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diff --git a/old/68886-0.txt b/old/68886-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 077aec4..0000000 --- a/old/68886-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7007 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of King Edward's realm, by C. S. Dawe - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: King Edward's realm - Story of the making of the Empire - -Author: C. S. Dawe - -Release Date: August 31, 2022 [eBook #68886] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Al Haines - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KING EDWARD'S REALM *** - - - - - - - -[Frontispiece: King Edward] - - - - - King Edward's - Realm * * * - - - STORY OF THE - MAKING OF THE EMPIRE. - - - BY THE - - REV. C. S. DAWE, B.A., - - _Author of "Queen Victoria, and her People," &c._ - - - - London: - THE EDUCATIONAL SUPPLY ASSOCIATION, LIMITED, - HOLBORN VIADUCT. - - 1902 - - - - -PREFACE - -As Englishmen we have been born to a great inheritance, which we hold -in common with our kinsmen in all parts of the empire. It is quite -time that all who share in its possession should have some knowledge -of the way in which it has been founded and built up, and should -learn something of the great men under whose guidance and inspiration -the work has been done. - -The writer has attempted to impart such knowledge in an attractive -form, avoiding mere dry details, and that closely-packed synopsis of -facts which may be desirable in a work intended for a student -preparing for examination. But this little work is not written for -the student, but as a pleasant course of reading for young or old, -who desire to know something of the men who have made the empire, and -of the principal events which stand out as mile-stones on the road -along which our nation has travelled. - -Whilst selecting the more picturesque parts of the story of the -empire for special treatment, an endeavour has been made to keep up -the continuity of the narrative, so as to enable the reader to trace -the connection between events, their results and causes, and to help -in sustaining his intelligent interest from page to page throughout -the book. An endeavour has also been made to foster that imperial -spirit which takes a true pride in what our forefathers have -achieved, which resolves to hold what they have won, and which -broadens our view of public questions by setting them in relation to -the interests of the empire at large. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -INTRODUCTORY. - -The Empire and its Living Link. - - -CHAPTER I. - -England Preparing for Empire - -(1475-1603). - - (1) Invention of Printing - (2) Invention of Fire-Arms - (3) Discovery of a Sea-Route to India - (4) Discovery of a World to the West - (5) Rise of the English Navy - (6) Queen Elizabeth at the Helm - (7) Coming Struggle with Spain - (8) An Elizabethan Mariner - (9) A Celebrated Voyage Round the World - (10) Singeing the King of Spain's Beard - (11) Arming for the Fight - (12) Defeating the "Invincible" - (13) Expansion of England into the "United Kingdom" - - - -CHAPTER II. - -Early English Colonisation - -(1603-1688). - - (1) England's Success in Colonizing - (2) England's First Colony - (3) "Farewell, dear England" - (4) Progress in Colonizing - (5) Struggle for the Mastery at Sea - (6) Our Great "General-at-Sea" - - - -CHAPTER III. - -Expansion by Conquest - -(1688-1763). - - (1) What we owe to William of Orange - (2) A Famous Victory and a Lucky Capture - (3) Grandmotherly Government of the French in Canada - (4) Ripening for War - (5) "The Great Commoner" and his "Mad General" - (6) Capture of a Second Gibraltar - (7) First Founder of our Indian Empire - (8) Beginning of British Rule in India - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -Time of Trial and Triumph - -(1763-1815). - - (1) Tightening our Hold on India - (2) A Great Loss to the Empire - (3) Australasia brought to Light - (4) First Settlement in Australia - (5) Pioneer Work in Australia - (6) Remarkable Industrial Progress - (7) Nelson and Napoleon - (8) Nelson's Crowning Victory - (9) India's New Masters - (10) Wellington and Napoleon - - - -CHAPTER V. - -Progress of India and the Colonies - -(Since 1815). - - (1) Colonial Self-Government - (2) Birth of a Nation - (3) Promise of National Greatness - (4) "The Good of the Governed" - (5) Spoils of Victory - (6) Deeds of Heroism - (7) British Rule on a New Footing - (8) Bars to Progress - (9) Effect of the Discovery of Gold - (10) Exploration & its Martyrs - (11) Mutual Advantage of Motherland & Colony - (12) A Difficult British State to Build - (13) Great Extension of British Territory - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -Unity of the Empire. - - (1) Growth of Freedom - (2) Imperial Spirit of our Race - (3) The Sovereign in Relation to the Empire - - - - -KING EDWARD'S REALM. - - - -INTRODUCTORY. - -The Empire and its Living Link. - -1. A glance at the map of the world in which the parts of the -British Empire are coloured red may well fill us with astonishment -that the little spot marked England has expanded into an empire that -covers one-sixth of the habitable globe, and measures more than one -hundred times as much as the little island that forms its heart and -home. - -2. The only other empire that approaches it in size is that of -Russia, and we can well imagine a patriotic Russian thinking that his -sovereign had a much better realm than had ours, even if it was not -so large. "For see," he might say to a countryman of ours, "what a -sprawling, disjointed empire yours is, whereas ours is so compact -that we can pass through its length and breadth without crossing a -single sea." - -What reply should a Briton make to this boast? - -3. "True," he might say, "the British Empire looks like a giant with -his limbs outstretched, having his head in one sea, and his arms and -legs in as many others; true it is that our king's realm is so widely -spread that the sun never sets on his dominions, still it is far -easier for us to go from end to end of our empire than it would be if -built like yours." - -4. We could not expect the Russian to agree to this, but -nevertheless it is true; for the sundered portions of the British -dominions are connected by the sea, and the sea offers a ready-made -road to every ship that sails. No hills have to be levelled, no -tunnels bored, no rails laid down, and hence it is much cheaper to -travel on sea than on land, and often much easier and quicker. We -may rightly regard the seas that come between our shores and the rest -of the empire, not as separating but as connecting its several parts, -and enabling the motherland to keep in constant touch with her -daughter states in other lands. - -5. Steam and electricity have worked wonders in bringing all the -members of the English family of nations into close connection with -each other in spite of the many thousands of miles that separate -them. By means of our great ocean-liners we can cross a wide ocean -in a few days, and by means of electric cables beneath the sea each -part of the empire can converse with any other part in the course of -a few hours, or even in a few minutes. - -6. This ready means of communicating with each other, draws us all -more closely together in thought and feeling. The same incidents and -events, to a great extent, occupy the minds of all our race at the -same time, and send a thrill of joy or sorrow throughout the empire. -Whether living in London, Sydney, or Montreal, the Briton finds in -his daily paper a great deal of the same news, showing how much of -common interest there is between ourselves and our brothers beyond -the seas. - -7. Away then with the idea that seas act as barriers. They serve -rather to unite. Has not steam bridged the ocean, and electricity -brought its shores within speaking distance? For trading purposes, -especially, the sea is much more a uniter than a divider, since goods -may be carried so much more cheaply by water than by land. It costs -less to bring wheat by sea from Montreal or New York to London, a -distance of 3500 miles, than to bring the same by rail from Liverpool -to London. - -8. The British Empire, it is true, is scattered over the face of the -globe, but in some respects this is an advantage. Being so widely -sundered its different portions differ much in climate and -productions, and thus can the better supply each others' wants. -England, for instance, serves as the great manufacturing shop for her -colonies, whilst they in return send her the raw material for her -factories and food for her children. England, indeed, would soon -suffer from famine if a constant supply of food did not come from -other lands. To insure this supply without interruption to our -traffic, we must be able to keep the seas open to our merchant-ships, -whether in peace or war, and for this purpose our navy must be -supreme. - -9. Nothing is more interesting in the story we have to tell than the -daring exploits of our seamen, by which we have risen to the command -of the seas, and are able to sing _Rule Britannia_ with the proud -happy feeling that Britannia does indeed still rule the waves, and -that as far as in us lies it shall never cease to do so, since it is -only by thus "ruling the waves" that we can look to the sea as a -friend that unites the whole family of English-speaking peoples, and -enables them to aid one another. - -10. But we need something warmer than sea-water to unite us all, and -make us in heart and mind one people, in whatever quarter of the -globe we live, and that is the spirit and sentiment that spring from -the fact that we are of kindred race, that we all speak the same -language, read the same books, enjoy the same freedom, make our own -laws, and passionately love justice and fair-play. We have recently -had striking evidence of the warm feeling that pervades the whole -empire, and welds its several parts into one. When the Boer war -broke out and the British arms met with reverses, the whole empire -throbbed with one heart and kindled with one spirit, revealing to -ourselves and the whole world that though the British Empire is -widely scattered, it is in heart and mind closely united. - -11. As a symbol of that unity we have one king, one flag. The king, -indeed, is more than a symbol of unity, he is a link, a living link, -that actually binds the parts together. Every true Briton, -throughout the empire, looks to the sovereign as the head and centre -of the national life, from whom all who administer the laws, or -exercise command in the army or navy, derive their authority. Whilst -the king takes a personal share in the government in the homeland -only, he has his representatives who act as governors, in his name, -in every province of the empire. The king, therefore, may be -regarded as the living link which unites the sundry and sundered -parts of his mighty empire. - -12. The relation of King Edward to the different portions of his -realm is thus expressed in the title which he has assumed: _Edward -the Seventh, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great -Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, -King; Defender of the Faith; Emperor of India_. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - -England Preparing for Empire - -(1475-1603). - - -(1) INVENTION OF PRINTING. - -1. We will begin our "Story of the Making of the Empire" with that -of the _Making of England_, the centre around which the whole empire -has grown, and try to show how she was shaped and prepared to be the -mother of nations. To become fit for her high calling, it was -essential for her to become wise and powerful. And as nothing has -contributed more to this end than the spread of knowledge, we will -start with the brighter day that dawned upon our land when printing -was invented. - -2. The first printing-press was brought to our country by William -Caxton, about 1475, that is ten years before Henry VII., the first -Tudor, began his reign. He set it up near Westminster Abbey, and -astonished all the great men of the land who came to see his -wonderful machine. - -3. Formerly all books were written by hand, and consequently were so -scarce and expensive that only few could get them to read. Much -knowledge was hidden away in Greek and Latin manuscripts, but it had -been hard to get at it. The invention of printing altered all this. -It brought books within easier reach, and men who were athirst for -knowledge could satisfy their craving. - -4. Caxton was a great worker. More than fifty years old when he -began his new labours, he printed ninety-nine books before his death. -Though busy as a printer, he was even busier as a translator. The -first book he printed was _The Tales of Troy_, which he translated -from the French. In the preface to this book Caxton tells us how -tired he had become of writing books with pen and ink, how his eyes -had become dim "with overmuch looking on the white paper," and how -gladly he had learned the new art of printing. Having finished the -printing of his first book, he said proudly to his visitors: "It is -not written with pen and ink as other books be, but all the books of -this story here imprinted as ye see were begun and finished in one -day." - -5. The printing-press worked wonders in the world. Many books which -had been left to moulder in the dust for more than a thousand years -now saw the light of day. Printed copies of these works were soon in -circulation. The great thoughts of famous writers who had lived in -ages past once more stirred the human heart. Men seemed to awake -from the sleep of centuries, to open their eyes to the light of -knowledge, and to begin to think for themselves. - -6. Within fifty years from the introduction of the printing-press -nearly all the great works of Greek and Latin authors were in print. -Greek scholars were everywhere in great request as teachers. By many -earnest students in our land the knowledge of Greek was chiefly -sought because it was as a key to unlock the meaning of the New -Testament, the books of which were originally written in that -language. This study of Greek and the new learning that shed its -light around, led in England to considerable changes in men's -religious opinions. - -7. The new art of printing had also a considerable effect on the -Englishman's mother tongue. Caxton tells us that he found great -difficulty in choosing his words when translating because "the common -language of one shire differs from that of another so much that -travellers from one part of England have much ado to make themselves -understood in another part." When a language only lives on men's -lips it soon becomes altered in various ways; but when it is not only -spoken but printed it is wont to become fixed, and all who read -become accustomed to the same form of speech. - -8. In the course of the century that followed Caxton's labours, some -years before any emigrants left our shores, the English language -assumed its final form. When at length Englishmen began to emigrate, -they carried with them the same tongue that continued to be spoken at -home. This is a matter of no small importance; for a common language -is a strong bond of union. Happily, all who have left the old -country to form colonies in other parts, however distant or widely -separated, still speak the same language as ourselves. We all read -the same books, and clothe our thoughts and feelings in almost the -same words. This tends to keep us in heart and mind one people, -however wide the seas between us. - -9. When now-a-days an Englishman lands in the United States, or in -any British Colony, he hears men speaking his own tongue. The people -of other nations rarely enjoy this privilege. The German emigrant, -for example, seldom desires to settle in a German Colony. He usually -makes his new home in the United States or in some British Colony, -and there he finds himself in the midst of an English-speaking -people, and forced to learn their language in order to get on. An -Englishman it is said, is always ready to grumble, but no nation has -less cause than our own to be discontented with its lot. - -10. Lastly, printing had a great effect in giving a lift to men of -the humbler classes. Thousands of people who never before had a -chance of learning were now able to buy and read books, and gain -valuable knowledge. Of course, in our own day, books are so cheap, -and free libraries so common, that all who have the will can read and -learn. But even in Tudor times--in the century that followed the -introduction of printing into England--the wider spread of knowledge, -due to the new invention, made people more equal than before, and -gave a clever boy in humble life a better chance of turning his -talents to good account, both for himself and his fatherland. - - - -(2) INVENTION OF FIRE-ARMS. - -1. Gunpowder had been invented long before printing, but it was much -longer in making its influence felt. Cannon had been used as early -as the battle of Crecy, 1346, but they were of little use, being -rudely constructed of wood, hooped with iron, and almost as dangerous -to the gunners who fired them as to the enemy they were intended to -kill. In time, however much better cannon were turned out, and -before the end of the War of the Roses great guns were used with much -success both on board ship and in the siege of castles and -walled-towns. - -2. Hand-guns came into use somewhat later than cannon, but in the -times of the Tudors they gradually superseded the bow and arrow. -Henry VIII. was much opposed to the change, for the English archer -excelled all others in his art. Excellence is never a mere accident. -It was due, in this case, to a long and careful training begun in -boyhood and enforced by law. Fathers and masters of apprentices were -obliged to teach the lads under their care the use of the bow, to -provide them with weapons suited to their strength, and to compel -them to practise at stated times. Our forefathers have set us an -excellent example. If Old England is to ward off all danger from her -shores, and to hold her proud place among the nations, she must see -that her lads are in like manner provided with rifles suited to their -strength, and encouraged to practise regularly at the target. Lads' -Brigades and Cadet Corps must become the order of the day. - -3. The use of gunpowder made sweeping changes in the art of warfare, -just as smokeless powder and quick-firing rifles and guns are doing -to-day. Both the archer and the mailed knight disappeared. The old -castles became quite useless as fortresses, and the barons in -consequence lost much of their old power. In the reign of Henry VII. -we find them, for the first time, quite unable to stand up against -the king, who took care to keep in his own possession the only great -guns in the kingdom, much in the same way as in India, at the present -day, we are careful to keep the artillery wholly in the hands of -British soldiers. - -4. Gunpowder is a great leveller. It puts the weak and strong, the -short and tall more nearly on a level. It is the men, small or -large, who can shoot straight that are likely to win the battle. As -soon as fire-arms displaced the bow and arrow, success in battle no -longer turned mainly upon the valour of the gentlemen in armour, but -upon the right handling and steady discipline of the rank and file. -A volley of shots from a line of common soldiers could scatter death -and disorder among the ranks of the bravest knights in armour. The -gentlemen-at-arms soon found that their armour was only an -encumbrance, and that its proper place was on the walls of their -grand old halls, or, for people to look at, in some public gallery, -like that in the Tower of London. The sword and the lance still hold -their ground, but there are many signs that the rifle will soon -supplant them in actual warfare. - -5. In the last chapter we have spoken of the beneficial effects of -the invention of printing. Can we speak in the same way of -gunpowder? It may seem strange to talk about gunpowder as if -anything good could result from its use, but it would be a mistake to -think that the work it has done in the world has been wholly bad, for -there are times when force is the only argument that can convince, -when force is the only way of putting down evil. In reality it has -played a large part in the making of our empire, and, therefore, in -establishing the reign of justice and order. - -6. It was by means of fire-arms that our forefathers were able to -gain a secure footing in the countries of uncivilized races, to make -new homes among them, and to establish law and order in their midst. -It was by the superior weapons of the white man--a superiority due -mainly to the use of gunpowder--that he was able to prevail over the -Red Indians of America, the Negroes and Kaffirs of Africa, and the -Cannibals of New Zealand. To the simple savage there is something -magical in the effect of fire-arms. He sees a distant object struck -down, and perhaps killed, but his eye cannot follow the flight of the -bullet that has dealt the blow. He sees the flash, he trembles at -the thunder, and in a moment the messenger of death unseen has sped. - -7. Of course the natives in time learn that there is no magic in all -this, but a knowledge of the reality brings them no comfort. They -are obliged to admit that their own weapons, such as rude spears or -feeble bows and arrows, are no match for the arms of thunder and -lightning in the hands of the white man. And so they sullenly submit -to their fate, and leave the white strangers to settle in their -country. - -8. The effect of superior weapons is equally striking in our own -day, whenever Europeans come in contact with half-civilized people, -like the blacks of West Africa. It is true these men are often armed -with muskets, but they are of such an out-of-date pattern, that they -do little damage compared with ours. Consequently, a few hundred -well-armed and well-drilled natives, under British officers, can go -to battle with as many thousands of the enemy and carry off the -victory. - -9. Even when the natives are brave and well-armed, like the Zulus, -with their terrible assegais, they cannot stand against one-tenth as -many Englishmen armed with repeating rifles, and supported by maxim -guns, grinding out bullets by the score. It was never more evident -than it is to-day that "Knowledge is Power," and that the greatness -of a nation is based on knowledge and character. Of this we shall -have repeated evidence in the course of this story. - - - -(3) DISCOVERY OF A SEA-ROUTE TO INDIA. - -1. Let me again carry your minds back to the time when Caxton set up -his printing-press in England, about 1475; for that date we may take -as a convenient starting-point in telling our tale. At that time the -larger portion of the earth was unknown to even the best geographers. -A glance at the map will enable you to see how limited was their -knowledge of the size and surface of the earth. You will look there -in vain for the larger portion of the British Empire as we know it -to-day. You will find there no Canada, no Australasia, no South -Africa. - -2. It was known indeed that the earth was round like a globe, but no -one had ever gone round it. Mariners in their voyages had always -kept near the coasts, and never ventured very far from home. But -when men awoke, with the rattle of the printing-press, from the sleep -of centuries, a new spirit of enquiry took hold of them. The same -spirit that led some