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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Drawing in Charcoal and Crayon - For the use of Students and Schools - -Author: Frank Fowler - -Release Date: September 18, 2022 [eBook #69012] - -Language: English - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND -CRAYON *** - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -The volume of illustrations referred to in the book is not available. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - - - - - DRAWING IN - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON - - FOR THE USE OF - - STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS - - - BY - - FRANK FOWLER - - AUTHOR OF “OIL PAINTING,” “A HAND-BOOK,” - ETC., ETC. - - - CASSELL PUBLISHING COMPANY - 104 & 106 FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK - - - COPYRIGHT - 1885 - BY O. M. DUNHAM - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PART FIRST. - - CHAPTER I. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING. 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - OUTFIT NECESSARY FOR CHARCOAL AND - CRAYON DRAWING. 4 - - - CHAPTER III. - - ELEMENTARY PRACTICE. 25 - - - PART SECOND. - - CHAPTER IV. - - MANNER OF WORKING. 36 - - CHAPTER V. - - MEASUREMENT, ACTUAL AND COMPARATIVE. 50 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CRAYON PORTRAITS; HAIR; DRAPERY; - BACKGROUNDS. 58 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING WITH THE - POINT; LANDSCAPES; PROPORTIONS, ETC. 74 - - - APPENDIX. - - EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 82 - - - - - PREFATORY NOTE. - - -This little volume, with accompanying plates, is designed to prepare -students for the interesting study of drawing from life. The general -demand for a work of this kind is the occasion of its appearance. - - - - - DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND CRAYON. - - - CHAPTER I. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING. - - -In learning to draw, charcoal is the most available material that can -be used, as, with it, large and striking effects are so easily and -quickly produced, while it is also adapted to the most careful work, -and may be carried on to any degree of finish. Another quality which -renders charcoal especially of value as a medium for beginners in -drawing is that it is so easily erased. - -Charcoal is used for drawing from the cast and from the human figure -in all the large art schools of Europe as well as in our own country, -and is especially adapted to sketching from nature, as by its use most -charming landscape and marine effects may be obtained. - - - TWO DIFFERENT METHODS. - -There are two methods of working in charcoal—one, in which the charcoal -point is used alone, the shading being put in with lines which are not -blended, no stump, or rubbing together of any kind being allowed. - -This style of drawing is principally used in illustrating, as it is -more easily reproduced than those in which the stump is used. Full -details of working in this manner will be given later. - -The other method is that in which the charcoal is blended with a stump, -no lines being visible in the modeling. - -This manner of drawing is that most generally employed in art schools, -and is susceptible of higher finish than the other. - -It is also in this way that charcoal and crayon portraits are managed, -such drawings being generally finished with crayon, and the two -materials worked together. This subject also will be treated at length -further on. - -As we are writing for the benefit of those who have no knowledge -whatever of charcoal drawing, we will begin at the very beginning, and -shall endeavor to omit nothing that can be of practical use to the -student. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - OUTFIT NECESSARY FOR CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING. - - -The first thing to be provided is an easel, which is used now entirely -for drawing, it being considered much better practice to work in an -upright position than in the old-fashioned way of leaning over a table. - -This easel may be of the simplest character, and is made of three -straight bars of pine wood jointed so as to stand upright, with holes -perforated through two of the bars about two or three inches apart. -Through these holes pegs are stuck upon which to hold a narrow wooden -tray. Upon this the stretcher, drawing-board, or portfolio is placed. - - - DRAWING-BOARD. - -This board is made from any light wood, and should measure about 20×24 -inches square, and be as thin as it can be made without warping. - -[Illustration: THE EASEL.] - -In place of the drawing-board, many artists prefer to use a large -pasteboard portfolio made with covers stiff enough to serve as a -foundation in drawing, while its convenience as a receptacle for the -reserve sheets of paper and finished work is obvious. - -The portfolio which is now most in use, is generally covered with -smooth mottled paper outside, and should be large enough to hold -without folding the regular sheets of charcoal paper; 20×24 inches will -be sufficient for this. - - - THE PAPER. - -There are a great many varieties of charcoal and crayon paper, some -smooth, some rough. For ordinary purposes, such as making studies -and life drawings, the rough French charcoal paper is the best. That -used in the French schools is of two kinds; the roughest is called -the “Michelet” paper, and the other is known as “Lalanne.” They are, -however, very similar in texture, and either one will serve the -purpose. These come in sheets of uniform sizes, costing from three to -six cents each. - -For more careful drawings, such as finely finished portraits in -charcoal and crayon, a more expensive paper is to be preferred. This -comes in much larger sheets and should be stretched before using. - -Whatman’s rough crayon paper is among the best for this purpose. In -all cases, both for studies and finished portraits, the white paper, -generally a yellow-white, being preferable to blue-white. - - - HOW TO STRETCH PAPER. - -Paper is stretched and mounted for this work in the following manner: -A simple frame of wood is made an inch or two wide and three-quarters -of an inch or more in thickness, according to the size of the drawing -to be made. This is covered with cotton cloth stretched as tight as -possible and tacked all along the four sides. The cloth is turned over -and tacked on the outside of the stretcher, not on the face of it, -which should present a perfectly smooth, flat surface. - -The paper having been cut the proper size, that is, large enough to -turn over nearly an inch all around, is dampened on the wrong side. To -do this take a clean cloth dipped in cold water, lay the paper flat -upon a table and pass the cloth rapidly all over the surface, wetting -it evenly. - -Have ready some good flour paste and put this all around the edge of -the paper for about an inch. Now begin to spread the paper while still -damp upon the cloth-covered stretcher, starting at the bottom and -working upward, carefully smoothing out with the hands all creases or -air bubbles. Turn over and press down the edges of the paper which have -been covered with the paste, holding them till they stick to the cloth, -and cut a V-shaped piece from each corner of the paper, so that it will -fold over neatly. - -This takes time and experience to do well, but is worth the trouble, -for crayon portraits especially. - -For ordinary studies and drawings, the Michelet or Lalanne paper -fastened to the portfolio or drawing-board with thumb tacks is quite -sufficient. - - - CHARCOAL. - -There are many different kinds of charcoal offered by dealers. All that -is necessary, however, is a medium quality of imported charcoal, such -as the Fusains Venitians, costing 30 cts. a box of fifty sticks. Finer -and more expensive kinds are the Conte and Rouget charcoal. - - - CRAYON. - -Among the various manufactures of crayons that most generally preferred -by artists is the French crayon Conté. This comes in several numbers, -and is to be had in two forms. First, the wooden pencils, which are -very convenient, and again, the short sticks of black crayon, which -are sold by the dozen. These are much cheaper than the pencils, and are -fastened in a holder while using. The Conté crayon No. 2 is sufficient -for all purposes, therefore it is unnecessary to have the several -different numbers so often recommended. - -Another kind of crayon is also used by some artists in addition to the -stick crayon. This is a fine, black, powdered crayon, called the “sauce -crayon,” and comes put up in little tin cases. It is very useful when -large masses of dark are necessary, and is rubbed on with a stump, -while the stick crayons and charcoal sticks are sharpened to a point -before using. - -Stumps are made variously of leather, chamois-skin and paper. The most -useful in charcoal and crayon drawing are the paper stumps, which will -be found to answer every purpose. The paper stumps come in two forms; -first, the gray, rough paper stumps with points on both ends; these are -made in various sizes, from the smallest, which measures only about -one fourth of an inch in diameter, up to those measuring an inch and -more. - -[Illustration: STUMPS.] - -The other form of paper stump, known as the tortillon, is made of -strips of paper rolled to a point like spills, and sold in bundles of -a dozen for a few cents. Some