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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #69019 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69019)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elements of woodwork, by Charles A.
-King
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Elements of woodwork
-
-Author: Charles A. King
-
-Release Date: September 20, 2022 [eBook #69019]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: Alan, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The
-             Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK ***
-
-
-
-
-
-                KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY
-
-
-                         ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK
-
-                                  BY
-
-                            CHARLES A. KING
-
-                      DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING
-                EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                  NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO
-
-                         AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
-
-
-
-
-                KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY
-
-                        ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK
-                        ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION
-                        CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY
-                        INSIDE FINISHING
-                        HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS
-
-
-                          COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
-                           CHARLES A. KING.
-
-                 ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON.
-                               W. P. I.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE TO THE SERIES
-
-
-This series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended as
-textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, technical,
-or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the “Handbook in
-Woodwork and Carpentry,” is for the use of teachers and of normal
-students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the other four
-volumes.
-
-Of the pupils’ volumes, the first two, “Elements of Woodwork” and
-“Elements of Construction,” are adapted to the needs of students in
-manual-training schools, or in any institution in which elementary
-woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational handwork, or as
-preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in carpentry or
-vocational training.
-
-The volumes “Constructive Carpentry” and “Inside Finishing” are planned
-with special reference to the students of technical, industrial, or
-trade schools, who have passed through the work of the first two
-volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects treated are those which will
-be of greatest value to both the prospective and the finished workman.
-
-For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required course,
-but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or optional models
-under certain conditions, and for others who have more liberty and are
-able to make such changes as they see fit, this series will be found
-perfectly adaptable, regardless of the grades taught. To accomplish
-this, the material has been arranged by topics, which may be used by
-the teacher irrespective of the sequence, as each topic has to the
-greatest extent possible been treated independently.
-
-The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now President
-of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement and advice
-in preparing for and planning the series, and to George R. Swain,
-Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay City, Michigan, for
-valuable aid in revising the manuscript.
-
-Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodicals, and
-the publications of the United States Departments of Education and of
-Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the author has gleaned from
-their pages.
-
-CHARLES A. KING.
-
-BAY CITY, MICHIGAN.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK
-
-
-In preparing this book, it has been the author’s purpose to present,
-in as complete and concise form as possible, the knowledge which every
-wood-worker should possess regarding the care and use of his tools and
-the material upon which he employs them.
-
-Whether an amateur, apprentice, or skilled workman, whether a
-carpenter, boat builder, pattern maker, or wood carver, the elementary
-knowledge of the construction of tools, of sharpening them, and
-of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the same. The
-structure of wood, and the necessity of applying its peculiarities of
-grain and texture to the advantage of the work in hand, also is the
-same upon all branches of woodwork.
-
-While innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented to
-enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economically
-both as to time and material, a study of them will prove that they
-all operate upon a few simple principles, a knowledge of which is not
-difficult to acquire, though skill and judgment in the application of
-the tools can be attained only by continuous and properly directed
-practice.
-
-It would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this sort to
-describe these various devices, though in a schoolroom it is a great
-advantage to have as many of them as practicable, not for their use
-only, but that the students may become familiar with their purposes and
-the applications of the fundamental principles upon which each is based.
-
-The actual use of tools may be considered the A B C of woodwork, as it
-bears the same relation to the finished product of the workman as the
-alphabet bears to literature, the space between the mere mechanical
-facility in the use of either tools or alphabet, being the result of
-the judgment, skill, and individuality of either the workman or the
-author.
-
-Thus, if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described in
-this volume, he will have little difficulty in using other and more
-complex tools; and when he has mastered the principles of construction
-involved in the exercises explained in the following book of this
-series, the “Elements of Construction,” and the correct use of the
-tools involved in making these, together with their applications
-and combinations, he has acquired the fundamental knowledge of all
-construction in wood.
-
-CHARLES A. KING.
-
-BAY CITY, MICHIGAN.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
-  CHAPTER I. GROWTH OF WOOD.--Kinds of trees used for lumber;
-  The formation of wood; Tissues; The medullary rays; The grain
-  in trees; Defects found in lumber; When to cut lumber                1
-
-  CHAPTER II. LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD.--The manufacture
-  of lumber; To saw lumber of irregular dimensions; The
-  grading of lumber; The testing of lumber; Surveying or estimating
-  lumber; Qualities of wood                                           12
-
-  CHAPTER III. CARE OF LUMBER.--The piling of lumber; Permanent
-  lumber ways; To minimize the warping of lumber; Weather-dried
-  lumber; Kiln-dried lumber; Moist air kilns; Induced draft kilns;
-  Results of the two systems; Filling a kiln; Length of time lumber
-  should be left in the kiln; The care of kiln-dried lumber;
-  Steaming wood; Preserving wood                                      45
-
-  CHAPTER IV. TOOLS.--How to purchase tools; Benches; Rules;
-  The try-square; The steel, or framing, square; The bevel; The
-  gauge; The hammer; The hatchet; The mallet; Saws; The knife
-  blade; Planes; Sharpening a plane; The jack plane; The jointer;
-  The smoothing plane; The block plane; The correct position;
-  Chisels; Gouges; The drawshave; The spokeshave; Bits; The
-  bitbrace, or stock; The screwdriver; Compasses, or dividers; Pliers;
-  The scraper; Edges; Nail sets; Wrenches; Handscrews; A grindstone;
-  Emery, corundum, carborundum; Whetstones; Files;
-  Saw filing        57
-
-  CHAPTER V. GLUE AND SANDPAPER.--Different kinds of glue; How
-  to use glue; The testing of sandpaper; How to use sandpaper        118
-
-  CHAPTER VI. WOOD FINISHING.--Filling; Staining wood; Shellac;
-  Wax finishing; Oil finish; Varnish; Polishing; Brushes             128
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-  FIG.                                                              PAGE
-
-  1. Section of Yellow Pine                                            2
-
-  2. Section of Oak Tree Trunk                                         5
-
-  3. Defects in Lumber                                                 7
-
-  4. Felling a Tree                                                   12
-
-  5. Cutting Small Branches from Felled Spruce                        13
-
-  6. Skidway of Spruce Logs                                           14
-
-  7. Load of White Pine Logs                                          14
-
-  8. Hauling Logs by Steel Cable                                      15
-
-  9. Loading Logs from Shedway to Train                               16
-
-  10. Boom of Logs                                                    16
-
-  11. Log Jam                                                         17
-
-  12. Sawmill in the Big Tree District                                18
-
-  13. Circular Saw                                                    20
-
-  14. Double Cut Band Saw                                             21
-
-  15. Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing                                 22
-
-  16. Four Methods of Quartering                                      22
-
-  17. Lumber Scale                                                    27
-
-  18. Beech and Sugar Maple Forest                                    31
-
-  19. White Pine Forest                                               39
-
-  20. Douglas Spruce Forest                                           41
-
-  21. Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire                        43
-
-  22. Permanent Lumber Ways                                           46
-
-  23. Warping of Lumber                                               48
-
-  24. Lumber piled in Double Courses                                  49
-
-  25. Manual-training Bench                                           58
-
-  26. Carpenter’s Bench                                               58
-
-  27. Two-foot, Four-fold Rule                                        59
-
-  28. Zigzag Rule                                                     59
-
-  29. Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge                      60
-
-  30. Use of Two Try-squares to see if Piece of Wood is “Out of Wind” 60
-
-  31. Position of Try-square when Making Line                         61
-
-  32. Steel, or Framing, Square                                       62
-
-  33. Bevel and Steel Square                                          62
-
-  34. Marking Gauge                                                   63
-
-  35. Marking Gauge in Use                                            64
-
-  36. Claw Hammer                                                     64
-
-  37. Toenailing and Tacking                                          65
-
-  38. Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail Set                             66
-
-  39. Hatchet and Handaxe                                             67
-
-  40. Mallets (Square-faced and Round)                                67
-
-  41. Saws--Rip-, Cutting-off, and Compass, or Keyhole                68
-
-  42. Backsaw                                                         69
-
-  43. Use of the Saw                                                  71
-
-  44. Reset Saw Handle                                                72
-
-  45. Knife Blades                                                    72
-
-  46. Section of an Iron Plane                                        73
-
-  47. Result of Using Plane with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron         74
-
-  48. Result of Using Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly           74
-
-  49. Setting a Plane                                                 76
-
-  50. Whetting and Grinding of Plane                                  77
-
-  51. Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter             78
-
-  52. Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron         79
-
-  53. Shape of Edge of Plane Iron                                     80
-
-  54. Jack Plane                                                      81
-
-  55. Method of Guiding a Jointer                                     83
-
-  56. Knuckle Joint Block Plane                                       84
-
-  57. Use of the Block Plane                                          84
-
-  58. Using Block Plane upon Small Pieces                             85
-
-  59. Incorrect Use of Jack Plane                                     86
-
-  60. Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane                          87
-
-  61. Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane                             87
-
-  62. Chisels                                                         89
-
-  63. Drawshave                                                       90
-
-  64. Spokeshave                                                      90
-
-  65. Auger Bit                                                       91
-
-  66. Cross-handled Auger                                             91
-
-  67. German Bit and Twist Drill                                      92
-
-  68. Extension Bit and Center Bit                                    92
-
-  69. Filing an Auger Bit                                             93
-
-  70. Ratchet Bitbrace                                                94
-
-  71. Compasses                                                       95
-
-  72. Calipers                                                        95
-
-  73. Pliers                                                          95
-
-  74. Nippers                                                         95
-
-  75. Scraper                                                         96
-
-  76. Edges of Scrapers                                               97
-
-  77. Angle of Burnisher with Sides of Scraper                        97
-
-  78. Method of Grasping Scraper for Sharpening                       98
-
-  79. Top Views of the Angles of the Burnisher                        99
-
-  80. Angle to be avoided in Sharpening Scraper                      100
-
-  81. Turning back the Edge of a Scraper                             100
-
-  82. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a
-      Broad Surface                                                  101
-
-  83. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within
-      Small Area                                                     101
-
-  84. Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon an Edge       102
-
-  85. Monkey Wrench                                                  103
-
-  86. Effect of the Unskillful Use of a Handscrew                    103
-
-  87. Correct Use of Handscrew                                       104
-
-  88. Emery Wheel Dresser                                            106
-
-  89. Jointing a Saw                                                 109
-
-  90. Hand Saw Set                                                   110
-
-  91. Anvil Saw Set                                                  110
-
-  92. Angle of the File with the Edge of the Saw                     111
-
-  93. Angle of the File with the Sides of the Saw                    111
-
-  94. Results of Filings as shown in Fig. 93                         112
-
-  95. Method of Carrying a File to obtain the Hook of a
-      Cutting-off Saw                                                112
-
-  96. Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw                           113
-
-  97. Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface                          124
-
-  98. Sandpapering Panel Work                                        126
-
-  99. Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing down Shellac Finish    134
-
-
-
-
-ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK
-
-
-CHAPTER I
-
-GROWTH OF WOOD
-
-
-=1. Kinds of trees used for lumber.=--(=A.=) The classification of
-trees here considered is based upon the method by which the trunk, or
-stem, of a tree is formed. The term _exogenous_ is applied to outside
-growers, around which a layer of wood grows each year, and from which
-is cut the lumber of commerce. As the wood-worker is interested mainly
-in trees which grow by this method, we will do no more than mention the
-_endogenous_, or inside-growing, trees or plants of the nature of palm
-trees, cornstalks, etc., in which the woody fiber is formed upon the
-inside of the stem.
-
-(=B.=) The new wood formed each year upon exogenous trees is known
-as the _annual layer_, or _ring_; the separate layers being more
-prominent in open-grained woods, such as oak, ash, and chestnut, than
-in close-grained woods, such as maple, cherry, poplar, and birch. It
-is the difference in the character and structure of these layers which
-makes some woods hard and others soft, some with open and others with
-close grain, and which also, with the coloring matter peculiar to each
-kind of wood, causes its individuality and adaptability to certain
-uses. (The color and odor of wood are caused by chemical combinations,
-and are not part of the substance of the wood.)
-
-Each of these annual layers is composed of two parts, the formation
-being shown in Fig. 1, in which the grain of yellow pine is depicted.
-The soft, cellular, or open, grain, _a_, is formed as the sap moves
-upward in the spring, and the hard, compact grain, _b_, is formed later
-in the year. In soft woods the open grain predominates, while in hard
-woods the compact grain is more in evidence.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF YELLOW PINE.
-
-_a_, soft, cellular grain; _b_, hard, compact grain.]
-
-The age of a tree may be determined by counting these annual rings
-upon the stump, though a drouth during the growing season may have at
-some time so affected its growth as to make some layers indistinct,
-rendering it impossible to be absolutely sure of the count. In a young
-tree the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes more
-mature.
-
-(=C.=) The different kinds of timber which the carpenter uses are cut
-from _deciduous_, or broad-leaf, trees, and from _coniferous_, or
-needle-leaf, trees. This classification of trees is based upon the
-difference in the forms of their leaves, the former kind furnishing the
-ash, oak, walnut, beech, birch, and other woods that are hard to work,
-as well as poplar or white wood, linn or bass wood, and others which
-are called hard woods, not in the sense that they are hard to work, but
-because their method of growth is the same.
-
-The _coniferous_ or _evergreen_ trees furnish the cedars, pines,
-hemlocks, spruces, firs, redwood, tamarack, cypress, and a few other
-woods of the same nature. These woods have a resin which is always
-present, no matter how old or dry the wood may be, which explains their
-superior weather-resisting qualities.
-
-=2. The formation of wood.=--(=A.=) In the spring the sap begins to
-flow upward, mainly through the open cells of the cambium (the new
-growth in the stem, by which the diameter of the tree is increased),
-and to some extent through the sapwood. As it comes in contact with the
-air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the tree, (=B.=)
-it gives off water and oxygen, and absorbs carbonic acid gas from the
-air, (=C.=) which is formed into starch, sugar, oil, etc.; this in turn
-becomes part of the sapwood, and forms the compact part of the annual
-ring, completing the layer for that year.
-
-(=D.=) The wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the sap, which
-gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells are filled, when that
-layer becomes a part of the heartwood, or that part of the tree which
-is inclosed within the annual layers of sapwood.
-
-(=E.=) Both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are filled with
-water or sap, which may be removed by seasoning, but the sapwood of
-most trees used for building purposes is not as good lumber as the
-heartwood, as it is always susceptible to moisture. The exceptions to
-this will be mentioned elsewhere.
-
-(=F.=) In all unseasoned lumber from 20 to 60 per cent of its weight
-is moisture, which must be evaporated before the lumber has its highest
-commercial value. This may be done by weather drying or by artificial
-means, the lumber being treated in a specially constructed kiln.
-
-=3. Tissues.=--(=A.=) A tree trunk is composed of four different
-tissues, viz.:
-
-1. The _pith_ (Fig. 2, _a_), a cellular tissue: this is worthless and
-its presence in lumber is considered a defect.
-
-2. The _wood_, which includes the heartwood (_b_), the sapwood
-(_c_), and the medullary rays (_g_). From this part of the tree the
-commercially valuable lumber is taken.
-
-3. The _cambium_ (_d_), which is a thin layer between the sapwood (_c_)
-and the bast (_e_).
-
-4. The _bark_, which includes both the bast (_e_) and the outer bark
-(_f_). The bark of most trees is worthless, but that of chestnut, oak,
-hemlock, and other trees which are rich in tannic acid is used in large
-quantities by tanneries.
-
-(=B.=) The heartwood (_b_), or _duramen_, of most trees is the part
-generally used by carpenters upon the best work. It is firm, compact,
-and of the color and qualities characteristic of the wood.
-
-(=C.=) The sapwood (_c_), or _alburnum_, is generally light-colored,
-and in most building woods its presence is considered a defect, though
-not in hickory, ash, maple, or yellow pine, and a few other woods;
-in fact, in these woods it is often preferred to the heartwood for
-many kinds of work on account of its color. The alburnum is filled
-with the active elements of the sap, which are deposited as the sap
-passes through the trees, and in time becomes part of the duramen, or
-heartwood. The time required for sapwood to attain maturity ranges
-from thirty to one hundred years, according to its kind and age.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECTION OF OAK TREE TRUNK.
-
-_a_, pith; _b_, heartwood, or duramen; _c_, sapwood, or alburnum; _d_,
-cambium; _e_, bast, or inner bark; _f_, outer bark, or corky layer;
-_g_, medullary rays, or silver grain; _po_, plain oak; _qo_, quartered
-oak.]
-
-(=D.=) Outside of the sapwood (Fig. 2, _c_) is the cambium (_d_), which
-furnishes the substance upon which the life of the tree depends. Here,
-nourished by the richest sap, new cells are formed, which become either
-sapwood or a part of the bast. (=E.=) At (_e_) is shown the bast or
-inner bark, which is composed of a woody fiber combined with a tissue
-of cells. This is elastic, which allows it to expand as the wood grows
-beneath it. Outside of the bast is the bark (_f_), or outer covering,
-which is of a corky nature, and protects the delicate vital parts of
-the tree.
-
-=4. The medullary rays.=--Every tree has _medullary rays_ (Fig. 2,
-_g_), usually spoken of by wood-workers as the “silver streak,” or
-“silver grain.” These rays connect the center of the tree with the
-outside, and are more prominent in such woods as oak, beech, and
-sycamore than in other woods. It is to take advantage of the beauty
-which these medullary rays impart that so much quarter-sawed lumber is
-used, though lumber sawed in this way is preferred for other reasons,
-which will be discussed later.
-
-In many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible to the naked
-eye, as in pine, for instance, which has fifteen thousand to the square
-inch. Aside from adding much to the beauty of the lumber, they also
-give strength; if lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat,
-it is apt to _check_, or crack, upon the line of the medullary rays.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DEFECTS IN LUMBER.
-
-_a_, wind shakes or cup shakes; _b_, heart shakes; _c_, star shakes;
-_d_, branch broken off, showing the method by which the annual layers
-gradually cover broken branches; _e_, hard knot.]
-
-=5. The grain in trees.=--In open or exposed situations trees usually
-grow more or less gnarled or crooked, which tends to improve the
-grain. The strength of lumber cut from trees grown as described is
-impaired, however, as the wood is more cross-grained than that from
-trees which grow in the heart of a forest, with practically the same
-conditions on all sides. As forest trees are continually reaching up
-for the sunlight, they grow taller and straighter, which makes it
-possible for straighter-grained lumber to be cut from them, and as the
-branches are at the top, where they receive the sunlight and air, there
-are few cross-grained places.
-
-When the annual rings are large, the grain is said to be _coarse_, and
-if the rings are fine, the term _fine-grained_ is used to describe it.
-When the direction of the fibers is nearly parallel with the sides and
-the edges of the board, it is said to be _straight-grained_; when the
-lumber is taken from a crooked tree, it is said to be _cross-grained_,
-as the grain follows the shape of the log, while the board is sawed
-straight. Cross-grained lumber is the handsomer; in this the fibers,
-being at different angles with the surface of the board, form a variety
-of figures, which add much to the beauty of the wood.
-
-=6. Defects found in lumber.=--(=A.=) Some of the most common defects
-found in lumber are _wind shakes_, or _cup shakes_ (Fig. 3, _a_), which
-are cracks following the line of the porous part of the annual rings.
-These are caused by the action of severe winds. (=B.=) _Heart shakes_
-(Fig. 3, _b_) are cracks radiating from the center of the tree, and
-may be found in any kind of wood, as they are the result of deficient
-nutrition, or loss of vitality. (=C.=) _Star shakes_ (Fig. 3, _c_) are
-caused by the shrinkage of the tree upon the outside, which is the
-result of a long dry spell of intense cold, or of the deficient action
-of the sap. Star shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon
-the outside of the tree; the heart shakes are larger at the center.
-
-Shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes are so numerous as
-to make the log worthless.
-
-(=D.=) _Discolorations_ are caused by decay which has at some time
-gained a foothold, but which the tree was sufficiently vigorous to
-overcome; or they may be due to imperfect or insufficient nutrition,
-which generally results in the entire tree being affected instead of
-small places upon the tree.
-
-(=E.=) Timber grown in a damp, marshy locality is generally of a
-poorer quality than that grown upon higher ground, as more water is
-taken up by the roots than can be well assimilated, which prevents the
-formation of healthy compact wood. Some woods are adapted to such soil,
-the poplar or whitewood, willow, basswood, buckeye, and cypress being
-denizens of moist or swampy places.
-
-Trees growing where they are exposed to winds from one direction
-are apt to assume a spiral growth, which renders the timber almost
-worthless, as it is weak, and twists badly in drying.
-
-(=F.=) Trees which have lumps appearing like growths upon them are
-usually unhealthy. These lumps, or tumors, may be caused by defective
-nutrition, checks, or shakes, or by the depredations of animals or
-insects.
-
-(=G.=) _Clefts_, or _splits_, in a tree may be caused by extreme cold,
-heat, or drouth. They may extend into the tree several inches, and
-while the blemish will always remain, showing a discoloration or other
-defect, nature often repairs it so that the strength of the timber is
-but slightly affected. If these clefts are not healed, rain may find
-lodgment there, and the sap be so affected that the adjacent wood will
-be destroyed, and this in time will destroy the tree.
-
-(=H.=) Eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these clefts, the
-larvæ of which bore into the wood and destroy it. (=I.=) If it were
-not for the birds and other natural enemies of these insects, they
-would increase so rapidly that the lumber supply would be seriously
-affected, and, as it is, there are very few trees which are not injured
-to some extent by wood borers. The United States Bureau of Entomology
-estimates that the damage to trees by these pests amounts to at least
-$100,000,000 annually.
-
-(=K.=) Sometimes (as at _d_, Fig. 3) branches die or are broken off;
-this gives the elements access to the heart of the tree and usually
-causes a permanent injury, as the birds and other denizens of the
-forest frequently dig out the rotten wood as soon as the weather has
-had time to do its work, thus giving further opportunity for decay to
-continue its destructive action. If this does not happen, the wood
-will grow over the break after several years and leave a loose knot in
-the heart of the tree, which will be a decided blemish when the log is
-made into lumber. The sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the
-defect, as the annual rings will eventually close over the break.
-
-The hard knot at _e_, Fig. 3, is not a serious defect, unless the wood
-is to be used for finish or where great strength is required.
-
-=7. When to cut lumber.=--Trees which are intended for the use of
-wood-workers should not be felled while the sap is in motion. If cut
-at any other time than midsummer or in winter, the active sap is apt
-to sour and to cause decay. Owing to the scarcity of lumber, or from
-avarice, this precaution often is ignored, and trees are felled at any
-time of year, regardless of their age; in such cases, much of the
-lumber lacks the essential qualities of its kind.
-
-When a tree shows signs of dying at the top, it should be cut down, as
-the quality of the lumber it contains will deteriorate rapidly.
-
-
- SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
-
- 1. What is meant by exogenous trees? In what kinds of wood are the
- annual layers most prominent? Describe the formation of annual layers.
- What causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of wood? In the
- color and odor of wood? How may the age of a tree be determined? Are
- the broadest annual layers found in young or in old trees? From what
- class of trees does soft wood come? Hard wood?
-
- 2. Describe the motion of sap. What forms the sapwood? With what are
- the cells of the sapwood filled? Compare sapwood and heartwood.
-
- 3. Describe the four different tissues in a tree. Describe the inner
- bark.
-
- 4. What are the medullary rays? In what woods are they most prominent?
- How do they affect the strength of timber?
-
- 5. What is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations? Where
- are the straightest trees found? Why does the location of a tree
- affect the grain? What is meant by _coarse_, _fine_, _straight_, and
- _cross-grained_ lumber?
-
- 6. What causes wind shakes? Heart shakes? Star shakes? How may they
- be distinguished from each other? What causes discolorations? What is
- the usual character of timber grown upon marshy ground? What woods
- are adapted to low ground? What sometimes causes spiral growth? What
- do lumps and excrescences upon a tree generally signify? What causes
- clefts in trees? What are the results of clefts? Does nature perfectly
- repair the cleft? What is the usual result of a branch being broken
- off?
-
- 7. What is the per cent of moisture in green wood? Should very young
- trees be cut? Why? How may the top of a tree show when it should be
- felled? At what time of year should trees be cut?
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II
-
-LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD
-
-
-=8. The manufacture of lumber=.--(=A.=) There are two distinct
-processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial purposes,
-_logging_ and _sawing_; the former includes all the steps from felling
-the tree to the delivery of the logs at the sawmill; there the logs are
-sawed into boards, planks, and timbers of certain dimensions, which are
-piled and exposed to the sun and air for a sufficient time to allow a
-large part of the water in them to evaporate, when the lumber is said
-to be “weather dried,” and ready for shipment to the consumer.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FELLING A TREE.]
-
-(=B.=) If a lumber concern desires to begin operations in one of the
-great forest areas, a “land-looker” or “timber-cruiser” is sent to spy
-out the land, and to report upon the probable yield of timber within
-certain areas, and the conditions which would aid or retard the work
-of getting out the logs. If the report is favorable, the standing
-timber may be purchased by “stumpage,” which means that a certain price
-will be paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land may be
-purchased outright, though in the early history of lumbering cases have
-been known where these little formalities were omitted.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CUTTING SMALL BRANCHES FROM FELLED SPRUCE.]
-
-Camps are located at convenient points throughout the boundary, roads
-are made through the woods, and foundations, or “skidways,” built at
-right angles to them, to receive the logs as they are hauled down
-the “travoy” roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at
-frequent distances for this purpose.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SKIDWAY OF SPRUCE LOGS.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.--LOAD OF WHITE PINE LOGS.]
-
-(=C.=) The above preparations completed, the work of felling the
-trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work requires nice skill
-and judgment, as it is necessary that the tree should fall so that it
-will cause the least damage to itself and to surrounding trees. After
-the tree is down, the branches are cut close to the trunk (Fig. 5)
-and carried to one side so that they will not be in the way of the
-horses. The trunk is then sawed into logs, twelve, fourteen, sixteen,
-or eighteen feet in length, as the imperfections and the length of the
-tree trunk may allow. Longer or shorter logs are rarely cut except for
-special purposes.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HAULING LOGS BY STEEL CABLE.]
-
-(=D.=) One end of the log is placed upon a drag, or is gripped by a
-pair of tongs, and hauled to the nearest travoy road and skidway, where
-it is piled (Fig. 6). (=E.=) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon
-trucks, cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8),
-which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of the country, or
-to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a river (Fig. 10). If either
-of these latter methods of transportation is employed, the logs are
-generally piled upon another skidway until there is enough for a train
-load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable for them to
-be floated to the mill.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.--LOADING LOGS FROM SHEDWAY TO TRAIN.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BOOM OF LOGS.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LOG JAM.]
-
-(=F.=) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally the most
-dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to face. A jam usually depends
-upon one key log, which, if loosened, will allow the jam to break
-instantly. The work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one
-or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and muscles, and
-possessed of the highest possible skill and activity, or they cannot
-hope to break a large jam and escape with their lives.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.--SAWMILL IN THE BIG TREE DISTRICT.]
-
-(=G.=) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives its logs
-by both rail and river. In this case the logs which come in by rail are
-rolled into the river, as they can be more easily placed upon the chain
-feed of the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in which
-the logs are soaked before they are taken into the mill; this draws the
-frost out of them, and allows them to be worked much more easily.
-
-(=H.=) There are different types of sawmills, in which the logs are
-worked into commercial shapes. The small enterprises use portable
-mills, which are moved into the woods and located upon a tract of land,
-remaining until all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been
-sawed, and then moved to another locality and the process repeated.
-
-Large operations are conducted upon a different plan; mills of a
-permanent type are erected as near the forest as practicable, roads
-are built, tracks laid, and the logs brought from the woods by one of
-the methods previously illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes
-are built, and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a
-mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if possible,
-as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by any other method of
-transportation, though some of the heavier woods will not float, and
-have to be handled on land. (=I.=) The immersion of logs in water also
-improves the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon the
-sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, and also facilitates
-the seasoning of the manufactured product. If the log is left in the
-water until it becomes water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not
-injured for many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which it
-is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage of sunken logs has
-become an industry.
-
-(=J.=) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to be cut is
-selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent supply, and in
-the near future all extensive lumbering operations will, beyond doubt,
-be conducted upon a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless
-lumbering is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the
-supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the demand.
-
-(=K.=) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed into lumber
-of various dimensions by a circular saw (Fig. 13); but in the larger
-mills, the band saw generally is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double
-cut band sawmill, in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut
-each time the log is carried either way.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.--CIRCULAR SAW.]
-
-=9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.=--(=A.=) Besides sawing
-dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, and planks of different
-thicknesses are sawed, as follows: 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”, 2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”;
-and thicker, if desired.
-
-(=B.=) If lumber is cut again from its original dimensions, it is said
-to be _resawed_. When boards or planks of the above dimensions are
-dressed on both sides, they will be about ⅛” thinner; thus, a board
-sawed 1” thick will, when seasoned and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2”
-plank will be but 1⅞” or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed
-dimensions.
-
-Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually comes under the head
-of dimension timber, which is not used to the extent that it was
-formerly, as steel and concrete are replacing it upon heavy work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.--DOUBLE CUT BAND SAW.]
-
-If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber is usually
-resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is planed upon each side
-to the desired thickness. Boards for box stock and other special
-purposes are sometimes sawed as thin as ¼”.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PLAIN, SLASH, OR BASTARD SAWING.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.--FOUR METHODS OF QUARTERING.]
-
-(=C.=) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. 15 is known as
-_plain_, _slash_, or _bastard sawing_, and is the cheapest way to cut
-logs, both as to time and waste. The log is first squared to secure
-a bed upon which it may lie while being sawed, which also makes it
-unnecessary to run each board by the edging saw to straighten the
-edges. The slabs at _a_ are sawed into boards as the log is squared,
-and the bark, or “live edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an
-inferior grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they are well
-worth saving, if large logs are being cut.
-
-In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment is necessary
-to cut a log so that the greatest amount of marketable lumber can be
-made from it. This is done by cutting various sizes from a log, if it
-will not cut all of one size without too much waste.
-
-(=D.=) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary rays or silver
-grain, the log is sawed by one of the methods shown in Fig. 16, the
-object being to bring the rays as nearly parallel to the surface of
-the board as possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain
-which is so highly prized.
-
-The best results are obtained from sections _a_, _b_; this method also
-gives the most waste. In plain sawed lumber, the boards from the
-middle of the log will have the quarter grain; these are usually culled
-and sold as quarter-sawed.
-
-Neither of these methods results in economy of time or material, as
-about 25 per cent of each is used in excess of that required in plain
-sawing; hence, quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain,
-or bastard, sawed.
-
-(=E.=) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not only on account
-of its handsomer grain, but because it holds its shape better than
-lumber sawed in any other way, as the annual layers are approximately
-square with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks in the
-direction parallel with the annual layers, and very little from the
-center to the outside of the tree, it is obvious that there is much
-less shrinking and warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which
-is sawed plain.
-
-The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand usage without
-the surface splintering much better than does the common plain sawed
-material. Quarter-sawed lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical
-grain,” and “comb grained.”
-
-=10. The grading of lumber.=--Custom varies somewhat in different
-localities as to the grading of lumber, but there are generally four
-grades, which are often subgraded into qualities suitable for various
-uses.
-
-“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect, though in large
-dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes may be allowed. These
-blemishes in a board are usually restricted to not more than one inch
-of sap, a small sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one
-blemish to a board is allowed.
-
-“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound knots, an inch of sap,
-and one other blemish.
-
-“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound knots, but two thirds
-of one side must be clear stock.
-
-“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the cheapest work. One
-half of the board must be usable.
-
-In many cases the boards are graded by the width of clear stock
-which can be taken out. There are tables published by the different
-associations of lumber manufacturers which give the gradings under
-which their lumber has been measured and shipped, but as these vary
-from time to time no permanent list can be given.
-
-The principal reason why there can be no permanent grading of lumber is
-that the forests from which the finest timber can be cut in marketable
-quantities are being destroyed faster than they can be replaced by
-nature. In anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry
-of the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in organizing
-government forest preserves, in educating the people, and in promoting
-legislation aimed at the husbanding of our forests. When we consider
-the abundance of high grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous
-prices which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this
-movement should have begun during the days of our grandfathers, instead
-of waiting until nearly all the best lumber in the great forests east
-of the Mississippi had been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by
-forest fires.
-
-=11. The testing of lumber.=--(=A.=) Dry, sound stock, if struck with
-the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a clear ringing response,
-while a wet or decaying piece will give a dull response to the blow.
-
-(=B.=) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by which, as well
-as by the grain, the student should learn to distinguish the woods
-in common use. This may be more easily done before the wood has been
-thoroughly seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing odor;
-if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates that decay is
-present.
-
-(=C.=) If there is much variation in the color of timber, or black and
-blue spots, the stick is probably diseased.
-
-(=D.=) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by dryness or
-ventilation, and frequently may be cured by soaking the wood in water
-for several days, or by steaming. The disease of decay is cured also by
-chemical preservatives being forced into lumber by pressure; this at
-the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree.
-
-Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most lumber, if
-permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, will last almost
-indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining timbers, and even to those
-which have no connection with the one originally infected.
-
-=12. Surveying or estimating lumber.=--(=A.=) It is the custom to
-consider any board less than one inch in thickness as an inch board,
-and anything over one inch is measured as so many inches and fractions
-of an inch. For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch,
-while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by obtaining its
-surface measure, and increasing it by one half. Thus, a plank 12’ long,
-8” wide, and 1½” thick would have twelve feet board measure in it.
-
-In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which varies
-with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed lumber, but this is not
-universal.
-
-(=B.=) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary to obtain the
-fraction of a foot, board measure, for each lineal foot. Thus, a piece
-of 2 × 4 (inches understood) has two thirds of a foot for each foot
-in length; a 2 × 6 has one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one
-third feet of lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a
-joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of square feet,
-board measure, that the joist contains.
-
-(=C.=) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel piece which
-can be cut from it is the width of the board being measured; therefore
-the board should be surveyed at the narrowest place. In measuring more
-expensive lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board.
-
-(=D.=) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common use, the lumber
-scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is made of thin, cleft hickory,
-about three feet long, with one end large enough for a suitable handle;
-on the other end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the
-board while the scale is being read.
-
-The length of the board is marked near the handle, and at the end of
-the socket of the metal head, as at _a_.
-
-In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held against the edge
-of the board, as at _b_; the eye follows along the same line of figures
-upon which the length of the board is found, reading those figures
-nearest the width of the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’
-long would, without further measuring or calculating, show that the
-board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were 12’ long, it would
-contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading the middle line of figures,
-the board would be seen to contain 15’.
-
-In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest figure, and
-when there is no difference, to alternate between the lower and the
-higher figures upon different boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or
-9¼” wide would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two boards 8½”
-wide, of the same length as the above, would be measured as having 8’
-and 9’, respectively, in their surfaces. In short, the fractions of a
-foot are not considered in surveying the lumber in common use.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.--LUMBER SCALE.]
-
-=13. Qualities of wood.=--(=A.=) Certain kinds of wood are adapted
-for some purposes better than are others; the wood-worker, therefore,
-should be familiar with the qualities which conditions demand, and the
-kinds of woods which have these qualities.
-
-Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it should be cut from
-trees which grow to a size that will allow large dimensions to be cut
-from them.
-
-For outside finish, the material should be wood which will stand the
-weather, can be easily worked, and will hold its shape well.
-
-Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality of durability,
-and should be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which will be
-put upon them.
-
-Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of good appearance.
-In providing lumber for inside finish, care should be used that it has
-good grain and color, is not too soft, and that it will hold its shape
-well. Almost any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned, but
-lumber which shrinks and warps badly is unfit for finishing.
-
-Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and which has the
-least tendency to warp and split.
-
-Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint well, and be
-as free as possible from the tendency to warp, split, and twist when
-exposed to the weather.
-
-(=B.=) All material used in framing a building should be weather-dried
-in good drying weather for at least thirty days for each inch in
-thickness, and that used for inside and outside finish and floors
-should be thoroughly kiln-dried, and kept in a dry place until ready
-for use. These conditions are not always obtainable, but if the best
-results are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible.
-
-The woods hereafter described comprise the principal varieties used by
-the wood-workers of the United States.
-
-(=C.=) _Ash_ (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained,
-light-colored wood, in which the porous portions of the annual rings
-are quite prominent, thus making it somewhat coarse-grained.
-
-It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium weight and
-hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young growth being much used in
-the manufacture of wagons, machinery frames, and for similar purposes,
-as it is not expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It has a
-tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with insects; therefore
-it is not suitable for building construction or for contact with soil.
-
-Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, and is plentiful
-in many localities. There are two kinds of this wood recognized in
-commerce: the _white_, which is light-colored, and the _black_, which
-is of a brownish tinge, though there is little difference in the grain
-of the two. Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best
-part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in the Northern
-states is generally tougher than that grown farther south.
-
-The wood from the older and larger trees is not so tough and hard as
-that from the younger growth, and is much used for cabinet work and for
-interior finish. It should be filled with a paste-filler, after which
-it may be brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well and
-is useful for the purposes mentioned.
-
-(=D.=) _Apple_ (dec.) is not used for construction, as the proper
-dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very stubborn to work. It is
-one of the best woods known to resist splitting, and is much used for
-chisel and saw handles.
-
-(=E.=) _Basswood_, or _linden_ (dec.), is a soft, porous wood, which
-shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the backing of veneer
-work, for drawer bottoms of the common grades of furniture, for case
-backs, and similar purposes, and is also much used in the manufacture
-of spools and other small articles which are made in large quantities.
-In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings, and for other
-work where strength is not needed, though for use in such places it
-should be thoroughly seasoned, or the joints will open.
-
-If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. Steaming also
-cures to a great extent the tendency of this wood to shrink and swell.
-
-(=F.=) _Beech_ (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the ability to
-resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, as in plane stocks,
-tool handles, and parts of machinery. In building work, it is used to
-some extent for flooring and for inside finishing. It is used also for
-furniture, though the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive
-than other equally desirable woods.
-
-If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it decays rapidly;
-if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction.
-
-Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and
-are found to some extent in all of the states between the Great Lakes
-and the Atlantic seaboard.
-
-(=G.=) _Birch_ (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. It is found
-in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of the Eastern states and
-Canada. There are two varieties recognized in commerce, the _red_ and
-the _white birch_. The former is used considerably for inside finish
-and for furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to imitate
-cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any one but an expert.
-When finished in its own natural color, it is a satisfactory wood for
-the above uses, but as it ages, it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a
-stubborn wood to work, it is not popular.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18.--BEECH AND SUGAR MAPLE FOREST.]
-
-_Canoe_, or _paper_, _birch_ is softer than the red variety, and is
-used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and for the manufacture of
-spools, dowels, and a large variety of small articles.
-
-(=H.=) _Butternut_ or _white walnut_ (dec.) has a good grain and color;
-it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as are some harder woods,
-for it has a tendency to string while being dressed to a fine surface.
-It does not absorb moisture readily, and holds its shape under trying
-conditions.
-
-Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and is used
-considerably for furniture and for interior finish.
-
-(=I.=) _Cedar_ (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two varieties, the
-_red_ and the _white_. The former is used considerably for cooperage
-and veneers, lead pencils, and for lining moth-proof drawers and
-chests, as its strong odor and bitter taste protects it from the
-ravages of insects. The supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and
-it is now too expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it
-for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this valuable timber
-and of others, notably white and Georgia pine, has destroyed what would
-have been a supply for all time, if the cutting had been properly
-controlled.
-
-White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior wood; it is
-used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, and in the manufacture
-of barrels and cigar boxes. It is a very durable wood, and shrinks but
-little in drying. It is well adapted for burying, though not strong
-enough to resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red
-cedar, and makes a larger tree.
-
-(=J.=) _Cherry_ (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. It is
-much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it holds its shape
-well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a fine finish. Its grain is
-of fine, even texture, of reddish color, and often stained to imitate
-mahogany. When well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the
-genuine wood except by weight.
-
-Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns which are to
-stand rough usage. The tree is found in all of the states east of
-Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, but it is becoming too scarce for
-common use.
-
-(=K.=) _Chestnut_ (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, adapted to use
-in exposed situations. It is used a great deal for inside finish, as it
-will take a fine polish, and as the figures formed by the grain make it
-a very handsome wood for the purpose.
-
-Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy strain, and will
-shrink and crack badly in drying.
-
-(=L.=) _Cypress_ (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our most
-durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for outside work. It is
-used extensively for shingles; roofs covered with cypress shingles
-have been known to last for more than seventy-five years. The wood is
-light, straight-grained, and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its
-shape well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine in the
-manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered by many to be
-equal, if not superior, to that wood. It is much used in building small
-boats, and for use in places where it will be exposed to dampness.