men to search out old truths hidden away in -musty manuscripts, urged others of a more daring turn of mind to go -in search of new lands. - -[Illustration: The known World in 1475] - -3. It was not, I regret to say, our own countrymen that took the -lead in the discovery of new lands. That honour belongs to the -Portuguese. By the middle of the fifteenth century they had sailed -along the coast of Africa as far as Cape Verde, and seen men with -skins as black as ebony. At the sight, some of the sailors, it is -said, began to fear that if they proceeded still further south, their -skins would turn black under the scorching rays of the tropical sun, -and their hair become frizzled as the negro's. Before turning back, -however, they explored the coast of Guinea, and found the natives -ready to traffic in ivory and gold. - -4. The wonders that the sailors had to tell on their return, and the -sight of the gold and ivory, the monkeys and curiosities they brought -with them, kindled an eager spirit of adventure among their -countrymen. Lisbon became the headquarters of bold mariners bent on -exploring new lands, with the King of Portugal as patron. It was his -ardent wish to find a sea-route to India and the East, whence came -the rich carpets and shawls, the silks and gems, the drugs and spices -so highly valued in Europe. - -5. The King of Portugal, accordingly, fitted out a small fleet, and -directed Diaz, its commander, to follow the coasts of Africa and try -to make his way to India. But the distance was much greater than the -king supposed. Diaz sailed a thousand miles further along the -African coast than any yet had dared to go, and reached the southern -end of that continent. But he could go no further. Stormy weather -and the crazy condition of his ships compelled him to turn their -prows homeward. - -6. The king named the "lands-end" Diaz had reached the _Cape of Good -Hope_, for he believed that by rounding that Cape the sea-route to -India would be gained. And he was right. This, however, was not -actually proved until 1498, when Vasco da Gama, another Portuguese -mariner, rounded the Cape, crossed the Indian Ocean, and anchored in -the harbour of Calicut, on the west coast of India. - -7. The discovery of a sea-route to India had important results, and -in time proved a great advantage to English commerce. Hitherto the -merchandise of India and the East had been carried overland on the -backs of camels to the ports of Syria and Asia Minor, and thence -shipped chiefly to Venice. When once the treasures of the East -reached that port they were safe from plunder; for Venice with its -sea-girt walls was perfectly secure. But in the course of their long -passage from India and the East, the goods were always exposed to -plunder. The caravans, with their long string of loaded camels, were -often attacked by bands of Arab robbers; and the merchant-ships, -though armed, were often boarded by Turkish pirates. - -8. The sea-route, via the Cape, offered great advantages. It was -both cheaper and safer; cheaper, because the goods could be brought -the whole way in ships; and safer, because the voyage was made across -the open ocean, where the risk from pirates was not nearly so great. -The Portuguese were the first to take advantage of the new route, and -for many years kept the whole trade to themselves; for in those days -it was generally thought that the discoverer of new lands had the -sole right to trade with them. - -9. The Venetians soon found themselves unable to compete with the -Portuguese. Lisbon, accordingly, became the centre of trade for the -spices, silks, calicoes, gums and drugs of the East, and the glory of -Venice departed. The Dutch were not slow to avail themselves of this -new opening for trade. They freighted their ships at Lisbon, and -made Antwerp the chief entrepôt of trade for the countries round. -London dates its rise as the great centre of the world's commerce -from the capture and sack of Antwerp by the Duke of Parma about a -hundred years later (1585). It was not till the year 1600, near the -end of Elizabeth's reign, that our English merchants ventured on -trade with India direct, and then the East India Company was -chartered by the queen for that purpose. It was destined to take a -large share, not only in trade with the East, but in the great work -of making the empire. - - - -(4) DISCOVERY OF A WORLD TO THE WEST. - -1. Across the Atlantic lay a double continent unknown to the rest of -the world until discovered by Christopher Columbus (1492). This -extraordinary man was born at Genoa, and in the early years of his -manhood "sailed," as he tells us, "wherever ship had sailed." He -came to the conclusion that, as the world was round, India might be -reached by sailing westward across the Atlantic. But he knew not, of -course, how far it was in that direction, or what lay between his -goal and his starting-point. - -2. Columbus having prevailed on Isabella of Spain to put three small -ships under his command, began his voyage of discovery on setting out -from the Canary Islands. He soon reached the part where the -trade-wind blows, and was carried by it steadily along to the -westward, day after day, without the necessity of shifting a sail. -But the greater the progress of the ships, the greater became the -alarm of the sailors. - -3. There arose murmurs among the terrified crews, and some of them -talked of throwing the admiral overboard and returning to Spain. At -length, when more than thirty days had passed, and still nothing -could be seen but sea and sky, Columbus promised that, if in three -days longer no land was discovered, he would tack about and make for -home. Before the three days had passed, there arose from the -foremost ship the joyful cry of "Land! Land!" - -4. The men soon manned the boats and pulled to shore, whilst the -natives flocked to the beach and gazed in wondering admiration. -Columbus, clad in scarlet, leapt ashore, with the royal banner of -Spain in his hands. In a few moments a crucifix was erected, and -then "all gave thanks to God, kneeling upon the shore, and kissing -the ground with tears of joy." The simple natives regarded the -strangers as a superior order of beings descended from the sun. They -were shy at first through fear, but soon became familiar with the -Spaniards; and received with transports of joy, in exchange for their -gold ornaments, hawk's bells, glass beads, and other baubles. - -5. Columbus was not aware that he had hit upon a new continent, but -supposed he had come upon some islands lying off India. He had -really landed upon one of the Bahama Islands. In consequence of his -mistake the islands he had discovered were called the Indies, and the -natives were spoken of as Indians. Cruising among the islands, now -called the West Indies, Columbus discovered Cuba and Hayti, and then -returned to Spain in triumph, taking with him gold, cotton, parrots, -and other products of the islands, and a few natives besides. - -6. The famous voyage of Columbus soon became the common talk among -seafaring men. At that time, in the port of Bristol, were two -skilful mariners, father and son, named Cabot. John Cabot was a -seaman of Venice, but his son Sebastian was born at Bristol. They -were bent on finding a short way to India by sailing westward, like -Columbus, only keeping in a much higher latitude. They obtained -permission from King Henry VII. "to seek out, subdue and occupy any -regions which before had been unknown to all Christians," and they -were authorised to set up the royal banner in any such land and to -take possession in the king's name. - -7. On an old map drawn by the younger Cabot it is stated: "In the -year of our Lord 1497, John Cabot, with his son Sebastian, discovered -that country which no one before his time had ventured to approach, -on the 24th of June, about five o'clock in the morning. He called -the country _The-land-first-seen_, and the island opposite, St. John, -because discovered on the festival of St. John the Baptist." -"The-land-first-seen" was probably Nova Scotia or the island of Cape -Breton. - -8. Next year, Sebastian Cabot came upon Newfoundland and sailed -along the coast of Labrador, picking his way among the icebergs, in -his effort to discover an open channel to India. He then retraced -his course and examined the coast of the United States as far as -Virginia without finding the desired opening. He had, however, -mapped out roughly 1800 miles of the North American coast, and -secured for England the prior claim to the northern half of that -continent. But nothing came of this adventure until the reign of -Elizabeth, when steps were taken to occupy some part of the new-found -territory. - - - -(5) RISE OF THE ENGLISH NAVY. - -1. We owe the founding of the royal navy to Henry VIII. Before his -time there seems to have been no standing navy, private ships being -hired and armed when a war-fleet was needed. With the accession, -however, of Henry VIII. (1509), England began to take her right place -as a naval power. The new king was rich and clever, bluff and -hearty, a thorough "John Bull," with a proud resolute spirit that -would brook no denial. - -[Illustration: HENRY VIII. AND MODEL OF THE "GREAT HARRY."] - -2. Henry at once made up his mind to have a powerful navy that -England and her sovereign might become "second to none." He knew -well that if England was to secure her share of trade with other -nations she must have a navy strong enough to enforce her claims and -protect her merchantmen. Henry, therefore, lost no time in -establishing dockyards at Deptford and Woolwich, and in procuring -from Italy and elsewhere skilled shipbuilders and cannon founders. - -3. A great change took place in Henry's reign in the kind of warship -chiefly built. Before his time the warship was usually a kind of -long boat, called a galley, propelled by oars. But when cannon came -into use, it was found advisable to build larger vessels, and -substitute sails for oars, just as in the reign of Queen Victoria -sails had to give place to steam. The change, however, was gradually -wrought, and oared galleys held their ground, as a secondary force, -to the end of Henry's reign. - -4. The early Tudor ships were, of course, far from perfect. They -had towering castles both at bow and stern which made them top-heavy. -Their rigging also was too unwieldy for stormy weather, and made it -unsafe to keep the sea in winter. The fate of that "flower of -ships," the _Mary Rose_, shows how easily vessels of the time were -upset. Coming out of Portsmouth Harbour, on her way to join in -battle with the French, her crew were tacking her, when she heeled -over and rapidly sank, carrying with her some 400 soldiers and 200 -sailors. - -5. Some of Henry's ships were evidently of large dimensions. The -_Great Harry_, for instance, was of 1000 tons, and carried -twenty-three great guns, some of which were loaded with shot weighing -at least thirty pounds. Besides his great ships, Henry built smaller -ones, called pinnaces; and fast, handy sailing ships they proved. -Guns also of all sizes and patterns, bronze and iron, were cast in -his reign, many of them little inferior to those in Nelson's time. - -6. In the early years of Henry's reign, his ships were armed -principally with small guns for use as mankillers, rather than for -damaging the hull or rigging of the enemy's ships. The aim in a -sea-fight, at that time, was for each ship to get on the windward -side of the enemy, and then sail down with the wind to ram its -adversary and board her, if she did not sink with the collision. -Only on getting quite close were the guns discharged, and at the -moment of boarding the stones, lances, and other implements of war in -the castles, "fore and aft," were brought into play. A sharp fight -then ensued on the enemy's deck, the boarders being either driven -back into their own ship, or left in possession of their prize. - -7. The whole object in this mode of fighting was to close with the -enemy as quickly as possible. But before the end of Henry's reign a -great change of tactics had taken place. Henry was one of the first -to perceive that a great advantage would be gained by the -introduction of heavy guns. Larger ships were, accordingly, built -and the lower decks furnished with port-holes, thus enabling them to -carry two tiers of guns. - -8. This change in the structure of the ships and the weight of the -guns brought about a change in the mode of attack. The aim now was -for each big ship by clever seamanship to place itself so as to -deliver a "broadside," while avoiding one of the enemy, and thus to -disable or sink its adversary while pounding away at a distance. -Thus a complete revolution in naval warfare was made in the course of -Henry's reign. That revolution was not confined to England, but the -English king took the foremost place in carrying it out. While other -nations on the continent were intent on establishing standing armies, -Henry devoted himself to the creation of a standing navy that should -be able to compete with the best on the sea. - -9. At the close of his reign the navy belonging to the Crown -consisted of 53 vessels, carrying 250 guns of bronze and 1850 of -iron, the crews numbering about 7000 men. Henry VIII., therefore, -has a good right to be considered the founder of the English navy. -He had the satisfaction of knowing that some of the finest ships that -sailed the seas flew the flag of St. George. We say the flag of St. -George because at that time there was no union of England and -Scotland, and consequently no Union Jack. It was Henry VIII. who -first ordered that every king's ship should fly at the masthead and -at the bowsprit, the flag of St. George, with its red cross on a -white ground. This flag is still carried by every ship in the -British navy when an Admiral is on board and in command. - - - -(6) QUEEN ELIZABETH AT THE HELM. - -1. Elizabeth, who came to the throne in 1558, did much for the -making of England. To her reign we can trace the beginning of much -that constitutes the glory and greatness of the England of to-day. -Her reign, indeed, may be considered the seed-time of England's -greatness. When the crown passed from the head of Queen Mary to that -of her sister Elizabeth the fortunes of England were at a very low -ebb. The kingdom had just been worsted in a war with France, and -felt a rankling sore at the loss of Calais. - -2. The one hope of England centred in Elizabeth, whose coming to the -throne was as the rising of the sun. In addressing her first -Parliament she struck the keynote of her reign, and thrilled the -hearts of her hearers with joy. "Nothing, no worldly thing under the -sun, is so dear to me as the love and goodwill of my subjects.... My -greatest desire is to be the mother of my people." And so well did -she study the interests of her people that they learned to call her -"Good Queen Bess." - -3. It was no easy task which lay before the young queen. She had to -govern a people sharply divided into two parties, calling themselves -Catholics and Protestants, ever ready in those days to bite and -devour one another. Elizabeth endeavoured from the first to reign, -not as queen of this party or that, but as queen of all her people. -In her religious opinions, however, she leaned to the Protestant -side. She was decidedly in favour of a National Church, in which the -Pope had no power, and at her request her first Parliament restored -the English Bible and Prayer-book to their former place in public -worship. - -4. Elizabeth was not without her faults. She was vain and fond of -flattery, and sometimes mean and deceitful. But in the management of -affairs of state she always sought the greatness of England. -Although she had able ministers, she steered the ship of state -herself. She loved to pilot her vessel in troubled waters, and to -take a zigzag course, but so skilfully did she handle the helm that -she avoided the shoals and rocks that lay in her course. - -5. Elizabeth's great endeavour was to keep her country out of war. -And so well did she succeed that she secured for England almost -unbroken peace for thirty years, not peace at any price, but "peace -with honour." She never yielded to threats, she never drew back a -single inch when the honour of England bade her stand firm. She -stood again and again on the brink of war, either with France or -Spain. But so jealous were these powers of each other, and so full -were their hands of their own home troubles, that the wily queen was -able to play off one against the other, and get her own way without -going to war. Owing to the long peace she secured, and the strict -economy she practised, England constantly grew in prosperity and -power. - -6. Another lasting good Elizabeth wrought for her country. Before -her day Scotland had always joined France when the latter went to war -with England, and so close was the alliance at the time of -Elizabeth's accession that Queen Mary of Scotland was married to the -King of France, and French troops were quartered in Edinburgh. -Elizabeth put herself at the head of the Scotch Protestants, who, -with the help of her fleet and army, soon drove out the French. This -action of Elizabeth put an end for ever to the alliance between -France and Scotland. It created a friendly feeling between the -Protestants of England and Scotland, and prepared the way for the -peaceful union between the two crowns on Elizabeth's death. - -7. Happily, that death was far distant, and when it occurred all -England was ready to acknowledge James of Scotland as king. But had -Elizabeth died young, the country would have been thrown into utter -disorder, if not civil war. That danger at one time seemed imminent. - -8. The queen, while staying at Hampton Court, felt herself one day -faint and unwell. Never suspecting that small-pox was the cause, she -went out for a ride, caught cold, and in a few hours was in a high -fever. The eruption was checked. She grew rapidly and alarmingly -worse. _The thin cord that held England together was threatening to -snap_. Should the queen die no ray of hope or light could be seen -for England. In the evening she sank into a stupor without speech; -and with blank faces, in the ante-chamber of the room where she was -believed to be dying, the Council sat into the night to consider the -thorny question of the succession to the throne. At midnight the -fever cooled, the skin grew moist, the spots began to appear. By the -morning the eruption had come out--and the danger was over. - -9. Among the queenly qualities of Elizabeth was her unfailing -insight into men's character. She knew worthy men when she saw them, -and showed unerring judgment in the selection of her ministers and -agents. She made the interests of the kingdom her chief concern, and -those who shared her counsels were of the same spirit. Her chief -minister was William Cecil, and for forty years he served the queen -with rare ability and loyalty. He had much to endure from the shifty -and uncertain ways of his royal mistress, but he bore all with -wonderful patience, and was ever at her elbow with his sage advice -when the right moment had come. Elizabeth knew that she could trust -him, and was never offended when he plainly showed that he disliked -her crooked policy. Blunt of speech herself, she required her -ministers to be plain-spoken; always ready to listen to their -counsel, though not always ready to follow their advice. - -10. Her great minister Elizabeth created Lord Burleigh, and gave him -great wealth and power, which he always used in the interests of his -country. No other minister has directed the affairs of state for so -long a period, or ever directed them more wisely. Lord Burleigh, -therefore, deserves a place of high honour among the makers of -England. The family of Cecil has often since taken an active part in -the government of the kingdom, a conspicuous example of which we have -seen in the case of Robert Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury, who has held -the office of Prime Minister both in the last reign and the present. - -11. Every Englishman recalls the reign of Queen Elizabeth with -patriotic pride. In it he can find the roots of our national life -and character. Many faults the queen certainly had, but they were -such as affected the few who lived at her court. To the many who -looked from afar her virtues only were known. Her ministers might -know the weaknesses of her character and the windings of her policy, -all her other subjects saw only the good results of the guiding hand -at the helm. Whatever mistakes she made, there was one she never -committed. She never forgot that she was _Queen of England_, and -that it was her duty to make England great, prosperous, and powerful. - - - -(7) COMING STRUGGLE WITH SPAIN. - -1. During the long peace of Elizabeth's reign, England was -repeatedly on the brink of war with Spain. That war was bound to -come. It came with the sailing of the Spanish Armada, in the -thirtieth year of Elizabeth's reign. It would have come much sooner -but for the long war between Philip King of Spain, and his Dutch -subjects in the Netherlands, which at that time formed part of the -Spanish dominions. Our business now is to unfold the causes that -made war with Spain inevitable. - -2. King Philip had married Mary of England, and on her death, -offered his hand to Elizabeth, who declined the honour. At the time -of his accession Spain was the foremost state in the world. The -discovery made by Columbus had given the Spaniards possession of the -West Indies and Central America, and by conquest they had gained -Mexico and Peru with their rich mines of silver and gold. - -3. The natives, so-called Indians, were forced to work in the mines -for their new masters, and every year the harvest of the mines was -collected and poured into the royal treasury of Spain. The sugar -plantations were also a source of wealth. As the poor natives could -not stand the hard toil in the mines and plantations, and their -numbers in consequence began rapidly to dwindle, the cruel slave -trade was set afoot. Negroes were purchased on the coast of West -Africa and taken across the sea to work for the Spaniards. - -4. We wish it could be said that England stood forth as the champion -of freedom, and that the shameful traffic in slaves was the chief -cause of the war with Spain. But this was not so. In enslaving -their fellow-men the Spaniards were no worse than other peoples. All -alike in that age seemed to think the traffic in slaves to be right -and lawful. - -5. No, the chief cause of the coming war was King Philip's -determination to shut the door of Spanish America against our trade, -and the equally strong determination of our merchants and mariners to -force that door open. Nor can it be said that Philip was going -beyond his rights according to the common opinion of his time; for it -was then generally held that the nation which first made the -discovery of new lands had the sole right to trade with the same. In -the discovery of new lands the Portuguese and the Spaniards had got -the start of the other nations of Europe, and both alike warned off -all ships except their own from their respective domains. - -6. But it soon became pretty clear that the English seamen did not -intend to be frightened off. Wherever ship sailed, they would sail -too. They did not wait for Queen Elizabeth to make a formal demand -for the right to trade with the newly-discovered lands, but with her -secret connivance set sail in armed merchantmen, some to trade