artists prefer these, but for general -purposes, the double-pointed paper stump is the best. About six of -these are necessary: two large, two medium, and two very small ones; -for it is always better to have a clean duplicate of each size. - - - BREAD. - -A supply of the soft part of home-made, if possible, or good ordinary -baker’s bread, one day old, is indispensable. This should not have any -butter, or even milk, in its composition, otherwise it will grease the -paper, which naturally should be avoided, as grease spots are most -difficult to overcome. - -The bread is used for rubbing out charcoal or crayon, erasing mistakes, -and for taking out lights from a mass of dark. The soft crumb is rolled -between the fingers until a point is formed, and then applied to the -paper. It is surprising what brilliant effects can be obtained by means -of this simple process; its full resources can only be understood by -practice. - - - THE RUBBER STUMP. - -This consists of a long, narrow bar of fine artist’s rubber, ground to -a point on each end. It is used for rubbing out small spots in places -where the bread can not be so easily managed, and where a firmer point -is needed. - -It is also useful in modeling fine details of the features, and in -places where, the surface of the paper being worn by rubbing, the bread -will not act satisfactorily. - -These cost from five to ten cents each, according to size. - - - RAGS. - -A fine, soft cotton rag is one of the most important adjuncts to our -outfit, as it is impossible to work without one. The rag is used -sometimes to dust off charcoal from the paper, and if the charcoal has -not been very heavily used, the rag is often sufficient, neither bread -nor rubber being necessary. - -A rag is also useful when too much charcoal or crayon has been rubbed -on a tone. - -Let us say, for instance, a shadow appears too black. A soft rag is -passed gently over the surface, taking care not to rub too hard, and -the superfluous charcoal or crayon will come off, leaving a beautiful -soft tone of much lighter quality behind. - -This tone can of course be darkened somewhat, or worked over in any -manner desired. - -The rag is often used in sketching landscapes, to spread a smooth, even -tint for the sky. Many artists prefer it to a stump for this purpose. -A fine, soft cotton rag is rolled in a long, smooth roll, and applied -lightly to the surface of the paper. - -The charcoal may be powdered in such a case if preferred, or for -crayon drawing the “sauce crayon” is used. - - - TO “FIX” DRAWINGS. - -Charcoal will of course rub off, and drawings become smeared and -defaced if left unprotected. For that reason it is customary to “fix” -the drawing by the application of some preparation to its surface. - -This should be done with much care, and only the very best materials -should be used for this purpose. Amateurs and students sometimes -endeavor to manufacture fixative for themselves out of shellac and -alcohol. This may succeed in fixing the drawing, but will be very -liable to turn the paper yellow in time. Artists, therefore, prefer to -buy an imported fixative, which is made by a reliable manufacturer. -That most generally in use, and which we have found by experience to -be in every way satisfactory, is the _Fixatif Rouget_, which comes in -good-sized glass bottles, costing at retail fifty cents each. - -There are two methods of fixing drawings. First, that in which the -fixative is applied to the back of the drawing. This is preferred by -some artists; and the French students, who are only anxious to preserve -their drawings, without regard to the changing of color in the paper, -use milk, with which they wash over the back of the drawing. - -In cases where a large design or cartoon is made in charcoal for -temporary use, this way will answer perfectly, being very much less -expensive than the other. The fixative Meusnier, which is imported by -all dealers, is also applied to the back of the paper with a large -brush. - -The other method, and that generally preferred, is to apply the -fixative to the front or surface of the drawing. - -This process should of course be managed with care, as too much -fixative will cause the charcoal to run down in streaks, while too -little will cause it to come off in spots. - -The fixative for applying to the surface of the drawing is sprayed -through a glass atomizer by blowing through one tube while the other -rests in the bottle containing the liquid. - -These atomizers are now sold by all art dealers, and may be had from -the simplest and most inexpensive kind up to those represented by quite -a costly apparatus. The cheapest consist of two small tubes of glass, -pointed at one end and straight at the other. These are connected by -two bands of metal, which in turn are fastened together by a small -hinge or pivot. - -This is so arranged that the two tubes of glass meet at a right angle, -the small pointed ends coming in contact, but so as to leave both -orifices open. - -One end, as already mentioned, is now placed in the fixative, while -through the other the breath is blown. This causes the liquid to mount -in the lower tube and dissolve in a cloud of spray which is so light as -not to dislodge the delicate particles of the charcoal and yet will -attach them firmly to the paper, so that ordinary rubbing will not -efface the drawing. - -Great care should be taken in blowing through an atomizer to make -the breath as steady as possible, avoiding short, unequal puffs. The -atomizer must not be held too near to allow the particles to vaporize -sufficiently, or else the fixative will run down in streams and ruin -the drawing. Again, if held too far off, it will vaporize too much, and -will fail to fix the charcoal at all. - -The more expensive vaporizers, while conducted on the same principle, -are supplied with air from one or sometimes two rubber globes or balls, -which have the advantage of transmitting the air in a regular stream, -and one is thus saved the fatigue of blowing with the mouth, which, in -case of a large drawing, becomes very tiresome. - -These atomizers are generally made with metal tubes, which will become -clogged and useless unless washed out after using each time, with warm -water. The simple glass atomizers must also be kept clean in this way, -for they are very easily broken if a pin is used to clean the openings, -and the slightest break at the joints renders them useless. - - - OUTFIT FOR SKETCHING. - -Charcoal is used by artists for sketching out of doors in preference to -any other material, as by its means such quick results are obtained and -large effects produced with comparative ease. - -As one never knows how long a tramp will be necessary before the proper -subject or view appears, it is well to make every thing as compact as -possible. - -A small sketching easel which can be reduced to a thin bundle of sticks -is considered indispensable by some, but as this is rather awkward to -carry, most artists prefer a block. - - - THE BLOCK, OR PAD. - -This consists of a number of sheets of charcoal paper, cut exactly -the same size, laid together and pressed so as to greatly reduce the -bulk of the paper in its ordinary shape. These form a block or table of -sufficient substance and firmness to be held comfortably upon the knees -while sketching. - -The upper leaf is used for the drawing, and is then loosened with a -penknife passed around the edges, which are held together with a band -of paper. This leaf is then easily detached from the block, and being -fixed is laid aside while another drawing is commenced on the clean -sheet exposed on the top of the block. - -These blocks can be bought already prepared at any good art dealers at -reasonable prices, which vary according to the size and quality of the -paper. - -A block made of ordinary French charcoal paper measuring 4½×6 inches -costs at retail, 25 cents. A small block like this is only good for -pocket sketches and notes. A more useful size is 6×9, which may be -obtained for 35 cents. - -A still larger one, measuring 10×14, can be procured for 70 cents. Any -thing beyond this must be made to order, and will in that case be more -expensive in proportion. - -A small camp stool is necessary to the sketching outfit, and this -should be made as light as possible. These are made in various shapes, -so as to fold up as tightly as possible, and are provided by all -dealers at from fifty cents up. - -Some are even to be found combined with the sketching easel. These are -very convenient, being made in so compact a form as to occupy very -little more space than either an easel or camp stool separately. - -Such an apparatus costs $5.50 at retail. The small, light folding easel -for sketching, which is only 4½ feet high, costs $2.50, while a -stool which stands upon three legs when open and folds into the shape -of a thick cane can be bought for $1.00. - - - THE UMBRELLA. - -A sketch can not be truthful to nature and carefully studied, with the -sun shining in one’s eyes or upon the paper; it is therefore well to be -provided with an umbrella. - -The sketching umbrella is generally of creamy white or very light gray -cotton. It is so constructed as to be separated from the long stick -upon which it is arranged when in use, this stick itself being divided -into two or more parts, according to its length. These are arranged to -fit into each other firmly, the lower end terminating in a