasses, or dividers= (Fig. 71), are used to draw circles and -curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is meant the process -of fitting a piece of wood to an uneven surface. _Calipers_ (Fig. -72) are used to measure the outside of a round or oval object. Those -shown are known as “outside” calipers; “inside” calipers, or those -used for measuring the inside of a hole, have straight legs. These -tools ordinarily are not considered a part of a carpenter’s kit, as -they are generally used upon work requiring more exact measurements. -Wood-workers’ tools are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than -16ths of an inch; hence, the ordinary methods of measuring will usually -give sufficiently accurate results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73. - -PLIERS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. - -NIPPERS.] - -=54. Pliers.=--(=A.=) These are indispensable little tools (Fig. 73), -and every workman should own a pair. Those combining several tools are -most useful; cheap tools of this sort are usually worthless. - -(=B.=) _Nippers_ (Fig. 74) are made to cut wire, but not to pull -nails. Being tempered for cutting, those of good quality are hard and -brittle, lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which work -a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--SCRAPER. - -_A_, _B_, handles for scraper; _C_, leather palm; _D_, scraper plane.] - -=55. The scraper= is one of the most useful tools in the kit of the -carpenter who works upon hard wood. This tool may be purchased, or made -of a very hard saw; it must be of hard, tough steel, or the edge will -not last. A scraper should be about 3” × 5”, which is a convenient -size for grasping with the hand. Many workmen make handles for their -scrapers (Fig. 75, _A_ and _B_), but cabinet makers, and others who -use them continually, generally prefer to use them without handles. -If a large surface is to be scraped, it is well to have a handle of a -leather palm (Fig. 75, _C_). This is a piece of leather of suitable -size and shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the -action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed through the hole, -and the broad part of the palm hangs between the scraper and the thick -of the hand. For scraping floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, _D_) will -be found valuable, though if much of this work is to be done, it will -be the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping -machines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--EDGES OF SCRAPERS. - -_A_, beveled edge; _B_, square edge.] - -=56. Edges.=--There are two forms of edges used in sharpening -scrapers,--the _square_ and the _beveled_ edge; in sharpening either of -these, the edge should be filed, whetted, and turned with a burnisher, -which imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, _A_ and _B_, which -shows enlarged views of the two forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye -glances along the edge of a properly sharpened scraper, the edge will -appear slightly curved; this edge must be given it by filing. After the -scraper is filed, each corner which is to be turned must be whetted to -a perfectly keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of sharpening -a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle with the sides of the -scraper. - -[Illustration: _Front View_ - -FIG. 77.--ANGLE OF BURNISHER WITH SIDES OF SCRAPER.] - -By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing the particles of -steel which form the corner over so that they will form a wire edge -which will stand at an angle with the sides of the scraper. When -the edge has been skillfully turned, it will cut like a very finely -sharpened and adjusted plane, and will work either with or against the -grain without tearing the wood. - -Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher with the sides of the -scraper, as at _a_, Fig. 77, and as in Fig. 78, which indicates -approximately the angle at which it should be held across the edge -when seen in the view illustrated of either a square or beveled-edge -scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The stroke must be -from the bottom, up, as indicated. At _A_, Fig. 79, is shown the top -view of the burnisher as it makes each of the strokes in turning the -edge of a square edge scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an -angle of about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--METHOD OF GRASPING SCRAPER FOR SHARPENING.] - -At _B_, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge of a bevel -edge scraper; the student will notice that the angles are similar to -those shown at _A_, except that the first stroke is made at nearly the -same angle as the bevel of the scraper. An edge may often be turned at -one stroke, and more than three should rarely be necessary. If more -than three are made, the edge may be turned too far, which is worse -than not being turned enough. The strokes should be made in the order -indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; otherwise it -will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results. - -The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this stage of the work -cannot be described, but can only be discovered by practice. A steady, -moderate pressure is all that is needed, but care should be used that -the angle of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This -will give an edge suitable for common counter or table tops, hardwood -floors, and similar work, if the skill to use the burnisher properly -has been acquired. - -The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil or with the end of -the tongue, as this assists it to slide over the edge of the scraper -without scratching. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--TOP VIEWS OF THE ANGLES OF THE BURNISHER.] - -If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different shaped edge -should be made; it should be whetted to four perfectly square and keen -corners, each of which will furnish an edge. This is a more difficult -method of sharpening a scraper, but it gives four edges suitable for -fine work. The edge should be turned by carrying the burnisher as shown -at _A_, Fig. 79, making the strokes at the different angles in the -order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening any scraper, care should -be used that no strokes are made back of the square, as stroke _bc_ of -Fig. 80. Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated -at _a_, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two or three -strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper. - -To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is necessary. -This tool should be made of the hardest steel, and is often made -by the workman himself of an old file, ground perfectly smooth and -polished. Perhaps the most satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of -the wood-worker may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to -a handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow chisel or -gouge may be used, though these are rather clumsy. The burnishers found -in stores are generally unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft, -and any steel which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher -for sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut into it, instead of -turning over. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ANGLE TO BE AVOIDED IN SHARPENING SCRAPER.] - -If satisfactory results are not obtained, there may be several causes: -the scraper may not be of just the right temper or texture; the -burnisher may be soft or rough; the edge may not have been turned -over evenly, or it may have been turned over too far, as indicated in -an exaggerated way at _a_, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying -the burnisher around too far, as shown by the line _bc_. This may be -remedied by using the awl point as shown at _d_, Fig. 81, holding -the scraper and burnisher in about the same relative positions as -indicated, guiding the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried -on the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher its entire -length. In this way the edge may be turned back to its correct angle, -when a very light touch in the usual way will generally make the -desired edge. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--TURNING BACK THE EDGE OF A SCRAPER.] - -If either the scraper or the burnisher is not of the right texture, -throw it away, as it is worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may -be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge of the scraper is rough, -it may be turned back again by laying the scraper flat upon the bench, -the rough side up, and the burnisher passed over it several times; then -proceed as with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory as -it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over again, especially -if the corner has been turned several times. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--METHOD OF GRASPING THE SCRAPER WHEN WORKING -UPON A BROAD SURFACE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--METHOD OF GRASPING THE SCRAPER WHEN WORKING -WITHIN A SMALL AREA.] - -Though it may seem from the above explanation of the methods of -sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex operation, it will be -seen that it is not a difficult matter, if it is once worked out; -usually it requires a little time and practice to acquire the knack -that will make it possible to do it surely and well. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--METHOD OF GRASPING SCRAPER WHEN WORKING UPON -AN EDGE.] - -In using a scraper, it may be grasped as shown in Figs. 82, 83, 84, -as best suits the work being done, and the strokes should be with the -grain. In using this tool, as in the use of most others, the easiest -way generally is the most efficient. As the young workman gains -experience, he will gradually acquire the correct methods to use his -tools for all the various purposes within their scope. - -=57. Nail sets= are for the purpose of “setting” the nails, or for -sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to stand the hard usage -to which they are subjected, they must be very carefully tempered. The -best form of nail set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as -it is not so apt to slip off of the head of the nail. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--MONKEY WRENCH.] - -=58. Wrenches= are of many kinds and patterns and of every conceivable -use, but that known as the “monkey,” or “Coe’s,” wrench (Fig. 85) -is perhaps the most convenient for general work and has not been -supplanted by any of more recent invention. - -=59. Handscrews= (=A.=), if of good material and well made, will stand -any legitimate use, and if properly used and cared for, will last a -lifetime. However, a novice or a careless workman often destroys them -rapidly by allowing the jaws to be under strain while in the position -shown in Fig. 86, which will probably break the middle screw, and -perhaps both. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--EFFECT OF THE UNSKILLFUL USE OF A HANDSCREW.] - -(=B.=) In using handscrews for gluing, the jaws should be set to nearly -the size of the material which is to be placed between them, before the -glue is spread. In placing the handscrews upon the work, the outside -screw should be turned back so that it will not prevent the jaws from -being slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. This -will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the outside -screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only position in which -handscrews should be allowed to remain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--CORRECT USE OF HANDSCREW.] - -In opening or closing a handscrew, the middle screw should be held -in the left hand, and the outside screw in the right, as in Fig. 87; -the screws should then be grasped so that they will not turn in the -hand and the handscrew revolved in the desired direction. Never put -unnecessary strain upon handscrews, nor leave them with a heavy strain -upon them for a very long time. - -If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used than is -necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work should be glued -unless the joints fit well. In any case, the outside screw should be -turned back a quarter or a half a turn after the glue has set; this -will relieve the strain, and add much to the life of the handscrew. - -In gluing work which requires several handscrews to hold it while the -glue is setting, the handles of the outside screws all should point -one way, which allows the work to be handled much more easily, as the -handles of the middle screws will form an even bearing upon the floor. -If this is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken when -a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, as the weight of the -work will rest upon the screws which bear upon the floor. - -(=C.=) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be treated with -beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead mixed with oil or with wax. -The latter compound is very dirty; the former lubricates the screws -perfectly. The screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot. - -=60.= (=A.=) =A grindstone= of good quality, from 20” to 26” in -diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and should be used -frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools is much increased if -they are kept well ground, and much time may be saved in whetting them. - -(=B.=) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true and round, -and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite satisfactorily -determined by examining several and selecting the coarsest, as that -will doubtlessly be a fast cutting stone. - -(=C.=) The stone should be carefully centered and mounted upon a frame; -the face may be kept true by means of a file or other hard steel -being held against it as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe -revolved from side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a -stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made softer and -heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of true. - -(=D.=) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone continually, -or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead, keep the tool moving -from side to side. If properly cared for, a stone will hold its face -indefinitely. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--EMERY WHEEL DRESSER.] - -=61. Emery, corundum, carborundum=, and other artificial abrasive -wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone, as they cut much -more rapidly. Any one not accustomed to using them must be careful -that the temper of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a -high rate of speed, and a tool in unskillful hands is easily burned. -To avoid this, the tool should be held lightly but firmly against the -stone, and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery wheel -burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing; for this purpose a -diamond emery wheel dresser is the best, but on account of its cost, -various devices have been patented to accomplish the same result, one -of which is illustrated in Fig. 88. - -=62. Whetstones.=--(=A.=) These are used to give to a tool the keen -edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The natural stone in most common -use is the “Washita stone,” which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains, -and is thought by many to be the best natural stone for the general use -of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the best quality is -of even texture. - -(=B.=) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is finer and -harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive, however, and is -better adapted to the use of woodcarvers and engravers than to the use -of wood-workers in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the -best of the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by its -use. There are other natural stones, but none so generally used as the -above. The purchase of a natural stone is to a great extent a lottery, -as only about one stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free -from cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities. - -(=C.=) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper upon -a board, and rub the stone over it until it has been ground down. The -best place, however, to true up a whetstone is upon the horizontal -stone of a marble worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in -diameter, mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed pieces of -marble to be ground to a flat surface. - -(=D.=) _Artificial oilstones_, made of emery, corundum, carborundum, -and other artificial abrasives, are coming rapidly into use, and, as in -the case of grindstones, eventually will supplant all others in many -occupations, as they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of -any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. They are -also able to resist many accidents which would destroy a natural stone. - -(=E.=) _Slip stones_ are used to sharpen gouges and curved tools of all -kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. An oblong stone, 8” × 2” -× 1”, is the size of stone in most general use by the wood-worker, and -should be fitted into a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it -clean. It may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman, -though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set on its edge. - -(=F.=) The use of the oilstone is described under topic =40, A.= The -oil used should be a kind that will not gum; its purpose is to prevent -the glassiness which is caused by the friction of the tool over the -stone. Common machine oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and -kerosene, or coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil -suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils will give -satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone cleaner, thereby -adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose lubricates quite as well -as any of those above-mentioned. - -=63.= (=A.=) =Files= are used for many purposes by wood-workers. An -assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper, or three-cornered, -files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files; 8”, 10”, and 12” round -files; and 8” and 12” half round wood files and rasps should be in -every carpenter’s kit. The 4” slim taper files should be used upon the -finer saws, and the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are -used by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it is necessary -to have a few warding and knife files to use upon keys and odd jobs, -and also to sharpen bits. - -Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and for every -purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to stand lead or soft brass, -and should never be used upon anything harder. - -In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow it to drag, as it -is injured thereby about as much as when it is cutting. - -(=B.=) There are a great many other tools and appliances used by -the wood-worker with which the workman should be familiar, but it -is not necessary to describe them, as the above-mentioned are the -most essential tools common to all forms of woodworking. There is no -important principle involved in the construction, care, and use of -woodworking tools which is not discussed in this chapter, and the -student who becomes thoroughly familiar with the matter treated will -have little trouble in learning to handle other tools. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--JOINTING A SAW.] - -=64. Saw filing.=--(=A.=) This is an accomplishment which every young -wood-worker should master, as its possession will save expense and -inconvenience, and add much to his efficiency as a workman. - -(=B.=) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine the edge -carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length; if they are -not, they should be jointed. This is done by using a flat file held -perfectly square in a block, as shown in Fig. 89. One or two light -strokes usually will be enough to make all the teeth of the same -length. The edge of the saw should round slightly in the middle, say -about ⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, it -should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little at each time -for several filings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HAND SAW SET.] - -(=C.=) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly set. This -may be done by a _saw set_, of which there are several patterns in use; -these are all of two types, the _hand set_ (Fig. 90), and the _anvil -set_ (Fig. 91). Either of these forms is efficient, but as it is more -convenient, the hand set is more commonly used. Do not give the saw too -much set, or it will not cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly -on the back side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking -the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must be applied. -The point of the teeth only should be set, and care should be used that -the blade of the saw is not sprung, which will be apt to result from -setting the teeth too far from the point. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--ANVIL SAW SET.] - -A saw to be used upon green lumber should have coarser teeth and more -set than one which is to be used upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A -panel saw intended for use upon fine finishing work usually is ground -so thin upon the back that it needs little or no set. Some workmen set -a saw so heavily that it will do for several filings; while this is -satisfactory for a soft saw to be used upon common work, it is not a -good plan to treat a fine, hard saw this way, though the latter may be -touched up once or twice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--ANGLE OF THE FILE WITH THE EDGE OF THE SAW.] - -(=D.=) In filing, it is important that the file should be carried at -the same angle the entire length of both sides of the blade. For a -cutting-off saw, the file should be carried at an angle with the side -of the blade of from 60° for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown -in Fig. 92; and for general work, at an angle about halfway between the -two. The file may be carried horizontally, as at _aa_, Fig. 93, which -makes all the teeth of the same size; as at _A_, Fig. 94; or it may be -carried as at _bb_, Fig. 93, which will make the teeth of the shape -shown at _B_, Fig. 94. The latter method is preferred by many workmen, -as it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening its life a -little. There is no difference in the efficiency of the saws filed by -these methods, but if filed as at _bb_, Fig. 93, it is more difficult -to keep the teeth of the same size, and to make a good-looking job. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--ANGLE OF THE FILE WITH THE SIDES OF THE SAW.] - -In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be held more or -less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according to the hook which it is -desired that the teeth shall have. The more hook a saw has, the faster -it will cut, but the cut will be rougher in proportion. Experience is -necessary to discover just the right angles at which the file should be -held; after considerable practice, the file will naturally drop into -the correct position. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--RESULTS OF FILINGS AS AT _aa_ AND _bb_, FIG. -93.] - -File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect point, one -half of the filing being done from each side; file the entire length -from one side, then reverse the saw and file from the other side. This -cannot always be the exclusive practice if a saw is in very bad shape, -because if the teeth are of uneven sizes, care must be used, and more -filed from some teeth than from others. It may, in such a case, be -necessary to go over the saw two or three times, but it should be done -very carefully, so that the bevel of the teeth may be preserved and -their length kept the same. Observe each tooth, and press toward the -point or the handle of the saw, as may be necessary. The file should be -carried with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting -or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of the saw, and the -back of the tooth next ahead on the nearer side with the same stroke. -If the point of the saw is carried toward the handle of the saw, it -makes the teeth chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It -also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life of a file, -as the continuous chatter against its teeth will soon break them, and -destroy the file. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--METHOD OF CARRYING A FILE TO OBTAIN THE HOOK -OF A CUTTING-OFF SAW.] - -A ripsaw requires more set than a cutting-off saw, and if, as usual, -the file is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may be -filed from one side. - -After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly flat surface, -and given a light touch with a flat file or a whetstone, to remove the -burr caused by the file, as in Fig. 96. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--REMOVING THE BURR AFTER FILING A SAW.] - -The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination of the rip- and -the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of both as occasion requires. -The teeth should be nearly as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the -front teeth filed at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In -filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a little lower -than horizontal. Figure 41, _C_, shows three views of the teeth of a -compass saw. - - - SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES - - 27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a good, - serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially for - some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to follow in - buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known? - - 28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise. - - 29. Describe the rule in common use. - - 30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be used - in purchasing one? How may a square be tested? - - 31. Compare the steel square and the try-square. - - 32. Describe the bevel and its use. - - 33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the gauge be - depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is useful? - - 34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly - tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened - to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. How - should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that they will - hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or - matched boards? How and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint - surface? - - 35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening a - hatchet. - - 36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare two - forms of mallets. - - 37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw. - After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a - cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of both? - For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are other - saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the backsaw. - How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What kind of saw - is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the back of a saw - compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? What test - should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What are the - best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard and a - medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much force should be - used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the handles of their saws - to make the saws run more easily? - - 38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why is the - form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for - whittling than the form used by the wood-worker? - - 39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe the - mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be the - condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so that - one may see the adjustment of the cutter? - - 40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may a - grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side of - the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be - ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where should - the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the bit be - held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm while - whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? - What motion should be avoided in whetting? What is the correct shape - of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the cap iron? What is - apt to result if the cap iron is too thick? - - 41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way does the - edge of its iron differ from that of other planes? - - 42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What - should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should - a plane be carried to joint an edge square? - - 43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be the - position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How should - edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain? - - 44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the - above planes. - - 45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any - sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders? - What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the - strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull tools? How - should a plane be drawn back after a stroke? - - 46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities - and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should - a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why? - Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the - paring and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a - slice, or slick? - - 47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and an - outside gouge? - - 48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility of - the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the edge of - a rigid-handled drawshave be protected? - - 49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave. - - 50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the different - parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging of a - bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, how should - it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German bit; of a - twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe the method - of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part of a bit should never be - filed? Why? - - 51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the ratchet - brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use? - - 52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a - screwdriver? What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value - of a screwdriver bit? - - 53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers. - - 