with -the Portugese possessions on the coast of Guinea, others to trade -with the Spanish settlements in America. They were resolved to trade -in an honest peaceable way, if permitted; and if not, to take the law -into their own hands and do what was right in their own eyes. We -shall see presently what deeds of violence and bloodshed this led to -in America, many years before the war was actually declared that -brought the Armada to our shores. - -7. Of that war the necessities of trade were not the sole cause. -Religious differences were scarcely less responsible. In those days -men thought it their duty to force others, if they could, to hold the -same faith as themselves. Fines, imprisonment, and even death were -often thought too good for those who dared to differ from the common -faith of their countrymen. Nor were all nations content to limit -their interference to men of their own nationality. The chief -offenders were the Spaniards. All "heretics"--that is, such as held -what they considered false doctrine--who came within their reach had -to pay the penalty for their supposed misbelief. Woe to the English -seamen who fell into their clutches! - -8. We would gladly throw a veil over the horrible scenes in the -Spanish dungeons and torture-chambers, but they cannot be wholly -passed over as they palliate in some measure the wild, reckless -plunderings and piracies of English seamen when Elizabeth was queen. -To plunder a ship or town belonging to the hated Spaniard was, in -their view, to take a just revenge for his cruelties, to fight for -God against misbelievers, and at the same time to fill their pockets -with gold. There was certainly a strange mixture of greed, revenge -and religion in the hearts of England's bold mariners in their -lawless proceedings, such as we are about to relate. - - - -(8) AN ELIZABETHAN MARINER. - -1. The prince of Elizabeth's bold mariners was Francis Drake, a -native of Tavistock, in the county of Devon. He spent his early days -on the sea as an apprentice, and when twenty-one joined his kinsman, -the celebrated mariner, John Hawkins, a man who ventured to carry on -trade with the Spanish Colonies in spite of the King of Spain's -prohibition. - -2. In this way Drake acquired much skill in seamanship, and much -knowledge of Spanish America. He ascertained, among other things, -that every year the harvest of the mines of Peru was carried in ships -to Panama, a town on the Pacific coast, and then taken on the backs -of mules across the Isthmus, to Nombre de Dios, a town on the Gulf of -Mexico. Here the precious metals brought from Peru were hoarded up -until fetched by a fleet from Spain. - -3. Now Drake was a man of splendid audacity, fearless, energetic, -and full of resource. It occurred to his daring mind that he might -capture the town, where the treasure was stored, or pounce upon the -treasure itself while on its way from Panama. The means employed -were, as usual in that age of wonders, ridiculously small for the end -proposed. The fleet placed under the command of our hero for this -great enterprise, consisted of two ships no larger than many pleasure -yachts of the present day, the _Pasha_ of seventy tons, and the -_Swan_ of twenty-five. On board these ships were taken "three dainty -pinnaces made in Plymouth, taken asunder all in pieces, and stowed -away to be set up as occasion served." The vessels were manned by -seventy-three men all told, all under thirty except one. - -4. Having crossed the Atlantic, Drake found a secluded harbour, and -there set up his "dainty pinnaces." One moonlight night he fell upon -the town, where the treasure was stored, and captured it, but had to -retire empty-handed; for while trying to break open the strong door -of the treasure-house, he was wounded in the leg and carried off by -his men, who declared their captain's life was worth more than all -the gold of the Indies. - -5. Our hero withdrew to some retired spot on the coast where he -could hide his ships and refit. And here in a clearing in the -tropical forest he set up his forges, and built a leafy village in -the manner of the natives. To the hard-worked seamen it must have -been a paradise. The woods swarmed with game, the sea teemed with -fish; archery butts and a bowling green were got ready, and while one -half of the men worked, the other half played. Here they remained -until the time came round for the annual transit of the treasure, -across the Isthmus, from Panama; for it was their captain's purpose -to seize the treasure on its way to Nombre de Dios. - -6. It was in the course of this expedition that Drake first set eyes -on the great Pacific, then almost an unknown ocean, called the South -Sea. We are told that in a glade the natives had cleared away for -one of their hamlets, there rose "a goodly and great tree, in which -they had cut divers steps to ascend near the top, where they had also -made a convenient bower, wherein ten or twelve men might easily sit. -After our captain had ascended to this bower and had seen that sea of -which he had heard such golden reports, he besought Almighty God of -His goodness to give him life and leave to sail once in an English -ship in that sea." - -7. The march through the forest was then continued until they came -in full view of Panama harbour, crowded with the treasure ships from -Peru. On hearing from a native spy that the mule trains were ready -to start at sunset--for they always crossed the Isthmus in the cool -of the night--Drake posted his men for a night attack, every man -being ordered to put his shirt on outside his clothes, that friend -might be known from foe. - -8. When the right moment came Drake's shrill whistle broke the -stillness. In a second his men were on their feet; there was a rush -through the grass in front and rear; and almost without a blow the -two foremost strings of mules were in their hands. To the chagrin of -the captors, among all the hundred mules not more than two carried -silver. All the others were laden with victuals. The alarm was -given, and the rest of the train hastened back to Panama. - -9. Drake disappeared. The muleteers after some days set out again. -This time they fell into an ambush near the end of their journey. -Before help could arrive, the marauders were struggling back to their -vessels staggering under heavy packs of the precious metals. With -his two little ships ballasted with gold and silver, and his crew -reduced, through sickness and wounds, to thirty men, Drake laid his -course for home. - -10. The story here told will serve as an example of the daring and -audacity of the Elizabethan mariners, who were possessed of an -adventurous spirit that seemed to laugh at difficulties and dangers. -No odds made them quail. It was enough that they were Englishmen, -and therefore bound to prevail. The adventure we have related is of -slight importance, but it well illustrates the spirit of reckless -daring and the wonderful resource and dogged perseverance of the men -who had the fortunes of England in their keeping in the days of Queen -Elizabeth. - - - -(9) A CELEBRATED VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD. - -1. Drake's next exploit was still more extraordinary though hardly -more daring. Towards the end of 1577 he started on his famous voyage -round the world. He was then in the prime of life, and is described -by one who saw him as "low of stature, of strong limbs, -broad-breasted, round-headed, with brown hair and a full beard, his -eyes round, large and clear, well-favoured, fair, and of a cheerful -countenance." When at sea he wore a scarlet cap with a gold band, -and about his neck a plaited cord with a ring attached to it. He -exacted every mark of respect from all on board. A sentinel stood -always at his cabin door, and on special occasions "he was served -with sound of trumpets and other instruments at his meals." - -2. Drake sailed in the _Pelican_--afterwards called the _Golden -Hind_--a ship scarcely as big as a Channel schooner, and the -remainder of his little squadron consisted of four vessels still -smaller. They were, however, swift sailers, and carried in abundance -wildfire, chainshot, guns, pistols, bows, and other weapons. The -whole force on board the squadron did not exceed 164 men, a -surprisingly small number for the perilous task in hand. - -3. Before reaching Port Julian, in Patagonia, the two smallest of -the vessels had to be abandoned. Having refitted at this port, Drake -made for the Straits of Magellan, through which no Englishman had yet -passed. This was the only known way from the Atlantic into the -Pacific, for Tierra del Fuego was supposed, at that time, to be a -great continent stretching far southwards. Being without charts, -they had to grope their way by means of the lead, which was kept in -constant use. To relieve the toil-worn crews, halts were made at -various islands on the route, where the sailors amused themselves in -procuring fresh provisions by killing seals and penguins, everything -they saw being strange, wild, and wonderful. After a perilous -passage of three weeks the three ships reached the open Pacific, -where they were greeted with a violent storm, which swept them far to -the south. The smallest vessel went to the bottom. Another losing -sight of the _Pelican_ returned to England. - -4. Drake, with his one ship, and eighty men, having weathered the -storm turned his prow northwards, determined to plunder the Spanish -settlements along the unguarded coasts of Chile and Peru, where no -hostile ship had ever been seen. Drake's task was, in consequence, -much easier than he could have anticipated. The inhabitants, when -they saw a sail approaching, never dreamt that it could be other than -a friend. It was as when men visit some island where no human foot -had ever trod, the animals come fearlessly around, and the birds -perch upon their hands. - -5. At Valparaiso, in Chile, there lay in the harbour a great galleon -which had come from Peru. Drake sailed in, and the Spanish seamen, -who had never seen a foreigner in those waters, ran up their flags, -beat their drums, and prepared a banquet for their supposed -countrymen. They were only undeceived when the English sailors leapt -on board and rifled the ship of its wedges of gold. Off the coast of -Peru, near Potosi, world-famed for its silver mines, they swept off -the silver bars laid out on the pier, whilst the weary labourers who -had brought them from the mines were peacefully sleeping. The last -bars had scarcely been stowed away in the boats, when a train of -llamas was seen descending the hills with a second freight as rich as -the first. This too found its way on board the _Pelican_. - -6. All sail was now set for Lima, the chief port of Peru. Here they -learned that a ship had sailed for Panama a few days before, taking -with her all the bullion that the mines had yielded for the season. -Not a moment was to be lost. Every inch of canvas was spread and the -chase begun. Drake promised his gold chain to the man who should -first descry the golden prize. For eight hundred miles the _Pelican_ -flew on, and then the man at the mast-head claimed the promised chain. - -[Illustration: Queen Elizabeth Knighting Sir Francis Drake] - -7. Not wishing to come up with his prize till dusk, Drake filled his -empty wine casks with water and trailed them astern, thus slackening -his pace whilst avoiding the suspicion that might have been awakened -by taking in sail. On coming within ear-shot our commander hailed -the Spanish captain to "strike" his flag. The next moment a -cannon-ball shot his mast overboard and a volley of arrows cleared -the decks. The master, who was wounded, at once yielded his ship. -Besides gold, pearls, emeralds, and diamonds, the booty included -twenty-six tons of silver bullion. With spoils of above -half-a-million in value the daring adventurer sought the safest way -home. - -8. That way, he considered, lay across the Pacific, and around the -Cape of Good Hope. But before starting on his journey across the -fifteen thousand miles of unknown water that lay between him and the -Cape, it was necessary to repair his ship and scour her keel; for -before the days of copper sheathing, the ships' bottoms grew foul -with sea-weed, barnacles formed in clusters, and the sea-worms bored -holes in the planking. Finding a suitable harbour Drake beached his -ship, and setting up forge and workshop, refitted her, with a month's -labour, from stem to stern. - -9. After passing across the chartless waters of the Pacific, they -arrived at the end of three months at the Moluccas, or Spice Islands. -The ship was again beached, scraped, and patched. The crew found -refreshment in the fruits and turtles that abounded, and great -delight in the countless fire-flies that lit up the tropical forests -at night. At the end of their stay, the fifty-six men who survived -were all as sound and hearty as the day they left England. - -10. On putting to sea again, and while threading their unknown way -between the numerous islands they chanced to strike on a sand-bank. -All seemed lost. The crew were mustered, and to every man the -chaplain administered the Sacrament. The captain then cheerily -called to his men to hearten up, and having done the best they could -for their souls to have a thought for their bodies. All their -efforts to get the ship off failed, but the wind happily changing, -"we hoisted our sails and were lifted off into the sea again, for -which we gave God thanks." Without further adventures, the _Pelican_ -sailed in triumph into Plymouth harbour in October, 1580, after an -absence of three years, and after completing the circuit of the globe. - - - -(10) "SINGEING THE KING OF SPAIN'S BEARD." - -1. Drake had safely returned from his voyage round the world, but -how would his royal mistress receive him? He knew that the queen -secretly approved of all that he had done, but would she sacrifice -him in order to keep at peace with Spain? At length a message came -from Elizabeth, summoning him to London, and assuring him of her -protection. With a lightened heart Drake set out for London, taking -with him all his most precious jewels as a present for the queen. -She received him graciously, accepted his magnificent present, and -made no secret of her royal favour. - -2. Elizabeth ordered the _Golden Hind_, as Drake's ship was now -called, to be anchored off Greenwich for all the world to see. And -in honour of her great mariner, she went in state to dine on board -his ship, wearing in her crown the rich jewels he had given her. -Here in the presence of a vast concourse of people she gave open -defiance to King Philip of Spain. He had demanded Drake's head. -Making the culprit kneel before her, she took a sword as if to strike -it off, and giving him a gentle stroke bade him rise Sir Francis -Drake. And instead of restoring the plunder to the king, she ordered -it into safe keeping in the Tower. Such was the response Elizabeth -made, having at last thrown off all disguise, to the King of Spain's -demand. - -3. The Spanish ambassador thus writes to his sovereign respecting an -interview he had now with the queen: "I complained that I had been -able to obtain no redress, either from her Council or herself, for -any wrong that had been done. 'Your Majesty, I said, 'will not hear -words, so we must come to the cannon, and see if you will hear them.' -Quietly, in her most natural voice, she replied, that if I used -threats of that kind she would fling me into a dungeon." - -4. It was now quite plain that the queen thought war with Spain -inevitable. But strange to say open war did not break out till four -years later, although the two peoples wanted but a word from their -sovereigns to fly like bull-dogs at each other's throats. That word -Philip was in no haste to speak. He was content to nurse his wrath -and meditate revenge. He had but recently annexed Portugal, and was -fully occupied in securing his new dominions. The possession of -Lisbon gave Philip one of the finest and most powerfully-defended -seaports in the world. Lisbon was also most conveniently placed for -the head-quarters of the Spanish fleet in the event of war with -England. - -5. Philip began the war by the seizure of every English ship in his -ports (1585). Sir Francis Drake was ordered to repair to the various -ports and demand the release of the arrested ships. On hearing that -the famous "corsair" was on the coast, all Spain became alarmed. -Drake did not linger long on the coast of Spain. He suddenly -disappeared, no one knew whither. When next heard of, he was on the -other side of the Atlantic, playing great havoc among the Spanish -towns of the Indies. This was easily done, for his name had become a -terror and bore victory before it. "The daring of the attempt," -wrote the king, "was even greater than the damage done." - -6. The chief result of Drake's achievements was to set the world -talking of the great Sea Power that England bade fair to become. It -is very difficult for us now-a-days--when little England has grown -into a mighty empire, and great Spain has dwindled to her natural -size--to realise the wonder which opened men's eyes, at the daring -exploits of the English navy. The blows dealt by Drake aroused the -indignation of Spain. The English, said Philip, were running up a -long score which he would call upon them to pay to the uttermost -farthing. But he was in no hurry to present his bill. He was -determined to make such preparations for the invasion of England as -to insure success. - -7. Whilst Philip was busy in his preparations Drake unexpectedly -appeared, with a small squadron at Cadiz (1587), the harbour of which -was then crowded with transports and store-ships. There were many -scores of these vessels loaded with wine, oil, corn, dried fruits, -biscuits--all going to Lisbon for the use of the great Armada. The -entrance was narrow with batteries on the sides, whilst in the -harbour itself was a number of galleys on guard. - -8. Drake, like most great admirals, probably thought that the fewer -and simpler the orders the better. He had, at any rate, but one to -give his men. They were to follow him in and destroy the shipping -when they got there. His little fleet glided into the harbour -unhurt, and fell instantly upon the only man-of-war there. The -galleys were rowed to the rescue; but in a short time the great -warship sank and the galleys drew off. Meanwhile, the crews of the -store-ships rowed to land, leaving their cargoes at the disposal of -the English. - -9. When Drake withdrew from Cadiz his own ships were crammed with -good things, and the harbour was filled with ransacked vessels all on -fire. Well might the bold captain boast as he retired, that he "had -singed the King of Spain's beard." Drake next moved off to the -Azores in the hope of capturing some rich merchant vessel from the -East Indies. - -10. Almost immediately hove in sight an East Indiaman, "the greatest -ship in all Portugal, richly laden, to our happy joy and great -gladness." No such prize had ever been seen. In her hold were -hundreds of tons of spices and precious gums; chests upon chests of -costly china, bales of silks and velvets, and coffers of bullion and -jewels. This great merchantman, the _San Philipe_, was soon on its -unwilling way to England. The whole fleet arrived safely with their -prize at Plymouth, "to their own profit and due commendation," says -one of the happy company, "and to the great admiration of the whole -kingdom." - - - -(11) ARMING FOR THE FIGHT. - -1. The fateful day was fast approaching when England and Spain would -meet in deadly encounter. Both sides were straining every nerve to -prepare for the great event. It seemed like a war between a dwarf -and a giant. Spain at that time was mistress of the East and West -Indies; she had conquered Mexico and Peru, and her dominions in -Europe included Portugal, a large part of Italy, and the Netherlands. -Spain could thus command the services of a vast population, her navy -was the largest in the world, and she had at her disposal many -thousands of brave soldiers inured to war, whilst her coffers were -full to overflowing. She had, in short, ships, men, and money in -abundance. - -2. England, on the other hand, was then but a little kingdom. -Scotland was not yet incorporated with it, and Ireland was a source -of weakness rather than of strength. Her whole population did not -exceed five millions. But the spirit which animated little England -was indomitable. We have seen its high mettle in Drake's daring -adventures. And England's queen was as high-spirited as the boldest -in the kingdom. She called upon her people to stand by her, and do -or die in defence of "Queen and country." - -3. But how would the Catholics of England respond to her appeal? -Would they throw in their lot with the Spaniards, who were of their -own religion, or stand true to their flag as Englishmen, side by side -with their Protestant countrymen? The fortunes of England seemed -placed in their hands; and to their honour, be it remembered, they -proved themselves true Englishmen. Not a word of treason or -treachery was whispered. Loyal England forgot its difference of -creed. It knew only that the invader was at the gate. - -4. On every side volunteers came forward in thousands. There was no -standing army, but some thousands had seen service in the -Netherlands, in France, and in Ireland. Forts were built at the -mouth of the Thames, and an army was stationed at Tilbury. The queen -visited their camps and heartened the soldiers by her presence and -her words. "My loving people," she said, "we have been persuaded by -some that are careful of our safety to take heed how we commit -ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you -I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. -Let tyrants fear! I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I -have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts -and goodwill of my subjects. I know that I have the body but of a -weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, -and of a king of England, too, and think foul scorn that Parma or -Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of -my realm." - -5. The chief command of the fleet was given to Lord Howard of -Effingham, with Drake as vice-admiral. "True it is," says an old -writer, "Howard was no deep seaman; but he had skill enough to know -those who had more skill than himself." All the great seamen of -Queen Elizabeth, such as Hawkins and Frobisher, served under him, -with 9000 hardy sailors. Merchants offered their ships for the war, -and offered them with powder, shot, and crews all ready on board. -And so splendid was the spirit that stirred the country, that when -the queen asked the Lord Mayor of London to supply fifteen ships, he -requested her to accept double that number. - -6. Most of these merchantmen were of small size, and would be quite -unable to cope with the great Spanish galleons, although useful as -auxiliaries, serving to cut off stragglers, and to capture disabled -ships. In the great fight with the Armada the brunt of the fighting -must fall on the Royal Navy. But there were only thirty-eight ships, -of all sorts and sizes, carrying the queen's flag. They were, -however, in prime condition. The celebrated Sir John Hawkins, a -kinsman of Drake's, had long been in charge of the royal ships, and -he had taken such good care in their construction and equipment, that -they had no match in the world for speed, handiness, and soundness. - -7. So well pleased