long, sharp -iron point which is to be planted in the ground. - -The umbrella itself is furnished with a rather short handle, and is -attached to the long staff by a movable screw joint which permits of -its being arranged at any angle necessary to protect the sketcher from -the sun. - -The whole outfit complete with a waterproof gingham umbrella costs -$8.00. - -The long folding stick is sold separately. This is 6 ft. high with an -adjustable joint to which any ordinary umbrella can be fastened. These -cost about $3.00. - -A long and narrow tin box with compartments completes the outfit. This -holds the charcoal, crayon, stumps, bread, rag and rubber. The charcoal -and crayon must always be kept shut up in their separate compartments, -or failing that, in respective boxes, as, if allowed to knock around -loosely in the box, they will soil the stumps, rubber and rags. - -The paper generally used in sketching blocks is the ordinary grade -of French charcoal paper with a rough surface already mentioned. -This paper comes in a variety of tints, the most popular being the -cream-white and the gray. The white paper is generally preferred for -serious studies involving careful drawing and correctness of value. - -Some artists, however, prefer to use gray or light brown paper in -sketching, as if one is skillful a very effective result may be -obtained with little labor by using the local tone of the paper for the -half tints, quickly rubbing in the shadow with charcoal or crayon, both -being sometimes used. - -The high lights are then cleverly touched in with white chalk or -pastel. Chinese white water-color paint is sometimes substituted for -the chalk in putting in such lights. It has the advantage of being more -permanent in one way as the chalk rubs off, but in the course of time -this white paint so used has a tendency to turn yellow, especially if -the sketch is shut up in a book or kept from the air. - -On the other hand, the white chalk will turn yellow if fixed, so that -the high lights must not be put in the sketch until it is all finished -and fixed, which is of course a disadvantage to the artist who wishes -to study the relations of his tones as he proceeds. This method will be -explained at length later on. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - ELEMENTARY PRACTICE. - - -To those who have never had any experience whatever in drawing, it is -best to begin with straight lines. This is especially necessary in the -case of children, who must first be taught to control the hand before -proceeding further. - -The next step is to draw curved lines representing half of a circle. - -From this proceed to draw angles, circles, squares, and other such -simple forms in outline, until the muscles of the hand have learned to -obey the will. - -The system we wish to teach is first to begin in this way, then to -advance gradually by copying some simple drawings, executed in the -modern method, until the use of charcoal and crayon is thoroughly -understood. - -These drawings should be progressive, commencing with the features in -different positions, and leading gradually to the full head, feet, -hands, torso, etc., until the full length figure is reached. - -By this time sufficient proficiency will have been attained to enable -the student to put aside copying and proceed to drawing from the -cast, when the same progressive studies should be observed until a -sufficiently thorough foundation in drawing is acquired to warrant the -final step of drawing from life, which is the most difficult though the -most interesting of all. - -In view of these necessities, a series of studies in charcoal and -crayon have been prepared to accompany this volume. These should be -carefully copied, according to the directions given. - - - ARRANGEMENT OF LIGHT. - -Before beginning to draw, whether from copies, from the cast, or from -life, it is most important that the room be properly lighted. - -If possible a north light should be selected, although that is not -absolutely necessary, it is, however, most generally preferred by -artists, as the light is more steady, and less influenced by the direct -rays of the sun. There should be no cross light, the light coming -from one direction only; therefore, if there are several windows on -different sides of a room, all should be darkened while working except -those on one side. - -This light should so be arranged as to come from above rather than from -below, and if the window is a long one, curtain off the lower part, -so that the light begins about six feet from the floor. If more than -one person is working in the same room, several windows on the same -side are admissible. If, however, a studio were being built expressly -for the purpose, the ideal light would be one large, high side window, -extending from six to ten feet along the wall, beginning at the floor -and reaching to the ceiling, where it is joined by a skylight, which is -arranged with an adjustable curtain, so that it may only be uncovered -when needed. In the same way the lower half of the window should -be curtained off up to a height of six feet for ordinary purposes. -The whole length of the window is sometimes useful in simulating an -out-of-door effect of light. - -Some famous painters have had studios built entirely of glass, so that -they could have all the advantages of working in the open air without -the exposure. Adjustable curtains would turn the glass-house into an -ordinary in-door studio, with conventional light. Few of us are so -fortunate as to command these conveniences, and truth compels us to -admit that they are not strictly necessary to good work. - -As we have already stated, the easel is now universally adopted for -drawing, as well as painting, instead of the old methods, which -necessitated leaning over a table. The plate to be copied is also -placed upright, in the same upright position that would be occupied by -a cast or live model, so that, even in this elementary training, the -eye becomes accustomed to look naturally from the object or study being -copied to the paper on the easel. - -When preparing to draw, the easel should be placed in front of the -window and so arranged that the light will come from behind, and fall -over the left shoulder of the worker. - -Two or three sheets of charcoal paper are now firmly fastened to the -portfolio or drawing-board, which should in no case be smaller than the -paper, but even larger, projecting at least half an inch beyond the -regular-sized “Lalanne” or “Michelet” sheets. - -To fasten the paper use ordinary flat brass-headed paper tacks, putting -one in each corner, and one on each side between, making six in all. -The two sheets of paper underneath the one used for drawing are so -placed in order to make a firmer and smoother foundation than could be -obtained by spreading a single sheet directly upon the hard surface of -the wooden board or portfolio, where any crack, knot, wrinkle, or other -imperfection would show through when rubbed with the stump. - -This arrangement is of great importance, and should never be neglected. - -For the benefit of the actual beginners, we will commence with the -drawing of straight lines, which is not nearly so easy as might be -supposed. - - - STRAIGHT LINES. - -The foundation of technical skill in drawing of many kinds, notably -the charcoal and crayon point, pen and ink, and pencil, depends upon -the power of making lines with correctness and dexterity; and though -later on, in drawing and painting, we learn to see only by form, almost -entirely discarding the line _per se_, yet this early training of -the hand often gives firmness and surety of touch to the painter’s -brush which might otherwise be wanting, and is in many ways felt to be -valuable. - -To begin the practice of drawing straight lines, first make two dots of -several inches apart, let us say, about three inches from one point to -the other. Let these dots at first be perpendicular, one being directly -above the other. - -Sharpen the charcoal to a point and draw it slowly from the upper to -the lower point several times, at first without actually touching the -paper, to accustom the eye to the distance; then make the actual line -between the two, bearing lightly upon the paper and making a line of -uniform thickness. - -Make these lines in rows parallel to each other and about an inch -apart, continuing the exercise until you are able to make perfectly -straight upright lines. - -The next exercise consists of drawing horizontal lines in the same -manner. After this, oblique lines should be practiced, inclining in -different directions. - -Remember that no ruling, measuring or mechanical aids of any kind are -to be made use of, the object being to train eye and hand. - - - CURVED LINES. - -Curved lines are of course more difficult than straight for those who -are entirely untrained. Begin to draw these by making the two dots at -first as for the straight line; connect these dots with a very light -line, and then through the center draw another line at right angles, -dividing the first exactly in two. This line, projecting from one side -only, must be exactly the same length as half the first line thus - -[Illustration: The realisation of the instructions] - -Now connect the extremity of these lines with a curved line extending -from one end to the middle and thence to the other end. When practice -has enabled the student to draw these curves correctly, the