-Eaves, troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than
-those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, which are the
-only woods having anti-decaying qualities equal to cypress.
-
-Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions, and if it
-were stronger and harder, it would be one of our best woods for framing
-and finishing. It is used for the latter purpose to a considerable
-extent, as it has a handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if
-thoroughly seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If it
-is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable extent, but if
-forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. Sap is not considered
-a blemish.
-
-Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the Southern
-states, the best of it coming from those bordering on the gulf.
-
-(=M.=) _Elm_ (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to split. It
-warps and checks to some extent in drying, but when well seasoned it
-holds its shape as well as most woods in common use. It is susceptible
-to a good polish, and is used a great deal for interior finish and
-furniture, as it takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in
-the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm stump. It is used
-largely in cooperage, and stands contact with the soil satisfactorily.
-
-The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, but is more
-abundant east of the Mississippi river.
-
-(=N.=) _Gum_ (dec.), or, as it is more generally known, _sweet gum_,
-is extensively used for interior finish upon the better class of
-buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless thoroughly seasoned, in
-which condition it is a very satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong,
-cross-grained, and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown,
-and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly in the
-Southern states.
-
-(=O.=) _Hemlock_ (con.) is found in most of the Northern states, and
-is used for scantlings, rough boards, under floors, and for boarding
-preparatory to siding. It is a fairly durable wood, but splits easily,
-and is apt to be full of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly.
-
-(=P.=) _Hickory_ (dec.) is the hardest native wood in common use,
-and the toughest wood that we have; it is too hard to be used for
-building material. It is flexible, and its principal use is for wagon
-and carriage work, and for other purposes where bent wood and great
-strength is required. As it does not split easily, it is much used in
-the manufacture of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring
-insects, and these pests often destroy much valuable timber.
-
-Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in fact the most
-desirable part of the tree, on account of its creamy whiteness and
-great strength.
-
-(=Q.=) _Locust_ (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the country, and
-is a useful and durable wood. It is much used for fence posts and, in
-damp locations, for railway ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it
-has a yellowish brown color which takes a polish well.
-
-(=R.=) _Maple_ (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, with a
-yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds of maple, but the
-kind generally used for commercial purposes is the _sugar_ or _rock
-maple_. It does not shrink excessively, seasons without serious
-checking, and from it a very fine surface for polishing may be
-obtained. It is much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as
-in floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent as a
-cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does not resist decay as
-well as do some other woods.
-
-Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its whiteness the
-sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood for many uses.
-
-_Bird’s-eye maple_ is of this wood, but some peculiarity in the growth
-of certain trees, believed by many to be caused by woodpeckers, has
-caused the tree to have what seem to be numerous small knots, known
-as curls or eyes. The presence of these imparts a beauty which is
-possessed by no other wood, and has never been successfully imitated.
-
-(=S.=) _Mahogany_ (dec.) is an imported wood, and is much used in the
-finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture of fine furniture. It
-is of a rich red color, and has a beautiful grain and other desirable
-qualities which make it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its
-shape remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in every
-respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that prevents it from
-being universally used.
-
-(=T.=) _Oak_ (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It is found
-abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, and forms the larger
-part of our broad-leaved forests. There are a number of species of
-oak, but they are in general known to commerce as the _red_ and the
-_white oak_. Nearly all these trees are cut for commercial purposes,
-but the white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of oak is
-so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot be distinguished
-after the work is finished, therefore they are all put together and
-sold as a medium grade of white oak for purposes where the strength
-of the genuine is not required. This will generally account for the
-difference in the grain and the color which is noticed in handling the
-commercial white oak.
-
-Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble in seasoning
-than white oak, though they both have to be dried very carefully, or
-there may be checks and cracks to such an extent that the wood will
-be ruined. Both the red and the white oak are used extensively in
-finishing and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly upon the
-cheaper grades, as it is easier to work.
-
-The two varieties should never be used upon the same job, unless the
-wood is to be stained a dark color, as there is a marked difference in
-their appearance when finished. White oak is much used for flooring,
-quartered oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done.
-
-Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic conditions,
-though if buried deeply, or in water, where there is no alteration in
-moisture or dryness, it gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great
-extent for railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the
-future is causing much speculation, as the end of the present supply of
-white oak is already in sight.
-
-(=U.=) _Pine_ (con.) in its different varieties is used more than any
-other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all parts of the United
-States and in Canada. Certain sections of the country which were once
-covered with virgin pine forests have, however, been so denuded of
-their wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, within a
-few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen who cared more for
-their immediate profit than for the prospective good of the nation,
-that instead of a permanent and continual supply of this valuable wood,
-there are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown ruins
-of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of which this irremediable
-wrong was perpetrated against posterity.
-
-_White pine_ is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly seasoned
-will hold its shape better than any other wood except mahogany. For
-these reasons, and on account of its adaptability to gluing, it is
-used almost exclusively by pattern makers. It is found in the Northern
-states and in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows the
-grade of pine known as “Carolina,” the _bastard_ or _yellow pine_. This
-belt extends from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic coast, and is
-of a width to include Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder
-to work, and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, but
-it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is capable of a fine
-finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard nor so strong as “Georgia”
-pine, which is also known commercially as _long-leaved pine_, _pitch
-pine_, or _hard pine_. This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in
-the states bordering upon the ocean and the gulf.
-
-Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the two above
-described, being much stronger and more dense. This is the wood which
-is used for heavy timbers of large buildings, and the above described
-grades should never be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting
-in work of less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine
-was intended. Although this wood is very hard and strong, and is the
-best wood for heavy construction, as has been stated, it should never
-be used in any place which is not dry and well ventilated, as it will
-decay rapidly if placed in a damp location, or where it will come in
-contact with the earth.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19.--WHITE PINE FOREST.]
-
-There are several varieties of pine besides those above mentioned.
-These are generally less desirable for finish or for construction than
-is the white, yellow, or Carolina pine, but they are used extensively
-for the common work of light building, and by box factories.
-
-(=V.=) _Poplar_ or _whitewood_ (dec.) is cut from the tulip tree,
-and is found principally in the Middle West and in some parts of the
-South. It is of light weight and color, with few knots, and is soft and
-easily worked. It is used for the common grades of cabinet work, inside
-finishing, veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and
-its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. It warps and
-shrinks considerably in seasoning, and unless held in its place, it is
-apt to twist.
-
-(=W.=) _Redwood_ (con.) is taken from the big trees on the Pacific
-slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from knots, and may be
-obtained in boards of any size which it is possible to cut. It has the
-reputation of being one of the best woods for use in trying conditions,
-or where it will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.
-
-It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but it is not apt
-to become very popular for inside finish, as it is easily marred, and,
-although very soft, will, when thoroughly dry, destroy the edge of
-tools quicker than many harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive
-brown as it ages, if it is finished in its natural color.
-
-It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, as it resists
-decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of the grain, and burns very
-slowly.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20.--DOUGLAS SPRUCE FOREST.]
-
-(=X.=) _Spruce_ (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and in New
-England is used generally for framing light buildings and for rough
-boarding. Its color is almost pure white, and it has the valuable
-quality of holding nails firmly. There is little difference between the
-heart and the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is
-difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and twists badly
-in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable for framing trusses,
-unless seasoned lumber is used.
-
-Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for flooring,
-ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers in immense
-quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory wood for immersion, but if
-exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, it decays rapidly.
-
-(=Y.=) _Sycamore_, or _buttonwood_ (dec.), is found in nearly all parts
-of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern states. It is a moderately
-stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained, and quite difficult to smooth to
-a surface, as the grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has
-also a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, but if
-well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no more trouble than
-do other woods. It takes a good polish, and is a desirable wood for
-inside finish.
-
-(=Z.=) _Walnut_, or _black walnut_ (dec.), is found in all the Middle
-and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, of a chocolate
-color, and takes a fine finish. It is well adapted to inside finish and
-to furniture work.
-
-At one time nearly all the best work was done in this wood, but at
-present it is out of style, as oak and other woods are more in favor.
-Like other varieties of our best woods, this has been cut out, and is
-now too expensive to be considered as anything but a fancy wood.
-
-_White walnut_ is described under butternut.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21.--RED SPRUCE AND BALSAM FIR KILLED BY FIRE.]
-
-
- SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
-
- 8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations?
- What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? Why? Compare
- the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why is scientific
- forestry a necessity?
-
- 9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How
- much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually
- sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To
- furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods of
- quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy.
- Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities. What
- are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known?
-
- 10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are
- commonly graded.
-
- 11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of
- timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What does
- it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board?
- How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient
- decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?
-
- 12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber over 1”
- in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To what lengths
- are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should a common
- board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate the use of the
- lumber scale.
-
- 13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of timber
- for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside finish? For
- shingles? For siding? How long should lumber be dried before using?
- How should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for
- use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of
- lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, cherry,
- chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, maple, mahogany,
- oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III
-
-CARE OF LUMBER
-
-
-=14. The piling of lumber.=--(=A.=) To the uninitiated it may seem that
-the piling of lumber is work upon which it is not necessary to expend
-much skill, but there are few operations in which carelessness or
-ignorance will cause more loss to a wood-worker.
-
-(=B.=) The front end of a lumber pile should be higher than the back,
-therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon ground which falls away
-to the rear, or to build the ways which support the pile so that the
-water which drives into the pile will run out at the back end, and not
-stand upon the boards, as this will cause discolorations.
-
-=15. Permanent lumber ways.=--These should be built by some method
-similar to that shown in Fig. 22. It is not a good plan to lay timbers
-upon the ground, as they will decay rapidly, and there will not be
-sufficient room for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards
-of the lower courses to dry out properly. The pile is also apt to
-settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the spring. Lumber
-should not be stacked above wet or marshy ground; if necessary to stack
-it where the weeds are of rank growth, the latter should be kept down.
-
-The ways should be built with a solid foundation, well below the frost
-line, though this is rarely done except for permanent lumber storage.
-This is shown at _a_, Fig. 22, in which it will be seen that the ways
-are built to stand a heavy load; the space between the centers of the
-ways should be about five feet, as multiples of this distance will
-accommodate any length of boards.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22.--PERMANENT LUMBER WAYS.]
-
-=16. To minimize the warping of lumber.=--(=A.=) Do not place lumber
-piles less than one foot apart, as it is necessary that there should
-be a continuous circulation of air through the pile in all directions.
-(See _b_, Fig. 22.)
-
-(=B.=) Lumber piles are usually four feet in width, and should be built
-up with sticks of that length, which are placed between the courses of
-boards. It is important that these be placed directly over each other
-and the ways; otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards, as
-shown at _c_. It is such carelessness as this that causes a great deal
-of loss. In piling very expensive lumber, the front sticks should be
-laid so as to project a little over the course of boards below, and
-the boards of the course above should project the same distance over
-the stick, in order to give the front of the pile an inclination to
-the front, as shown at _d_, which will allow most of the rain-water to
-drop clear of the boards below, instead of running down the front and
-finding its way into the pile.
-
-(=C.=) Square piles are sometimes built, but in these the boards should
-be laid with large spaces between them, to allow perfect circulation
-of air. It is obvious that in a pile of this sort, the boards in the
-center of the pile will not come in contact with the air as much as
-those on the outside, and that consequently, unless carefully piled,
-the boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead of drying
-out, which usually results in decay.
-
-(=D.=) During the drying out process, all boards change their form
-more or less, depending upon the shape of the tree trunk, the kind
-and quality of the wood, the part of the tree from which the log was
-cut, as well as its size and age, the relation of the annual rings and
-medullary rays to the surfaces of the board, the length of time since
-the log was cut before being made into lumber, whether it had lain in
-water for several months, and the method of piling. Thus it will be
-seen that in every stage of preparing lumber for market, a high degree
-of skill and judgment is necessary to insure the best results.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.--WARPING OF LUMBER.]
-
-The greatest deterioration in lumber, after it has been cut and
-properly piled, is generally due to the tendency to warp, the cause
-of which is indicated in Fig. 23, and which may to great extent be
-minimized by skillful piling. If this sketch is studied carefully, it
-will be noticed that the middle board is thicker in the middle than
-it is at the edges, and that the curves of its top and bottom sides
-are practically uniform. This is because the annual layers are at
-nearly a right angle with the sides of the board, which causes the
-board to shrink in thickness, and very little in width. This is due
-to the tendency of lumber shrink around, or parallel with, the annual
-layers. This tendency also causes the star shakes, as at _c_, Fig.
-3, which is because the inner layers of the log, being less than the
-outside layers in circumference, and less exposed to the dry air, do
-not shrink so fast nor so much. This tendency is again illustrated in
-Fig. 23, in which it will be seen that because the outer annual layers
-shrink faster, they cause the outside of the board, or the part which
-grew toward the outside of the tree, to become narrower, and to assume
-a concave shape, while the side nearer the center of the tree, or the
-inside of the board, becomes convex. This is also the reason why boards
-cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width more than those
-cut nearer the center, which shrink in thickness proportionately more
-than in width.
-
-(=E.=) For the purpose of taking advantage of the tendency to warp, and
-applying it to its own remedy, boards should be piled with the side
-which grew nearer the center of the tree uppermost. This will help to
-correct the tendency of the board to warp, as explained above, as the
-side which would naturally assume the concave shape will be underneath,
-and less likely to warp than if it were uppermost. This is not
-generally observed in stacking common lumber, since it needs care and
-judgment to do it properly, but it should be done if valuable lumber is
-being handled.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24.--LUMBER PILED IN DOUBLE COURSES.]
-
-Boards of practically the same width, if less than 7” wide, are
-sometimes stacked in double courses, as shown in Fig. 24, the outside
-of the boards, or the sides which grew nearer the outside of the tree
-being placed together, thus allowing the inside of the boards, or the
-sides which grew toward the center of the tree, to receive more air
-than the sides which are placed together, and therefore to dry out
-faster, which will reduce the warping to a minimum. After a pile is
-completed, it should be covered with old boards to protect the top
-courses from the weather.
-
-(=F.=) A pile of valuable lumber should be restacked every six or eight
-months, as the boards are apt to become discolored where the lumber
-sticks are placed; in this rehandling, the warped boards should be
-placed with the concave side underneath.
-
-(=G.=) If lumber is cut in winter or midsummer, and properly cared for,
-it is not apt to be injured by any rain which may drive into the pile,
-if there is free circulation of air; nor is it so liable to decay as
-lumber which is cut at other times of the year.
-
-=17. Weather-dried lumber.=--Lumber which has been dried in the stack
-out of doors is not dry enough for use in the manufacture of inside
-finish or furniture, as it has dried out only to the degree of
-moisture in the outside air. If it is then worked up and placed in
-an artificially heated house, the heat will cause more moisture to
-evaporate, the wood to shrink, and the joints to open. For material to
-be used in the frames of buildings, in wagons, or in other places where
-the greatest possible strength is required, not less than two years
-weather-drying is preferred, as the material retains its full strength.
-
-=18. Kiln-dried lumber.=--Lumber for furniture or for inside finish
-should be seasoned by the process known as “kiln-drying.” This means
-that lumber is exposed to a temperature of from 120° to 200° F. by
-which the moisture is extracted and evaporated. Lumber thus treated
-is apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat upon the
-fibers of the wood, which causes thousands of minute fractures, and in
-many cases the life and the elasticity of the lumber is destroyed. The
-results of kiln-drying depend largely upon the kiln, and upon the skill
-with which the lumber is piled, the heat applied, and the rapidity of
-evaporation of the moisture regulated.
-
-For these reasons, much kiln-dried lumber is suitable for use where but
-little strength is required and where the color and the grain are the
-important points to consider.
-
-=19. Moist air kilns.=--(=A.=) There are two types of dry kilns in
-common use: the _natural draft_, or moist air, kilns, and the _induced
-draft_ kilns. These two types are made by different manufacturers,
-nearly all of whom use certain devices of which they control the
-patents, and which constitute the chief difference between their kiln
-and those made by other manufacturers.
-
-(=B.=) The moist air kilns are so constructed as to allow the freest
-possible circulation of the heated air, and to provide opportunities
-for the moisture to be expelled in accordance with certain natural
-laws, which results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed
-system of ventilation. These kilns operate upon the principle that
-heated air circulating naturally through lumber will become charged
-to a much greater degree with moisture than if it were forced through
-rapidly, as in the induced draft kilns. Thus, heated air by passing
-slowly through a pile of lumber may become charged with moisture nearly
-to the dew point.
-
-If the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that point, by
-allowing the moisture to pass out as it accumulates, with a small
-amount of heated air, which is replaced with fresh air from the
-outside, it is claimed that the boards will dry out from their centers.
-(=C.=) As the warm, moist air which circulates through the pile will
-keep the outsides of the boards moist, it will prevent case hardening,
-or the hardening of the outsides of the boards. This is caused by
-very warm dry air, which “cooks,” or closes the pores of the surface
-of the boards, and this prevents the outsides from shrinking, while
-the insides will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the
-boards.
-
-After the moisture is all out of the lumber, that held in suspension
-will gradually pass out of the kiln, and the air inside will become
-perfectly dry.
-
-(=D.=) It is claimed that all kinds of lumber in common use may be
-put into this type of kiln perfectly green, except oak and other very
-hard woods, which should have at least thirty days’ drying under good
-drying conditions for each inch in thickness. It is also claimed that
-the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accelerated,--the moisture
-being thoroughly extracted from the lumber, the result being the same
-as though it were stacked out of doors for several years,--and that the
-lumber has lost none of its strength, elasticity, or characteristic
-color.
-
-(=E.=) This method sometimes is applied by steam pipes extending
-between each course of boards, and in this way the lumber is dried out
-very rapidly. Lumber used in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly
-weather-dried, or otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check
-badly. In certain forms of these kilns, the lumber is saturated with
-live steam after it is piled in the kiln, before the heat is turned on.
-
-=20. Induced draft kilns.=--(=A.=) This system of kiln-drying consists
-of a power-driven fan, which forces the heated air at a high rate of
-speed through the spaces between and around the lumber piled in the
-chamber.
-
-(=B.=) Manufacturers have different devices for extracting the moisture
-from the air after it has passed through the lumber piles. It may be
-passed over condensing plates, or through coils of pipes in which
-cold water is continually circulating, both of these devices being
-for the purpose of extracting the moisture from the heated air. If
-the moisture is separated from the air by condensation, it runs away,
-but if not, a certain per cent of the heated air is expelled out of
-doors, being replaced by fresh air. The air in the kiln, somewhat
-cooled from contact with these cooled surfaces, is returned to the
-heater, reheated, and again forced through the kiln, which operation is
-repeated continuously and automatically. Thus the heated air becomes
-charged with a small percentage of moisture each time it passes through
-the kiln chamber; this moisture is extracted and the air is again
-heated before beginning another circuit, instead of slow circulation
-which allows the heated air to become saturated with moisture before it
-is discharged, as in the moist air kiln.
-
-The induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive equipment, as
-the blower and the appliance which drive it are necessary in addition
-to the equipment of the kiln itself, which would be similar in either
-of the types of kiln described. Lumber to be dried in this form of kiln
-must be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high temperature
-of the kiln.
-
-=21. Results of the two systems.=--While it is not the province of
-this book to pass judgment upon the results of the different methods
-or forms of dry kilns, it is obvious that the induced draft kiln is
-the more expensive to operate, as the expense of running the blower is
-avoided in the moist air system. In this latter type of kiln the steam
-simply passes through the pipes, the condensation being returned to the
-boiler to be reheated, so the only expense is that of maintaining the
-fire to keep up a low pressure. In the daytime, or while the engine
-which furnishes the power for the plant is running, the kilns of either
-type may be heated by exhaust steam.
-
-Many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with the results
-obtained from either, while others are decided in their preference.
-
-=22. Filling a kiln.=--In doing this, care should be used that there is
-plenty of room for the air to circulate freely around and through the
-pile--not less than 3” between the edges of the boards horizontally and
-vertically, and one foot between the lumber and the wall or adjacent
-pile. Each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the same
-width over those of the course below, if possible, in order to keep a
-vertical air space through the pile. In some cases the kiln is filled
-by placing the boards edgeways.
-
-=23. Length of time lumber should be left in the kiln.=--No one should
-undertake to operate a kiln unless he understands perfectly the
-particular make of the kiln that he is handling, for if the ventilation
-is not correctly regulated, the entire charge of the kiln may become
-mildewed, casehardened, checked, discolored, or dried unevenly. No rule
-can be given for the time which lumber should be left in the kiln,
-as it depends upon the condition of the lumber, temperature, kind of
-lumber, dimensions, and ventilation. Generally speaking, if the kiln
-is properly constructed and operated, from two to four days for each
-inch in thickness of soft wood, and from two to three times as long,
-at a lower temperature, for hard wood, is usually enough to extract
-the moisture. It is, however, best to allow the lumber to stay in the
-kiln, at a moderate temperature, from three days to two weeks after
-the moisture is extracted, in order to harden and cook the solids of
-the sap, as by so doing the lumber is not so liable to be influenced
-by moisture in the future; this is the effect that long weather-drying
-accomplishes.
-
-=24. The care of kiln-dried lumber.=--It is a common mistake to allow
-lumber to lie in an open shed or other place where it will absorb
-moisture from the atmosphere, and still call it kiln-dried. Lumber
-of this sort should be kept in a place where heat can be applied in
-damp weather, and should be stacked in a close, compact pile, so as to
-prevent the air from coming in contact with it.
-
-=25. Steaming wood.=--This process makes wood pliable, and adds to
-its durability by destroying the germs which may cause decay; it also
-neutralizes, to a great extent, the effect of the presence of sap.
-Steaming or immersing wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency
-to shrink and swell, and wood thus treated is not so apt to check in
-seasoning. Steamed wood loses some of its original strength on account
-of the effect of the high temperature upon the fibers.
-
-=26. Preserving wood.=--In order to preserve wood, it is sometimes
-treated with creosote or other chemicals, which are forced into the
-wood at a sufficient pressure to cause them to permeate the wood
-thoroughly. This treatment enables the wood to resist better the
-elements and to keep away insects, which do a great deal of damage,
-frequently honeycombing the wood with holes, with little or no evidence
-of their presence upon the outside.
-
-
- SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
-
- 14. What are some of the results of piling lumber carelessly? Should
- the back and the front of the lumber pile be upon the same level? Why?
-
- 15. How should lumber ways be built? What kind of places should be
- avoided in seeking a location for lumber piles?
-
- 16. Should the piles be placed close to each other? How wide should
- the piles be made? What is the objection to a square pile? How thick
- should the lumber sticks be? How should they be placed? What is the
- result if they are not carefully placed? How should the sticks and
- the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile? Why? What
- causes lumber to warp? Describe methods of piling lumber to minimize
- warping. Should a lumber pile be allowed to stand indefinitely? What
- is the proper time to cut lumber? Does it injure lumber to allow a
- little rain to beat into the pile?
-
- 17. What is meant by weather-dried lumber? Why is it not suitable
- for furniture and for inside finish? How is this remedied? For what
- purposes is weather-dried lumber the best?
-
- 18. What is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber?
-
- 19. What are the two methods of kiln-drying? Describe the principle of
- the moist air kiln. What is claimed of it? How should hard wood lumber
- be treated before being kiln-dried?
-
- 20. Describe the induced draft system. What devices are used to
- extract the moisture from the heated air? What are the main points of
- difference between the two systems?
-
- 21. What is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be
- put in the two forms of kilns? Which is the more expensive system to
- install and operate? How do users of the two systems compare them?
-
- 22. How should lumber be stacked in the kiln?
-
- 23. How long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow the
- moisture to be extracted? How long to insure most permanent results?
-
- 24. How should kiln-dried lumber be cared for?
-
- 25. What is the effect of steaming wood?
-
- 26. How is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements and
- from insects?
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV
-
-TOOLS
-
-
-=27. How to purchase tools.=--(=A.=) The quality of the tools used by
-the mechanic is of the greatest importance. They should be selected
-carefully, and while it is the poorest economy to buy anything but the
-best, the best are not necessarily the most finely finished.
-
-(=B.=) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that those made
-especially for some dealer, and bearing his name, if sold for a
-less price than the best, are usually not of the highest grade, and
-should be shunned. It is wisest to buy standard makes, examining them
-carefully to be sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of
-steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in the best grades
-of tools is made good upon complaint to the dealer.
-
-=28. Benches.=--(=A.=) Figure 25 shows the type of bench used in
-the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, while that used by
-carpenters for ordinary work usually is of the type shown in Fig. 26.
-
-(=B.=) In many manual-training schools, the benches are of the former
-type, and in the most completely equipped schools, are fitted with
-locked drawers and closets for the reception of tools, not only to keep
-the latter in condition for use, but to insure that the set of tools
-is complete, and to be able to place the responsibility for damage or
-loss.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25.--MANUAL-TRAINING BENCH.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26.--CARPENTER’S BENCH.]
-
-(=C.=) The _vises_ should be of the modern, quick action design, which,
-on account of the rapidity with which they work, are superseding the
-old-fashioned wooden and iron screw vises.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27.--TWO-FOOT, FOUR-FOLD RULE.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28.--ZIGZAG RULE.]
-
-=29. Rules.=--The two-foot, four-fold _rule_ (Fig. 27) is the one
-generally used by carpenters. It is made of different grades, the more
-expensive makes being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and 12ths,
-and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“, 1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them.
-Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate, it is divided usually
-into 8ths and 16ths only. The form of rule shown in Fig. 28 is becoming
-quite popular, as it is longer. Since rules are easily lost or broken,
-many workmen have a good rule for scaling, and a cheaper one for
-general work.
-
-=30. The try-square= (=A.=) consists of the beam (Fig. 29, _a_), which
-is generally of metal-lined wood, and the blade (_b_), which is a thin
-piece of steel.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29.--POSITION OF TRY-SQUARE IN SQUARING AN EDGE.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30.--USE OF TWO TRY-SQUARES TO SEE IF PIECE OF WOOD
-IS “OUT OF WIND.”]
-
-(=B.=) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of this tool,
-as one which is not perfectly true may cause much trouble. To test a
-square, hold the beam against a perfectly straight and square edge of a
-board which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the entire
-length of the blade. Then turn the square over, the other side up, and,
-holding the beam against the same edge, move the blade to the line. If
-the jointed edge of the board and the square are perfectly accurate,
-the knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 31.--POSITION OF TRY-SQUARE WHEN MAKING LINE.]
-
-(=C.=) The use of this tool in squaring an edge is shown in Fig.
-29. The piece being squared should be in such a position that the
-try-square will be between the eye and the light; in this way, the
-slightest inaccuracy may be detected. In Fig. 31 is shown the position
-of the try-square when used to make a line by the edge of the blade. If
-working from the edge indicated, hold the beam against the edge with
-the thumb, and at the same time hold the blade down with one or two
-fingers, using the others to steady the square in its place upon the
-board. (=D.=) Two try-squares may be used to see if a piece of wood is
-“out of wind” (_i_ sounded as in kind) by the method indicated in Fig.
-30.
-
-Two pieces of wood known as _winding sticks_, of exactly the same width
-and perfectly parallel, are often used in manual-training schools for
-this purpose; they are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman
-generally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large to be
-sighted accurately without some aid of this sort.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 32.--STEEL, OR FRAMING, SQUARE.]
-
-=31. The steel, or framing, square= (Fig. 32) is often used as a
-try-square upon large work, though its most important use is in
-framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable in finding the
-lengths and the angles of rafters, braces, etc. Its use for this
-purpose will be explained in “Constructive Carpentry.” The long side of
-the framing square is known as the “blade,” and the short side as the
-“tongue.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33.--BEVEL AND STEEL SQUARE.
-
-The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.]
-
-=32. The bevel= (Fig. 33) may be set for use in marking and testing any
-angle, in the same manner that the try-square is used upon rectangular
-work. The sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for
-setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed that the blade
-of the bevel rests upon the same figures upon both the blade and the
-tongue of the square.
-
-=33. The gauge= (=A.=), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making lines
-parallel to the face or working side or edge. Usually it is made in
-four pieces: the “head” (_a_), which is held against the face side or
-edge; the “stick” (_bb_), upon which the head moves; the “thumbscrew”
-(_c_), which holds the head firmly in its position upon the stick; and
-the “point” (_d_), which makes the desired mark upon the wood.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34.--MARKING GAUGE.
-
-_a_, the head; _bb_, the stick; _c_, the thumbscrew; _d_, the point.]
-
-(=B.=) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless one is
-certain that the point is located accurately with regard to the
-graduations upon the stick.
-
-The point should be sharpened to work with either a push or pull cut,
-as at _e_.
-
-(=C.=) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, and generally
-used with a push, though it is occasionally pulled toward the worker.
-One should always work from the face side of the piece.
-
-If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set back, or the
-gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated, which will
-govern the depth of the cut. Do not use a dull gauge, or one with a
-round point like a pencil, as it will tear the wood, instead of making
-a clean cut or scratch.
-
-=34. The hammer= (=A.=) is used by the average wood-worker more than
-any other tool. The “face” (Fig. 36, _a_) and the “claws” (_b_) should
-be tempered carefully, as they will either bruise or bend if too soft,
-or break if too hard. The eye (_c_) is made longer than it is wide, to
-prevent the head from turning on the handle, and larger at the outside
-of the head than it is at the neck, so that the handle may be firmly
-wedged in the eye or socket. The neck (_d_), by extending upon the
-handle as it does, adds much to the strength of the connection.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35.--MARKING GAUGE IN USE.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36.--CLAW HAMMER.
-
-_a_, the face; _b_, the claws; _c_, the eye; _d_, the neck; _e_, grain
-of neck.]
-
-The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained hickory,
-elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped easily.
-
-The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and the annual
-layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at the end, as at _c_. The
-handle should be fitted and wedged, or “hung” in such a way that a nail
-may be driven home in a flat surface without the knuckles striking,
-which means that the center of the handle should be about parallel with
-the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head through the eye should
-exactly coincide with the long, or major, axis of the ellipse at the
-end of the handle, as at _gg_, or pounded fingers will result.
-
-The _bell-faced_ hammer is to be preferred to the _flat-faced_ type, as
-it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is missed, though more
-skill is required to use it. Upon rough work, the bell-faced hammer
-will sink the nail beneath the surface without bruising the wood badly.
-Upon inside work, the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a
-nail set.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 37.
-
-_a_, toenailing; _b_, tacking.]
-
-(=B.=) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the habit of
-grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, as this will give
-greater force to the blow. Upon light work, the hand will naturally
-slip a little toward the head. Nails should generally be driven in a
-slanting direction, as they hold better than if driven straight. When
-nails are driven as shown at _a_, Fig. 37, it is called “toenailing,”
-and when driven sufficiently to hold, but not driven home, as at _b_,
-they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven this way when they are
-to be pulled out again, as in stay laths, and in fastening pieces
-temporarily.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38.--BLIND NAILING AND USE OF A NAIL SET.]
-
-In forcing matched boards together, do not pound directly upon the
-tongue edge of the board, but upon a waste piece of the same material,
-as the tongue will be bruised so that the next board will not form a
-good joint. Care should be used that the hammer does not strike the
-edge of the board when the nail is driven home. To guard against this,
-a nail set should be used to sink the head beneath the surface, as in
-Fig. 38, so that the next board will come to its place without trouble.
-This is called “blind nailing.”
-
-=35. The hatchet= (=A.=) is used for hewing light work, for shingling;
-and as a heavy hammer, though the face is rarely tempered to stand very
-heavy usage (Fig. 39, _a_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_a_, hatchet; _b_, hand axe.
-
-(For explanation, see text.)]
-
-(=B.=) A _hand axe_, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, _b_), usually is a
-better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of greater weight,
-is better adapted for heavy work. A hatchet or hand axe for general use
-should be sharpened as at _c_; but for hewing only, an edge like _d_
-will give the best results.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 40.--MALLETS.
-
-_a_, square-faced mallet; _b_, round mallet.]
-
-=36. The mallet.=--This tool should be used upon chisel handles, as a
-hammer will destroy the handle in a very short time. Mallets are of two
-shapes, the _square-faced_ (Fig. 40, _a_) and the _round_ mallet (_b_),
-the latter being preferred by many workmen as it will always strike
-a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while the square-faced mallet
-sometimes will miss, and inflict a painful blow upon the hand. In
-general, the handle of a square-faced mallet is round, which allows the
-mallet to turn in the hand; if the handle were made elliptical, like a
-hammer handle, there would be less likelihood of missing the chisel.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 41, _A._ RIPSAW.
-
-_dd_, view and section of setting of teeth.
-
-FIG. 41, _B_. CUTTING-OFF SAW.
-
-FIG. 41, _C_. COMPASS, OR KEYHOLE, SAW.
-
-FIG. 41.--SAWS.
-
-(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in Fig. 41, the set
-of the teeth is exaggerated.)]
-
-=37. Saws.=--(=A.=) The saws used by the carpenter are for cutting
-parallel with, or across, the grain, or a combination of the two, and
-all are composed of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.”
-
-The teeth of a _ripsaw_ (Fig. 41, _A_) are suitable for sawing in a
-direction parallel with the general direction of the grain. The points
-of different saws may be from one third to one seventh of an inch
-apart, and form a series of chisels, the cutting edges of which are
-filed so that they are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In
-action, the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting a little
-deeper than the one preceding it.
-
-The _cutting-off saw_ (Fig. 41, _B_) has from six to twelve
-knife-pointed teeth to an inch, the cutting edges being parallel to the
-sides of the blade, and filed so that the point of the tooth is upon
-the side which is set beyond the side of the blade.
-
-In all except the finest saws, the teeth are set; that is, the points
-are bent a very little in such a way as to make the cut wider than
-the thickness of the blade, so that the saw may cut through the wood
-without binding, which it could not do if the cut were the same
-thickness as the blade. The blades of all high grade saws are thinner
-upon the back than upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used
-upon the finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges
-of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary.
-For general work, it will be found that the saw will be much more
-efficient if it is given a set adapted to the size of the teeth, or to
-the nature of the work it is expected to do.
-
-The _compass_, or _keyhole_, _saw_ (Fig. 41, _C_) is used where it is
-necessary that the saw should cut both with and across the grain. It
-is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off saw, when a cut has
-to be made in the surface of a board. This saw is used also in many
-places where it is not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing
-curves. In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or
-cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and the blade is
-made of soft metal. It may then be given a heavy set, so that it will
-bend instead of breaking or kinking, as it would be liable to do from
-the nature of its work if made of tempered steel.
-
-Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is desirable to carry
-as few tools as possible, have a narrow 20” or 22” saw sharpened like a
-compass saw, which for ordinary work is quite satisfactory as either a
-cutting-off or a ripsaw, thus making another saw unnecessary.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 42.--BACKSAW.]
-
-The _backsaw_ (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is filed like a
-cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather more hook, and it often has
-as many as fifteen teeth to the inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as
-fine as is generally used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of
-the saw, and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the back,
-as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually straighten it.
-
-(=B.=) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon the cutting
-edge than upon the back; this allows the saw to be used upon very fine
-work with little or no setting. See that the handle fits the hand,
-and that the saw hangs to suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter
-concerning the balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be
-described, but which any one accustomed to using tools will miss if a
-tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand.
-
-A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend so that the point
-may be put through the handle, and upon being released, instantly
-resume its shape. It should bend evenly in proportion to the width and
-the gauge of the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the
-blade will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore
-runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being softer, is not expected
-to stand the above test.
-
-A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off saw to be
-used upon coarse work; but for fine work, a 22” blade, commonly known
-as a “panel saw,” is a convenient size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is
-preferred by many workmen.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 43.--USE OF THE SAW.
-
-Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.]
-
-(=C.=) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work most
-workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the teeth of a hard saw
-are apt to break in setting, and its edge, if it comes in contact with
-metal, requires filing just about as quickly as that of a soft saw,
-and is much more difficult to sharpen. If always filed by an expert
-filer, a hard saw is superior in every way to any other.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 44.--RESET SAW HANDLE.]
-
-(=D.=) The handle of the saw should be grasped firmly by three fingers,
-as in Fig. 43, with the forefinger extended along the side, thus
-making more room for the three fingers, and giving better control of
-the saw. Very little strength should be used in forcing a fine saw to
-cut, as its own weight generally is sufficient; if the saw is forced,
-it will not run smoothly, but will bind, and if a thin board is being
-worked, it is apt to split. The saw should be used from the face side
-of the material, so that any splinters or variation will be upon the
-back side and out of sight.
-
-(=E.=) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the handles of
-their heavy saws by drilling holes through the blade so that the handle
-may be fastened as close to the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig.
-44. This brings the force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the
-cut, which obviously allows a more economical application of force.
-Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off the
-trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will be discussed
-later.)
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 45.--KNIFE BLADES.
-
-_A_, used by wood-worker;
-
-_B_, used in manual-training schools.]
-
-=38. The knife blade= used by the wood-worker for general work is
-similar to that shown in Fig. 45, at _A_. That shown at _B_ is the form
-of blade in most common use in manual-training schools, as it is better
-adapted for whittling, its shape assisting the student to some extent
-to prevent the knife from following the grain.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 46.--SECTION OF IRON PLANE.
-
-1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap
-lever; 4_a_, cam; 5, cap screw; 6, frog; 6_a_, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8,
-vertical adjusting nut; 8_a_, vertical adjusting screw; 9, lateral
-adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and
-nut; 14, bolt knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.]
-
-=39. Planes.=--(=A.=) The _plane_ is the most complex, as well as one
-of the most important, tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high
-grade of skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it
-properly.
-
-(=B.=) The only plane in use until recent years had a wooden stock, and
-the iron was adjusted by blows with a hammer; this form of plane has
-changed very little since the first types were invented, as planes of
-ancient times have been found which in all essentials are practically
-the same as those in use to-day.
-
-(=C.=) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and more convenient
-to use, though they will do no better work than the wooden planes of
-our forefathers, which are still preferred by many of the best workmen.
-The face of an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is
-necessary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 47.--RESULT OF USING PLANE WITH IMPROPERLY ADJUSTED
-CAP IRON.]
-
-(=D.=) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, all constructed
-upon the same general principle as the common bench plane which we
-shall discuss later. These planes are adjusted by screws and levers,
-which are very simple, and any one understanding them may easily
-comprehend the more intricate molding or universal planes.
-
-The adjustment of the modern plane may be understood by a careful study
-of Fig. 46 and by comparing it with the plane itself. The “cutter,”
-“iron,” or “bit” (1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the
-tool, and it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency
-of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too far from the edge of
-the iron, and if the cut is made against the grain, the shaving will
-not break before it leads the iron into the wood, as shown in Fig. 47.
-If the cap iron is set somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the
-cutter, according to the wood being planed, it will break the shaving
-nearly as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, and will result in a
-smooth, clean surface. The closer the cap iron is set to the edge, the
-smoother the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby
-made shorter.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 48.--RESULT OF USING PLANE WITH CAP IRON ADJUSTED
-PROPERLY.]
-
-It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron (2) is set
-to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the breaks will be, as in
-Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the plane will cut. The plane “iron
-screw” (3) holds the edge of the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap
-iron (2) in their desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed
-against the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the “cam”
-(4_a_), holds the iron in its place, and presses the cap iron (2)
-firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless the cap iron fits the
-face of the cutter perfectly, the plane will not work satisfactorily.
-The “frog” (6) carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and
-may be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the “mouth”
-(6_a_), which should be no larger than is necessary to allow the
-shavings to pass freely. The frog rarely will require readjusting after
-it has been properly located.
-
-The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) in or out
-simultaneously, which governs the projection, or “set,” of the edge of
-the cutter (1) beyond the face, or “sole” (_b_) of the “plane stock,”
-and thus the thickness of the shaving which the plane will cut. The
-“adjusting nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8_a_) and operates
-the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for the purpose of
-forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of the width of the face
-(b) of the plane. The two “frog screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in
-the position which will make the throat (6_a_) of the desired size.
-
-The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the other parts of
-the plane are as follows: “handle” (11); “knob” (12); “handle bolt” and
-“nut” (13); “knob bolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,”
-or “stock” (16).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 49.--SETTING A PLANE.]
-
-The face, or sole, of the plane (_b_) must be perfectly straight, or
-good work cannot be done. The ends of the plane (_h_ and _t_) are
-called the “heel” and “toe,” respectively. The “mouth” of the plane
-(between 6_a_ and 2) must be kept clear of shavings, or it may become
-clogged.