was Howard with the fleet placed under his -command, that he declared, "Our ships do show themselves like -gallants, and I assure you it will do a man's heart good to behold -them. I think there were never seen worthier ships, and as few as we -are, if the King of Spain's force amount not to hundreds, we will -make good sport with them." Howard tells us that he had crept into -every place, in every queen's ship, wherever man could get, and there -was never one of them knew what a leak meant. And when the -Bonaventure ran hard on a sand bank, it was got off without a -spoonful of water in her. - -8. Comparing the ships of Drake with those of Nelson, we find them -considerably smaller but more heavily armed for their size. Between -the times of these two great admirals but little advance seems to -have been made in the arming of our ships. Drake could even boast a -few sixty-five pounder guns with a range of over a mile. In what -were called "fireworks" the English fleet was particularly strong. -They included grenades to be shot out of great mortars and to explode -by means of a fuse; illuminating shells for detecting an enemy's -movements by night; and shells containing "wild-fire" that would burn -in water and could only be extinguished with sand or ashes. - -9. Whilst England is sharpening her weapons and marshalling her -forces, King Philip is assembling his squadrons. His preparations -were made on such a grand scale, that he may well have thought his -Armada "invincible." By the end of July, 1588, all was ready for the -great task of conquering England. - -10. The "Invincible Armada" was composed of 130 ships, the majority -being of great size "with lofty turrets like castles." There were on -board 8000 seamen, whose sole duty was to work the ships, with 20,000 -soldiers to do the fighting, and it was provided with no less than -2500 cannon. The whole fleet was under the command of the Duke of -Medina Sidonia. The duke's orders were very strict. He was to sail -up the Channel till he got to Dunkirk. Nothing was to stop him. If -the English attacked, he was not to delay, but merely keep up a -running fight. On reaching Dunkirk, he was to escort the Duke of -Parma and his army to the shores of England. - -11. The Armada was expected long before it appeared. Meanwhile, the -whole people from Berwick to the Land's End were waiting in anxious -expectation for the first news of the enemy. Beacons were prepared -along the coast, and on every high point throughout the country. As -soon as the enemy were sighted, the beacons were kindled. - - - -(12) DEFEATING THE INVINCIBLE. - -1. The main English fleet awaited the arrival of the Armada at -Plymouth, whilst a smaller fleet kept watch at Dover, to prevent the -crossing of the Spanish army assembled at Dunkirk, a few leagues from -Calais. At last, the long-expected Armada was seen off Plymouth -Sound, on Saturday, July 30th, 1588. The little English fleet kept -out of sight till the Armada had passed the Sound. On Sunday morning -the Spaniards saw their enemy hovering about their rear just out of -cannon-shot. - -2. The English admirals well knew their business, and wisely planned -their mode of action. They knew that the Spaniards had not only the -advantage in the number and size of their ships, but that they -carried on each ship some hundreds of soldiers. They judged, -therefore, that it would be best for the English to avoid coming to -close quarters, to hang on the rear, to cut off stragglers, and "to -pluck the feathers of the Spaniard one by one." - -3. Thus day after day passed without any pitched battle, but the -damage wrought by the English guns was considerable. The contrast -between the build and action of the ships in the two fleets was -manifest to all. The English vessels sailed at much greater speed, -and "with such nimble steerage," says a Spanish writer, "that they -could turn and wield themselves with the wind as they listed, coming -oftentimes quite close to the Spaniards, giving them one broadside -and then tacking round to give them the other." Their guns also were -handled with much greater rapidity, firing, gun for gun, four shots -to the Spaniards' one. - -4. "The enemy constantly pursue me," wrote Sidonia, off the Isle of -Wight, to the Duke of Parma. "They fire upon me most days from -morning till nightfall; but they will not close and grapple. I have -given them every opportunity; I have purposely left ships exposed to -tempt them to board; but they decline to do it, and there is no -remedy, for they are swift and we are slow. If these calms last, and -they continue the same tactics, as they assuredly will, I must -request your Excellency to send me two shiploads of shot and powder -immediately, for I am in urgent need." - -5. Calms so prevailed that it took a week for the Armada to reach -Calais Roads, when the Spanish admiral dropped anchor, intending to -remain there until the Duke of Parma was ready to embark his troops. -The English promptly let go their anchors at the same instant two -miles astern. The two fleets lay watching each other all the next -day. At a council of war called towards evening in Admiral Howard's -cabin, it was resolved to convert eight vessels into fire-ships. The -ships having been smeared with pitch, resin, and wild-fire, and -filled with combustibles, they were set on fire, and sent in the dead -of night, with wind and tide, straight for the Spanish fleet. - -6. The galleons at once cut their anchor cables, and made all haste -to escape from the threatened danger, "Happiest they who could first -be gone, though few or none could tell which way to take." Some of -the ships had no spare anchors, and when they got outside the harbour -could not anchor again, and were carried far away from their -flag-ship. When morning broke Sidonia saw his fleet widely -scattered. Signals were sent up for them to collect and make back -for Calais. - -7. The hour for the English to close was now come. A hot attack was -begun before the enemy had time to rally and reform. The battle -raged with fury from dawn to sunset. By the end of the day the -Armada was in a hopeless state. Three great galleons had sunk, three -had drifted helplessly on to the Flemish coast, whilst those afloat -were in a battered condition, with sails torn and masts shot away. - -8. The Spanish admiral was in despair. He saw there was nothing -left but to get away by the easiest road. Not daring to return by -the Channel, he resolved on making his way home by sailing round the -Orkneys. A terrible tempest pursued him, and so many vessels were -dashed against the rock-bound coasts of Scotland and Ireland that -only fifty-three storm-shattered ships ever reached Spain. Out of -thirty thousand men who had set sail in the Armada at least twenty -thousand never returned. - -9. In England one voice of joy and thanksgiving rang through the -land. The great victory had been won with the loss of only one -vessel and very few men. Not a single hostile foot had been planted -on English soil. A solemn thanksgiving service was held in St. -Paul's Cathedral; and in memory of the great deliverance a medal was -struck, around the edge of which was inscribed in Latin, "_God blew -with His breath and they were scattered_." - -10. The war with Spain did not come to a close with the destruction -of the Great Armada, but the long-dreaded danger of invasion had -passed away. The navy of the greatest power in the world had been -smitten and shattered. And the only result of Spain's attempt to -enslave England was to raise her to a higher place among the nations. -Hence the poet sings in his song of _Rule Britannia_:-- - - Still more majestic shall thou rise, - More dreadful from each foreign stroke; - As the loud blast that tears the skies - Serves but to root thy native oak. - -11. The war with Spain lasted until the death of Philip (1598). It -was carried on almost wholly at sea, but the only story of much -interest relates to Sir Richard Grenville, who for fifteen hours -resisted all the efforts of a Spanish fleet to take or sink his ship, -the _Revenge_. The unequal contest went on right through the night. -When day dawned the _Revenge_ was riddled with shot, Grenville -mortally wounded, and hardly a man still alive and unwounded. - -12. The dying admiral ordered the ship to be scuttled and sent to -the bottom with all on board, "Trust to God," he said, "and to none -else. Lessen not your honour now by seeking to prolong your lives." -But his men thought they had done enough for honour, and hauled down -the flag of St. George. The Spaniards showed their admiration of the -heroism they had witnessed by doing all they could for the remnant -alive. They carried the hero on board the _San Pablo_, where lie -died three days later. His last words were, "Here die I, Richard -Grenville, with a joyful and quiet mind having ended my life like a -true soldier that has fought for his country, queen, religion, and -honour." - - - -(13) EXPANSION OF ENGLAND INTO THE "UNITED KINGDOM." - -1. Elizabeth's realm was very small compared with that which King -Edward reigns over. It only embraced England, Wales and Ireland, and -the last-named was in a chronic state of discontent and rebellion. -On the death of Elizabeth, the crowns of England and Scotland were -united in the person of James I. (1603), the first king of Great -Britain and Ireland. Thus the Scots had the satisfaction of feeling -that they had given a king to England instead of England forcing a -king on them. - -2. This union of the crowns of England and Scotland was the first -step towards bringing about that real union between the two countries -which exists at the present day; for they now form parts of a truly -"United Kingdom," having one sovereign, one parliament, one army and -navy, having the same friends and the same foes among the nations. -But this happy result was long in coming. The jealousy and enmity -which had so long existed between the two countries did not come to -an end with the union of the two crowns. Each country still cared -only for its own interests, and each people regarded the other as -foreigners. They were not even permitted to trade freely with each -other; but duties were levied on each other's goods in crossing the -Border or entering each other's ports. - -3. This state of things lasted a hundred years after James of -Scotland became King of England. It happily came to an end in the -reign of Queen Anne (1707). By the Act of Union, then passed, each -country was to keep its own laws and its own National Church; but in -other respects they were made into one kingdom, with the same -parliament, the same privileges in trade, the same obligations in war. - -4. This happy marriage between England and Scotland has had the best -results for both parties. England gained a staunch friend in war, -Scotland no small share in England's wealth; both alike grew in power -and prosperity. Nor has the smaller kingdom been lost in the larger. -The Scots have retained their old national spirit, their love of -independence, and their own religion and customs. The union has only -offered the sons of Scotland a larger field on which to prove their -worth and expend their energy. Her soldiers, and especially her -Highland regiments, have done more than their share in building up -the empire. A noble rivalry has long existed between the regiments -of the two countries, which has helped to evoke deeds of valour and -self-sacrifice that have raised the British army to a high position -on the roll of honour. - -5. Turning now to Ireland we must admit that the relations between -the two countries have not been nearly so satisfactory. It is not -for us to enter into the wrongs and rights of the matter, but as in -most cases of continual disputes and disagreements, there have been -faults on both sides. If we could only "forgive and forget," it -would be a happy thing for both of us. Ireland certainly has been -the exception to the marked success of England in her mode of -government. - -6. Though Ireland, as a whole, has seldom been a loyal friend or -staunch supporter of the empire, her gifted sons, by their wit and -eloquence, as speakers and writers, have played no small part in its -making and moulding. As men of action too in the affairs of the -nation they have gained great renown, as the annals of our military -history plainly show. Have we not recently seen, for example, in the -Boer war, what an heroic part Irishmen can play? Nor have we -forgotten how Queen Victoria marked her high appreciation of the -valour of her Irish soldiers, ordering all ranks in the Irish -regiments to wear, as a distinction, on St. Patrick's Day, a sprig of -shamrock in their head-dress, to commemorate the gallantry of their -countrymen in South Africa. - -7. Had the Irish been treated in this generous spirit in the days of -our forefathers, England would not have failed, as she has, in -winning Ireland to her side. Two causes, in particular, may be -mentioned for this failure. England attempted to force her form of -religion on the Irish, punishing them in various ways for refusing to -become Protestants. And she treated Ireland unfairly in regard to -trade and manufactures, selfishly making laws and regulations to suit -herself at the expense of the poorer kingdom. - -8. These causes of disunion and resentment have long since been -removed, but the evil done in past centuries has left behind it -bitter memories, and, in some cases, vengeful feelings. An endeavour -was made to draw the two nations more closely together by the _Act of -Union_, which came into force on January 1st, 1801. This Act decreed -that Ireland, instead of having a parliament of its own, should send -representatives straight to the _Imperial Parliament_ at Westminster, -and enjoy henceforth the right of free trade with Great Britain. - -9. Thus was formed, at last, the _United Kingdom of Great Britain -and Ireland_. And as a symbol of that union a new flag was designed, -combining the three crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. -Patrick, who had from early times been regarded as the patron saints -of England, Scotland, and Ireland respectively. The flag thus -composed is styled the _Union Jack_, and is regarded throughout the -empire as the symbol of that spirit of brotherhood which should bind -us altogether in feelings of loyalty and devotion to our king and -country. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - -Early English Colonisation - -(1603-1688). - - -(1) ENGLAND'S SUCCESS IN COLONIZING. - -1. As far as we have gone in our story we have followed the fortunes -of England in the times of the Tudors, and have seen her rise to a -high place among the nations as one of the great Sea Powers. So far -we have spoken only of the making of _England_ and its expansion into -the "United Kingdom." What we have said, as yet, relates only to the -laying of the foundation-stones on which the British Empire has been -built. Our next task is to show how that empire began and how it -afterwards grew and became great. When James I. came to the throne -of England the _King's Realm_ was limited to the _Home Countries_ -that form the United Kingdom. The rest of the empire has been -acquired in the course of the three centuries that separate the death -of Queen Elizabeth from that of Queen Victoria. - -2. The expansion of the empire has been effected in three ways: (1) -by peaceful occupation, (2) by force of arms, and (3) by friendly -treaty. When the territory taken possession of was thinly occupied -by wandering tribes, as in North America, or by mere savages, as in -Australia, we have been able to gain an easy settlement without the -sacrifice of many lives. Some countries have come to us as the fruit -of conquest, examples of which we have in India, Canada, and Cape -Colony. And certain territories we have acquired by purchase or by -friendly arrangement with the native chiefs, as in the case of New -Zealand and the Straits Settlements. - -3. Of these possessions only a certain number are rightly termed -_colonies_. True British colonies are settlements where men from our -own shores have been able to make a permanent home, found a family, -and rear children in robust health. Men of our stock can only plant -such colonies where a temperate climate prevails, where wheat and -other cereals thrive, and where flocks and herds can be successfully -reared; such colonies we have in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. - -4. But the term "colony" has a wider application than this. We -speak, for instance, of our West Indian colonies, where the climate -is too hot for our race to flourish. Here the British resident is -usually the owner of some plantation of sugar or tobacco, and for -some years he superintends his crops, but always returns "home" as -soon as he has made what he considers sufficient to live upon, in -comfort, for the rest of his days. In fact, the term "colony" is -generally applied to any of the British possessions beyond the seas, -with the exception of India. And the whole of such possessions, with -the same exception, may be conveniently referred to as our _Colonial -Empire_. - -5. It is now admitted on all sides that the British have surpassed -all nations in the art of colonizing. Their success is due to a -variety of causes, among which we may reckon their adventurous -spirit, their love of liberty, their energy and enterprise. This -spirit has made the Briton often restless and discontented with what -he considers his humdrum life at home. It has driven him forth to -seek a more varied and fuller life in the midst of dangers and -difficulties, where he hopes to find free scope for his energies, and -full liberty to follow his own bent and go his own way. But the mere -spirit of adventure would not have insured success. That has come to -him because he is gifted with great pluck, where fighting has to be -done, with good staying power under stress and storm, with -self-reliance when cut off from friends, and above all with a spirit -of justice and fair-play. - -6. Possessing these qualities he has been able to conquer his foes -and afterwards to gain their good-will. When, for instance, the -brave Sikhs of India were thoroughly beaten, they readily took -service under our flag and helped us to put down the Sepoy Mutiny. -To make the men you have conquered follow you gladly; that is the -secret of empire. England's success in colonizing and ruling the -native races within the borders of her realm is also largely due to -the fact that she has avoided that common fault of most other nations -in dealing with their colonies--over-governing, treating them as -children needing precise rules and many restrictions. England, on -the other hand, has seldom kept her colonies in leading-strings -longer than it was necessary. - -7. Much, however, of Britain's success in the management of her -colonies is the result of experience, and the outcome of repeated -failure, which is always ready to yield lessons of wisdom to those -who are willing to learn. We did not learn all at once to set a true -value on colonies. Their worth was measured, at first, by the amount -of gold or silver that could be got out of them. It took some time -for the truth to be clearly seen that _the richest land is that which -can feed most people_. - -8. If we wish now-a-days to ascertain the value of any colony to the -motherland, we ask ourselves one or two such questions as these: Is -it a country where our surplus population may make new permanent -homes and bring up healthy families? Is it a country that offers a -good field of commerce for our merchants? We usually find that -"trade follows the flag." Where the Union Jack flies, there, as a -rule, the people trade mostly with the home-country. In New Zealand, -for instance, seven-tenths of the total trade is done with the United -Kingdom. - -9. We have thus learned to value our colonies chiefly as places for -the reception of our surplus products and population. And our -success in keeping them attached to the motherland and loyal to the -old flag, that has "braved a thousand years the battle and the -breeze," arises from the fact, that we leave them as free as possible -to manage their own affairs and to spend their own money in their own -way. And this is only right, for a colony has a great deal to do for -itself which has been done for us in the old country by our -forefathers. A young colony, like a young householder, has to -furnish and set its house in order. It has, for example, to provide -roads and bridges, railways, and telegraphs; it has to bank the -rivers, drain the marshes, and clear the forests. It is, therefore, -only right that no attempt should be made to tax our colonies or to -restrict their trade for the benefit of the mother-country. - - - -(2) ENGLAND'S FIRST COLONY. - -1. Sir Walter Raleigh made strenuous efforts, in the reign of -Elizabeth, to found a colony in Virginia, but the men who first -consented to go as emigrants, were not true colonists, but mere -adventurers on the hunt for gold. Failing in their search for gold, -they returned to England, taking with them a sample of the strange -herb they had learnt from the Indians to smoke. Two further attempts -made by Raleigh to colonize Virginia ended in failure and disaster. - -2. The first offshoot of the English race destined to take root in -America, sailed from England in the third year of James I.'s reign. -After a tedious voyage the expedition entered Chesapeake Bay too late -in the season for the seed they had brought with them to be sown that -year (1607). Ascending a stream which they called the James River, -they chose for the site of their settlement a peninsula about forty -miles from its mouth, where they built a village of rude huts to -which they gave the name of Jamestown, and which proved the first -permanent settlement of the English in the New World. - -3. It cannot be said that these emigrants deserved to succeed any -better than those who preceded them. We can only wonder, after the -sad experience already bought at such a heavy cost, that men of the -same stamp should still be sent over as colonists. Most of the -present company were mere idle adventurers and worthless fellows who -had never done an honest day's work at home. The new colony, -consequently, was soon in danger of extinction. In six months half -of the settlers were swept away by disease, wretched food, and other -hardships. The remnant owed its escape to the resource and energy of -one of their number, John Smith, who is entitled to the honour of -being the first to plant the English race within the borders of what -is now the United States. - -4. Smith was a true Briton in many things besides the name, a man -who would "stand no nonsense," who on being chosen leader soon made -it plain that no drones should live in the hive. He soon proved -himself the head and heart of the whole colony. Having provided a -plenteous store of deer's flesh, wild-fowl, and maize-bread for the -winter--"for he was more wakeful to gather provisions than the -covetous to find gold"--he left the camp to explore the country -round. Whilst thus engaged, Smith had the misfortune to fall into -the hands of Indians. - -5. "I was brought," he says, "to the village where the great chief -Powhatan has his spacious wigwam. There they performed a war-dance -around me, every one in the ring brandishing his weapons. One of my -captors having been wounded, I cried out that at Jamestown I had some -medicine to cure him. They would not let me fetch it; but