54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use? - Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why? - - 55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper? - Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use. - - 56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for rough - work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when the edge of - the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is not - sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to the - grain? - - 57. Describe the best form of nail set. - - 58. What is the form of wrench in most common use? - - 59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position - of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How should - handscrews be treated to make them work more easily? - - 60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should a - grindstone be trued? - - 61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be guarded - against in the use of an emery wheel? - - 62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is - commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the two kinds. - How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming into use? - Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways. What - forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of oils are used for - oil or whetstones? - - 63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files - generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files. - - 64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of the - cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate the - process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and - fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be - carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying - the file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle - with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a - ripsaw? If the saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to - bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time? What - should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting? - Compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare - the teeth of the compass saw with those of others. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -GLUE AND SANDPAPER - - -65. DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLUE.--(=A.=) Wood-workers use both _liquid_ -and _sheet_ or _stick_ glue, but as the former requires little skill -in its use, we will deal principally with the latter, which is made of -hides, sinews, bones, and waste material of slaughterhouses. Different -grades of glue are made of various kinds of refuse, but the processes -of treating them all are similar. - -(=B.=) The material from which glue is to be made is steeped in lime -water at low temperature, or subjected to a chemical treatment for a -sufficient time to separate the fat from the fiber. The latter is then -washed in clean water and boiled down to gelatin, which is spread upon -wires to dry and harden, when it is ready for use. - -(=C.=) _Ground glue_ makes up more readily than that which comes in -sheets, and therefore is preferred by many workmen. It is frequently -adulterated, but if made upon honor, it is as good as the glue from -which it is made, and does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time -in a damp place. As it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground -glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks, many workmen -prefer not to use it unless sure of its quality. - -(=D.=) The highest-priced glue is not always the best for all purposes, -and a dealer who handles different grades can generally advise which -should be used, though the medium grade in common use is usually -satisfactory for general work. - -(=E.=) It is impossible to give infallible rules for testing glue in -the stick, or to say that glue should be of any special color, or -that it should be either transparent or opaque; but, in general, glue -suitable for ordinary work will be of a reddish, yellowish, or light -brownish color, clear and transparent, and not offensive to either -taste or smell, though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely -opaque. Good glue will swell in cold water, but will not dissolve until -it has nearly reached the boiling point. It will also absorb more water -than will poor glue, and is therefore more economical. Any test which -depends upon the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable, as -a somewhat damp, good glue will not stand this test as well as a poor -glue that is very dry. If conditions are the same, and comparison is -possible, it is fairly safe to assume that if a good glue is cut with -a sharp knife, a hard, elastic shaving will result, while a poor glue -will give a shaving which is extremely brittle, and will break into -little pieces. - -A safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces of the same -kind of wood, 1” square and about 12” long, fit them perfectly end to -end in pairs, and glue as many of them together as there are samples of -glue to be tested. After the glue is thoroughly hard, clamp one of the -pieces of each pair to a bench top, with the joint coinciding with the -edge. Hang a pail about 10” from the joint on the piece which projects -over the edge of the bench, and allow sand to run into it slowly, until -the joint breaks. Repeat this process with each pair which has been -glued up, and the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will -furnish a basis of comparison between the different varieties of glue -tested. - -(=F.=) Glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water before being -put into a glue pot, which should be a double vessel, with the glue -in the inside pot, and the hot water or steam in the outer jacket. In -making up glue, it should be brought to the boiling point until melted, -and then removed from the heat, for if kept continually hot, it loses -much of its strength by being cooked too much, as this makes continual -thinning necessary. - -If time will not permit, the preliminary soaking may be dispensed with, -and the hard glue put at once in the hot water, in which case it must -be stirred frequently while melting, or it will form a mass. If the -water boils out of the outside kettle, and the glue burns, throw it -away, as it is worthless. - -Glue should be thinned with cold water, after which it should be -allowed to become thoroughly heated before using; in the shops, this is -not always done, as there may not be time to allow the glue to become -heated again; therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue -with hot water. - -(=G.=) Paint brushes, or other brushes in which the bristles are set in -glue, are not suitable for use in hot glue, and those made especially -for this purpose should be purchased. For very small brushes, a strip -of basswood bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from the -end; these are satisfactory for small work. - -=66. How to use glue.=--(=A.=) Glue should be used as hot as possible, -and of about the consistency of cream. The pieces to be glued should -be heated thoroughly and the gluing done in a warm room. - -(=B.=) In factories, where it is possible, the gluing is done in a -specially fitted room which contains all necessary appliances. Vertical -and horizontal coils of steam pipes surround the room, both to furnish -heat for the room, and for the purpose of heating the material to be -glued, which should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for -more than a few seconds. In a room of this sort, the temperature is -maintained at from 110° to 130° F. - -(=C.=) If the best possible results are wanted, a _scratch plane_ -should be used. This is a tool similar to a smoother, only its cutter -is nearly vertical, and it has teeth like a fine saw which will scratch -the wood, thus giving a better hold for the glue. - -(=D.=) It is important that all clamps, handscrews, and other -appliances which are likely to be needed should be set as nearly as -possible the desired size, and so arranged as to be reached easily, for -when the glue is applied, there should not be the slightest hesitation -or delay in getting the work together and the clamps on. The utmost -speed and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot glue; -therefore everything during the process of the work should be foreseen -and provision made for it before the glue is applied, for if the glue -is even slightly chilled, the work will not be so well done, and the -efficiency of the glue will be greatly diminished. A novice should -never attempt more than the simplest work, unless working with a -competent man. - -(=E.=) The glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with a brush of -suitable size,--a large one for broad surfaces and a small one for -small work. Glue should not be thrown about wastefully; enough should -be used to cover the surface completely but not thickly. - -(=F.=) In using handscrews, it is of the greatest importance that the -jaws be kept parallel as described in Topic =59=; care must be used -that more strain is not placed upon the handscrews and clamps than is -necessary to bring the joint together. - -(=G.=) Cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in furniture -repairing, gluing up intricate work, and in places where it is -impracticable to use hot glue either on account of its setting too -rapidly, or where heat is not available. Liquid glue does not hold as -well nor as permanently as hot glue when properly used, but for many -kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory. - -(=H.=) In gluing rosewood, or other woods of a greasy nature, the glue -should be thinned with vinegar, which will cut the grease. Another -method of making glue hold on wood of this sort is to chalk both -members of the joint thoroughly, and let it stand for two or three -hours, when it should be wiped off. This absorbs the grease on the -surface of the wood, which allows the glue to take hold. In all gluing, -do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint any more than necessary, -as the grease and perspiration will prevent the best results from being -obtained. - -=67. The testing of sandpaper.=--(=A.=) Sandpaper is made by covering -paper with a thin layer of glue, over which is spread evenly a layer -of ground flint or glass; over this is spread another coating of glue, -which firmly fastens the sand to the paper. - -(=B.