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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b1559f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69012 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69012) diff --git a/old/69012-0.txt b/old/69012-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index de6f5b4..0000000 --- a/old/69012-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2080 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Drawing in Charcoal and Crayon, by -Frank Fowler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Drawing in Charcoal and Crayon - For the use of Students and Schools - -Author: Frank Fowler - -Release Date: September 18, 2022 [eBook #69012] - -Language: English - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND -CRAYON *** - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -The volume of illustrations referred to in the book is not available. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - - - - - DRAWING IN - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON - - FOR THE USE OF - - STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS - - - BY - - FRANK FOWLER - - AUTHOR OF “OIL PAINTING,” “A HAND-BOOK,” - ETC., ETC. - - - CASSELL PUBLISHING COMPANY - 104 & 106 FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK - - - COPYRIGHT - 1885 - BY O. M. DUNHAM - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PART FIRST. - - CHAPTER I. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING. 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - OUTFIT NECESSARY FOR CHARCOAL AND - CRAYON DRAWING. 4 - - - CHAPTER III. - - ELEMENTARY PRACTICE. 25 - - - PART SECOND. - - CHAPTER IV. - - MANNER OF WORKING. 36 - - CHAPTER V. - - MEASUREMENT, ACTUAL AND COMPARATIVE. 50 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CRAYON PORTRAITS; HAIR; DRAPERY; - BACKGROUNDS. 58 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING WITH THE - POINT; LANDSCAPES; PROPORTIONS, ETC. 74 - - - APPENDIX. - - EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 82 - - - - - PREFATORY NOTE. - - -This little volume, with accompanying plates, is designed to prepare -students for the interesting study of drawing from life. The general -demand for a work of this kind is the occasion of its appearance. - - - - - DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND CRAYON. - - - CHAPTER I. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING. - - -In learning to draw, charcoal is the most available material that can -be used, as, with it, large and striking effects are so easily and -quickly produced, while it is also adapted to the most careful work, -and may be carried on to any degree of finish. Another quality which -renders charcoal especially of value as a medium for beginners in -drawing is that it is so easily erased. - -Charcoal is used for drawing from the cast and from the human figure -in all the large art schools of Europe as well as in our own country, -and is especially adapted to sketching from nature, as by its use most -charming landscape and marine effects may be obtained. - - - TWO DIFFERENT METHODS. - -There are two methods of working in charcoal—one, in which the charcoal -point is used alone, the shading being put in with lines which are not -blended, no stump, or rubbing together of any kind being allowed. - -This style of drawing is principally used in illustrating, as it is -more easily reproduced than those in which the stump is used. Full -details of working in this manner will be given later. - -The other method is that in which the charcoal is blended with a stump, -no lines being visible in the modeling. - -This manner of drawing is that most generally employed in art schools, -and is susceptible of higher finish than the other. - -It is also in this way that charcoal and crayon portraits are managed, -such drawings being generally finished with crayon, and the two -materials worked together. This subject also will be treated at length -further on. - -As we are writing for the benefit of those who have no knowledge -whatever of charcoal drawing, we will begin at the very beginning, and -shall endeavor to omit nothing that can be of practical use to the -student. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - OUTFIT NECESSARY FOR CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING. - - -The first thing to be provided is an easel, which is used now entirely -for drawing, it being considered much better practice to work in an -upright position than in the old-fashioned way of leaning over a table. - -This easel may be of the simplest character, and is made of three -straight bars of pine wood jointed so as to stand upright, with holes -perforated through two of the bars about two or three inches apart. -Through these holes pegs are stuck upon which to hold a narrow wooden -tray. Upon this the stretcher, drawing-board, or portfolio is placed. - - - DRAWING-BOARD. - -This board is made from any light wood, and should measure about 20×24 -inches square, and be as thin as it can be made without warping. - -[Illustration: THE EASEL.] - -In place of the drawing-board, many artists prefer to use a large -pasteboard portfolio made with covers stiff enough to serve as a -foundation in drawing, while its convenience as a receptacle for the -reserve sheets of paper and finished work is obvious. - -The portfolio which is now most in use, is generally covered with -smooth mottled paper outside, and should be large enough to hold -without folding the regular sheets of charcoal paper; 20×24 inches will -be sufficient for this. - - - THE PAPER. - -There are a great many varieties of charcoal and crayon paper, some -smooth, some rough. For ordinary purposes, such as making studies -and life drawings, the rough French charcoal paper is the best. That -used in the French schools is of two kinds; the roughest is called -the “Michelet” paper, and the other is known as “Lalanne.” They are, -however, very similar in texture, and either one will serve the -purpose. These come in sheets of uniform sizes, costing from three to -six cents each. - -For more careful drawings, such as finely finished portraits in -charcoal and crayon, a more expensive paper is to be preferred. This -comes in much larger sheets and should be stretched before using. - -Whatman’s rough crayon paper is among the best for this purpose. In -all cases, both for studies and finished portraits, the white paper, -generally a yellow-white, being preferable to blue-white. - - - HOW TO STRETCH PAPER. - -Paper is stretched and mounted for this work in the following manner: -A simple frame of wood is made an inch or two wide and three-quarters -of an inch or more in thickness, according to the size of the drawing -to be made. This is covered with cotton cloth stretched as tight as -possible and tacked all along the four sides. The cloth is turned over -and tacked on the outside of the stretcher, not on the face of it, -which should present a perfectly smooth, flat surface. - -The paper having been cut the proper size, that is, large enough to -turn over nearly an inch all around, is dampened on the wrong side. To -do this take a clean cloth dipped in cold water, lay the paper flat -upon a table and pass the cloth rapidly all over the surface, wetting -it evenly. - -Have ready some good flour paste and put this all around the edge of -the paper for about an inch. Now begin to spread the paper while still -damp upon the cloth-covered stretcher, starting at the bottom and -working upward, carefully smoothing out with the hands all creases or -air bubbles. Turn over and press down the edges of the paper which have -been covered with the paste, holding them till they stick to the cloth, -and cut a V-shaped piece from each corner of the paper, so that it will -fold over neatly. - -This takes time and experience to do well, but is worth the trouble, -for crayon portraits especially. - -For ordinary studies and drawings, the Michelet or Lalanne paper -fastened to the portfolio or drawing-board with thumb tacks is quite -sufficient. - - - CHARCOAL. - -There are many different kinds of charcoal offered by dealers. All that -is necessary, however, is a medium quality of imported charcoal, such -as the Fusains Venitians, costing 30 cts. a box of fifty sticks. Finer -and more expensive kinds are the Conte and Rouget charcoal. - - - CRAYON. - -Among the various manufactures of crayons that most generally preferred -by artists is the French crayon Conté. This comes in several numbers, -and is to be had in two forms. First, the wooden pencils, which are -very convenient, and again, the short sticks of black crayon, which -are sold by the dozen. These are much cheaper than the pencils, and are -fastened in a holder while using. The Conté crayon No. 2 is sufficient -for all purposes, therefore it is unnecessary to have the several -different numbers so often recommended. - -Another kind of crayon is also used by some artists in addition to the -stick crayon. This is a fine, black, powdered crayon, called the “sauce -crayon,” and comes put up in little tin cases. It is very useful when -large masses of dark are necessary, and is rubbed on with a stump, -while the stick crayons and charcoal sticks are sharpened to a point -before using. - -Stumps are made variously of leather, chamois-skin and paper. The most -useful in charcoal and crayon drawing are the paper stumps, which will -be found to answer every purpose. The paper stumps come in two forms; -first, the gray, rough paper stumps with points on both ends; these are -made in various sizes, from the smallest, which measures only about -one fourth of an inch in diameter, up to those measuring an inch and -more. - -[Illustration: STUMPS.] - -The other form of paper stump, known as the tortillon, is made of -strips of paper rolled to a point like spills, and sold in bundles of -a dozen for a few cents. Some artists prefer these, but for general -purposes, the double-pointed paper stump is the best. About six of -these are necessary: two large, two medium, and two very small ones; -for it is always better to have a clean duplicate of each size. - - - BREAD. - -A supply of the soft part of home-made, if possible, or good ordinary -baker’s bread, one day old, is indispensable. This should not have any -butter, or even milk, in its composition, otherwise it will grease the -paper, which naturally should be avoided, as grease spots are most -difficult to overcome. - -The bread is used for rubbing out charcoal or crayon, erasing mistakes, -and for taking out lights from a mass of dark. The soft crumb is rolled -between the fingers until a point is formed, and then applied to the -paper. It is surprising what brilliant effects can be obtained by means -of this simple process; its full resources can only be understood by -practice. - - - THE RUBBER STUMP. - -This consists of a long, narrow bar of fine artist’s rubber, ground to -a point on each end. It is used for rubbing out small spots in places -where the bread can not be so easily managed, and where a firmer point -is needed. - -It is also useful in modeling fine details of the features, and in -places where, the surface of the paper being worn by rubbing, the bread -will not act satisfactorily. - -These cost from five to ten cents each, according to size. - - - RAGS. - -A fine, soft cotton rag is one of the most important adjuncts to our -outfit, as it is impossible to work without one. The rag is used -sometimes to dust off charcoal from the paper, and if the charcoal has -not been very heavily used, the rag is often sufficient, neither bread -nor rubber being necessary. - -A rag is also useful when too much charcoal or crayon has been rubbed -on a tone. - -Let us say, for instance, a shadow appears too black. A soft rag is -passed gently over the surface, taking care not to rub too hard, and -the superfluous charcoal or crayon will come off, leaving a beautiful -soft tone of much lighter quality behind. - -This tone can of course be darkened somewhat, or worked over in any -manner desired. - -The rag is often used in sketching landscapes, to spread a smooth, even -tint for the sky. Many artists prefer it to a stump for this purpose. -A fine, soft cotton rag is rolled in a long, smooth roll, and applied -lightly to the surface of the paper. - -The charcoal may be powdered in such a case if preferred, or for -crayon drawing the “sauce crayon” is used. - - - TO “FIX” DRAWINGS. - -Charcoal will of course rub off, and drawings become smeared and -defaced if left unprotected. For that reason it is customary to “fix” -the drawing by the application of some preparation to its surface. - -This should be done with much care, and only the very best materials -should be used for this purpose. Amateurs and students sometimes -endeavor to manufacture fixative for themselves out of shellac and -alcohol. This may succeed in fixing the drawing, but will be very -liable to turn the paper yellow in time. Artists, therefore, prefer to -buy an imported fixative, which is made by a reliable manufacturer. -That most generally in use, and which we have found by experience to -be in every way satisfactory, is the _Fixatif Rouget_, which comes in -good-sized glass bottles, costing at retail fifty cents each. - -There are two methods of fixing drawings. First, that in which the -fixative is applied to the back of the drawing. This is preferred by -some artists; and the French students, who are only anxious to preserve -their drawings, without regard to the changing of color in the paper, -use milk, with which they wash over the back of the drawing. - -In cases where a large design or cartoon is made in charcoal for -temporary use, this way will answer perfectly, being very much less -expensive than the other. The fixative Meusnier, which is imported by -all dealers, is also applied to the back of the paper with a large -brush. - -The other method, and that generally preferred, is to apply the -fixative to the front or surface of the drawing. - -This process should of course be managed with care, as too much -fixative will cause the charcoal to run down in streaks, while too -little will cause it to come off in spots. - -The fixative for applying to the surface of the drawing is sprayed -through a glass atomizer by blowing through one tube while the other -rests in the bottle containing the liquid. - -These atomizers are now sold by all art dealers, and may be had from -the simplest and most inexpensive kind up to those represented by quite -a costly apparatus. The cheapest consist of two small tubes of glass, -pointed at one end and straight at the other. These are connected by -two bands of metal, which in turn are fastened together by a small -hinge or pivot. - -This is so arranged that the two tubes of glass meet at a right angle, -the small pointed ends coming in contact, but so as to leave both -orifices open. - -One end, as already mentioned, is now placed in the fixative, while -through the other the breath is blown. This causes the liquid to mount -in the lower tube and dissolve in a cloud of spray which is so light as -not to dislodge the delicate particles of the charcoal and yet will -attach them firmly to the paper, so that ordinary rubbing will not -efface the drawing. - -Great care should be taken in blowing through an atomizer to make -the breath as steady as possible, avoiding short, unequal puffs. The -atomizer must not be held too near to allow the particles to vaporize -sufficiently, or else the fixative will run down in streams and ruin -the drawing. Again, if held too far off, it will vaporize too much, and -will fail to fix the charcoal at all. - -The more expensive vaporizers, while conducted on the same principle, -are supplied with air from one or sometimes two rubber globes or balls, -which have the advantage of transmitting the air in a regular stream, -and one is thus saved the fatigue of blowing with the mouth, which, in -case of a large drawing, becomes very tiresome. - -These atomizers are generally made with metal tubes, which will become -clogged and useless unless washed out after using each time, with warm -water. The simple glass atomizers must also be kept clean in this way, -for they are very easily broken if a pin is used to clean the openings, -and the slightest break at the joints renders them useless. - - - OUTFIT FOR SKETCHING. - -Charcoal is used by artists for sketching out of doors in preference to -any other material, as by its means such quick results are obtained and -large effects produced with comparative ease. - -As one never knows how long a tramp will be necessary before the proper -subject or view appears, it is well to make every thing as compact as -possible. - -A small sketching easel which can be reduced to a thin bundle of sticks -is considered indispensable by some, but as this is rather awkward to -carry, most artists prefer a block. - - - THE BLOCK, OR PAD. - -This consists of a number of sheets of charcoal paper, cut exactly -the same size, laid together and pressed so as to greatly reduce the -bulk of the paper in its ordinary shape. These form a block or table of -sufficient substance and firmness to be held comfortably upon the knees -while sketching. - -The upper leaf is used for the drawing, and is then loosened with a -penknife passed around the edges, which are held together with a band -of paper. This leaf is then easily detached from the block, and being -fixed is laid aside while another drawing is commenced on the clean -sheet exposed on the top of the block. - -These blocks can be bought already prepared at any good art dealers at -reasonable prices, which vary according to the size and quality of the -paper. - -A block made of ordinary French charcoal paper measuring 4½×6 inches -costs at retail, 25 cents. A small block like this is only good for -pocket sketches and notes. A more useful size is 6×9, which may be -obtained for 35 cents. - -A still larger one, measuring 10×14, can be procured for 70 cents. Any -thing beyond this must be made to order, and will in that case be more -expensive in proportion. - -A small camp stool is necessary to the sketching outfit, and this -should be made as light as possible. These are made in various shapes, -so as to fold up as tightly as possible, and are provided by all -dealers at from fifty cents up. - -Some are even to be found combined with the sketching easel. These are -very convenient, being made in so compact a form as to occupy very -little more space than either an easel or camp stool separately. - -Such an apparatus costs $5.50 at retail. The small, light folding easel -for sketching, which is only 4½ feet high, costs $2.50, while a -stool which stands upon three legs when open and folds into the shape -of a thick cane can be bought for $1.00. - - - THE UMBRELLA. - -A sketch can not be truthful to nature and carefully studied, with the -sun shining in one’s eyes or upon the paper; it is therefore well to be -provided with an umbrella. - -The sketching umbrella is generally of creamy white or very light gray -cotton. It is so constructed as to be separated from the long stick -upon which it is arranged when in use, this stick itself being divided -into two or more parts, according to its length. These are arranged to -fit into each other firmly, the lower end terminating in a long, sharp -iron point which is to be planted in the ground. - -The umbrella itself is furnished with a rather short handle, and is -attached to the long staff by a movable screw joint which permits of -its being arranged at any angle necessary to protect the sketcher from -the sun. - -The whole outfit complete with a waterproof gingham umbrella costs -$8.00. - -The long folding stick is sold separately. This is 6 ft. high with an -adjustable joint to which any ordinary umbrella can be fastened. These -cost about $3.00. - -A long and narrow tin box with compartments completes the outfit. This -holds the charcoal, crayon, stumps, bread, rag and rubber. The charcoal -and crayon must always be kept shut up in their separate compartments, -or failing that, in respective boxes, as, if allowed to knock around -loosely in the box, they will soil the stumps, rubber and rags. - -The paper generally used in sketching blocks is the ordinary grade -of French charcoal paper with a rough surface already mentioned. -This paper comes in a variety of tints, the most popular being the -cream-white and the gray. The white paper is generally preferred for -serious studies involving careful drawing and correctness of value. - -Some artists, however, prefer to use gray or light brown paper in -sketching, as if one is skillful a very effective result may be -obtained with little labor by using the local tone of the paper for the -half tints, quickly rubbing in the shadow with charcoal or crayon, both -being sometimes used. - -The high lights are then cleverly touched in with white chalk or -pastel. Chinese white water-color paint is sometimes substituted for -the chalk in putting in such lights. It has the advantage of being more -permanent in one way as the chalk rubs off, but in the course of time -this white paint so used has a tendency to turn yellow, especially if -the sketch is shut up in a book or kept from the air. - -On the other hand, the white chalk will turn yellow if fixed, so that -the high lights must not be put in the sketch until it is all finished -and fixed, which is of course a disadvantage to the artist who wishes -to study the relations of his tones as he proceeds. This method will be -explained at length later on. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - ELEMENTARY PRACTICE. - - -To those who have never had any experience whatever in drawing, it is -best to begin with straight lines. This is especially necessary in the -case of children, who must first be taught to control the hand before -proceeding further. - -The next step is to draw curved lines representing half of a circle. - -From this proceed to draw angles, circles, squares, and other such -simple forms in outline, until the muscles of the hand have learned to -obey the will. - -The system we wish to teach is first to begin in this way, then to -advance gradually by copying some simple drawings, executed in the -modern method, until the use of charcoal and crayon is thoroughly -understood. - -These drawings should be progressive, commencing with the features in -different positions, and leading gradually to the full head, feet, -hands, torso, etc., until the full length figure is reached. - -By this time sufficient proficiency will have been attained to enable -the student to put aside copying and proceed to drawing from the -cast, when the same progressive studies should be observed until a -sufficiently thorough foundation in drawing is acquired to warrant the -final step of drawing from life, which is the most difficult though the -most interesting of all. - -In view of these necessities, a series of studies in charcoal and -crayon have been prepared to accompany this volume. These should be -carefully copied, according to the directions given. - - - ARRANGEMENT OF LIGHT. - -Before beginning to draw, whether from copies, from the cast, or from -life, it is most important that the room be properly lighted. - -If possible a north light should be selected, although that is not -absolutely necessary, it is, however, most generally preferred by -artists, as the light is more steady, and less influenced by the direct -rays of the sun. There should be no cross light, the light coming -from one direction only; therefore, if there are several windows on -different sides of a room, all should be darkened while working except -those on one side. - -This light should so be arranged as to come from above rather than from -below, and if the window is a long one, curtain off the lower part, -so that the light begins about six feet from the floor. If more than -one person is working in the same room, several windows on the same -side are admissible. If, however, a studio were being built expressly -for the purpose, the ideal light would be one large, high side window, -extending from six to ten feet along the wall, beginning at the floor -and reaching to the ceiling, where it is joined by a skylight, which is -arranged with an adjustable curtain, so that it may only be uncovered -when needed. In the same way the lower half of the window should -be curtained off up to a height of six feet for ordinary purposes. -The whole length of the window is sometimes useful in simulating an -out-of-door effect of light. - -Some famous painters have had studios built entirely of glass, so that -they could have all the advantages of working in the open air without -the exposure. Adjustable curtains would turn the glass-house into an -ordinary in-door studio, with conventional light. Few of us are so -fortunate as to command these conveniences, and truth compels us to -admit that they are not strictly necessary to good work. - -As we have already stated, the easel is now universally adopted for -drawing, as well as painting, instead of the old methods, which -necessitated leaning over a table. The plate to be copied is also -placed upright, in the same upright position that would be occupied by -a cast or live model, so that, even in this elementary training, the -eye becomes accustomed to look naturally from the object or study being -copied to the paper on the easel. - -When preparing to draw, the easel should be placed in front of the -window and so arranged that the light will come from behind, and fall -over the left shoulder of the worker. - -Two or three sheets of charcoal paper are now firmly fastened to the -portfolio or drawing-board, which should in no case be smaller than the -paper, but even larger, projecting at least half an inch beyond the -regular-sized “Lalanne” or “Michelet” sheets. - -To fasten the paper use ordinary flat brass-headed paper tacks, putting -one in each corner, and one on each side between, making six in all. -The two sheets of paper underneath the one used for drawing are so -placed in order to make a firmer and smoother foundation than could be -obtained by spreading a single sheet directly upon the hard surface of -the wooden board or portfolio, where any crack, knot, wrinkle, or other -imperfection would show through when rubbed with the stump. - -This arrangement is of great importance, and should never be neglected. - -For the benefit of the actual beginners, we will commence with the -drawing of straight lines, which is not nearly so easy as might be -supposed. - - - STRAIGHT LINES. - -The foundation of technical skill in drawing of many kinds, notably -the charcoal and crayon point, pen and ink, and pencil, depends upon -the power of making lines with correctness and dexterity; and though -later on, in drawing and painting, we learn to see only by form, almost -entirely discarding the line _per se_, yet this early training of -the hand often gives firmness and surety of touch to the painter’s -brush which might otherwise be wanting, and is in many ways felt to be -valuable. - -To begin the practice of drawing straight lines, first make two dots of -several inches apart, let us say, about three inches from one point to -the other. Let these dots at first be perpendicular, one being directly -above the other. - -Sharpen the charcoal to a point and draw it slowly from the upper to -the lower point several times, at first without actually touching the -paper, to accustom the eye to the distance; then make the actual line -between the two, bearing lightly upon the paper and making a line of -uniform thickness. - -Make these lines in rows parallel to each other and about an inch -apart, continuing the exercise until you are able to make perfectly -straight upright lines. - -The next exercise consists of drawing horizontal lines in the same -manner. After this, oblique lines should be practiced, inclining in -different directions. - -Remember that no ruling, measuring or mechanical aids of any kind are -to be made use of, the object being to train eye and hand. - - - CURVED LINES. - -Curved lines are of course more difficult than straight for those who -are entirely untrained. Begin to draw these by making the two dots at -first as for the straight line; connect these dots with a very light -line, and then through the center draw another line at right angles, -dividing the first exactly in two. This line, projecting from one side -only, must be exactly the same length as half the first line thus - -[Illustration: The realisation of the instructions] - -Now connect the extremity of these lines with a curved line extending -from one end to the middle and thence to the other end. When practice -has enabled the student to draw these curves correctly, the straight -lines are omitted and the curves drawn only from point to point. - -Let this simple exercise be repeated by drawing the curves in every -direction. When the pupil is able to draw both straight and curved -lines thus with ease he has already gained an important step. - -After this, simple forms should be drawn in outline, using such copies -as 120 studies in freehand, called “How to Draw,” by Chas. Ryan, -costing 25 cents, published by Cassell & Company. - -A box of blocks should next be procured, which are sold by art dealers -for the purpose, and the student should begin with the simplest forms -and draw them from nature, in outline at first, progressing gradually -to more complicated forms. - -The next step is shading, which is done at first in the simplest -manner. The outline sketched in, the proportions are ascertained to -be correct and the shadow and light are divided into two great masses -without detail and blocked in as broadly as possible, according to the -method given in the following pages. - -Learn to begin a drawing properly and the finishing will be easy -enough, being merely a matter of practice when once the manner of -working is understood. How often we see exposed for sale and on -exhibition drawings and paintings elaborately finished of which the -drawing is so faulty as to render them worthless. - -Students, therefore, who are thoroughly in earnest must be content to -postpone all idea of finishing at first, occupying themselves in the -preliminary studies with correctness of outline and proportion only. -For this reason when the shadows are blocked in broadly and the drawing -appears to be as nearly right as you can make it, put it aside and take -up something a little more difficult and carry it on to the same stage -without endeavoring to elaborate it. Thus continue your practice, -always progressing until you feel fitted to begin the study of the -human face and form, which is, as we have said, the most difficult -thing in art. - - - - - PART SECOND. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - MANNER OF WORKING. - - -Those who have already had sufficient practice in the elementary -drawing indicated in the first part, can of course omit the foregoing -pages, and begin at once with the preparatory studies of the face and -figure, which are necessary before proceeding to drawing from the cast. - -These studies consist of eight plates, carefully prepared by the -author, according to the modern methods of charcoal and crayon drawing -now employed in all large art schools both in Europe and our own -country. - -By carefully copying these plates in their regular order, the student -learns the method of using charcoal and crayon, so as to be perfectly -acquainted with these materials and their resources before beginning to -work from Nature; the design also being to familiarize the eye with the -constructional drawing and proportion of the human figure beforehand, -thus materially lessening the difficulties of drawing from life. The -general manner of working is as follows:— - -Arrange the light, place the easel in position, and fasten the charcoal -paper to the drawing board or portfolio in the way already described. -We will suppose the subject to be drawn is a head. First make a small -mark or dot on the paper with your charcoal, to show where the top of -the head will come. A corresponding dot will indicate the bottom of the -face or chin, while a mark on each side will show the width of the head. - -Before beginning to draw a line, these marks will suggest whether the -head be properly placed on the sheet. See that there be not too much -space on either side, and that the head is not too high or too low. - -If these preliminary precautions be neglected the head may be placed -most awkwardly; too much to one side or otherwise wrong, and the -mistake not be noticed until the drawing be nearly finished. The -importance, therefore, of properly placing the head at first can not be -overestimated. - -The position being decided, the outlines are lightly sketched in with -long, sweeping lines, following the general direction of the head -without any attention at first to details of any kind. Let these lines -next determine the oval described by the face, sketching at the same -time the lines of the throat, and ascertaining the action of the body -in relation to the head by one or more long, sweeping lines across the -bust from shoulder to shoulder. - -Next draw a line with the charcoal point across the oval of the face -where the hair meets the forehead, one through the middle of the eyes, -one at the base of the nose, through the center of the mouth and the -lowest point of the chin. - -These lines determine the proportions of the face, and are drawn -very lightly with the charcoal, sharpened to a fine point, as they -are erased when the features are drawn in. Next proceed to place the -features on these lines, blocking them in only in their general forms -at first with very little detail, and draw these forms as squarely as -possible, seeking for angles and avoiding curves. - -It is easy to turn angles into curves in finishing a drawing, but if we -begin with curves we have nothing to depend upon, and the drawing loses -strength, becoming soft and weak in the end. - -Having ascertained that the features are in the right place, go back to -the outline and bring that into shape, though without trying to finish -it carefully as yet. - -The next step is to block in the shadows in their general forms, -dividing the whole head into two distinct masses of light and shade. -To do this, make a faint outline of the exact form of the shadows -where they meet the light; now fill in with charcoal all the mass of -shadow within the outline, making one flat, even tone of dark without -variation of shade. To do this draw the charcoal in straight parallel -lines slightly oblique, almost touching each other, until the whole -shadow is covered. No special care need be taken in putting in these -lines, as the main object is to get the paper sufficiently covered -with the charcoal. The largest paper stump is now used, to unite these -charcoal lines into one flat tone of dark. - -The stump is held in the fingers, so that about an inch of the point -lies on the paper, not merely the tip end. With this the charcoal is -rubbed in until no lines appear, only one simple even tone of dark -filling the outline of the shadow. - -Put in the eyes, nose, mouth, etc., and in the same way drawing the -form of the general shadow first without any detail, as already -mentioned, and putting in the flat tone with the charcoal and stump. - -When the principal shadows are thus laid in, look at the head from -a distance and see if the proportions are correct. Any mistake will -be easily seen in this stage, and should be corrected at once before -proceeding further. - -To correct a line or erase the charcoal in any way, use the crumb or -soft part of stale bread. This is done by taking a small piece between -the fingers, and rolling it into a little ball, then shaping it to -a point. Be sure the bread is not too fresh or made with butter, as -greasy bread will ruin the paper, so that it is impossible to work -nicely on it. If, however, such a grease spot becomes evident when the -drawing is somewhat advanced, it can be remedied in the finishing, by -touching carefully with a sharp-pointed crayon, and rubbing with a -pointed rubber stump; working with both alternately, making fine, small -touches, until the spot is even in tone with the rest. - -In using the bread, never press hard; if the charcoal or crayon will -not come off, use the pointed rubber stump. - -In laying in a mass of shadow, if too much charcoal gets on the paper, -so as to become inconvenient, wipe it off lightly and evenly with a -soft cotton rag, and if then the tone is too light, work on it again -with charcoal, as before, using the stump in the same way until it -becomes the right tone. - -In working heads, life studies, etc., in charcoal it is the practice -in all the large art schools to finish them with black crayon. The -crayon is not touched, however, until the shadows are all put in and -the proportions found to be correct. The whole effect being blocked in -the way already described, the crayon is taken up and the two materials -used together at first, as required, in the following manner: - -The outline, which has been sketched in with charcoal, is now very -carefully drawn with a finely pointed Conté crayon No. 2. First dust -off the charcoal a little with a rag until the outline is quite light, -though easily seen, and do not make the crayon outline too dark and -thick. - -Next proceed to block in the hair with charcoal. Do this at first in -the simple masses of light and shade, rubbing in the charcoal in close -lines at first, so as to well cover the paper, and then using the stump -to make one flat, even tone. - -If the hair is dark, cover the light mass with a general tone of light -gray, using the charcoal very lightly and rubbing it flat with the -stump as before. If the hair is light, put in a fainter tone for the -dark mass and a very delicate tone over the light mass. Do not attempt -to see any reflected lights or small details as yet. - -Having the head now well started, we proceed to carry it on by putting -in the half tints which connect the masses of light and shadow all -over the face. Do this with a clean, medium-sized paper stump by -dragging the charcoal from the shadow over the light. Do not put any -new charcoal on for the half tints, as it is very important that they -be kept light at first. Keep a clean stump always at hand for delicate -half tints, and never use an old one. - -The face now begins to model and look round, and is further carried -on by putting in the dark accents of shadow and taking out reflected -lights with bread. - -The features are brought into shape, using the sharp pointed charcoal -and a small stump. - -At this stage the crayon is taken up permanently and the charcoal laid -aside. - -The Conté crayon No. 2 sharpened to a fine point is rubbed all over -the mass of shadow already laid in with charcoal and is then softened -with the stump in the manner already described, the charcoal and crayon -together producing a beautiful quality of tone. - -Let me here mention that some artists prefer to use the sauce crayon -for putting in large masses of dark, such as shadows, hair, drapery, -etc. The student should try both methods and use either or both, as he -may prefer. - -The sauce crayon should be rubbed off on a small piece of charcoal -paper and tacked on one side of the drawing so as to be convenient for -use. - -The point of the large stump is now rolled around in the sauce or -powdered crayon thus prepared, and is then rubbed into the shadow until -the whole is covered with the crayon and presents an even dark tone. - -The sauce crayon is only to be employed for large spaces, and is useful -in saving time, as it takes longer to cover the surface with lines made -by the crayon point. Still many prefer the latter. - -The crayon point is always used in finishing up the drawing, which is -carried on by degrees. The dark accents are put in the eyes, nose, -mouth and ears, and the small stump is used to soften the marks of the -crayon, but should not be rubbed too much. - -If the