I was -permitted to send a letter, in which I asked my friends to put what I -wanted under a great rock outside the town. To the astonishment of -the Indian messengers who delivered my letter, the things I had -promised were found by them the next day at the appointed place. On -their return every one was full of wonder because of the -'talking-leaf.'" - -6. "They thought it was all due to magic, and met in council to -decide my fate. Some feared to put me to death, others feared to let -me live. After a long and solemn talk there was a dead silence, -whilst a huge stone was dragged into the centre, and I was forced to -kneel down beside it, Indians standing around with their heavy clubs. -At this critical moment the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, a young -girl of ten or twelve, flew to my side and, spreading her arms over -me pleaded for my life. Another council was held, and I was set -free." - -7. Meanwhile everything had fallen into confusion at Jamestown, and -Smith had much ado to keep the men from sailing away in the pinnace. -In the following spring another party of emigrants arrived, composed -mostly of mere reckless adventurers, whose one object was to find -gold. "When you send again," Smith wrote to the Council at home, "I -entreat you rather send but thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, -fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers up of trees' roots than a -thousand of such as we have.... Nothing is to be won here but by -honest toil." Under Smith's rule the colony passed safely through -another winter, and then an explosion of a bag of gunpowder slung -around his neck, rendered him for a time useless, and he returned to -England. - -8. The colony went to pieces in Smith's absence, and within six -months of his departure it was reduced to a miserable remnant of -sixty persons, supporting themselves mainly on roots and berries. -They were on the point of abandoning their settlement and had just -reached the mouth of the river when they were astonished by the sight -of a ship coming up to meet them. The ship was the forerunner of a -small squadron, under the command of Lord de la Warr, who had been -sent to the relief of the colony. - -9. The turning-point had come. The new governor had brought -provisions for a year and a large band of emigrants. He assembled -the old settlers, sternly rebuked them for their "sluggish idleness," -and entreated them to amend their ways, and so avoid the sword of -justice, which he was determined to wield. It is amusing to read the -old chronicler's idea of hard work. "Let not any man," says he, "be -discouraged by the relation of their daily labour. It began at six -and went on till ten, and again from two to four when they went to -church, and after that returned home and received their rations." - -10. With the coming of Lord de la Warr, the prospects of the colony -began to brighten and progress to be made. The first decided step -onward was taken when a few acres of land were assigned to each -settler for his orchard and garden and other private uses. Hitherto -all had been expected to work for the common good, and the result had -been reluctant labour and waste of time, the few willing to work -having no heart to do so, when the majority were idly whiling away -the time. Hence we see the advantage of giving every man the right -to hold private property. - -11. The colonists for some little time lost much of their labour in -growing grapes, but on turning their chief attention and care to the -cultivation of tobacco, they found themselves on the highway to -prosperity. Very soon the fields, the gardens, the public squares, -even the sides of the streets of Jamestown, were planted with tobacco -for the English market. Few women had as yet dared to cross the -Atlantic, but the growing prosperity of the colony induced ninety -women to throw in their lot with their countrymen in Virginia. They -were not long in finding husbands. Thus arose new English homes in -the land beyond the seas. England's first colony had taken root, and -in time a new English nation sprang therefrom. - -[Illustration: THE PILGRIM FATHERS LEAVING ENGLAND.] - -12. From the many blunders made in trying to found our first colony, -we learned how to secure success in similar undertakings in future. -Virginia served as our school of wisdom and experience in planting -colonies; we had still to learn, by losing her and her sister states, -how to keep colonies within the empire after planting them. - - - -(3) "FAREWELL, DEAR ENGLAND." - -1. The second English colony in America was founded, in 1620, by a -very different class of persons from those reckless adventurers who, -in Elizabeth's reign, threw away their lives in Virginia. The -founders of _New England_, as this second colony was named, were a -devoted band of earnest persons, knit together by religious ties, who -went out there as pilgrims in search of a land where they could enjoy -religious freedom. - -2. The "Pilgrim Fathers," as many love to call them, belonged to the -religious body known as "Puritans." The Puritans thought that the -English Church needed further reform, and many of them refused to -attend divine worship in the parish churches as the law directed. -For their disobedience, they had been fined and in other ways -punished. When James I. came to the throne, they hoped to be left -free to worship God as they thought best. In this they were, -unhappily, doomed to disappointment. - -3. King James was exceedingly bitter against the Puritans, and said, -"I will make them conform, or harry them out of the land." And out -of the land the more zealous resolved to go. They first sought an -asylum in Holland; but they could not feel at home there, for the -language and manners of the Dutch seemed to them harsh and uncouth. -At last they were moved to make real English homes for themselves -across the Atlantic. - -4. They knew from the reports that had come to them that they must -expect much toil and suffering. "But we are well weaned," wrote -their pastor, "from the delicate milk of the mother-country, and -inured to the difficulties of a strange land; the people are -industrious and frugal. We are knit together as a body in a most -sacred covenant of the Lord, by virtue whereof we hold ourselves -strictly tied to all care of each other's good and of the whole. It -is not with us as with men whom small things can discourage." - -5. Accordingly, a little company of one hundred and twenty, -including men, women, and children, set sail from Plymouth in the -_Mayflower_, bound for the country round the river Hudson. But the -captain of the _Mayflower_, either mistaking his course, or driven -out of it, brought his ship to anchor in the harbour of Cape Cod, on -a barren and bleak coast in Massachusetts. The country was then -buried in snow, and the whole winter was before them. There were -none to show them kindness or bid them welcome, but they were not -disheartened. - -6. The first thing was to choose a good spot for the settlement. An -exploring party landed, but after several days discovered nothing of -value but a heap of maize in a deserted Indian village. Many graves -were scattered about the country, but no Indians were seen. They -afterwards learnt that a pestilence had swept off the Indians in that -part, so that no difficulty arose from the hostility of the natives. - -7. Meanwhile the carpenter had been busy repairing their large boat -or shallop. As soon as it was ready a party set off to explore the -coast. The cold was so severe that the spray of the waves froze as -it fell on them, making their clothes like coats of steel. On the -third day, the pilot of the shallop, who had been in those regions -before, assures them that they can reach a good harbour before -nightfall. After some hours' sailing, a storm of snow and rain -breaks upon them: the sea swells, the rudder breaks, the boat must -now be steered with oars; the storm increases and night is at hand. -To reach the harbour before dark, as much sail as possible is borne; -the mast breaks into three pieces and the sail falls overboard. But -the tide is favourable, and as darkness sets in, they enter a fair -harbour, and step ashore wet, and cold, and weak. - -8. Morning, as it dawned, showed the place to be a small island in a -well-sheltered bay. Here they remained for a day to recruit, and as -the next day was the "Christian Sabbath," they felt bound to rest and -"keep it holy." On Monday the exploring party made their way to the -mainland. The granite boulder on which they stepped on landing has -ever since been treasured by their descendants. Here the "Pilgrim -Fathers" resolved to settle. They called the town, which in time -grew up on this spot, _New Plymouth_, in memory of the port from -which they had last set sail. - -9. No holiday-task lay before the settlers. Huts had to be built in -the intervals of rain and snow. Meanwhile the _Mayflower_ was their -home, but so ill provided were they for enduring the rigours of -winter that by cold or famine half the company were cut off before -the spring. In April, the vessel which had sheltered them so long -sailed away for England, leaving the survivors ready to bear their -hard lot with a stout heart. Thrifty and industrious as they were, -their progress was very slow; and at the end of ten years they -numbered only three hundred souls. They had, however, struck deep -root and remained steadfast. "Let it not be grievous unto you," some -of their brethren in England had written to them in the midst of -their sufferings, "that yours has been the task to break the ice for -others. The honour shall be yours to the world's end." - -10. At last the time came for a large increase of their numbers from -home. In 1630 seven hundred emigrants set sail for the land of -freedom in the West; for Charles I. was now on the throne and had -begun his arbitrary rule. Before the assembling of the Long -Parliament (1640), which carried on the struggle that ended with the -execution of the king, no less than two hundred emigrant ships, -carrying twenty thousand Englishmen, had crossed the Atlantic. Nor -were these men the waifs and strays, the mere wreckage of society, -but men of means and character, ready to risk all for the privilege -of serving God according to their conscience. As the ships bore them -away out of sight of their native land, they remembered it, not with -feelings of bitterness for the ill treatment they had received on -account of their religion, but as the home of their fathers. As its -shores faded from their sight there arose from every heart the tender -cry, "_Farewell, dear England!_" - - - -(4) PROGRESS IN COLONIZING. - -1. We have now sketched out the circumstances attending the planting -of our first two colonies--Virginia and New England. Between these -two colonies was planted another, called Maryland, in honour of -Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I. - -2. _Maryland_ was in most respects a highly-favoured colony. It was -founded, in 1633, by Lord Baltimore, who seems to have risen above -most men of his age in his readiness to tolerate men of a different -faith from his own. Baltimore declared himself a Catholic, and was -desirous of providing a home in America for men of his creed, since -they were debarred from the free exercise of their religion in -England. Neither Virginia nor New England would have suited his -purpose; none but members of the Church of England were welcomed in -the former, and none but Puritans of the strictest order were -tolerated in the latter. - -3. It was otherwise ordered in Maryland. "No person within this -province," ran the earliest law of the colony, "professing to be a -Christian, shall be in any way troubled or molested for his or her -religion, or in the free exercise thereof." Due consideration also -was shown to the rights of the natives. The first act of the -governor was to purchase land from the Indians, and with their -consent he took possession of a village, which he named St. Mary's. -The settlers then went resolutely to work, learning all they could -from the natives, whose goodwill it was easy to gain by presents of -cloth and axes, of hoes and knives. - -The Indian women taught the wives of the new comers to make bread of -maize; the warriors of the tribe gave many valuable hints in hunting -and fishing. Thus the foundation of Maryland was peacefully and -happily laid. In six months it advanced more than Virginia had done -in as many years. - -4. In the course of the next hundred years such progress was made in -building up a new English nation on the other side of the Atlantic, -that no less than thirteen flourishing colonies, including the three -already mentioned, were established in what is now the United States. -But as these colonies have long ceased to form part of our empire we -do not propose to give here any further details respecting them. We -cannot, however, but feel proud of the fact that the great American -nation has sprung mainly from our race, that it speaks our language, -that its laws are based on ours, and that it inherits our love of -justice and freedom. - -5. Whilst the colonies that have since grown into the United States -were taking root, our countrymen settled in some of the American -islands, which have since become valuable possessions. An English -vessel bound for Virginia, when it was an infant colony, happened to -be wrecked on one of the Bermuda islands. The _Bermudas_ form a -cluster of a hundred small islands, and in one of the recesses of the -inland sea, which they enclose, is a splendid harbour with an -entrance so narrow as to render it beyond the reach of attack. -Seeing the value of these islands as a secure refuge for our shipping -in the North Atlantic, the shipwrecked mariner took possession in the -name of King James, and ever since they have remained in our hands as -a military post and naval station of no mean importance. - -6. In the West India Islands also the English, in spite of the -Spaniards, gained a footing, _Barbados_ being their earliest -settlement in that quarter. The first recorded visit of Englishmen -was in the year 1605, when the crew of the "Olive Blossom" landed, -and erected a cross as a memorial of the event, cutting at the same -time upon the bark of a tree, "James, King of England and of this -island." Barbados was the first English colony in which the -sugar-cane was planted, and sugar soon became a great source of -wealth to the planters. The civil war in the reign of Charles I. -induced many Englishmen to cast in their lot with the settlers of -this little island in the summer seas. Many of the West India -Islands have changed hands more than once, but Barbados from its -first settlement, in 1624, has remained in our possession. - -7. _Jamaica_, the largest of our West India colonies, fell as easily -as a ripe fruit into English hands in the days of Cromwell's rule. -Cromwell took great pride in his new colony, and aided the colonists -very materially by sending some thousands of Scottish prisoners of -war after his victory at Worcester, to work in the sugar plantations. -These men after a few years became free labourers, and many worked -their way, as Scotsmen know how, to high place and fortune. - -8. _Newfoundland_ claims to be the oldest British colony. True, it -was taken possession of by Gilbert in the name of Queen Elizabeth, -but no regular settlement was made there until long afterwards. The -island was inhabited mainly by a floating population that came and -went. Some thousands of fishermen came in spring, and on the -approach of winter re-embarked with the cod they had caught and -cured. The English government wanted no regular settlers here. They -wished to preserve the island simply as a fishing-station, and the -fisheries as nurseries for the navy. In spite of all discouragement -settlers constantly increased, but more than a hundred years passed, -after Gilbert took possession, before the first governor was -appointed. - -9. The country around _Hudson Bay_ was claimed by the English by -right of discovery. Hudson Strait and Bay recall the name of Henry -Hudson, who, in the service of King James, first entered and explored -these seas. His fate is, perhaps, the saddest that any of the brave -men, engaged in discoveries in these icy regions, have suffered. The -crew mutinied, and Hudson, with his son and seven others, was turned -adrift in a small boat and never afterwards heard of. - -10. The Hudson Bay Company was authorised by Charles II. in 1670, to -take possession of the lands around Hudson Bay. It was soon found -that the country was too cold for colonists to settle in it, but that -a valuable fur trade could be carried on. "Forts," or -trading-stations, were accordingly set up on the shores of the Bay, -and trade was opened with the Indian trappers who came once a year -with their annual catch of furs. - -11. Each summer a ship arrived from London, bringing all that the -Indian most needed or most fancied, such as guns, knives, axes, -spirits, looking-glasses, blankets, beads, and trinkets of all sorts. -When these had been properly arranged in the great room of the fort, -the traffic began. The Indians were first admitted to the outer room -with their bundles of furs. Each skin was examined and the price -decided on was paid in the form of little coloured sticks. With -these counters each red man passed into the inner room and exchanged -them for such articles as he wished to purchase. - -12. Before concluding this short sketch of the progress made in -English colonization during the reigns of the Stuarts, justice -compels us to say that the "Merry Monarch"--who is supposed never to -have said a foolish thing, and never to have done a wise one--acted -wisely on behalf of his colonies. He established a Colonial Council -to take the oversight of all the colonies and see to their welfare. -They were to arrange for a common system of government and trade, to -assist the right sort of people to emigrate, and to bind the -mother-country and the colonies together by schemes for mutual help. - - - -(5) STRUGGLE FOR THE MASTERY AT SEA. - -1. Britain has long been acknowledged mistress of the seas, and our -very existence as a nation, still more as an empire, depends on our -being able to keep that position; for it is only by command of the -sea that we can defend the scattered parts of our empire, and make -sure of being fed at home, seeing that a large part of our food comes -from abroad. England began to be a great Sea Power when the Spanish -Armada was destroyed (1588), but more than a hundred years had yet to -pass before she could lay undisputed claim to the foremost place upon -the seas. Meanwhile, a great struggle took place between the Dutch -and English for the leading place. - -2. No braver or more skilful seamen ever sailed the seas than our -Dutch rivals. Holland was at last obliged to yield the palm, because -she had to defend her borders from attack by France on land whilst -carrying on war with England at sea. We owe much to the fact that -our land is encircled by the sea. Hence Shakespeare speaks of it as - - "This precious stone set in the silver sea, - Which serves it in the office of a wall, - Or as a moat defensive to a house, - Against the envy of less happier lands." - -3. Had James I. been like the great queen whom he succeeded, Holland -would probably not have got the start of England, as she did, when he -was king. Under his timid government our nation sank to a low place -among the Powers of Europe, whilst Holland stepped forward and took -our place as the rival of Spain, and in the course of a few years -made herself the first maritime state in the world. The Dutch became -great ship-builders, and in their ships carried on the trade of a -large part of Europe. They became in fact the great ocean carriers -of the day, holding the position which is now held by ourselves; or -to quote the writer of _Fights for the Flag_--"They swept the Spanish -flag from the seas. The carrying trade of the world was in their -hands. They fished in all waters, traded in all ports, gathered the -wealth of the world under all skies, and, as far as marine qualities -were concerned, might almost have been web-footed." - -4. During our Civil War, in the reign of Charles I., the Dutch -profited much by our home troubles. Much of the English trade fell -into their hands, their ships being largely employed in carrying -goods to and from our English ports. But no sooner was King Charles -executed than steps were taken to revive English shipping. In the -early days of the Commonwealth a _Navigation Act_ was passed, which -struck a serious blow at the Dutch carrying trade. By this Act it -was ordered that no goods should be imported into England except in -English vessels, or in those belonging to the country in which the -goods were produced. - -5. The Dutch regarded this Act as a dagger aimed at their heart. -There was another thing which rankled within them. English ships of -war had for centuries claimed the right to require all foreign ships -to salute them by lowering their topsails, or striking their flag, -whenever they met in the narrow waters of the English Channel; and -now, under the rule of Cromwell, the captains of our warships were -ordered to enforce this claim. Before long "the greatest naval power -of the day and the greatest naval power of the future" launched their -forces against each other--the Dutch under their celebrated admiral, -Van Tromp, and the English under Robert Blake, who became equally -famous. - -6. The English were first afloat. Blake sailed north to sweep the -Dutch fishermen off the coasts of England and Scotland; for the -poaching of the Hollanders had been one of the grievances which -brought on the war. This was an easy task. The enemy's guard-ships -were taken or sunk, the cargoes of poached herrings were thrown into -the sea; but the fishermen's boats were spared by the English -Admiral, since they belonged, as he said, to poor families and formed -their only means of a livelihood. Dutch merchantmen returning from -the Indies were snapped up in the Channel and sent as prizes up the -Thames in scores. Very soon Van Tromp was on the heels of our -admiral with a magnificent fleet, but a storm so battered his ships -that he had to return and refit. - -7. On the approach of winter the English fleet broke up for their -winter quarters; for at that time the thought of a winter campaign -never entered men's minds. Van Tromp, however, was daring enough to -face the winter storms and take the risk. He suddenly appeared off -the Downs with ninety sail. Blake could only muster half that -number, but he thought it more honourable to risk a battle than seek -safety in flight. The unequal contest went on doggedly till dusk, -when Blake withdrew his shattered fleet into the Thames after three -of his ships had been sunk and two taken. - -8. Van Tromp now sailed the Channel, it is said, with a broom at the -mast-head of his ship as a sign that he had "swept the English from -the Channel." The English did not regard the result of the battle -with dismay. On the contrary, the reports of the battle were read -with pride; and the Council of State thanked Blake for his services. -The real battle which should decide the question of superiority at -sea had yet to be fought. - -9. Van Tromp's triumph with the broom at his masthead did not last -long. In less than three months the English were again on the sea -with a powerful fleet, and took up their station off