straight -lines are omitted and the curves drawn only from point to point. - -Let this simple exercise be repeated by drawing the curves in every -direction. When the pupil is able to draw both straight and curved -lines thus with ease he has already gained an important step. - -After this, simple forms should be drawn in outline, using such copies -as 120 studies in freehand, called “How to Draw,” by Chas. Ryan, -costing 25 cents, published by Cassell & Company. - -A box of blocks should next be procured, which are sold by art dealers -for the purpose, and the student should begin with the simplest forms -and draw them from nature, in outline at first, progressing gradually -to more complicated forms. - -The next step is shading, which is done at first in the simplest -manner. The outline sketched in, the proportions are ascertained to -be correct and the shadow and light are divided into two great masses -without detail and blocked in as broadly as possible, according to the -method given in the following pages. - -Learn to begin a drawing properly and the finishing will be easy -enough, being merely a matter of practice when once the manner of -working is understood. How often we see exposed for sale and on -exhibition drawings and paintings elaborately finished of which the -drawing is so faulty as to render them worthless. - -Students, therefore, who are thoroughly in earnest must be content to -postpone all idea of finishing at first, occupying themselves in the -preliminary studies with correctness of outline and proportion only. -For this reason when the shadows are blocked in broadly and the drawing -appears to be as nearly right as you can make it, put it aside and take -up something a little more difficult and carry it on to the same stage -without endeavoring to elaborate it. Thus continue your practice, -always progressing until you feel fitted to begin the study of the -human face and form, which is, as we have said, the most difficult -thing in art. - - - - - PART SECOND. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - MANNER OF WORKING. - - -Those who have already had sufficient practice in the elementary -drawing indicated in the first part, can of course omit the foregoing -pages, and begin at once with the preparatory studies of the face and -figure, which are necessary before proceeding to drawing from the cast. - -These studies consist of eight plates, carefully prepared by the -author, according to the modern methods of charcoal and crayon drawing -now employed in all large art schools both in Europe and our own -country. - -By carefully copying these plates in their regular order, the student -learns the method of using charcoal and crayon, so as to be perfectly -acquainted with these materials and their resources before beginning to -work from Nature; the design also being to familiarize the eye with the -constructional drawing and proportion of the human figure beforehand, -thus materially lessening the difficulties of drawing from life. The -general manner of working is as follows:— - -Arrange the light, place the easel in position, and fasten the charcoal -paper to the drawing board or portfolio in the way already described. -We will suppose the subject to be drawn is a head. First make a small -mark or dot on the paper with your charcoal, to show where the top of -the head will come. A corresponding dot will indicate the bottom of the -face or chin, while a mark on each side will show the width of the head. - -Before beginning to draw a line, these marks will suggest whether the -head be properly placed on the sheet. See that there be not too much -space on either side, and that the head is not too high or too low. - -If these preliminary precautions be neglected the head may be placed -most awkwardly; too much to one side or otherwise wrong, and the -mistake not be noticed until the drawing be nearly finished. The -importance, therefore, of properly placing the head at first can not be -overestimated. - -The position being decided, the outlines are lightly sketched in with -long, sweeping lines, following the general direction of the head -without any attention at first to details of any kind. Let these lines -next determine the oval described by the face, sketching at the same -time the lines of the throat, and ascertaining the action of the body -in relation to the head by one or more long, sweeping lines across the -bust from shoulder to shoulder. - -Next draw a line with the charcoal point across the oval of the face -where the hair meets the forehead, one through the middle of the eyes, -one at the base of the nose, through the center of the mouth and the -lowest point of the chin. - -These lines determine the proportions of the face, and are drawn -very lightly with the charcoal, sharpened to a fine point, as they -are erased when the features are drawn in. Next proceed to place the -features on these lines, blocking them in only in their general forms -at first with very little detail, and draw these forms as squarely as -possible, seeking for angles and avoiding curves. - -It is easy to turn angles into curves in finishing a drawing, but if we -begin with curves we have nothing to depend upon, and the drawing loses -strength, becoming soft and weak in the end. - -Having ascertained that the features are in the right place, go back to -the outline and bring that into shape, though without trying to finish -it carefully as yet. - -The next step is to block in the shadows in their general forms, -dividing the whole head into two distinct masses of light and shade. -To do this, make a faint outline of the exact form of the shadows -where they meet the light; now fill in with charcoal all the mass of -shadow within the outline, making one flat, even tone of dark without -variation of shade. To do this draw the charcoal in straight parallel -lines slightly oblique, almost touching each other, until the whole -shadow is covered. No special care need be taken in putting in these -lines, as the main object is to get the paper sufficiently covered -with the charcoal. The largest paper stump is now used, to unite these -charcoal lines into one flat tone of dark. - -The stump is held in the fingers, so that about an inch of the point -lies on the paper, not merely the tip end. With this the charcoal is -rubbed in until no lines appear, only one simple even tone of dark -filling the outline of the shadow. - -Put in the eyes, nose, mouth, etc., and in the same way drawing the -form of the general shadow first without any detail, as already -mentioned, and putting in the flat tone with the charcoal and stump. - -When the principal shadows are thus laid in, look at the head from -a distance and see if the proportions are correct. Any mistake will -be easily seen in this stage, and should be corrected at once before -proceeding further. - -To correct a line or erase the charcoal in any way, use the crumb or -soft part of stale bread. This is done by taking a small piece between -the fingers, and rolling it into a little ball, then shaping it to -a point. Be sure the bread is not too fresh or made with butter, as -greasy bread will ruin the paper, so that it is impossible to work -nicely on it. If, however, such a grease spot becomes evident when the -drawing is somewhat advanced, it can be remedied in the finishing, by -touching carefully with a sharp-pointed crayon, and rubbing with a -pointed rubber stump; working with both alternately, making fine, small -touches, until the spot is even in tone with the rest. - -In using the bread, never press hard; if the charcoal or crayon will -not come off, use the pointed rubber stump. - -In laying in a mass of shadow, if too much charcoal gets on the paper, -so as to become inconvenient, wipe it off lightly and evenly with a -soft cotton rag, and if then the tone is too light, work on it again -with charcoal, as before, using the stump in the same way until it -becomes the right tone. - -In working heads, life studies, etc., in charcoal it is the practice -in all the large art schools to finish them with black crayon. The -crayon is not touched, however, until the shadows are all put in and -the proportions found to be correct. The whole effect being blocked in -the way already described, the crayon is taken up and the two materials -used together at first, as required, in the following manner: - -The outline, which has been sketched in with charcoal, is now very -carefully drawn with a finely pointed Conté crayon No. 2. First dust -off the charcoal a little with a rag until the outline is quite light, -though easily seen, and do not make the crayon outline too dark and -thick. - -Next proceed to block in the hair with charcoal. Do this at first in -the simple masses of light and shade, rubbing in the charcoal in close -lines at first, so as to well cover the paper, and then using the stump -to make one flat, even tone. - -If the hair is dark, cover the light mass with a general tone of light -gray, using the charcoal very lightly and rubbing it flat with the -stump as before. If the hair is light, put in a fainter tone for the -dark mass and a very delicate tone over the light mass. Do not attempt -to see any reflected lights or small details as yet. - -Having the head now well started, we proceed to carry it on by putting -in the half tints which connect the masses of light and shadow all -over the face. Do this with a clean, medium-sized paper stump by -dragging the charcoal from the shadow over the light. Do not put any -new charcoal on for the half tints, as it is very important that they -be kept light at first. Keep a clean stump always at hand for delicate -half tints, and never use an old one. - -The face now begins to model and look round, and is further carried -on by putting in the dark accents of shadow and taking out reflected -lights with bread. - -The features are brought into shape, using the sharp pointed charcoal -and a small stump. - -At this stage the crayon is taken up permanently and the charcoal laid -aside. - -The Conté crayon No. 2 sharpened to a fine point is rubbed all over -the mass of shadow already laid in with charcoal and is then softened -with the stump in the manner already described, the charcoal and crayon -together producing a beautiful quality of tone. - -Let me here mention that some artists prefer to use the sauce crayon -for putting in large masses of dark, such as shadows, hair, drapery, -etc. The student should try both methods and use either or both, as he -may prefer. - -The sauce crayon should be rubbed off on a small piece of charcoal -paper and tacked on one side of the drawing so as to be convenient for -use. - -The point of the large stump is now rolled around in the sauce or -powdered crayon thus prepared, and is then rubbed into the shadow until -the whole is covered with the crayon and presents an even dark tone. - -The sauce crayon is only to be employed for large spaces, and is useful -in saving time, as it takes longer to cover the surface with lines made -by the crayon point. Still many prefer the latter. - -The crayon point is always used in finishing up the drawing, which is -carried on by degrees. The dark accents are put in the eyes, nose, -mouth and ears, and the small stump is used to soften the marks of the -crayon, but should not be rubbed too much. - -If the head be rather dark in its general effect, a very delicate gray -tint should be put all over the light mass of the face. This is done -with a clean stump which has been used for half tints, and the tone is -put on in the same manner, the crayon point not being used here. - -The high lights are taken out with the bread rolled to a point, and -should be made sharp and distinct. The hair is carried on in the same -manner as the face, the dark accents and details being put in with the -crayon point and softened a little with the stump. The half tints are -developed and reflected lights taken out with bread. The high lights -are lastly rubbed out in the same way, taking care always to preserve -the exact form of the lights where they meet the shadows. - -In drawing hair, do not attempt to put in too much detail. The deepest -shadows and the highest lights should always be kept simple. The most -detail is generally seen in the half tint, but should be very carefully -studied only in the most prominent parts, the rest being left in a -suggestive way. - -In working thus with charcoal and crayon, there are one or two things -that should be always kept in mind. - -In the first place, the charcoal and crayon must always be kept -sharpened while drawing, a fine point being most necessary. A sharp -knife should always be at hand, and also a piece of sandpaper, as it -is very difficult to sharpen the crayons with a knife, they break so -easily. - -Always buy the best materials, and always keep plenty on hand. Have a -box of charcoal, and at least half a dozen crayons, and keep one or two -clean stumps in reserve no matter how many you have already in use. - -In rubbing on charcoal, and before using the stump, be sure to cover -the paper well, so that very little rubbing will spread the tone into -an even mass. No matter how much charcoal you get on at first, you can -always take off the superfluity with a rag; but if there is not enough -one is tempted to rub the paper too hard, and if the surface of the -paper gets roughened by too much rubbing at first, you can never do -any thing with it afterward. - -In putting on the crayon, however, we must be more careful. - -Put on a little and try it with the stump; if it does not spread well, -add more, and so on. Even when dispensing entirely with the sauce -crayon and using only the pointed sticks, it is well to rub off some -of the crayon on a small piece of paper and pin it up on one side of -the drawing, for using in very light tones where the point must not be -employed. For instance, in covering the light side of the face with a -delicate tone, the stump is rubbed on this, and tried first on a piece -of paper before using it on the drawing. - -Never let the hand rest directly upon the drawing itself. If not -convenient to rest it upon the margin, have a sheet of clean writing -paper to place underneath the hand. - -In sketching in, or drawing long, sweeping lines, do not steady the -hand upon the paper at all, as one does in writing, but try to acquire -freedom of handling by practice, resting the hand upon the paper only -when absolutely necessary, as in drawing fine details, or when great -precision is required. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - MEASUREMENT, ACTUAL AND COMPARATIVE. - - -By actual measurement is meant the measurement of the object itself by -holding against it a ruler or straight strip of paper, and marking off -the number of inches or exact distance from one given point to another. -These measurements are then compared with the drawing, and the same -distances are marked off on the paper. - -In mechanical and architectural drawing this system of measurement is -in constant use, but in freehand drawing, and in the method practiced -by artists, actual measurement is not allowed. Never measure in any way -when beginning a drawing, but strike out bravely, resolving to depend -upon the eye only, if possible. - -After the first outlines are put in, and the proportions are as nearly -correct as you can make them, it is perfectly legitimate to “prove” a -drawing by actual measurement, if it is a copy. If one is drawing from -a cast, or from life, and it is necessary that the head be exactly the -same size, a measurement may be taken from the top of the head to the -chin, and compared with the sketch you have made. Beyond this no actual -measurement should be allowed. - - - COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENT. - -This is a very important thing in drawing from Nature, or objects of -any kind, and must be thoroughly understood by the student, as without -it no drawing can be made absolutely correct. - -Comparative measurements are entirely _proportional_. The manner of -taking them is as follows: - -Place yourself opposite the object to be measured, at the same distance -from which your drawing is taken. Let us say you are drawing the bust -of Apollo, and wish to discover just the exact height of the whole, -also the width across the shoulders. - -Extend your arm in a perfectly straight line at right angles to the -cast, holding in your hand a long lead-pencil. The pencil must be -held parallel to the general direction of the cast, neither end being -allowed to swerve the slightest. - -Now, closing one eye to concentrate the vision, measure off with your -thumb upon the pencil, which is held crosswise, the apparent distance -from the outside of one shoulder in a direct line to the outside of the -other. Keep your thumb tightly upon the pencil at the place measured, -and slowly turn the hand around, keeping the arm extended at the same -distance from the body, and the eye in the same position as before. - -The pencil is now held straight up and down, and your object is to -see how many times the distance measured off on the pencil will go -into the whole length of the cast, beginning at the top of the head -and measuring down to the foot of the bust, slowly moving the pencil -downward and checking off with the eye each time the measurement is -repeated. - -In this way we can find out exactly whether the cast is just twice as -long as it is wide, or less—in other words, the comparative proportions. - -This kind of measurement is invaluable in out-of-door sketching, and -the eye soon becomes so trained by practice that relative proportions -are compared instinctively, and one scarcely needs to use the pencil. - - - THE PLUMB LINE. - -Another most valuable adjunct in drawing from life and from the cast is -the plumb line. This consists of a piece of strong twine with a weight -on one end, which serves to keep the string perfectly straight and -steady when suspended from the hand. A straight line is thus simulated -which is dropped from a given point to one directly underneath, -forming one side of a triangle, which will ascertain for us the -different positions that certain other parts assume in relation to this -line. - -For instance, we hold the plumb line so as to make a straight line from -the chin of a standing figure to the ground. The top and bottom of the -line form two points of a triangle, the third to be represented by the -man’s heel. - -Imaginary lines are now drawn through these points, forming the -triangle, whose base determines the direction of the heel in relation -to the center-line of the body. In this way the balance of a figure -can be accurately ascertained, and the most difficult action correctly -suggested. - -In the actual drawing the real lines may be sketched in charcoal from -point to point at the same angle determined by the plumb, and the -corrections