head be rather dark in its general effect, a very delicate gray -tint should be put all over the light mass of the face. This is done -with a clean stump which has been used for half tints, and the tone is -put on in the same manner, the crayon point not being used here. - -The high lights are taken out with the bread rolled to a point, and -should be made sharp and distinct. The hair is carried on in the same -manner as the face, the dark accents and details being put in with the -crayon point and softened a little with the stump. The half tints are -developed and reflected lights taken out with bread. The high lights -are lastly rubbed out in the same way, taking care always to preserve -the exact form of the lights where they meet the shadows. - -In drawing hair, do not attempt to put in too much detail. The deepest -shadows and the highest lights should always be kept simple. The most -detail is generally seen in the half tint, but should be very carefully -studied only in the most prominent parts, the rest being left in a -suggestive way. - -In working thus with charcoal and crayon, there are one or two things -that should be always kept in mind. - -In the first place, the charcoal and crayon must always be kept -sharpened while drawing, a fine point being most necessary. A sharp -knife should always be at hand, and also a piece of sandpaper, as it -is very difficult to sharpen the crayons with a knife, they break so -easily. - -Always buy the best materials, and always keep plenty on hand. Have a -box of charcoal, and at least half a dozen crayons, and keep one or two -clean stumps in reserve no matter how many you have already in use. - -In rubbing on charcoal, and before using the stump, be sure to cover -the paper well, so that very little rubbing will spread the tone into -an even mass. No matter how much charcoal you get on at first, you can -always take off the superfluity with a rag; but if there is not enough -one is tempted to rub the paper too hard, and if the surface of the -paper gets roughened by too much rubbing at first, you can never do -any thing with it afterward. - -In putting on the crayon, however, we must be more careful. - -Put on a little and try it with the stump; if it does not spread well, -add more, and so on. Even when dispensing entirely with the sauce -crayon and using only the pointed sticks, it is well to rub off some -of the crayon on a small piece of paper and pin it up on one side of -the drawing, for using in very light tones where the point must not be -employed. For instance, in covering the light side of the face with a -delicate tone, the stump is rubbed on this, and tried first on a piece -of paper before using it on the drawing. - -Never let the hand rest directly upon the drawing itself. If not -convenient to rest it upon the margin, have a sheet of clean writing -paper to place underneath the hand. - -In sketching in, or drawing long, sweeping lines, do not steady the -hand upon the paper at all, as one does in writing, but try to acquire -freedom of handling by practice, resting the hand upon the paper only -when absolutely necessary, as in drawing fine details, or when great -precision is required. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - MEASUREMENT, ACTUAL AND COMPARATIVE. - - -By actual measurement is meant the measurement of the object itself by -holding against it a ruler or straight strip of paper, and marking off -the number of inches or exact distance from one given point to another. -These measurements are then compared with the drawing, and the same -distances are marked off on the paper. - -In mechanical and architectural drawing this system of measurement is -in constant use, but in freehand drawing, and in the method practiced -by artists, actual measurement is not allowed. Never measure in any way -when beginning a drawing, but strike out bravely, resolving to depend -upon the eye only, if possible. - -After the first outlines are put in, and the proportions are as nearly -correct as you can make them, it is perfectly legitimate to “prove” a -drawing by actual measurement, if it is a copy. If one is drawing from -a cast, or from life, and it is necessary that the head be exactly the -same size, a measurement may be taken from the top of the head to the -chin, and compared with the sketch you have made. Beyond this no actual -measurement should be allowed. - - - COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENT. - -This is a very important thing in drawing from Nature, or objects of -any kind, and must be thoroughly understood by the student, as without -it no drawing can be made absolutely correct. - -Comparative measurements are entirely _proportional_. The manner of -taking them is as follows: - -Place yourself opposite the object to be measured, at the same distance -from which your drawing is taken. Let us say you are drawing the bust -of Apollo, and wish to discover just the exact height of the whole, -also the width across the shoulders. - -Extend your arm in a perfectly straight line at right angles to the -cast, holding in your hand a long lead-pencil. The pencil must be -held parallel to the general direction of the cast, neither end being -allowed to swerve the slightest. - -Now, closing one eye to concentrate the vision, measure off with your -thumb upon the pencil, which is held crosswise, the apparent distance -from the outside of one shoulder in a direct line to the outside of the -other. Keep your thumb tightly upon the pencil at the place measured, -and slowly turn the hand around, keeping the arm extended at the same -distance from the body, and the eye in the same position as before. - -The pencil is now held straight up and down, and your object is to -see how many times the distance measured off on the pencil will go -into the whole length of the cast, beginning at the top of the head -and measuring down to the foot of the bust, slowly moving the pencil -downward and checking off with the eye each time the measurement is -repeated. - -In this way we can find out exactly whether the cast is just twice as -long as it is wide, or less—in other words, the comparative proportions. - -This kind of measurement is invaluable in out-of-door sketching, and -the eye soon becomes so trained by practice that relative proportions -are compared instinctively, and one scarcely needs to use the pencil. - - - THE PLUMB LINE. - -Another most valuable adjunct in drawing from life and from the cast is -the plumb line. This consists of a piece of strong twine with a weight -on one end, which serves to keep the string perfectly straight and -steady when suspended from the hand. A straight line is thus simulated -which is dropped from a given point to one directly underneath, -forming one side of a triangle, which will ascertain for us the -different positions that certain other parts assume in relation to this -line. - -For instance, we hold the plumb line so as to make a straight line from -the chin of a standing figure to the ground. The top and bottom of the -line form two points of a triangle, the third to be represented by the -man’s heel. - -Imaginary lines are now drawn through these points, forming the -triangle, whose base determines the direction of the heel in relation -to the center-line of the body. In this way the balance of a figure -can be accurately ascertained, and the most difficult action correctly -suggested. - -In the actual drawing the real lines may be sketched in charcoal from -point to point at the same angle determined by the plumb, and the -corrections made accordingly, these straight lines being of course -erased afterward. - - - VALUES. - -The term “value,” as understood by artists, is used to express the -_comparative relation of tones to each other_, irrespective of color. -There may be many different colors before us all of the same value; -also, there may be only one color used in a drawing, yet many different -values are seen, which goes to show that we are to compare tones and -not colors. - -For example, in drawing or painting a landscape we look at the tone of -the trees against the sky and observe which is the darker. If a stormy, -heavy sky is seen behind light, feathery, green trees we see that the -sky is darker in value. - -If, on the contrary, trees with dark, rich foliage are observed to be -strongly relieved against a bright, sunny sky, we perceive at once -that the sky is lighter in value than the trees. In like manner we -compare the rocks with the water, the fence with the road, and so on, -according to the different objects to be regarded in the picture. - -In drawing a head in charcoal or crayon it is well to establish at once -the darkest value in the whole, selecting the deepest spot of shadow -with which all the other tones of dark may be compared. - -Look for instance, at the shadow over the eye or under the nose, which -are generally very dark, and compare it with the shadow on the cheek, -behind the ear, or under the chin. In the same way decide upon the -highest light in the face. Say it is found upon the forehead or on the -cheek bone. Be sure that it is the brightest spot in the face, and then -compare all the other degrees of light with this. - -By studying in this way, and observing the comparative variety of these -tones, we arrive at correct values. - -This is a most important quality in art and can not be overestimated, -for upon a just appreciation of the values in a picture depends its -truth. This also serves to illustrate the necessity of making studies -directly from nature whenever possible. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CRAYON PORTRAITS. - - -Crayon is especially adapted to portraiture, on account of the -brilliant effects which it is capable of producing, as well as the -great softness and delicacy of finish which may be obtained by its use. - -Portraits should, of course, always be taken from life if possible, -though if the person be an invalid or is for any other reason unable -to give many sittings, a photograph may be used for the beginning. The -portrait is carried on from this until well advanced; if one or two -sittings from life can then be had in finishing, it will be a great -advantage, especially in regard to the expression. - -In portraits of children a photograph is frequently a great assistance, -particularly if the artist has not had much experience. - -In all such cases, however, it is best to decide upon the pose, and -sketch it from life, and then have the photograph taken in the pose you -have selected. - -In this way, the light and shade are arranged to suit the artist, -and the pose being decided upon by him, the portrait will have the -effect of being drawn from life instead of being merely a copy from a -conventional photograph. - -In general the effect of light used by photographers is exactly the -reverse of that chosen by artists. It will be noticed that ordinary -photographs have the greater part of the face either in shadow or -covered by strong half-tints. - -An artist, on the contrary, in posing a head for a portrait, prefers -exactly the opposite arrangement, selecting broad and simple effects of -light with only enough shadow to give the necessary variety and relief -to the features. - -When arranging the preliminaries for a portrait, there are several -things to be considered. - -In the first place, study the head carefully and see which view is most -agreeable. Sometimes features in the same face look differently when -seen from opposite directions. Some noses or mouths look well on one -side and distorted on the other. - -A very broad face should not be given a full front pose, but would look -better seen in three-quarter. - -A very retreating chin must not be seen in a profile view. - -This same pose, however, for a person with a cast in the eyes is -preferable, and so on. After all such matters have been considered, see -that the head is not thrown up too high, as it will make the nose look -short, while lowering the chin too much will make the nose look long. A -good rule is that the eyes of the sitter should be on a line with those -of the artist as he sits or stands at his work. - -The method most generally in use for crayon portraits is that -described in the preceding pages, in which the stump is used. All the -old-fashioned ways of stippling and hatching are seldom resorted to, -and not considered artistic. - -In drawing a life-sized head the artist must not be too far from his -subject, the easel being placed about four or five feet distant. It is -well to get up and walk back occasionally, looking at the work from a -distance so as to see the general effect. - -There are several different kinds of paper used for crayon portraits, -some artists preferring one make, some another. The ordinary “Lalanne” -and “Michelet” papers used for charcoal and crayon studies are a little -too rough in texture to please every body, and do not produce quite so -fine a finish as is desirable. They come in too small-sized sheets for -a large portrait head, for which one wants plenty of room. - -This, however, is merely a matter of taste, that can be indulged when -one has become sufficiently proficient in the work to judge for -himself. We will suggest that Whatman’s crayon paper is one of the -most satisfactory; this comes in large sheets, and should be stretched -before using in the manner already described. A good sized stretcher -for an ordinary portrait is 20×24. - -If more of the figure than the shoulders is to be seen, a larger size -would be better. - -The portrait is first lightly sketched in with charcoal, and if the -student is not very proficient in drawing from life it is better to -make the first sketch upon an ordinary sheet of charcoal paper. - -When all corrections are made, and the general proportions of the face -appear to be right, the outline is transferred to the stretcher in the -following manner:— - -Take the sheet of charcoal paper on which the sketch is made, and with -a stick of charcoal “scribble,” so to speak, all over the back, so that -the paper is entirely covered behind your sketch. - -Now lay this sheet with the face upward on the clean stretcher, -placing it so that the head will come in exactly the right place, -neither too high nor too low. - -Fasten it with pins at the top and bottom, so that the paper will not -slip, and then with a sharp, hard lead-pencil carefully go over the -outline, and every important part of the face and head. If the paper -should move in the least the whole thing is spoiled, therefore it is -best in transferring to lay the drawing upon a table till finished. -Remember not to rest the hand heavily upon any portion of the paper -except the line to be traced, as every touch leaves a black spot -beneath. - -On removing the sketch a perfect outline will be found upon the -stretcher, which will be a sufficient guide to the proportions and -general likeness. Now, with a sharply pointed charcoal stick begin to -draw in the head, following the outline, block in the features, massing -the shadows in the face and hair. - -Do not begin to use the crayon until the general likeness is assured, -for the paper must not be roughened by too much erasing. - -Use the soft cotton rag for dusting off charcoal whenever you can, -instead of bread, as too much rubbing with bread will grease the paper; -for very large spaces, where erasing is necessary, use Faber’s India -rubber. - -When the crayon is put on, advance slowly, remembering that in a -portrait there is much more careful work than in an ordinary life -study, and that there are many more things to be considered than merely -the drawing. The likeness is to be secured, which is sometimes a -difficult thing even for those with experience. - -This is accomplished gradually; the student must not always expect -to see the likeness in the first sketch; it comes by degrees, as the -drawing progresses, and it is a good rule to draw the head in exactly -as you see it, emphasizing the salient points, no matter how ugly it -may appear. Do not attempt to improve and modify until the drawing and -general likeness are secured. - -The expression comes last of all, and with it the beauty. If you -attempt to make the face pretty at first, you will weaken the drawing -and lose the character. For this reason, many artists make it a rule -never to show their portraits until finished. The sitter does not -understand the methods of working and is tempted to criticise, which -renders the worker timid. - -After the head is put in with the crayon and modeled with the stump, in -the manner described in a previous chapter, the finishing is carried on -with the crayon point, the small stump, and the pointed rubber stump, -which is found more useful than bread at the last. - -The animated expression is put in the eyes by dark touches in the pupil -and under the lids, while sharp lights are accented in the iris and on -the eyeball. - -The form of the under lid must be carefully studied. - -The nose, also, has much to do with the expression; especially the -shape of the nostrils, and the direction of the lines at the side of -the nose running down to the mouth. Observe whether the nostrils droop -downward at the outward edge; this gives a serious expression; if, -on the contrary, the line is elevated, it tends to give a bright and -animated appearance to the face. - -The mouth, of course, is of great importance, and influences the -expression more than any other feature; when smiling, the corners -are turned upward, and the lines or dimples are curved in an outward -direction. In a sad face the corners of the mouth drop downward and the -lines grow straight. - -If the student learns to look for such indications in many faces, he -will find more suggestions of importance to aid him in developing the -expression. Without such knowledge, he may accidentally reverse these -conditions, and work on blindly, puzzling himself vainly to find out -where he is wrong and why the expression is just the opposite of what -it should be. - - - THE HAIR. - -In drawing the hair, no matter how elaborate its arrangement, it must -be blocked in at first in simple flat masses of light and shade without -any attempt at detail. Try, however, to give the general character of -the hair in putting in the form of the shadows where they meet the -light. In smooth, black hair, the effect will be large masses of black -with sharp, clearly-defined high lights. - -Light curly hair will have much lighter tone in the shadow and much -less brilliant lights. - -After the hair is thus laid in with charcoal and the stump, the crayon -is taken up. - -The half tints are studied and the deep accents of dark put in the -shadows, always following the outline of the form of each shadow very -carefully. - -Avoid putting in a number of lines to represent hair, as this destroys -the effect and means nothing. All details are expressed by carefully -rendered light and shade. - -In finishing, the high lights are taken out with bread rolled to a -point, or if more convenient, the india-rubber stump is used. - -Soften the hair where it touches the face, never leaving a hard, dark -line. When a tone is too dark, it is not always necessary to use either -bread or rubber, but first try rubbing with the stump, which may be -found sufficient. - - - BACKGROUNDS. - -A background gives relief and importance to the head, and should be -managed with judgment. - -In the first place, never make the background exactly the same value as -the head. If the hair is light and the general effect of the face fair -and delicate, the background should be darker than the head, though not -too dark. - -Everything must be harmonious, and a spotty appearance is to be avoided. - -For instance, a very light effect of hair and face with a moderately -dark dress and a jetty-black background is very bad. Also, a head -with black hair, white dress and very light background. All violent -contrasts should be avoided. - -Put the background in at first with charcoal only, using parallel lines -in one direction, then crossing them