Portland. They -had no need to go in search of Tromp, for he could not help bringing -the merchant-ships that he was escorting home right past them. At -length he was seen coming up the Channel with a huge convoy of at -least 150 sail under his wing. His warships were between them and -the English. The moment had come, and every sailor in the two ships -felt it, to test their prowess. It was the first time the two great -admirals had met on equal terms. - -10. The close and desperate fighting that ensued told sorely on both -sides. A hundred men fell on board the English admiral's flag-ship; -and at the end of the day the ship itself, which had gone foremost -into battle, had its masts down, its rigging gone, and its hull -riddled. Some of its shattered sisters were glad enough to crawl -into Portsmouth. Of the Dutch ships one was burnt, one blown up, and -six taken or sunk. - -11. During the night the two fleets continued working slowly along -the Channel eastwards. Van Tromp had his men-of-war in the form of a -crescent with the convoy between its horns. With daylight came a -renewal of the fighting which lasted until sunset. Never was sterner -fighting done. One Dutch captain, for instance, when grappled on -each side by an English ship, set fire to his own vessel that the -three might burn together. The English, however, drew off, leaving -the Dutchman to its fate. - -12. The dawn of the third day saw the brave old Tromp still keeping -guard like a hen over her brood of chickens. His line, however, was -on that day broken through, and then an exciting chase followed, -which ended in the capture of some fifty merchant-ships. Two other -desperate battles took place the same year, and both ended favourably -for England. On the last day of the last battle, the grand old Dutch -admiral was pierced to the heart with a musket-ball. - -13. This war dealt a severe blow to the Dutch carrying-trade, and -brought Holland to the brink of ruin. "The Zuyder Zee," it is said, -"became a forest of masts; the country was full of beggars; grass -grew in the streets, and in Amsterdam fifteen hundred houses were -empty." Peace with England (1654) alone saved the Dutch from utter -ruin. And this peace left England, for the time at least, mistress -of the seas. - - - -(6) OUR GREAT "GENERAL-AT-SEA." - -1. Robert Blake, whose victories at sea are second only to those of -Nelson, was not learned in the arts of seamanship. In his day it was -quite usual for generals to take command at sea, leaving the -navigation of the ships in the hands of the "Masters." Blake, -however, did not fight the less well because he went to sea in full -military uniform, including his top-boots. In the excitement of -battle some of these "Admirals-in-spurs" forgot the language of the -sea. It is said that General Monk, in the middle of a sea-fight, -sent a shout of laughter round his own decks by giving the order, as -to cavalry, "wheel to the left." - -2. Blake, our great "General-at-Sea" had all the qualities of a -great commander, except perhaps his outward look and mien. He was a -little man, of rather a melancholy turn, and chary of his words. He -had however, that magnetic influence over his men that bespeaks the -true leader--the influence that made them ready to follow wherever he -led the way, regardless of chances and risks. He was also beloved by -them for his constant care and thought for their welfare. He set -himself, with all his heart and strength, to remove all abuses from -the navy and to introduce numberless reforms. None knew better that -success in the day of battle depends greatly upon previous attention -to what seems "little things." - -3. Blake had no ends of his own to serve. In the face of any -question that presented itself, his one thought was, "What do the -interest and honour of England require?" The watchword of his life -was that grand word DUTY, which Nelson set before the eyes of his -sailors on the morning of Trafalgar. These two great admirals are -well linked together by the poet Campbell in his famous sea-song:-- - - "The spirit of your fathers - Shall start from every wave-- - For the deck it was their field of fame, - And Ocean was their grave: - Where Blake and mighty Nelson fell - Your manly hearts shall glow, - As you sweep through the deep, - While the stormy winds do blow; - While the battle rages loud and long - And the stormy winds do blow." - -4. No sooner had our great admiral ended the war with the Dutch, in -the way already described, than he was despatched by Cromwell with a -powerful fleet to the Mediterranean, which had long been infested by -pirates in league with the Governors, or Deys, of the Barbary States. -These pirates not only seized the cargoes of the merchant ships, but -sold their crews and passengers into slavery. - -5. When Blake, in the course of his cruise, appeared before Tunis -and demanded the release of all Christian prisoners and slaves, the -Dey pointed defiantly to his castles at the entrance of the harbour -and his nine cruisers anchored beneath their guns. Blake replied by -leading in his ships and cannonading the Dey's batteries at close -range. When this terrible hail of shot had dismounted the enemy's -guns, the admiral lowered his long-boats, and having manned each with -a picked crew sent them through the smoke straight at the pirate -ships. Cutlasses, pikes, and pistols first did their deadly work and -then firebrands did the rest. When the English fleet put out to sea -that night every one of the Dey's ships was wrapped in flames. - -6. This exploit marks a turning-point in our commercial history. -Hitherto merchant vessels were expected to protect themselves and -take the risks of capture. Blake's round of the Mediterranean, with -his ships of war, let princes and pirates know that henceforth any -wrong done to an English vessel would be avenged as a national -insult, that to attack a ship flying the flag of England would be -regarded as an attack upon England itself. As soon as it was seen -that England's arm was long enough, and ready enough, to strike at -all offenders on the seas, the English began to take the foremost -place as "carriers of the sea," for foreign merchants soon came to -the belief that their goods would be safest where the flag of England -insured protection. - -7. Blake's next great object was to sap the power of Spain with whom -Cromwell had gone to war to enforce England's claim to trade with the -Spanish colonies of America. Annually there came to Spain from the -Western World a great fleet, known as the "plate fleet," freighted -with gold and silver, quicksilver and pearls, sugar, hides, and -dye-wood. To cut off these supplies was to sever the sinews of war -at a stroke. For nearly two years Blake kept watch outside Cadiz for -the expected plate-ships, but they had run into harbour at Santa -Cruz, under the great peak of Teneriffe, and were waiting there until -the way home was clear. Here, at length, Blake resolved to come and -burn the ships he saw no hope of capturing. - -8. Santa Cruz was then one of the strongest naval stations in the -world. The harbour, shaped like a horseshoe, was defended at the -entrance and sides by forts, armed with heavy guns, and well -garrisoned. Armed vessels were moored in a semi-circle at the bottom -of the harbour and in front of them were stationed the royal galleons -that had escorted the plate-fleet across the Atlantic. Blake must -have seen at once that these ships would act as a screen between his -own squadron and the great Spanish batteries on the shore, that -one-half of the Spanish force would get in the way of the other in -resisting an attack. - -9. Our great sea-general knew well the kind of place he was about to -assail, but judged that his ships were equal to the task. At any -rate he resolved to make the daring attempt, a solemn prayer being -first of all offered on board each ship to the great Disposer of -events. Wind and tide favouring, anchors were weighed, and in a -brief space of time the castles at the entrance were passed, and the -ships stationed for the attack. - -10. For four hours the old peak of Teneriffe looked down upon a -scene which might seem like an imitation of his own volcanic -outbursts. The Spaniards fought with great courage, but Blake's -fire, by its speed and deadly aim, was overwhelming. By two o'clock -the battle was clearly won. Two of the Spanish galleons had gone -down, and every other Spanish ship in the harbour was in flames. The -most extraordinary thing now happened to complete the English -triumph. Just at the right moment the wind veered round and enabled -the whale squadron to leave the harbour without the loss of a single -ship, though many of course were too much battered for further -service. - -11. Blake, like Nelson, was not permitted to return home alive to -receive the thanks and homage of his admiring countrymen. The fleet, -headed by his battered flagship, the _George_, had passed the -Eddystone and was seen approaching Plymouth harbour. The Hoe was -crowded with thousands waiting to welcome their hero home. But at -that moment, all unknown to them, Blake lay dying in his cabin. Just -as the _George_ dropped her anchor, the hero drew his last breath -(1657). His corpse was carried in state to Westminster Abbey and -there buried. Never has England had a more devoted and unselfish -servant, nor the English sailor a kinder and nobler captain. - -12. The warships of England now rode triumphant on the seas. But -their triumph did not long remain unchallenged. Throughout a large -part of Charles II.'s reign, the English and the Dutch strove -constantly for the mastery. Having to defend their homes against the -French, the Dutch, at last, felt compelled to retire from the -struggle with England for the sovereignty of the seas. In 1674 they -finally made peace with England ceding the island of St. Helena--of -some value as a place of call to ships sailing to and from the East -Indies--and admitting England's claim to a salute from all foreign -ships passing through the "narrow seas" around her coasts. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - -Expansion by Conquest - -(1688-1763). - - -(1) WHAT WE OWE TO WILLIAM OF ORANGE. - -1. We pass now to a period in our history in which our struggle for -empire is chiefly with the French. That struggle began almost as -soon as the Prince of Orange became William III. of England. Though -a Dutchman, he is entitled to a place among the great builders of the -British Empire. To him we are doubly indebted, for he defended our -liberties at home against James II. of England, and our interests -abroad against Louis XIV. of France. His chief pleasure in accepting -the crown of England, arose from the hope that it would enable him to -unite the forces of England and Holland in curbing the power of -France. - -2. It had been the one great object of William's life to thwart the -great enemy of his native country, Louis XIV. Though often defeated, -he was never conquered. In the darkest times he had never given way -to despair, and after each defeat had set to work to mend his broken -fortunes. And now he had England at his back, William believed that -he could meet his old enemy on equal terms, and he rejoiced at the -prospect. Few men have had to contend with so many difficulties, and -none have grappled with them more courageously. - -3. Though William did much for England, it cannot be said that he -ever loved her, or was beloved by her. He was cold and reserved in -manner, and seldom seen to smile, being rarely free from bodily pain. -But in the field of battle, on his war charger, he seemed full of -life and joy; wherever the fight was fiercest and the danger -greatest, there he was sure to be. We see the kind of man he was in -his reply to the Parliament that proposed to make his wife, Mary, -Queen of England, and himself only Regent. - -4. "My lords and gentlemen," he said, "No man can esteem a woman -more than I do the princess, but I am so made that I cannot think of -holding anything by my wife's apron-strings; nor can I think it -reasonable to have any share in the Government unless it be put in my -own person, and that for the term of my life. If you think fit to -settle it otherwise, I will not oppose you, but will go back to -Holland and meddle no more in your affairs." William, you see, knew -his own mind. He will be king or nothing, and king, accordingly, he -became. - -5. William was scarcely seated on the throne, when James II. landed -in Ireland, with a body of French troops, brought there under the -escort of fifteen French men-of-war. As soon as news of this reached -London, war was declared against King Louis, in spite of the peril in -which the declaration placed England, for not only was the greater -part of Ireland in the hands of James II. and his French allies, but -the Highlanders of Scotland had risen in his favour. William first -made peace in Scotland, and then crossed to Ireland. He had no -sooner landed there with some thousands of troops than a great French -fleet under Admiral Tourville appeared in the Channel. - -6. The spectators standing on the summit of Beachy Head on the last -day of June, 1690, must have watched the battle fought just below, -with sinking hearts; for the combined English and Dutch fleets were -that day completely beaten, and obliged to seek refuge in the Thames, -leaving the French fleet sole master of the Channel. Luckily no -French troops were ready to be landed on our shores, and the danger -soon passed away; for on the very next day, William won a complete -victory over James II. in Ireland, on the banks of the little river -Boyne. - -7. On the day before the battle, whilst inspecting his troops, a -shot grazed William's shoulder, and made him reel in his saddle. -"There was no need for any bullet to come nearer than that!" was his -remark. And certainly not many bullets have ever come nearer to -changing the history of Britain, and therefore of the British Empire. -But on the fateful day itself (1st July, 1690) he escaped unhurt, -though often in the thick of the fight. Seeing the battle going -against him, James galloped off to Dublin and embarked for France. -The brave Irish who had fought for him that day were much disgusted, -and said to the victors after the battle: "Change leaders and we will -fight it all over again." - -8. The battle of the Boyne is a memorable one, for it decided -whether the crown of England should be worn by a despot like James -II. under the patronage, if not the pay, of the French king, or by a -champion of popular freedom like William III., whose one aim was to -diminish the power of France and to foil the designs of King Louis. - -9. James II., who had fled to France after his defeat in Ireland, -resolved to make one more effort, with the help of the French king, -to recover his throne. French troops were assembled in Normandy for -the invasion of England, and Admiral Tourville was sent with a fleet -to protect their passage across the Channel. It was feared that -Admiral Russell, who commanded the English fleet, would not do his -duty, for it was known that he was personally in favour of the -deposed monarch. But to James's friends he said, "Do not think I -will let the French triumph over us in our own seas; if I meet them, -I fight them, ay, though his Majesty himself should be on board." - -10. Russell was as good as his word. After a determined fight for -five hours, the French were obliged to make for the shelter of their -ports. Fifteen ships that failed to reach St. Malo before the tide -had turned, took refuge in the bays of Cherbourg and La Hogue. Their -pursuers were soon upon them, and ship after ship was burnt under the -eyes of the French army, waiting to be taken across the Channel--in -sight too of James II. who, on beholding the daring of our sailors, -could not forbear exclaiming, "My brave English tars," even though -their victory was the death-blow of his hopes of ever regaining the -throne. La Hogue was the last general action fought by the French -fleet for a long period, and Louis's dream of supremacy at sea was, -for the present, at least, seen to be hopeless. - -11. William was now safely seated on the throne, but he had no -intention of sitting quietly on it. He carried on the war vigorously -against Louis on the continent. Much English blood was shed, but it -was not shed in vain. It was necessary, in the interests of England, -to keep the French from overflowing the limits of their own land. -Had they succeeded in adding the Netherlands to France and the Dutch -navy to their own, our country would have been outmatched. She would -probably have lost her lead upon the sea, and her future greatness in -America and India. Louis by the Treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, agreed -to acknowledge William as King of England, and to give up all his -conquests except Strasburg. All honour to William of Orange who -foiled the ambition of the vain monarch that made war upon war for -his own glorification. - - - -(2) A FAMOUS VICTORY AND A LUCKY CAPTURE. - -1. When William died, in 1702, he was preparing for a new war, with -his old enemy, Louis XIV., to prevent the union of the Crowns of -France and Spain. It is known as the _War of the Spanish -Succession_, and arose from the fact that the King of Spain had -willed the crown to a French prince. "There are no longer any -Pyrenees," said Louis, as he contemplated the union of the two -crowns. Such an union would have put the other kingdoms of Europe -under the feet of France. Accordingly, an alliance was formed -between England, Holland, and Austria to keep the Pyrenees in their -place and the two nations apart. - -2. Louis must have heard of the death of King William with deep -satisfaction. A queen now sat on the throne of England, but -fortunately she had in Lord Churchill, afterwards Duke of -Marlborough, a general who was better qualified even than William as -Commander-in-chief, and whose good fortune as a commander proved so -remarkable that in the whole course of the war he suffered no defeat; -he never besieged a fortress he did not take, nor fought a battle he -did not win. Of his many victories the most splendid was that of -Blenheim, a little village on the Danube, in Bavaria. - -3. The Bavarians having joined the French as allies, the way lay -open, through their country, into the very heart of Austria. The -French, under Marshal Tallard, were marching on Vienna, when they -were pulled up at Blenheim by the allied forces under Marlborough. -The right wing of the French army was posted in this village with the -river Danube on their flank. In front of the village the French had -erected strong palisades; they had also barricaded the streets and -loopholed the houses. - -4. Marlborough first attempted to dislodge the French from this -strong position. Nothing could be finer than the onset of the -British, but they were bound to fail. Behind the palisades knelt -long lines of French troops, as brave as their assailants, whilst a -second line standing erect fired over the heads of their kneeling -comrades. Some of our men tried to tear up the palisades with their -hands, or clamber over them by mounting on each other's shoulders, -but the task proved beyond them. Marlborough withdrew his men, but -bade them keep up the feint of an attack upon Blenheim, whilst he -prepared to throw his cavalry on the French centre. - -5. Marshal Tallard seems to have trusted to the protection of a -swamp which here separated the two armies. Across this swamp our -general led his cavalry, having first made tracks by laying down -faggots of wood. At the sound of the trumpet, about 8000 -splendidly-mounted horsemen, who had made their way across moved up -the gentle slope, and then gradually quickening their pace, fell on -the French centre. So deadly was the volley of the French infantry -that the foremost of our squadrons recoiled and all was wild -confusion. The moment had come far the French cavalry to charge, but -they let the opportunity slip by. As soon as the British cavalry had -reformed, they renewed the attack with redoubled fury. The French -horsemen fired their carbines, wheeled, and fled. This decided the -day. - -6. The French centre, flung back on the Danube, was forced to -surrender; their right, cooped up in Blenheim, and cut off from -retreat, also became prisoners of war. Marshal Tallard was caught -before he could make his escape. The French general, in command of -the troops posted in Blenheim, tried to swim his horse across the -Danube, and was drowned in the attempt. Before nightfall, -Marlborough wrote to his wife half-a-dozen lines in pencil, on the -back of an old hotel bill, to tell her to "give his duty to the -queen, and let her know that her army has won a glorious victory. M. -Tallard and two other generals are in my coach, and I am following -the rest." - - "'It was the English,' Kaspar cried, - 'Who put the French to rout; - But what they fought each other for - I could not well make out, - But everybody said,' quoth he, - 'That 'twas a famous victory.'" - -And it really was "a famous victory;" for it put an end to the danger -of France being able to lord it over the rest of Europe, and to -replace the Stuarts on the throne of England. Our free government -and our present line of sovereigns are among the results which we owe -to the genius of Marlborough and to the bravery of his troops. - -7. But there was one other victory won in the same year as that of -Blenheim, which, though it was gained almost by accident, with little -fighting and little loss, has left us a prize which half the world -covets. This was the capture of Gibraltar by Admiral Sir George -Rooke (1704). Gibraltar was not then the strong fortress that it is -now; but it was so strong by nature that the Spaniards thought a -small garrison sufficient for holding it. Rooke first seized the -narrow strip of land by which the Rock of Gibraltar is joined to the -mainland. The next day, while the Spanish sentries were at church, -some English sailors climbed up the rock and hoisted the English -flag. That flag has waved over the Rock of Gibraltar from that day -to this. - -8. Gibraltar owes its great importance to the fact that it is -situated on the strait that forms the gateway between the Atlantic -and the Mediterranean. It is, in consequence, called the Key to the -Mediterranean. In time of war it would be invaluable to our -shipping, serving as a place of refuge to our merchantmen, a -coaling-station for our men-of-war, a dockyard for their repair, and -a storehouse for providing them with guns, ammunition, and provisions. - - -NOTE I. By the Peace of Utrecht (1713), which ended the War of the -Spanish Succession, it was agreed that to Britain should belong--(1) -Gibraltar and Minorca, (2) Newfoundland and Acadia (Nova Scotia), and -(3) Hudson Bay Territory. - -NOTE 2. It should be remembered that the union between England and -Scotland was effected in 1707. Hitherto we have spoken almost -entirely of England and the English; we shall now have to speak -chiefly of Britain and the British, not forgetting that Ireland and -the Irish are included in these terms. - - - -(3) GRANDMOTHERLY GOVERNMENT OF THE FRENCH IN CANADA. - -1. We are now on the threshold of one of the most important parts of -our story. In the eighteenth century was fought out the question: -Should the British or the French be the ruling race of North America? -In answering that question, the British navy had much to say, -although the battles which decided the contest