-
-(=E.=) In setting a plane, do not pass the fingers over the face, or
-sole, as cut fingers may result. Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 49,
-and look toward the light, when the exact projection of the cutter may
-be seen. Notice the position of the fingers of the left hand, and that
-the eye glances from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to
-make the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a plane, and
-in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness should be avoided.
-
-=40. Sharpening a plane.=--(=A.=) An important part of this process
-is _the grinding of the cutter_. Set the cap back about ⅛” from the
-edge of the iron, and use it as a guide by which to grind the iron
-perfectly square, as at _A_, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept
-perfectly square, and never touched except to fit it to the cutter,
-or, if it is too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file
-the top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in order
-skillfully, the cap will need care only upon rare occasions.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 50.--WHETTING AND GRINDING OF PLANE.
-
-(For explanation, see text.)]
-
-The cutter should be held firmly to the grindstone or emery wheel and
-kept moving from side to side to prevent wearing the stone in one
-place. The grinding should all be done upon the beveled side of the
-cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an angle of about 20°
-(as at _B_, Fig. 50), more rather than less, as a thinner edge is apt
-to “chatter,” or vibrate, if it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many
-workmen use a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any device
-which holds the tool firmly at the same place on the stone will do for
-a rest.
-
-In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should be loosened
-and the cap iron carried back until the screw stops at the top of the
-slot of the bit, as at _C_, Fig. 50. The screw is then tightened with
-the fingers to hold the cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the
-iron, though some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while
-whetting.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 51.--WHETTING OR OILSTONING THE BEVELED SIDE OF A
-CUTTER.]
-
-The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the surface of the
-oilstone, as shown at _C_, Fig. 50, the iron being grasped as in Fig.
-51. Keep the right wrist rigid and allow the arm to swing from the
-shoulder, bending only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion
-may be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve the bevel.
-Though the bevel may be maintained better by imparting a short circular
-motion to the plane iron, or to any edge tool which is being sharpened,
-it seems an awkward and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an
-expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds that a stroke made
-nearly the entire length of the stone will impart an edge quicker, and
-after the knack has been acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as
-well.
-
-Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work upon the farther
-end, as in this way the stone may be kept true much longer than if one
-place upon it is used all the time. This will also minimize the danger
-of pulling the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will
-generally make regrinding necessary.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 52.--WHETTING OR OILSTONING THE PLAIN SIDE OF THE
-PLANE IRON.]
-
-When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, or the top of
-the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in Fig. 52, holding it
-down with the fingers of the left hand, using the right hand only
-to move the iron back and forth. Care should be used that under no
-circumstances is the face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from
-the stone. At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care
-is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its perfectly
-straight surface at the edge, as the slightest deviation from absolute
-accuracy at this place will prevent the cap iron from fitting properly,
-which will cause endless trouble, as the shavings will be forced
-between the cap and the face of the iron (see =C.= of this topic).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 53.--SHAPE OF EDGE OF PLANE IRON.]
-
-(=B.=) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter has an
-important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine the edge divided into
-three equal parts: the middle part should be perfectly straight, or
-almost imperceptibly rounded; the two outside thirds should be slightly
-and gradually rounded until the corners of the iron are so short that
-there will be no danger of their projecting below the face of the
-plane. This gives the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 53,
-which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape shown is about that which
-would be seen if a moderately coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49.
-
-(=C.=) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be fitted so
-carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter that, if necessary, it
-may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch from the cutting edge, though
-this would rarely be required except upon very cross-grained wood.
-
-In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very fine, sharp
-file should be used. The filing must all be done upon the under side
-of the cap iron, at the places where it rests upon the face or top of
-the cutter; or, if preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but
-unless there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint is
-perfected by the use of a file, this method is not recommended.
-
-If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be sharpened
-and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01” or less in thickness of
-bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut, ash, or similar wood may be smoothed.
-It is not wise, however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane
-sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a scraper and
-sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most economical way to smooth
-woods of such nature.
-
-(=D.=) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions which
-cause it; simply digging out the shavings is useless. An improperly
-fitted cap iron is one of the principal causes of trouble; the cutter
-may be ground so thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard
-place, the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance
-under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage of a wooden
-plane over the modern iron plane, as in the former the iron is much
-thicker and stiffer. The cap iron may be so thick that it causes the
-shavings to curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the front,
-which will make the mouth too small. This latter may be remedied by
-moving the frog back, but in a wooden plane, the mouth and the throat
-would have to be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear
-themselves properly.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 54.--JACK PLANE.]
-
-=41. The jack plane= (Fig. 54) generally is 15” long, and its ordinary
-use is for the purpose of roughing out a piece of wood for jointing or
-smoothing. If it is properly sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing
-plane, or as a jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as
-good work as any plane.
-
-The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and the cap set
-farther back than in the other planes, especially if it is to be used
-upon rough work.
-
-=42. The jointer.=--(=A.=) This tool is from 20” to 26” long, and is
-used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to fit them together. The
-shape of the edge of the cutter of this plane should be but slightly
-elliptical, less so than the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two
-latter are fitted for doing very fine work.
-
-(=B.=) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, it should
-be carried to one side or the other of its face as may be necessary
-to take advantage of the elliptically shaped edge of the cutter, by
-cutting a shaving thicker on one edge than on the other, thus making
-the edge of the board square with the face side.
-
-To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be made in the center
-of both the iron and the width of the face of the plane. The plane
-should be held as shown in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the
-plane, the tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding
-the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place upon its edge.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 55.--METHOD OF GUIDING A JOINTER.]
-
-=43. The smoothing plane= (=A.=) is of the same type and mechanism as
-those described above, though it is but 9 or 10” long; if satisfactory
-work is expected from it, it must be kept in good order, with the cap
-iron perfectly fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend
-the time to insure that the plane should be continually in readiness
-to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood, as a plane to do the
-latter kind of work well is unnecessary upon softer or straight-grained
-wood. For ordinary work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆”
-from the edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the
-edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer the work
-that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary work is so cross-grained
-or knurly that it cannot be smoothed economically, if a properly
-sharpened and adjusted plane is used.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 56.--KNUCKLE JOINT BLOCK PLANE.]
-
-(=B.=) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly the entire
-width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, elliptically
-shaped edge must be maintained. In using a plane or any kind of cutting
-tool, the direction of the grain of the wood should be carefully
-studied, and every advantage taken of it to facilitate the work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 57.--USE OF THE BLOCK PLANE.
-
-(For explanation, see text.)]
-
-=44. The block plane= (knuckle joint cap, Fig. 56) (=A.=) is
-constructed upon a somewhat different principle than the planes above
-described, as the adjusting nut (_a_) under the cutter at the rear end
-of the plane is raised or lowered to withdraw or advance the bit, and
-thus govern the cut of the tool. The size of the mouth is controlled by
-a movable section of the face at _b_. This plane has no cap iron, as
-the use for which it is intended makes it unnecessary. The block plane
-is used across the end of the wood, at right angles with the general
-direction of the grain. The iron, or cutter, is so placed in the stock
-of the plane that its cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut
-as possible, with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this
-method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to resist the
-chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 58.--USING BLOCK PLANE UPON SMALL PIECES.]
-
-(=B.=) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts from edge to
-edge, or chips will be broken off at the corners; instead, plane from
-each edge, and stop the stroke before the other edge is reached;
-reverse the plane and work from the other direction, as shown at _A_,
-_B_, Fig. 57. Another and workmanlike way of using the block plane upon
-small pieces is shown in Fig. 58. Work from each edge as described
-above, turning the piece over for each stroke. In sharpening the block
-plane iron, the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel
-carefully maintained.
-
-=45. The correct position.=--(=A.=) In using planes or any edge tools,
-a position should be taken which will furnish sufficient resistance to
-the pressure required for making the cut, as the pressure should be
-applied firmly and steadily. With experience, the correct position
-will be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually
-upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness.
-
-(=B.=) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired easily, and the
-young workman should learn to work in as nearly an erect position
-as possible, for if the bending of the shoulders is persisted in, a
-permanent stoop will result. Stand facing the work and clear of the
-bench in order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 59.--INCORRECT USE OF JACK PLANE.]
-
-(=C.=) Do not allow the plane to drop over the end of the board at
-either the beginning or the end of the stroke, as indicated at _A_,
-_B_, Fig. 59. To prevent this, the hand should be kept upon that part
-of the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of the stroke,
-the weight should be upon the front end of the plane, as in Fig. 60,
-and at the end of the stroke upon the rear end, or upon the handle, as
-in Fig. 61. Begin and end each stroke with a lifting motion instead of
-allowing the plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane
-should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump; this is
-caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving heavier than the plane
-should cut, or, if the cap iron is fitted and adjusted properly, by a
-dull iron. A cutter will jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly
-against the frog. In drawing the plane back after making a stroke,
-carry it upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat upon its
-face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as when it is cutting, or
-possibly more.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 60.--BEGINNING THE STROKE WITH A JACK PLANE.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 61.--ENDING THE STROKE WITH A JACK PLANE.]
-
-(=D.=) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is possible,
-and take no more shavings off than is necessary to attain the desired
-results. The young workman should make a study of the grain and the
-peculiarities of the different kinds of lumber upon which he works,
-losing no opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities of
-every available wood.
-
-(=E.=) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, and much is
-often lost, by working with dull tools; tools should be sharpened often
-and thoroughly. This is of the utmost importance, for even with the
-tools in the best possible order, it will require much care and skill
-to do good work.
-
-=46. Chisels.=--(=A.=) Carpenters’ chisels are used for paring and
-mortising; the paring chisel should be light, smoothly finished, and
-ground with a sharper bevel than that used for mortising, for which the
-heaviest chisel is none too strong.
-
-(=B.=) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according to the method by
-which the blade and handle is joined. The tanged firmer chisel (Fig.
-62, _A_) is the older form, and is not so strong as the more recently
-designed socket chisel (_B_). For light work, the tanged chisel is
-preferred by many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it
-is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to catch upon the
-edge of the wood when the tool is used. The beveled-edge chisel (_C_)
-is a favorite tool with pattern makers; and the mortise, or framing
-chisel (_D_), is designed for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of
-one each of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”, 1”,
-1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”.
-
-(=C.=) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called a “slice” or
-“slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon heavy work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 62.--CHISELS.
-
-_A_, tanged firmer chisel; _B_, socket chisel; _C_, beveled-edge
-chisel; _D_, mortise, or framing chisel.]
-
-(=D.=) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard wood and of any
-convenient shape, as these should not be pounded upon. Although they
-are occasionally used for cutting small mortises, it is not a good
-practice unless the tops of the handles are protected by leather or
-fiber tops. Mortising chisels should have handles of the toughest wood
-obtainable, preferably hickory, with leather nailed with small brads
-upon the top to protect the wood. If a leather washer is fastened to
-the handle by a pin or dowel, the wood will in time pound down and the
-leather be broken out and destroyed, while if braided upon the handle,
-the leather may be renewed as often as necessary. An iron ring, or
-ferrule, is used by many to prevent the handle from splitting, but
-this will bruise the face of the mallet. A hammer should never be used
-upon any sort of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly
-destroyed, but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. In fitting
-the handle to the chisel blade, care should be used that they are in
-perfect alignment, as otherwise a sharp blow may break the blade.
-
-(=E.=) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground at an angle
-of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be apt to break upon
-coming in contact with a knot. A paring chisel may be ground as thin as
-20°, as it does not have to stand heavy blows, and a better edge for
-the purpose may thus be obtained. In whetting a chisel, the bevel must
-be carefully maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, like the
-face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to work to a line.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 63.--DRAWSHAVE.]
-
-=47. Gouges= may in general be described in the same way as chisels,
-except that they are curved instead of flat. The terms “inside” and
-“outside,” used in describing them, indicate whether they are ground
-upon the inside or the outside of the curve.
-
-=48. The drawshave= (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting curves, in
-chamfering, and for roughing out work. The patent drawshave, with
-folding handles, is a safer tool to keep in the tool box, as the edge
-is protected, but it is not as satisfactory for general work as the
-ordinary rigid-handled tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood
-should be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands when
-the tool is not in use.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 64.--SPOKESHAVE.]
-
-=49. The spokeshave= (Fig. 64) should not be used in any place where a
-plane can be used, but only upon concave or convex surfaces; when used,
-it maybe either pushed or pulled.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 65.--AUGER BIT.]
-
-=50. Bits= (=A.=) are of many different types, the most common being
-the _auger bit_ (Fig. 65). The use of the “worm” (_a_) is to draw
-the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy pressure upon the bit
-unnecessary. The “lips” (_bb_) make an incision on the wood below the
-cut made by the “cutters” (_cc_), which take the shavings out and into
-the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 66.--CROSS-HANDLED AUGER.]
-
-(=B.=) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that the bit is
-removed before the shavings clog in the twist, which will happen if
-the hole becomes full of shavings which cannot be lifted out. Should
-clogging occur, do not use a great deal of strength in trying to back
-the bit out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull it
-out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient strength
-cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being straight over the center of
-the bit from the “chuck,” not from the head of the bitbrace.
-
-After boring the hole to the desired depth, do not turn the bit
-backward to remove it, as shavings will be left in the hole, but give
-it one turn back to loosen the worm, then turn as though boring the
-hole deeper, lifting under the head of the bitbrace in the meantime, by
-which process the shavings will be lifted out. These bits are numbered
-from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of an inch. Sizes larger than
-these are known as augers.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 67.
-
-_A_, German bit; _B_, twist drill.]
-
-(=C.=) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross handles, as in
-Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient leverage to make the
-bit cut the wood; these are called augers. The form shown is known as a
-“Ford auger.”
-
-(=D.=) The _German bit_ (Fig. 67, _A_) is used for boring small holes
-for screws and nails, and has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our
-forefathers, as its action is much more rapid. Its progression in sizes
-is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds of an inch; this tool is also called a
-_screw bit_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 68.
-
-_A_, extension bit; _B_, center bit.]
-
-(=E.=) The _twist drill_ (Fig. 67, _B_) is a valuable tool; every
-carpenter should own an assortment of twist drills for use in places
-where other bits may come in contact with iron. The sizes range from
-¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds. The round shank drill may be purchased in any size
-up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch.
-
-(=F.=) The _extension bit_ (Fig. 68, _A_) is a very convenient tool
-for boring a hole of any size within certain limits, and is at times
-extremely valuable.
-
-(=G.=) The _center bit_ (Fig. 68, _B_) is often used in boring holes
-through thin material which would be apt to be split if an auger bit
-were used.
-
-(=H.=) In filing an auger bit, it should be held as shown in Fig. 69,
-and a small, fine file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of
-the cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened,
-as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the cutter, be sure
-that its under side back of the cutting edge is filed enough to clear
-the wood after the cutter has entered it.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69.--FILING AN AUGER BIT.]
-
-In doing this, it should be remembered that the bit progresses into
-the wood as it cuts, and unless the under side of the cutter is filed
-properly, it will bear upon the wood beneath it, back of the cutting
-edge, and prevent the bit from advancing. To remedy this, be sure that
-the cutter is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from
-the edge to the beginning of the twist.
-
-(=I.=) If the lips (Fig. 65, _bb_) are filed off, an auger bit bores
-into the end wood easily.
-
-=51. The bitbrace, or stock.=--(=A.=) This tool is used to hold the
-bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn the bit into the wood.
-Bitbraces are made of different sizes, and with different devices for
-holding the “tangs” of the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10”
-swing bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or
-kinds of bits alternately.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 70.--RATCHET BITBRACE.]
-
-(=B.=) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the ordinary brace
-only in the ratchet attachment. It is an indispensable tool to an
-up-to-date workman, as it may be used in many places where an ordinary
-brace would be useless; for general work, however, being heavier, it is
-less convenient than the plain brace.
-
-=52. The Screwdriver= (=A.=) is one of the most important tools in a
-carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of finely tempered steel,
-for if too soft, it will turn over, and if too hard, it will break. The
-edge should be as thick as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to
-have as much strength as possible.
-
-(=B.=) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory as one with
-an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible to obtain as
-good a grip upon the former as upon the latter; a round handle, planed
-flat upon the two opposite sides, is quite commonly used.
-
-(=C.=) _Ratchet screwdrivers_ are useful in many places where it
-is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent quick-action
-screwdrivers on the market which are suitable only for certain kinds
-of light work, as what is gained in speed is lost in power. The
-screwdriver bit is a short screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace;
-it is essential in doing economical work, as screws may be driven much
-more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable on account of its
-greater leverage in driving heavy screws.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 71.
-
-COMPASSES.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 72.
-
-CALIPERS.]
-
-=53. Compasses, or dividers= (Fig. 71), are used to draw circles and
-curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is meant the process
-of fitting a piece of wood to an uneven surface. _Calipers_ (Fig.
-72) are used to measure the outside of a round or oval object. Those
-shown are known as “outside” calipers; “inside” calipers, or those
-used for measuring the inside of a hole, have straight legs. These
-tools ordinarily are not considered a part of a carpenter’s kit, as
-they are generally used upon work requiring more exact measurements.
-Wood-workers’ tools are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than
-16ths of an inch; hence, the ordinary methods of measuring will usually
-give sufficiently accurate results.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 73.
-
-PLIERS.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 74.
-
-NIPPERS.]
-
-=54. Pliers.=--(=A.=) These are indispensable little tools (Fig. 73),
-and every workman should own a pair. Those combining several tools are
-most useful; cheap tools of this sort are usually worthless.
-
-(=B.=) _Nippers_ (Fig. 74) are made to cut wire, but not to pull
-nails. Being tempered for cutting, those of good quality are hard and
-brittle, lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which work
-a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 75.--SCRAPER.
-
-_A_, _B_, handles for scraper; _C_, leather palm; _D_, scraper plane.]
-
-=55. The scraper= is one of the most useful tools in the kit of the
-carpenter who works upon hard wood. This tool may be purchased, or made
-of a very hard saw; it must be of hard, tough steel, or the edge will
-not last. A scraper should be about 3” × 5”, which is a convenient
-size for grasping with the hand. Many workmen make handles for their
-scrapers (Fig. 75, _A_ and _B_), but cabinet makers, and others who
-use them continually, generally prefer to use them without handles.
-If a large surface is to be scraped, it is well to have a handle of a
-leather palm (Fig. 75, _C_). This is a piece of leather of suitable
-size and shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the
-action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed through the hole,
-and the broad part of the palm hangs between the scraper and the thick
-of the hand. For scraping floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, _D_) will
-be found valuable, though if much of this work is to be done, it will
-be the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping
-machines.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 76.--EDGES OF SCRAPERS.
-
-_A_, beveled edge; _B_, square edge.]
-
-=56. Edges.=--There are two forms of edges used in sharpening
-scrapers,--the _square_ and the _beveled_ edge; in sharpening either of
-these, the edge should be filed, whetted, and turned with a burnisher,
-which imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, _A_ and _B_, which
-shows enlarged views of the two forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye
-glances along the edge of a properly sharpened scraper, the edge will
-appear slightly curved; this edge must be given it by filing. After the
-scraper is filed, each corner which is to be turned must be whetted to
-a perfectly keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of sharpening
-a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle with the sides of the
-scraper.
-
-[Illustration: _Front View_
-
-FIG. 77.--ANGLE OF BURNISHER WITH SIDES OF SCRAPER.]
-
-By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing the particles of
-steel which form the corner over so that they will form a wire edge
-which will stand at an angle with the sides of the scraper. When
-the edge has been skillfully turned, it will cut like a very finely
-sharpened and adjusted plane, and will work either with or against the
-grain without tearing the wood.
-
-Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher with the sides of the
-scraper, as at _a_, Fig. 77, and as in Fig. 78, which indicates
-approximately the angle at which it should be held across the edge
-when seen in the view illustrated of either a square or beveled-edge
-scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The stroke must be
-from the bottom, up, as indicated. At _A_, Fig. 79, is shown the top
-view of the burnisher as it makes each of the strokes in turning the
-edge of a square edge scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an
-angle of about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 78.--METHOD OF GRASPING SCRAPER FOR SHARPENING.]
-
-At _B_, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge of a bevel
-edge scraper; the student will notice that the angles are similar to
-those shown at _A_, except that the first stroke is made at nearly the
-same angle as the bevel of the scraper. An edge may often be turned at
-one stroke, and more than three should rarely be necessary. If more
-than three are made, the edge may be turned too far, which is worse
-than not being turned enough. The strokes should be made in the order
-indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; otherwise it
-will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results.
-
-The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this stage of the work
-cannot be described, but can only be discovered by practice. A steady,
-moderate pressure is all that is needed, but care should be used that
-the angle of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This
-will give an edge suitable for common counter or table tops, hardwood
-floors, and similar work, if the skill to use the burnisher properly
-has been acquired.
-
-The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil or with the end of
-the tongue, as this assists it to slide over the edge of the scraper
-without scratching.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 79.--TOP VIEWS OF THE ANGLES OF THE BURNISHER.]
-
-If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different shaped edge
-should be made; it should be whetted to four perfectly square and keen
-corners, each of which will furnish an edge. This is a more difficult
-method of sharpening a scraper, but it gives four edges suitable for
-fine work. The edge should be turned by carrying the burnisher as shown
-at _A_, Fig. 79, making the strokes at the different angles in the
-order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening any scraper, care should
-be used that no strokes are made back of the square, as stroke _bc_ of
-Fig. 80. Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated
-at _a_, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two or three
-strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper.
-
-To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is necessary.
-This tool should be made of the hardest steel, and is often made
-by the workman himself of an old file, ground perfectly smooth and
-polished. Perhaps the most satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of
-the wood-worker may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to
-a handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow chisel or
-gouge may be used, though these are rather clumsy. The burnishers found
-in stores are generally unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft,
-and any steel which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher
-for sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut into it, instead of
-turning over.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ANGLE TO BE AVOIDED IN SHARPENING SCRAPER.]
-
-If satisfactory results are not obtained, there may be several causes:
-the scraper may not be of just the right temper or texture; the
-burnisher may be soft or rough; the edge may not have been turned
-over evenly, or it may have been turned over too far, as indicated in
-an exaggerated way at _a_, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying
-the burnisher around too far, as shown by the line _bc_. This may be
-remedied by using the awl point as shown at _d_, Fig. 81, holding
-the scraper and burnisher in about the same relative positions as
-indicated, guiding the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried
-on the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher its entire
-length. In this way the edge may be turned back to its correct angle,
-when a very light touch in the usual way will generally make the
-desired edge.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 81.--TURNING BACK THE EDGE OF A SCRAPER.]
-
-If either the scraper or the burnisher is not of the right texture,
-throw it away, as it is worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may
-be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge of the scraper is rough,
-it may be turned back again by laying the scraper flat upon the bench,
-the rough side up, and the burnisher passed over it several times; then
-proceed as with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory as
-it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over again, especially
-if the corner has been turned several times.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 82.--METHOD OF GRASPING THE SCRAPER WHEN WORKING
-UPON A BROAD SURFACE.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 83.--METHOD OF GRASPING THE SCRAPER WHEN WORKING
-WITHIN A SMALL AREA.]
-
-Though it may seem from the above explanation of the methods of
-sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex operation, it will be
-seen that it is not a difficult matter, if it is once worked out;
-usually it requires a little time and practice to acquire the knack
-that will make it possible to do it surely and well.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 84.--METHOD OF GRASPING SCRAPER WHEN WORKING UPON
-AN EDGE.]
-
-In using a scraper, it may be grasped as shown in Figs. 82, 83, 84,
-as best suits the work being done, and the strokes should be with the
-grain. In using this tool, as in the use of most others, the easiest
-way generally is the most efficient. As the young workman gains
-experience, he will gradually acquire the correct methods to use his
-tools for all the various purposes within their scope.
-
-=57. Nail sets= are for the purpose of “setting” the nails, or for
-sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to stand the hard usage
-to which they are subjected, they must be very carefully tempered. The
-best form of nail set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as
-it is not so apt to slip off of the head of the nail.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 85.--MONKEY WRENCH.]
-
-=58. Wrenches= are of many kinds and patterns and of every conceivable
-use, but that known as the “monkey,” or “Coe’s,” wrench (Fig. 85)
-is perhaps the most convenient for general work and has not been
-supplanted by any of more recent invention.
-
-=59. Handscrews= (=A.=), if of good material and well made, will stand
-any legitimate use, and if properly used and cared for, will last a
-lifetime. However, a novice or a careless workman often destroys them
-rapidly by allowing the jaws to be under strain while in the position
-shown in Fig. 86, which will probably break the middle screw, and
-perhaps both.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 86.--EFFECT OF THE UNSKILLFUL USE OF A HANDSCREW.]
-
-(=B.=) In using handscrews for gluing, the jaws should be set to nearly
-the size of the material which is to be placed between them, before the
-glue is spread. In placing the handscrews upon the work, the outside
-screw should be turned back so that it will not prevent the jaws from
-being slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. This
-will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the outside
-screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only position in which
-handscrews should be allowed to remain.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 87.--CORRECT USE OF HANDSCREW.]
-
-In opening or closing a handscrew, the middle screw should be held
-in the left hand, and the outside screw in the right, as in Fig. 87;
-the screws should then be grasped so that they will not turn in the
-hand and the handscrew revolved in the desired direction. Never put
-unnecessary strain upon handscrews, nor leave them with a heavy strain
-upon them for a very long time.
-
-If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used than is
-necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work should be glued
-unless the joints fit well. In any case, the outside screw should be
-turned back a quarter or a half a turn after the glue has set; this
-will relieve the strain, and add much to the life of the handscrew.
-
-In gluing work which requires several handscrews to hold it while the
-glue is setting, the handles of the outside screws all should point
-one way, which allows the work to be handled much more easily, as the
-handles of the middle screws will form an even bearing upon the floor.
-If this is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken when
-a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, as the weight of the
-work will rest upon the screws which bear upon the floor.
-
-(=C.=) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be treated with
-beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead mixed with oil or with wax.
-The latter compound is very dirty; the former lubricates the screws
-perfectly. The screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot.
-
-=60.= (=A.=) =A grindstone= of good quality, from 20” to 26” in
-diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and should be used
-frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools is much increased if
-they are kept well ground, and much time may be saved in whetting them.
-
-(=B.=) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true and round,
-and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite satisfactorily
-determined by examining several and selecting the coarsest, as that
-will doubtlessly be a fast cutting stone.
-
-(=C.=) The stone should be carefully centered and mounted upon a frame;
-the face may be kept true by means of a file or other hard steel
-being held against it as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe
-revolved from side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a
-stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made softer and
-heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of true.
-
-(=D.=) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone continually,
-or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead, keep the tool moving
-from side to side. If properly cared for, a stone will hold its face
-indefinitely.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 88.--EMERY WHEEL DRESSER.]
-
-=61. Emery, corundum, carborundum=, and other artificial abrasive
-wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone, as they cut much
-more rapidly. Any one not accustomed to using them must be careful
-that the temper of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a
-high rate of speed, and a tool in unskillful hands is easily burned.
-To avoid this, the tool should be held lightly but firmly against the
-stone, and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery wheel
-burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing; for this purpose a
-diamond emery wheel dresser is the best, but on account of its cost,
-various devices have been patented to accomplish the same result, one
-of which is illustrated in Fig. 88.
-
-=62. Whetstones.=--(=A.=) These are used to give to a tool the keen
-edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The natural stone in most common
-use is the “Washita stone,” which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains,
-and is thought by many to be the best natural stone for the general use
-of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the best quality is
-of even texture.
-
-(=B.=) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is finer and
-harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive, however, and is
-better adapted to the use of woodcarvers and engravers than to the use
-of wood-workers in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the
-best of the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by its
-use. There are other natural stones, but none so generally used as the
-above. The purchase of a natural stone is to a great extent a lottery,
-as only about one stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free
-from cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities.
-
-(=C.=) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper upon
-a board, and rub the stone over it until it has been ground down. The
-best place, however, to true up a whetstone is upon the horizontal
-stone of a marble worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in
-diameter, mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed pieces of
-marble to be ground to a flat surface.
-
-(=D.=) _Artificial oilstones_, made of emery, corundum, carborundum,
-and other artificial abrasives, are coming rapidly into use, and, as in
-the case of grindstones, eventually will supplant all others in many
-occupations, as they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of
-any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. They are
-also able to resist many accidents which would destroy a natural stone.
-
-(=E.=) _Slip stones_ are used to sharpen gouges and curved tools of all
-kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. An oblong stone, 8” × 2”
-× 1”, is the size of stone in most general use by the wood-worker, and
-should be fitted into a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it
-clean. It may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman,
-though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set on its edge.
-
-(=F.=) The use of the oilstone is described under topic =40, A.= The
-oil used should be a kind that will not gum; its purpose is to prevent
-the glassiness which is caused by the friction of the tool over the
-stone. Common machine oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and
-kerosene, or coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil
-suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils will give
-satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone cleaner, thereby
-adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose lubricates quite as well
-as any of those above-mentioned.
-
-=63.= (=A.=) =Files= are used for many purposes by wood-workers. An
-assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper, or three-cornered,
-files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files; 8”, 10”, and 12” round
-files; and 8” and 12” half round wood files and rasps should be in
-every carpenter’s kit. The 4” slim taper files should be used upon the
-finer saws, and the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are
-used by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it is necessary
-to have a few warding and knife files to use upon keys and odd jobs,
-and also to sharpen bits.
-
-Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and for every
-purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to stand lead or soft brass,
-and should never be used upon anything harder.
-
-In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow it to drag, as it
-is injured thereby about as much as when it is cutting.
-
-(=B.=) There are a great many other tools and appliances used by
-the wood-worker with which the workman should be familiar, but it
-is not necessary to describe them, as the above-mentioned are the
-most essential tools common to all forms of woodworking. There is no
-important principle involved in the construction, care, and use of
-woodworking tools which is not discussed in this chapter, and the
-student who becomes thoroughly familiar with the matter treated will
-have little trouble in learning to handle other tools.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 89.--JOINTING A SAW.]
-
-=64. Saw filing.=--(=A.=) This is an accomplishment which every young
-wood-worker should master, as its possession will save expense and
-inconvenience, and add much to his efficiency as a workman.
-
-(=B.=) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine the edge
-carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length; if they are
-not, they should be jointed. This is done by using a flat file held
-perfectly square in a block, as shown in Fig. 89. One or two light
-strokes usually will be enough to make all the teeth of the same
-length. The edge of the saw should round slightly in the middle, say
-about ⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, it
-should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little at each time
-for several filings.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HAND SAW SET.]
-
-(=C.=) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly set. This
-may be done by a _saw set_, of which there are several patterns in use;
-these are all of two types, the _hand set_ (Fig. 90), and the _anvil
-set_ (Fig. 91). Either of these forms is efficient, but as it is more
-convenient, the hand set is more commonly used. Do not give the saw too
-much set, or it will not cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly
-on the back side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking
-the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must be applied.
-The point of the teeth only should be set, and care should be used that
-the blade of the saw is not sprung, which will be apt to result from
-setting the teeth too far from the point.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 91.--ANVIL SAW SET.]
-
-A saw to be used upon green lumber should have coarser teeth and more
-set than one which is to be used upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A
-panel saw intended for use upon fine finishing work usually is ground
-so thin upon the back that it needs little or no set. Some workmen set
-a saw so heavily that it will do for several filings; while this is
-satisfactory for a soft saw to be used upon common work, it is not a
-good plan to treat a fine, hard saw this way, though the latter may be
-touched up once or twice.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 92.--ANGLE OF THE FILE WITH THE EDGE OF THE SAW.]
-
-(=D.=) In filing, it is important that the file should be carried at
-the same angle the entire length of both sides of the blade. For a
-cutting-off saw, the file should be carried at an angle with the side
-of the blade of from 60° for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown
-in Fig. 92; and for general work, at an angle about halfway between the
-two. The file may be carried horizontally, as at _aa_, Fig. 93, which
-makes all the teeth of the same size; as at _A_, Fig. 94; or it may be
-carried as at _bb_, Fig. 93, which will make the teeth of the shape
-shown at _B_, Fig. 94. The latter method is preferred by many workmen,
-as it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening its life a
-little. There is no difference in the efficiency of the saws filed by
-these methods, but if filed as at _bb_, Fig. 93, it is more difficult
-to keep the teeth of the same size, and to make a good-looking job.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 93.--ANGLE OF THE FILE WITH THE SIDES OF THE SAW.]
-
-In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be held more or
-less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according to the hook which it is
-desired that the teeth shall have. The more hook a saw has, the faster
-it will cut, but the cut will be rougher in proportion. Experience is
-necessary to discover just the right angles at which the file should be
-held; after considerable practice, the file will naturally drop into
-the correct position.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 94.--RESULTS OF FILINGS AS AT _aa_ AND _bb_, FIG.
-93.]
-
-File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect point, one
-half of the filing being done from each side; file the entire length
-from one side, then reverse the saw and file from the other side. This
-cannot always be the exclusive practice if a saw is in very bad shape,
-because if the teeth are of uneven sizes, care must be used, and more
-filed from some teeth than from others. It may, in such a case, be
-necessary to go over the saw two or three times, but it should be done
-very carefully, so that the bevel of the teeth may be preserved and
-their length kept the same. Observe each tooth, and press toward the
-point or the handle of the saw, as may be necessary. The file should be
-carried with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting
-or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of the saw, and the
-back of the tooth next ahead on the nearer side with the same stroke.
-If the point of the saw is carried toward the handle of the saw, it
-makes the teeth chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It
-also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life of a file,
-as the continuous chatter against its teeth will soon break them, and
-destroy the file.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 95.--METHOD OF CARRYING A FILE TO OBTAIN THE HOOK
-OF A CUTTING-OFF SAW.]
-
-A ripsaw requires more set than a cutting-off saw, and if, as usual,
-the file is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may be
-filed from one side.
-
-After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly flat surface,
-and given a light touch with a flat file or a whetstone, to remove the
-burr caused by the file, as in Fig. 96.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 96.--REMOVING THE BURR AFTER FILING A SAW.]
-
-The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination of the rip- and
-the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of both as occasion requires.
-The teeth should be nearly as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the
-front teeth filed at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In
-filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a little lower
-than horizontal. Figure 41, _C_, shows three views of the teeth of a
-compass saw.
-
-
- SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
-
- 27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a good,
- serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially for
- some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to follow in
- buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?
-
- 28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.
-
- 29. Describe the rule in common use.
-
- 30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be used
- in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?
-
- 31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.
-
- 32. Describe the bevel and its use.
-
- 33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the gauge be
- depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is useful?
-
- 34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly
- tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened
- to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. How
- should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that they will
- hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or
- matched boards? How and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint
- surface?
-
- 35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening a
- hatchet.
-
- 36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare two
- forms of mallets.
-
- 37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw.
- After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a
- cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of both?
- For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are other
- saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the backsaw.
- How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What kind of saw
- is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the back of a saw
- compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? What test
- should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What are the
- best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard and a
- medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much force should be
- used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the handles of their saws
- to make the saws run more easily?
-
- 38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why is the
- form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for
- whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?
-
- 39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe the
- mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be the
- condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so that
- one may see the adjustment of the cutter?
-
- 40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may a
- grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side of
- the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be
- ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where should
- the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the bit be
- held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm while
- whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly?
- What motion should be avoided in whetting? What is the correct shape
- of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the cap iron? What is
- apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?
-
- 41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way does the
- edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?
-
- 42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What
- should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should
- a plane be carried to joint an edge square?
-
- 43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be the
- position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How should
- edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?
-
- 44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the
- above planes.
-
- 45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any
- sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders?
- What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the
- strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull tools? How
- should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?
-
- 46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities
- and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should
- a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why?
- Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the
- paring and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a
- slice, or slick?
-
- 47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and an
- outside gouge?
-
- 48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility of
- the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the edge of
- a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?
-
- 49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.
-
- 50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the different
- parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging of a
- bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, how should
- it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German bit; of a
- twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe the method
- of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part of a bit should never be
- filed? Why?
-
- 51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the ratchet
- brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?
-
- 52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a
- screwdriver? What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value
- of a screwdriver bit?
-
- 53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.
-
- 54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use?
- Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?
-
- 55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper?
- Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.
-
- 56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for rough
- work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when the edge of
- the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is not
- sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to the
- grain?
-
- 57. Describe the best form of nail set.
-
- 58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?
-
- 59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position
- of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How should
- handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?
-
- 60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should a
- grindstone be trued?
-
- 61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be guarded
- against in the use of an emery wheel?
-
- 62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is
- commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the two kinds.
- How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming into use?
- Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways. What
- forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of oils are used for
- oil or whetstones?
-
- 63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files
- generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.
-
- 64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of the
- cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate the
- process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and
- fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be
- carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying
- the file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle
- with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a
- ripsaw? If the saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to
- bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time? What
- should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting?
- Compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare
- the teeth of the compass saw with those of others.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V
-
-GLUE AND SANDPAPER
-
-
-65. DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLUE.--(=A.=) Wood-workers use both _liquid_
-and _sheet_ or _stick_ glue, but as the former requires little skill
-in its use, we will deal principally with the latter, which is made of
-hides, sinews, bones, and waste material of slaughterhouses. Different
-grades of glue are made of various kinds of refuse, but the processes
-of treating them all are similar.
-
-(=B.=) The material from which glue is to be made is steeped in lime
-water at low temperature, or subjected to a chemical treatment for a
-sufficient time to separate the fat from the fiber. The latter is then
-washed in clean water and boiled down to gelatin, which is spread upon
-wires to dry and harden, when it is ready for use.
-
-(=C.=) _Ground glue_ makes up more readily than that which comes in
-sheets, and therefore is preferred by many workmen. It is frequently
-adulterated, but if made upon honor, it is as good as the glue from
-which it is made, and does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time
-in a damp place. As it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground
-glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks, many workmen
-prefer not to use it unless sure of its quality.
-
-(=D.=) The highest-priced glue is not always the best for all purposes,
-and a dealer who handles different grades can generally advise which
-should be used, though the medium grade in common use is usually
-satisfactory for general work.
-
-(=E.=) It is impossible to give infallible rules for testing glue in
-the stick, or to say that glue should be of any special color, or
-that it should be either transparent or opaque; but, in general, glue
-suitable for ordinary work will be of a reddish, yellowish, or light
-brownish color, clear and transparent, and not offensive to either
-taste or smell, though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely
-opaque. Good glue will swell in cold water, but will not dissolve until
-it has nearly reached the boiling point. It will also absorb more water
-than will poor glue, and is therefore more economical. Any test which
-depends upon the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable, as
-a somewhat damp, good glue will not stand this test as well as a poor
-glue that is very dry. If conditions are the same, and comparison is
-possible, it is fairly safe to assume that if a good glue is cut with
-a sharp knife, a hard, elastic shaving will result, while a poor glue
-will give a shaving which is extremely brittle, and will break into
-little pieces.
-
-A safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces of the same
-kind of wood, 1” square and about 12” long, fit them perfectly end to
-end in pairs, and glue as many of them together as there are samples of
-glue to be tested. After the glue is thoroughly hard, clamp one of the
-pieces of each pair to a bench top, with the joint coinciding with the
-edge. Hang a pail about 10” from the joint on the piece which projects
-over the edge of the bench, and allow sand to run into it slowly, until
-the joint breaks. Repeat this process with each pair which has been
-glued up, and the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will
-furnish a basis of comparison between the different varieties of glue
-tested.
-
-(=F.=) Glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water before being
-put into a glue pot, which should be a double vessel, with the glue
-in the inside pot, and the hot water or steam in the outer jacket. In
-making up glue, it should be brought to the boiling point until melted,
-and then removed from the heat, for if kept continually hot, it loses
-much of its strength by being cooked too much, as this makes continual
-thinning necessary.
-
-If time will not permit, the preliminary soaking may be dispensed with,
-and the hard glue put at once in the hot water, in which case it must
-be stirred frequently while melting, or it will form a mass. If the
-water boils out of the outside kettle, and the glue burns, throw it
-away, as it is worthless.
-
-Glue should be thinned with cold water, after which it should be
-allowed to become thoroughly heated before using; in the shops, this is
-not always done, as there may not be time to allow the glue to become
-heated again; therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue
-with hot water.
-
-(=G.=) Paint brushes, or other brushes in which the bristles are set in
-glue, are not suitable for use in hot glue, and those made especially
-for this purpose should be purchased. For very small brushes, a strip
-of basswood bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from the
-end; these are satisfactory for small work.