made accordingly, these straight lines being of course -erased afterward. - - - VALUES. - -The term “value,” as understood by artists, is used to express the -_comparative relation of tones to each other_, irrespective of color. -There may be many different colors before us all of the same value; -also, there may be only one color used in a drawing, yet many different -values are seen, which goes to show that we are to compare tones and -not colors. - -For example, in drawing or painting a landscape we look at the tone of -the trees against the sky and observe which is the darker. If a stormy, -heavy sky is seen behind light, feathery, green trees we see that the -sky is darker in value. - -If, on the contrary, trees with dark, rich foliage are observed to be -strongly relieved against a bright, sunny sky, we perceive at once -that the sky is lighter in value than the trees. In like manner we -compare the rocks with the water, the fence with the road, and so on, -according to the different objects to be regarded in the picture. - -In drawing a head in charcoal or crayon it is well to establish at once -the darkest value in the whole, selecting the deepest spot of shadow -with which all the other tones of dark may be compared. - -Look for instance, at the shadow over the eye or under the nose, which -are generally very dark, and compare it with the shadow on the cheek, -behind the ear, or under the chin. In the same way decide upon the -highest light in the face. Say it is found upon the forehead or on the -cheek bone. Be sure that it is the brightest spot in the face, and then -compare all the other degrees of light with this. - -By studying in this way, and observing the comparative variety of these -tones, we arrive at correct values. - -This is a most important quality in art and can not be overestimated, -for upon a just appreciation of the values in a picture depends its -truth. This also serves to illustrate the necessity of making studies -directly from nature whenever possible. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CRAYON PORTRAITS. - - -Crayon is especially adapted to portraiture, on account of the -brilliant effects which it is capable of producing, as well as the -great softness and delicacy of finish which may be obtained by its use. - -Portraits should, of course, always be taken from life if possible, -though if the person be an invalid or is for any other reason unable -to give many sittings, a photograph may be used for the beginning. The -portrait is carried on from this until well advanced; if one or two -sittings from life can then be had in finishing, it will be a great -advantage, especially in regard to the expression. - -In portraits of children a photograph is frequently a great assistance, -particularly if the artist has not had much experience. - -In all such cases, however, it is best to decide upon the pose, and -sketch it from life, and then have the photograph taken in the pose you -have selected. - -In this way, the light and shade are arranged to suit the artist, -and the pose being decided upon by him, the portrait will have the -effect of being drawn from life instead of being merely a copy from a -conventional photograph. - -In general the effect of light used by photographers is exactly the -reverse of that chosen by artists. It will be noticed that ordinary -photographs have the greater part of the face either in shadow or -covered by strong half-tints. - -An artist, on the contrary, in posing a head for a portrait, prefers -exactly the opposite arrangement, selecting broad and simple effects of -light with only enough shadow to give the necessary variety and relief -to the features. - -When arranging the preliminaries for a portrait, there are several -things to be considered. - -In the first place, study the head carefully and see which view is most -agreeable. Sometimes features in the same face look differently when -seen from opposite directions. Some noses or mouths look well on one -side and distorted on the other. - -A very broad face should not be given a full front pose, but would look -better seen in three-quarter. - -A very retreating chin must not be seen in a profile view. - -This same pose, however, for a person with a cast in the eyes is -preferable, and so on. After all such matters have been considered, see -that the head is not thrown up too high, as it will make the nose look -short, while lowering the chin too much will make the nose look long. A -good rule is that the eyes of the sitter should be on a line with those -of the artist as he sits or stands at his work. - -The method most generally in use for crayon portraits is that -described in the preceding pages, in which the stump is used. All the -old-fashioned ways of stippling and hatching are seldom resorted to, -and not considered artistic. - -In drawing a life-sized head the artist must not be too far from his -subject, the easel being placed about four or five feet distant. It is -well to get up and walk back occasionally, looking at the work from a -distance so as to see the general effect. - -There are several different kinds of paper used for crayon portraits, -some artists preferring one make, some another. The ordinary “Lalanne” -and “Michelet” papers used for charcoal and crayon studies are a little -too rough in texture to please every body, and do not produce quite so -fine a finish as is desirable. They come in too small-sized sheets for -a large portrait head, for which one wants plenty of room. - -This, however, is merely a matter of taste, that can be indulged when -one has become sufficiently proficient in the work to judge for -himself. We will suggest that Whatman’s crayon paper is one of the -most satisfactory; this comes in large sheets, and should be stretched -before using in the manner already described. A good sized stretcher -for an ordinary portrait is 20×24. - -If more of the figure than the shoulders is to be seen, a larger size -would be better. - -The portrait is first lightly sketched in with charcoal, and if the -student is not very proficient in drawing from life it is better to -make the first sketch upon an ordinary sheet of charcoal paper. - -When all corrections are made, and the general proportions of the face -appear to be right, the outline is transferred to the stretcher in the -following manner:— - -Take the sheet of charcoal paper on which the sketch is made, and with -a stick of charcoal “scribble,” so to speak, all over the back, so that -the paper is entirely covered behind your sketch. - -Now lay this sheet with the face upward on the clean stretcher, -placing it so that the head will come in exactly the right place, -neither too high nor too low. - -Fasten it with pins at the top and bottom, so that the paper will not -slip, and then with a sharp, hard lead-pencil carefully go over the -outline, and every important part of the face and head. If the paper -should move in the least the whole thing is spoiled, therefore it is -best in transferring to lay the drawing upon a table till finished. -Remember not to rest the hand heavily upon any portion of the paper -except the line to be traced, as every touch leaves a black spot -beneath. - -On removing the sketch a perfect outline will be found upon the -stretcher, which will be a sufficient guide to the proportions and -general likeness. Now, with a sharply pointed charcoal stick begin to -draw in the head, following the outline, block in the features, massing -the shadows in the face and hair. - -Do not begin to use the crayon until the general likeness is assured, -for the paper must not be roughened by too much erasing. - -Use the soft cotton rag for dusting off charcoal whenever you can, -instead of bread, as too much rubbing with bread will grease the paper; -for very large spaces, where erasing is necessary, use Faber’s India -rubber. - -When the crayon is put on, advance slowly, remembering that in a -portrait there is much more careful work than in an ordinary life -study, and that there are many more things to be considered than merely -the drawing. The likeness is to be secured, which is sometimes a -difficult thing even for those with experience. - -This is accomplished gradually; the student must not always expect -to see the likeness in the first sketch; it comes by degrees, as the -drawing progresses, and it is a good rule to draw the head in exactly -as you see it, emphasizing the salient points, no matter how ugly it -may appear. Do not attempt to improve and modify until the drawing and -general likeness are secured. - -The expression comes last of all, and with it the beauty. If you -attempt to make the face pretty at first, you will weaken the drawing -and lose the character. For this reason, many artists make it a rule -never to show their portraits until finished. The sitter does not -understand the methods of working and is tempted to criticise, which -renders the worker timid. - -After the head is put in with the crayon and modeled with the stump, in -the manner described in a previous chapter, the finishing is carried on -with the crayon point, the small stump, and the pointed rubber stump, -which is found more useful than bread at the last. - -The animated expression is put in the eyes by dark touches in the pupil -and under the lids, while sharp lights are accented in the iris and on -the eyeball. - -The form of the under lid must be carefully studied. - -The nose, also, has