diagonally. After this take the -large stump and rub these lines into one tone, yet leaving a slight -suggestion of the lines to show through. - -Put in this tone only around the shoulders and lower part of the head, -leaving the upper part of the paper bare, or nearly so. - -In this way try the effect, working slowly and adding more charcoal as -the tone needs to be darker. - -When you have decided that the background has the right effect in -relation to the head, use the crayon point in the same way as the -charcoal, putting in crossed lines and rubbing them together again -with the stump until a transparent effect is achieved, which will give -atmosphere and relieve the head. - -If you get on too much crayon rub it all over with a soft rag. This is -an excellent thing to do occasionally, as it softens and unites the -whole while making the tone lighter. - -Sometimes in finishing, a few touches of the rubber point may be used -at the edges of the background and where it softens off at the top. Use -the rubber in the same manner as the crayon point, making light lines -crossing obliquely. - -Remember that hardly any appearance of lines must be seen. When all is -done they must be so softened with stump and rag as to present almost -the appearance, at a little distance, of an even tone. - -In some cases the background may be carried up higher than the middle -of the head, but it is very rarely necessary to surround the whole head -with it. - -Sometimes a very light tone may be put all over the paper with the -large stump and rag. - -In this case the lines are only used at the darkest part around the -shoulders. These matters must be determined by individual taste, and -the composition of the portrait, as it is impossible to make general -rules for every case. - -Never attempt to make landscape backgrounds or effects of drapery and -still-life behind a simple portrait head. Every thing should be kept -subordinate to the face, which is the most important thing of all. -Never use white chalk or crayon with the black in such portraits; take -all lights out with bread, or leave the paper clean. - - - DRAPERY. - -All drapery in a crayon portrait must be treated as simply as possible, -being regarded only as secondary in importance to the head, which is, -of course, the main object of interest. - -All elaborate trimmings or pronounced fashions should be avoided. - -Different kinds of material are interpreted by carefully studying the -different forms of the lights and shadows in each. For instance, black -satin is rendered by large masses of black, as black as crayon can be -made with sharp, narrow high lights, so light as to be almost white. - -In black silk, the masses of dark are lighter in their general tone, -and the lights less sharp and brilliant. - -The different colors are represented by lighter or darker tones, as the -case may be. - -In black velvet, the masses of dark are softer than in satin and not so -jetty black, while the lights are less brilliant and more diffused in -effect, leaving more half tints than are seen either in silk or satin. -In black cloths the lights are quite low in tone and the darks are not -very black, no sharp high lights are seen at all, both light and shade -taking large and simple forms. - -White stuffs, such as lace, muslin, etc., are also kept simple in -effect, and are laid in with a very delicate tone all over the mass of -light, and the high lights are taken out with bread. - -The shadows should also be delicate and transparent and not too dark. -White hair is treated in this way also, the character of the hair being -indicated by the form of the lights. - -When there is a white cap upon the head or lace of any kind, do not -make it too prominent, but carefully study its value in relation to the -face. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING WITH THE POINT; LANDSCAPES, - PROPORTIONS, ETC. - - -This method is principally used by artists in making drawings for -illustration, as stump drawings can not well be reproduced. The manner -of working is as follows:— - -Sketch in the outline with the charcoal stick, sharpened to a point, -and then proceed to block in the shadows, which must be drawn in with -careful attention to the form, for the reason that it is best to make -a distinct outline of each mass of shadow where it meets the light. -These shadows are now filled in with the pointed charcoal, used in -close parallel lines until a flat, even tone is obtained. It is not -necessary that these lines should be distinct, or of exact regularity, -as in the very darkest shadows no lines at all should be seen. The half -tints are managed in the same way with the point, which may be used in -the direction of the features to some extent. - -The main thing to be remembered is that no stump must be used, nor the -charcoal rubbed in any way. For erasing, bread is the best, though -rubber is sometimes found useful. - -The crayon point is employed in exactly the same way as the charcoal, -the directions applying equally to both. All drawings should be fixed -as soon as finished. - - - PROPORTIONS OF THE FIGURE. - -A few conventional rules for the general proportions of the face and -figure may be found useful to the student in drawing from life, and -are regulated according to the standard of beauty as determined by -the Greek statues. Such proportions will naturally vary in individual -cases, yet are valuable as a foundation, which may be modified when -necessary. - -The height of a well developed man is eight heads or eight times the -length of his own head. - -The height of a woman, seven heads. - -The human figure may be divided into four parts of equal length, viz.: -from the top of the head to the arm-pit, thence to the middle of the -body, thence to the knees, thence to the soles of the feet. - -The arms extended straight out at right angles to the body will measure -from finger-tip to finger-tip the length of the figure from crown of -head to sole of foot. - -The face may be divided into three parts. From the top of the forehead -to the root of the nose; from there to the bottom of the nose, thence -to the bottom of the chin. The ear is the length of the nose, and its -general direction is parallel to it. - -From the top of the shoulder to the elbow measures twice the length of -the face, or one head and a half. - -From the elbow to the wrist one head. - -The hand measures three-quarters of a head from the tip of the middle -finger to the wrist. - -The foot measures one-sixth of the whole length of the body. - - - LANDSCAPE. - -Charcoal is a favorite medium with many artists for landscape subjects, -and it is, as before stated, especially useful in sketching from nature. - -In beginning to draw a landscape in charcoal, first sketch in lightly -the horizon line, the outlines of the trees and different objects, in -their general aspect. - -It is always well to select a subject where there is a good effect of -light and shade and sufficient variety to give interest. - -After the composition is sketched in, look for the large masses of -shadow, and divide the whole into two distinct masses of light and -shade, as in figure drawing. The sky is covered with a light tone, at -first, and even the masses of light are also covered with a delicate -half-tint. - -The whole drawing may be made entirely with the point if it is desired, -but the French artist Allongé, who is celebrated for his charcoal -landscapes, prefers the use of the stump, with the point in finishing. - -If in place of the stump the finger sometimes is used to blend the -charcoal, and for rapid sketches, this is very effective. - -After the general masses are put in, the details are drawn with the -point, being somewhat softened with the stump, though in trunks of -trees, dark branches, rocks, etc., the marks of the point are left -unsoftened to give strength. - -The lights are taken out with bread or rubber; sometimes a piece of -chamois skin is found useful in lightening a tone. The light clouds -are taken out with bread from the sky which has been covered with a -half-tint, and the dark clouds are put in with the stump or point, -according to the method employed. - -In sketching from nature out of doors, it is always well to adopt some -prominent object as a standard of measurement; for instance, take a -house or tree in the middle distance, and compare this in height with -objects in the background and foreground. In this way your perspective, -if simple, may be made correct without any elaborate rules. - -Objects in the distance are naturally smaller than those in the -foreground, and the exact proportions can be determined by comparative -measurement. - -In drawing a road or path, notice that it will become narrower as it -recedes into the distance. For those who have never studied perspective -such suggestions are useful. - -It is very important also that the values should be carefully studied; -it is a good thing to establish the darkest spot of shadow in the whole -sketch, and compare all the other darks with it, as already suggested -in figure drawing. Determine also the brightest light, and let the -other lights be in their proper relation to it. - -Either crayon or charcoal, or both, may be used for landscapes; it is -always better to sketch in the drawing with charcoal, even if crayon is -used afterward. - -Some very good effects are produced by using crayon or charcoal on -tinted paper, either gray, blue, or light brown, and, leaving the tone -of the paper for the half-tint, put in the high lights with white chalk. - -In such drawings the stump must not be used, nor should the tones be -rubbed or blended in any way. Use the crayon or charcoal point in the -manner already described, and put the lights in at the last with crisp, -strong touches. - -As the student continues his practice he will find out the resources of -these most interesting materials, and will develop new possibilities -for himself as he becomes more adept, but it must be remembered that -there is no “royal road to learning,” and to succeed in acquiring -proficiency in drawing of any kind, requires patience and perseverance, -with constant practice. - - - - - APPENDIX. - - EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. - - -The intention of the author in presenting these plates is that the -student, by copying a series of progressive drawings, may be prepared -to study from the cast and from life. For those who are entirely -inexperienced, it is much easier to learn this method from such flat -copies at first, as it not only teaches the use of the materials, but -familiarizes the student with the forms of the different features, so -that when confronted with nature he finds his difficulties considerably -lessened. - - - PLATE I. - -This plate is intended to show the drawing of the human eye and mouth -in different positions, as well as to familiarize the student with -the general form of these important features. Only charcoal sharpened -to a point is necessary for these outlines, which should be carefully -practiced before proceeding to Plate II. - - - PLATE II. - -This study is intended for those who have never drawn from the cast, -and have had no practice in using charcoal. A. represents the manner of -beginning a drawing. Make a dot on the paper for the top, and one for -the bottom of the fragment to ascertain where to place the lines, and -then with a sharply pointed charcoal stick, draw the general form of -the outline in the manner shown in the plate, without attempting any -detail. The shadows are then blocked in squarely with the point. When -the proportions are thus ascertained to be correct, proceed to finish -the drawing as is seen in B. - -To do this, rub the shadows with the stump till one flat, even tone -is obtained, and carefully draw the outline, turning the angles into -curves. - -This plate is for the most elementary practice in drawing, and no -further degree of finish than this should be attempted, until the -student has learned to do this much well. - - - PLATE III. - -This represents a simple study of the hand, drawn from a cast. A. -indicates the manner of laying in the study, the curved lines being -drawn to show the direction and movement of the fingers. - -In B. the stump is used in the shadows, and the modeling is carried on -further than in Plate II., the half-tint being added. The outline is -carefully finished with the pointed crayon, which is also used in the -shadows. - - - PLATE IV. - -The part drawn from the cast here represented, is laid in with -charcoal, as in Fig. A., and then carried on in crayon as in Fig. B. -The outline is carefully drawn and the shadows blocked in squarely at -first as usual, and then changed with great care into the necessary -correct forms. - -It will be noticed that this study is a little further advanced than -those already given, more detail being shown, as well as a little -greater variety in the half-tints. The straight lines across the base -and ends of the toes serve to direct the eye to the difference between -their general direction and a perfectly horizontal line. - - - PLATE V. - -In this plate the whole profile view of a face is given, Fig. A. -representing the way to lay in a head. The straight lines outside may -be ruled, as they have nothing to do with the drawing, but are merely -mechanical aids by which the angle of the features is determined. - -In B. the modeling of the features is carried on still further than in -any of the preceding studies, the half-tints and shadows, however, -being still kept flat. - - - PLATE VI. - -This plate gives a more difficult study in the three-quarter view of a -male head. In laying in the drawing, as in Fig. A., be careful to get -the proportions as perfectly correct as possible before proceeding to -carry the modeling further, as in Fig. B. - -This head, though more finished than any other yet given, purposely -stops short of the final extent to which such drawings may be carried, -as the object of the author is to familiarize the student with each -step by the way. In the smaller touches about the eyes, nose, etc., the -pointed rubber stump will be found more available than bread. For the -large masses of shadow it would be well to rub off some sauce crayon -on a small piece of drawing paper and fasten it one side of the easel, -or, if preferred, rub the pointed crayon on the rough paper until a -sufficient quantity adheres. The stump is rolled around in this until -sufficient is taken up to cover the large mass of shadow. The more -careful work is carried on with the pointed Conté crayon, small stump, -and pointed rubber, or bread, as before explained. - - - PLATE VII. - -Plate VII. is intended to prepare the student for drawing the full -length figure from the cast, and should be carefully copied. An -excellent exercise would be to draw Fig. A. several times first, in -order to practice the manner of beginning such a drawing; then when -this is fully mastered proceed to finish as in Fig. B., which in this -plate shows a fully completed drawing from the cast. - - - PLATE VIII. - -This plate represents a study of the male figure taken directly from -life, and is a most carefully finished drawing in every respect. -Fig. A. shows the manner of beginning such a figure; the outline -is sketched in with long, sweeping lines at first, to determine the -direction of the pose; the proportions are noted and the outline -corrected, though drawn in angles, the general masses of shadow being -blocked in as usual. - -In Fig. B. the crayon and stump are taken up and the drawing is -carefully carried on as shown by the plate, until completed. - - - THE END. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND -CRAYON *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Drawing in Charcoal and Crayon</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>For the use of Students and Schools</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Frank Fowler</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 18, 2022 [eBook #69012]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND CRAYON ***</div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>The volume of illustrations referred to in the book is not available.</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h1> -DRAWING IN<br /> - -CHARCOAL AND CRAYON<br /> - -<small>FOR THE USE OF</small><br /> - -STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS</h1> - - -<p class="center"><small>BY</small><br /> - -FRANK FOWLER<br /> - -<small>AUTHOR OF “OIL PAINTING,” “A HAND-BOOK,”<br /> -ETC., ETC.</small></p> - - -<p class="center">CASSELL PUBLISHING COMPANY<br /> -<span class="smcap"><small>104 & 106 Fourth Avenue, New York</small></span> -</p> - - -<p class="center spaced"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright</span><br /> -1885<br /> -<span class="smcap">By</span> O. M. DUNHAM<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">PART FIRST.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Charcoal and Crayon Drawing.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Outfit Necessary for Charcoal and -Crayon Drawing.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Elementary Practice.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">PART SECOND.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Manner of Working.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">36</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Measurement, Actual and Comparative.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">50</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Crayon Portraits; Hair; Drapery; -Backgrounds.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">58</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Charcoal and Crayon Drawing with the -Point; Landscapes; Proportions, etc.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">74</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX">APPENDIX</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Explanation of the Plates.</span></td> -<td class="tdrb">82</td> -</tr> -</table> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFATORY_NOTE">PREFATORY NOTE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This little volume, with accompanying -plates, is designed to prepare students for -the interesting study of drawing from life. -The general demand for a work of this -kind is the occasion of its appearance.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND -CRAYON.</p> - - -<hr class="small" /> - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> - - -<small>CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>In learning to draw, charcoal is the -most available material that can be -used, as, with it, large and striking effects -are so easily and quickly produced, while -it is also adapted to the most careful -work, and may be carried on to any degree -of finish. Another quality which -renders charcoal especially of value as a -medium for beginners in drawing is that -it is so easily erased.</p> - -<p>Charcoal is used for drawing from the -cast and from the human figure in all the -large art schools of Europe as well as in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> -our own country, and is especially adapted -to sketching from nature, as by its use -most charming landscape and marine -effects may be obtained.</p> - - -<h3>TWO DIFFERENT METHODS.</h3> - -<p>There are two methods of working in -charcoal—one, in which the charcoal -point is used alone, the shading being -put in with lines which are not blended, -no stump, or rubbing together of any -kind being allowed.</p> - -<p>This style of drawing is principally -used in illustrating, as it is more easily -reproduced than those in which the -stump is used. Full details of working -in this manner will be given later.</p> - -<p>The other method is that in which the -charcoal is blended with a stump, no -lines being visible in the modeling.</p> - -<p>This manner of drawing is that most -generally employed in art schools, and is -susceptible of higher finish than the -other.