-
-=66. How to use glue.=--(=A.=) Glue should be used as hot as possible,
-and of about the consistency of cream. The pieces to be glued should
-be heated thoroughly and the gluing done in a warm room.
-
-(=B.=) In factories, where it is possible, the gluing is done in a
-specially fitted room which contains all necessary appliances. Vertical
-and horizontal coils of steam pipes surround the room, both to furnish
-heat for the room, and for the purpose of heating the material to be
-glued, which should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for
-more than a few seconds. In a room of this sort, the temperature is
-maintained at from 110° to 130° F.
-
-(=C.=) If the best possible results are wanted, a _scratch plane_
-should be used. This is a tool similar to a smoother, only its cutter
-is nearly vertical, and it has teeth like a fine saw which will scratch
-the wood, thus giving a better hold for the glue.
-
-(=D.=) It is important that all clamps, handscrews, and other
-appliances which are likely to be needed should be set as nearly as
-possible the desired size, and so arranged as to be reached easily, for
-when the glue is applied, there should not be the slightest hesitation
-or delay in getting the work together and the clamps on. The utmost
-speed and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot glue;
-therefore everything during the process of the work should be foreseen
-and provision made for it before the glue is applied, for if the glue
-is even slightly chilled, the work will not be so well done, and the
-efficiency of the glue will be greatly diminished. A novice should
-never attempt more than the simplest work, unless working with a
-competent man.
-
-(=E.=) The glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with a brush of
-suitable size,--a large one for broad surfaces and a small one for
-small work. Glue should not be thrown about wastefully; enough should
-be used to cover the surface completely but not thickly.
-
-(=F.=) In using handscrews, it is of the greatest importance that the
-jaws be kept parallel as described in Topic =59=; care must be used
-that more strain is not placed upon the handscrews and clamps than is
-necessary to bring the joint together.
-
-(=G.=) Cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in furniture
-repairing, gluing up intricate work, and in places where it is
-impracticable to use hot glue either on account of its setting too
-rapidly, or where heat is not available. Liquid glue does not hold as
-well nor as permanently as hot glue when properly used, but for many
-kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory.
-
-(=H.=) In gluing rosewood, or other woods of a greasy nature, the glue
-should be thinned with vinegar, which will cut the grease. Another
-method of making glue hold on wood of this sort is to chalk both
-members of the joint thoroughly, and let it stand for two or three
-hours, when it should be wiped off. This absorbs the grease on the
-surface of the wood, which allows the glue to take hold. In all gluing,
-do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint any more than necessary,
-as the grease and perspiration will prevent the best results from being
-obtained.
-
-=67. The testing of sandpaper.=--(=A.=) Sandpaper is made by covering
-paper with a thin layer of glue, over which is spread evenly a layer
-of ground flint or glass; over this is spread another coating of glue,
-which firmly fastens the sand to the paper.
-
-(=B.=) In buying sandpaper, pass the finger over it to see if the
-sand is firmly fastened. Be sure that the paper is neither flimsy nor
-brittle. Coarse particles of sand are sometimes found upon sandpaper
-which renders it worthless; these can be detected only by use, unless
-they are very prominent.
-
-=68. How to use sandpaper.=--(=A.=) Sandpaper is made in numbers,
-00, 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3. Numbers 00 and 0 are very fine, and are
-used in rubbing down shellac and varnish. Numbers ½ and 1 are used in
-sandpapering mahogany and other fancy woods, and number 1½ is used upon
-all building finish but the finest; the coarser numbers are used upon
-floors, outside finish, and other coarse work which is to be painted,
-though for a very nice floor, 1½ is used, rarely anything finer. It is
-a fallacy to think that the finer the sandpaper used, the finer the
-job will be, since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make a
-glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like the rest of
-the work. Sandpapering is as apt to detract from the work as it is to
-improve it, for unless used very skillfully, the character of angles
-and small surfaces will be changed, though it may seem that the damage
-is so slight as to be imperceptible. In using sandpaper, the workman
-should guard against rounding off square corners or destroying the form
-of surfaces; a raw corner, however, should be removed with a few light,
-careful strokes, as a perfectly sharp corner will always be more or
-less ragged.
-
-_The one who knows_ will always notice the omissions of details of
-this sort, and will attribute such imperfections to lack of skill or
-knowledge on the part of the workman. It is for the one who knows,
-that all work should be done--not for the casual observer--and these
-apparently insignificant details, rather than the part of the work
-which may seem of more importance, form the basis by which one workman
-judges the work of another. In nothing do small things count more than
-in making or destroying a workman’s reputation.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 97.--USE OF SANDPAPER UPON A BROAD SURFACE.]
-
-(=B.=) Keep the sandpaper dry, and stored in a dry place, as moisture
-softens the glue so that the sand may be easily rubbed off. In handling
-sandpaper, care should be taken that the sanded sides are not rubbed
-together.
-
-(=C.=) In preparing to sandpaper a flat surface, or for general work, a
-sheet of sandpaper should be torn in halves the short way of the paper,
-and one half should be folded back to back, and held (not tacked)
-around the block with the hand, as in Fig. 97. The act of grasping the
-block for the work will hold the sandpaper, and any device for holding
-the sandpaper on the block is worthless, being considered by the
-workman as a mark of the novice. The block should be about 3” × 4” ×
-⅞”, and may be made of wood, cork, fiber, or any material which suits
-the taste of the workman.
-
-If there is much sandpapering of moldings to be done, it is best to
-make blocks which will fit the contour of them, as it is very hard on
-the hands to do this work for very long at a time, though nothing has
-ever been invented which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers. A
-piece of sandpaper _should never be used on a piece of work until all
-the cutting by edge tools has been done_, as the particles of sand will
-enter the grain of the wood, and any edge tools used upon it afterward
-will be quickly dulled. Do not use a piece of sandpaper so large that
-any part of it will not be under perfect control, as loose ends will
-scratch the wood, and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appearance.
-Always work parallel with the grain, and be sure that all plane marks
-and rough places are thoroughly rubbed down. In order to do this well,
-it is often necessary to use considerable muscle. This part of the work
-calls for good judgment, for unless sandpapered enough, there will be
-places which will show when the finish is spread on the work, though
-they may have been invisible before. No one can tell as well as the
-workman himself when sufficient sandpapering has been done, though it
-may be evident to any one who knows the signs whether or not the work
-has been done judiciously. Upon a coarse job it is usually allowable,
-and sometimes desirable, to sandpaper across the grain, especially if
-the work is to be painted.
-
-In order to impress it upon the student, we will repeat that _too much
-care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper_, for much oftener will an
-amateur injure a piece of work than improve it.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 98.--SANDPAPERING PANEL WORK.
-
-(For explanation, see text.)]
-
-(=D.=) In sandpapering panel work, as in Fig. 98, the panels (_a_)
-should be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered, and the edges of the
-stiles (_b_), rails (_d_), and muntins (_e_) should be treated the
-same way before the panel work is put together; an exception to this
-in regard to the panels may be made if the panel frame is constructed
-in such a way as to allow the panels to be put in place after it is
-together, in which case the panels may be smoothed at any time. Upon
-very fine work the panels are sometimes polished before being put in
-place, as it is difficult for the finisher to work into the corners
-after the panels are in place. After the faces of the stiles, rails,
-and muntins have been planed and scraped, they should be sandpapered
-in the order named, working with the sandpaper over a sharp-cornered
-block close to the edges of the pieces, being careful not to drag the
-paper over the face of the pieces which join at right angles. The
-stiles, rails, and muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which
-they are mentioned. If the sandpaper runs over the rails a little when
-sandpapering the muntins, or over the stiles when sanding the rails, it
-will do no harm, as a couple of light, careful strokes parallel with
-the grain will be sufficient to remove any scratches which may be made.
-
-In sanding mahogany, or any wood of which the grain rubs up, make the
-strokes in one direction only, instead of back and forth. Sometimes wax
-is rubbed in to hold the grain down upon cheap work, but this is not
-recommended, as that place will not take the stain or the finish like
-the rest of the wood. A very thin coat of shellac is used for the same
-purpose; this is less objectionable, but should be avoided if possible.
-
-
- SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
-
- 65. Of what material is glue made? Describe briefly the process of
- making glue. What kind of glue is best for general work? Is ground
- glue always reliable? What is the chief advantage in its use? Is
- high-priced glue always the best for all purposes? What should be the
- appearance of good glue? How should it act in cold water? When cut
- with a knife? When broken? Compare the amount of water absorbed by a
- good and a poor glue. How should a glue pot be constructed? What will
- be the result if the glue pot boils dry? Describe brushes suitable for
- use in gluing. What kind of bark makes a good brush for small work?
- How is it prepared for use?
-
- 66. Describe the condition of glue when ready for use. What tool is
- used to increase the strength of the joint? In preparing for gluing,
- what preparations should be made? How should wood be treated for use
- in gluing up wood of a greasy nature?
-
- 67. Describe the manufacture of sandpaper. What is used for sand? How
- select sandpaper?
-
- 68. For what kind of work is sandpaper numbers 00 and 0 used? Numbers
- 1/2 and 1? What number of sandpaper is used upon general work? What
- will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place, or becomes
- wet? What should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used upon flat
- surfaces, and for general work? How should moldings be sandpapered?
- What should be guarded against in working around sharp corners? Should
- sandpaper be carried with or across the grain? What exceptions? How
- should panel work be sandpapered? How should panels and the edges of
- stiles, rails, and muntins be treated before gluing up? How should
- sandpaper be used upon grain which rubs up? How are panels sometimes
- treated upon fine work? Why?
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI
-
-WOOD FINISHING
-
-
-=69. Filling.=--(=A.=) After wood has been smoothed and made ready to
-receive the finish, it is prepared by _filling_, by which is meant
-the process of filling the grain so that the finish itself will not
-soak in. This, if well done, makes it possible to do as good a job of
-finishing with two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of
-wood with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open-grained
-woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need filling, as before the
-process of filling was discovered, the open grain, or cellular part of
-the wood, had to be filled by shellac, or other expensive material,
-before there was a surface suitable to receive the polish. (=B.=)
-There are two forms of filler--_the paste_, which is for use upon
-open-grained woods, and _the liquid_, which is adapted to filling the
-pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry, etc., and which
-takes the place of one coat of the more expensive shellac or other
-finish. The paste may be purchased ready-made, and colored to suit the
-taste, or it may be made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and
-any dry colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingredients
-should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed with boiled linseed oil to
-a thick paste; to this should be added as much japan drier as there
-is of the oil, or one quarter as much as there is of the paste. The
-whole may then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene to
-a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily, but it should
-still be quite thick.
-
-(=C.=) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the surface of
-the wood must be covered, and the filling thoroughly worked into the
-grain. After this has been done, the wood should be allowed to stand
-a few minutes, until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems
-to stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when it should
-be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing across the grain
-wherever possible. Do not use cloth until cleaning up after the filler
-is all off, as it is more apt to take the filling out of the grain than
-either excelsior or shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a
-sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several hours, or
-over night, before the finish is applied, as otherwise the moisture in
-the filler may cause the finish to bubble. Care should be used that
-the filling does not stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be
-very difficult to remove it; hence, it is best not to spread any more
-than can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that there
-is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is applied, as it is
-difficult to match colors.
-
-(=D.=) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and as evenly as
-possible, as the laps will be apt to show through the finish which is
-spread over it.
-
-=70. Staining wood= (=A.=) is for the purpose of imparting some other
-than the natural color to the wood.
-
-(=B.=) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is used which
-will color the wood before it is filled, though upon general work, it
-is the custom to color the stain only. This does not make the work all
-of one color, as the cells of the wood will retain more filling than
-will the harder part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain
-may be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is being treated,
-it should be filled after being stained. Close-grained woods are ready
-for the finish as soon as the stain has dried. Stains which will do the
-work satisfactorily may be made of various chemicals. There are also
-many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can be purchased in as
-small packages as desired, offering the student a large range of colors
-from which to select.
-
-(=C.=) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by mixing dry colors
-with turpentine or benzine, and a little boiled oil and japan to bind
-the color. These stains should be applied the same as the filler, but
-not allowed to become so hard before cleaning off, or there will be
-light places rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should
-be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are no places
-left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the finish will make them
-muddy.
-
-(=D.=) A very good _old cherry_ stain may be made by mixing Venetian
-red and rose pink until the desired shade is produced.
-
-(=E.=) _Black walnut_ may be imitated by mixing burnt umber with
-turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish tinge is desired, a little
-burnt sienna may be added; this is a much better color than can be
-produced by umber alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes
-a good walnut stain.
-
-(=F.=) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as a vehicle, as
-a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained which is impossible
-with any stain that has oil in it. The objection to using water is that
-the grain of the wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded
-smooth before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection,
-water stains are used extensively upon the best work.
-
-(=G.=) The rich mahogany stain which is so much admired may be made
-by mixing the same colors as mentioned in (=D.=), and adding carmine
-until the desired color is obtained. An oil stain will not give the
-best results, therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of
-gum arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or less of
-the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion of mucilage. This
-stain should be cleaned off the same as the oil stain above described.
-
-(=H.=) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid; other woods may
-be darkened or aged by using ammonia, potash, or a strong solution of
-tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives
-a beautiful brown.
-
-(=I.=) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts of
-permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dissolved in water; as
-many coats as desired may be applied, sanding with number 00 sandpaper
-between the coats. Better results are obtained if the stain is applied
-hot.
-
-(=J.=) A beautiful green of any intensity may be produced by mixing
-verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and applying hot. Several coats
-may be necessary, sanding between the coats. The indigo should be used
-cautiously, or the green may have too much of a bluish cast.
-
-(=K.=) A rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution of
-logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied in coats in the
-order named. Each solution should be hot.
-
-(=L.=) _Ebony_ may be obtained by giving any close-grained wood, cherry
-preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using a weak solution, and after
-that has dried and been sanded, a coat of solution of nutgalls. If
-the iron is too strong, a white efflorescence will appear, which in
-open-grained woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this
-is objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler.
-
-(=M.=) _Shellac_ (see =71, A.=) and boneblack, if well mixed, make
-an ebony finish which is often used upon common work; black varnish
-sometimes is used the same as black shellac, but for the best work
-these are not satisfactory, as they do not strike into the wood to the
-same extent as do acid, turpentine, or water stain.
-
-=71. Shellac.=--(=A.=) This is a product of Africa and South America.
-It is the combination of a secretion of the female of a small insect
-and the sap of a tree, in the bark of which the insect deposits its
-eggs. The gum thus formed is gathered, and after passing through
-various refining processes becomes the shellac known to commerce. It
-is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol, when it is ready
-for use. Some of the best furniture is finished with shellac, and
-unless continuously exposed to moisture or hard usage, the finish is
-practically everlasting.
-
-(=B.=) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable to, neither
-does its luster dim by exposure to the various gases present in every
-house, which are due to domestic causes, though most varnishes will do
-this after some years.
-
-Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satisfactory, though
-three coats generally will improve the work sufficiently to make it
-advisable to apply the extra coat. Shellac should not be laid in too
-thick coats, or it will pit badly in drying, and make work in rubbing
-to a surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are spread,
-though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying thin coats is that
-the wood may be covered more evenly, and there will be fewer runs and
-laps visible. Shellac should always be laid with quick strokes, never
-working over a place already covered; for this work, use a brush as
-large as possible to do the work without clumsiness.
-
-(=C.=) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the other,
-each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sandpaper, or with
-pulverized pumice stone before the next coat is spread. For this
-purpose, a sheet of sandpaper should be cut into eighths, and one of
-these pieces folded in the center of its long dimension, and held in
-the hand as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching the
-surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a surface with
-pumice stone, it should be applied with hair-cloth, or with harness
-maker’s felt, moistened with oil or water; but for ordinary work,
-sandpaper will give satisfaction, and as it is more convenient, it is
-much used.
-
-If the best results are desired, the last coat should be rubbed with
-pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above, though boiled oil is
-satisfactory; and for ordinary work, number 00 sandpaper is used,
-though it is liable to show scratches. After the rubbing is done, the
-oil should be wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone
-dusted on and polished with a clean, soft cloth. Many finishers use the
-palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches. If a dead, or
-mat, finish is desired, the final rubbing should be done with water,
-used sparingly, as oil imparts a high gloss, if the work is well done.
-
-(=D.=) Care should be used on any kind of work upon which waste or oily
-rags are used; these rags should be gathered and burned unless they are
-wanted again soon, in which case they may be spread out separately;
-since, if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into a waste
-box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a case of spontaneous
-combustion.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 99.--METHOD OF GRASPING SANDPAPER IN RUBBING DOWN
-SHELLAC FINISH.]
-
-(=E.=) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all kinds is
-very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of a rubbed finish.
-Moreover, any dust settling upon moist varnish is held, giving the
-surface an effect of countless minute points; rubbing removes these,
-and gives the smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon the
-most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of a built-up
-polish, is not considered good taste; the use of muscle and a very
-little oil, applied at intervals during a term of years, gives a polish
-and a beauty which can be obtained by no other method, and it is to
-attain this ideal in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist.
-
-(=F.=) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed through, as
-the pressure will naturally be more upon the corners than upon a broad
-surface. This may be avoided by using care that the pressure is not
-applied so as to bear on the corner; grasp the rubbing material in such
-a way that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99, or the
-finish may be badly scratched; this applies especially to the corners.
-The rubbing should always be in the direction parallel with the grain
-of the wood.
-
-(=G.=) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it may be
-repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare wood with fine
-sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to the same condition as the
-rest of the wood before the first coat of finish was applied. Using
-the same finishing material as the finish of the rest of the piece,
-lay a very thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched,
-being careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This ridge may
-be drawn out by a small camel’s-hair brush, and the patch left until
-thoroughly dried; then apply another patch a little larger than the
-first one, treating the edge as in the first patch. Continue this until
-the finish is built up to the same thickness as that of which it is
-a part. This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the same
-finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to rub through the
-old finish at the edge of the patch. As it is the corners which are
-most liable to be rubbed through, this process will not generally be
-difficult of application; all that is necessary to secure a successful
-patch is to use care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the
-different patches.
-
-=72. Wax finishing= is a good method of finishing any kind of hard
-or dark-colored wood; (=A.=) it does not give as satisfactory
-results, however, as do some other methods of finishing, upon soft
-or light-colored wood. There are a number of different kinds of wax
-finishes which can be purchased in almost any desired quantity, (=B.=)
-but an economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by dissolving
-as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on a cent in a half pint
-of turpentine or gasolene heated in a water or steam double vessel.
-After this is clear, cut up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a
-thimble, and allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when
-it is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities by using
-the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight vessel, it will keep
-indefinitely.
-
-(=C.=) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as smoothly and
-as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand until it has become quite
-hard, when it should be polished with a soft rag which is free from
-lint. As many coats as desired may be applied, each coat being treated
-in the same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another method
-of applying this finish, and which gives satisfactory results upon
-broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag, and rub the wax on the wood,
-rubbing until it is dry. This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a
-brush upon work where there are many corners to finish around.
-
-One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may be brightened
-if it becomes dim by going over it with a soft cloth, or it may be
-renewed and improved by another coat at slight expense and little
-trouble.
-
-This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor made of a
-wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed.
-
-=73.= (=A.=) =Oil finish= is perhaps the most simple way to finish
-a piece of furniture; it is best adapted to hard, dark woods. The
-material is made by mixing a quarter of a pint of turpentine with seven
-eighths of a quart of boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly
-over the surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it
-as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should be brought
-to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle, as the finish should
-stand about ten hours, during which time a thin film or skin will form,
-which must be removed by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint,
-should be used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave
-their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain.
-
-(=B.=) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken care of, and
-is used to some extent in finishing the most artistic furniture, being
-especially adapted to finishing mahogany. It has a character peculiarly
-its own, and exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost
-any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally oiled, it
-improves with age and care. This finish was used in olden times, and
-the care of generations gives a polish attainable by no other method.
-
-=74. Varnish= forms the finish which is used most commonly upon all
-grades and kinds of work. (=A.=) The different grades are made of
-various vegetable gums and resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with
-boiled oil. A cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling
-resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums may be treated
-the same way; the varnish used upon the best work, for instance, is
-made from copal, a vegetable product of the tropics. By a very careful
-process of boiling, straining, and ripening, extending over months,
-copal is made into the product which is used so extensively upon
-furniture finishing, carriages, etc.
-
-(=B.=) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to about 80° F., the
-dust should be laid by sprinkling, and there should be no drafts of
-air, nor flies or other insects to light upon it, if the best results
-are desired.
-
-(=C.=) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat as in shellac,
-a thick coat should be applied. This may be done by using a thick,
-heavy brush; some prefer a heavy, round brush, and others think they
-can obtain the best results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the
-hairs, the better the results obtained.
-
-The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to cover the entire
-surface, if possible, and spread or flowed very quickly. The brush
-should then be wiped out in the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried,
-go over the surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb; wipe
-this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing is left but
-a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly, it will prevent all
-runs and streaks which result from unskillful workmanship.
-
-When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00 sandpaper,
-pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of pumice stone (carriage
-painter’s method), and repeat the process until the desired body of
-varnish is obtained. Rub down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as
-much time between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish is,
-the better and more durable the work will be when completed.
-
-=75. Polishing.=--This term applies to the process by which a polish
-is built up by rubbing, or “ragging” as workmen sometimes call it. The
-piece to be polished should receive two or three coats of shellac or
-varnish, which should be rubbed down to a surface, when it is ready for
-the polish.
-
-To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a piece of old,
-soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cotton waste; or the end
-of a roll of cloth may be covered by the piece which is to do the
-actual polishing. Provide a cup of moderately thin shellac and another
-of boiled oil, of which about one quarter is turpentine; or better, a
-cup of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the oil and allow
-it to soak in completely, then do the same with the shellac. Now dip
-the pad again into the shellac, and with the finger put on a single
-drop of oil, and rub lightly upon the work, with a circular motion,
-or if the work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the work
-is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end of the stroke,
-as the instant between the end of one stroke and the beginning of the
-return may be enough to allow the shellac to stick and make a hole
-in the surface, which will be difficult to repair; begin and end the
-stroke with a sweeping motion. The idea of this method of polishing is
-to bring the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for
-lubricating, as the less oil used, the better will be the polish.
-
-=76. Brushes.=--(=A.=) If brushes are to be used for stain or for
-filling, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do, a flat brush being
-preferred upon ordinary work. For shellac and varnish, the finer the
-brush, the better the results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the
-best practice to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will
-permit, as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a smaller
-brush, and have fewer “laps.” Chisel-pointed, flat brushes, from 1½” to
-2½” in width, will be found satisfactory for the work of schools and
-amateurs, but upon professional work, brushes from 3½” to 5” often are
-used.
-
-(=B.=) The care of the brushes is an important part of the work of
-those who use them, as neglect or carelessness may destroy a valuable
-brush overnight. Unless a brush is going to be used again the next day,
-it is always best to clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint,
-or varnish brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush,
-use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To obtain the
-best results, all brushes should be washed in hot, soapy water, and
-afterward rinsed in clean water; in general, however, this latter
-precaution may be dispensed with, unless the brushes are to be laid
-away indefinitely. Unless the above precautions have been taken, care
-should be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed from
-one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its side for more
-than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direction is easily given
-the bristles, and the brushes may be quickly destroyed by a little
-carelessness or negligence.
-
-Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better results
-than new brushes; therefore they should be treated with every possible
-consideration.
-
-Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if they are hung
-up so that they will not rest upon their bristles, this is the best way
-to keep them when they are in almost constant daily use.
-
-
- SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES
-
- 69. Why is wood filler used? Describe paste filler. Describe the
- process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid
- filler and the process of spreading it.
-
- 70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results
- of staining and filling and of filling alone? How may stains for
- open-grained woods be mixed and used? Describe a simple cherry or
- mahogany stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to
- a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How may woods
- be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown stain; of a
- good green stain; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing. For what
- purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used?
-
- 71. Of what does shellac finish consist? What is the source of supply
- of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the
- application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better?
- Why is rubbing down necessary? Demonstrate. What precautions should be
- taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should be guarded against in
- rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of sandpaper? Describe
- and demonstrate patching.
-
- 72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demonstrate
- two methods of applying wax finish.
-
- 73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities.
-
- 74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal
- conditions for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of
- flowing varnish.
-
- 75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing.
-
- 76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of
- work. How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general
- treatment of a brush? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use?
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-  Age of tree, 2.
-
-  Alburnum, _see_ Sapwood.
-
-  Annual layer, formation of, 1, 2, 3;
-    covering over breaks, 9, 10;
-    in quarter-sawed lumber, 23;
-    shrinking around, 48.
-
-  Apple wood, description of, 29.
-
-  Arkansas stone, 106.
-
-  Ash, description of, 28.
-
-  Auger, cross-handled, 91.
-
-  Auger bit, described, 91;
-    filing of, 92, 93.
-
-  Axe, hand, described, 66.
-
-
-  Backsaw, described, 69.
-
-  Balsam fir, illustrated, 43.
-
-  Band saw, 19.
-
-  Bark, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.
-
-  Basswood (or linden), description of, 29.
-
-  Bast, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.
-
-  Bastard sawing, 22.
-
-  Beech, description of, 30, 31.
-
-  Bell-faced hammer, described, 65.
-
-  Benches, types of, described, 57-59.
-
-  Bevel, described, 62.
-
-  Bill stuff, sawing of, 22.
-
-  Birch, description of, 30, 32.
-
-  Bird’s-eye maple, description of, 36.
-
-  Bitbrace, or stock, described, 93;
-    ratchet, described, 94.
-
-  Bits, described, 90.
-
-  Black walnut, _see_ Walnut.
-
-  Black walnut stain, 130.
-
-  Blemishes, in grading lumber, 23, 24.
-
-  Blind nailing, described, 66.
-
-  Block plane, description and use of, 84.
-
-  Boards, sawing of, to dimension, 20;
-    surveying or estimating of, 25;
-    measuring of, 26;
-    for siding, 28;
-    piling of, 48, 49.
-
-  Brushes, for gluing, 120;
-    for staining and filling, 140.
-
-  Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, 97-100.
-
-  Butternut (or white walnut), description of, 32.
-
-  Buttonwood, _see_ Sycamore.
-
-
-  Cable, hauling logs by, 15.
-
-  Calipers, described, 95.
-
-  Cam, of plane, 73, 75.
-
-  Cambium, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6.
-
-  Canoe birch, 32.
-
-  Cap iron, of plane, use of, 74.
-
-  Cap screw, of plane, use of, 73, 75.
-
-  Carborundum, as grindstone, 106;
-    as oilstone, 107.
-
-  Carpenter’s bench, 57, 58.
-
-  Cedar, description of, 32.
-
-  Cellular grain of wood, 2.
-
-  Center bit, described, 92.
-
-  Checking, or cracking, of lumber, 6, 8.
-
-  Cherry, description of, 32;
-    stain, 130;
-    how to darken, 131.
-
-  Chestnut, description of, 33.
-
-  Chisels, described, 88.
-
-  Circular saw, 19, 20.
-
-  Claw hammer, described, 64.
-
-  Clefts, or splits, 9.
-
-  Close-grained woods, filling of, 128;
-    staining of, 130.
-
-  Coarse-grained lumber, 8.
-
-  Color of wood, 2, 25.
-
-  Comb-grained lumber, 23.
-
-  Common boards, grading of, 26;
-    measuring of, 26.
-
-  Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, 68;
-    filing of, 113.
-
-  Compasses, or dividers, described, 95.
-
-  Coniferous trees, 2, 3.
-
-  Corundum, as grindstone, 106;
-    as oilstone, 107.
-
-  Cross-grained lumber, 8.
-
-  Culls, 24.
-
-  Cup shakes, 7, 8.
-
-  Cutting-off saw, described, 68;
-    filing of, 111.
-
-  Cypress, description of, 33.
-
-
-  Decay of tree, how prevented, 25.
-
-  Deciduous trees, 2.
-
-  Defects in lumber, 7-10.
-
-  Dimension timber, sawing of, 20, 22.
-
-  Discolorations in lumber, 9, 24.
-
-  Dividers, _see_ Compasses.
-
-  Drawshave, described, 90.
-
-  Duramen, _see_ Heartwood.
-
-
-  Ebony stain, 132.
-
-  Edge, squaring an, with try-square, 60, 61.
-
-  Edges, square and beveled, 97.
-
-  Elm, description of, 34.
-
-  Emery, as grindstone, 106;
-    as oilstone, 107.
-
-  Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77.
-
-  Endogenous trees, 1.
-
-  Estimating lumber, 25.
-
-  Exogenous trees, 1.
-
-  Extension bit, described, 92.
-
-
-  Files, description and use of, 108-113.
-
-  Filler, how to make, 128;
-    how to spread, 129.
-
-  Fine-grained lumber, 8.
-
-  Finishing woods, 128-141.
-
-  Flooring, best grades of, 23, 28.
-
-  Framing, lumber for, 27, 28, 50.
-
-  Framing square, 62.
-
-
-  Gauge, description and use of, 63, 64.
-
-  German bit, described, 92.
-
-  Glue, different kinds of, 118;
-    testing of, 119;
-    how to use, 120-122.
-
-  Gouges, described, 90.
-
-  Grading of lumber, 23.
-
-  Grain of woods, cause of, 1, 2, 6, 7;
-    kinds of, 8.
-    _See also_ Close-grained, etc.
-
-  Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a plane, 77;
-    described, 105.
-
-  Ground glue, 118.
-
-  Gum (sweet gum), description of, 34.
-
-
-  Hammer, described, 63.
-
-  Handscrews, use of, 103-105, 122.
-
-  Hard wood, cause of, 1, 2.
-
-  Hatchet, described, 66.
-
-  Hemlock, description of, 35.
-
-  Heart shakes, 7, 8.
-
-  Heartwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5.
-
-  Hickory, description of, 35.
-
-
-  Insects, injurious to trees, 10, 25.
-
-  Inside finish, lumber for, 28.
-
-
-  Jack plane, described, 81;
-    use of, 86-88.
-
-  Jointer, described, 82.
-
-  Jointing a saw, 109.
-
-  Joists or scantling, surveying of, 26.
-
-
-  Keyhole saw, _see_ Compass saw.
-
-  Kiln, filling a, 53;
-    length of time lumber should be left in, 54.
-
-  Kiln-dried lumber, 28, 50-54.
-
-  Kilns, moist air, 50;
-    induced draft, 52.
-
-  Knife blades, described, 72.
-
-
-  Linden, _see_ Basswood.
-
-  Liquid filler, 128.
-
-  Locust, description of, 35.
-
-  Logging, 12-19.
-
-  Lumber, unseasoned, 3;
-    checking, or cracking of, 6;
-    defects in, 7, 8;
-    grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8;
-    when to cut, 10;
-    manufacture of, 12-23;
-    grading of, 23, 24;
-    testing of, 24, 25;
-    surveying or estimating of, 25-27;
-    piling of, 45-49;
-    weather-dried, 49;
-    kiln-dried, 50-54.
-    _See also_ special subjects.
-
-  Lumbering, processes of, 12.
-
-
-  Mahogany, description of, 36;
-    sanding of, 126;
-    stain, 131.
-
-  Mallets, described, 67.
-
-  Manual-training bench, 57, 58.
-
-  Maple, description of, 35;
-    sugar maple, illustrated, 31.
-
-  Medullary rays, 4, 5, 6;
-    sawing woods having, 22.
-
-  Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, 50.
-
-  Moisture, in lumber, 4.
-
-  Moldings, sandpapering of, 125.
-
-  Monkey wrench, 103.
-
-
-  Nail set, use of, 66, 102;
-    burnisher made from, 99.
-
-  Nailing, described, 65, 66.
-
-  Nippers, described, 95.
-
-
-  Oak, tree trunk, section of, 5;
-    plain and quartered, 5;
-    description of, 36.
-
-  Odor of wood, 2, 25.
-
-  Oil finish, 137.
-
-  Oilstones, artificial, use of, 107.
-
-  Open-grained woods, filling of, 128;
-    staining of, 129.
-
-  “Out of wind,” 60, 61.
-
-  Outside finish, lumber for, 27, 28.
-
-
-  Panel work, sandpapering, 126.
-
-  Paper birch, 32.
-
-  Paste filler, 128.
-
-  Piling of lumber, 45-49.
-
-  Pine, yellow, section of, 2;
-    description of different varieties of, 36.
-
-  Pine logs, load of white, 14.
-
-  Pith, of tree trunk, 4, 5.
-
-  Plain sawing, 22.
-
-  Plane, adjusting mechanism of, 73-75;
-    other parts of, 75, 76;
-    sharpening a, 76-81.
-
-  Planes, description and use of, 72-88.
-
-  Pliers, described, 95.
-
-  Polishing, 139.
-
-  Poplar (or whitewood), description of, 40.
-
-  Position, in using tools, 85.
-
-  Preserving wood, 55.
-
-  Prices, sliding scale of, 26.
-
-
-  Quarter-sawed lumber, 22, 23, 48.
-
-
-  Ratchet bitbrace, described, 94.
-
-  Ratchet screwdrivers, described, 94.
-
-  Redwood, description of, 40.
-
-  Rift-sawed lumber, 23.
-
-  Ripsaw, described, 67;
-    filing of, 112.
-
-  Rule, use of, in setting gauge, 63.
-
-  Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, 59.
-
-
-  Sandpaper, testing of, 122;
-    how to use, 123-127.
-    _See also_ Finishing.
-
-  Sap, motion of, 3;
-    allowed, in grading lumber, 23.
-
-  Sapwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5.
-
-  Saw filing, described, 109-113.
-
-  Saw handle, reset, 72.
-
-  Saw set, hand and anvil, described, 110.
-
-  Sawing of lumber, 12, 18-23.
-
-  Sawmills, types of, 18.
-
-  Saws, description and use of, 67-72.
-
-  Scale used in measuring lumber, 26, 27.
-
-  Scraper, description of, 96;
-    sharpening of, 97-102.
-
-  Scratch plane, for use in gluing, 121.
-
-  Screwdriver, described, 94.
-
-  Shellac, use of, 132-136.
-
-  Shingles, quality of, 28.
-
-  Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, 23, 48.
-
-  Silver grain, 5, 6, 22.
-
-  Skidways, use of, 13-17.
-
-  Slash sawing, 22.
-
-  Slip stones, use of, 107.
-
-  Smoothing plane, described, 82.
-
-  Soft wood, cause of, 1, 2.
-
-  Spokeshave, described, 90.
-
-  Spruce, cutting of, 13, 14 (figs. 5, 6);
-    description of, 40.
-
-  Staining wood, 129-132.
-
-  Star shakes, 7, 8, 48.
-
-  Steaming wood, 55.
-
-  Steel, or framing, square, 62.
-
-  Stock, _see_ Bitbrace.
-
-  Straight-grained lumber, 8.
-
-  Stumpage, explanation of, 13.
-
-  Sugar maple forest, 31.
-
-  Surveying of lumber, 25.
-
-  Sycamore (or buttonwood), description of, 42.
-
-
-  Tacking, described, 65.
-
-  Testing of lumber, 24.
-
-  Timbers to be buried, quality of, 28.
-
-  Toenailing, described, 65.
-
-  Tools, how to purchase, 57;
-    description and use of, 57-108.
-
-  Travoy road, 13, 15.
-
-  Tree trunk, tissues of, 4.
-
-  Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, 1, 2;
-    annual layer of, 1;
-    grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8;
-    age of, 2;
-    defects in, 8-10;
-    when to cut, 10;
-    felling of, 12-15;
-    decay of, 25.
-    _See also_ special subjects.
-
-  Try-square, description and use of, 59-62, 71.
-
-  Twist drill, described, 92.
-
-
-  Varnish, 137.
-
-  Vertical-grained lumber, 23.
-
-  Vises, on benches, 59.
-
-
-  Walnut, black, description of, 42;
-    white, _see_ Butternut.
-
-  Walnut stain, black, 130.
-
-  Warping of lumber, 48.
-
-  Washita stone, 106.
-
-  Waste, care in use of, 134.
-
-  Wax finishing, 136.
-
-  Ways, permanent lumber, 45.
-
-  Weather-dried lumber, 12, 28, 49.
-
-  Whetstones, description and use of, 106.
-
-  Whetting and grinding of plane, 77-80.
-
-  Whitewood, _see_ Poplar.
-
-  Wind shakes, or cup shakes, 7, 8.
-
-  Winding sticks, 61.
-
-  Wood, growth of, 1-11;
-    grain of, 1, 2;
-    color of, 2, 4;
-    odor of, 2;
-    soft and hard, 1, 2;
-    qualities of, 27-29;
-    varieties of, 29-42;
-    steaming, 55;
-    preserving, 55;
-    filling grain of, 128;
-    staining, 129.
-    _See also_ special subjects.
-
-  Wrenches, described, 103.