much to do with the expression; especially the -shape of the nostrils, and the direction of the lines at the side of -the nose running down to the mouth. Observe whether the nostrils droop -downward at the outward edge; this gives a serious expression; if, -on the contrary, the line is elevated, it tends to give a bright and -animated appearance to the face. - -The mouth, of course, is of great importance, and influences the -expression more than any other feature; when smiling, the corners -are turned upward, and the lines or dimples are curved in an outward -direction. In a sad face the corners of the mouth drop downward and the -lines grow straight. - -If the student learns to look for such indications in many faces, he -will find more suggestions of importance to aid him in developing the -expression. Without such knowledge, he may accidentally reverse these -conditions, and work on blindly, puzzling himself vainly to find out -where he is wrong and why the expression is just the opposite of what -it should be. - - - THE HAIR. - -In drawing the hair, no matter how elaborate its arrangement, it must -be blocked in at first in simple flat masses of light and shade without -any attempt at detail. Try, however, to give the general character of -the hair in putting in the form of the shadows where they meet the -light. In smooth, black hair, the effect will be large masses of black -with sharp, clearly-defined high lights. - -Light curly hair will have much lighter tone in the shadow and much -less brilliant lights. - -After the hair is thus laid in with charcoal and the stump, the crayon -is taken up. - -The half tints are studied and the deep accents of dark put in the -shadows, always following the outline of the form of each shadow very -carefully. - -Avoid putting in a number of lines to represent hair, as this destroys -the effect and means nothing. All details are expressed by carefully -rendered light and shade. - -In finishing, the high lights are taken out with bread rolled to a -point, or if more convenient, the india-rubber stump is used. - -Soften the hair where it touches the face, never leaving a hard, dark -line. When a tone is too dark, it is not always necessary to use either -bread or rubber, but first try rubbing with the stump, which may be -found sufficient. - - - BACKGROUNDS. - -A background gives relief and importance to the head, and should be -managed with judgment. - -In the first place, never make the background exactly the same value as -the head. If the hair is light and the general effect of the face fair -and delicate, the background should be darker than the head, though not -too dark. - -Everything must be harmonious, and a spotty appearance is to be avoided. - -For instance, a very light effect of hair and face with a moderately -dark dress and a jetty-black background is very bad. Also, a head -with black hair, white dress and very light background. All violent -contrasts should be avoided. - -Put the background in at first with charcoal only, using parallel lines -in one direction, then crossing them diagonally. After this take the -large stump and rub these lines into one tone, yet leaving a slight -suggestion of the lines to show through. - -Put in this tone only around the shoulders and lower part of the head, -leaving the upper part of the paper bare, or nearly so. - -In this way try the effect, working slowly and adding more charcoal as -the tone needs to be darker. - -When you have decided that the background has the right effect in -relation to the head, use the crayon point in the same way as the -charcoal, putting in crossed lines and rubbing them together again -with the stump until a transparent effect is achieved, which will give -atmosphere and relieve the head. - -If you get on too much crayon rub it all over with a soft rag. This is -an excellent thing to do occasionally, as it softens and unites the -whole while making the tone lighter. - -Sometimes in finishing, a few touches of the rubber point may be used -at the edges of the background and where it softens off at the top. Use -the rubber in the same manner as the crayon point, making light lines -crossing obliquely. - -Remember that hardly any appearance of lines must be seen. When all is -done they must be so softened with stump and rag as to present almost -the appearance, at a little distance, of an even tone. - -In some cases the background may be carried up higher than the middle -of the head, but it is very rarely necessary to surround the whole head -with it. - -Sometimes a very light tone may be put all over the paper with the -large stump and rag. - -In this case the lines are only used at the darkest part around the -shoulders. These matters must be determined by individual taste, and -the composition of the portrait, as it is impossible to make general -rules for every case. - -Never attempt to make landscape backgrounds or effects of drapery and -still-life behind a simple portrait head. Every thing should be kept -subordinate to the face, which is the most important thing of all. -Never use white chalk or crayon with the black in such portraits; take -all lights out with bread, or leave the paper clean. - - - DRAPERY. - -All drapery in a crayon portrait must be treated as simply as possible, -being regarded only as secondary in importance to the head, which is, -of course, the main object of interest. - -All elaborate trimmings or pronounced fashions should be avoided. - -Different kinds of material are interpreted by carefully studying the -different forms of the lights and shadows in each. For instance, black -satin is rendered by large masses of black, as black as crayon can be -made with sharp, narrow high lights, so light as to be almost white. - -In black silk, the masses of dark are lighter in their general tone, -and the lights less sharp and brilliant. - -The different colors are represented by lighter or darker tones, as the -case may be. - -In black velvet, the masses of dark are softer than in satin and not so -jetty black, while the lights are less brilliant and more diffused in -effect, leaving more half tints than are seen either in silk or satin. -In black cloths the lights are quite low in tone and the darks are not -very black, no sharp high lights are seen at all, both light and shade -taking large and simple forms. - -White stuffs, such as lace, muslin, etc., are also kept simple in -effect, and are laid in with a very delicate tone all over the mass of -light, and the high lights are taken out with bread. - -The shadows should also be delicate and transparent and not too dark. -White hair is treated in this way also, the character of the hair being -indicated by the form of the lights. - -When there is a white cap upon the head or lace of any kind, do not -make it too prominent, but carefully study its value in relation to the -face. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING WITH THE POINT; LANDSCAPES, - PROPORTIONS, ETC. - - -This method is principally used by artists in making drawings for -illustration, as stump drawings can not well be reproduced. The manner -of working is as follows:— - -Sketch in the outline with the charcoal stick, sharpened to a point, -and then proceed to block in the shadows, which must be drawn in with -careful attention to the form, for the reason that it is best to make -a distinct outline of each mass of shadow where it meets the light. -These shadows are now filled in with the pointed charcoal, used in -close parallel lines until a flat, even tone is obtained. It is not -necessary that these lines should be distinct, or of exact regularity, -as in the very darkest shadows no lines at all should be seen. The half -tints are managed in the same way with the point, which may be used in -the direction of the features to some extent. - -The main thing to be remembered is that no stump must be used, nor the -charcoal rubbed in any way. For erasing, bread is the best, though -rubber is sometimes found useful. - -The crayon point is employed in exactly the same way as the charcoal, -the directions applying equally to both. All drawings should be fixed -as soon as finished. - - - PROPORTIONS OF THE FIGURE. - -A few conventional rules for the general proportions of the face and -figure may be found useful to the student in drawing from life, and -are regulated according to the standard of beauty as determined by -the Greek statues. Such proportions will naturally vary in individual -cases, yet are valuable as a foundation, which may be modified when -necessary. - -The height of a well developed man is eight heads or eight times the -length of his own head. - -The height of a woman, seven heads. - -The human figure may be divided into four parts of equal length, viz.: -from the top of the head to the arm-pit, thence to the middle of the -body, thence to the knees, thence to the soles of the feet. - -The arms extended straight out at right angles to the body will measure -from finger-tip to finger-tip the length of the figure from crown of -head to sole of foot. - -The face may be divided into three parts. From the top of the forehead -to the root of the nose; from there to the bottom of the nose, thence -to the bottom of the chin. The ear is the length of the nose, and its -general direction is parallel to it. - -From the top of the shoulder to the elbow measures twice the length of -the face, or one head and a half. - -From the elbow to the wrist one