</p> - -<p>It is also in this way that charcoal and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> -crayon portraits are managed, such drawings -being generally finished with crayon, -and the two materials worked together. -This subject also will be treated at length -further on.</p> - -<p>As we are writing for the benefit of -those who have no knowledge whatever -of charcoal drawing, we will begin at the -very beginning, and shall endeavor to -omit nothing that can be of practical use -to the student.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>OUTFIT NECESSARY FOR CHARCOAL AND -CRAYON DRAWING.</h3> - - -<p>The first thing to be provided is an -easel, which is used now entirely for -drawing, it being considered much better -practice to work in an upright position -than in the old-fashioned way of leaning -over a table.</p> - -<p>This easel may be of the simplest character, -and is made of three straight bars -of pine wood jointed so as to stand upright, -with holes perforated through two -of the bars about two or three inches -apart. Through these holes pegs are -stuck upon which to hold a narrow wooden -tray. Upon this the stretcher, drawing-board, -or portfolio is placed.</p> - - -<h3>DRAWING-BOARD.</h3> - -<p>This board is made from any light wood,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -and should measure about 20×24 inches -square, and be as thin as it can be made -without warping.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i011" style="max-width: 61.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i011.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">THE EASEL.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p> - -<p>In place of the drawing-board, many -artists prefer to use a large pasteboard -portfolio made with covers stiff enough to -serve as a foundation in drawing, while -its convenience as a receptacle for the reserve -sheets of paper and finished work -is obvious.</p> - -<p>The portfolio which is now most in -use, is generally covered with smooth -mottled paper outside, and should be large -enough to hold without folding the regular -sheets of charcoal paper; 20×24 -inches will be sufficient for this.</p> - - -<h3>THE PAPER.</h3> - -<p>There are a great many varieties of -charcoal and crayon paper, some smooth, -some rough. For ordinary purposes, such -as making studies and life drawings, the -rough French charcoal paper is the best. -That used in the French schools is of two -kinds; the roughest is called the “Michelet” -paper, and the other is known as -“Lalanne.” They are, however, very similar -in texture, and either one will serve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -the purpose. These come in sheets of -uniform sizes, costing from three to six -cents each.</p> - -<p>For more careful drawings, such as -finely finished portraits in charcoal and -crayon, a more expensive paper is to be -preferred. This comes in much larger -sheets and should be stretched before -using.</p> - -<p>Whatman’s rough crayon paper is -among the best for this purpose. In all -cases, both for studies and finished portraits, -the white paper, generally a -yellow-white, being preferable to blue-white.</p> - - -<h3>HOW TO STRETCH PAPER.</h3> - -<p>Paper is stretched and mounted for this -work in the following manner: A simple -frame of wood is made an inch or two -wide and three-quarters of an inch or -more in thickness, according to the size -of the drawing to be made. This is -covered with cotton cloth stretched as -tight as possible and tacked all along the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -four sides. The cloth is turned over and -tacked on the outside of the stretcher, -not on the face of it, which should present -a perfectly smooth, flat surface.</p> - -<p>The paper having been cut the proper -size, that is, large enough to turn over -nearly an inch all around, is dampened -on the wrong side. To do this take a -clean cloth dipped in cold water, lay the -paper flat upon a table and pass the cloth -rapidly all over the surface, wetting it -evenly.</p> - -<p>Have ready some good flour paste and -put this all around the edge of the paper -for about an inch. Now begin to spread -the paper while still damp upon the cloth-covered -stretcher, starting at the bottom -and working upward, carefully smoothing -out with the hands all creases or air -bubbles. Turn over and press down the -edges of the paper which have been -covered with the paste, holding them till -they stick to the cloth, and cut a V-shaped -piece from each corner of the paper, so -that it will fold over neatly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<p>This takes time and experience to do -well, but is worth the trouble, for crayon -portraits especially.</p> - -<p>For ordinary studies and drawings, the -Michelet or Lalanne paper fastened to -the portfolio or drawing-board with thumb -tacks is quite sufficient.</p> - - -<h3>CHARCOAL.</h3> - -<p>There are many different kinds of charcoal -offered by dealers. All that is necessary, -however, is a medium quality of imported -charcoal, such as the Fusains Venitians, -costing 30 cts. a box of fifty sticks. -Finer and more expensive kinds are the -Conte and Rouget charcoal.</p> - - -<h3>CRAYON.</h3> - -<p>Among the various manufactures of -crayons that most generally preferred by -artists is the French crayon Conté. This -comes in several numbers, and is to be -had in two forms. First, the wooden -pencils, which are very convenient, and -again, the short sticks of black crayon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -which are sold by the dozen. These are -much cheaper than the pencils, and are -fastened in a holder while using. The -Conté crayon No. 2 is sufficient for all -purposes, therefore it is unnecessary to -have the several different numbers so often -recommended.</p> - -<p>Another kind of crayon is also used by -some artists in addition to the stick crayon. -This is a fine, black, powdered crayon, -called the “sauce crayon,” and comes put -up in little tin cases. It is very useful -when large masses of dark are necessary, -and is rubbed on with a stump, while the -stick crayons and charcoal sticks are sharpened -to a point before using.</p> - -<p>Stumps are made variously of leather, -chamois-skin and paper. The most useful -in charcoal and crayon drawing are the -paper stumps, which will be found to -answer every purpose. The paper stumps -come in two forms; first, the gray, rough -paper stumps with points on both ends; -these are made in various sizes, from the -smallest, which measures only about one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> fourth -of an inch in diameter, up to those -measuring an inch and more.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i017" style="max-width: 61.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i017.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">STUMPS.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<p>The other form of paper stump, known -as the tortillon, is made of strips of paper -rolled to a point like spills, and sold in -bundles of a dozen for a few cents. Some -artists prefer these, but for general purposes, -the double-pointed paper stump is -the best. About six of these are necessary: -two large, two medium, and two -very small ones; for it is always better to -have a clean duplicate of each size.</p> - - -<h3>BREAD.</h3> - -<p>A supply of the soft part of home-made, -if possible, or good ordinary baker’s bread, -one day old, is indispensable. This should -not have any butter, or even milk, in its -composition, otherwise it will grease the -paper, which naturally should be avoided, -as grease spots are most difficult to overcome.</p> - -<p>The bread is used for rubbing out charcoal -or crayon, erasing mistakes, and for -taking out lights from a mass of dark. -The soft crumb is rolled between the -fingers until a point is formed, and then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -applied to the paper. It is surprising -what brilliant effects can be obtained by -means of this simple process; its full -resources can only be understood by practice.</p> - - -<h3>THE RUBBER STUMP.</h3> - -<p>This consists of a long, narrow bar of -fine artist’s rubber, ground to a point on -each end. It is used for rubbing out small -spots in places where the bread can not -be so easily managed, and where a firmer -point is needed.</p> - -<p>It is also useful in modeling fine details -of the features, and in places where, the -surface of the paper being worn by rubbing, -the bread will not act satisfactorily.</p> - -<p>These cost from five to ten cents each, -according to size.</p> - - -<h3>RAGS.</h3> - -<p>A fine, soft cotton rag is one of the -most important adjuncts to our outfit, as -it is impossible to work without one. The -rag is used sometimes to dust off charcoal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -from the paper, and if the charcoal has -not been very heavily used, the rag is often -sufficient, neither bread nor rubber being -necessary.</p> - -<p>A rag is also useful when too much -charcoal or crayon has been rubbed on a -tone.</p> - -<p>Let us say, for instance, a shadow appears -too black. A soft rag is passed -gently over the surface, taking care not -to rub too hard, and the superfluous charcoal -or crayon will come off, leaving a -beautiful soft tone of much lighter quality -behind.</p> - -<p>This tone can of course be darkened -somewhat, or worked over in any manner -desired.</p> - -<p>The rag is often used in sketching -landscapes, to spread a smooth, even tint -for the sky. Many artists prefer it to a -stump for this purpose. A fine, soft cotton -rag is rolled in a long, smooth roll, -and applied lightly to the surface of the -paper.</p> - -<p>The charcoal may be powdered in such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -a case if preferred, or for crayon drawing -the “sauce crayon” is used.</p> - - -<h3>TO “FIX” DRAWINGS.</h3> - -<p>Charcoal will of course rub off, and -drawings become smeared and defaced if -left unprotected. For that reason it is -customary to “fix” the drawing by the application -of some preparation to its surface.</p> - -<p>This should be done with much care, -and only the very best materials should -be used for this purpose. Amateurs and -students sometimes endeavor to manufacture -fixative for themselves out of -shellac and alcohol. This may succeed -in fixing the drawing, but will be very -liable to turn the paper yellow in time. -Artists, therefore, prefer to buy an imported -fixative, which is made by a reliable -manufacturer. That most generally -in use, and which we have found by experience -to be in every way satisfactory, -is the <i>Fixatif Rouget</i>, which comes in -good-sized glass bottles, costing at retail -fifty cents each.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> - -<p>There are two methods of fixing drawings. -First, that in which the fixative is -applied to the back of the drawing. This -is preferred by some artists; and the -French students, who are only anxious -to preserve their drawings, without regard -to the changing of color in the paper, -use milk, with which they wash over the -back of the drawing.</p> - -<p>In cases where a large design or cartoon -is made in charcoal for temporary -use, this way will answer perfectly, -being very much less expensive than the -other. The fixative Meusnier, which is -imported by all dealers, is also applied to -the back of the paper with a large brush.</p> - -<p>The other method, and that generally -preferred, is to apply the fixative to the -front or surface of the drawing.</p> - -<p>This process should of course be managed -with care, as too much fixative will -cause the charcoal to run down in streaks, -while too little will cause it to come off -in spots.</p> - -<p>The fixative for applying to the surface<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> -of the drawing is sprayed through a glass -atomizer by blowing through one tube -while the other rests in the bottle containing -the liquid.</p> - -<p>These atomizers are now sold by all art -dealers, and may be had from the simplest -and most inexpensive kind up to those -represented by quite a costly apparatus. -The cheapest consist of two small tubes -of glass, pointed at one end and straight -at the other. These are connected by -two bands of metal, which in turn are -fastened together by a small hinge or -pivot.</p> - -<p>This is so arranged that the two tubes -of glass meet at a right angle, the small -pointed ends coming in contact, but so as -to leave both orifices open.</p> - -<p>One end, as already mentioned, is now -placed in the fixative, while through the -other the breath is blown. This causes -the liquid to mount in the lower tube and -dissolve in a cloud of spray which is -so light as not to dislodge the delicate -particles of the charcoal and yet will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -attach them firmly to the paper, so that -ordinary rubbing will not efface the drawing.</p> - -<p>Great care should be taken in blowing -through an atomizer to make the breath as -steady as possible, avoiding short, unequal -puffs. The atomizer must not be held too -near to allow the particles to vaporize -sufficiently, or else the fixative will run -down in streams and ruin the drawing. -Again, if held too far off, it will vaporize -too much, and will fail to fix the charcoal -at all.</p> - -<p>The more expensive vaporizers, while -conducted on the same principle, are supplied -with air from one or sometimes two -rubber globes or balls, which have the -advantage of transmitting the air in a -regular stream, and one is thus saved the -fatigue of blowing with the mouth, -which, in case of a large drawing, becomes -very tiresome.</p> - -<p>These atomizers are generally made -with metal tubes, which will become -clogged and useless unless washed out after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -using each time, with warm water. The -simple glass atomizers must also be kept -clean in this way, for they are very easily -broken if a pin is used to clean the -openings, and the slightest break at the -joints renders them useless.</p> - - -<h3>OUTFIT FOR SKETCHING.</h3> - -<p>Charcoal is used by artists for sketching -out of doors in preference to any -other material, as by its means such quick -results are obtained and large effects produced -with comparative ease.</p> - -<p>As one never knows how long a tramp -will be necessary before the proper subject -or view appears, it is well to make every -thing as compact as possible.</p> - -<p>A small sketching easel which can be -reduced to a thin bundle of sticks is considered -indispensable by some, but as this -is rather awkward to carry, most artists -prefer a block.</p> - - -<h3>THE BLOCK, OR PAD.</h3> - -<p>This consists of a number of sheets of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -charcoal paper, cut exactly the same size, -laid together and pressed so as to greatly -reduce the bulk of the paper in its ordinary -shape. These form a block or table -of sufficient substance and firmness to be -held comfortably upon the knees while -sketching.</p> - -<p>The upper leaf is used for the drawing, -and is then loosened with a penknife -passed around the edges, which are held -together with a band of paper. This leaf -is then easily detached from the block, -and being fixed is laid aside while another -drawing is commenced on the clean sheet -exposed on the top of the block.</p> - -<p>These blocks can be bought already -prepared at any good art dealers at reasonable -prices, which vary according to -the size and quality of the paper.</p> - -<p>A block made of ordinary French charcoal -paper measuring 4½×6 inches costs -at retail, 25 cents. A small block like -this is only good for pocket sketches and -notes. A more useful size is 6×9, which -may be obtained for 35 cents.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<p>A still larger one, measuring 10×14, -can be procured for 70 cents. Any thing -beyond this must be made to order, and -will in that case be more expensive in proportion.</p> - -<p>A small camp stool is necessary to the -sketching outfit, and this should be made -as light as possible. These are made -in various shapes, so as to fold up as -tightly as possible, and are provided by -all dealers at from fifty cents up.</p> - -<p>Some are even to be found combined -with the sketching easel. These are very -convenient, being made in so compact a -form as to occupy very little more space -than either an easel or camp stool separately.</p> - -<p>Such an apparatus costs $5.50 at retail. -The small, light folding easel for sketching, -which is only 4½ feet high, costs -$2.50, while a stool which stands upon -three legs when open and folds into the -shape of a thick cane can be bought for -$1.00.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - - -<h3>THE UMBRELLA.</h3> - -<p>A sketch can not be truthful to nature -and carefully studied, with the sun shining -in one’s eyes or upon the paper; it is -therefore well to be provided with an -umbrella.</p> - -<p>The sketching umbrella is generally -of creamy white or very light gray cotton. -It is so constructed as to be separated -from the long stick upon which it is arranged -when in use, this stick itself -being divided into two or more parts, according -to its length. These are arranged -to fit into each other firmly, the -lower end terminating in a long, sharp iron -point which is to be planted in the ground.</p> - -<p>The umbrella itself is furnished with a -rather short handle, and is attached to -the long staff by a movable screw joint -which permits of its being arranged at any -angle necessary to protect the sketcher -from the sun.</p> - -<p>The whole outfit complete with a waterproof -gingham umbrella costs $8.00.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p> - -<p>The long folding stick is sold separately. -This is 6 ft. high with an adjustable -joint to which any ordinary umbrella -can be fastened. These cost about $3.00.</p> - -<p>A long and narrow tin box with compartments -completes the outfit. This -holds the charcoal, crayon, stumps, bread, -rag and rubber. The charcoal and crayon -must always be kept shut up in their -separate compartments, or failing that, in -respective boxes, as, if allowed to knock -around loosely in the box, they will soil -the stumps, rubber and rags.</p> - -<p>The paper generally used in sketching -blocks is the ordinary grade of French charcoal -paper with a rough surface already -mentioned. This paper comes in a variety -of tints, the most popular being the cream-white -and the gray. The white paper is -generally preferred for serious studies involving -careful drawing and correctness of -value.</p> - -<p>Some artists, however, prefer to use -gray or light brown paper in sketching, -as if one is skillful a very effective result<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -may be obtained with little labor by -using the local tone of the paper for the -half tints, quickly rubbing in the shadow -with charcoal or crayon, both being sometimes -used.</p> - -<p>The high lights are then cleverly touched -in with white chalk or pastel. Chinese -white water-color paint is sometimes substituted -for the chalk in putting in such -lights. It has the advantage of being -more permanent in one way as the chalk -rubs off, but in the course of time this -white paint so used has a tendency to turn -yellow, especially if the sketch is shut -up in a book or kept from the air.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the white chalk will -turn yellow if fixed, so that the high lights -must not be put in the sketch until it is -all finished and fixed, which is of course -a disadvantage to the artist who wishes -to study the relations of his tones as he -proceeds. This method will be explained -at length later on.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> - - -<small>ELEMENTARY PRACTICE.