=) In buying sandpaper, pass the finger over it to see if the -sand is firmly fastened. Be sure that the paper is neither flimsy nor -brittle. Coarse particles of sand are sometimes found upon sandpaper -which renders it worthless; these can be detected only by use, unless -they are very prominent. - -=68. How to use sandpaper.=--(=A.=) Sandpaper is made in numbers, -00, 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3. Numbers 00 and 0 are very fine, and are -used in rubbing down shellac and varnish. Numbers ½ and 1 are used in -sandpapering mahogany and other fancy woods, and number 1½ is used upon -all building finish but the finest; the coarser numbers are used upon -floors, outside finish, and other coarse work which is to be painted, -though for a very nice floor, 1½ is used, rarely anything finer. It is -a fallacy to think that the finer the sandpaper used, the finer the -job will be, since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make a -glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like the rest of -the work. Sandpapering is as apt to detract from the work as it is to -improve it, for unless used very skillfully, the character of angles -and small surfaces will be changed, though it may seem that the damage -is so slight as to be imperceptible. In using sandpaper, the workman -should guard against rounding off square corners or destroying the form -of surfaces; a raw corner, however, should be removed with a few light, -careful strokes, as a perfectly sharp corner will always be more or -less ragged. - -_The one who knows_ will always notice the omissions of details of -this sort, and will attribute such imperfections to lack of skill or -knowledge on the part of the workman. It is for the one who knows, -that all work should be done--not for the casual observer--and these -apparently insignificant details, rather than the part of the work -which may seem of more importance, form the basis by which one workman -judges the work of another. In nothing do small things count more than -in making or destroying a workman’s reputation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--USE OF SANDPAPER UPON A BROAD SURFACE.] - -(=B.=) Keep the sandpaper dry, and stored in a dry place, as moisture -softens the glue so that the sand may be easily rubbed off. In handling -sandpaper, care should be taken that the sanded sides are not rubbed -together. - -(=C.=) In preparing to sandpaper a flat surface, or for general work, a -sheet of sandpaper should be torn in halves the short way of the paper, -and one half should be folded back to back, and held (not tacked) -around the block with the hand, as in Fig. 97. The act of grasping the -block for the work will hold the sandpaper, and any device for holding -the sandpaper on the block is worthless, being considered by the -workman as a mark of the novice. The block should be about 3” × 4” × -⅞”, and may be made of wood, cork, fiber, or any material which suits -the taste of the workman. - -If there is much sandpapering of moldings to be done, it is best to -make blocks which will fit the contour of them, as it is very hard on -the hands to do this work for very long at a time, though nothing has -ever been invented which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers. A -piece of sandpaper _should never be used on a piece of work until all -the cutting by edge tools has been done_, as the particles of sand will -enter the grain of the wood, and any edge tools used upon it afterward -will be quickly dulled. Do not use a piece of sandpaper so large that -any part of it will not be under perfect control, as loose ends will -scratch the wood, and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appearance. -Always work parallel with the grain, and be sure that all plane marks -and rough places are thoroughly rubbed down. In order to do this well, -it is often necessary to use considerable muscle. This part of the work -calls for good judgment, for unless sandpapered enough, there will be -places which will show when the finish is spread on the work, though -they may have been invisible before. No one can tell as well as the -workman himself when sufficient sandpapering has been done, though it -may be evident to any one who knows the signs whether or not the work -has been done judiciously. Upon a coarse job it is usually allowable, -and sometimes desirable, to sandpaper across the grain, especially if -the work is to be painted. - -In order to impress it upon the student, we will repeat that _too much -care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper_, for much oftener will an -amateur injure a piece of work than improve it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--SANDPAPERING PANEL WORK. - -(For explanation, see text.)] - -(=D.=) In sandpapering panel work, as in Fig. 98, the panels (_a_) -should be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered, and the edges of the -stiles (_b_), rails (_d_), and muntins (_e_) should be treated the -same way before the panel work is put together; an exception to this -in regard to the panels may be made if the panel frame is constructed -in such a way as to allow the panels to be put in place after it is -together, in which case the panels may be smoothed at any time. Upon -very fine work the panels are sometimes polished before being put in -place, as it is difficult for the finisher to work into the corners -after the panels are in place. After the faces of the stiles, rails, -and muntins have been planed and scraped, they should be sandpapered -in the order named, working with the sandpaper over a sharp-cornered -block close to the edges of the pieces, being careful not to drag the -paper over the face of the pieces which join at right angles. The -stiles, rails, and muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which -they are mentioned. If the sandpaper runs over the rails a little when -sandpapering the muntins, or over the stiles when sanding the rails, it -will do no harm, as a couple of light, careful strokes parallel with -the grain will be sufficient to remove any scratches which may be made. - -In sanding mahogany, or any wood of which the grain rubs up, make the -strokes in one direction only, instead of back and forth. Sometimes wax -is rubbed in to hold the grain down upon cheap work, but this is not -recommended, as that place will not take the stain or the finish like -the rest of the wood. A very thin coat of shellac is used for the same -purpose; this is less objectionable, but should be avoided if possible. - - - SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES - - 65. Of what material is glue made? Describe briefly the process of - making glue. What kind of glue is best for general work? Is ground - glue always reliable? What is the chief advantage in its use? Is - high-priced glue always the best for all purposes? What should be the - appearance of good glue? How should it act in cold water? When cut - with a knife? When broken? Compare the amount of water absorbed by a - good and a poor glue. How should a glue pot be constructed? What will - be the result if the glue pot boils dry? Describe brushes suitable for - use in gluing. What kind of bark makes a good brush for small work? - How is it prepared for use? - - 66. Describe the condition of glue when ready for use. What tool is - used to increase the strength of the joint? In preparing for gluing, - what preparations should be made? How should wood be treated for use - in gluing up wood of a greasy nature? - - 67. Describe the manufacture of sandpaper. What is used for sand? How - select sandpaper? - - 68. For what kind of work is sandpaper numbers 00 and 0 used? Numbers - 1/2 and 1? What number of sandpaper is used upon general work? What - will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place, or becomes - wet? What should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used upon flat - surfaces, and for general work? How should moldings be sandpapered? - What should be guarded against in working around sharp corners? Should - sandpaper be carried with or across the grain? What exceptions? How - should panel work be sandpapered? How should panels and the edges of - stiles, rails, and muntins be treated before gluing up? How should - sandpaper be used upon grain which rubs up? How are panels sometimes - treated upon fine work? Why? - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -WOOD FINISHING - - -=69. Filling.=--(=A.=) After wood has been smoothed and made ready to -receive the finish, it is prepared by _filling_, by which is meant -the process of filling the grain so that the finish itself will not -soak in. This, if well done, makes it possible to do as good a job of -finishing with two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of -wood with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open-grained -woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need filling, as before the -process of filling was discovered, the open grain, or cellular part of -the wood, had to be filled by shellac, or other expensive material, -before there was a surface suitable to receive the polish. (=B.=) -There are two forms of filler--_the paste_, which is for use upon -open-grained woods, and _the liquid_, which is adapted to filling the -pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry, etc., and which -takes the place of one coat of the more expensive shellac or other -finish. The paste may be purchased ready-made, and colored to suit the -taste, or it may be made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and -any dry colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingredients -should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed with boiled linseed oil to -a thick paste; to this should be added as much japan drier as there -is of the oil, or one quarter as much as there is of the paste. The -whole may then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene to -a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily, but it should -still be quite thick. - -(=C.=) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the surface of -the wood must be covered, and the filling thoroughly worked into the -grain. After this has been done, the wood should be allowed to stand -a few minutes, until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems -to stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when it should -be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing across the grain -wherever possible. Do not use cloth until cleaning up after the filler -is all off, as it is more apt to take the filling out of the grain than -either excelsior or shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a -sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several hours, or -over night, before the finish is applied, as otherwise the moisture in -the filler may cause the finish to bubble. Care should be used that -the filling does not stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be -very difficult to remove it; hence, it is best not to spread any more -than can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that there -is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is applied, as it is -difficult to match colors. - -(=D.=) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and as evenly as -possible, as the laps will be apt to show through the finish which is -spread over it. - -=70. Staining wood= (=A.=) is for the purpose of imparting some other -than the natural color to the wood. - -(=B.=) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is used which -will color the wood before it is filled, though upon general work, it -is the custom to color the stain only. This does not make the work all -of one color, as the cells of the wood will retain more filling than -will the harder part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain -may be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is being treated, -it should be filled after being stained. Close-grained woods are ready -for the finish as soon as the stain has dried. Stains which will do the -work satisfactorily may be made of various chemicals. There are also -many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can be purchased in as -small packages as desired, offering the student a large range of colors -from which to select. - -(=C.=) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by mixing dry colors -with turpentine or benzine, and a little boiled oil and japan to bind -the color. These stains should be applied the same as the filler, but -not allowed to become so hard before cleaning off, or there will be -light places rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should -be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are no places -left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the finish will make them -muddy. - -(=D.=) A very good _old cherry_ stain may be made by mixing Venetian -red and rose pink until the desired shade is produced. - -(=E.=) _Black walnut_ may be imitated by mixing burnt umber with -turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish tinge is desired, a little -burnt sienna may be added; this is a much better color than can be -produced by umber alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes -a good walnut stain. - -(=F.=) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as a vehicle, as -a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained which is impossible -with any stain that has oil in it. The objection to using water is that -the grain of the wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded -smooth before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection, -water stains are used extensively upon the best work. - -(=G.=) The rich mahogany stain which is so much admired may be made -by mixing the same colors as mentioned in (=D.=), and adding carmine -until the desired color is obtained. An oil stain will not give the -best results, therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of -gum arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or less of -the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion of mucilage. This -stain should be cleaned off the same as the oil stain above described. - -(=H.=) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid; other woods may -be darkened or aged by using ammonia, potash, or a strong solution of -tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives -a beautiful brown. - -(=I.=) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts of -permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dissolved in water; as -many coats as desired may be applied, sanding with number 00 sandpaper -between the coats. Better results are obtained if the stain is applied -hot. - -(=J.=) A beautiful green of any intensity may be produced by mixing -verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and applying hot. Several coats -may be necessary, sanding between the coats. The indigo should be used -cautiously, or the green may have too much of a bluish cast. - -(=K.=) A rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution of -logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied in coats in the -order named. Each solution should be hot. - -(=L.=) _Ebony_ may be obtained by giving any close-grained wood, cherry -preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using a weak solution, and after -that has dried and been sanded, a coat of solution of nutgalls. If -the iron is too strong, a white efflorescence will appear, which in -open-grained woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this -is objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler. - -(=M.=) _Shellac_ (see =71, A.=) and boneblack, if well mixed, make -an ebony finish which is often used upon common work; black varnish -sometimes is used the same as black shellac, but for the best work -these are not satisfactory, as they do not strike into the wood to the -same extent as do acid, turpentine, or water stain. - -=71. Shellac.=--(=A.=) This is a product of Africa and South America. -It is the combination of a secretion of the female of a small insect -and the sap of a tree, in the bark of which the insect deposits its -eggs. The gum thus formed is gathered, and after passing through -various refining processes becomes the shellac known to commerce. It -is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol, when it is ready -for use. Some of the best furniture is finished with shellac, and -unless continuously exposed to moisture or hard usage, the finish is -practically everlasting. - -(=B.=) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable to, neither -does its luster dim by exposure to the various gases present in every -house, which are due to domestic causes, though most varnishes will do -this after some years. - -Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satisfactory, though -three coats generally will improve the work sufficiently to make it -advisable to apply the extra coat. Shellac should not be laid in too -thick coats, or it will pit badly in drying, and make work in rubbing -to a surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are spread, -though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying thin coats is that -the wood may be covered more evenly, and there will be fewer runs and -laps visible. Shellac should always be laid with quick strokes, never -working over a place already covered; for this work, use a brush as -large as possible to do the work without clumsiness. - -(=C.=) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the other, -each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sandpaper, or with -pulverized pumice stone before the next coat is spread. For this -purpose, a sheet of sandpaper should be cut into eighths, and one of -these pieces folded in the center of its long dimension, and held in -the hand as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching the -surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a surface with -pumice stone, it should be applied with hair-cloth, or with harness -maker’s felt, moistened with oil or water; but for ordinary work, -sandpaper will give satisfaction, and as it is more convenient, it is -much used. - -If the best results are desired, the last coat should be rubbed with -pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above, though boiled oil is -satisfactory; and for ordinary work, number 00 sandpaper is used, -though it is liable to show scratches. After the rubbing is done, the -oil should be wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone -dusted on and polished with a clean, soft cloth. Many finishers use the -palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches. If a dead, or -mat, finish is desired, the final rubbing should be done with water, -used sparingly, as oil imparts a high gloss, if the work is well done. - -(=D.=) Care should be used on any kind of work upon which waste or oily -rags are used; these rags should be gathered and burned unless they are -wanted again soon, in which case they may be spread out separately; -since, if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into a waste -box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a case of spontaneous -combustion. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--METHOD OF GRASPING SANDPAPER IN RUBBING DOWN -SHELLAC FINISH.] - -(=E.=) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all kinds is -very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of a rubbed finish. -Moreover, any dust settling upon moist varnish is held, giving the -surface an effect of countless minute points; rubbing removes these, -and gives the smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon the -most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of a built-up -polish, is not considered good taste; the use of muscle and a very -little oil, applied at intervals during a term of years, gives a polish -and a beauty which can be obtained by no other method, and it is to -attain this ideal in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist. - -(=F.=) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed through, as -the pressure will naturally be more upon the corners than upon a broad -surface. This may be avoided by using care that the pressure is not -applied so as to bear on the corner; grasp the rubbing material in such -a way that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99, or the -finish may be badly scratched; this applies especially to the corners. -The rubbing should always be in the direction parallel with the grain -of the wood. - -(=G.=) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it may be -repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare wood with fine -sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to the same condition as the -rest of the wood before the first coat of finish was applied. Using -the same finishing material as the finish of the rest of the piece, -lay a very thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched, -being careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This ridge may -be drawn out by a small camel’s-hair brush, and the patch left until -thoroughly dried; then apply another patch a little larger than the -first one, treating the edge as in the first patch. Continue this until -the finish is built up to the same thickness as that of which it is -a part. This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the same -finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to rub through the -old finish at the edge of the patch. As it is the corners which are -most liable to be rubbed through, this process will not generally be -difficult of application; all that is necessary to secure a successful -patch is to use care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the -different patches. - -=72. Wax finishing= is a good method of finishing any kind of hard -or dark-colored wood; (=A.