-
-
-
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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elements of woodwork, by Charles A. King</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Elements of woodwork</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Charles A. King</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 20, 2022 [eBook #69019]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Alan, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK ***</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="c p2 sp">KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY</p>
-
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<h1>ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</h1>
-
-<p class="c">BY</p>
-
-<p class="c xlarge sp">CHARLES A. KING</p>
-
-<p class="c med sp">DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING</p>
-<p class="c med sp">EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter1">
-<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="c sp">NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO</p>
-
-<p class="c xlarge sp">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
-</p>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="bbox">
-<p class="c p2">KING’S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="mar">ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</p>
-<p class="mar">ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION</p>
-<p class="mar">CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY</p>
-<p class="mar">INSIDE FINISHING</p>
-<p class="mar b2">HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="c more">
-<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1911, by</span></p>
-<p class="c down">CHARLES A. KING.</p>
-
-<p class="c more"><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London</span>.</p>
-<p class="c more">W. P. I.</p>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph2">PREFACE TO THE SERIES</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">This</span> series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended
-as textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, technical,
-or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the “Handbook
-in Woodwork and Carpentry,” is for the use of teachers and
-of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the
-other four volumes.</p>
-
-<p>Of the pupils’ volumes, the first two, “Elements of Woodwork”
-and “Elements of Construction,” are adapted to the needs of students
-in manual-training schools, or in any institution in which
-elementary woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational
-handwork, or as preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in
-carpentry or vocational training.</p>
-
-<p>The volumes “Constructive Carpentry” and “Inside Finishing”
-are planned with special reference to the students of technical,
-industrial, or trade schools, who have passed through the
-work of the first two volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects
-treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the prospective
-and the finished workman.</p>
-
-<p>For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required
-course, but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or
-optional models under certain conditions, and for others who
-have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they
-see fit, this series will be found perfectly adaptable, regardless
-of the grades taught. To accomplish this, the material has been
-arranged by topics, which may be used by the teacher irrespective
-of the sequence, as each topic has to the greatest extent possible
-been treated independently.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span></p>
-
-<p>The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now
-President of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement
-and advice in preparing for and planning the series, and to
-George R. Swain, Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay
-City, Michigan, for valuable aid in revising the manuscript.</p>
-
-<p>Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodicals,
-and the publications of the United States Departments of
-Education and of Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the
-author has gleaned from their pages.</p>
-
-<p class="r">CHARLES A. KING.</p>
-
-<p class="l"><span class="smcap">Bay City, Michigan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></span></p>
-
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">In</span> preparing this book, it has been the author’s purpose to
-present, in as complete and concise form as possible, the knowledge
-which every wood-worker should possess regarding the care
-and use of his tools and the material upon which he employs
-them.</p>
-
-<p>Whether an amateur, apprentice, or skilled workman, whether
-a carpenter, boat builder, pattern maker, or wood carver, the elementary
-knowledge of the construction of tools, of sharpening
-them, and of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the
-same. The structure of wood, and the necessity of applying its
-peculiarities of grain and texture to the advantage of the work in
-hand, also is the same upon all branches of woodwork.</p>
-
-<p>While innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented
-to enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economically
-both as to time and material, a study of them will prove
-that they all operate upon a few simple principles, a knowledge
-of which is not difficult to acquire, though skill and judgment in
-the application of the tools can be attained only by continuous
-and properly directed practice.</p>
-
-<p>It would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this
-sort to describe these various devices, though in a schoolroom it
-is a great advantage to have as many of them as practicable, not
-for their use only, but that the students may become familiar
-with their purposes and the applications of the fundamental principles
-upon which each is based.</p>
-
-<p>The actual use of tools may be considered the A B C of woodwork,
-as it bears the same relation to the finished product of the
-workman as the alphabet bears to literature, the space between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span>
-the mere mechanical facility in the use of either tools or alphabet,
-being the result of the judgment, skill, and individuality of
-either the workman or the author.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described
-in this volume, he will have little difficulty in using other and
-more complex tools; and when he has mastered the principles
-of construction involved in the exercises explained in the following
-book of this series, the “Elements of Construction,” and the
-correct use of the tools involved in making these, together with
-their applications and combinations, he has acquired the fundamental
-knowledge of all construction in wood.</p>
-
-<p class="r">CHARLES A. KING.</p>
-
-<p class="l"><span class="smcap">Bay City, Michigan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></span></p>
-
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">TABLE OF CONTENTS</p>
-</div>
-
-<table class="down">
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdl"></td>
-  <td class="tdr"><span class="med">PAGE</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. Growth of Wood.</span>—Kinds of trees used for lumber;
-The formation of wood; Tissues; The medullary rays; The grain
-in trees; Defects found in lumber; When to cut lumber</td>
-  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c1">1</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Lumbering and Varieties of Wood.</span>—The manufacture
-of lumber; To saw lumber of irregular dimensions; The
-grading of lumber; The testing of lumber; Surveying or estimating
-lumber; Qualities of wood</td>
-  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c2">12</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Care of Lumber.</span>—The piling of lumber; Permanent
-lumber ways; To minimize the warping of lumber; Weather-dried
-lumber; Kiln-dried lumber; Moist air kilns; Induced draft kilns;
-Results of the two systems; Filling a kiln; Length of time lumber
-should be left in the kiln; The care of kiln-dried lumber;
-Steaming wood; Preserving wood</td>
-  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c3">45</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. Tools.</span>—How to purchase tools; Benches; Rules;
-The try-square; The steel, or framing, square; The bevel; The
-gauge; The hammer; The hatchet; The mallet; Saws; The knife
-blade; Planes; Sharpening a plane; The jack plane; The jointer;
-The smoothing plane; The block plane; The correct position;
-Chisels; Gouges; The drawshave; The spokeshave; Bits; The
-bitbrace, or stock; The screwdriver; Compasses, or dividers; Pliers;
-The scraper; Edges; Nail sets; Wrenches; Handscrews; A grindstone;
-Emery, corundum, carborundum; Whetstones; Files;
-Saw filing</td>
-  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c4">57</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. Glue and Sandpaper.</span>—Different kinds of glue; How
-to use glue; The testing of sandpaper; How to use sandpaper</td>
-  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c5">118</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdlh"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI. Wood Finishing.</span>—Filling; Staining wood; Shellac;
-Wax finishing; Oil finish; Varnish; Polishing; Brushes</td>
-  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c6">128</a></td></tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph2">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<table class="down">
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr"><span class="med">FIG.</span></td>
-  <td class="tdl"></td>
-  <td class="tdr"><span class="med">PAGE</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">1.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Section of Yellow Pine</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f2">2</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">2.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Section of Oak Tree Trunk</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f3">5</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">3.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Defects in Lumber</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f4">7</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">4.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Felling a Tree</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f5">12</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">5.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Cutting Small Branches from Felled Spruce</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f6">13</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">6.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Skidway of Spruce Logs</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f7">14</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">7.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Load of White Pine Logs</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f8">14</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">8.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Hauling Logs by Steel Cable</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f9">15</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">9.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Loading Logs from Shedway to Train</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f10">16</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">10.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Boom of Logs</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f11">16</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">11.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Log Jam</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f12">17</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">12.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Sawmill in the Big Tree District</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f13">18</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">13.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Circular Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f14">20</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">14.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Double Cut Band Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f15">21</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">15.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f16">22</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">16.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Four Methods of Quartering</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f16">22</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">17.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Lumber Scale</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f17">27</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">18.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Beech and Sugar Maple Forest</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f18">31</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">19.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">White Pine Forest</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f19">39</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">20.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Douglas Spruce Forest</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f20">41</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">21.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f21">43</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">22.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Permanent Lumber Ways</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f22">46</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">23.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Warping of Lumber</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f23">48</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">24.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Lumber piled in Double Courses</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f24">49</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">25.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Manual-training Bench</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f25">58</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">26.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Carpenter’s Bench</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f26">58</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">27.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Two-foot, Four-fold Rule</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f27">59</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">28.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Zigzag Rule</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f28">59</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">29.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f29">60</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">30.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Use of Two Try-squares to see if Piece of Wood is “Out of Wind”</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f30">60</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">31.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Position of Try-square when Making Line</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f31">61</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">32.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Steel, or Framing, Square</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f32">62</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">33.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Bevel and Steel Square</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f33">62</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">34.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Marking Gauge</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f34">63</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">35.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Marking Gauge in Use</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f35">64</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">36.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Claw Hammer</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f36">64</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">37.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Toenailing and Tacking</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f37">65</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">38.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail Set</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f38">66</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">39.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Hatchet and Handaxe</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f39">67</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">40.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Mallets (Square-faced and Round)</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f40">67</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">41.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Saws—Rip-, Cutting-off, and Compass, or Keyhole</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f41">68</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">42.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Backsaw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f42">69</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">43.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Use of the Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f43">71</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">44.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Reset Saw Handle</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f44">72</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">45.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Knife Blades</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f45">72</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">46.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Section of an Iron Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f46">73</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">47.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Result of Using Plane with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f47">74</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">48.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Result of Using Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f48">74</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">49.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Setting a Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f49">76</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">50.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Whetting and Grinding of Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f50">77</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">51.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f51">78</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">52.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f52">79</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">53.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Shape of Edge of Plane Iron</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f53">80</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">54.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Jack Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f54">81</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">55.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Guiding a Jointer</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f55">83</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">56.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Knuckle Joint Block Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f56">84</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">57.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Use of the Block Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f57">84</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">58.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Using Block Plane upon Small Pieces</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f58">85</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">59.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Incorrect Use of Jack Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f59">86</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">60.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f60">87</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">61.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f61">87</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">62.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Chisels</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f62">89</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">63.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Drawshave</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f63">90</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">64.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Spokeshave</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f64">90</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">65.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Auger Bit</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f65">91</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">66.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Cross-handled Auger</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f66">91</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">67.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">German Bit and Twist Drill</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f67">92</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">68.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Extension Bit and Center Bit</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f68">92</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">69.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Filing an Auger Bit</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f69">93</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">70.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Ratchet Bitbrace</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f70">94</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">71.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Compasses</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f71">95</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">72.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Calipers</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f71">95</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">73.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Pliers</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f72">95</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">74.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Nippers</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f72">95</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">75.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Scraper</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f73">96</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">76.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Edges of Scrapers</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f76">97</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">77.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Angle of Burnisher with Sides of Scraper</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f77">97</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">78.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping Scraper for Sharpening</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f78">98</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">79.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Top Views of the Angles of the Burnisher</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f79">99</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">80.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Angle to be avoided in Sharpening Scraper</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f80">100</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">81.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Turning back the Edge of a Scraper</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f81">100</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">82.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a Broad Surface</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f82">101</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">83.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within Small Area</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f83">101</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">84.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon an Edge</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f84">102</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">85.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Monkey Wrench</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f85">103</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">86.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Effect of the Unskillful Use of a Handscrew</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f86">103</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">87.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Correct Use of Handscrew</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f87">104</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">88.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Emery Wheel Dresser</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f88">106</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">89.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Jointing a Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f89">109</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">90.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Hand Saw Set</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f90">110</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">91.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Anvil Saw Set</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f91">110</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">92.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Angle of the File with the Edge of the Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f92">111</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">93.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Angle of the File with the Sides of the Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f93">111</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">94.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Results of Filings as shown in Fig. 93</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f94">112</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">95.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Carrying a File to obtain the Hook of a Cutting-off Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f95">112</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">96.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f96">113</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">97.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f97">124</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">98.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Sandpapering Panel Work</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f98">126</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-  <td class="tdr">99.</td>
-  <td class="tdl">Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing down Shellac Finish</td>
-  <td class="tdr"><a href="#f99">134</a></td></tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph2" id="c1">ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK</p>
-</div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I</h2>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Growth of Wood</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>1. Kinds of trees used for lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The classification
-of trees here considered is based upon the method by
-which the trunk, or stem, of a tree is formed. The term
-<i>exogenous</i> is applied to outside growers, around which a
-layer of wood grows each year, and from which is cut the
-lumber of commerce. As the wood-worker is interested
-mainly in trees which grow by this method, we will do no
-more than mention the <i>endogenous</i>, or inside-growing, trees
-or plants of the nature of palm trees, cornstalks, etc., in
-which the woody fiber is formed upon the inside of the
-stem.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The new wood formed each year upon exogenous
-trees is known as the <i>annual layer</i>, or <i>ring</i>; the separate
-layers being more prominent in open-grained woods, such
-as oak, ash, and chestnut, than in close-grained woods,
-such as maple, cherry, poplar, and birch. It is the difference
-in the character and structure of these layers
-which makes some woods hard and others soft, some
-with open and others with close grain, and which also,
-with the coloring matter peculiar to each kind of wood,
-causes its individuality and adaptability to certain uses.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span>
-(The color and odor of wood are caused by chemical combinations,
-and are not part of the substance of the wood.)</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f2">
-<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Section of Yellow
-Pine.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, soft, cellular grain; <i>b</i>, hard, compact<br />
-grain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Each of these annual layers is composed of two parts,
-the formation being shown in Fig. 1, in which the grain of
-yellow pine is depicted. The soft, cellular, or open, grain,
-<i>a</i>, is formed as the sap moves
-upward in the spring, and the
-hard, compact grain, <i>b</i>, is
-formed later in the year. In
-soft woods the open grain
-predominates, while in hard
-woods the compact grain is
-more in evidence.</p>
-
-<p>The age of a tree may be
-determined by counting these
-annual rings upon the stump,
-though a drouth during the
-growing season may have at
-some time so affected its
-growth as to make some layers
-indistinct, rendering it impossible
-to be absolutely sure of the count. In a young tree
-the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes
-more mature.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The different kinds of timber which the carpenter
-uses are cut from <i>deciduous</i>, or broad-leaf, trees, and from
-<i>coniferous</i>, or needle-leaf, trees. This classification of trees
-is based upon the difference in the forms of their leaves,
-the former kind furnishing the ash, oak, walnut, beech,
-birch, and other woods that are hard to work, as well as
-poplar or white wood, linn or bass wood, and others which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span>
-are called hard woods, not in the sense that they are hard
-to work, but because their method of growth is the same.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>coniferous</i> or <i>evergreen</i> trees furnish the cedars,
-pines, hemlocks, spruces, firs, redwood, tamarack, cypress,
-and a few other woods of the same nature. These
-woods have a resin which is always present, no matter
-how old or dry the wood may be, which explains their
-superior weather-resisting qualities.</p>
-
-<p><b>2. The formation of wood.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) In the spring the sap
-begins to flow upward, mainly through the open cells of
-the cambium (the new growth in the stem, by which the
-diameter of the tree is increased), and to some extent
-through the sapwood. As it comes in contact with the
-air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the
-tree, (<b>B.</b>) it gives off water and oxygen, and absorbs
-carbonic acid gas from the air, (<b>C.</b>) which is formed into
-starch, sugar, oil, etc.; this in turn becomes part of the
-sapwood, and forms the compact part of the annual ring,
-completing the layer for that year.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) The wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the
-sap, which gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells
-are filled, when that layer becomes a part of the heartwood,
-or that part of the tree which is inclosed within the
-annual layers of sapwood.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) Both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are
-filled with water or sap, which may be removed by seasoning,
-but the sapwood of most trees used for building purposes
-is not as good lumber as the heartwood, as it is
-always susceptible to moisture. The exceptions to this
-will be mentioned elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) In all unseasoned lumber from 20 to 60 per cent of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span>
-its weight is moisture, which must be evaporated before
-the lumber has its highest commercial value. This may
-be done by weather drying or by artificial means, the lumber
-being treated in a specially constructed kiln.</p>
-
-<p><b>3. Tissues.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) A tree trunk is composed of four
-different tissues, viz.:</p>
-
-<p>1. The <i>pith</i> (Fig. 2, <i>a</i>), a cellular tissue: this is worthless
-and its presence in lumber is considered a defect.</p>
-
-<p>2. The <i>wood</i>, which includes the heartwood (<i>b</i>), the
-sapwood (<i>c</i>), and the medullary rays (<i>g</i>). From this part
-of the tree the commercially valuable lumber is taken.</p>
-
-<p>3. The <i>cambium</i> (<i>d</i>), which is a thin layer between the
-sapwood (<i>c</i>) and the bast (<i>e</i>).</p>
-
-<p>4. The <i>bark</i>, which includes both the bast (<i>e</i>) and
-the outer bark (<i>f</i>). The bark of most trees is worthless,
-but that of chestnut, oak, hemlock, and other trees which
-are rich in tannic acid is used in large quantities by
-tanneries.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The heartwood (<i>b</i>), or <i>duramen</i>, of most trees is
-the part generally used by carpenters upon the best work.
-It is firm, compact, and of the color and qualities characteristic
-of the wood.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The sapwood (<i>c</i>), or <i>alburnum</i>, is generally light-colored,
-and in most building woods its presence is considered
-a defect, though not in hickory, ash, maple, or
-yellow pine, and a few other woods; in fact, in these woods
-it is often preferred to the heartwood for many kinds of
-work on account of its color. The alburnum is filled
-with the active elements of the sap, which are deposited
-as the sap passes through the trees, and in time becomes
-part of the duramen, or heartwood. The time required<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>
-for sapwood to attain maturity ranges from thirty to one
-hundred years, according to its kind and age.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f3">
-<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Section of Oak Tree Trunk.</span></p>
-<p class="caption1"><i>a</i>, pith; <i>b</i>, heartwood, or duramen; <i>c</i>, sapwood, or alburnum; <i>d</i>, cambium; <i>e</i>, bast, or
-inner bark; <i>f</i>, outer bark, or corky layer; <i>g</i>, medullary rays, or silver grain; <i>po</i>, plain oak;
-<i>qo</i>, quartered oak.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Outside of the sapwood (Fig. 2, <i>c</i>) is the cambium
-(<i>d</i>), which furnishes the substance upon which the
-life of the tree depends. Here, nourished by the richest
-sap, new cells are formed, which become either sapwood
-or a part of the bast. (<b>E.</b>) At (<i>e</i>) is shown the bast or
-inner bark, which is composed of a woody fiber combined
-with a tissue of cells. This is elastic, which allows it to
-expand as the wood grows beneath it. Outside of the
-bast is the bark (<i>f</i>), or outer covering, which is of a corky
-nature, and protects the delicate vital parts of the tree.</p>
-
-<p><b>4. The medullary rays.</b>—Every tree has <i>medullary
-rays</i> (Fig. 2, <i>g</i>), usually spoken of by wood-workers as
-the “silver streak,” or “silver grain.” These rays connect
-the center of the tree with the outside, and are
-more prominent in such woods as oak, beech, and sycamore
-than in other woods. It is to take advantage of
-the beauty which these medullary rays impart that so
-much quarter-sawed lumber is used, though lumber sawed
-in this way is preferred for other reasons, which will be
-discussed later.</p>
-
-<p>In many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible
-to the naked eye, as in pine, for instance, which has fifteen
-thousand to the square inch. Aside from adding much to
-the beauty of the lumber, they also give strength; if
-lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat, it is
-apt to <i>check</i>, or crack, upon the line of the medullary
-rays.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f4">
-<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Defects in Lumber.</span></p>
-<p class="caption1"><i>a</i>, wind shakes or cup shakes; <i>b</i>, heart shakes; <i>c</i>, star shakes; <i>d</i>, branch broken off, showing
-the method by which the annual layers gradually cover broken branches; <i>e</i>, hard knot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>5. The grain in trees.</b>—In open or exposed situations
-trees usually grow more or less gnarled or crooked, which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span>tends to improve the grain. The strength of lumber
-cut from trees grown as described is impaired, however,
-as the wood is more cross-grained than that from trees
-which grow in the heart of a forest, with practically the
-same conditions on all sides. As forest trees are continually
-reaching up for the sunlight, they grow taller and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>
-straighter, which makes it possible for straighter-grained
-lumber to be cut from them, and as the branches are at
-the top, where they receive the sunlight and air, there are
-few cross-grained places.</p>
-
-<p>When the annual rings are large, the grain is said to be
-<i>coarse</i>, and if the rings are fine, the term <i>fine-grained</i> is
-used to describe it. When the direction of the fibers is
-nearly parallel with the sides and the edges of the board,
-it is said to be <i>straight-grained</i>; when the lumber is taken
-from a crooked tree, it is said to be <i>cross-grained</i>, as the
-grain follows the shape of the log, while the board is sawed
-straight. Cross-grained lumber is the handsomer; in this
-the fibers, being at different angles with the surface of
-the board, form a variety of figures, which add much to the
-beauty of the wood.</p>
-
-<p><b>6. Defects found in lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Some of the most
-common defects found in lumber are <i>wind shakes</i>, or <i>cup
-shakes</i> (Fig. 3, <i>a</i>), which are cracks following the line of
-the porous part of the annual rings. These are caused
-by the action of severe winds. (<b>B.</b>) <i>Heart shakes</i> (Fig.
-3, <i>b</i>) are cracks radiating from the center of the tree, and
-may be found in any kind of wood, as they are the result
-of deficient nutrition, or loss of vitality. (<b>C.</b>) <i>Star
-shakes</i> (Fig. 3, <i>c</i>) are caused by the shrinkage of the tree
-upon the outside, which is the result of a long dry spell
-of intense cold, or of the deficient action of the sap. Star
-shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon the
-outside of the tree; the heart shakes are larger at the
-center.</p>
-
-<p>Shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes
-are so numerous as to make the log worthless.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) <i>Discolorations</i> are caused by decay which has at
-some time gained a foothold, but which the tree was
-sufficiently vigorous to overcome; or they may be due to
-imperfect or insufficient nutrition, which generally results
-in the entire tree being affected instead of small
-places upon the tree.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) Timber grown in a damp, marshy locality is generally
-of a poorer quality than that grown upon higher
-ground, as more water is taken up by the roots than
-can be well assimilated, which prevents the formation
-of healthy compact wood. Some woods are adapted to
-such soil, the poplar or whitewood, willow, basswood,
-buckeye, and cypress being denizens of moist or swampy
-places.</p>
-
-<p>Trees growing where they are exposed to winds from
-one direction are apt to assume a spiral growth, which
-renders the timber almost worthless, as it is weak, and
-twists badly in drying.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) Trees which have lumps appearing like growths
-upon them are usually unhealthy. These lumps, or
-tumors, may be caused by defective nutrition, checks, or
-shakes, or by the depredations of animals or insects.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) <i>Clefts</i>, or <i>splits</i>, in a tree may be caused by extreme
-cold, heat, or drouth. They may extend into the tree
-several inches, and while the blemish will always remain,
-showing a discoloration or other defect, nature often
-repairs it so that the strength of the timber is but slightly
-affected. If these clefts are not healed, rain may find
-lodgment there, and the sap be so affected that the adjacent
-wood will be destroyed, and this in time will destroy
-the tree.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>H.</b>) Eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these
-clefts, the larvæ of which bore into the wood and destroy
-it. (<b>I.</b>) If it were not for the birds and other natural
-enemies of these insects, they would increase so rapidly
-that the lumber supply would be seriously affected, and,
-as it is, there are very few trees which are not injured to
-some extent by wood borers. The United States Bureau
-of Entomology estimates that the damage to trees by
-these pests amounts to at least $100,000,000 annually.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>K.</b>) Sometimes (as at <i>d</i>, Fig. 3) branches die or are
-broken off; this gives the elements access to the heart of
-the tree and usually causes a permanent injury, as the
-birds and other denizens of the forest frequently dig out
-the rotten wood as soon as the weather has had time to
-do its work, thus giving further opportunity for decay to
-continue its destructive action. If this does not happen,
-the wood will grow over the break after several years and
-leave a loose knot in the heart of the tree, which will be
-a decided blemish when the log is made into lumber. The
-sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the defect,
-as the annual rings will eventually close over the break.</p>
-
-<p>The hard knot at <i>e</i>, Fig. 3, is not a serious defect, unless
-the wood is to be used for finish or where great strength
-is required.</p>
-
-<p><b>7. When to cut lumber.</b>—Trees which are intended
-for the use of wood-workers should not be felled while the
-sap is in motion. If cut at any other time than midsummer
-or in winter, the active sap is apt to sour and to
-cause decay. Owing to the scarcity of lumber, or from
-avarice, this precaution often is ignored, and trees are
-felled at any time of year, regardless of their age; in such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>
-cases, much of the lumber lacks the essential qualities of
-its kind.</p>
-
-<p>When a tree shows signs of dying at the top, it should be
-cut down, as the quality of the lumber it contains will
-deteriorate rapidly.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p>
-
-<p>1. What is meant by exogenous trees? In what kinds of wood are
-the annual layers most prominent? Describe the formation of annual
-layers. What causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of
-wood? In the color and odor of wood? How may the age of a tree
-be determined? Are the broadest annual layers found in young or in
-old trees? From what class of trees does soft wood come? Hard wood?</p>
-
-<p>2. Describe the motion of sap. What forms the sapwood? With
-what are the cells of the sapwood filled? Compare sapwood and heartwood.</p>
-
-<p>3. Describe the four different tissues in a tree. Describe the inner
-bark.</p>
-
-<p>4. What are the medullary rays? In what woods are they most
-prominent? How do they affect the strength of timber?</p>
-
-<p>5. What is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations?
-Where are the straightest trees found? Why does the location of a
-tree affect the grain? What is meant by <i>coarse</i>, <i>fine</i>, <i>straight</i>, and <i>cross-grained</i>
-lumber?</p>
-
-<p>6. What causes wind shakes? Heart shakes? Star shakes? How
-may they be distinguished from each other? What causes discolorations?
-What is the usual character of timber grown upon marshy
-ground? What woods are adapted to low ground? What sometimes
-causes spiral growth? What do lumps and excrescences upon a tree
-generally signify? What causes clefts in trees? What are the results
-of clefts? Does nature perfectly repair the cleft? What is the usual
-result of a branch being broken off?</p>
-
-<p>7. What is the per cent of moisture in green wood? Should very
-young trees be cut? Why? How may the top of a tree show when it
-should be felled? At what time of year should trees be cut?</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c2">CHAPTER II</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Lumbering and Varieties of Wood</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>8. The manufacture of lumber</b>.—(<b>A.</b>) There are two
-distinct processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial
-purposes, <i>logging</i> and <i>sawing</i>; the former includes
-all the steps from
-felling the tree to the
-delivery of the logs
-at the sawmill; there
-the logs are sawed
-into boards, planks,
-and timbers of certain
-dimensions,
-which are piled and
-exposed to the sun
-and air for a sufficient
-time to allow a
-large part of the
-water in them to
-evaporate, when the
-lumber is said to be
-“weather dried,”
-and ready for shipment
-to the consumer.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f5">
-<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.—Felling a Tree.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) If a lumber
-concern desires to
-begin operations in
-one of the great forest
-areas, a “land-looker”
-or “timber-cruiser”
-is sent to
-spy out the land,
-and to report upon
-the probable yield of
-timber within certain
-areas, and the conditions
-which would
-aid or retard the
-work of getting out
-the logs. If the report
-is favorable, the
-standing timber may
-be purchased by
-“stumpage,” which means that a certain price will be
-paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land
-may be purchased outright, though in the early history of
-lumbering cases have been known where these little formalities
-were omitted.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f6">
-<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.—Cutting Small Branches from<br />
-Felled Spruce.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Camps are located at convenient points throughout the
-boundary, roads are made through the woods, and foundations,
-or “skidways,” built at right angles to them, to
-receive the logs as they are hauled down the “travoy”
-roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at
-frequent distances for this purpose.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The above preparations completed, the work of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>felling the trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work
-requires nice skill and judgment, as it is necessary that
-the tree should fall so that it will cause the least damage
-to itself and to surrounding trees. After the tree is down,
-the branches are cut
-close to the trunk (Fig.
-5) and carried to one
-side so that they will
-not be in the way
-of the horses. The
-trunk is then sawed
-into logs, twelve, fourteen,
-sixteen, or eighteen
-feet in length,
-as the imperfections
-and the length of the
-tree trunk may allow.
-Longer or shorter logs
-are rarely cut except
-for special purposes.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) One end of the
-log is placed upon a
-drag, or is gripped by
-a pair of tongs, and
-hauled to the nearest
-travoy road and skidway, where it is piled (Fig. 6).
-(<b>E.</b>) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon trucks,
-cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8),
-which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of
-the country, or to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a
-river (Fig. 10). If either of these latter methods of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>
-transportation is employed, the logs are generally piled
-upon another skidway until there is enough for a train
-load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable
-for them to be floated to the mill.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f7">
-<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.—Skidway of Spruce Logs.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f8">
-<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.—Load of White Pine Logs.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f9">
-<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.—Hauling Logs by Steel Cable.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f10">
-<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.—Loading Logs from Shedway to Train.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f11">
-<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.—Boom of Logs.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f12">
-<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.—Log Jam.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally
-the most dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to
-face. A jam usually depends upon one key log, which,
-if loosened, will allow the jam to break instantly. The
-work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one
-or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and
-muscles, and possessed of the highest possible skill and
-activity, or they cannot hope to break a large jam
-and escape with their lives.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f13">
-<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.—Sawmill in the Big Tree District.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives
-its logs by both rail and river. In this case the
-logs which come in by rail are rolled into the river, as
-they can be more easily placed upon the chain feed of
-the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in
-which the logs are soaked before they are taken into the
-mill; this draws the frost out of them, and allows them
-to be worked much more easily.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>H.</b>) There are different types of sawmills, in which
-the logs are worked into commercial shapes. The small
-enterprises use portable mills, which are moved into the
-woods and located upon a tract of land, remaining until
-all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been sawed, and
-then moved to another locality and the process repeated.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p>
-
-<p>Large operations are conducted upon a different plan;
-mills of a permanent type are erected as near the forest
-as practicable, roads are built, tracks laid, and the logs
-brought from the woods by one of the methods previously
-illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes are built,
-and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a
-mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if
-possible, as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by
-any other method of transportation, though some of the
-heavier woods will not float, and have to be handled on
-land. (<b>I.</b>) The immersion of logs in water also improves
-the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon
-the sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay,
-and also facilitates the seasoning of the manufactured
-product. If the log is left in the water until it becomes
-water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not injured for
-many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which
-it is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage
-of sunken logs has become an industry.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>J.</b>) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to
-be cut is selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent
-supply, and in the near future all extensive lumbering
-operations will, beyond doubt, be conducted upon
-a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless lumbering
-is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the
-supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the
-demand.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>K.</b>) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed
-into lumber of various dimensions by a circular saw
-(Fig. 13); but in the larger mills, the band saw generally
-is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double cut band sawmill,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>
-in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut each time
-the log is carried either way.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f14">
-<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.—Circular Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Besides
-sawing dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards,
-and planks of different
-thicknesses are
-sawed, as follows:
-1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”,
-2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”; and
-thicker, if desired.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) If lumber is
-cut again from its
-original dimensions,
-it is said to be <i>resawed</i>.
-When boards
-or planks of the
-above dimensions are
-dressed on both sides,
-they will be about
-⅛” thinner; thus, a
-board sawed 1” thick
-will, when seasoned
-and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2” plank will be but 1⅞”
-or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed dimensions.</p>
-
-<p>Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually
-comes under the head of dimension timber, which is not
-used to the extent that it was formerly, as steel and concrete
-are replacing it upon heavy work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f15">
-<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.—Double Cut Band Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber
-is usually resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is
-planed upon each side to the desired thickness. Boards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>
-for box stock and other special purposes are sometimes
-sawed as thin as ¼”.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f16">
-<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.—Plain,
-Slash, or Bastard
-Sawing.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.—Four
-Methods of
-Quartering.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig.
-15 is known as <i>plain</i>, <i>slash</i>, or <i>bastard sawing</i>, and is
-the cheapest way to cut logs, both as to time and waste.
-The log is first squared to secure a bed upon which it may
-lie while being sawed,
-which also makes it unnecessary
-to run each
-board by the edging
-saw to straighten the
-edges. The slabs at <i>a</i>
-are sawed into boards
-as the log is squared,
-and the bark, or “live
-edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an inferior
-grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they
-are well worth saving, if large logs are being cut.</p>
-
-<p>In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment
-is necessary to cut a log so that the greatest amount
-of marketable lumber can be made from it. This is done
-by cutting various sizes from a log, if it will not cut all of
-one size without too much waste.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary
-rays or silver grain, the log is sawed by one of the
-methods shown in Fig. 16, the object being to bring the
-rays as nearly parallel to the surface of the board as
-possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain
-which is so highly prized.</p>
-
-<p>The best results are obtained from sections <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>; this
-method also gives the most waste. In plain sawed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span>
-lumber, the boards from the middle of the log will
-have the quarter grain; these are usually culled and
-sold as quarter-sawed.</p>
-
-<p>Neither of these methods results in economy of time
-or material, as about 25 per cent of each is used in
-excess of that required in plain sawing; hence, quarter-sawed
-lumber is more expensive than the plain, or bastard,
-sawed.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not
-only on account of its handsomer grain, but because it
-holds its shape better than lumber sawed in any other
-way, as the annual layers are approximately square
-with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks
-in the direction parallel with the annual layers, and
-very little from the center to the outside of the tree,
-it is obvious that there is much less shrinking and
-warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which
-is sawed plain.</p>
-
-<p>The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand
-usage without the surface splintering much better than
-does the common plain sawed material. Quarter-sawed
-lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical grain,”
-and “comb grained.”</p>
-
-<p><b>10. The grading of lumber.</b>—Custom varies somewhat
-in different localities as to the grading of lumber, but
-there are generally four grades, which are often subgraded
-into qualities suitable for various uses.</p>
-
-<p>“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect,
-though in large dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes
-may be allowed. These blemishes in a board are
-usually restricted to not more than one inch of sap, a small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span>
-sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one blemish
-to a board is allowed.</p>
-
-<p>“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound
-knots, an inch of sap, and one other blemish.</p>
-
-<p>“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound
-knots, but two thirds of one side must be clear stock.</p>
-
-<p>“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the
-cheapest work. One half of the board must be usable.</p>
-
-<p>In many cases the boards are graded by the width of
-clear stock which can be taken out. There are tables
-published by the different associations of lumber manufacturers
-which give the gradings under which their lumber
-has been measured and shipped, but as these vary
-from time to time no permanent list can be given.</p>
-
-<p>The principal reason why there can be no permanent
-grading of lumber is that the forests from which the finest
-timber can be cut in marketable quantities are being
-destroyed faster than they can be replaced by nature. In
-anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry of
-the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in
-organizing government forest preserves, in educating the
-people, and in promoting legislation aimed at the husbanding
-of our forests. When we consider the abundance of high
-grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous prices
-which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this
-movement should have begun during the days of our
-grandfathers, instead of waiting until nearly all the best
-lumber in the great forests east of the Mississippi had
-been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by forest fires.</p>
-
-<p><b>11. The testing of lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Dry, sound stock,
-if struck with the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>
-clear ringing response, while a wet or decaying piece will
-give a dull response to the blow.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by
-which, as well as by the grain, the student should learn
-to distinguish the woods in common use. This may be
-more easily done before the wood has been thoroughly
-seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing
-odor; if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates
-that decay is present.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) If there is much variation in the color of timber,
-or black and blue spots, the stick is probably diseased.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by
-dryness or ventilation, and frequently may be cured by
-soaking the wood in water for several days, or by steaming.
-The disease of decay is cured also by chemical preservatives
-being forced into lumber by pressure; this at
-the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree.</p>
-
-<p>Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most
-lumber, if permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry,
-will last almost indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining
-timbers, and even to those which have no connection
-with the one originally infected.</p>
-
-<p><b>12. Surveying or estimating lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) It is the
-custom to consider any board less than one inch in thickness
-as an inch board, and anything over one inch is
-measured as so many inches and fractions of an inch.
-For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch,
-while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by
-obtaining its surface measure, and increasing it by one half.
-Thus, a plank 12’ long, 8” wide, and 1½” thick would have
-twelve feet board measure in it.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p>
-
-<p>In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which
-varies with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed
-lumber, but this is not universal.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary
-to obtain the fraction of a foot, board measure, for each
-lineal foot. Thus, a piece of 2 × 4 (inches understood)
-has two thirds of a foot for each foot in length; a 2 × 6 has
-one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one third feet of
-lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a
-joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of
-square feet, board measure, that the joist contains.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel
-piece which can be cut from it is the width of the board
-being measured; therefore the board should be surveyed
-at the narrowest place. In measuring more expensive
-lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common
-use, the lumber scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is
-made of thin, cleft hickory, about three feet long, with
-one end large enough for a suitable handle; on the other
-end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the
-board while the scale is being read.</p>
-
-<p>The length of the board is marked near the handle, and
-at the end of the socket of the metal head, as at <i>a</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held
-against the edge of the board, as at <i>b</i>; the eye follows
-along the same line of figures upon which the length of the
-board is found, reading those figures nearest the width of
-the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’ long
-would, without further measuring or calculating, show that
-the board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>
-12’ long, it would contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading
-the middle line of figures, the board would be seen to contain
-15’.</p>
-
-<p>In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest
-figure, and when there is no difference, to alternate between
-the lower and the higher figures upon different
-boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or 9¼” wide
-would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two
-boards 8½” wide, of the same length as the above, would
-be measured as having 8’ and 9’, respectively, in their
-surfaces. In short, the fractions of a foot are not considered
-in surveying the lumber in common use.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f17">
-<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.—Lumber Scale.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>13. Qualities of wood.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Certain kinds of wood
-are adapted for some purposes better than are others;
-the wood-worker, therefore, should be familiar with the
-qualities which conditions demand, and the kinds of woods
-which have these qualities.</p>
-
-<p>Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it
-should be cut from trees which grow to a size that will
-allow large dimensions to be cut from them.</p>
-
-<p>For outside finish, the material should be wood which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>
-will stand the weather, can be easily worked, and will
-hold its shape well.</p>
-
-<p>Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality
-of durability, and should be of sufficient strength to resist
-the strain which will be put upon them.</p>
-
-<p>Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of
-good appearance. In providing lumber for inside finish,
-care should be used that it has good grain and color, is
-not too soft, and that it will hold its shape well. Almost
-any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned,
-but lumber which shrinks and warps badly is
-unfit for finishing.</p>
-
-<p>Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and
-which has the least tendency to warp and split.</p>
-
-<p>Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint
-well, and be as free as possible from the tendency to warp,
-split, and twist when exposed to the weather.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) All material used in framing a building should be
-weather-dried in good drying weather for at least thirty
-days for each inch in thickness, and that used for inside and
-outside finish and floors should be thoroughly kiln-dried,
-and kept in a dry place until ready for use. These conditions
-are not always obtainable, but if the best results
-are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible.</p>
-
-<p>The woods hereafter described comprise the principal
-varieties used by the wood-workers of the United States.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) <i>Ash</i> (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained,
-light-colored wood, in which the porous portions
-of the annual rings are quite prominent, thus making it
-somewhat coarse-grained.</p>
-
-<p>It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span>
-weight and hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young
-growth being much used in the manufacture of wagons,
-machinery frames, and for similar purposes, as it is not
-expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It
-has a tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with
-insects; therefore it is not suitable for building construction
-or for contact with soil.</p>
-
-<p>Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees,
-and is plentiful in many localities. There are two kinds
-of this wood recognized in commerce: the <i>white</i>, which is
-light-colored, and the <i>black</i>, which is of a brownish tinge,
-though there is little difference in the grain of the two.
-Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best
-part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in
-the Northern states is generally tougher than that grown
-farther south.</p>
-
-<p>The wood from the older and larger trees is not so
-tough and hard as that from the younger growth, and is
-much used for cabinet work and for interior finish. It
-should be filled with a paste-filler, after which it may be
-brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well
-and is useful for the purposes mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) <i>Apple</i> (dec.) is not used for construction, as the
-proper dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very
-stubborn to work. It is one of the best woods known to resist
-splitting, and is much used for chisel and saw handles.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) <i>Basswood</i>, or <i>linden</i> (dec.), is a soft, porous wood,
-which shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the
-backing of veneer work, for drawer bottoms of the common
-grades of furniture, for case backs, and similar purposes,
-and is also much used in the manufacture of spools<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span>
-and other small articles which are made in large quantities.
-In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings,
-and for other work where strength is not needed,
-though for use in such places it should be thoroughly
-seasoned, or the joints will open.</p>
-
-<p>If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form.
-Steaming also cures to a great extent the tendency of
-this wood to shrink and swell.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) <i>Beech</i> (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the
-ability to resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary,
-as in plane stocks, tool handles, and parts of machinery.
-In building work, it is used to some extent for flooring and
-for inside finishing. It is used also for furniture, though
-the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive than
-other equally desirable woods.</p>
-
-<p>If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it
-decays rapidly; if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction.</p>
-
-<p>Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi
-valleys, and are found to some extent in all of the
-states between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) <i>Birch</i> (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods.
-It is found in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of
-the Eastern states and Canada. There are two varieties
-recognized in commerce, the <i>red</i> and the <i>white birch</i>.
-The former is used considerably for inside finish and for
-furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to
-imitate cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any
-one but an expert. When finished in its own natural color,
-it is a satisfactory wood for the above uses, but as it ages,
-it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a stubborn wood to
-work, it is not popular.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f18">
-<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.—Beech and Sugar Maple Forest.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Canoe</i>, or <i>paper</i>, <i>birch</i> is softer than the red variety,
-and is used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and
-for the manufacture of spools, dowels, and a large variety
-of small articles.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>H.</b>) <i>Butternut</i> or <i>white walnut</i> (dec.) has a good grain
-and color; it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as
-are some harder woods, for it has a tendency to string while
-being dressed to a fine surface. It does not absorb moisture
-readily, and holds its shape under trying conditions.</p>
-
-<p>Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and
-is used considerably for furniture and for interior finish.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>I.</b>) <i>Cedar</i> (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two
-varieties, the <i>red</i> and the <i>white</i>. The former is used considerably
-for cooperage and veneers, lead pencils, and for
-lining moth-proof drawers and chests, as its strong odor and
-bitter taste protects it from the ravages of insects. The
-supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and it is now too
-expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it
-for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this
-valuable timber and of others, notably white and Georgia
-pine, has destroyed what would have been a supply for
-all time, if the cutting had been properly controlled.</p>
-
-<p>White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior
-wood; it is used for shingles, water tanks, boat building,
-and in the manufacture of barrels and cigar boxes. It is
-a very durable wood, and shrinks but little in drying. It
-is well adapted for burying, though not strong enough to
-resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red
-cedar, and makes a larger tree.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>J.</b>) <i>Cherry</i> (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods.
-It is much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>
-holds its shape well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a
-fine finish. Its grain is of fine, even texture, of reddish
-color, and often stained to imitate mahogany. When
-well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the genuine
-wood except by weight.</p>
-
-<p>Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns
-which are to stand rough usage. The tree is found in all
-of the states east of Texas, and in the Mississippi valley,
-but it is becoming too scarce for common use.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>K.</b>) <i>Chestnut</i> (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood,
-adapted to use in exposed situations. It is used a great
-deal for inside finish, as it will take a fine polish, and as
-the figures formed by the grain make it a very handsome
-wood for the purpose.</p>
-
-<p>Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy
-strain, and will shrink and crack badly in drying.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>L.</b>) <i>Cypress</i> (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our
-most durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for
-outside work. It is used extensively for shingles; roofs
-covered with cypress shingles have been known to last for
-more than seventy-five years. The wood is light, straight-grained,
-and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its shape
-well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine
-in the manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered
-by many to be equal, if not superior, to that wood.
-It is much used in building small boats, and for use in
-places where it will be exposed to dampness. Eaves,
-troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than
-those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar,
-which are the only woods having anti-decaying qualities
-equal to cypress.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions,
-and if it were stronger and harder, it would be one
-of our best woods for framing and finishing. It is used for
-the latter purpose to a considerable extent, as it has a
-handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if thoroughly
-seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If
-it is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable
-extent, but if forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes.