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p>To those who have never had any experience -whatever in drawing, it is best -to begin with straight lines. This is -especially necessary in the case of children, -who must first be taught to control -the hand before proceeding further.</p> - -<p>The next step is to draw curved lines -representing half of a circle.</p> - -<p>From this proceed to draw angles, -circles, squares, and other such simple -forms in outline, until the muscles of the -hand have learned to obey the will.</p> - -<p>The system we wish to teach is first to -begin in this way, then to advance gradually -by copying some simple drawings, -executed in the modern method, until -the use of charcoal and crayon is thoroughly -understood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> - -<p>These drawings should be progressive, -commencing with the features in different -positions, and leading gradually to the -full head, feet, hands, torso, etc., until the -full length figure is reached.</p> - -<p>By this time sufficient proficiency will -have been attained to enable the student -to put aside copying and proceed to -drawing from the cast, when the same -progressive studies should be observed -until a sufficiently thorough foundation -in drawing is acquired to warrant the -final step of drawing from life, which -is the most difficult though the most interesting -of all.</p> - -<p>In view of these necessities, a series -of studies in charcoal and crayon have -been prepared to accompany this volume. -These should be carefully copied, according -to the directions given.</p> - - -<h3>ARRANGEMENT OF LIGHT.</h3> - -<p>Before beginning to draw, whether -from copies, from the cast, or from life,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -it is most important that the room be -properly lighted.</p> - -<p>If possible a north light should be -selected, although that is not absolutely -necessary, it is, however, most generally -preferred by artists, as the light -is more steady, and less influenced by the -direct rays of the sun. There should be -no cross light, the light coming from one -direction only; therefore, if there are -several windows on different sides of a -room, all should be darkened while working -except those on one side.</p> - -<p>This light should so be arranged as to -come from above rather than from below, -and if the window is a long one, curtain -off the lower part, so that the light begins -about six feet from the floor. If more -than one person is working in the same -room, several windows on the same side -are admissible. If, however, a studio -were being built expressly for the purpose, -the ideal light would be one large, high -side window, extending from six to ten -feet along the wall, beginning at the floor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -and reaching to the ceiling, where it is -joined by a skylight, which is arranged -with an adjustable curtain, so that it may -only be uncovered when needed. In the -same way the lower half of the window -should be curtained off up to a height of -six feet for ordinary purposes. The whole -length of the window is sometimes useful -in simulating an out-of-door effect of -light.</p> - -<p>Some famous painters have had studios -built entirely of glass, so that they could -have all the advantages of working in the -open air without the exposure. Adjustable -curtains would turn the glass-house -into an ordinary in-door studio, with conventional -light. Few of us are so fortunate -as to command these conveniences, -and truth compels us to admit that -they are not strictly necessary to good -work.</p> - -<p>As we have already stated, the easel is -now universally adopted for drawing, as -well as painting, instead of the old methods, -which necessitated leaning over a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -table. The plate to be copied is also placed -upright, in the same upright position that -would be occupied by a cast or live model, -so that, even in this elementary training, -the eye becomes accustomed to look naturally -from the object or study being -copied to the paper on the easel.</p> - -<p>When preparing to draw, the easel -should be placed in front of the window -and so arranged that the light will come -from behind, and fall over the left -shoulder of the worker.</p> - -<p>Two or three sheets of charcoal paper -are now firmly fastened to the portfolio -or drawing-board, which should in no case -be smaller than the paper, but even larger, -projecting at least half an inch beyond the -regular-sized “Lalanne” or “Michelet” -sheets.</p> - -<p>To fasten the paper use ordinary flat -brass-headed paper tacks, putting one in -each corner, and one on each side between, -making six in all. The two sheets of -paper underneath the one used for drawing -are so placed in order to make a firmer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -and smoother foundation than could be -obtained by spreading a single sheet -directly upon the hard surface of the -wooden board or portfolio, where any -crack, knot, wrinkle, or other imperfection -would show through when rubbed with -the stump.</p> - -<p>This arrangement is of great importance, -and should never be neglected.</p> - -<p>For the benefit of the actual beginners, -we will commence with the drawing of -straight lines, which is not nearly so easy -as might be supposed.</p> - - -<h3>STRAIGHT LINES.</h3> - -<p>The foundation of technical skill in -drawing of many kinds, notably the charcoal -and crayon point, pen and ink, and -pencil, depends upon the power of making -lines with correctness and dexterity; and -though later on, in drawing and painting, -we learn to see only by form, almost entirely -discarding the line <i>per se</i>, yet this -early training of the hand often gives -firmness and surety of touch to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -painter’s brush which might otherwise be -wanting, and is in many ways felt to be -valuable.</p> - -<p>To begin the practice of drawing straight -lines, first make two dots of several inches -apart, let us say, about three inches from -one point to the other. Let these dots at -first be perpendicular, one being directly -above the other.</p> - -<p>Sharpen the charcoal to a point and -draw it slowly from the upper to the lower -point several times, at first without actually -touching the paper, to accustom the -eye to the distance; then make the actual -line between the two, bearing lightly upon -the paper and making a line of uniform -thickness.</p> - -<p>Make these lines in rows parallel to -each other and about an inch apart, continuing -the exercise until you are able to -make perfectly straight upright lines.</p> - -<p>The next exercise consists of drawing -horizontal lines in the same manner. -After this, oblique lines should be practiced, -inclining in different directions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> - -<p>Remember that no ruling, measuring -or mechanical aids of any kind are to be -made use of, the object being to train eye -and hand.</p> - - -<h3>CURVED LINES.</h3> - -<p>Curved lines are of course more difficult -than straight for those who are entirely -untrained. Begin to draw these -by making the two dots at first as for the -straight line; connect these dots with a -very light line, and then through the -center draw another line at right angles, -dividing the first exactly in two. This -line, projecting from one side only, must -be exactly the same length as half the first -line thus</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i038" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i038.jpg" alt="Realisation of the instructions" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span></p> - -<p>Now connect the extremity of these lines -with a curved line extending from one -end to the middle and thence to the other -end. When practice has enabled the -student to draw these curves correctly, -the straight lines are omitted and the -curves drawn only from point to point.</p> - -<p>Let this simple exercise be repeated by -drawing the curves in every direction. -When the pupil is able to draw both -straight and curved lines thus with ease -he has already gained an important step.</p> - -<p>After this, simple forms should be -drawn in outline, using such copies as -120 studies in freehand, called “How to -Draw,” by Chas. Ryan, costing 25 cents, -published by Cassell & Company.</p> - -<p>A box of blocks should next be procured, -which are sold by art dealers for -the purpose, and the student should begin -with the simplest forms and draw them -from nature, in outline at first, progressing -gradually to more complicated forms.</p> - -<p>The next step is shading, which is done -at first in the simplest manner. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -outline sketched in, the proportions -are ascertained to be correct and the -shadow and light are divided into two -great masses without detail and blocked -in as broadly as possible, according to the -method given in the following pages.</p> - -<p>Learn to begin a drawing properly and -the finishing will be easy enough, being -merely a matter of practice when once -the manner of working is understood. -How often we see exposed for sale and -on exhibition drawings and paintings elaborately -finished of which the drawing is -so faulty as to render them worthless.</p> - -<p>Students, therefore, who are thoroughly -in earnest must be content to postpone -all idea of finishing at first, occupying -themselves in the preliminary studies with -correctness of outline and proportion only. -For this reason when the shadows are -blocked in broadly and the drawing appears -to be as nearly right as you can -make it, put it aside and take up something -a little more difficult and carry it on -to the same stage without endeavoring to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -elaborate it. Thus continue your practice, -always progressing until you feel fitted to -begin the study of the human face and -form, which is, as we have said, the most -difficult thing in art.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">PART SECOND.</p> - - -<hr class="small" /> - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br/> - - -<small>MANNER OF WORKING.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p>Those who have already had sufficient -practice in the elementary drawing indicated -in the first part, can of course -omit the foregoing pages, and begin at -once with the preparatory studies of the -face and figure, which are necessary before -proceeding to drawing from the cast.</p> - -<p>These studies consist of eight plates, -carefully prepared by the author, according -to the modern methods of charcoal -and crayon drawing now employed in all -large art schools both in Europe and our -own country.</p> - -<p>By carefully copying these plates in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -their regular order, the student learns the -method of using charcoal and crayon, so -as to be perfectly acquainted with these -materials and their resources before -beginning to work from Nature; the -design also being to familiarize the eye -with the constructional drawing and proportion -of the human figure beforehand, -thus materially lessening the difficulties -of drawing from life. The general manner -of working is as follows:—</p> - -<p>Arrange the light, place the easel in -position, and fasten the charcoal paper to -the drawing board or portfolio in the way -already described. We will suppose the -subject to be drawn is a head. First -make a small mark or dot on the paper -with your charcoal, to show where the top -of the head will come. A corresponding -dot will indicate the bottom of the face -or chin, while a mark on each side will -show the width of the head.</p> - -<p>Before beginning to draw a line, these -marks will suggest whether the head be -properly placed on the sheet. See that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -there be not too much space on either side, -and that the head is not too high or too low.</p> - -<p>If these preliminary precautions be -neglected the head may be placed most -awkwardly; too much to one side or -otherwise wrong, and the mistake not be -noticed until the drawing be nearly finished. -The importance, therefore, of -properly placing the head at first can not -be overestimated.</p> - -<p>The position being decided, the outlines -are lightly sketched in with long, -sweeping lines, following the general -direction of the head without any attention -at first to details of any kind. Let -these lines next determine the oval described -by the face, sketching at the same -time the lines of the throat, and ascertaining -the action of the body in relation to -the head by one or more long, sweeping -lines across the bust from shoulder to -shoulder.</p> - -<p>Next draw a line with the charcoal -point across the oval of the face where -the hair meets the forehead, one through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -the middle of the eyes, one at the -base of the nose, through the center of the -mouth and the lowest point of the chin.</p> - -<p>These lines determine the proportions -of the face, and are drawn very lightly -with the charcoal, sharpened to a fine -point, as they are erased when the features -are drawn in. Next proceed to place the -features on these lines, blocking them in -only in their general forms at first with -very little detail, and draw these forms as -squarely as possible, seeking for angles -and avoiding curves.</p> - -<p>It is easy to turn angles into curves in -finishing a drawing, but if we begin -with curves we have nothing to depend -upon, and the drawing loses strength, -becoming soft and weak in the end.</p> - -<p>Having ascertained that the features -are in the right place, go back to the outline -and bring that into shape, though -without trying to finish it carefully as yet.</p> - -<p>The next step is to block in the -shadows in their general forms, dividing -the whole head into two distinct<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> -masses of light and shade. To do this, -make a faint outline of the exact form of -the shadows where they meet the -light; now fill in with charcoal all -the mass of shadow within the outline, -making one flat, even tone of dark without -variation of shade. To do this draw the -charcoal in straight parallel lines slightly -oblique, almost touching each other, until -the whole shadow is covered. No special -care need be taken in putting in these -lines, as the main object is to get the -paper sufficiently covered with the charcoal. -The largest paper stump is now -used, to unite these charcoal lines into -one flat tone of dark.</p> - -<p>The stump is held in the fingers, so that -about an inch of the point lies on the -paper, not merely the tip end. With this -the charcoal is rubbed in until no lines -appear, only one simple even tone of dark -filling the outline of the shadow.</p> - -<p>Put in the eyes, nose, mouth, etc., and in -the same way drawing the form of the -general shadow first without any detail,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -as already mentioned, and putting in the -flat tone with the charcoal and stump.</p> - -<p>When the principal shadows are thus -laid in, look at the head from a distance -and see if the proportions are correct. Any -mistake will be easily seen in this stage, -and should be corrected at once before -proceeding further.</p> - -<p>To correct a line or erase the charcoal -in any way, use the crumb or soft part of -stale bread. This is done by taking a -small piece between the fingers, and rolling -it into a little ball, then shaping it -to a point. Be sure the bread is not too -fresh or made with butter, as greasy bread -will ruin the paper, so that it is impossible -to work nicely on it. If, however, such -a grease spot becomes evident when the -drawing is somewhat advanced, it can be -remedied in the finishing, by touching carefully -with a sharp-pointed crayon, and -rubbing with a pointed rubber stump; -working with both alternately, making -fine, small touches, until the spot is even -in tone with the rest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - -<p>In using the bread, never press hard; -if the charcoal or crayon will not come -off, use the pointed rubber stump.</p> - -<p>In laying in a mass of shadow, if too -much charcoal gets on the paper, so as to -become inconvenient, wipe it off lightly -and evenly with a soft cotton rag, and if -then the tone is too light, work on it -again with charcoal, as before, using the -stump in the same way until it becomes -the right tone.</p> - -<p>In working heads, life studies, etc., in -charcoal it is the practice in all the large -art schools to finish them with black crayon. -The crayon is not touched, however, -until the shadows are all put in and the -proportions found to be correct. The -whole effect being blocked in the way -already described, the crayon is taken up -and the two materials used together at -first, as required, in the following manner:</p> - -<p>The outline, which has been sketched -in with charcoal, is now very carefully -drawn with a finely pointed Conté crayon -No. 2. First dust off the charcoal a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -with a rag until the outline is quite light, -though easily seen, and do not make the -crayon outline too dark and thick.</p> - -<p>Next proceed to block in the hair with -charcoal. Do this at first in the simple -masses of light and shade, rubbing in the -charcoal in close lines at first, so as to -well cover the paper, and then using the -stump to make one flat, even tone.</p> - -<p>If the hair is dark, cover the light mass -with a general tone of light gray, using -the charcoal very lightly and rubbing it -flat with the stump as before. If the hair -is light, put in a fainter tone for the dark -mass and a very delicate tone over the -light mass. Do not attempt to see any -reflected lights or small details as yet.</p> - -<p>Having the head now well started, we -proceed to carry it on by putting in the -half tints which connect the masses of -light and shadow all over the face. Do -this with a clean, medium-sized paper -stump by dragging the charcoal from the -shadow over the light. Do not put any -new charcoal on for the half tints, as it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -very important that they be kept light at -first. Keep a clean stump always at hand -for delicate half tints, and never use an -old one.</p> - -<p>The face now begins to model and look -round, and is further carried on by putting -in the dark accents of shadow and -taking out reflected lights with bread.</p> - -<p>The features are brought into shape, -using the sharp pointed charcoal and a -small stump.</p> - -<p>At this stage the crayon is taken -up permanently and the charcoal laid -aside.</p> - -<p>The Conté crayon No. 2 sharpened to a -fine point is rubbed all over the mass of -shadow already laid in with charcoal and -is then softened with the stump in the -manner already described, the charcoal -and crayon together producing a beautiful -quality of tone.</p> - -<p>Let me here mention that some artists -prefer to use the sauce crayon for putting -in large masses of dark, such as shadows, -hair, drapery, etc. The student should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -try both methods and use either or both, -as he may prefer.</p> - -<p>The sauce crayon should be rubbed off -on a small piece of charcoal paper and -tacked on one side of the drawing so as -to be convenient for use.</p> - -<p>The point of the large stump is now -rolled around in the sauce or powdered -crayon thus prepared, and is then rubbed -into the shadow until the whole is covered -with the crayon and presents an even dark -tone.</p> - -<p>The sauce crayon is only to be employed -for large spaces, and is useful in saving -time, as it takes longer to cover the surface -with lines made by the crayon point. -Still many prefer the latter.