head. - -The hand measures three-quarters of a head from the tip of the middle -finger to the wrist. - -The foot measures one-sixth of the whole length of the body. - - - LANDSCAPE. - -Charcoal is a favorite medium with many artists for landscape subjects, -and it is, as before stated, especially useful in sketching from nature. - -In beginning to draw a landscape in charcoal, first sketch in lightly -the horizon line, the outlines of the trees and different objects, in -their general aspect. - -It is always well to select a subject where there is a good effect of -light and shade and sufficient variety to give interest. - -After the composition is sketched in, look for the large masses of -shadow, and divide the whole into two distinct masses of light and -shade, as in figure drawing. The sky is covered with a light tone, at -first, and even the masses of light are also covered with a delicate -half-tint. - -The whole drawing may be made entirely with the point if it is desired, -but the French artist Allongé, who is celebrated for his charcoal -landscapes, prefers the use of the stump, with the point in finishing. - -If in place of the stump the finger sometimes is used to blend the -charcoal, and for rapid sketches, this is very effective. - -After the general masses are put in, the details are drawn with the -point, being somewhat softened with the stump, though in trunks of -trees, dark branches, rocks, etc., the marks of the point are left -unsoftened to give strength. - -The lights are taken out with bread or rubber; sometimes a piece of -chamois skin is found useful in lightening a tone. The light clouds -are taken out with bread from the sky which has been covered with a -half-tint, and the dark clouds are put in with the stump or point, -according to the method employed. - -In sketching from nature out of doors, it is always well to adopt some -prominent object as a standard of measurement; for instance, take a -house or tree in the middle distance, and compare this in height with -objects in the background and foreground. In this way your perspective, -if simple, may be made correct without any elaborate rules. - -Objects in the distance are naturally smaller than those in the -foreground, and the exact proportions can be determined by comparative -measurement. - -In drawing a road or path, notice that it will become narrower as it -recedes into the distance. For those who have never studied perspective -such suggestions are useful. - -It is very important also that the values should be carefully studied; -it is a good thing to establish the darkest spot of shadow in the whole -sketch, and compare all the other darks with it, as already suggested -in figure drawing. Determine also the brightest light, and let the -other lights be in their proper relation to it. - -Either crayon or charcoal, or both, may be used for landscapes; it is -always better to sketch in the drawing with charcoal, even if crayon is -used afterward. - -Some very good effects are produced by using crayon or charcoal on -tinted paper, either gray, blue, or light brown, and, leaving the tone -of the paper for the half-tint, put in the high lights with white chalk. - -In such drawings the stump must not be used, nor should the tones be -rubbed or blended in any way. Use the crayon or charcoal point in the -manner already described, and put the lights in at the last with crisp, -strong touches. - -As the student continues his practice he will find out the resources of -these most interesting materials, and will develop new possibilities -for himself as he becomes more adept, but it must be remembered that -there is no “royal road to learning,” and to succeed in acquiring -proficiency in drawing of any kind, requires patience and perseverance, -with constant practice. - - - - - APPENDIX. - - EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. - - -The intention of the author in presenting these plates is that the -student, by copying a series of progressive drawings, may be prepared -to study from the cast and from life. For those who are entirely -inexperienced, it is much easier to learn this method from such flat -copies at first, as it not only teaches the use of the materials, but -familiarizes the student with the forms of the different features, so -that when confronted with nature he finds his difficulties considerably -lessened. - - - PLATE I. - -This plate is intended to show the drawing of the human eye and mouth -in different positions, as well as to familiarize the student with -the general form of these important features. Only charcoal sharpened -to a point is necessary for these outlines, which should be carefully -practiced before proceeding to Plate II. - - - PLATE II. - -This study is intended for those who have never drawn from the cast, -and have had no practice in using charcoal. A. represents the manner of -beginning a drawing. Make a dot on the paper for the top, and one for -the bottom of the fragment to ascertain where to place the lines, and -then with a sharply pointed charcoal stick, draw the general form of -the outline in the manner shown in the plate, without attempting any -detail. The shadows are then blocked in squarely with the point. When -the proportions are thus ascertained to be correct, proceed to finish -the drawing as is seen in B. - -To do this, rub the shadows with the stump till one flat, even tone -is obtained, and carefully draw the outline, turning the angles into -curves. - -This plate is for the most elementary practice in drawing, and no -further degree of finish than this should be attempted, until the -student has learned to do this much well. - - - PLATE III. - -This represents a simple study of the hand, drawn from a cast. A. -indicates the manner of laying in the study, the curved lines being -drawn to show the direction and movement of the fingers. - -In B. the stump is used in the shadows, and the modeling is carried on -further than in Plate II., the half-tint being added. The outline is -carefully finished with the pointed crayon, which is also used in the -shadows. - - - PLATE IV. - -The part drawn from the cast here represented, is laid in with -charcoal, as in Fig. A., and then carried on in crayon as in Fig. B. -The outline is carefully drawn and the shadows blocked in squarely at -first as usual, and then changed with great care into the necessary -correct forms. - -It will be noticed that this study is a little further advanced than -those already given, more detail being shown, as well as a little -greater variety in the half-tints. The straight lines across the base -and ends of the toes serve to direct the eye to the difference between -their general direction and a perfectly horizontal line. - - - PLATE V. - -In this plate the whole profile view of a face is given, Fig. A. -representing the way to lay in a head. The straight lines outside may -be ruled, as they have nothing to do with the drawing, but are merely -mechanical aids by which the angle of the features is determined. - -In B. the modeling of the features is carried on still further than in -any of the preceding studies, the half-tints and shadows, however, -being still kept flat. - - - PLATE VI. - -This plate gives a more difficult study in the three-quarter view of a -male head. In laying in the drawing, as in Fig. A., be careful to get -the proportions as perfectly correct as possible before proceeding to -carry the modeling further, as in Fig. B. - -This head, though more finished than any other yet given, purposely -stops short of the final extent to which such drawings may be carried, -as the object of the author is to familiarize the student with each -step by the way. In the smaller touches about the eyes, nose, etc., the -pointed rubber stump will be found more available than bread. For the -large masses of shadow it would be well to rub off some sauce crayon -on a small piece of drawing paper and fasten it one side of the easel, -or, if preferred, rub the pointed crayon on the rough paper until a -sufficient quantity adheres. The stump is rolled around in this until -sufficient is taken up to cover the large mass of shadow. The more -careful work is carried on with the pointed Conté crayon, small stump, -and pointed rubber, or bread, as before explained. - - - PLATE VII. - -Plate VII. is intended to prepare the student for drawing the full -length figure from the cast, and should be carefully copied. An -excellent exercise would be to draw Fig. A. several times first, in -order to practice the manner of beginning such a drawing; then when -this is fully mastered proceed to finish as in Fig. B., which in this -plate shows a fully completed drawing from the cast. - - - PLATE VIII. - -This plate represents a study of the male figure taken directly from -life, and is a most carefully finished drawing in every respect. -Fig. A. shows the manner of beginning such a figure; the outline -is sketched in with long, sweeping lines at first, to determine the -direction of the pose; the proportions are noted and the outline -corrected, though drawn in angles, the general masses of shadow being -blocked in as usual. - -In Fig. B. the crayon and stump are taken up and the drawing is -carefully carried on as shown by the plate, until completed. - - - THE END. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND -CRAYON *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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