were fought mostly on -land; for it was owing to Britain's command of the seas, that we were -able to send our soldiers in safety across the ocean, and to supply -them with all things necessary for a fighting force, whilst depriving -the enemy of all succour from their friends at home. - -2. The commanding position which the British navy had reached at -that time is undisputed. "Before the war of the Spanish Succession," -says a distinguished naval officer of the United States, "England was -one of the sea powers; after it, she was _the_ sea power, without any -second. This power also she held alone, unshared by friend, -unchecked by foe." - -3. The Englishman who first enters Canada by way of Quebec is -surprised to find himself among a people speaking French, whilst -Quebec itself looks to him like a quaint old Norman town. The fact -is, the majority of the inhabitants are of French descent, although -at the present day as loyal to the British flag as any could desire. -The explanation of this French air about the place is, of course, the -fact that Canada was at first a French colony. - -4. The French began to plant a colony in Canada about the same time -as did the English in Virginia, but for the first fifty years it -dragged out a miserable existence. A new day dawned upon Canada, -when Louis XIV. took the colony in hand (1665), with the resolution -that a new France should be added to the old. Soldiers, settlers, -horses, sheep, cattle, were all sent out in abundance, and the -well-being of the colony became the object of the king's fatherly -care. Before winter set in, about two thousand persons had landed at -Quebec at Louis's expense. "Thus a sunbeam from the court of France -fell for a moment on the rock of Quebec." Indeed the light of the -king's favour continued to fall on the colony for some years, but it -failed to insure prosperity. - -5. The way in which Louis treated the French colonists in Canada is -a striking illustration of the difference between the French and -English methods of dealing with colonies; it is the difference -between liberty and restraint, between leaving the colonists to -manage their own affairs under friendly help and guidance, and -hampering them by foolish meddling. The French colonists were -treated as children and kept in leading-strings. The king acting for -some time the part of a fond father, and coddling them most unwisely. -Not only were their actual wants relieved by his bounty, but every -branch of trade and industry received liberal grants. They were thus -trained to dependence on their rulers to whom they were expected to -pay unquestioning obedience. - -6. "It is God's will," wrote Louis, "that whoever is born a subject -should not reason but obey." Every one of his officials seemed to be -of the same opinion. "It is of very great consequence," wrote one of -them, "that the people should not be left at liberty to speak their -own minds." They were not free so much as to go home to France when -they pleased; leave had first to be obtained. They were even told at -what age to marry, and fines were imposed unless they conformed. The -colonists, in fact, were in the position of a papoose, or Indian -baby, bound up tight from head to foot and carried on its mother's -shoulders like a pack. What was the consequence? - -7. All the most active and vigorous spirits in the colony took to -the woods and escaped the control of the king's officials. We hear -sometimes of farms abandoned, wives and children deserted, and the -greater part of the young men of a district turned into bushrangers -and forest outlaws. They joined the Indians, trapped the beaver, -trafficked with the natives for beaver-skins, and lived the wild life -of semi-savages. This was the natural result of their not enjoying -reasonable liberty in their own homes. - -8. Such slow progress did New France make, notwithstanding King -Louis's tender care, that on his death, in 1715, the whole colony was -in the depths of poverty and numbered only 25,000 souls, whereas the -English colonists in America were at that date ten times as numerous, -and lived in the midst of plenty. The former depended on Government -aid, the latter on themselves. - - - -(4) RIPENING FOR WAR. - -1. The treaty of Utrecht (1713) left Britain at the commencement of -a long period of peace and prosperity. During that quiet period we -have little that is interesting to tell. Britain was quietly growing -in wealth and power, and her colonies in population and importance. -By the census of 1754 it appeared that the British colonists, -occupying a strip of territory about 200 miles in width along the -Atlantic coasts, numbered upwards of a million souls; whereas at that -date, the whole white population under the French flag in North -America did not exceed 80,000. - -2. Though the French settlers were so few, France laid claim to all -America from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains, and from the -Gulf of Mexico to Hudson Bay. They claimed it by right of discovery -and partial occupation. It was her explorers who first made their -way down the Mississippi, her missionaries who first visited the -Indian tribes of the interior, her traders who first opened a market -with the natives. But the French had hardly occupied any part of -that vast region south of the Great Lakes. It is true they had -founded Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi and partly colonized -Louisiana; but between the delta of that river and the St. Lawrence -there was still a vast wilderness, the home of the bison and beaver, -where the Indian trapped and hunted, with here and there a French -trading post or mission station. - -3. "French America," says the historian of Canada, "had two -heads,--one among the snows of Canada, and one among the cane-breaks -of Louisiana; one communicating with the world through the gulf of -St. Lawrence, and the other through the Gulf of Mexico. These vital -points were feebly connected by a chain of military posts, circling -through the wilderness nearly three thousand miles. Midway between -Canada and Louisiana lay the valley of the Ohio. If the English -should seize it, they would sever the chain of posts and cut French -America asunder." And this they seemed now (1754) on the point of -doing. - -4. The Governor of Canada at that time was a man of bold spirit and -clear insight. He saw that the British traders were crossing the -Alleghanies into the valley of the Ohio, poaching on the domains -which the French claimed as their own, ruining the French fur trade, -and making friends of the natives by underselling the French traders. -He felt that, cost what it might, France must link Canada to -Louisiana by a chain of forts strong enough to keep back the British -colonists and coop them up in their old domains. The king's -ministers in France were of the same mind, and ordered the governor -to "send force enough to drive off the English from the Ohio, and -cure them of all wish to return." The governor accordingly set to -work to build forts at commanding points along the Ohio. The most -important was Fort Duquesne at the forks of the Ohio, where now -stands Pittsburg, with its clanging forges and flaming furnaces. - -5. A young officer, who later in life became famous, George -Washington, was sent with a small colonial force to expel the French, -if possible, from this fort before they had time to gain a firm -footing. He found however, his small force unequal to the task. -Washington's failure had the effect of throwing the Indians of the -Ohio into the arms of the French, for of course their one desire was -to be on the winning side. And when, next year, the smouldering war -burst into flame, nearly all the western tribes drew their -scalping-knives for France. - -6. It must be remembered that in all the fighting in America between -the British and the French, the native Indians took an active share. -Armed with their favourite weapon, the tomahawk, they were at close -quarters dangerous foes. Their fierce aspect in full war-paint--for -the warriors daubed their naked bodies with glaring colours--and -their wild war-whoops were well calculated to inspire soldiers -straight from England or France with considerable dread. From first -to last the various tribes were always ready to join one side or the -other, taking a fiendish delight in shedding blood and in crowing -over their fallen foes. And both English and French were equally -ready to bid for their support, and to fight side by side with them, -whilst abhorring their barbarities. Some tribes were always ready to -throw in their lot with the side that seemed the stronger, whilst -others were permanently attached either to the English or the French. - -7. The English were fortunate in having secured from the first the -loyal support of the Iroquois Indians, known as the "Five Nations," -the most formidable savages on the continent. But they were sorely -tempted to join the French whenever they felt aggrieved at the way -they were treated by the English colonists. They evidently found it -difficult, at times, to choose between the two peoples. "We don't -know what you Christians, English and French intend," said one of -their orators, "We are so hemmed in by you both that we have hardly a -hunting-place left. In a little while, if we find a bear in a tree, -there will immediately appear an owner of the land to claim the -property. We are so perplexed between the two that we hardly know -what to think or say." - -8. Being on the eve of war with the French, the colonial governors -called a meeting of the chiefs of the Five Nations, at the frontier -town of Albany, to try to conciliate them. At that conference one of -the chiefs thus concluded his speech: "You have neglected us for -these three years past." Here he took a stick and threw it behind -him. "You have thus thrown us behind your back; whereas the French -are always caressing us, and doing their utmost to win us over to -them. You desire us to speak from the bottom of our hearts, and we -shall do it. Look about your country and see; you have no -fortifications, no, not even in this city. It is but a step from -Canada here and the French may come and turn you out of doors. Look -at the French; they are men; they are fortifying everywhere. But you -are all like women, bare and open, without fortifications." - -9. They were however, induced to renew the covenant with our people. -A large "chain-belt" of white shells, called wampum, was provided, on -which the King of England was represented, holding in his embrace the -colonies and the Five Nations with their allied tribes. The chief, -on accepting the belt, said in reply: "We do now solemnly renew and -brighten the covenant chain. We shall take the chain-belt to -Onondaga, where our council-fire always burns, and keep it so safe -that neither thunder nor lightning shall break it." - -10. Hearing of Washington's failure to capture Fort Duquesne, the -Home Government sent out General Braddock with two regiments to take -it and any other fort that prevented our colonists from spreading -westwards. But both general and soldiers were ignorant of -"bush-fighting," and knew little of the Indians and their mode of -warfare. The French at Fort Duquesne had armed their Indian allies -with firearms, and waited in ambuscade for the approach of the -British who were advancing through the adjoining forest. The -advanced guard had crossed a little gully and the flat beyond it, and -was just crossing a second gully, when a force of about a thousand -French and Indians suddenly appeared in front and flank; shots were -scarcely exchanged when every enemy disappeared from view; but from -behind trees on all sides, and from the two gullies, just deep enough -to serve as rifle-pits, a continuous fire poured in upon the crowded -British. After three hours' fighting with an invisible foe, the -general, wounded and in despair, ordered a retreat. - -11. News of this defeat fired the minds of all Englishmen, and all -felt that nothing remained but "a fight to a finish" between the two -nations for settling their respective claims in America. The "Seven -Years' War," which began in 1756, was destined to decide once for all -the great questions in dispute between the two rivals in that quarter -of the globe. Few wars have had greater results in the history of -the world, and none has brought greater triumphs to Britain, but at -its opening the fortune of war, as usual, went wofully against us. - - - -(5) "THE GREAT COMMONER" AND HIS "MAD GENERAL." - -1. At the outset of the _Seven Years' War_ the French scored a great -success by the capture of Port Mahon, which was conceded to Britain -by the Peace of Utrecht. It was a fortified town of Minorca, with an -excellent harbour, and was of great value to our navy, as it enabled -our ships to winter and refit in the Mediterranean, instead of having -to come to England for that purpose. - -2. Admiral Byng had been sent with a fleet to prevent its capture, -but judging that the French fleet was superior to his own, both in -the number of men and guns, he did not drive home the attack, but -thought more of saving his ships than of saving the port. He was -summoned home, tried by court-martial, and found guilty of not doing -his utmost to defeat the French fleet and relieve the garrison. The -unfortunate admiral was, accordingly, shot on board a man-of-war -while sitting, blindfolded, in a chair on deck. The nation, by its -approval, taught the lesson that an English admiral is expected to -think more of destroying the enemy's fleet than of saving his own. - -3. In America, also, nothing at first seemed to prosper. The men in -command were old or incapable, and every attack made on the French -forts failed. Thus the first year of the war ended in gloom; but -with the appointment of William Pitt, as War Minister (1757), the -fortunes of Britain began to brighten and went on increasing in -splendour. "The Great Commoner," as Pitt was called, seemed to -inspire the whole country with his own lofty spirit. "No man," said -a soldier of the day, "ever entered Mr. Pitt's closet who did not -feel himself braver when he came out than when he went in." - -4. Pitt's greatest triumphs were gained in America. He had, of -course, nothing to do with the actual fighting. It was for him to -plan the campaigns, to appoint the men for carrying out his designs, -and to provide them with the means of doing so successfully. His -first aim was to take Louisbourg, a strong fortress of Cape Breton, -which stood sentinel for the French at the entrance of the Gulf of -St. Lawrence. In a safe harbour, under the guns of its fortress, the -French ships could bide their time, ready to strike when the right -moment had come. This place, therefore, had to be captured before it -would have been safe to sail up the St. Lawrence and lay siege to -Quebec. - -5. An army of twelve thousand men, placed under the command of -General Amherst, was sent out to wrest Louisbourg, if possible, out -of the hands of the French. Louisbourg, at that time, was the -strongest fortress in either English or French America. At the -entrance of the harbour was a rocky islet well fortified. In the -harbour itself were twelve French warships with 3000 men on board. -The forts of the harbour were garrisoned by 3000 troops, whilst -upwards of 200 cannon were mounted on the walls. The best defence of -Louisbourg was its craggy shore, with only a break here and there, -commanded by the guns of one or other of the forts. - -6. On examining the shores for a landing-place for his troops, the -general feared that the task before him was hopeless. At length a -cove was selected for the attempt and Brigadier Wolfe--who afterwards -became famous--was honoured with the command of the attacking party. -The place selected was more strongly defended than it seemed to be. -About a thousand Frenchmen lay behind entrenchments covered in front -by fir trees, felled and laid on the ground. Eight cannon were -planted to sweep every part of the beach, and these pieces were -masked by young evergreens stuck in the ground before them. - -7. The British were allowed to come within close range unmolested. -Then the batteries opened, and a deadly storm of grape and -musket-shot was poured upon the boats. It was clear in an instant -that to advance further would be destruction; and Wolfe gave the -signal to sheer off. But three boats on the right, little exposed to -the fire, made straight for the shore before them. There the men -landed on a strand strewn with rocks and lashed with breakers, but -sheltered from the cannon by a projecting point. Wolfe hastened to -support them. Many of the boats were stove among the rocks, and -others were overset, but most of the men tumbled through the surf and -climbed the crags. Forming his men in compact order, Wolfe attacked -and carried with the bayonet the first French battery. Thus the -first footing was gained, the first move of the great game was played -and won. - -8. The great guns were now landed and the siege commenced. The -British lines grew closer and closer, and their fire more and more -destructive. On the thirteenth day of the siege the guns of the -Island Battery that guarded the entrance were dismounted and -silenced. The French commander, Ducour, then sank four of his large -ships to block the mouth of the harbour and prevent any English ships -from entering. This did not, however, prevent six hundred English -sailors from rowing into the harbour on a dark night and setting fire -to the remaining ships. - -9. It is pleasing to find that during the siege various courtesies -were exchanged between the two commanders. Ducour, hoisting a flag -of truce, sent a letter to Amherst offering the services of a skilful -surgeon in case any English officers required them. Amherst, on his -part, sent letters and messages from wounded Frenchmen in his hands -to Ducour, and begged his wife to accept a gift of pine-apples. She -returned his courtesy by sending him a present of wine. After an -exchange of courtesies like this the cannon spoke again. The lady -herself was seen on the ramparts every morning encouraging the French -soldiers by her presence, and even firing cannon with her own hand. - -10. On the twenty-sixth day the last of the enemy's guns was -silenced, and all was ready for the assault. Finding it impossible -to hold out any longer, Ducour surrendered. It was stipulated that -the garrison should be sent to England as prisoners of war, and that -all artillery and arms should be given up intact. - -11. Amherst proceeded to complete his task by making himself master -of the adjacent possessions of France, including Cape Breton and what -are now called Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. Meanwhile -another British force was successful in capturing Fort Duquesne, the -key of the Great West. The town which rose around this fort was -called Pittsburg, in honour of the minister who had planned its -capture. This success opened the country west of the Alleghanies to -the pushing British colonists, and deprived France of one-half of her -savage allies in that region. - -12. Thus ended the campaign of 1758. The Canadian winter imposed a -truce on the combatants. Wolfe returned to England and, though only -thirty-two years of age, was raised by Pitt, the great war minister, -to the rank of general. When some one remarked to His Majesty, -George II., that Pitt's new general was mad, "Mad is he?" returned -the king; "then I hope he will bite some other of my generals." - - - -(6) CAPTURE OF A SECOND GIBRALTAR. - -1. The conquest of Canada hinged on the capture of Quebec the -"Gibraltar of America." This task was assigned to General Wolfe--a -bold, impetuous, and intrepid warrior, who had already won the -admiration of the soldiers at the siege of Louisbourg, and was about -to win undying fame at Quebec. No one had less the likeness of a -hero. It is worth while to picture out the man as he looked, at the -time of his appointment, that we may learn to distrust a hasty -judgment formed from mere outside appearance. - -2. The forehead and chin receded, the nose was slightly upturned, -the mouth expressed no resolution, and nothing but the clear, bright, -and piercing eye bespoke the spirit within. He wore a black -three-cornered hat, his red hair was tied in a tail behind; his -narrow shoulders, slender body, and long, thin limbs were cased in a -scarlet coat, with broad cuffs and ample skirts that reached the -knee; while on his left arm he wore a band of crape in mourning for -his father. Wolfe's life was a constant battling with ill-health. -He seems always to have been at his best in the thick of battle; most -complete in his mastery over himself and others at a perilous crisis. - -3. The fleet, with nine thousand troops on board, sailed out of the -harbour of Louisbourg in June, 1759, the officers drinking to the -toast, "British colours on every French fort, port, and garrison in -America," Fifteen months later this wild wish was realised, except at -New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mississippi. - -4. While the British fleet is making its way up the St. Lawrence, -the French under their brave, able and humane general, Montcalm, take -up a strong position east of Quebec, between two rivers, and behind -earthworks which lined the shore. The British army landed on the -Isle of Orleans three or four miles below Quebec. Wolfe soon saw -that the task before him was a desperate one. Before him frowned the -rock of Quebec, rising vertically more than 300 feet; and crowning -the rock was a citadel girdled with batteries. - -5. Our troops had hardly taken up their quarters, after landing, -than the enemy in the hope of cutting off their retreat attempted to -destroy our fleet by means of fire-ships, filled with pitch, tar, and -other combustibles, mixed with bombs, grenades, and old cannon and -muskets loaded to the mouth. On they came with the tide, flaming and -exploding, yet doing no harm except to a few French sailors who were -steering them. Some of them ran ashore before reaching the fleet; -the others were caught with grappling irons by the British tars, and -towed safely out of harm's way. A second attempt, later on, to burn -the English fleet by means of a fire-raft met with no better success. -It consisted of seventy rafts, boats, and schooners chained together. -Nothing saved the fleet but the undaunted courage of the British -sailors, who towed the fire-raft safe to shore, and left it at -anchor, whilst sounding the well-known refrain, _All's well_. - -[Illustration: GENERAL WOLFE'S ATTACK ON QUEBEC.] - -6. Wolfe, meanwhile, had laid Quebec in ruins, but no injury he -could do could draw "the wary old fox" from his cover. The question -was less how to fight the enemy than how to get at him. Montcalm -persisted in doing nothing that his antagonist wished him to do. "I -can't get at him," wrote Wolfe, "without spilling a torrent of blood, -and that perhaps to little purpose." At last the attempt was made, -and many lives were lost in vain. The troops, however, so loved and -trusted their general that they were ready to do his bidding with -alacrity when he resolved on a still more daring venture. - -7. The time was fast approaching when the English fleet would have -to leave the St. Lawrence to escape imprisonment in the ice. As a -forlorn hope, it occurred to Wolfe that an attempt might be made to -scale the heights under cover of night. About a mile above Quebec -was a tiny bay, now called Wolfe's Cove, from