</p> - -<p>The crayon point is always used in finishing -up the drawing, which is carried on -by degrees. The dark accents are put in -the eyes, nose, mouth and ears, and the -small stump is used to soften the marks -of the crayon, but should not be rubbed -too much.</p> - -<p>If the head be rather dark in its general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -effect, a very delicate gray tint should be -put all over the light mass of the face. -This is done with a clean stump which -has been used for half tints, and the tone -is put on in the same manner, the crayon -point not being used here.</p> - -<p>The high lights are taken out with the -bread rolled to a point, and should be -made sharp and distinct. The hair is -carried on in the same manner as the face, -the dark accents and details being put in -with the crayon point and softened a little -with the stump. The half tints are developed -and reflected lights taken out with -bread. The high lights are lastly rubbed -out in the same way, taking care always -to preserve the exact form of the lights -where they meet the shadows.</p> - -<p>In drawing hair, do not attempt to put -in too much detail. The deepest shadows -and the highest lights should always be -kept simple. The most detail is generally -seen in the half tint, but should be very carefully -studied only in the most prominent -parts, the rest being left in a suggestive way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p> - -<p>In working thus with charcoal and -crayon, there are one or two things that -should be always kept in mind.</p> - -<p>In the first place, the charcoal and -crayon must always be kept sharpened -while drawing, a fine point being most -necessary. A sharp knife should always -be at hand, and also a piece of sandpaper, -as it is very difficult to sharpen the crayons -with a knife, they break so easily.</p> - -<p>Always buy the best materials, and -always keep plenty on hand. Have a box -of charcoal, and at least half a dozen crayons, -and keep one or two clean stumps in -reserve no matter how many you have -already in use.</p> - -<p>In rubbing on charcoal, and before using -the stump, be sure to cover the paper -well, so that very little rubbing will spread -the tone into an even mass. No matter -how much charcoal you get on at first, you -can always take off the superfluity with a -rag; but if there is not enough one is -tempted to rub the paper too hard, and if -the surface of the paper gets roughened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -by too much rubbing at first, you can never -do any thing with it afterward.</p> - -<p>In putting on the crayon, however, we -must be more careful.</p> - -<p>Put on a little and try it with the stump; -if it does not spread well, add more, and -so on. Even when dispensing entirely -with the sauce crayon and using only the -pointed sticks, it is well to rub off some -of the crayon on a small piece of paper -and pin it up on one side of the drawing, -for using in very light tones where the -point must not be employed. For instance, -in covering the light side of the face with -a delicate tone, the stump is rubbed on -this, and tried first on a piece of paper -before using it on the drawing.</p> - -<p>Never let the hand rest directly upon -the drawing itself. If not convenient to -rest it upon the margin, have a sheet of -clean writing paper to place underneath -the hand.</p> - -<p>In sketching in, or drawing long, -sweeping lines, do not steady the hand -upon the paper at all, as one does in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -writing, but try to acquire freedom of -handling by practice, resting the hand -upon the paper only when absolutely -necessary, as in drawing fine details, or -when great precision is required.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> - - -<small>MEASUREMENT, ACTUAL AND COMPARATIVE.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p>By actual measurement is meant the -measurement of the object itself by holding -against it a ruler or straight strip of -paper, and marking off the number of -inches or exact distance from one given -point to another. These measurements are -then compared with the drawing, and the -same distances are marked off on the -paper.</p> - -<p>In mechanical and architectural drawing -this system of measurement is in constant -use, but in freehand drawing, and in -the method practiced by artists, actual -measurement is not allowed. Never -measure in any way when beginning a -drawing, but strike out bravely, resolving -to depend upon the eye only, if possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> - -<p>After the first outlines are put in, and -the proportions are as nearly correct as -you can make them, it is perfectly legitimate -to “prove” a drawing by actual -measurement, if it is a copy. If one is -drawing from a cast, or from life, and it -is necessary that the head be exactly the -same size, a measurement may be taken -from the top of the head to the chin, and -compared with the sketch you have made. -Beyond this no actual measurement should -be allowed.</p> - - -<h3>COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENT.</h3> - -<p>This is a very important thing in drawing -from Nature, or objects of any kind, -and must be thoroughly understood by -the student, as without it no drawing can -be made absolutely correct.</p> - -<p>Comparative measurements are entirely -<i>proportional</i>. The manner of taking them -is as follows:</p> - -<p>Place yourself opposite the object to -be measured, at the same distance from -which your drawing is taken. Let us say<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -you are drawing the bust of Apollo, and -wish to discover just the exact height of -the whole, also the width across the -shoulders.</p> - -<p>Extend your arm in a perfectly straight -line at right angles to the cast, holding -in your hand a long lead-pencil. The -pencil must be held parallel to the general -direction of the cast, neither end being -allowed to swerve the slightest.</p> - -<p>Now, closing one eye to concentrate the -vision, measure off with your thumb upon -the pencil, which is held crosswise, the -apparent distance from the outside of one -shoulder in a direct line to the outside -of the other. Keep your thumb -tightly upon the pencil at the place -measured, and slowly turn the hand -around, keeping the arm extended at the -same distance from the body, and the eye -in the same position as before.</p> - -<p>The pencil is now held straight up and -down, and your object is to see how many -times the distance measured off on the -pencil will go into the whole length of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -the cast, beginning at the top of the head -and measuring down to the foot of the -bust, slowly moving the pencil downward -and checking off with the eye each time -the measurement is repeated.</p> - -<p>In this way we can find out exactly -whether the cast is just twice as long as -it is wide, or less—in other words, the -comparative proportions.</p> - -<p>This kind of measurement is invaluable -in out-of-door sketching, and the eye soon -becomes so trained by practice that relative -proportions are compared instinctively, -and one scarcely needs to use the -pencil.</p> - - -<h3>THE PLUMB LINE.</h3> - -<p>Another most valuable adjunct in drawing -from life and from the cast is the -plumb line. This consists of a piece of -strong twine with a weight on one end, -which serves to keep the string perfectly -straight and steady when suspended from -the hand. A straight line is thus simulated -which is dropped from a given point<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -to one directly underneath, forming one -side of a triangle, which will ascertain for -us the different positions that certain -other parts assume in relation to this -line.</p> - -<p>For instance, we hold the plumb line so -as to make a straight line from the chin -of a standing figure to the ground. The -top and bottom of the line form two points -of a triangle, the third to be represented -by the man’s heel.</p> - -<p>Imaginary lines are now drawn through -these points, forming the triangle, whose -base determines the direction of the heel -in relation to the center-line of the body. -In this way the balance of a figure can be -accurately ascertained, and the most difficult -action correctly suggested.</p> - -<p>In the actual drawing the real lines may -be sketched in charcoal from point to -point at the same angle determined by -the plumb, and the corrections made accordingly, -these straight lines being of -course erased afterward.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p> - - -<h3>VALUES.</h3> - -<p>The term “value,” as understood by -artists, is used to express the <i>comparative -relation of tones to each other</i>, irrespective -of color. There may be many different -colors before us all of the same -value; also, there may be only one color -used in a drawing, yet many different -values are seen, which goes to show that -we are to compare tones and not -colors.</p> - -<p>For example, in drawing or painting a -landscape we look at the tone of the trees -against the sky and observe which is the -darker. If a stormy, heavy sky is seen -behind light, feathery, green trees we see -that the sky is darker in value.</p> - -<p>If, on the contrary, trees with dark, -rich foliage are observed to be strongly -relieved against a bright, sunny sky, we -perceive at once that the sky is lighter in -value than the trees. In like manner we -compare the rocks with the water, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -fence with the road, and so on, according -to the different objects to be regarded in -the picture.</p> - -<p>In drawing a head in charcoal or crayon -it is well to establish at once the darkest -value in the whole, selecting the deepest -spot of shadow with which all the other -tones of dark may be compared.</p> - -<p>Look for instance, at the shadow over -the eye or under the nose, which are -generally very dark, and compare it with -the shadow on the cheek, behind the ear, -or under the chin. In the same way decide -upon the highest light in the face. -Say it is found upon the forehead or on -the cheek bone. Be sure that it is the -brightest spot in the face, and then compare -all the other degrees of light with -this.</p> - -<p>By studying in this way, and observing -the comparative variety of these tones, we -arrive at correct values.</p> - -<p>This is a most important quality in -art and can not be overestimated, for upon -a just appreciation of the values in a pict<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>ure -depends its truth. This also serves to -illustrate the necessity of making studies -directly from nature whenever possible.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>CRAYON PORTRAITS.</h3> - - -<p>Crayon is especially adapted to portraiture, -on account of the brilliant -effects which it is capable of producing, -as well as the great softness and delicacy -of finish which may be obtained by its -use.</p> - -<p>Portraits should, of course, always be -taken from life if possible, though if the -person be an invalid or is for any other -reason unable to give many sittings, a -photograph may be used for the beginning. -The portrait is carried on from -this until well advanced; if one or two sittings -from life can then be had in finishing, -it will be a great advantage, especially -in regard to the expression.</p> - -<p>In portraits of children a photograph is -frequently a great assistance, particularly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -if the artist has not had much experience.</p> - -<p>In all such cases, however, it is best to -decide upon the pose, and sketch it from -life, and then have the photograph taken -in the pose you have selected.</p> - -<p>In this way, the light and shade are -arranged to suit the artist, and the pose -being decided upon by him, the portrait -will have the effect of being drawn from -life instead of being merely a copy from -a conventional photograph.</p> - -<p>In general the effect of light used by -photographers is exactly the reverse of -that chosen by artists. It will be noticed -that ordinary photographs have the -greater part of the face either in shadow -or covered by strong half-tints.</p> - -<p>An artist, on the contrary, in posing a -head for a portrait, prefers exactly the -opposite arrangement, selecting broad -and simple effects of light with only -enough shadow to give the necessary -variety and relief to the features.</p> - -<p>When arranging the preliminaries for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> -portrait, there are several things to be -considered.</p> - -<p>In the first place, study the head carefully -and see which view is most agreeable. -Sometimes features in the same face look -differently when seen from opposite directions. -Some noses or mouths look well -on one side and distorted on the other.</p> - -<p>A very broad face should not be given -a full front pose, but would look better -seen in three-quarter.</p> - -<p>A very retreating chin must not be -seen in a profile view.</p> - -<p>This same pose, however, for a person -with a cast in the eyes is preferable, and -so on. After all such matters have been -considered, see that the head is not -thrown up too high, as it will make the -nose look short, while lowering the chin -too much will make the nose look long. -A good rule is that the eyes of the sitter -should be on a line with those of the artist -as he sits or stands at his work.</p> - -<p>The method most generally in use for -crayon portraits is that described in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -preceding pages, in which the stump is -used. All the old-fashioned ways of stippling -and hatching are seldom resorted to, -and not considered artistic.</p> - -<p>In drawing a life-sized head the artist -must not be too far from his subject, the -easel being placed about four or five feet -distant. It is well to get up and walk -back occasionally, looking at the work -from a distance so as to see the general -effect.</p> - -<p>There are several different kinds of -paper used for crayon portraits, some -artists preferring one make, some another. -The ordinary “Lalanne” and “Michelet” -papers used for charcoal and crayon -studies are a little too rough in texture to -please every body, and do not produce -quite so fine a finish as is desirable. They -come in too small-sized sheets for a large -portrait head, for which one wants plenty -of room.</p> - -<p>This, however, is merely a matter of -taste, that can be indulged when one has -become sufficiently proficient in the work<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -to judge for himself. We will suggest -that Whatman’s crayon paper is one of -the most satisfactory; this comes in large -sheets, and should be stretched before -using in the manner already described. -A good sized stretcher for an ordinary -portrait is 20×24.</p> - -<p>If more of the figure than the shoulders -is to be seen, a larger size would be -better.</p> - -<p>The portrait is first lightly sketched in -with charcoal, and if the student is not -very proficient in drawing from life it is -better to make the first sketch upon an -ordinary sheet of charcoal paper.</p> - -<p>When all corrections are made, and the -general proportions of the face appear to -be right, the outline is transferred to the -stretcher in the following manner:—</p> - -<p>Take the sheet of charcoal paper on -which the sketch is made, and with a -stick of charcoal “scribble,” so to speak, -all over the back, so that the paper is entirely -covered behind your sketch.</p> - -<p>Now lay this sheet with the face upward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -on the clean stretcher, placing it so that -the head will come in exactly the right -place, neither too high nor too low.</p> - -<p>Fasten it with pins at the top and bottom, -so that the paper will not slip, and -then with a sharp, hard lead-pencil carefully -go over the outline, and every important -part of the face and head. If the -paper should move in the least the whole -thing is spoiled, therefore it is best in -transferring to lay the drawing upon a -table till finished. Remember not to rest -the hand heavily upon any portion of the -paper except the line to be traced, as -every touch leaves a black spot beneath.</p> - -<p>On removing the sketch a perfect outline -will be found upon the stretcher, -which will be a sufficient guide to the -proportions and general likeness. Now, -with a sharply pointed charcoal stick begin -to draw in the head, following the -outline, block in the features, massing the -shadows in the face and hair.</p> - -<p>Do not begin to use the crayon until -the general likeness is assured, for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -paper must not be roughened by too much -erasing.</p> - -<p>Use the soft cotton rag for dusting off -charcoal whenever you can, instead of -bread, as too much rubbing with bread -will grease the paper; for very large -spaces, where erasing is necessary, use -Faber’s India rubber.</p> - -<p>When the crayon is put on, advance -slowly, remembering that in a portrait -there is much more careful work than in -an ordinary life study, and that there are -many more things to be considered than -merely the drawing. The likeness is to -be secured, which is sometimes a difficult -thing even for those with experience.</p> - -<p>This is accomplished gradually; the -student must not always expect to see the -likeness in the first sketch; it comes by -degrees, as the drawing progresses, and -it is a good rule to draw the head in -exactly as you see it, emphasizing the -salient points, no matter how ugly it may -appear. Do not attempt to improve and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -modify until the drawing and general likeness -are secured.</p> - -<p>The expression comes last of all, and -with it the beauty. If you attempt to -make the face pretty at first, you will -weaken the drawing and lose the character. -For this reason, many artists make -it a rule never to show their portraits until -finished. The sitter does not understand -the methods of working and is tempted -to criticise, which renders the worker -timid.</p> - -<p>After the head is put in with the crayon -and modeled with the stump, in the manner -described in a previous chapter, the -finishing is carried on with the crayon -point, the small stump, and the pointed -rubber stump, which is found more useful -than bread at the last.</p> - -<p>The animated expression is put in the -eyes by dark touches in the pupil and -under the lids, while sharp lights are -accented in the iris and on the eyeball.</p> - -<p>The form of the under lid must be carefully -studied.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p> - -<p>The nose, also, has much to do with the -expression; especially the shape of the -nostrils, and the direction of the lines at -the side of the nose running down to the -mouth. Observe whether the nostrils -droop downward at the outward edge; -this gives a serious expression; if, on the -contrary, the line is elevated, it tends to -give a bright and animated appearance to -the face.</p> - -<p>The mouth, of course, is of great importance, -and influences the expression more -than any other feature; when smiling, the -corners are turned upward, and the lines -or dimples are curved in an outward direction. -In a sad face the corners of the -mouth drop downward and the lines grow -straight.</p> - -<p>If the student learns to look for such -indications in many faces, he will find more -suggestions of importance to aid him in -developing the expression. Without such -knowledge, he may accidentally reverse -these conditions, and work on blindly, -puzzling himself vainly to find out where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -he is wrong and why the expression is just -the opposite of what it should be.</p> - - -<h3>THE HAIR.