-Sap is not considered a blemish.</p>
-
-<p>Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the
-Southern states, the best of it coming from those bordering
-on the gulf.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>M.</b>) <i>Elm</i> (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to
-split. It warps and checks to some extent in drying, but
-when well seasoned it holds its shape as well as most woods
-in common use. It is susceptible to a good polish, and is
-used a great deal for interior finish and furniture, as it
-takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in
-the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm
-stump. It is used largely in cooperage, and stands contact
-with the soil satisfactorily.</p>
-
-<p>The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States,
-but is more abundant east of the Mississippi river.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>N.</b>) <i>Gum</i> (dec.), or, as it is more generally known,
-<i>sweet gum</i>, is extensively used for interior finish upon the
-better class of buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless
-thoroughly seasoned, in which condition it is a very
-satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong, cross-grained,
-and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown,
-and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly
-in the Southern states.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>O.</b>) <i>Hemlock</i> (con.) is found in most of the Northern
-states, and is used for scantlings, rough boards, under
-floors, and for boarding preparatory to siding. It is a
-fairly durable wood, but splits easily, and is apt to be full
-of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>P.</b>) <i>Hickory</i> (dec.) is the hardest native wood in common
-use, and the toughest wood that we have; it is too
-hard to be used for building material. It is flexible, and its
-principal use is for wagon and carriage work, and for other
-purposes where bent wood and great strength is required.
-As it does not split easily, it is much used in the manufacture
-of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring insects,
-and these pests often destroy much valuable timber.</p>
-
-<p>Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in
-fact the most desirable part of the tree, on account of its
-creamy whiteness and great strength.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>Q.</b>) <i>Locust</i> (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the
-country, and is a useful and durable wood. It is much
-used for fence posts and, in damp locations, for railway
-ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it has a yellowish
-brown color which takes a polish well.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>R.</b>) <i>Maple</i> (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white,
-with a yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds
-of maple, but the kind generally used for commercial
-purposes is the <i>sugar</i> or <i>rock maple</i>. It does not shrink
-excessively, seasons without serious checking, and from it
-a very fine surface for polishing may be obtained. It is
-much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as in
-floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent
-as a cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does
-not resist decay as well as do some other woods.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p>
-
-<p>Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its
-whiteness the sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood
-for many uses.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bird’s-eye maple</i> is of this wood, but some peculiarity
-in the growth of certain trees, believed by many to be caused
-by woodpeckers, has caused the tree to have what seem
-to be numerous small knots, known as curls or eyes. The
-presence of these imparts a beauty which is possessed by no
-other wood, and has never been successfully imitated.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>S.</b>) <i>Mahogany</i> (dec.) is an imported wood, and is
-much used in the finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture
-of fine furniture. It is of a rich red color, and has
-a beautiful grain and other desirable qualities which make
-it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its shape
-remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in
-every respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that
-prevents it from being universally used.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>T.</b>) <i>Oak</i> (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It
-is found abundantly in nearly all parts of the country,
-and forms the larger part of our broad-leaved forests.
-There are a number of species of oak, but they are in general
-known to commerce as the <i>red</i> and the <i>white oak</i>. Nearly
-all these trees are cut for commercial purposes, but the
-white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of
-oak is so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot
-be distinguished after the work is finished, therefore
-they are all put together and sold as a medium grade of
-white oak for purposes where the strength of the genuine
-is not required. This will generally account for the difference
-in the grain and the color which is noticed in
-handling the commercial white oak.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p>
-
-<p>Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble
-in seasoning than white oak, though they both have to be
-dried very carefully, or there may be checks and cracks
-to such an extent that the wood will be ruined. Both
-the red and the white oak are used extensively in finishing
-and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly
-upon the cheaper grades, as it is easier to work.</p>
-
-<p>The two varieties should never be used upon the same
-job, unless the wood is to be stained a dark color, as
-there is a marked difference in their appearance when
-finished. White oak is much used for flooring, quartered
-oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done.</p>
-
-<p>Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic
-conditions, though if buried deeply, or in water,
-where there is no alteration in moisture or dryness, it
-gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great extent for
-railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the future
-is causing much speculation, as the end of the present
-supply of white oak is already in sight.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>U.</b>) <i>Pine</i> (con.) in its different varieties is used more
-than any other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all
-parts of the United States and in Canada. Certain sections
-of the country which were once covered with virgin
-pine forests have, however, been so denuded of their
-wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed,
-within a few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen
-who cared more for their immediate profit than for
-the prospective good of the nation, that instead of a permanent
-and continual supply of this valuable wood, there
-are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown
-ruins of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>
-which this irremediable wrong was perpetrated against
-posterity.</p>
-
-<p><i>White pine</i> is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly
-seasoned will hold its shape better than any other wood
-except mahogany. For these reasons, and on account of
-its adaptability to gluing, it is used almost exclusively by
-pattern makers. It is found in the Northern states and
-in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows
-the grade of pine known as “Carolina,” the <i>bastard</i> or
-<i>yellow pine</i>. This belt extends from the Mississippi
-valley to the Atlantic coast, and is of a width to include
-Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder to work,
-and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine,
-but it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is
-capable of a fine finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard
-nor so strong as “Georgia” pine, which is also known
-commercially as <i>long-leaved pine</i>, <i>pitch pine</i>, or <i>hard pine</i>.
-This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in the states
-bordering upon the ocean and the gulf.</p>
-
-<p>Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the
-two above described, being much stronger and more dense.
-This is the wood which is used for heavy timbers of large
-buildings, and the above described grades should never
-be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting in work of
-less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine
-was intended. Although this wood is very hard and
-strong, and is the best wood for heavy construction, as
-has been stated, it should never be used in any place which
-is not dry and well ventilated, as it will decay rapidly if
-placed in a damp location, or where it will come in contact
-with the earth.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f19">
-<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.—White Pine Forest.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p>
-
-<p>There are several varieties of pine besides those above
-mentioned. These are generally less desirable for finish
-or for construction than is the white, yellow, or Carolina
-pine, but they are used extensively for the common work
-of light building, and by box factories.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>V.</b>) <i>Poplar</i> or <i>whitewood</i> (dec.) is cut from the tulip
-tree, and is found principally in the Middle West and in
-some parts of the South. It is of light weight and color,
-with few knots, and is soft and easily worked. It is used
-for the common grades of cabinet work, inside finishing,
-veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and
-its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers.
-It warps and shrinks considerably in seasoning, and
-unless held in its place, it is apt to twist.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>W.</b>) <i>Redwood</i> (con.) is taken from the big trees on the
-Pacific slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from
-knots, and may be obtained in boards of any size which
-it is possible to cut. It has the reputation of being one of
-the best woods for use in trying conditions, or where it
-will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.</p>
-
-<p>It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but
-it is not apt to become very popular for inside finish, as it is
-easily marred, and, although very soft, will, when thoroughly
-dry, destroy the edge of tools quicker than many
-harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive brown as
-it ages, if it is finished in its natural color.</p>
-
-<p>It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles,
-as it resists decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of
-the grain, and burns very slowly.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f20">
-<img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.—Douglas Spruce Forest.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>X.</b>) <i>Spruce</i> (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and
-in New England is used generally for framing light buildings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>
-and for rough boarding. Its color is almost pure
-white, and it has the valuable quality of holding nails
-firmly. There is little difference between the heart and
-the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is
-difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and
-twists badly in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable
-for framing trusses, unless seasoned lumber is used.</p>
-
-<p>Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for
-flooring, ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers
-in immense quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory
-wood for immersion, but if exposed to alternations of dryness
-and moisture, it decays rapidly.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>Y.</b>) <i>Sycamore</i>, or <i>buttonwood</i> (dec.), is found in nearly
-all parts of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern
-states. It is a moderately stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained,
-and quite difficult to smooth to a surface, as the
-grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has also
-a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons,
-but if well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no
-more trouble than do other woods. It takes a good
-polish, and is a desirable wood for inside finish.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>Z.</b>) <i>Walnut</i>, or <i>black walnut</i> (dec.), is found in all the
-Middle and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong,
-of a chocolate color, and takes a fine finish. It is well
-adapted to inside finish and to furniture work.</p>
-
-<p>At one time nearly all the best work was done in this
-wood, but at present it is out of style, as oak and other
-woods are more in favor. Like other varieties of our best
-woods, this has been cut out, and is now too expensive to
-be considered as anything but a fancy wood.</p>
-
-<p><i>White walnut</i> is described under butternut.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f21">
-<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.—Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p>
-
-<p>8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations?
-What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill?
-Why? Compare the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why
-is scientific forestry a necessity?</p>
-
-<p>9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How
-much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually
-sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To
-furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods
-of quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to
-economy. Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking
-qualities. What are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber
-is known?</p>
-
-<p>10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are
-commonly graded.</p>
-
-<p>11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of
-timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What
-does it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board?
-How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient
-decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?</p>
-
-<p>12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber
-over 1” in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To
-what lengths are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should
-a common board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate
-the use of the lumber scale.</p>
-
-<p>13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of
-timber for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside
-finish? For shingles? For siding? How long should lumber
-be dried before using? How should lumber for inside finish be cared
-for while waiting for use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the
-following kinds of lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut,
-cedar, cherry, chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust,
-maple, mahogany, oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c3">CHAPTER III</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Care of Lumber</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>14. The piling of lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) To the uninitiated it
-may seem that the piling of lumber is work upon which it
-is not necessary to expend much skill, but there are few
-operations in which carelessness or ignorance will cause
-more loss to a wood-worker.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The front end of a lumber pile should be higher
-than the back, therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon
-ground which falls away to the rear, or to build the ways
-which support the pile so that the water which drives
-into the pile will run out at the back end, and not stand
-upon the boards, as this will cause discolorations.</p>
-
-<p><b>15. Permanent lumber ways.</b>—These should be built
-by some method similar to that shown in Fig. 22. It is
-not a good plan to lay timbers upon the ground, as they
-will decay rapidly, and there will not be sufficient room
-for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards of
-the lower courses to dry out properly. The pile is also
-apt to settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the
-spring. Lumber should not be stacked above wet or
-marshy ground; if necessary to stack it where the weeds
-are of rank growth, the latter should be kept down.</p>
-
-<p>The ways should be built with a solid foundation, well
-below the frost line, though this is rarely done except for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>
-permanent lumber storage. This is shown at <i>a</i>, Fig. 22,
-in which it will be seen that the ways are built to stand a
-heavy load; the space between the centers of the ways
-should be about five feet, as multiples of this distance will
-accommodate any length of boards.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f22">
-<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.—Permanent Lumber Ways.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>16. To minimize the warping of lumber.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Do
-not place lumber piles less than one foot apart, as it is
-necessary that there should be a continuous circulation of
-air through the pile in all directions. (See <i>b</i>, Fig. 22.)</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Lumber piles are usually four feet in width, and
-should be built up with sticks of that length, which are
-placed between the courses of boards. It is important
-that these be placed directly over each other and the ways;
-otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards, as
-shown at <i>c</i>. It is such carelessness as this that causes a
-great deal of loss. In piling very expensive lumber, the
-front sticks should be laid so as to project a little over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>
-course of boards below, and the boards of the course
-above should project the same distance over the stick, in
-order to give the front of the pile an inclination to the
-front, as shown at <i>d</i>, which will allow most of the rain-water
-to drop clear of the boards below, instead of running
-down the front and finding its way into the pile.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Square piles are sometimes built, but in these the
-boards should be laid with large spaces between them, to
-allow perfect circulation of air. It is obvious that in a pile
-of this sort, the boards in the center of the pile will not
-come in contact with the air as much as those on the outside,
-and that consequently, unless carefully piled, the
-boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead
-of drying out, which usually results in decay.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) During the drying out process, all boards change
-their form more or less, depending upon the shape of the
-tree trunk, the kind and quality of the wood, the part of
-the tree from which the log was cut, as well as its size and
-age, the relation of the annual rings and medullary rays
-to the surfaces of the board, the length of time since the
-log was cut before being made into lumber, whether it
-had lain in water for several months, and the method of
-piling. Thus it will be seen that in every stage of preparing
-lumber for market, a high degree of skill and
-judgment is necessary to insure the best results.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f23">
-<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.—Warping of<br />
-Lumber.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The greatest deterioration in lumber, after it has been cut
-and properly piled, is generally due to the tendency to
-warp, the cause of which is indicated in Fig. 23, and which
-may to great extent be minimized by skillful piling. If this
-sketch is studied carefully, it will be noticed that the middle
-board is thicker in the middle than it is at the edges, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>
-that the curves of its top and bottom sides are practically
-uniform. This is because the annual layers are
-at nearly a right angle with the sides of the board, which
-causes the board to shrink in thickness, and very little
-in width. This is due to the tendency of lumber
-shrink around, or parallel with, the annual layers.
-This tendency also causes the star
-shakes, as at <i>c</i>, Fig. 3, which is
-because the inner layers of the log,
-being less than the outside layers in
-circumference, and less exposed to
-the dry air, do not shrink so fast nor
-so much. This tendency is again
-illustrated in Fig. 23, in which it will
-be seen that because the outer
-annual layers shrink faster, they
-cause the outside of the board, or
-the part which grew toward the outside of the tree, to
-become narrower, and to assume a concave shape, while
-the side nearer the center of the tree, or the inside of
-the board, becomes convex. This is also the reason why
-boards cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width
-more than those cut nearer the center, which shrink in
-thickness proportionately more than in width.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) For the purpose of taking advantage of the tendency
-to warp, and applying it to its own remedy, boards
-should be piled with the side which grew nearer the center
-of the tree uppermost. This will help to correct the
-tendency of the board to warp, as explained above, as the
-side which would naturally assume the concave shape will
-be underneath, and less likely to warp than if it were uppermost.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span>
-This is not generally observed in stacking common
-lumber, since it needs care and judgment to do it properly,
-but it should be done if valuable lumber is being
-handled.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f24">
-<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.—Lumber piled in Double<br />
-Courses.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Boards of practically the same width, if less than 7”
-wide, are sometimes stacked in double courses, as shown
-in Fig. 24, the outside of
-the boards, or the sides
-which grew nearer the outside
-of the tree being placed
-together, thus allowing the
-inside of the boards, or the
-sides which grew toward the
-center of the tree, to receive more air than the sides which
-are placed together, and therefore to dry out faster, which
-will reduce the warping to a minimum. After a pile is
-completed, it should be covered with old boards to protect
-the top courses from the weather.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) A pile of valuable lumber should be restacked
-every six or eight months, as the boards are apt to become
-discolored where the lumber sticks are placed; in this
-rehandling, the warped boards should be placed with the
-concave side underneath.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) If lumber is cut in winter or midsummer, and
-properly cared for, it is not apt to be injured by any rain
-which may drive into the pile, if there is free circulation of
-air; nor is it so liable to decay as lumber which is cut at
-other times of the year.</p>
-
-<p><b>17. Weather-dried lumber.</b>—Lumber which has been
-dried in the stack out of doors is not dry enough for use in
-the manufacture of inside finish or furniture, as it has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span>
-dried out only to the degree of moisture in the outside air.
-If it is then worked up and placed in an artificially heated
-house, the heat will cause more moisture to evaporate,
-the wood to shrink, and the joints to open. For material
-to be used in the frames of buildings, in wagons, or in
-other places where the greatest possible strength is required,
-not less than two years weather-drying is preferred,
-as the material retains its full strength.</p>
-
-<p><b>18. Kiln-dried lumber.</b>—Lumber for furniture or for
-inside finish should be seasoned by the process known as
-“kiln-drying.” This means that lumber is exposed to a
-temperature of from 120° to 200° F. by which the moisture
-is extracted and evaporated. Lumber thus treated is
-apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat
-upon the fibers of the wood, which causes thousands of
-minute fractures, and in many cases the life and the elasticity
-of the lumber is destroyed. The results of kiln-drying
-depend largely upon the kiln, and upon the skill
-with which the lumber is piled, the heat applied, and the
-rapidity of evaporation of the moisture regulated.</p>
-
-<p>For these reasons, much kiln-dried lumber is suitable
-for use where but little strength is required and where
-the color and the grain are the important points to
-consider.</p>
-
-<p><b>19. Moist air kilns.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) There are two types of
-dry kilns in common use: the <i>natural draft</i>, or moist air,
-kilns, and the <i>induced draft</i> kilns. These two types are
-made by different manufacturers, nearly all of whom use
-certain devices of which they control the patents, and
-which constitute the chief difference between their kiln
-and those made by other manufacturers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The moist air kilns are so constructed as to
-allow the freest possible circulation of the heated air,
-and to provide opportunities for the moisture to be
-expelled in accordance with certain natural laws, which
-results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed
-system of ventilation. These kilns operate upon the
-principle that heated air circulating naturally through
-lumber will become charged to a much greater degree with
-moisture than if it were forced through rapidly, as in the
-induced draft kilns. Thus, heated air by passing slowly
-through a pile of lumber may become charged with moisture
-nearly to the dew point.</p>
-
-<p>If the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that
-point, by allowing the moisture to pass out as it accumulates,
-with a small amount of heated air, which is
-replaced with fresh air from the outside, it is claimed that
-the boards will dry out from their centers. (<b>C.</b>) As the
-warm, moist air which circulates through the pile will
-keep the outsides of the boards moist, it will prevent case
-hardening, or the hardening of the outsides of the boards.
-This is caused by very warm dry air, which “cooks,”
-or closes the pores of the surface of the boards, and this
-prevents the outsides from shrinking, while the insides
-will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the
-boards.</p>
-
-<p>After the moisture is all out of the lumber, that held in
-suspension will gradually pass out of the kiln, and the air
-inside will become perfectly dry.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) It is claimed that all kinds of lumber in common
-use may be put into this type of kiln perfectly
-green, except oak and other very hard woods, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>
-should have at least thirty days’ drying under good drying
-conditions for each inch in thickness. It is also claimed
-that the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accelerated,—the
-moisture being thoroughly extracted from the
-lumber, the result being the same as though it were stacked
-out of doors for several years,—and that the lumber has
-lost none of its strength, elasticity, or characteristic color.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) This method sometimes is applied by steam pipes
-extending between each course of boards, and in this
-way the lumber is dried out very rapidly. Lumber used
-in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly weather-dried, or
-otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check
-badly. In certain forms of these kilns, the lumber is
-saturated with live steam after it is piled in the kiln, before
-the heat is turned on.</p>
-
-<p><b>20. Induced draft kilns.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This system of kiln-drying
-consists of a power-driven fan, which forces the
-heated air at a high rate of speed through the spaces between
-and around the lumber piled in the chamber.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Manufacturers have different devices for extracting
-the moisture from the air after it has passed through
-the lumber piles. It may be passed over condensing plates,
-or through coils of pipes in which cold water is continually
-circulating, both of these devices being for the purpose of
-extracting the moisture from the heated air. If the
-moisture is separated from the air by condensation, it runs
-away, but if not, a certain per cent of the heated air is
-expelled out of doors, being replaced by fresh air. The
-air in the kiln, somewhat cooled from contact with these
-cooled surfaces, is returned to the heater, reheated, and
-again forced through the kiln, which operation is repeated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>
-continuously and automatically. Thus the heated air
-becomes charged with a small percentage of moisture each
-time it passes through the kiln chamber; this moisture is
-extracted and the air is again heated before beginning
-another circuit, instead of slow circulation which allows
-the heated air to become saturated with moisture before
-it is discharged, as in the moist air kiln.</p>
-
-<p>The induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive
-equipment, as the blower and the appliance which drive
-it are necessary in addition to the equipment of the kiln
-itself, which would be similar in either of the types of kiln
-described. Lumber to be dried in this form of kiln must
-be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high
-temperature of the kiln.</p>
-
-<p><b>21. Results of the two systems.</b>—While it is not the
-province of this book to pass judgment upon the results
-of the different methods or forms of dry kilns, it is obvious
-that the induced draft kiln is the more expensive to operate,
-as the expense of running the blower is avoided in
-the moist air system. In this latter type of kiln the steam
-simply passes through the pipes, the condensation being
-returned to the boiler to be reheated, so the only expense
-is that of maintaining the fire to keep up a low pressure.
-In the daytime, or while the engine which furnishes the
-power for the plant is running, the kilns of either type may
-be heated by exhaust steam.</p>
-
-<p>Many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with
-the results obtained from either, while others are decided
-in their preference.</p>
-
-<p><b>22. Filling a kiln.</b>—In doing this, care should be
-used that there is plenty of room for the air to circulate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>
-freely around and through the pile—not less than 3”
-between the edges of the boards horizontally and vertically,
-and one foot between the lumber and the wall or adjacent pile.
-Each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the
-same width over those of the course below, if possible, in
-order to keep a vertical air space through the pile. In
-some cases the kiln is filled by placing the boards edgeways.</p>
-
-<p><b>23. Length of time lumber should be left in the kiln.</b>—No
-one should undertake to operate a kiln unless he
-understands perfectly the particular make of the kiln that
-he is handling, for if the ventilation is not correctly regulated,
-the entire charge of the kiln may become mildewed,
-casehardened, checked, discolored, or dried unevenly.
-No rule can be given for the time which lumber should be
-left in the kiln, as it depends upon the condition of the
-lumber, temperature, kind of lumber, dimensions, and
-ventilation. Generally speaking, if the kiln is properly
-constructed and operated, from two to four days for
-each inch in thickness of soft wood, and from two to
-three times as long, at a lower temperature, for hard
-wood, is usually enough to extract the moisture. It is,
-however, best to allow the lumber to stay in the kiln, at
-a moderate temperature, from three days to two weeks
-after the moisture is extracted, in order to harden and
-cook the solids of the sap, as by so doing the lumber is
-not so liable to be influenced by moisture in the future;
-this is the effect that long weather-drying accomplishes.</p>
-
-<p><b>24. The care of kiln-dried lumber.</b>—It is a common
-mistake to allow lumber to lie in an open shed or other
-place where it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere,
-and still call it kiln-dried. Lumber of this sort should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>
-be kept in a place where heat can be applied in damp
-weather, and should be stacked in a close, compact pile,
-so as to prevent the air from coming in contact with it.</p>
-
-<p><b>25. Steaming wood.</b>—This process makes wood pliable,
-and adds to its durability by destroying the germs which
-may cause decay; it also neutralizes, to a great extent,
-the effect of the presence of sap. Steaming or immersing
-wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency to shrink
-and swell, and wood thus treated is not so apt to check
-in seasoning. Steamed wood loses some of its original
-strength on account of the effect of the high temperature
-upon the fibers.</p>
-
-<p><b>26. Preserving wood.</b>—In order to preserve wood, it
-is sometimes treated with creosote or other chemicals,
-which are forced into the wood at a sufficient pressure to
-cause them to permeate the wood thoroughly. This
-treatment enables the wood to resist better the elements
-and to keep away insects, which do a great deal of damage,
-frequently honeycombing the wood with holes, with little
-or no evidence of their presence upon the outside.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p>
-
-<p>14. What are some of the results of piling lumber carelessly? Should
-the back and the front of the lumber pile be upon the same level?
-Why?</p>
-
-<p>15. How should lumber ways be built? What kind of places should
-be avoided in seeking a location for lumber piles?</p>
-
-<p>16. Should the piles be placed close to each other? How wide
-should the piles be made? What is the objection to a square pile?
-How thick should the lumber sticks be? How should they be placed?
-What is the result if they are not carefully placed? How should the
-sticks and the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>
-Why? What causes lumber to warp? Describe methods of piling
-lumber to minimize warping. Should a lumber pile be allowed to stand
-indefinitely? What is the proper time to cut lumber? Does it injure
-lumber to allow a little rain to beat into the pile?</p>
-
-<p>17. What is meant by weather-dried lumber? Why is it not suitable
-for furniture and for inside finish? How is this remedied? For
-what purposes is weather-dried lumber the best?</p>
-
-<p>18. What is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber?</p>
-
-<p>19. What are the two methods of kiln-drying? Describe the principle
-of the moist air kiln. What is claimed of it? How should hard
-wood lumber be treated before being kiln-dried?</p>
-
-<p>20. Describe the induced draft system. What devices are used to
-extract the moisture from the heated air? What are the main points
-of difference between the two systems?</p>
-
-<p>21. What is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be
-put in the two forms of kilns? Which is the more expensive system to
-install and operate? How do users of the two systems compare them?</p>
-
-<p>22. How should lumber be stacked in the kiln?</p>
-
-<p>23. How long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow
-the moisture to be extracted? How long to insure most permanent
-results?</p>
-
-<p>24. How should kiln-dried lumber be cared for?</p>
-
-<p>25. What is the effect of steaming wood?</p>
-
-<p>26. How is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements
-and from insects?</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c4">CHAPTER IV</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Tools</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>27. How to purchase tools.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The quality of the
-tools used by the mechanic is of the greatest importance.
-They should be selected carefully, and while it is the
-poorest economy to buy anything but the best, the best
-are not necessarily the most finely finished.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that
-those made especially for some dealer, and bearing his
-name, if sold for a less price than the best, are usually not
-of the highest grade, and should be shunned. It is wisest
-to buy standard makes, examining them carefully to be
-sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of
-steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in
-the best grades of tools is made good upon complaint to
-the dealer.</p>
-
-<p><b>28. Benches.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Figure 25 shows the type of bench
-used in the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops,
-while that used by carpenters for ordinary work usually is
-of the type shown in Fig. 26.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In many manual-training schools, the benches are
-of the former type, and in the most completely equipped
-schools, are fitted with locked drawers and closets for the
-reception of tools, not only to keep the latter in condition
-for use, but to insure that the set of tools is complete, and
-to be able to place the responsibility for damage or loss.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f25">
-<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.—Manual-training Bench.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f26">
-<img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.—Carpenter’s Bench.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The <i>vises</i> should be of the modern, quick action
-design, which, on account of the rapidity with which they
-work, are superseding the old-fashioned wooden and iron
-screw vises.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f27">
-<img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.—Two-foot, Four-fold Rule.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f28">
-<img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.—Zigzag<br />
-Rule.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>29. Rules.</b>—The two-foot, four-fold <i>rule</i> (Fig. 27) is
-the one generally used by carpenters. It is made of different
-grades, the more expensive makes
-being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and
-12ths, and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“,
-1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them.
-Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate,
-it is divided usually into 8ths and
-16ths only. The form of rule shown in
-Fig. 28 is becoming quite popular, as it
-is longer. Since rules are easily lost or
-broken, many workmen have a good rule
-for scaling, and a cheaper one for general
-work.</p>
-
-<p><b>30. The try-square</b> (<b>A.</b>) consists of the
-beam (Fig. 29, <i>a</i>), which is generally of metal-lined
-wood, and the blade (<i>b</i>), which is a thin piece of steel.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection
-of this tool, as one which is not perfectly true may
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>cause much trouble. To test a square, hold the beam
-against a perfectly straight and square edge of a board
-which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>
-entire length of the blade. Then turn the square over,
-the other side up, and, holding the beam against the same
-edge, move the blade to the line. If the jointed edge
-of the board and the square are perfectly accurate, the
-knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f29">
-<img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.—Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f30">
-<img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.—Use of Two Try-squares to See if Piece of Wood is “Out<br />
-of Wind.”</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f31">
-<img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.—Position of Try-square when<br />
-Making Line.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The use of this
-tool in squaring an
-edge is shown in Fig.
-29. The piece being
-squared should be in
-such a position that
-the try-square will be
-between the eye and
-the light; in this way,
-the slightest inaccuracy
-may be detected.
-In Fig. 31 is shown
-the position of the
-try-square when used
-to make a line by the
-edge of the blade.
-If working from the
-edge indicated, hold
-the beam against the edge with the thumb, and at the
-same time hold the blade down with one or two fingers,
-using the others to steady the square in its place upon
-the board. (<b>D.</b>) Two try-squares may be used to see if
-a piece of wood is “out of wind” (<i>i</i> sounded as in kind)
-by the method indicated in Fig. 30.</p>
-
-<p>Two pieces of wood known as <i>winding sticks</i>, of exactly
-the same width and perfectly parallel, are often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>
-used in manual-training schools for this purpose; they
-are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman generally
-will use two steel squares if the piece is too large
-to be sighted accurately without some aid of this sort.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f32">
-<img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.—Steel, or Framing, Square.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>31. The steel, or framing, square</b> (Fig. 32) is often
-used as a try-square upon large work, though its most important
-use is in framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable
-in finding the lengths and the angles of rafters,
-braces, etc. Its use for this
-purpose will be explained
-in “Constructive Carpentry.”
-The long side of the
-framing square is known as
-the “blade,” and the short
-side as the “tongue.”</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f33">
-<img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.—Bevel and Steel Square.</span></p>
-<p class="caption">The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>32. The bevel</b> (Fig. 33)
-may be set for use in marking
-and testing any angle,
-in the same manner that
-the try-square is used upon
-rectangular work. The
-sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for
-setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed
-that the blade of the bevel rests upon the same figures
-upon both the blade and the tongue of the square.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>33. The gauge</b> (<b>A.</b>), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making
-lines parallel to the face or working side or edge.
-Usually it is made in four
-pieces: the “head” (<i>a</i>),
-which is held against the face
-side or edge; the “stick”
-(<i>bb</i>), upon which the head
-moves; the “thumbscrew”
-(<i>c</i>), which holds the head
-firmly in its position upon
-the stick; and the “point”
-(<i>d</i>), which makes the desired
-mark upon the wood.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f34">
-<img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.—Marking Gauge.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, the head; <i>bb</i>, the stick; <i>c</i>,<br /> the thumbscrew;
-<i>d</i>, the point.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless
-one is certain that the point is located accurately with
-regard to the graduations upon the stick.</p>
-
-<p>The point should be sharpened to work with either a
-push or pull cut, as at <i>e</i>.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35,
-and generally used with a push, though it is occasionally
-pulled toward the worker. One should always work from
-the face side of the piece.</p>
-
-<p>If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set
-back, or the gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated,
-which will govern the depth of the cut. Do not use
-a dull gauge, or one with a round point like a pencil, as it
-will tear the wood, instead of making a clean cut or scratch.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f35">
-<img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.—Marking Gauge in Use.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>34. The hammer</b> (<b>A.</b>) is used by the average wood-worker
-more than any other tool. The “face” (Fig.
-36, <i>a</i>) and the “claws” (<i>b</i>) should be tempered carefully,
-as they will either bruise or bend if too soft, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>
-break if too hard. The eye (<i>c</i>) is made longer than it is
-wide, to prevent the head from turning on the handle,
-and larger at the outside of the head than it is at the neck,
-so that the handle may be firmly wedged in the eye or
-socket. The neck (<i>d</i>), by extending upon the handle as it
-does, adds much to the strength of the connection.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f36">
-<img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.—Claw Hammer.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, the face; <i>b</i>, the claws; <i>c</i>, the eye; <i>d</i>, the neck; <i>e</i>, grain of neck.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained
-hickory, elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped
-easily.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p>
-
-<p>The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and
-the annual layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at
-the end, as at <i>c</i>. The handle should be fitted and wedged,
-or “hung” in such a way that a nail may be driven home
-in a flat surface without the knuckles striking, which
-means that the center of the handle should be about parallel
-with the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head
-through the eye should exactly coincide with the long, or
-major, axis of the ellipse at the end of the handle, as at <i>gg</i>,
-or pounded fingers will result.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f37">
-<img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, toenailing; <i>b</i>, tacking.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>bell-faced</i> hammer is to be preferred to the <i>flat-faced</i>
-type, as it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is
-missed, though more skill is required to use it. Upon rough
-work, the bell-faced hammer will sink the nail beneath the
-surface without bruising the wood badly. Upon inside work,
-the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a nail set.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the
-habit of grasping the handle of the hammer at the end,
-as this will give greater force to the
-blow. Upon light work, the hand
-will naturally slip a little toward
-the head. Nails should generally
-be driven in a slanting direction,
-as they hold better than if driven
-straight. When nails are driven as
-shown at <i>a</i>, Fig. 37, it is called
-“toenailing,” and when driven sufficiently
-to hold, but not driven home,
-as at <i>b</i>, they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven
-this way when they are to be pulled out again, as in stay
-laths, and in fastening pieces temporarily.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f38">
-<img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.—Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail<br />
-Set.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In forcing matched boards together, do not pound
-directly upon the tongue edge of the board, but upon a
-waste piece of the same material, as the tongue will be
-bruised so that the
-next board will not
-form a good joint.
-Care should be used
-that the hammer
-does not strike the
-edge of the board
-when the nail is
-driven home. To
-guard against this, a
-nail set should be
-used to sink the
-head beneath the surface,
-as in Fig. 38, so
-that the next board
-will come to its place
-without trouble.
-This is called “blind
-nailing.”</p>
-
-<p><b>35. The hatchet</b>
-(<b>A.</b>) is used for hewing
-light work, for shingling; and as a heavy hammer,
-though the face is rarely tempered to stand very heavy
-usage (Fig. 39, <i>a</i>).</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) A <i>hand axe</i>, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, <i>b</i>), usually
-is a better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of
-greater weight, is better adapted for heavy work. A
-hatchet or hand axe for general use should be sharpened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>
-as at <i>c</i>; but for hewing only, an edge like <i>d</i> will give the
-best results.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f39">
-<img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—<i>a</i>, hatchet; <i>b</i>, hand axe.</p>
-<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>36. The mallet.</b>—This tool should be used upon chisel
-handles, as a hammer
-will destroy the handle
-in a very short time.
-Mallets are of two
-shapes, the <i>square-faced</i>
-(Fig. 40, <i>a</i>) and the
-<i>round</i> mallet (<i>b</i>), the
-latter being preferred
-by many workmen as it
-will always strike a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while
-the square-faced mallet sometimes will miss, and inflict a
-painful blow upon the hand. In general, the handle of
-a square-faced mallet is round,
-which allows the mallet to turn
-in the hand; if the handle were
-made elliptical, like a hammer
-handle, there would be less
-likelihood of missing the chisel.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f40">
-<img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.—Mallets.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>a</i>, square-faced mallet; <i>b</i>, round mallet.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>37. Saws.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The saws
-used by the carpenter are for
-cutting parallel with, or across,
-the grain, or a combination of
-the two, and all are composed
-of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.”</p>
-
-<p>The teeth of a <i>ripsaw</i> (Fig. 41, <i>A</i>) are suitable for sawing
-in a direction parallel with the general direction of the
-grain. The points of different saws may be from one
-third to one seventh of an inch apart, and form a series of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>
-chisels, the cutting edges of which are filed so that they
-are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In action,
-the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting
-a little deeper than
-the one preceding it.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>cutting-off
-saw</i> (Fig. 41, <i>B</i>) has
-from six to twelve
-knife-pointed teeth
-to an inch, the cutting
-edges being
-parallel to the sides
-of the blade, and
-filed so that the
-point of the tooth
-is upon the side
-which is set beyond
-the side of the blade.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f41">
-<img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>, <i>A.</i> <span class="smcap">Ripsaw.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>dd</i>, view and section of setting of teeth.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft2">
-<img src="images/fig41b.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>, <i>B</i>. <span class="smcap">Cutting-off Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft2">
-<img src="images/fig41c.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>, <i>C</i>. <span class="smcap">Compass, or Keyhole, Saw.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.—Saws.</span><br />
-(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in<br />
-Fig. 41, the set of the teeth is exaggerated.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In all except the
-finest saws, the
-teeth are set; that
-is, the points are
-bent a very little in
-such a way as to
-make the cut wider
-than the thickness
-of the blade, so that
-the saw may cut
-through the wood
-without binding,
-which it could not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>
-do if the cut were the same thickness as the blade. The
-blades of all high grade saws are thinner upon the back than
-upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used upon the
-finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges
-of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary.
-For general work, it will be found that the saw
-will be much more efficient if it is given a set adapted to
-the size of the teeth, or to the nature of the work it is expected
-to do.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>compass</i>, or <i>keyhole</i>, <i>saw</i> (Fig. 41, <i>C</i>) is used where
-it is necessary that the saw should cut both with and across
-the grain. It is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off
-saw, when a cut has to be made in the surface of a
-board. This saw is used also in many places where it is
-not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing curves.
-In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or
-cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and
-the blade is made of soft metal. It may then be given
-a heavy set, so that it will bend instead of breaking or
-kinking, as it would be liable to do from the nature of its
-work if made of tempered steel.</p>
-
-<p>Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is
-desirable to carry as few tools as possible, have a narrow
-20” or 22” saw sharpened like
-a compass saw, which for
-ordinary work is quite satisfactory
-as either a cutting-off
-or a ripsaw, thus making
-another saw unnecessary.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f42">
-<img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.—Backsaw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>backsaw</i> (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is
-filed like a cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>
-more hook, and it often has as many as fifteen teeth to the
-inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as fine as is generally
-used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of the saw,
-and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the
-back, as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually
-straighten it.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon
-the cutting edge than upon the back; this allows the saw
-to be used upon very fine work with little or no setting.
-See that the handle fits the hand, and that the saw hangs to
-suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter concerning the
-balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be described,
-but which any one accustomed to using tools will
-miss if a tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand.</p>
-
-<p>A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend
-so that the point may be put through the handle, and
-upon being released, instantly resume its shape. It should
-bend evenly in proportion to the width and the gauge of
-the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the blade
-will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore
-runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being
-softer, is not expected to stand the above test.</p>
-
-<p>A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off
-saw to be used upon coarse work; but for fine work,
-a 22” blade, commonly known as a “panel saw,” is a convenient
-size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is preferred by
-many workmen.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f43">
-<img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.—Use of the Saw.</span></p>
-<p class="caption">Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work
-most workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the
-teeth of a hard saw are apt to break in setting, and its
-edge, if it comes in contact with metal, requires filing just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>
-about as quickly
-as that of a soft
-saw, and is much
-more difficult to
-sharpen. If always
-filed by an expert
-filer, a hard saw is
-superior in every
-way to any other.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f44">
-<img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.—Reset Saw<br />
-Handle.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) The handle
-of the saw should
-be grasped firmly
-by three fingers,
-as in Fig. 43, with
-the forefinger extended
-along the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>
-side, thus making more room for the three fingers, and
-giving better control of the saw. Very little strength
-should be used in forcing a fine saw
-to cut, as its own weight generally is
-sufficient; if the saw is forced, it will
-not run smoothly, but will bind, and
-if a thin board is being worked, it is
-apt to split. The saw should be used
-from the face side of the material, so
-that any splinters or variation will be upon the back side
-and out of sight.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the
-handles of their heavy saws by drilling holes through the
-blade so that the handle may be fastened as close to
-the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig. 44. This brings the
-force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the cut, which
-obviously allows a more economical application of force.
-Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off
-the trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will
-be discussed later.)</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f45">
-<img src="images/fig45.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.—Knife Blades.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, used by wood-worker;<br />
-<i>B</i>, used in manual-training
-schools.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>38. The knife blade</b> used by the wood-worker for general
-work is similar to that shown in
-Fig. 45, at <i>A</i>. That shown at <i>B</i> is the
-form of blade in most common use in
-manual-training schools, as it is better
-adapted for whittling, its shape assisting
-the student to some extent to prevent
-the knife from following the grain.</p>
-
-<p><b>39. Planes.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) The <i>plane</i> is the
-most complex, as well as one of the most important,
-tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high grade of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span>
-skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it
-properly.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f46">
-<img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.—Section of Iron Plane.</span></p>
-<p class="caption1">1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap lever; 4<i>a</i>, cam; 5, cap screw;
-6, frog; 6<i>a</i>, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, vertical adjusting nut; 8<i>a</i>, vertical adjusting screw; 9,
-lateral adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 14, bolt
-knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The only plane in use until recent years had a
-wooden stock, and the iron was adjusted by blows with
-a hammer; this form of plane has changed very little
-since the first types were invented, as planes of ancient
-times have been found which in all essentials are practically
-the same as those in use to-day.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and
-more convenient to use, though they will do no better
-work than the wooden planes of our forefathers, which are
-still preferred by many of the best workmen. The face of
-an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is necessary
-that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f47">
-<img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.—Result of Using Plane<br />
-with Improperly Adjusted Cap
-Iron.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) There are planes for every conceivable purpose,
-all constructed upon the same general principle as the
-common bench plane which
-we shall discuss later. These
-planes are adjusted by screws
-and levers, which are very
-simple, and any one understanding
-them may easily comprehend
-the more intricate
-molding or universal planes.</p>
-
-<p>The adjustment of the
-modern plane may be understood
-by a careful study of Fig. 46 and by comparing
-it with the plane itself. The “cutter,” “iron,” or “bit”
-(1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the tool, and
-it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency
-of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too
-far from the edge of the iron, and if the cut is made against
-the grain, the shaving will not break before it leads the
-iron into the wood, as shown in
-Fig. 47. If the cap iron is set
-somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from
-the edge of the cutter, according
-to the wood being planed,
-it will break the shaving nearly
-as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48,
-and will result in a smooth, clean
-surface. The closer the cap iron
-is set to the edge, the smoother
-the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby
-made shorter.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f48">
-<img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.—Result of Using<br />
-Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted
-Properly.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron
-(2) is set to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the
-breaks will be, as in Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the
-plane will cut. The plane “iron screw” (3) holds the edge of
-the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap iron (2) in their
-desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed against
-the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the
-“cam” (4<i>a</i>), holds the iron in its place, and presses the
-cap iron (2) firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless
-the cap iron fits the face of the cutter perfectly, the
-plane will not work satisfactorily. The “frog” (6)
-carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and may
-be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the
-“mouth” (6<i>a</i>), which should be no larger than is necessary
-to allow the shavings to pass freely. The frog
-rarely will require readjusting after it has been properly
-located.</p>
-
-<p>The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2)
-in or out simultaneously, which governs the projection,
-or “set,” of the edge of the cutter (1) beyond the face, or
-“sole” (<i>b</i>) of the “plane stock,” and thus the thickness
-of the shaving which the plane will cut. The “adjusting
-nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8<i>a</i>) and operates
-the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for
-the purpose of forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of
-the width of the face (b) of the plane. The two “frog
-screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in the position which
-will make the throat (6<i>a</i>) of the desired size.</p>
-
-<p>The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the
-other parts of the plane are as follows: “handle” (11);
-“knob” (12); “handle bolt” and “nut” (13); “knob<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>
-bolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,”
-or “stock” (16).</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f49">
-<img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.—Setting a Plane.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The face, or sole, of the plane (<i>b</i>) must be perfectly
-straight, or good work cannot be done. The ends of the
-plane (<i>h</i> and <i>t</i>) are
-called the “heel” and
-“toe,” respectively.