=) it does not give as satisfactory -results, however, as do some other methods of finishing, upon soft -or light-colored wood. There are a number of different kinds of wax -finishes which can be purchased in almost any desired quantity, (=B.=) -but an economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by dissolving -as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on a cent in a half pint -of turpentine or gasolene heated in a water or steam double vessel. -After this is clear, cut up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a -thimble, and allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when -it is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities by using -the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight vessel, it will keep -indefinitely. - -(=C.=) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as smoothly and -as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand until it has become quite -hard, when it should be polished with a soft rag which is free from -lint. As many coats as desired may be applied, each coat being treated -in the same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another method -of applying this finish, and which gives satisfactory results upon -broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag, and rub the wax on the wood, -rubbing until it is dry. This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a -brush upon work where there are many corners to finish around. - -One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may be brightened -if it becomes dim by going over it with a soft cloth, or it may be -renewed and improved by another coat at slight expense and little -trouble. - -This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor made of a -wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed. - -=73.= (=A.=) =Oil finish= is perhaps the most simple way to finish -a piece of furniture; it is best adapted to hard, dark woods. The -material is made by mixing a quarter of a pint of turpentine with seven -eighths of a quart of boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly -over the surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it -as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should be brought -to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle, as the finish should -stand about ten hours, during which time a thin film or skin will form, -which must be removed by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint, -should be used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave -their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain. - -(=B.=) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken care of, and -is used to some extent in finishing the most artistic furniture, being -especially adapted to finishing mahogany. It has a character peculiarly -its own, and exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost -any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally oiled, it -improves with age and care. This finish was used in olden times, and -the care of generations gives a polish attainable by no other method. - -=74. Varnish= forms the finish which is used most commonly upon all -grades and kinds of work. (=A.=) The different grades are made of -various vegetable gums and resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with -boiled oil. A cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling -resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums may be treated -the same way; the varnish used upon the best work, for instance, is -made from copal, a vegetable product of the tropics. By a very careful -process of boiling, straining, and ripening, extending over months, -copal is made into the product which is used so extensively upon -furniture finishing, carriages, etc. - -(=B.=) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to about 80° F., the -dust should be laid by sprinkling, and there should be no drafts of -air, nor flies or other insects to light upon it, if the best results -are desired. - -(=C.=) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat as in shellac, -a thick coat should be applied. This may be done by using a thick, -heavy brush; some prefer a heavy, round brush, and others think they -can obtain the best results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the -hairs, the better the results obtained. - -The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to cover the entire -surface, if possible, and spread or flowed very quickly. The brush -should then be wiped out in the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried, -go over the surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb; wipe -this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing is left but -a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly, it will prevent all -runs and streaks which result from unskillful workmanship. - -When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00 sandpaper, -pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of pumice stone (carriage -painter’s method), and repeat the process until the desired body of -varnish is obtained. Rub down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as -much time between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish is, -the better and more durable the work will be when completed. - -=75. Polishing.=--This term applies to the process by which a polish -is built up by rubbing, or “ragging” as workmen sometimes call it. The -piece to be polished should receive two or three coats of shellac or -varnish, which should be rubbed down to a surface, when it is ready for -the polish. - -To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a piece of old, -soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cotton waste; or the end -of a roll of cloth may be covered by the piece which is to do the -actual polishing. Provide a cup of moderately thin shellac and another -of boiled oil, of which about one quarter is turpentine; or better, a -cup of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the oil and allow -it to soak in completely, then do the same with the shellac. Now dip -the pad again into the shellac, and with the finger put on a single -drop of oil, and rub lightly upon the work, with a circular motion, -or if the work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the work -is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end of the stroke, -as the instant between the end of one stroke and the beginning of the -return may be enough to allow the shellac to stick and make a hole -in the surface, which will be difficult to repair; begin and end the -stroke with a sweeping motion. The idea of this method of polishing is -to bring the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for -lubricating, as the less oil used, the better will be the polish. - -=76. Brushes.=--(=A.=) If brushes are to be used for stain or for -filling, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do, a flat brush being -preferred upon ordinary work. For shellac and varnish, the finer the -brush, the better the results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the -best practice to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will -permit, as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a smaller -brush, and have fewer “laps.” Chisel-pointed, flat brushes, from 1½” to -2½” in width, will be found satisfactory for the work of schools and -amateurs, but upon professional work, brushes from 3½” to 5” often are -used. - -(=B.=) The care of the brushes is an important part of the work of -those who use them, as neglect or carelessness may destroy a valuable -brush overnight. Unless a brush is going to be used again the next day, -it is always best to clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint, -or varnish brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush, -use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To obtain the -best results, all brushes should be washed in hot, soapy water, and -afterward rinsed in clean water; in general, however, this latter -precaution may be dispensed with, unless the brushes are to be laid -away indefinitely. Unless the above precautions have been taken, care -should be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed from -one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its side for more -than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direction is easily given -the bristles, and the brushes may be quickly destroyed by a little -carelessness or negligence. - -Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better results -than new brushes; therefore they should be treated with every possible -consideration. - -Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if they are hung -up so that they will not rest upon their bristles, this is the best way -to keep them when they are in almost constant daily use. - - - SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES - - 69. Why is wood filler used? Describe paste filler. Describe the - process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid - filler and the process of spreading it. - - 70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results - of staining and filling and of filling alone? How may stains for - open-grained woods be mixed and used? Describe a simple cherry or - mahogany stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to - a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How may woods - be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown stain; of a - good green stain; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing. For what - purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used? - - 71. Of what does shellac finish consist? What is the source of supply - of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the - application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better? - Why is rubbing down necessary? Demonstrate. What precautions should be - taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should be guarded against in - rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of sandpaper? Describe - and demonstrate patching. - - 72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demonstrate - two methods of applying wax finish. - - 73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities. - - 74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal - conditions for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of - flowing varnish. - - 75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing. - - 76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of - work. How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general - treatment of a brush? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use? - - - - -INDEX - - - Age of tree, 2. - - Alburnum, _see_ Sapwood. - - Annual layer, formation of, 1, 2, 3; - covering over breaks, 9, 10; - in quarter-sawed lumber, 23; - shrinking around, 48. - - Apple wood, description of, 29. - - Arkansas stone, 106. - - Ash, description of, 28. - - Auger, cross-handled, 91. - - Auger bit, described, 91; - filing of, 92, 93. - - Axe, hand, described, 66. - - - Backsaw, described, 69. - - Balsam fir, illustrated, 43. - - Band saw, 19. - - Bark, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6. - - Basswood (or linden), description of, 29. - - Bast, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6. - - Bastard sawing, 22. - - Beech, description of, 30, 31. - - Bell-faced hammer, described, 65. - - Benches, types of, described, 57-59. - - Bevel, described, 62. - - Bill stuff, sawing of, 22. - - Birch, description of, 30, 32. - - Bird’s-eye maple, description of, 36. - - Bitbrace, or stock, described, 93; - ratchet, described, 94. - - Bits, described, 90. - - Black walnut, _see_ Walnut. - - Black walnut stain, 130. - - Blemishes, in grading lumber, 23, 24. - - Blind nailing, described, 66. - - Block plane, description and use of, 84. - - Boards, sawing of, to dimension, 20; - surveying or estimating of, 25; - measuring of, 26; - for siding, 28; - piling of, 48, 49. - - Brushes, for gluing, 120; - for staining and filling, 140. - - Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, 97-100. - - Butternut (or white walnut), description of, 32. - - Buttonwood, _see_ Sycamore. - - - Cable, hauling logs by, 15. - - Calipers, described, 95. - - Cam, of plane, 73, 75. - - Cambium, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6. - - Canoe birch, 32. - - Cap iron, of plane, use of, 74. - - Cap screw, of plane, use of, 73, 75. - - Carborundum, as grindstone, 106; - as oilstone, 107. - - Carpenter’s bench, 57, 58. - - Cedar, description of, 32. - - Cellular grain of wood, 2. - - Center bit, described, 92. - - Checking, or cracking, of lumber, 6, 8. - - Cherry, description of, 32; - stain, 130; - how to darken, 131. - - Chestnut, description of, 33. - - Chisels, described, 88. - - Circular saw, 19, 20. - - Claw hammer, described, 64. - - Clefts, or splits, 9. - - Close-grained woods, filling of, 128; - staining of, 130. - - Coarse-grained lumber, 8. - - Color of wood, 2, 25. - - Comb-grained lumber, 23. - - Common boards, grading of, 26; - measuring of, 26. - - Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, 68; - filing of, 113. - - Compasses, or dividers, described, 95. - - Coniferous trees, 2, 3. - - Corundum, as grindstone, 106; - as oilstone, 107. - - Cross-grained lumber, 8. - - Culls, 24. - - Cup shakes, 7, 8. - - Cutting-off saw, described, 68; - filing of, 111. - - Cypress, description of, 33. - - - Decay of tree, how prevented, 25. - - Deciduous trees, 2. - - Defects in lumber, 7-10. - - Dimension timber, sawing of, 20, 22. - - Discolorations in lumber, 9, 24. - - Dividers, _see_ Compasses. - - Drawshave, described, 90. - - Duramen, _see_ Heartwood. - - - Ebony stain, 132. - - Edge, squaring an, with try-square, 60, 61. - - Edges, square and beveled, 97. - - Elm, description of, 34. - - Emery, as grindstone, 106; - as oilstone, 107. - - Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77. - - Endogenous trees, 1. - - Estimating lumber, 25. - - Exogenous trees, 1. - - Extension bit, described, 92. - - - Files, description and use of, 108-113. - - Filler, how to make, 128; - how to spread, 129. - - Fine-grained lumber, 8. - - Finishing woods, 128-141. - - Flooring, best grades of, 23, 28. - - Framing, lumber for, 27, 28, 50. - - Framing square, 62. - - - Gauge, description and use of, 63, 64. - - German bit, described, 92. - - Glue, different kinds of, 118; - testing of, 119; - how to use, 120-122. - - Gouges, described, 90. - - Grading of lumber, 23. - - Grain of woods, cause of, 1, 2, 6, 7; - kinds of, 8. - _See also_ Close-grained, etc. - - Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77; - described, 105. - - Ground glue, 118. - - Gum (sweet gum), description of, 34. - - - Hammer, described, 63. - - Handscrews, use of, 103-105, 122. - - Hard wood, cause of, 1, 2. - - Hatchet, described, 66. - - Hemlock, description of, 35. - - Heart shakes, 7, 8. - - Heartwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5. - - Hickory, description of, 35. - - - Insects, injurious to trees, 10, 25. - - Inside finish, lumber for, 28. - - - Jack plane, described, 81; - use of, 86-88. - - Jointer, described, 82. - - Jointing a saw, 109. - - Joists or scantling, surveying of, 26. - - - Keyhole saw, _see_ Compass saw. - - Kiln, filling a, 53; - length of time lumber should be left in, 54. - - Kiln-dried lumber, 28, 50-54. - - Kilns, moist air, 50; - induced draft, 52. - - Knife blades, described, 72. - - - Linden, _see_ Basswood. - - Liquid filler, 128. - - Locust, description of, 35. - - Logging, 12-19. - - Lumber, unseasoned, 3; - checking, or cracking of, 6; - defects in, 7, 8; - grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8; - when to cut, 10; - manufacture of, 12-23; - grading of, 23, 24; - testing of, 24, 25; - surveying or estimating of, 25-27; - piling of, 45-49; - weather-dried, 49; - kiln-dried, 50-54. - _See also_ special subjects. - - Lumbering, processes of, 12. - - - Mahogany, description of, 36; - sanding of, 126; - stain, 131. - - Mallets, described, 67. - - Manual-training bench, 57, 58. - - Maple, description of, 35; - sugar maple, illustrated, 31. - - Medullary rays, 4, 5, 6; - sawing woods having, 22. - - Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, 50. - - Moisture, in lumber, 4. - - Moldings, sandpapering of, 125. - - Monkey wrench, 103. - - - Nail set, use of, 66, 102; - burnisher made from, 99. - - Nailing, described, 65, 66. - - Nippers, described, 95. - - - Oak, tree trunk, section of, 5; - plain and quartered, 5; - description of, 36. - - Odor of wood, 2, 25. - - Oil finish, 137. - - Oilstones, artificial, use of, 107. - - Open-grained woods, filling of, 128; - staining of, 129. - - “Out of wind,” 60, 61. - - Outside finish, lumber for, 27, 28. - - - Panel work, sandpapering, 126. - - Paper birch, 32. - - Paste filler, 128. - - Piling of lumber, 45-49. - - Pine, yellow, section of, 2; - description of different varieties of, 36. - - Pine logs, load of white, 14. - - Pith, of tree trunk, 4, 5. - - Plain sawing, 22. - - Plane, adjusting mechanism of, 73-75; - other parts of, 75, 76; - sharpening a, 76-81. - - Planes, description and use of, 72-88. - - Pliers, described, 95. - - Polishing, 139. - - Poplar (or whitewood), description of, 40. - - Position, in using tools, 85. - - Preserving wood, 55. - - Prices, sliding scale of, 26. - - - Quarter-sawed lumber, 22, 23, 48. - - - Ratchet bitbrace, described, 94. - - Ratchet screwdrivers, described, 94. - - Redwood, description of, 40. - - Rift-sawed lumber, 23. - - Ripsaw, described, 67; - filing of, 112. - - Rule, use of, in setting gauge, 63. - - Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, 59. - - - Sandpaper, testing of, 122; - how to use, 123-127. - _See also_ Finishing. - - Sap, motion of, 3; - allowed, in grading lumber, 23. - - Sapwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5. - - Saw filing, described, 109-113. - - Saw handle, reset, 72. - - Saw set, hand and anvil, described, 110. - - Sawing of lumber, 12, 18-23. - - Sawmills, types of, 18. - - Saws, description and use of, 67-72. - - Scale used in measuring lumber, 26, 27. - - Scraper, description of, 96; - sharpening of, 97-102. - - Scratch plane, for use in gluing, 121. - - Screwdriver, described, 94. - - Shellac, use of, 132-136. - - Shingles, quality of, 28. - - Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, 23, 48. - - Silver grain, 5, 6, 22. - - Skidways, use of, 13-17. - - Slash sawing, 22. - - Slip stones, use of, 107. - - Smoothing plane, described, 82. - - Soft wood, cause of, 1, 2. - - Spokeshave, described, 90. - - Spruce, cutting of, 13, 14 (figs. 5, 6); - description of, 40. - - Staining wood, 129-132. - - Star shakes, 7, 8, 48. - - Steaming wood, 55. - - Steel, or framing, square, 62. - - Stock, _see_ Bitbrace. - - Straight-grained lumber, 8. - - Stumpage, explanation of, 13. - - Sugar maple forest, 31. - - Surveying of lumber, 25. - - Sycamore (or buttonwood), description of, 42. - - - Tacking, described, 65. - - Testing of lumber, 24. - - Timbers to be buried, quality of, 28. - - Toenailing, described, 65. - - Tools, how to purchase, 57; - description and use of, 57-108. - - Travoy road, 13, 15. - - Tree trunk, tissues of, 4. - - Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, 1, 2; - annual layer of, 1; - grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8; - age of, 2; - defects in, 8-10; - when to cut, 10; - felling of, 12-15; - decay of, 25. - _See also_ special subjects. - - Try-square, description and use of, 59-62, 71. - - Twist drill, described, 92. - - - Varnish, 137. - - Vertical-grained lumber, 23. - - Vises, on benches, 59. - - - Walnut, black, description of, 42; - white, _see_ Butternut. - - Walnut stain, black, 130. - - Warping of lumber, 48. - - Washita stone, 106. - - Waste, care in use of, 134. - - Wax finishing, 136. - - Ways, permanent lumber, 45. - - Weather-dried lumber, 12, 28, 49. - - Whetstones, description and use of, 106. - - Whetting and grinding of plane, 77-80. - - Whitewood, _see_ Poplar. - - Wind shakes, or cup shakes, 7, 8. - - Winding sticks, 61. - - Wood, growth of, 1-11; - grain of, 1, 2; - color of, 2, 4; - odor of, 2; - soft and hard, 1, 2; - qualities of, 27-29; - varieties of, 29-42; - steaming, 55; - preserving, 55; - filling grain of, 128; - staining, 129. - _See also_ special subjects. - - Wrenches, described, 103. - - - - -VOCATIONAL EDUCATION - -By JOHN M. 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