</h3> - -<p>In drawing the hair, no matter how -elaborate its arrangement, it must be -blocked in at first in simple flat masses -of light and shade without any attempt -at detail. Try, however, to give the general -character of the hair in putting in the -form of the shadows where they meet the -light. In smooth, black hair, the effect -will be large masses of black with sharp, -clearly-defined high lights.</p> - -<p>Light curly hair will have much lighter -tone in the shadow and much less brilliant -lights.</p> - -<p>After the hair is thus laid in with charcoal -and the stump, the crayon is taken -up.</p> - -<p>The half tints are studied and the deep -accents of dark put in the shadows, always -following the outline of the form of -each shadow very carefully.</p> - -<p>Avoid putting in a number of lines to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -represent hair, as this destroys the effect -and means nothing. All details are expressed -by carefully rendered light and -shade.</p> - -<p>In finishing, the high lights are taken -out with bread rolled to a point, or if more -convenient, the india-rubber stump is -used.</p> - -<p>Soften the hair where it touches the -face, never leaving a hard, dark line. -When a tone is too dark, it is not always -necessary to use either bread or rubber, -but first try rubbing with the stump, -which may be found sufficient.</p> - - -<h3>BACKGROUNDS.</h3> - -<p>A background gives relief and importance -to the head, and should be managed -with judgment.</p> - -<p>In the first place, never make the background -exactly the same value as the -head. If the hair is light and the general -effect of the face fair and delicate, the -background should be darker than the -head, though not too dark.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> - -<p>Everything must be harmonious, and a -spotty appearance is to be avoided.</p> - -<p>For instance, a very light effect of hair -and face with a moderately dark dress -and a jetty-black background is very bad. -Also, a head with black hair, white dress -and very light background. All violent -contrasts should be avoided.</p> - -<p>Put the background in at first with charcoal -only, using parallel lines in one direction, -then crossing them diagonally. After -this take the large stump and rub these -lines into one tone, yet leaving a slight -suggestion of the lines to show through.</p> - -<p>Put in this tone only around the -shoulders and lower part of the head, -leaving the upper part of the paper bare, -or nearly so.</p> - -<p>In this way try the effect, working slowly -and adding more charcoal as the tone -needs to be darker.</p> - -<p>When you have decided that the background -has the right effect in relation to -the head, use the crayon point in the same -way as the charcoal, putting in crossed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -lines and rubbing them together again -with the stump until a transparent effect -is achieved, which will give atmosphere -and relieve the head.</p> - -<p>If you get on too much crayon rub it -all over with a soft rag. This is an excellent -thing to do occasionally, as it softens -and unites the whole while making the -tone lighter.</p> - -<p>Sometimes in finishing, a few touches -of the rubber point may be used at the -edges of the background and where it -softens off at the top. Use the rubber in -the same manner as the crayon point, -making light lines crossing obliquely.</p> - -<p>Remember that hardly any appearance -of lines must be seen. When all is done -they must be so softened with stump and -rag as to present almost the appearance, -at a little distance, of an even tone.</p> - -<p>In some cases the background may be -carried up higher than the middle of the -head, but it is very rarely necessary to -surround the whole head with it.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a very light tone may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -put all over the paper with the large -stump and rag.</p> - -<p>In this case the lines are only used at -the darkest part around the shoulders. -These matters must be determined by -individual taste, and the composition of -the portrait, as it is impossible to make -general rules for every case.</p> - -<p>Never attempt to make landscape backgrounds -or effects of drapery and -still-life behind a simple portrait head. -Every thing should be kept subordinate to -the face, which is the most important -thing of all. Never use white chalk or -crayon with the black in such portraits; -take all lights out with bread, or leave the -paper clean.</p> - - -<h3>DRAPERY.</h3> - -<p>All drapery in a crayon portrait must -be treated as simply as possible, being -regarded only as secondary in importance -to the head, which is, of course, the main -object of interest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span></p> - -<p>All elaborate trimmings or pronounced -fashions should be avoided.</p> - -<p>Different kinds of material are interpreted -by carefully studying the different -forms of the lights and shadows in each. -For instance, black satin is rendered by -large masses of black, as black as crayon -can be made with sharp, narrow high -lights, so light as to be almost white.</p> - -<p>In black silk, the masses of dark are -lighter in their general tone, and the -lights less sharp and brilliant.</p> - -<p>The different colors are represented by -lighter or darker tones, as the case may be.</p> - -<p>In black velvet, the masses of dark are -softer than in satin and not so jetty black, -while the lights are less brilliant and more -diffused in effect, leaving more half tints -than are seen either in silk or satin. In -black cloths the lights are quite low in -tone and the darks are not very black, no -sharp high lights are seen at all, both -light and shade taking large and simple -forms.</p> - -<p>White stuffs, such as lace, muslin, etc.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -are also kept simple in effect, and are -laid in with a very delicate tone all over -the mass of light, and the high lights are -taken out with bread.</p> - -<p>The shadows should also be delicate -and transparent and not too dark. -White hair is treated in this way also, -the character of the hair being indicated -by the form of the lights.</p> - -<p>When there is a white cap upon the -head or lace of any kind, do not make -it too prominent, but carefully study its -value in relation to the face.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> - - -<small>CHARCOAL AND CRAYON DRAWING WITH -THE POINT; LANDSCAPES, PROPORTIONS, -ETC.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>This method is principally used by -artists in making drawings for illustration, -as stump drawings can not well be reproduced. -The manner of working is as -follows:—</p> - -<p>Sketch in the outline with the charcoal -stick, sharpened to a point, and then proceed -to block in the shadows, which must -be drawn in with careful attention to the -form, for the reason that it is best to make -a distinct outline of each mass of shadow -where it meets the light. These shadows -are now filled in with the pointed charcoal, -used in close parallel lines until a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -flat, even tone is obtained. It is not -necessary that these lines should be distinct, -or of exact regularity, as in the very -darkest shadows no lines at all should be -seen. The half tints are managed in the -same way with the point, which may be -used in the direction of the features to -some extent.</p> - -<p>The main thing to be remembered is -that no stump must be used, nor the -charcoal rubbed in any way. For erasing, -bread is the best, though rubber is sometimes -found useful.</p> - -<p>The crayon point is employed in exactly -the same way as the charcoal, the directions -applying equally to both. All -drawings should be fixed as soon as finished.</p> - - -<h3>PROPORTIONS OF THE FIGURE.</h3> - -<p>A few conventional rules for the general -proportions of the face and figure may be -found useful to the student in drawing -from life, and are regulated according to -the standard of beauty as determined by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -the Greek statues. Such proportions will -naturally vary in individual cases, yet are -valuable as a foundation, which may be -modified when necessary.</p> - -<p>The height of a well developed man is -eight heads or eight times the length of -his own head.</p> - -<p>The height of a woman, seven heads.</p> - -<p>The human figure may be divided into -four parts of equal length, viz.: from the -top of the head to the arm-pit, thence to -the middle of the body, thence to the -knees, thence to the soles of the feet.</p> - -<p>The arms extended straight out at right -angles to the body will measure from -finger-tip to finger-tip the length of the -figure from crown of head to sole of foot.</p> - -<p>The face may be divided into three -parts. From the top of the forehead to -the root of the nose; from there to -the bottom of the nose, thence to the -bottom of the chin. The ear is the -length of the nose, and its general direction -is parallel to it.</p> - -<p>From the top of the shoulder to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -elbow measures twice the length of the -face, or one head and a half.</p> - -<p>From the elbow to the wrist one head.</p> - -<p>The hand measures three-quarters of a -head from the tip of the middle finger to -the wrist.</p> - -<p>The foot measures one-sixth of the -whole length of the body.</p> - - -<h3>LANDSCAPE.</h3> - -<p>Charcoal is a favorite medium with -many artists for landscape subjects, and -it is, as before stated, especially useful in -sketching from nature.</p> - -<p>In beginning to draw a landscape in -charcoal, first sketch in lightly the horizon -line, the outlines of the trees and different -objects, in their general aspect.</p> - -<p>It is always well to select a subject -where there is a good effect of light and -shade and sufficient variety to give interest.</p> - -<p>After the composition is sketched in, -look for the large masses of shadow, and -divide the whole into two distinct masses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -of light and shade, as in figure drawing. -The sky is covered with a light tone, at -first, and even the masses of light are also -covered with a delicate half-tint.</p> - -<p>The whole drawing may be made entirely -with the point if it is desired, but the -French artist Allongé, who is celebrated -for his charcoal landscapes, prefers the -use of the stump, with the point in finishing.</p> - -<p>If in place of the stump the finger sometimes -is used to blend the charcoal, and -for rapid sketches, this is very effective.</p> - -<p>After the general masses are put in, the -details are drawn with the point, being -somewhat softened with the stump, though -in trunks of trees, dark branches, rocks, -etc., the marks of the point are left unsoftened -to give strength.</p> - -<p>The lights are taken out with bread or -rubber; sometimes a piece of chamois -skin is found useful in lightening a tone. -The light clouds are taken out with bread -from the sky which has been covered with -a half-tint, and the dark clouds are put in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -with the stump or point, according to the -method employed.</p> - -<p>In sketching from nature out of doors, -it is always well to adopt some prominent -object as a standard of measurement; for -instance, take a house or tree in the middle -distance, and compare this in height -with objects in the background and foreground. -In this way your perspective, if -simple, may be made correct without any -elaborate rules.</p> - -<p>Objects in the distance are naturally -smaller than those in the foreground, and -the exact proportions can be determined -by comparative measurement.</p> - -<p>In drawing a road or path, notice that -it will become narrower as it recedes into -the distance. For those who have never -studied perspective such suggestions are -useful.</p> - -<p>It is very important also that the values -should be carefully studied; it is a good -thing to establish the darkest spot of -shadow in the whole sketch, and compare -all the other darks with it, as already sug<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>gested -in figure drawing. Determine also -the brightest light, and let the other lights -be in their proper relation to it.</p> - -<p>Either crayon or charcoal, or both, may -be used for landscapes; it is always better -to sketch in the drawing with charcoal, -even if crayon is used afterward.</p> - -<p>Some very good effects are produced -by using crayon or charcoal on tinted -paper, either gray, blue, or light brown, -and, leaving the tone of the paper for the -half-tint, put in the high lights with white -chalk.</p> - -<p>In such drawings the stump must not -be used, nor should the tones be rubbed -or blended in any way. Use the crayon -or charcoal point in the manner already -described, and put the lights in at the last -with crisp, strong touches.</p> - -<p>As the student continues his practice -he will find out the resources of these most -interesting materials, and will develop -new possibilities for himself as he becomes -more adept, but it must be remembered -that there is no “royal road to learning,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -and to succeed in acquiring proficiency in -drawing of any kind, requires patience -and perseverance, with constant practice.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX.<br /> - - -<small>EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p>The intention of the author in presenting -these plates is that the student, by -copying a series of progressive drawings, -may be prepared to study from the cast -and from life. For those who are -entirely inexperienced, it is much easier -to learn this method from such flat copies -at first, as it not only teaches the use of -the materials, but familiarizes the student -with the forms of the different features, -so that when confronted with nature he -finds his difficulties considerably lessened.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE I.</h3> - -<p>This plate is intended to show the -drawing of the human eye and mouth in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -different positions, as well as to familiarize -the student with the general form of -these important features. Only charcoal -sharpened to a point is necessary for -these outlines, which should be carefully -practiced before proceeding to Plate II.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE II.</h3> - -<p>This study is intended for those who -have never drawn from the cast, and have -had no practice in using charcoal. A. -represents the manner of beginning a -drawing. Make a dot on the paper for -the top, and one for the bottom of the -fragment to ascertain where to place the -lines, and then with a sharply pointed -charcoal stick, draw the general form of -the outline in the manner shown in the -plate, without attempting any detail. -The shadows are then blocked in squarely -with the point. When the proportions -are thus ascertained to be correct, proceed -to finish the drawing as is seen in B.</p> - -<p>To do this, rub the shadows with the -stump till one flat, even tone is obtained,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -and carefully draw the outline, turning -the angles into curves.</p> - -<p>This plate is for the most elementary -practice in drawing, and no further degree -of finish than this should be attempted, -until the student has learned to do this -much well.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE III.</h3> - -<p>This represents a simple study of the -hand, drawn from a cast. A. indicates -the manner of laying in the study, the -curved lines being drawn to show the -direction and movement of the fingers.</p> - -<p>In B. the stump is used in the shadows, -and the modeling is carried on further -than in Plate II., the half-tint being added. -The outline is carefully finished with the -pointed crayon, which is also used in the -shadows.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE IV.</h3> - -<p>The part drawn from the cast here represented, -is laid in with charcoal, as in -Fig. A., and then carried on in crayon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -as in Fig. B. The outline is carefully -drawn and the shadows blocked in squarely -at first as usual, and then changed with -great care into the necessary correct -forms.</p> - -<p>It will be noticed that this study is a -little further advanced than those already -given, more detail being shown, as well -as a little greater variety in the half-tints. -The straight lines across the base and -ends of the toes serve to direct the eye -to the difference between their general -direction and a perfectly horizontal line.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE V.</h3> - -<p>In this plate the whole profile view of a -face is given, Fig. A. representing the way -to lay in a head. The straight lines outside -may be ruled, as they have nothing to do -with the drawing, but are merely mechanical -aids by which the angle of the -features is determined.</p> - -<p>In B. the modeling of the features is -carried on still further than in any of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -preceding studies, the half-tints and -shadows, however, being still kept flat.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE VI.</h3> - -<p>This plate gives a more difficult study -in the three-quarter view of a male head. -In laying in the drawing, as in Fig. A., -be careful to get the proportions as perfectly -correct as possible before proceeding -to carry the modeling further, as in -Fig. B.</p> - -<p>This head, though more finished than -any other yet given, purposely stops short -of the final extent to which such drawings -may be carried, as the object of the -author is to familiarize the student with -each step by the way. In the smaller -touches about the eyes, nose, etc., the -pointed rubber stump will be found more -available than bread. For the large -masses of shadow it would be well to rub -off some sauce crayon on a small piece -of drawing paper and fasten it one side -of the easel, or, if preferred, rub the -pointed crayon on the rough paper until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -a sufficient quantity adheres. The stump -is rolled around in this until sufficient is -taken up to cover the large mass of -shadow. The more careful work is -carried on with the pointed Conté crayon, -small stump, and pointed rubber, or bread, -as before explained.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE VII.</h3> - -<p>Plate VII. is intended to prepare the -student for drawing the full length figure -from the cast, and should be carefully -copied. An excellent exercise would be -to draw Fig. A. several times first, in -order to practice the manner of beginning -such a drawing; then when this is fully -mastered proceed to finish as in Fig. B., -which in this plate shows a fully completed -drawing from the cast.</p> - - -<h3>PLATE VIII.</h3> - -<p>This plate represents a study of the -male figure taken directly from life, and -is a most carefully finished drawing in -every respect. Fig. A. shows the manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -of beginning such a figure; the outline is -sketched in with long, sweeping lines at -first, to determine the direction of the -pose; the proportions are noted and the -outline corrected, though drawn in -angles, the general masses of shadow -being blocked in as usual.</p> - -<p>In Fig. B. the crayon and stump are -taken up and the drawing is carefully -carried on as shown by the plate, until -completed.</p> - - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The End.</span></p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAWING IN CHARCOAL AND CRAYON ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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