-The “mouth” of the
-plane (between 6<i>a</i>
-and 2) must be kept
-clear of shavings,
-or it may become
-clogged.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) In setting a
-plane, do not pass
-the fingers over the
-face, or sole, as cut
-fingers may result.
-Hold the plane as
-shown in Fig. 49,
-and look toward the
-light, when the exact
-projection of the cutter may be seen. Notice the position
-of the fingers of the left hand, and that the eye glances
-from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to make
-the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a
-plane, and in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness
-should be avoided.</p>
-
-<p><b>40. Sharpening a plane.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) An important part of
-this process is <i>the grinding of the cutter</i>. Set the cap
-back about ⅛” from the edge of the iron, and use it as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>
-guide by which to grind the iron perfectly square, as at
-<i>A</i>, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept perfectly square,
-and never touched except to fit it to the cutter, or, if it is
-too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file the
-top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in
-order skillfully, the cap
-will need care only upon
-rare occasions.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f50">
-<img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.—Whetting and Grinding of<br />
-Plane.</span></p>
-<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The cutter should be
-held firmly to the grindstone
-or emery wheel
-and kept moving from
-side to side to prevent
-wearing the stone in
-one place. The grinding
-should all be done
-upon the beveled side of
-the cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an
-angle of about 20° (as at <i>B</i>, Fig. 50), more rather than
-less, as a thinner edge is apt to “chatter,” or vibrate, if
-it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many workmen use
-a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any
-device which holds the tool firmly at the same place on
-the stone will do for a rest.</p>
-
-<p>In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should
-be loosened and the cap iron carried back until the screw
-stops at the top of the slot of the bit, as at <i>C</i>, Fig. 50.
-The screw is then tightened with the fingers to hold the
-cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the iron, though
-some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while
-whetting.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f51">
-<img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the
-surface of the oilstone, as shown at <i>C</i>, Fig. 50, the iron
-being grasped as in Fig. 51. Keep the right wrist rigid
-and allow the arm to swing from the shoulder, bending
-only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion may
-be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve
-the bevel. Though the bevel may be maintained better
-by imparting a short circular motion to the plane iron, or
-to any edge tool which is being sharpened, it seems an awkward
-and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an
-expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds
-that a stroke made nearly the entire length of the stone
-will impart an edge quicker, and after the knack has been
-acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as well.</p>
-
-<p>Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work
-upon the farther end, as in this way the stone may be
-kept true much longer than if one place upon it is used all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span>
-the time. This will also minimize the danger of pulling
-the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will
-generally make regrinding necessary.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f52">
-<img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face,
-or the top of the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in
-Fig. 52, holding it down with the fingers of the left hand,
-using the right hand only to move the iron back and forth.
-Care should be used that under no circumstances is the
-face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from the stone.
-At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care
-is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its
-perfectly straight surface at the edge, as the slightest
-deviation from absolute accuracy at this place will prevent
-the cap iron from fitting properly, which will cause endless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>
-trouble, as the shavings will be forced between the
-cap and the face of the iron (see <b>C.</b> of this topic).</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f53">
-<img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.—Shape<br />
-of Edge of<br />
-Plane Iron.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter
-has an important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine
-the edge divided into three equal parts: the middle part
-should be perfectly straight, or almost imperceptibly
-rounded; the two outside thirds
-should be slightly and gradually rounded
-until the corners of the iron are so short that
-there will be no danger of their projecting
-below the face of the plane. This gives
-the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in
-Fig. 53, which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape
-shown is about that which would be seen if a moderately
-coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be
-fitted so carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter
-that, if necessary, it may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch
-from the cutting edge, though this would rarely be required
-except upon very cross-grained wood.</p>
-
-<p>In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very
-fine, sharp file should be used. The filing must all be
-done upon the under side of the cap iron, at the places
-where it rests upon the face or top of the cutter; or, if
-preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but unless
-there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint
-is perfected by the use of a file, this method is not
-recommended.</p>
-
-<p>If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be
-sharpened and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01”
-or less in thickness of bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span>
-ash, or similar wood may be smoothed. It is not wise,
-however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane
-sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a
-scraper and sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most
-economical way to smooth woods of such nature.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions
-which cause it; simply digging out the shavings
-is useless. An improperly fitted cap iron is one of the
-principal causes of trouble; the cutter may be ground so
-thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard place,
-the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance
-under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage
-of a wooden plane over the modern iron plane, as in
-the former the iron is much thicker and stiffer. The
-cap iron may be so thick that it causes the shavings to
-curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the
-front, which will make the mouth too small. This latter
-may be remedied by moving the frog back, but in a
-wooden plane, the mouth and the throat would have to
-be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear themselves
-properly.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f54">
-<img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.—Jack Plane.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>41. The jack plane</b> (Fig. 54) generally is 15” long,
-and its ordinary use is for the purpose of roughing out a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>
-piece of wood for jointing or smoothing. If it is properly
-sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing plane, or as a
-jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as good
-work as any plane.</p>
-
-<p>The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and
-the cap set farther back than in the other planes, especially
-if it is to be used upon rough work.</p>
-
-<p><b>42. The jointer.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This tool is from 20” to 26”
-long, and is used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to
-fit them together. The shape of the edge of the cutter
-of this plane should be but slightly elliptical, less so than
-the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two latter are
-fitted for doing very fine work.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge,
-it should be carried to one side or the other of its face as
-may be necessary to take advantage of the elliptically
-shaped edge of the cutter, by cutting a shaving thicker on
-one edge than on the other, thus making the edge of the
-board square with the face side.</p>
-
-<p>To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be
-made in the center of both the iron and the width of the
-face of the plane. The plane should be held as shown
-in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the plane, the
-tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding
-the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place
-upon its edge.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f55">
-<img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.—Method of Guiding a Jointer.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>43. The smoothing plane</b> (<b>A.</b>) is of the same type and
-mechanism as those described above, though it is but
-9 or 10” long; if satisfactory work is expected from it,
-it must be kept in good order, with the cap iron perfectly
-fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>
-time to insure that the plane should be continually in
-readiness to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood,
-as a plane to do the latter kind of work well is unnecessary
-upon softer or straight-grained wood. For ordinary
-work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆” from the
-edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the
-edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer
-the work that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary
-work is so cross-grained or knurly that it cannot be
-smoothed economically, if a properly sharpened and adjusted
-plane is used.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f56">
-<img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.—Knuckle Joint Block Plane.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly
-the entire width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat,
-elliptically shaped edge must be maintained. In using a
-plane or any kind of
-cutting tool, the direction
-of the grain
-of the wood should
-be carefully studied,
-and every advantage
-taken of it to facilitate
-the work.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f57">
-<img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.—Use of the Block Plane.</span></p>
-<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>44. The block
-plane</b> (knuckle joint
-cap, Fig. 56) (<b>A.</b>) is constructed upon a somewhat different
-principle than the planes above described, as the adjusting
-nut (<i>a</i>) under the cutter at the rear end of the plane is
-raised or lowered to withdraw
-or advance the bit,
-and thus govern the cut of
-the tool. The size of the
-mouth is controlled by a
-movable section of the face
-at <i>b</i>. This plane has no
-cap iron, as the use for
-which it is intended makes
-it unnecessary. The block
-plane is used across the
-end of the wood, at right
-angles with the general direction of the grain. The iron,
-or cutter, is so placed in the stock of the plane that its
-cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut as possible,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>
-with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this
-method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to
-resist the chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f58">
-<img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.—Using Block Plane upon Small<br />
-Pieces.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts
-from edge to edge,
-or chips will be
-broken off at the corners;
-instead, plane
-from each edge, and
-stop the stroke before
-the other edge
-is reached; reverse
-the plane and work
-from the other direction,
-as shown at <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, Fig. 57. Another
-and workmanlike
-way of using
-the block plane upon
-small pieces is shown
-in Fig. 58. Work
-from each edge as described
-above, turning
-the piece over
-for each stroke. In sharpening the block plane iron,
-the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel
-carefully maintained.</p>
-
-<p><b>45. The correct position.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) In using planes or
-any edge tools, a position should be taken which will
-furnish sufficient resistance to the pressure required for
-making the cut, as the pressure should be applied firmly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span>
-and steadily. With experience, the correct position will
-be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually
-upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired
-easily, and the young workman should learn to work in as
-nearly an erect position as possible, for if the bending of
-the shoulders is persisted in, a permanent stoop will result.
-Stand facing the work and clear of the bench in
-order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f59">
-<img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.—Incorrect Use of Jack
-Plane.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Do not allow the
-plane to drop over the
-end of the board at either
-the beginning or the end
-of the stroke, as indicated
-at <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, Fig. 59. To prevent
-this, the hand should be kept upon that part of
-the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of
-the stroke, the weight should be upon the front end of the
-plane, as in Fig. 60, and at the end of the stroke upon the
-rear end, or upon the handle, as in Fig. 61. Begin and end
-each stroke with a lifting motion instead of allowing the
-plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane
-should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump;
-this is caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving
-heavier than the plane should cut, or, if the cap iron is
-fitted and adjusted properly, by a dull iron. A cutter will
-jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly against the frog.
-In drawing the plane back after making a stroke, carry it
-upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat
-upon its face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as
-when it is cutting, or possibly more.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f60">
-<img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.—Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f61">
-<img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.—Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is
-possible, and take no more shavings off than is necessary
-to attain the desired results. The young workman should
-make a study of the grain and the peculiarities of the
-different kinds of lumber upon which he works, losing no
-opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities
-of every available wood.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained,
-and much is often lost, by working with dull tools; tools
-should be sharpened often and thoroughly. This is of the
-utmost importance, for even with the tools in the best
-possible order, it will require much care and skill to do
-good work.</p>
-
-<p><b>46. Chisels.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Carpenters’ chisels are used for
-paring and mortising; the paring chisel should be light,
-smoothly finished, and ground with a sharper bevel than
-that used for mortising, for which the heaviest chisel is
-none too strong.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according
-to the method by which the blade and handle is joined.
-The tanged firmer chisel (Fig. 62, <i>A</i>) is the older form, and
-is not so strong as the more recently designed socket chisel
-(<i>B</i>). For light work, the tanged chisel is preferred by
-many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it
-is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to
-catch upon the edge of the wood when the tool is used.
-The beveled-edge chisel (<i>C</i>) is a favorite tool with pattern
-makers; and the mortise, or framing chisel (<i>D</i>), is designed
-for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of one each
-of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”,
-1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called
-a “slice” or “slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon
-heavy work.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f62">
-<img src="images/fig62.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.—Chisels.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, tanged firmer chisel; <i>B</i>, socket<br />
-chisel; <i>C</i>, beveled-edge chisel; <i>D</i>,<br />
-mortise, or framing chisel.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard
-wood and of any convenient shape, as these should not be
-pounded upon. Although they
-are occasionally used for cutting
-small mortises, it is not a good
-practice unless the tops of the
-handles are protected by leather
-or fiber tops. Mortising chisels
-should have handles of the toughest
-wood obtainable, preferably
-hickory, with leather nailed with
-small brads upon the top to protect
-the wood. If a leather
-washer is fastened to the handle
-by a pin or dowel, the wood will
-in time pound down and the
-leather be broken out and destroyed,
-while if braided upon
-the handle, the leather may be renewed as often as necessary.
-An iron ring, or ferrule, is used by many to prevent
-the handle from splitting, but this will bruise the face of the
-mallet. A hammer should never be used upon any sort
-of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly destroyed,
-but a mallet will injure it comparatively little.
-In fitting the handle to the chisel blade, care should be
-used that they are in perfect alignment, as otherwise a
-sharp blow may break the blade.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span>
-at an angle of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be
-apt to break upon coming in contact with a knot. A
-paring chisel may be ground as
-thin as 20°, as it does not have
-to stand heavy blows, and a better
-edge for the purpose may
-thus be obtained. In whetting a
-chisel, the bevel must be carefully
-maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight,
-like the face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to
-work to a line.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f63">
-<img src="images/fig63.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.—Drawshave.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>47. Gouges</b> may in general be described in the same way
-as chisels, except that they are curved instead of flat.
-The terms “inside” and “outside,” used in describing
-them, indicate whether they are ground upon the inside
-or the outside of the curve.</p>
-
-<p><b>48. The drawshave</b> (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting
-curves, in chamfering, and for roughing out work. The
-patent drawshave, with folding handles, is a safer tool to
-keep in the tool box, as the edge is protected, but it is not
-as satisfactory for general work as the ordinary rigid-handled
-tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood should
-be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands
-when the tool is not in use.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f64">
-<img src="images/fig64.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.—Spokeshave.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>49. The spokeshave</b> (Fig. 64)
-should not be used in any place
-where a plane can be used, but
-only upon concave or convex
-surfaces; when used, it maybe either pushed or pulled.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f65">
-<img src="images/fig65.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.—Auger Bit.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>50. Bits</b> (<b>A.</b>) are of many different types, the most common
-being the <i>auger bit</i> (Fig. 65). The use of the “worm”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span>
-(<i>a</i>) is to draw the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy
-pressure upon the bit unnecessary. The “lips” (<i>bb</i>)
-make an incision on the
-wood below the cut made
-by the “cutters” (<i>cc</i>), which
-take the shavings out and
-into the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f66">
-<img src="images/fig66.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.—Cross-handled Auger.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that
-the bit is removed before the shavings clog in the twist,
-which will happen if the hole becomes full of shavings
-which cannot be lifted out. Should clogging occur, do
-not use a great deal of strength in trying to back the bit
-out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull
-it out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient
-strength cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being
-straight over the center of the bit from the “chuck,” not
-from the head of the bitbrace.</p>
-
-<p>After boring the hole to
-the desired depth, do not
-turn the bit backward to
-remove it, as shavings will
-be left in the hole, but give
-it one turn back to loosen the
-worm, then turn as though
-boring the hole deeper, lifting
-under the head of the
-bitbrace in the meantime,
-by which process the shavings
-will be lifted out. These
-bits are numbered from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of
-an inch. Sizes larger than these are known as augers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f67">
-<img src="images/fig67.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, German bit;<br />
-<i>B</i>, twist drill.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross
-handles, as in Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient
-leverage to make the bit cut the wood; these
-are called augers. The form shown is known
-as a “Ford auger.”</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) The <i>German bit</i> (Fig. 67, <i>A</i>) is used for
-boring small holes for screws and nails, and
-has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our forefathers,
-as its action is much more rapid. Its
-progression in sizes is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds
-of an inch; this tool is also called a <i>screw bit</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f68">
-<img src="images/fig68.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, extension bit;<br />
-<i>B</i>, center bit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) The <i>twist drill</i> (Fig. 67, <i>B</i>) is a valuable
-tool; every carpenter should own an
-assortment of twist drills for use in places
-where other bits may come in
-contact with iron. The sizes
-range from ¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds.
-The round shank drill may be purchased
-in any size up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) The <i>extension bit</i> (Fig. 68, <i>A</i>) is a
-very convenient tool for boring a hole of
-any size within certain limits, and is at
-times extremely valuable.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) The <i>center bit</i> (Fig. 68, <i>B</i>) is often
-used in boring holes through thin material
-which would be apt to be split if an auger
-bit were used.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>H.</b>) In filing an auger bit, it should be
-held as shown in Fig. 69, and a small, fine
-file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of the
-cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>
-as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the
-cutter, be sure that its under side back of the cutting
-edge is filed enough
-to clear the wood
-after the cutter has
-entered it.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f69">
-<img src="images/fig69.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.—Filing an Auger Bit.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In doing this, it
-should be remembered
-that the bit progresses
-into the wood
-as it cuts, and unless
-the under side of the
-cutter is filed properly,
-it will bear upon
-the wood beneath it,
-back of the cutting
-edge, and prevent the
-bit from advancing.
-To remedy this, be
-sure that the cutter
-is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from
-the edge to the beginning of the twist.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>I.</b>) If the lips (Fig. 65, <i>bb</i>) are filed off, an auger bit
-bores into the end wood easily.</p>
-
-<p><b>51. The bitbrace, or stock.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This tool is used
-to hold the bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn
-the bit into the wood. Bitbraces are made of different
-sizes, and with different devices for holding the “tangs” of
-the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10” swing
-bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or
-kinds of bits alternately.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f70">
-<img src="images/fig70.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.—Ratchet Bitbrace.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the
-ordinary brace only in the ratchet attachment. It is an
-indispensable tool to an up-to-date workman, as it may
-be used in many places
-where an ordinary brace
-would be useless; for general
-work, however, being
-heavier, it is less convenient
-than the plain brace.</p>
-
-<p><b>52. The Screwdriver</b> (<b>A.</b>)
-is one of the most important
-tools in a carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of
-finely tempered steel, for if too soft, it will turn over, and
-if too hard, it will break. The edge should be as thick
-as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to have as much
-strength as possible.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory
-as one with an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible
-to obtain as good a grip upon the former as upon
-the latter; a round handle, planed flat upon the two
-opposite sides, is quite commonly used.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) <i>Ratchet screwdrivers</i> are useful in many places where
-it is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent
-quick-action screwdrivers on the market which are suitable
-only for certain kinds of light work, as what is gained in
-speed is lost in power. The screwdriver bit is a short
-screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace; it is essential
-in doing economical work, as screws may be driven
-much more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable
-on account of its greater leverage in driving heavy
-screws.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f71">
-<img src="images/fig71.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span> <span class="smcap pad">Fig. 72.</span><br />
-<span class="smcap">Compasses.</span> <span class="smcap pad1">Calipers.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>53. Compasses, or dividers</b> (Fig. 71), are used to draw
-circles and curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is
-meant the process of fitting
-a piece of wood to an uneven
-surface. <i>Calipers</i> (Fig. 72)
-are used to measure the outside
-of a round or oval
-object. Those shown are
-known as “outside” calipers;
-“inside” calipers, or
-those used for measuring the
-inside of a hole, have straight
-legs. These tools ordinarily
-are not considered a part of
-a carpenter’s kit, as they are generally used upon work
-requiring more exact measurements. Wood-workers’ tools
-are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than 16ths of
-an inch; hence, the ordinary
-methods of measuring will
-usually give sufficiently accurate
-results.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f72">
-<img src="images/fig72.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span> <span class="smcap pad1">Fig. 74.</span><br />
-<span class="smcap">Pliers.</span> <span class="smcap pad1">Nippers.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>54. Pliers.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) These are
-indispensable little tools (Fig.
-73), and every workman
-should own a pair. Those
-combining several tools are
-most useful; cheap tools of
-this sort are usually worthless.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) <i>Nippers</i> (Fig. 74) are
-made to cut wire, but not to pull nails. Being tempered
-for cutting, those of good quality are hard and brittle,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>
-lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which
-work a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased.</p>
-
-<p><b>55. The scraper</b> is one of the most useful tools in the
-kit of the carpenter who works upon hard wood. This
-tool may be purchased, or made of a very hard saw; it
-must be of hard, tough
-steel, or the edge will not
-last. A scraper should
-be about 3” × 5”, which
-is a convenient size for
-grasping with the hand.
-Many workmen make
-handles for their scrapers
-(Fig. 75, <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>),
-but cabinet makers, and
-others who use them continually,
-generally prefer
-to use them without
-handles. If a large surface
-is to be scraped, it
-is well to have a handle
-of a leather palm (Fig.
-75, <i>C</i>). This is a piece of leather of suitable size and
-shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the
-action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed
-through the hole, and the broad part of the palm hangs
-between the scraper and the thick of the hand. For scraping
-floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, <i>D</i>) will be found valuable,
-though if much of this work is to be done, it will be
-the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping
-machines.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f73">
-<img src="images/fig73.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.—Scraper.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, handles for scraper; <i>C</i>, leather palm;<br />
-<i>D</i>, scraper plane.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f76">
-<img src="images/fig76.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.—Edges<br />
-of<br />
-Scrapers.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, beveled<br />
-edge; <i>B</i>, square<br />
-edge.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>56. Edges.</b>—There are two forms of edges used in
-sharpening scrapers,—the <i>square</i> and the <i>beveled</i> edge;
-in sharpening either of these, the edge should be filed,
-whetted, and turned with a burnisher, which
-imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, <i>A</i>
-and <i>B</i>, which shows enlarged views of the two
-forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye glances
-along the edge of a properly sharpened
-scraper, the edge will appear slightly curved;
-this edge must be given it by filing. After
-the scraper is filed, each corner which is to
-be turned must be whetted to a perfectly
-keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of
-sharpening a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle
-with the sides of the scraper.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f77">
-<img src="images/fig77.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.—Angle<br />
-of Burnisher<br />
-with<br />
-Sides of<br />
-Scraper.</span></p>
-<p class="caption"></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing
-the particles of steel which form the corner over so that
-they will form a wire edge which will stand at an angle with
-the sides of the scraper. When the edge has been skillfully
-turned, it will cut like a very finely sharpened
-and adjusted plane, and will work either with
-or against the grain without tearing the wood.</p>
-
-<p>Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher
-with the sides of the scraper, as at <i>a</i>, Fig. 77,
-and as in Fig. 78, which indicates approximately
-the angle at which it should be held
-across the edge when seen in the view illustrated
-of either a square or beveled-edge
-scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The
-stroke must be from the bottom, up, as indicated. At <i>A</i>,
-Fig. 79, is shown the top view of the burnisher as it makes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span>
-each of the strokes in turning the edge of a square edge
-scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an angle of
-about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f78">
-<img src="images/fig78.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.—Method of Grasping Scraper<br />
-for Sharpening.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>At <i>B</i>, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge
-of a bevel edge scraper; the student will notice that the
-angles are similar to
-those shown at <i>A</i>,
-except that the first
-stroke is made at
-nearly the same angle
-as the bevel of the
-scraper. An edge
-may often be turned
-at one stroke, and
-more than three
-should rarely be necessary.
-If more than
-three are made, the
-edge may be turned
-too far, which is
-worse than not being
-turned enough. The
-strokes should be
-made in the order
-indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher;
-otherwise it will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results.</p>
-
-<p>The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this
-stage of the work cannot be described, but can only be
-discovered by practice. A steady, moderate pressure is
-all that is needed, but care should be used that the angle
-of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span>
-will give an edge suitable for common counter or table
-tops, hardwood floors, and similar work, if the skill to use
-the burnisher properly has been acquired.</p>
-
-<p>The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil
-or with the end of the tongue, as this assists it to slide over
-the edge of the scraper without scratching.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f79">
-<img src="images/fig79.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.—Top Views of<br />
-the Angles of the<br />
-Burnisher.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different
-shaped edge should be made; it should be whetted to four
-perfectly square and keen corners,
-each of which will furnish an edge.
-This is a more difficult method of
-sharpening a scraper, but it gives
-four edges suitable for fine work.
-The edge should be turned by carrying
-the burnisher as shown at <i>A</i>, Fig.
-79, making the strokes at the different
-angles in the order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening
-any scraper, care should be used that no strokes
-are made back of the square, as stroke <i>bc</i> of Fig. 80.
-Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated
-at <i>a</i>, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two
-or three strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper.</p>
-
-<p>To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is
-necessary. This tool should be made of the hardest steel,
-and is often made by the workman himself of an old file,
-ground perfectly smooth and polished. Perhaps the most
-satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of the wood-worker
-may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to a
-handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow
-chisel or gouge may be used, though these are rather
-clumsy. The burnishers found in stores are generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span>
-unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft, and any steel
-which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher for
-sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut
-into it, instead of turning over.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f80">
-<img src="images/fig80.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.—Angle<br />
-to be Avoided<br />
-in Sharpening<br />
-Scraper.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If satisfactory results are not obtained,
-there may be several causes: the scraper
-may not be of just the right temper or texture;
-the burnisher may be soft or rough;
-the edge may not have been turned over
-evenly, or it may have been turned over
-too far, as indicated in an exaggerated way
-at <i>a</i>, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying
-the burnisher around too far, as shown by
-the line <i>bc</i>. This may be remedied by using the awl point
-as shown at <i>d</i>, Fig. 81, holding the scraper and burnisher
-in about the same relative positions as indicated, guiding
-the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried on
-the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher
-its entire length. In this way the edge may be turned
-back to its correct angle, when a very light touch in the
-usual way will generally make the desired edge.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f81">
-<img src="images/fig81.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.—<br />
-Turning<br />
-Back the<br />
-Edge of a<br />
-Scraper.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If either the scraper or the burnisher is not
-of the right texture, throw it away, as it is
-worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may
-be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge
-of the scraper is rough, it may be turned back
-again by laying the scraper flat upon the
-bench, the rough side up, and the burnisher
-passed over it several times; then proceed as
-with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory
-as it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span>
-again, especially if the corner has been turned several
-times.</p>
-
-<p>Though it may seem from the above explanation of the
-methods of sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex
-operation, it will be
-seen that it is not a
-difficult matter, if it
-is once worked out;
-usually it requires a
-little time and practice
-to acquire the
-knack that will make
-it possible to do it
-surely and well.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f82">
-<img src="images/fig82.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a<br />
-Broad Surface.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter2" id="f83">
-<img src="images/fig83.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within<br />
-a Small Area.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f84">
-<img src="images/fig84.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.—Method of Grasping Scraper<br />
-when Working upon an Edge.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In using a scraper,
-it may be grasped as
-shown in Figs. 82, 83,
-84, as best suits the
-work being done, and
-the strokes should be
-with the grain. In
-using this tool, as in
-the use of most others,
-the easiest way generally is the most efficient. As the
-young workman gains experience, he will gradually acquire
-the correct methods to use his tools for all the various
-purposes within their scope.</p>
-
-<p><b>57. Nail sets</b> are for the purpose of “setting” the nails,
-or for sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to
-stand the hard usage to which they are subjected, they
-must be very carefully tempered. The best form of nail<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span>
-set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as it is not
-so apt to slip off of the head of the nail.</p>
-
-<p><b>58. Wrenches</b> are of many kinds and patterns and of
-every conceivable use, but
-that known as the “monkey,”
-or “Coe’s,” wrench
-(Fig. 85) is perhaps the most
-convenient for general work
-and has not been supplanted by any of more recent
-invention.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f85">
-<img src="images/fig85.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.—Monkey Wrench.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>59. Handscrews</b> (<b>A.</b>), if of good material and well made,
-will stand any legitimate use, and if properly used and
-cared for, will last a lifetime. However, a novice or a
-careless workman often destroys them rapidly by allowing
-the jaws to be under strain while in the position shown in
-Fig. 86, which
-will probably
-break the middle
-screw, and perhaps
-both.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f86">
-<img src="images/fig86.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.—Effect of the Unskillful Use of a<br />
-Handscrew.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In using
-handscrews for
-gluing, the jaws
-should be set to
-nearly the size
-of the material
-which is to be
-placed between
-them, before the glue is spread. In placing the handscrews
-upon the work, the outside screw should be turned
-back so that it will not prevent the jaws from being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span>
-slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points.
-This will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the
-outside screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only
-position in which handscrews should be allowed to remain.</p>
-
-
-
-<p>In opening or closing
-a handscrew, the
-middle screw should
-be held in the left
-hand, and the outside
-screw in the right,
-as in Fig. 87; the
-screws should then be
-grasped so that they
-will not turn in the
-hand and the handscrew
-revolved in
-the desired direction.
-Never put unnecessary
-strain upon
-handscrews, nor leave
-them with a heavy
-strain upon them for a very long time.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f87">
-<img src="images/fig87.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.—Correct Use of Handscrew.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used
-than is necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work
-should be glued unless the joints fit well. In any case,
-the outside screw should be turned back a quarter or a half
-a turn after the glue has set; this will relieve the strain,
-and add much to the life of the handscrew.</p>
-
-<p>In gluing work which requires several handscrews to
-hold it while the glue is setting, the handles of the outside
-screws all should point one way, which allows the work to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span>
-be handled much more easily, as the handles of the middle
-screws will form an even bearing upon the floor. If this
-is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken
-when a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled,
-as the weight of the work will rest upon the screws which
-bear upon the floor.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be
-treated with beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead
-mixed with oil or with wax. The latter compound is very
-dirty; the former lubricates the screws perfectly. The
-screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot.</p>
-
-<p><b>60.</b> (<b>A.</b>) <b>A grindstone</b> of good quality, from 20” to 26”
-in diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and
-should be used frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools
-is much increased if they are kept well ground, and much
-time may be saved in whetting them.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true
-and round, and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite
-satisfactorily determined by examining several and selecting
-the coarsest, as that will doubtlessly be a fast cutting
-stone.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) The stone should be carefully centered and
-mounted upon a frame; the face may be kept true by
-means of a file or other hard steel being held against it
-as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe revolved from
-side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a
-stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made
-softer and heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of
-true.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone
-continually, or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span>
-keep the tool moving from side to side. If properly
-cared for, a stone will hold its face indefinitely.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f88">
-<img src="images/fig88.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.—Emery Wheel Dresser.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>61. Emery, corundum, carborundum</b>, and other artificial
-abrasive wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone,
-as they cut much more rapidly. Any one not
-accustomed to using them must be careful that the temper
-of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a high
-rate of speed, and a tool in
-unskillful hands is easily
-burned. To avoid this, the
-tool should be held lightly
-but firmly against the stone,
-and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery
-wheel burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing;
-for this purpose a diamond emery wheel dresser is the
-best, but on account of its cost, various devices have
-been patented to accomplish the same result, one of which
-is illustrated in Fig. 88.</p>
-
-<p><b>62. Whetstones.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) These are used to give to a tool
-the keen edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The
-natural stone in most common use is the “Washita stone,”
-which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains, and is thought
-by many to be the best natural stone for the general use
-of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the
-best quality is of even texture.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is
-finer and harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive,
-however, and is better adapted to the use of
-woodcarvers and engravers than to the use of wood-workers
-in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the best of
-the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span>
-its use. There are other natural stones, but none so
-generally used as the above. The purchase of a natural
-stone is to a great extent a lottery, as only about one
-stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free from
-cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper
-upon a board, and rub the stone over it until it has
-been ground down. The best place, however, to true up
-a whetstone is upon the horizontal stone of a marble
-worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in diameter,
-mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed
-pieces of marble to be ground to a flat surface.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) <i>Artificial oilstones</i>, made of emery, corundum,
-carborundum, and other artificial abrasives, are coming
-rapidly into use, and, as in the case of grindstones, eventually
-will supplant all others in many occupations, as
-they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of
-any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture.
-They are also able to resist many accidents which would
-destroy a natural stone.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) <i>Slip stones</i> are used to sharpen gouges and curved
-tools of all kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape.
-An oblong stone, 8” × 2” × 1”, is the size of stone in most
-general use by the wood-worker, and should be fitted into
-a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it clean. It
-may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman,
-though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set
-on its edge.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) The use of the oilstone is described under topic
-<b>40, A.</b> The oil used should be a kind that will not gum;
-its purpose is to prevent the glassiness which is caused by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span>
-the friction of the tool over the stone. Common machine
-oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and kerosene, or
-coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil
-suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils
-will give satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone
-cleaner, thereby adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose
-lubricates quite as well as any of those above-mentioned.</p>
-
-<p><b>63.</b> (<b>A.</b>) <b>Files</b> are used for many purposes by wood-workers.
-An assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper,
-or three-cornered, files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files;
-8”, 10”, and 12” round files; and 8” and 12” half round wood
-files and rasps should be in every carpenter’s kit. The
-4” slim taper files should be used upon the finer saws, and
-the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are used
-by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it
-is necessary to have a few warding and knife files to use
-upon keys and odd jobs, and also to sharpen bits.</p>
-
-<p>Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and
-for every purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to
-stand lead or soft brass, and should never be used upon
-anything harder.</p>
-
-<p>In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow
-it to drag, as it is injured thereby about as much as when
-it is cutting.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) There are a great many other tools and appliances
-used by the wood-worker with which the workman should
-be familiar, but it is not necessary to describe them,
-as the above-mentioned are the most essential tools
-common to all forms of woodworking. There is no important
-principle involved in the construction, care, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span>
-use of woodworking tools which is not discussed in this
-chapter, and the student who becomes thoroughly familiar
-with the matter treated will have little trouble in learning
-to handle other tools.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f89">
-<img src="images/fig89.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.—Jointing a Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>64. Saw filing.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This is an accomplishment
-which every young wood-worker should master, as its
-possession will save expense and inconvenience, and add
-much to his efficiency as a workman.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine
-the edge carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length;
-if they are not, they should be jointed. This is done by
-using a flat file held perfectly square in a block, as shown in
-Fig. 89. One or two light strokes usually will be enough
-to make all the teeth of the same length. The edge of
-the saw should round slightly in the middle, say about
-⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight,
-it should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little
-at each time for several filings.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f90">
-<img src="images/fig90.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.—Hand Saw Set.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly
-set. This may be done by a <i>saw set</i>, of which there are
-several patterns in use; these are all of two types, the
-<i>hand set</i> (Fig. 90), and the
-<i>anvil set</i> (Fig. 91). Either of
-these forms is efficient, but
-as it is more convenient, the
-hand set is more commonly
-used. Do not give the saw
-too much set, or it will not
-cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly on the back
-side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking
-the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must
-be applied. The point of the teeth only should be set,
-and care should be used that the blade of the saw is not
-sprung, which will be apt to result from setting the teeth
-too far from the point.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f91">
-<img src="images/fig91.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.—Anvil Saw<br />
-Set.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A saw to be used upon green lumber should have
-coarser teeth and more set than one which is to be used
-upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A panel saw intended
-for use upon fine finishing work
-usually is ground so thin upon the
-back that it needs little or no set.
-Some workmen set a saw so heavily
-that it will do for several filings;
-while this is satisfactory for a soft saw
-to be used upon common work, it is not
-a good plan to treat a fine, hard saw
-this way, though the latter may be touched up once or twice.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f92">
-<img src="images/fig92.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.—Angle of the File<br />
-with the Edge of the<br />
-Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) In filing, it is important that the file should be
-carried at the same angle the entire length of both sides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span>
-of the blade. For a cutting-off saw, the file should be
-carried at an angle with the side of the blade of from 60°
-for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown in Fig. 92;
-and for general work, at an angle
-about halfway between the two.
-The file may be carried horizontally,
-as at <i>aa</i>, Fig. 93, which
-makes all the teeth of the same
-size; as at <i>A</i>, Fig. 94; or it may be
-carried as at <i>bb</i>, Fig. 93, which will
-make the teeth of the shape shown
-at <i>B</i>, Fig. 94. The latter method
-is preferred by many workmen, as
-it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening
-its life a little. There is no difference in the efficiency of
-the saws filed by these methods, but if filed as at <i>bb</i>, Fig.
-93, it is more difficult to keep the teeth of the same size,
-and to make a good-looking job.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f93">
-<img src="images/fig93.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.—Angle of the<br />
-File with the Sides<br />
-of the Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be
-held more or less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according
-to the hook which it is desired that
-the teeth shall have. The more
-hook a saw has, the faster it will
-cut, but the cut will be rougher in
-proportion. Experience is necessary
-to discover just the right angles at
-which the file should be held; after
-considerable practice, the file will
-naturally drop into the correct position.</p>
-
-<p>File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect
-point, one half of the filing being done from each side; file<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span>
-the entire length from one side, then reverse the saw and
-file from the other side. This cannot always be the exclusive
-practice if a saw is in very bad shape, because if the
-teeth are of uneven sizes, care must
-be used, and more filed from some
-teeth than from others. It may, in
-such a case, be necessary to go over
-the saw two or three times, but it
-should be done very carefully, so that
-the bevel of the teeth may be preserved
-and their length kept the same. Observe each
-tooth, and press toward the point or the handle of the
-saw, as may be necessary. The file should be carried
-with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting
-or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of
-the saw, and the back of the tooth next ahead on the
-nearer side with the same stroke. If the point of the saw
-is carried toward the handle of the saw, it makes the teeth
-chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It
-also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life
-of a file, as the continuous
-chatter against its teeth
-will soon break them, and
-destroy the file.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f94">
-<img src="images/fig94.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.—Results of<br />
-Filings as at</span> <i>aa</i> <span class="smcap">and</span><br />
-<i>bb</i>, <span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A ripsaw requires more
-set than a cutting-off saw,
-and if, as usual, the file
-is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may
-be filed from one side.</p>
-
-<p>After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly
-flat surface, and given a light touch with a flat file or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span>
-whetstone, to remove the burr caused by the file, as in
-Fig. 96.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f95">
-<img src="images/fig95.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.—Method of Carrying a File<br />
-to obtain the Hook of a Cutting-off<br />
-Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination
-of the rip- and the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of
-both as occasion requires. The teeth should be nearly
-as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the front teeth filed
-at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In
-filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a
-little lower than horizontal. Figure 41, <i>C</i>, shows three
-views of the teeth of a compass saw.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f96">
-<img src="images/fig96.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.—Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p>
-
-<p>27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a
-good, serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially
-for some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to
-follow in buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?</p>
-
-<p>28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.</p>
-
-<p>29. Describe the rule in common use.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></p>
-
-<p>30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be
-used in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?</p>
-
-<p>31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.</p>
-
-<p>32. Describe the bevel and its use.</p>
-
-<p>33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the
-gauge be depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is
-useful?</p>
-
-<p>34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly
-tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened
-to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle.
-How should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that
-they will hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving
-up ceiling or matched boards? How and why should nail heads be
-sunk below the joint surface?</p>
-
-<p>35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening
-a hatchet.</p>
-
-<p>36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare
-two forms of mallets.</p>
-
-<p>37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw.
-After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a
-cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of
-both? For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are
-other saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the
-backsaw. How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What
-kind of saw is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the
-back of a saw compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this?
-What test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What
-are the best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard
-and a medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much
-force should be used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the
-handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily?</p>
-
-<p>38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why
-is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for
-whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?</p>
-
-<p>39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe
-the mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span>
-the condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so
-that one may see the adjustment of the cutter?</p>
-
-<p>40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may
-a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side
-of the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be
-ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where
-should the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the
-bit be held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm
-while whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing
-unevenly? What motion should be avoided in whetting? What
-is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the
-cap iron? What is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?</p>
-
-<p>41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way
-does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?</p>
-
-<p>42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What
-should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should
-a plane be carried to joint an edge square?</p>
-
-<p>43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be
-the position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How
-should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?</p>
-
-<p>44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with
-the above planes.</p>
-
-<p>45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of
-any sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders?
-What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end
-of the strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull
-tools? How should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?</p>
-
-<p>46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities
-and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should a
-mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why?
-Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring
-and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a slice, or
-slick?</p>
-
-<p>47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and
-an outside gouge?</p>
-
-<p>48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span>
-of the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the
-edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?</p>
-
-<p>49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.</p>
-
-<p>50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the
-different parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging
-of a bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole,
-how should it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German
-bit; of a twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe
-the method of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part
-of a bit should never be filed? Why?</p>
-
-<p>51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the
-ratchet brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?</p>
-
-<p>52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screwdriver?
-What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value
-of a screwdriver bit?</p>
-
-<p>53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.</p>
-
-<p>54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use?
-Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?</p>
-
-<p>55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper?
-Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.</p>
-
-<p>56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for
-rough work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when
-the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is
-not sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to
-the grain?</p>
-
-<p>57. Describe the best form of nail set.</p>
-
-<p>58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?</p>
-
-<p>59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position
-of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How
-should handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?</p>
-
-<p>60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should
-a grindstone be trued?</p>
-
-<p>61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be
-guarded against in the use of an emery wheel?</p>
-
-<p>62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is
-commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span>
-kinds. How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming
-into use? Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and
-edgeways. What forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of
-oils are used for oil or whetstones?</p>
-
-<p>63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files
-generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.</p>
-
-<p>64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of
-the cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate
-the process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and
-fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be
-carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying the
-file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle with
-the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw? If the
-saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished
-point when going over it the first time? What should be the direction
-of the point of the file while it is cutting? Compare the set of the ripsaw
-and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare the teeth of the compass
-saw with those of others.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c5">CHAPTER V</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Glue and Sandpaper</span></p>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">65. Different kinds of glue.</span>—(<b>A.</b>) Wood-workers use
-both <i>liquid</i> and <i>sheet</i> or <i>stick</i> glue, but as the former
-requires little skill in its use, we will deal principally with
-the latter, which is made of hides, sinews, bones, and
-waste material of slaughterhouses. Different grades of
-glue are made of various kinds of refuse, but the processes
-of treating them all are similar.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The material from which glue is to be made is
-steeped in lime water at low temperature, or subjected to
-a chemical treatment for a sufficient time to separate the
-fat from the fiber. The latter is then washed in clean
-water and boiled down to gelatin, which is spread upon
-wires to dry and harden, when it is ready for use.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) <i>Ground glue</i> makes up more readily than that
-which comes in sheets, and therefore is preferred by many
-workmen. It is frequently adulterated, but if made upon
-honor, it is as good as the glue from which it is made, and
-does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time in a damp
-place. As it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground
-glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks,
-many workmen prefer not to use it unless sure of its
-quality.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) The highest-priced glue is not always the best for
-all purposes, and a dealer who handles different grades can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span>
-generally advise which should be used, though the medium
-grade in common use is usually satisfactory for general
-work.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) It is impossible to give infallible rules for testing
-glue in the stick, or to say that glue should be of any
-special color, or that it should be either transparent or
-opaque; but, in general, glue suitable for ordinary work
-will be of a reddish, yellowish, or light brownish color, clear
-and transparent, and not offensive to either taste or smell,
-though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely
-opaque. Good glue will swell in cold water, but will not
-dissolve until it has nearly reached the boiling point. It
-will also absorb more water than will poor glue, and is
-therefore more economical. Any test which depends upon
-the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable, as
-a somewhat damp, good glue will not stand this test as
-well as a poor glue that is very dry. If conditions are the
-same, and comparison is possible, it is fairly safe to assume
-that if a good glue is cut with a sharp knife, a hard, elastic
-shaving will result, while a poor glue will give a shaving
-which is extremely brittle, and will break into little pieces.</p>
-
-<p>A safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces
-of the same kind of wood, 1” square and about 12” long,
-fit them perfectly end to end in pairs, and glue as many
-of them together as there are samples of glue to be tested.
-After the glue is thoroughly hard, clamp one of the pieces
-of each pair to a bench top, with the joint coinciding with
-the edge. Hang a pail about 10” from the joint on the
-piece which projects over the edge of the bench, and allow
-sand to run into it slowly, until the joint breaks. Repeat
-this process with each pair which has been glued up, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span>
-the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will furnish
-a basis of comparison between the different varieties
-of glue tested.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) Glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water
-before being put into a glue pot, which should be a double
-vessel, with the glue in the inside pot, and the hot water or
-steam in the outer jacket. In making up glue, it should be
-brought to the boiling point until melted, and then removed
-from the heat, for if kept continually hot, it loses much
-of its strength by being cooked too much, as this makes
-continual thinning necessary.</p>
-
-<p>If time will not permit, the preliminary soaking may be
-dispensed with, and the hard glue put at once in the hot
-water, in which case it must be stirred frequently while
-melting, or it will form a mass. If the water boils out of
-the outside kettle, and the glue burns, throw it away, as it
-is worthless.</p>
-
-<p>Glue should be thinned with cold water, after which it
-should be allowed to become thoroughly heated before
-using; in the shops, this is not always done, as there may
-not be time to allow the glue to become heated again;
-therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue
-with hot water.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) Paint brushes, or other brushes in which the
-bristles are set in glue, are not suitable for use in hot glue,
-and those made especially for this purpose should be
-purchased. For very small brushes, a strip of basswood
-bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from
-the end; these are satisfactory for small work.</p>
-
-<p><b>66. How to use glue.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Glue should be used as
-hot as possible, and of about the consistency of cream.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span>
-The pieces to be glued should be heated thoroughly and
-the gluing done in a warm room.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In factories, where it is possible, the gluing is done
-in a specially fitted room which contains all necessary
-appliances. Vertical and horizontal coils of steam pipes
-surround the room, both to furnish heat for the room, and
-for the purpose of heating the material to be glued, which
-should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for
-more than a few seconds. In a room of this sort, the
-temperature is maintained at from 110° to 130° F.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) If the best possible results are wanted, a <i>scratch
-plane</i> should be used. This is a tool similar to a smoother,
-only its cutter is nearly vertical, and it has teeth like a
-fine saw which will scratch the wood, thus giving a better
-hold for the glue.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) It is important that all clamps, handscrews, and
-other appliances which are likely to be needed should be
-set as nearly as possible the desired size, and so arranged
-as to be reached easily, for when the glue is applied, there
-should not be the slightest hesitation or delay in getting
-the work together and the clamps on. The utmost speed
-and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot
-glue; therefore everything during the process of the
-work should be foreseen and provision made for it before
-the glue is applied, for if the glue is even slightly chilled,
-the work will not be so well done, and the efficiency of the
-glue will be greatly diminished. A novice should never
-attempt more than the simplest work, unless working with
-a competent man.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) The glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with
-a brush of suitable size,—a large one for broad surfaces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span>
-and a small one for small work. Glue should not be
-thrown about wastefully; enough should be used to cover
-the surface completely but not thickly.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) In using handscrews, it is of the greatest importance
-that the jaws be kept parallel as described in Topic
-<b>59</b>; care must be used that more strain is not placed upon
-the handscrews and clamps than is necessary to bring the
-joint together.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) Cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in
-furniture repairing, gluing up intricate work, and in
-places where it is impracticable to use hot glue either
-on account of its setting too rapidly, or where heat is
-not available. Liquid glue does not hold as well nor as
-permanently as hot glue when properly used, but for many
-kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>H.</b>) In gluing rosewood, or other woods of a greasy
-nature, the glue should be thinned with vinegar, which will
-cut the grease. Another method of making glue hold on
-wood of this sort is to chalk both members of the joint
-thoroughly, and let it stand for two or three hours, when
-it should be wiped off. This absorbs the grease on the
-surface of the wood, which allows the glue to take hold.
-In all gluing, do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint
-any more than necessary, as the grease and perspiration
-will prevent the best results from being obtained.</p>
-
-<p><b>67. The testing of sandpaper.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Sandpaper is
-made by covering paper with a thin layer of glue, over
-which is spread evenly a layer of ground flint or glass;
-over this is spread another coating of glue, which firmly
-fastens the sand to the paper.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In buying sandpaper, pass the finger over it to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span>
-see if the sand is firmly fastened. Be sure that the paper
-is neither flimsy nor brittle. Coarse particles of sand are
-sometimes found upon sandpaper which renders it worthless;
-these can be detected only by use, unless they are
-very prominent.</p>
-
-<p><b>68. How to use sandpaper.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) Sandpaper is made
-in numbers, 00, 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3. Numbers 00 and 0
-are very fine, and are used in rubbing down shellac and
-varnish. Numbers ½ and 1 are used in sandpapering
-mahogany and other fancy woods, and number 1½ is used
-upon all building finish but the finest; the coarser numbers
-are used upon floors, outside finish, and other coarse
-work which is to be painted, though for a very nice floor,
-1½ is used, rarely anything finer. It is a fallacy to think
-that the finer the sandpaper used, the finer the job will be,
-since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make
-a glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like
-the rest of the work. Sandpapering is as apt to detract
-from the work as it is to improve it, for unless used very
-skillfully, the character of angles and small surfaces will be
-changed, though it may seem that the damage is so slight
-as to be imperceptible. In using sandpaper, the workman
-should guard against rounding off square corners or destroying
-the form of surfaces; a raw corner, however,
-should be removed with a few light, careful strokes, as a
-perfectly sharp corner will always be more or less ragged.</p>
-
-<p><i>The one who knows</i> will always notice the omissions of
-details of this sort, and will attribute such imperfections
-to lack of skill or knowledge on the part of the workman.
-It is for the one who knows, that all work should be done—not
-for the casual observer—and these apparently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span>
-insignificant details, rather than the part of the work
-which may seem of more importance, form the basis by
-which one workman judges the work of another. In
-nothing do small things count more than in making or
-destroying a workman’s reputation.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f97">
-<img src="images/fig97.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.—Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Keep the sandpaper dry, and stored in a dry place,
-as moisture softens the glue so that the sand may be easily
-rubbed off. In handling sandpaper, care should be taken
-that the sanded sides are not rubbed together.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) In preparing to sandpaper a flat surface, or for
-general work, a sheet of sandpaper should be torn in
-halves the short way of the paper, and one half should
-be folded back to back, and held (not tacked) around the
-block with the hand, as in Fig. 97. The act of grasping
-the block for the work will hold the sandpaper, and any
-device for holding the sandpaper on the block is worthless,
-being considered by the workman as a mark of the
-novice. The block should be about 3” × 4” × ⅞”, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span>
-may be made of wood, cork, fiber, or any material which
-suits the taste of the workman.</p>
-
-<p>If there is much sandpapering of moldings to be done,
-it is best to make blocks which will fit the contour of them,
-as it is very hard on the hands to do this work for very
-long at a time, though nothing has ever been invented
-which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers. A piece
-of sandpaper <i>should never be used on a piece of work until
-all the cutting by edge tools has been done</i>, as the particles of
-sand will enter the grain of the wood, and any edge tools
-used upon it afterward will be quickly dulled. Do not
-use a piece of sandpaper so large that any part of it will
-not be under perfect control, as loose ends will scratch the
-wood, and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appearance.
-Always work parallel with the grain, and be sure
-that all plane marks and rough places are thoroughly
-rubbed down. In order to do this well, it is often necessary
-to use considerable muscle. This part of the work calls
-for good judgment, for unless sandpapered enough, there
-will be places which will show when the finish is spread
-on the work, though they may have been invisible before.
-No one can tell as well as the workman himself when sufficient
-sandpapering has been done, though it may be evident
-to any one who knows the signs whether or not the
-work has been done judiciously. Upon a coarse job it is
-usually allowable, and sometimes desirable, to sandpaper
-across the grain, especially if the work is to be painted.</p>
-
-<p>In order to impress it upon the student, we will repeat
-that <i>too much care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper</i>,
-for much oftener will an amateur injure a piece of work
-than improve it.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f98">
-<img src="images/fig98.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.—Sandpapering Panel<br />
-Work.</span></p>
-<p class="caption">(For explanation, see text.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) In sandpapering panel work, as in Fig. 98, the
-panels (<i>a</i>) should be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered,
-and the edges of the stiles (<i>b</i>), rails (<i>d</i>), and muntins (<i>e</i>)
-should be treated the same way
-before the panel work is put together;
-an exception to this in
-regard to the panels may be made
-if the panel frame is constructed
-in such a way as to allow the panels
-to be put in place after it is together,
-in which case the panels
-may be smoothed at any time.
-Upon very fine work the panels
-are sometimes polished before
-being put in place, as it is difficult
-for the finisher to work into the corners after the panels
-are in place. After the faces of the stiles, rails, and muntins
-have been planed and scraped, they should be sandpapered
-in the order named, working with the sandpaper over a
-sharp-cornered block close to the edges of the pieces,
-being careful not to drag the paper over the face of the
-pieces which join at right angles. The stiles, rails, and
-muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which
-they are mentioned. If the sandpaper runs over the rails
-a little when sandpapering the muntins, or over the stiles
-when sanding the rails, it will do no harm, as a couple of
-light, careful strokes parallel with the grain will be sufficient
-to remove any scratches which may be made.</p>
-
-<p>In sanding mahogany, or any wood of which the grain
-rubs up, make the strokes in one direction only, instead
-of back and forth. Sometimes wax is rubbed in to hold<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span>
-the grain down upon cheap work, but this is not recommended,
-as that place will not take the stain or the finish
-like the rest of the wood. A very thin coat of shellac is
-used for the same purpose; this is less objectionable, but
-should be avoided if possible.</p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p>
-
-<p>65. Of what material is glue made? Describe briefly the process
-of making glue. What kind of glue is best for general work? Is
-ground glue always reliable? What is the chief advantage in its use?
-Is high-priced glue always the best for all purposes? What should be
-the appearance of good glue? How should it act in cold water? When
-cut with a knife? When broken? Compare the amount of water
-absorbed by a good and a poor glue. How should a glue pot be constructed?
-What will be the result if the glue pot boils dry? Describe
-brushes suitable for use in gluing. What kind of bark makes a good
-brush for small work? How is it prepared for use?</p>
-
-<p>66. Describe the condition of glue when ready for use. What tool
-is used to increase the strength of the joint? In preparing for gluing,
-what preparations should be made? How should wood be treated for
-use in gluing up wood of a greasy nature?</p>
-
-<p>67. Describe the manufacture of sandpaper. What is used for sand?
-How select sandpaper?</p>
-
-<p>68. For what kind of work is sandpaper numbers 00 and 0 used?
-Numbers 1/2 and 1? What number of sandpaper is used upon general
-work? What will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place, or
-becomes wet? What should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used
-upon flat surfaces, and for general work? How should moldings be
-sandpapered? What should be guarded against in working around
-sharp corners? Should sandpaper be carried with or across the grain?
-What exceptions? How should panel work be sandpapered? How
-should panels and the edges of stiles, rails, and muntins be treated
-before gluing up? How should sandpaper be used upon grain which
-rubs up? How are panels sometimes treated upon fine work? Why?</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c6">CHAPTER VI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Wood Finishing</span></p>
-
-<p><b>69. Filling.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) After wood has been smoothed and
-made ready to receive the finish, it is prepared by <i>filling</i>,
-by which is meant the process of filling the grain so that
-the finish itself will not soak in. This, if well done,
-makes it possible to do as good a job of finishing with
-two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of wood
-with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open-grained
-woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need
-filling, as before the process of filling was discovered, the
-open grain, or cellular part of the wood, had to be filled
-by shellac, or other expensive material, before there was
-a surface suitable to receive the polish. (<b>B.</b>) There are
-two forms of filler—<i>the paste</i>, which is for use upon open-grained
-woods, and <i>the liquid</i>, which is adapted to filling
-the pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry,
-etc., and which takes the place of one coat of the more expensive
-shellac or other finish. The paste may be purchased
-ready-made, and colored to suit the taste, or it may be
-made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and any dry
-colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingredients
-should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed
-with boiled linseed oil to a thick paste; to this should be
-added as much japan drier as there is of the oil, or one
-quarter as much as there is of the paste. The whole may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span>
-then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene
-to a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily,
-but it should still be quite thick.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the
-surface of the wood must be covered, and the filling
-thoroughly worked into the grain. After this has been
-done, the wood should be allowed to stand a few minutes,
-until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems to
-stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when
-it should be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing
-across the grain wherever possible. Do not use cloth until
-cleaning up after the filler is all off, as it is more apt to
-take the filling out of the grain than either excelsior or
-shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a
-sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several
-hours, or over night, before the finish is applied, as otherwise
-the moisture in the filler may cause the finish to
-bubble. Care should be used that the filling does not
-stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be very difficult
-to remove it; hence, it is best not to spread any more than
-can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that
-there is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is
-applied, as it is difficult to match colors.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and
-as evenly as possible, as the laps will be apt to show
-through the finish which is spread over it.</p>
-
-<p><b>70. Staining wood</b> (<b>A.</b>) is for the purpose of imparting
-some other than the natural color to the wood.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is
-used which will color the wood before it is filled, though
-upon general work, it is the custom to color the stain only.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span>
-This does not make the work all of one color, as the cells
-of the wood will retain more filling than will the harder
-part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain may
-be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is
-being treated, it should be filled after being stained.
-Close-grained woods are ready for the finish as soon as the
-stain has dried. Stains which will do the work satisfactorily
-may be made of various chemicals. There are
-also many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can
-be purchased in as small packages as desired, offering the
-student a large range of colors from which to select.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by
-mixing dry colors with turpentine or benzine, and a little
-boiled oil and japan to bind the color. These stains should
-be applied the same as the filler, but not allowed to become
-so hard before cleaning off, or there will be light places
-rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should
-be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are
-no places left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the
-finish will make them muddy.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) A very good <i>old cherry</i> stain may be made by mixing
-Venetian red and rose pink until the desired shade is
-produced.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) <i>Black walnut</i> may be imitated by mixing burnt
-umber with turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish
-tinge is desired, a little burnt sienna may be added; this
-is a much better color than can be produced by umber
-alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes a
-good walnut stain.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as
-a vehicle, as a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span>
-which is impossible with any stain that has oil in
-it. The objection to using water is that the grain of the
-wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded smooth
-before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection,
-water stains are used extensively upon the best work.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) The rich mahogany stain which is so much admired
-may be made by mixing the same colors as mentioned
-in (<b>D.</b>), and adding carmine until the desired color
-is obtained. An oil stain will not give the best results,
-therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of gum
-arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or
-less of the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion
-of mucilage. This stain should be cleaned off the same as
-the oil stain above described.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>H.</b>) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid;
-other woods may be darkened or aged by using ammonia,
-potash, or a strong solution of tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of
-silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives a beautiful brown.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>I.</b>) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts
-of permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dissolved
-in water; as many coats as desired may be applied,
-sanding with number 00 sandpaper between the coats.
-Better results are obtained if the stain is applied hot.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>J.</b>) A beautiful green of any intensity may be produced
-by mixing verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and
-applying hot. Several coats may be necessary, sanding
-between the coats. The indigo should be used cautiously,
-or the green may have too much of a bluish cast.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>K.</b>) A rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution
-of logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied
-in coats in the order named. Each solution should be hot.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>L.</b>) <i>Ebony</i> may be obtained by giving any close-grained
-wood, cherry preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using
-a weak solution, and after that has dried and been sanded,
-a coat of solution of nutgalls. If the iron is too strong, a
-white efflorescence will appear, which in open-grained
-woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this is
-objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>M.</b>) <i>Shellac</i> (see <b>71, A.</b>) and boneblack, if well mixed,
-make an ebony finish which is often used upon common
-work; black varnish sometimes is used the same as black
-shellac, but for the best work these are not satisfactory,
-as they do not strike into the wood to the same extent as
-do acid, turpentine, or water stain.</p>
-
-<p><b>71. Shellac.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) This is a product of Africa and
-South America. It is the combination of a secretion of
-the female of a small insect and the sap of a tree, in the
-bark of which the insect deposits its eggs. The gum thus
-formed is gathered, and after passing through various refining
-processes becomes the shellac known to commerce.
-It is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol,
-when it is ready for use. Some of the best furniture is
-finished with shellac, and unless continuously exposed to
-moisture or hard usage, the finish is practically everlasting.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable
-to, neither does its luster dim by exposure to the various
-gases present in every house, which are due to domestic
-causes, though most varnishes will do this after some years.</p>
-
-<p>Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satisfactory,
-though three coats generally will improve the
-work sufficiently to make it advisable to apply the extra
-coat. Shellac should not be laid in too thick coats, or it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span>
-will pit badly in drying, and make work in rubbing to a
-surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are
-spread, though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying
-thin coats is that the wood may be covered more evenly,
-and there will be fewer runs and laps visible. Shellac
-should always be laid with quick strokes, never working
-over a place already covered; for this work, use a brush as
-large as possible to do the work without clumsiness.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the
-other, each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sandpaper,
-or with pulverized pumice stone before the next
-coat is spread. For this purpose, a sheet of sandpaper
-should be cut into eighths, and one of these pieces folded
-in the center of its long dimension, and held in the hand
-as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching
-the surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a
-surface with pumice stone, it should be applied with hair-cloth,
-or with harness maker’s felt, moistened with oil or
-water; but for ordinary work, sandpaper will give satisfaction,
-and as it is more convenient, it is much used.</p>
-
-<p>If the best results are desired, the last coat should be
-rubbed with pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above,
-though boiled oil is satisfactory; and for ordinary work,
-number 00 sandpaper is used, though it is liable to show
-scratches. After the rubbing is done, the oil should be
-wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone dusted
-on and polished with a clean, soft cloth. Many finishers
-use the palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches.
-If a dead, or mat, finish is desired, the final rubbing should
-be done with water, used sparingly, as oil imparts a high
-gloss, if the work is well done.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<b>D.</b>) Care should be used on any kind of work upon
-which waste or oily rags are used; these rags should be
-gathered and burned unless they are wanted again soon,
-in which case they may be spread out separately; since,
-if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into
-a waste box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a
-case of spontaneous combustion.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f99">
-<img src="images/fig99.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.—Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing Down Shellac<br />
-Finish.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<b>E.</b>) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all
-kinds is very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of
-a rubbed finish. Moreover, any dust settling upon moist
-varnish is held, giving the surface an effect of countless
-minute points; rubbing removes these, and gives the
-smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span>
-the most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of
-a built-up polish, is not considered good taste; the use of
-muscle and a very little oil, applied at intervals during a
-term of years, gives a polish and a beauty which can be
-obtained by no other method, and it is to attain this ideal
-in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>F.</b>) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed
-through, as the pressure will naturally be more upon the
-corners than upon a broad surface. This may be avoided by
-using care that the pressure is not applied so as to bear
-on the corner; grasp the rubbing material in such a way
-that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99,
-or the finish may be badly scratched; this applies especially
-to the corners. The rubbing should always be
-in the direction parallel with the grain of the wood.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>G.</b>) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it
-may be repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare
-wood with fine sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to
-the same condition as the rest of the wood before the first
-coat of finish was applied. Using the same finishing
-material as the finish of the rest of the piece, lay a very
-thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched, being
-careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This
-ridge may be drawn out by a small camel’s-hair brush, and
-the patch left until thoroughly dried; then apply another
-patch a little larger than the first one, treating the edge
-as in the first patch. Continue this until the finish is built
-up to the same thickness as that of which it is a part.
-This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the
-same finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to
-rub through the old finish at the edge of the patch. As it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span>
-is the corners which are most liable to be rubbed through,
-this process will not generally be difficult of application;
-all that is necessary to secure a successful patch is to use
-care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the
-different patches.</p>
-
-<p><b>72. Wax finishing</b> is a good method of finishing any
-kind of hard or dark-colored wood; (<b>A.</b>) it does not give
-as satisfactory results, however, as do some other methods
-of finishing, upon soft or light-colored wood. There are
-a number of different kinds of wax finishes which can be
-purchased in almost any desired quantity, (<b>B.</b>) but an
-economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by
-dissolving as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on
-a cent in a half pint of turpentine or gasolene heated in
-a water or steam double vessel. After this is clear, cut
-up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a thimble, and
-allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when it
-is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities
-by using the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight
-vessel, it will keep indefinitely.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as
-smoothly and as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand
-until it has become quite hard, when it should be polished
-with a soft rag which is free from lint. As many coats as
-desired may be applied, each coat being treated in the
-same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another
-method of applying this finish, and which gives satisfactory
-results upon broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag,
-and rub the wax on the wood, rubbing until it is dry.
-This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a brush upon
-work where there are many corners to finish around.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span></p>
-
-<p>One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may
-be brightened if it becomes dim by going over it with a
-soft cloth, or it may be renewed and improved by another
-coat at slight expense and little trouble.</p>
-
-<p>This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor
-made of a wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed.</p>
-
-<p><b>73.</b> (<b>A.</b>) <b>Oil finish</b> is perhaps the most simple way to
-finish a piece of furniture; it is best adapted to hard,
-dark woods. The material is made by mixing a quarter
-of a pint of turpentine with seven eighths of a quart of
-boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly over the
-surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it
-as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should
-be brought to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle,
-as the finish should stand about ten hours, during which
-time a thin film or skin will form, which must be removed
-by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint, should be
-used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave
-their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken
-care of, and is used to some extent in finishing the most
-artistic furniture, being especially adapted to finishing
-mahogany. It has a character peculiarly its own, and
-exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost
-any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally
-oiled, it improves with age and care. This finish was used
-in olden times, and the care of generations gives a polish
-attainable by no other method.</p>
-
-<p><b>74. Varnish</b> forms the finish which is used most commonly
-upon all grades and kinds of work. (<b>A.</b>) The
-different grades are made of various vegetable gums and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span>
-resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with boiled oil. A
-cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling
-resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums
-may be treated the same way; the varnish used upon the
-best work, for instance, is made from copal, a vegetable
-product of the tropics. By a very careful process of boiling,
-straining, and ripening, extending over months,
-copal is made into the product which is used so extensively
-upon furniture finishing, carriages, etc.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to
-about 80° F., the dust should be laid by sprinkling, and
-there should be no drafts of air, nor flies or other insects
-to light upon it, if the best results are desired.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>C.</b>) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat
-as in shellac, a thick coat should be applied. This may be
-done by using a thick, heavy brush; some prefer a heavy,
-round brush, and others think they can obtain the best
-results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the hairs, the
-better the results obtained.</p>
-
-<p>The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to
-cover the entire surface, if possible, and spread or flowed
-very quickly. The brush should then be wiped out in
-the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried, go over the
-surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb; wipe
-this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing
-is left but a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly,
-it will prevent all runs and streaks which result from unskillful
-workmanship.</p>
-
-<p>When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00
-sandpaper, pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of
-pumice stone (carriage painter’s method), and repeat the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span>
-process until the desired body of varnish is obtained. Rub
-down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as much time
-between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish
-is, the better and more durable the work will be when
-completed.</p>
-
-<p><b>75. Polishing.</b>—This term applies to the process by
-which a polish is built up by rubbing, or “ragging” as
-workmen sometimes call it. The piece to be polished
-should receive two or three coats of shellac or varnish,
-which should be rubbed down to a surface, when it is
-ready for the polish.</p>
-
-<p>To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a
-piece of old, soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cotton
-waste; or the end of a roll of cloth may be covered
-by the piece which is to do the actual polishing. Provide
-a cup of moderately thin shellac and another of boiled oil,
-of which about one quarter is turpentine; or better, a cup
-of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the
-oil and allow it to soak in completely, then do the same
-with the shellac. Now dip the pad again into the shellac,
-and with the finger put on a single drop of oil, and rub
-lightly upon the work, with a circular motion, or if the
-work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the
-work is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end
-of the stroke, as the instant between the end of one stroke
-and the beginning of the return may be enough to allow the
-shellac to stick and make a hole in the surface, which will
-be difficult to repair; begin and end the stroke with a sweeping
-motion. The idea of this method of polishing is to bring
-the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for lubricating,
-as the less oil used, the better will be the polish.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>76. Brushes.</b>—(<b>A.</b>) If brushes are to be used for stain
-or for filling, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do,
-a flat brush being preferred upon ordinary work. For
-shellac and varnish, the finer the brush, the better the
-results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the best practice
-to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will permit,
-as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a
-smaller brush, and have fewer “laps.” Chisel-pointed,
-flat brushes, from 1½” to 2½” in width, will be found satisfactory
-for the work of schools and amateurs, but upon
-professional work, brushes from 3½” to 5” often are used.</p>
-
-<p>(<b>B.</b>) The care of the brushes is an important part of
-the work of those who use them, as neglect or carelessness
-may destroy a valuable brush overnight. Unless a brush
-is going to be used again the next day, it is always best to
-clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint, or varnish
-brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush,
-use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To
-obtain the best results, all brushes should be washed in
-hot, soapy water, and afterward rinsed in clean water; in
-general, however, this latter precaution may be dispensed
-with, unless the brushes are to be laid away indefinitely.
-Unless the above precautions have been taken, care should
-be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed
-from one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its
-side for more than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direction
-is easily given the bristles, and the brushes may be
-quickly destroyed by a little carelessness or negligence.</p>
-
-<p>Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better
-results than new brushes; therefore they should be treated
-with every possible consideration.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></p>
-
-<p>Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if
-they are hung up so that they will not rest upon their
-bristles, this is the best way to keep them when they are
-in almost constant daily use.</p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Suggestive Exercises</span></p>
-
-<p>69. Why is wood filler used? Describe paste filler. Describe the
-process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid filler
-and the process of spreading it.</p>
-
-<p>70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results
-of staining and filling and of filling alone? How may stains for open-grained
-woods be mixed and used? Describe a simple cherry or mahogany
-stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to
-a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How
-may woods be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown
-stain; of a good green stain; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing.
-For what purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used?</p>
-
-<p>71. Of what does shellac finish consist? What is the source of supply
-of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the
-application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better?
-Why is rubbing down necessary? Demonstrate. What precautions
-should be taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should be
-guarded against in rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of
-sandpaper? Describe and demonstrate patching.</p>
-
-<p>72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demonstrate
-two methods of applying wax finish.</p>
-
-<p>73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities.</p>
-
-<p>74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal conditions
-for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of
-flowing varnish.</p>
-
-<p>75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing.</p>
-
-<p>76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of work.
-How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general treatment
-of a brush? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use?</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph2">INDEX</p>
-</div>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="ifrst">Age of tree, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alburnum, <i>see</i> Sapwood.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Annual layer, formation of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">covering over breaks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in quarter-sawed lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">shrinking around, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Apple wood, description of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arkansas stone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ash, description of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Auger, cross-handled, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Auger bit, described, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Axe, hand, described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Backsaw, described, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Balsam fir, illustrated, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Band saw, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bark, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#f3">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Basswood (or linden), description of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bast, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bastard sawing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beech, description of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bell-faced hammer, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Benches, types of, described, <a href="#Page_57">57-59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bevel, described, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bill stuff, sawing of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Birch, description of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bird’s-eye maple, description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bitbrace, or stock, described, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ratchet, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bits, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Black walnut, <i>see</i> Walnut.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Black walnut stain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blemishes, in grading lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blind nailing, described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Block plane, description and use of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boards, sawing of, to dimension, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">surveying or estimating of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">measuring of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">for siding, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">piling of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brushes, for gluing, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">for staining and filling, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, <a href="#Page_97">97-100</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Butternut (or white walnut), description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buttonwood, <i>see</i> Sycamore.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Cable, hauling logs by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Calipers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cam, of plane, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cambium, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Canoe birch, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cap iron, of plane, use of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cap screw, of plane, use of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carborundum, as grindstone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as oilstone, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carpenter’s bench, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cedar, description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cellular grain of wood, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Center bit, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Checking, or cracking, of lumber, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cherry, description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">stain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">how to darken, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chestnut, description of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chisels, described, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Circular saw, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Claw hammer, described, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clefts, or splits, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Close-grained woods, filling of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">staining of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coarse-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Color of wood, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Comb-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Common boards, grading of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">measuring of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Compasses, or dividers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coniferous trees, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Corundum, as grindstone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as oilstone, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cross-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Culls, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cup shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cutting-off saw, described, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cypress, description of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Decay of tree, how prevented, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deciduous trees, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Defects in lumber, <a href="#Page_7">7-10</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dimension timber, sawing of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Discolorations in lumber, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dividers, <i>see</i> Compasses.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drawshave, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duramen, <i>see</i> Heartwood.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Ebony stain, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Edge, squaring an, with try-square, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Edges, square and beveled, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elm, description of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Emery, as grindstone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as oilstone, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a plane, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Endogenous trees, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Estimating lumber, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Exogenous trees, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Extension bit, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Files, description and use of, <a href="#Page_108">108-113</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Filler, how to make, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">how to spread, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fine-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finishing woods, <a href="#Page_128">128-141</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flooring, best grades of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Framing, lumber for, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Framing square, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Gauge, description and use of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">German bit, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glue, different kinds of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">testing of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">how to use, <a href="#Page_120">120-122</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gouges, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grading of lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grain of woods, cause of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">kinds of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Close-grained, etc.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a plane, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">described, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ground glue, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gum (sweet gum), description of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Hammer, described, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Handscrews, use of, <a href="#Page_103">103-105</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hard wood, cause of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hatchet, described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hemlock, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heart shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heartwood, formation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hickory, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Insects, injurious to trees, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Inside finish, lumber for, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Jack plane, described, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">use of, <a href="#Page_86">86-88</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jointer, described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jointing a saw, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Joists or scantling, surveying of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Keyhole saw, <i>see</i> Compass saw.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kiln, filling a, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">length of time lumber should be left in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kiln-dried lumber, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-54</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kilns, moist air, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">induced draft, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knife blades, described, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Linden, <i>see</i> Basswood.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Liquid filler, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Locust, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Logging, <a href="#Page_12">12-19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lumber, unseasoned, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">checking, or cracking of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">defects in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">grain of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">when to cut, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">manufacture of, <a href="#Page_12">12-23</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">grading of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">testing of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">surveying or estimating of, <a href="#Page_25">25-27</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">piling of, <a href="#Page_45">45-49</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">weather-dried, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">kiln-dried, <a href="#Page_50">50-54</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> special subjects.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lumbering, processes of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Mahogany, description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sanding of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">stain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mallets, described, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Manual-training bench, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maple, description of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sugar maple, illustrated, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Medullary rays, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sawing woods having, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moisture, in lumber, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moldings, sandpapering of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monkey wrench, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Nail set, use of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">burnisher made from, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nailing, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nippers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Oak, tree trunk, section of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">plain and quartered, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Odor of wood, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oil finish, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oilstones, artificial, use of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Open-grained woods, filling of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">staining of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Out of wind,” <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Outside finish, lumber for, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Panel work, sandpapering, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Paper birch, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Paste filler, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Piling of lumber, <a href="#Page_45">45-49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pine, yellow, section of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">description of different varieties of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pine logs, load of white, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pith, of tree trunk, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plain sawing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plane, adjusting mechanism of, <a href="#Page_73">73-75</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">other parts of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sharpening a, <a href="#Page_76">76-81</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Planes, description and use of, <a href="#Page_72">72-88</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pliers, described, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Polishing, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Poplar (or whitewood), description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Position, in using tools, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Preserving wood, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prices, sliding scale of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Quarter-sawed lumber, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Ratchet bitbrace, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ratchet screwdrivers, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Redwood, description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rift-sawed lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ripsaw, described, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filing of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rule, use of, in setting gauge, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Sandpaper, testing of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">how to use, <a href="#Page_123">123-127</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Finishing.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sap, motion of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">allowed, in grading lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sapwood, formation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saw filing, described, <a href="#Page_109">109-113</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saw handle, reset, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saw set, hand and anvil, described, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sawing of lumber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18-23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sawmills, types of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saws, description and use of, <a href="#Page_67">67-72</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scale used in measuring lumber, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scraper, description of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sharpening of, <a href="#Page_97">97-102</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scratch plane, for use in gluing, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Screwdriver, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shellac, use of, <a href="#Page_132">132-136</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shingles, quality of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silver grain, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Skidways, use of, <a href="#Page_13">13-17</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Slash sawing, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Slip stones, use of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smoothing plane, described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Soft wood, cause of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spokeshave, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spruce, cutting of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> (figs. <a href="#f6">5</a>, <a href="#f7">6</a>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Staining wood, <a href="#Page_129">129-132</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Star shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Steaming wood, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Steel, or framing, square, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stock, <i>see</i> Bitbrace.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Straight-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stumpage, explanation of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sugar maple forest, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Surveying of lumber, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sycamore (or buttonwood), description of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Tacking, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Testing of lumber, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Timbers to be buried, quality of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Toenailing, described, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tools, how to purchase, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">description and use of, <a href="#Page_57">57-108</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Travoy road, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tree trunk, tissues of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">annual layer of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">grain of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">age of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">defects in, <a href="#Page_8">8-10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">when to cut, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">felling of, <a href="#Page_12">12-15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">decay of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> special subjects.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Try-square, description and use of, <a href="#Page_59">59-62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Twist drill, described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Varnish, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vertical-grained lumber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vises, on benches, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Walnut, black, description of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">white, <i>see</i> Butternut.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Walnut stain, black, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Warping of lumber, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Washita stone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Waste, care in use of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wax finishing, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ways, permanent lumber, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Weather-dried lumber, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whetstones, description and use of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whetting and grinding of plane, <a href="#Page_77">77-80</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whitewood, <i>see</i> Poplar.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wind shakes, or cup shakes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Winding sticks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wood, growth of, <a href="#Page_1">1-11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">grain of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">color of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">odor of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">soft and hard, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">qualities of, <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">varieties of, <a href="#Page_29">29-42</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">steaming, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">preserving, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filling grain of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">staining, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> special subjects.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wrenches, described, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span></p></div>
-
-<div class="bbox">
-
-<p class="c xxlarge">VOCATIONAL EDUCATION</p>
-
-
-<p class="c">By JOHN M. GILLETTE, Professor of Sociology in the<br />
-State University of North Dakota</p>
-
-<p class="c">$1.00</p></div>
-
-<div class="bbox">
-
-<p class="ad">In this volume is presented for teachers, superintendents,
-and teachers’ reading circles an illuminating discussion of
-the present general movement for vocational education.
-By this phrase is meant not only industrial education; but all
-the training courses needed to meet the practical demands of
-life.</p>
-
-<p class="ad1">¶ The author explains at some length the principles, demands,
-and methods of vocational education; he states the
-grounds upon which hopes of success may reasonably rest;
-he indicates some actual results gained by schools conducted
-on more practical lines; and he points out others which
-would follow upon the reorganization of our educational system
-in general.</p>
-
-<p class="ad1">¶ The vocationalizing of the schools has regard to the constitution,
-inclination and ability of the individual, and is intended
-to give him suitable training for his niche in life, to
-show him how he can make the most of himself and in what
-line he can prove himself most productive to society. At
-the same time, this scheme of education does not ignore the
-informational, the cultural, and the disciplinary aspects—it
-insists that the individual be fitted for good citizenship.</p>
-
-<p class="ad2">¶ The introduction of vocational education into the public
-school system of the United States, with the curriculum adapted
-to the chief kinds of occupation belonging to each community,
-will mean greater development and power for the
-country. From vocational education, introduced to meet the
-differing community needs, will result greater efficiency and
-better appreciation of the schools, increased attendance of
-pupils, greater compensation for teachers, greater productiveness,
-higher wages, and improved society.</p></div>
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-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p></div>
-
-<div class="bbox1">
-
-<p class="c xxlarge sp">AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-<br />
-BOOK OF THEORETICAL<br />
-MECHANICS</p>
-
-
-<p class="c ad">By GEORGE A. MERRILL, B.S., Principal of the
-California School of Mechanical Arts, and Director of
-the Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco</p>
-
-<p class="c">$1.50</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="bbox">
-
-<p class="ad">MERRILL’S MECHANICS is intended for the upper
-classes in secondary schools, and for the two lower
-classes in college. Only a knowledge of elementary
-algebra, plane geometry, and plane trigonometry is required
-for a thorough comprehension of the work.</p>
-
-<p class="ad1">¶ By presenting only the most important principles and
-methods, the book overcomes many of the difficulties now
-encountered by students in collegiate courses who take up
-the study of analytic mechanics, without previously having
-covered it in a more elementary form. It treats the subject
-without the use of the calculus, and consequently does not
-bewilder the beginner with much algebraic matter, which
-obscures the chief principles.</p>
-
-<p class="ad1">¶ The book is written from the standpoint of the student
-in the manner that experience has proved to be the one
-most easily grasped. Therefore, beyond a constant endeavor
-to abide by the fundamental precepts of teaching, no one
-method of presentation has been used to the exclusion of
-others. The few necessary experiments are suggested and
-outlined, but a more complete laboratory course can easily be
-supplied by the instructor.</p>
-
-<p class="ad2">¶ The explanation of each topic is followed by a few well-chosen
-examples to fix and apply the principles involved. A
-number of pages are devoted to the static treatment of force,
-with emphasis on the idea of action and reaction. Four-place
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