which a narrow path -passed up the face of the woody precipice, known as the _Heights of -Abraham_. Close upon the brow of the hill was the post of a French -captain with 150 men. - -8. Whilst the main fleet made a feigned attack below Quebec, Wolfe -was quietly preparing for his venture ten miles further up the river. -There a squadron of ships, with 3600 troops on board, lay tranquil at -anchor. Around it was collected a number of boats sufficient to take -half the troops. At one o'clock two lanterns were raised to the -maintop of the leading ship as a signal for the soldiers to enter the -boats; and an hour later, when the tide began to ebb, the order was -given to cast off and glide down with the current. The vessels, with -the rest of the troops, were to follow a little later. - -9. For full two hours the procession of boats floated silently down -the St. Lawrence. The stars were visible but the night was moonless -and sufficiently dark. The general, who was in one of the foremost -boats, repeated, in a low voice to the officers sitting round, Gray's -_Elegy in a Country Churchyard_. "Gentlemen," he said, as he -finished his recital, "I would rather have written those lines than -take Quebec." - -10. The leading company disembarked on a narrow strand at the foot -of the heights to be climbed, and began the ascent, each man pulling -himself up by bushes, stumps of trees, and jutting rocks. On -reaching the top they saw in the dim light a cluster of tents and -made a dart at them. The French, taken by surprise, fled. The main -body of British troops waited in their boats, near the beach, all -intently listening. Soon from the top came a sound of musket shots, -followed by loud hurrahs from British throats, and Wolfe knew that -the position was gained. The word was given; the troops leaped from -the boats and climbed the heights, clutching at trees and bushes, -giving and taking hands, their muskets slung at their backs. As fast -as the boats were emptied they hastened to the ships to be refilled. - -11. When the day broke Wolfe's battalions were drawn up in battle -array on the Plains of Abraham just behind Quebec, and there they -waited for the attack, Montcalm hurried to the spot, and full in -sight before him stretched the lines of Wolfe: the close ranks of the -English infantry, a silent wall of red, and the wild array of the -Highlanders with their bagpipes screaming defiance. The British -waited until the French were within forty yards and then rang out the -command, and a crash of musketry answered. Another volley quickly -followed, and then came the order to charge with the bayonet. As -Wolfe led on his grenadiers a shot shattered his wrist. He wrapped -his handkerchief about it and kept on. Another shot struck him, but -he still advanced, when a third lodged in his breast and brought him -to the ground. He was carried to the rear, and there lay dying, when -all at once an officer cried cut: "They run; see how they run!" "Who -run?" asked the dying hero. "The enemy, sir, they give way in all -directions." "Then God be praised; I shall die in peace!" - -12. The brave Montcalm met with a similar fate. As, borne with the -tide of fugitives, he approached the town, a shot passed through his -body. He lingered until the next day, and soon afterwards Quebec -opened its gates to the conquerors. In the public gardens of Quebec, -there now stands an obelisk, bearing on one of its faces the word -Montcalm and on the opposite face the name Wolfe; two brave men equal -in honour, in devotion to duty, in patriotism. - -13. The capture of Quebec was soon followed by the conquest of all -Canada. All the French troops in the colony were taken back to -France. Protection to person and property, and the free exercise of -their religion, were promised to all the colonists who were willing -to remain in the country. They had hitherto been treated as -children, unable to speak and act for themselves. All this was now -changed. A new spirit of freedom animated the whole colony, infusing -new life and vigour into all classes. This resulted in the increase -of wealth and comfort, and in the growth of a genuine loyalty to the -British Crown. - - - -(7) FIRST FOUNDER OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. - -1. Whilst General Wolfe was fighting the French in Canada, Robert -Clive was similarly engaged in India. Here, as in America, the -British and French were rivals for power. Both nations had an East -India Company, and until lately the two companies had confined -themselves to their own proper business as merchants. The British -had factories, or trading-stations, at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay; -the French had their headquarters at Pondicherry. The appointment of -Dupleix as governor at Pondicherry, in 1748, led to a change of -policy. From that time the French began to bid for empire, and the -British were not slow to follow their lead. - -2. India at that time was nominally under the rule of an emperor, -known as the "Great Mogul"; but the real power was in the hands of -the princes who ruled, in his name, in the different provinces of the -empire. Dupleix saw in this state of things a chance of making -France the supreme power in India. Disputes were constantly arising -between the native princes about the right of succession. Dupleix's -plan was an immoral one; it was, in any dispute for a throne, to take -the side of the prince who had the least right to it; for the one who -gained the throne, by his help, without being entitled to it, would -afterwards be only a mere puppet prince under his thumb. - -3. Dupleix also perceived that the army of a native prince was -merely an armed rabble, and that a small disciplined force would -easily beat it, even if that force was composed of merely -well-drilled natives under European officers. He perceived that the -natives, though not wanting in personal courage, were as babes in the -art of warfare. When, for instance, they engaged in battle, the -officer in command mounted an elephant and became the standard of his -army. All eyes were turned towards him; as long as he was visible -the troops rallied round him; directly he fell or turned they -dispersed, and the day was lost. It was thus possible for a -well-directed shot to decide the fate of a battle. - -4. The opportunity which Dupleix wanted was not long in presenting -itself. A dispute arose between two princes for the right to rule -the Carnatic, a province of Southern India. The claimant whom -Dupleix favoured soon triumphed over his rival, but he was a mere -tool in the hands of his French patron, who became the real ruler of -the province. And to impress the natives with a sense of his -greatness, he clad himself in costly native dresses, trimmed with -jewels, and required his attendants to serve him on bended knee. But -Dupleix was not long left in the quiet enjoyment of his honours. - -5. There was a clerk in the employ of our East India Company whose -adventurous spirit urged him to quit the desk and gird on the -soldier's sword. That man was Robert Clive, who proved to be one of -the master-makers of our empire, and the founder of British rule in -India. Clive showed himself to be a born leader of men, with a -genius for war, as brave as the bravest, with a presence of mind that -never forsook him however great the danger. Clive proposed to make a -sudden dash on Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, about a hundred -miles inland from Madras. His offer was accepted, and he set out -from Madras at the head of 200 English soldiers and 300 -Sepoys--natives armed and drilled after the European fashion--with -eight English officers. - -6. Clive made the journey by forced marches through the thunder and -lightning and rain of the wet season, and so astounded the garrison -of Arcot that they ran without striking a blow. A force of 3000 men -soon appeared to drive out the intruders. In the middle of the night -on which they arrived, while all of them were fast asleep, -Clive--without waiting to be besieged, as he should have done by all -the rules of Indian warfare--made a sudden sally, drove them headlong -from the place, and returned without losing a single man. Somewhat -later a force of 8000 men encircled the city, and for fifty days the -young captain foiled all their efforts to take it. - -7. During this terrible time, officers and men--European and native -alike--were all animated by the same undaunted spirit and by the same -devotion to the young captain. When there was nothing left but rice -to live and fight on, and very little of that, the Sepoys came to him -of their own will to beg that the grain should be reserved for their -European comrades and the water in which it was boiled for themselves. - -8. At last, the enemy stormed the fort, driving before them -elephants whose foreheads were armed with iron plates. It was -expected that the gates would yield to the shock of these living -battering-rams. But the balls from the fort sent the huge beasts -flying in terror into the crowded ranks of their own masters. -However, a breach had been made, and the attack went on. Clive had -placed his best marksmen in front, and ordered those in the rear to -load the muskets for them to fire. Three times the besiegers stormed -the breach, and three times they quailed before the leaden-storm that -beat upon them. During the night the enemy suddenly decamped, -leaving guns and stores to the victors. - -9. Clive's success at Arcot may be justly considered the first stone -laid in the foundation of our Indian Empire. As the star of Clive -rose so that of Dupleix sank. The prince that the latter had set up -lost his throne, and Dupleix himself was recalled to France; for the -French Government regarded his lofty aims and pretensions as no -better than a wild dream. But the wild dream of Dupleix for France -was fulfilled by Clive and his successors for Britain. To-day we see -that dream realised, and an English King proclaimed Emperor of India. - -10. To Clive belongs the honour of having been the first Englishman -to impress the people of India with the fighting-powers of our race, -the first to inspire them with the idea that Victory rode in a -British war-chariot. Nothing is more essential to success in ruling -the myriads of India than the conviction that our arms are sure to -prevail. Fortunately, the British soldier, ever since the days of -Robert Clive, has made his name famous in India; the credit he has -gained for valour and victory materially aids him in battle to win -the day. The name and renown gained by success and good fortune in -the past is what is meant by prestige, and this heritage of ours is -one of the secrets of the power that enables a few thousands of our -race in India to rule its three hundred million souls. - - - -(8) BEGINNING OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. - -1. Who has not heard of the "Black Hole of Calcutta" and of the -miscreant Surajah Dowlah, the _nawab_, or native governor, of Bengal? -This man hated the English, and he resolved to expel them from his -province. Marching to Calcutta with a large force, he seized all our -countrymen within his reach, and thrust them for the night into a -small stifling room. When the door was thrown open in the morning, -only 23 out of 146 staggered out alive. All the rest had fallen dead -from the intense heat and suffocating air. - -2. When the news reached Madras there went up a cry for vengeance, -and all eyes turned to Clive as the avenger. A part of the famous -39th regiment, lately arrived from England, formed the backbone of -Clive's force. Admiral Watson was also at hand with a small fleet, -and sailed with the avenging army to the mouth of the Hooghly (Hugli). - -3. On their arrival the work of retribution began. Calcutta soon -fell into their hands. The nawab's capital, Moorshedabad, was the -next object of attack, Clive boldly advancing against it with his -small force of 3000 men. The nawab drew up his army of 50,000 men on -the plains of Plassey, a few miles in front of his capital. Whilst -Clive could only muster ten light field pieces, his enemy had fifty -heavy guns at his command. But there was treachery in his ranks, for -Clive had won over Meer Jaffier, the principal commander of his -troops, and the nawab himself was hated by his own people. - -4. Clive drew up his troops in front of a grove of mangoes, and near -it was a hunting-lodge from the roof of which Clive watched the -nawab's army take up its position. They came on with all the pomp -and panoply of war--the infantry with their banners flying, the -cavalry with their drawn swords flashing back the rays of the rising -sun, the elephants with their scarlet trappings, and the heavy guns -with their unwieldy platforms and struggling teams of white oxen. -The battle that followed lasted till noon. - -5. At the right moment, Clive ordered a general advance, and after a -brief struggle, disorder and dismay having spread through the ranks -of his army, Surajah gave the order to retreat. Clive immediately -darted forward with all his men, while the hosts of the enemy fled -panic-stricken before them. The nawab mounted a swift dromedary, and -was the first to reach Moorshedabad, with a bodyguard of 2000 -horsemen. Plassey was not a great battle, but it was fruitful in -great results. It was fought on 23rd June, 1757, a date from which -is reckoned the foundation of British rule in India. - -6. As an immediate result of the battle Surajah Dowlah was deposed, -and Meer Jaffier made nawab. Clive was taken by the new nawab into -the royal treasury of Bengal, and there, walking between heaps of -gold and silver and cases filled with jewels, he was invited to help -himself. He accepted about two hundred thousand pounds, and became -the real ruler of Bengal. Much had yet to be done to place the power -of the British in Bengal on a firm footing, but that result was -achieved before Clive sailed for England (1760). - -7. Whilst Clive was securing Bengal, his friend, Colonel Eyre Coote, -was doing much, in southern India, to raise the British and lower the -French in the eyes of the native soldiers. A decisive engagement was -fought between the troops of the two rivals at Wandewash, south of -Madras, in 1760. This battle is unique in the warfare of India, -being fought between Europeans only. The native soldiers, on both -sides, deliberately held back to let the strangers have a fair fight. -The French were routed, and their prestige soon faded from the native -mind. Coote's sepoys, in congratulating their general on his -victory, warmly thanked him for having shown them how a battle should -be fought. By the end of another year Pondicherry was surrendered to -Coote, and no spot of Indian soil remained under the French flag. It -is true Pondicherry was restored to France at the conclusion of the -Seven Years' War (1763), but only on condition that it should be held -simply for purposes of trade. Britain, on the other hand, retained -possession of Bengal and bade fair to become, ere long, the ruling -power in India. - -8. To help England to build her Indian empire on a sound basis, our -hero returned to India (1765) as governor of Bengal, with the title -of Lord Clive. He soon set himself the most difficult task of his -life, and that was to put an end to the corrupt practices of the -officials of the Company, who were growing rapidly rich by accepting -bribes to act unjustly. The whole body of officials seemed to be -set, as one man, against the reforms of the new governor, but his -iron will was too strong for them all. - -9. By his just and honest government Clive became the friend of the -Hindoo, and at the same time the true friend of his own country; for -if the first establishment of British rule in India was due to -British valour, its continuance is due to British truthfulness, -justice and fair-dealing. All that we could have gained by being as -false and subtle as the Orientals themselves were wont to be, is as -nothing compared with what we have gained by being the one power in -India whose word could be trusted. It is a thing of which we may be -justly proud, that no oath, however binding, no hostage, however -precious, inspires one tithe of the confidence which is produced by -the "yea, yea" and "nay, nay" of a British envoy. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - -Time of Trial and Triumph - -(1763-1815). - - -(1) TIGHTENING OUR HOLD ON INDIA. - -1. The Seven Years' War, which came to a close in 1763, left Britain -everywhere triumphant. But she was not left long to enjoy her -triumph. Days of darkness came upon her, bringing defeat and -disaster, and the loss of her principal colonies. Everywhere she had -to fight to hold her own. And how well this was done for her in -India by one of her ablest sons our story shall now tell. - -2. If Clive was the founder of British rule in India, Warren -Hastings was its preserver. Like Clive, he began his career as a -clerk in the service of the East India Company. In the Bengal war he -shouldered a musket and fought at Plassey; but Clive's quick eye soon -perceived that there was more in his head than his arm, and he -employed him as his agent at the court of the new nawab, Meer -Jaffier. From this time Hastings steadily rose in the Company's -service, until, in 1774, he was made Governor-General of India, the -first to hold that office. - -3. India at this time was a medley of nations under the nominal -headship of the "Great Mogul"; but his power was very limited, and -the princes who ruled in his name did much as they pleased. The most -powerful of these native rulers were the Mahratta chiefs, and for -many years it was a question whether the Mahrattas or the British -should be the leading power in India. - -4. The original seat of this fierce and cunning people was the wild -range of hills that run along the western coast of India. When the -Mogul empire fell to pieces, some time previously, the Mahratta -chiefs made themselves masters of the central provinces, with Poona -as their headquarters. They founded states which spread from sea to -sea, and their sword was always at the service of the highest bidder. -They were almost equally dreaded by friend and foe; the former were -ruined by the heavy pay they extorted, and the latter had their -country ravaged by fire and sword. Their cavalry moved in large -bodies with marvellous speed, and wherever "their kettledrums were -heard the peasant threw his bag of rice on his shoulder, hid his -small savings in his girdle, and fled with his wife and children to -the mountains or jungles, to the milder neighbourhood of the hyæna -and the tiger." - -5. Such were the people with whom Hastings had to contend for the -safety of the British dominions in India. Hearing that France had -sent an envoy to form an alliance with them, our governor-general -determined to strike a decisive blow before a French force could -arrive. The first general sent by Hastings bungled and failed. A -new commander was appointed who spread the military renown of the -British through regions where no European flag had ever been seen. -Captain Popham, in particular, gained great applause by his capture -of the great rock-fortress of Gwalior--a feat which all had thought -impossible. At dead of night he led his forces, their feet wrapped -in cotton, to the foot of the fortress. By means of ladders they -silently scaled a smooth wall of rock, sixteen feet high. Above, a -steep ascent of forty yards was climbed. A few of the sepoys were -then drawn up a wall thirty feet high by ropes let down by some -spies, and on being joined by their comrades, rushed forward and -overpowered the sleeping garrison, thus gaining possession of the -far-famed fortress. - -6. Meanwhile our governor-general made all ready for the French. He -knew that France had declared war (1778), and that a great French -expedition was on the way. To Hastings' great delight there arrived -from England, to take the chief command of the forces, Sir Eyre -Coote, the hero of Wandewash, and the idol of the sepoys who had -fought under him. An incident is mentioned by an English officer, -half a century later, which shows the high honour in which Coote was -held by the native soldiers. One of his veterans came to the officer -who tells the story to present a memorial. Seeing a print of Coote -hanging in the room, he at once recognised the face and figure which -he had not seen for fifty years, and, forgetting his salute to the -living, halted, drew himself up, lifted his hand, and made a solemn -bow to the dead. - -7. Coote's services were soon required after his arrival at -Calcutta. A swift ship flying before the south-west monsoon brought -the news that a great army of 90,000 men, under the direction of -French officers, had poured down through the wild passes that led -from the table-land of Mysore to the plains of the Carnatic. They -had swept down under the command of Hyder Ali, a soldier of fortune, -who had raised himself to the throne of Mysore, and who now sought, -with the help of the French and the Mahrattas, to drive the British -out of India. His squadrons had burst upon the Carnatic like a -furious storm, spreading desolation and ruin far and wide, routing -the small British force that stood in their way, and driving all -before them up to the gates of Madras. - -8. Such was the state of things in Southern India when Sir Eyre -Coote arrived from Calcutta with all the troops that the -governor-general could collect. He happily reached Madras before the -expected French fleet appeared in the Indian seas. Without an hour's -delay Coote sought the enemy, and brought him to battle at Porto -Novo, a haven some forty miles south of Pondicherry. Though he could -only muster nine thousand men to oppose a force ten times as -numerous, yet after six hours of conflict the enemy fled in dismay. -Every town on the coast under French rule was seized at once, so that -when the French fleet arrived it found no port where it could refit. -Its nearest station was in the Mauritius, two thousand miles away. - -9. Many forgotten battles, with varying fortune, were fought in the -five years that followed this great victory; but by 1783 the war had -burnt itself out, leaving the Carnatic a scene of desolation. In -Bengal, however, our governor-general had been able to maintain peace -and to insure to the natives the fruits of their labours. "Under the -nawabs," says Macaulay, "the hurricane of Mahratta cavalry had passed -annually over the rich plain of the Ganges. But even the Mahratta -shrank from a conflict with the mighty children of the sea; and the -rich harvests of the Lower Ganges were safely gathered in under the -protection of the English sword." One homely instance may be given -of the general security felt by the poor natives under British rule. -"A good rain this for the bread," said one Indian peasant to another. -"Yes," was the reply, "and a good government under which one may eat -bread in safety." - -10. In all his schemes for the success of his rule and the honour of -his country, Hastings was constantly thwarted by a member of the -Supreme Council, named Francis. The quarrel between them at last, -according to the custom of those days, led to a duel. In this duel, -we get a glimpse of the calm courage and high spirit of the man, who -was as a pillar on which rested the whole fabric of our rule in -India. The seconds in the duel had taken the precaution to bake the -powder for their respective friends, nevertheless, Francis' pistol -missed fire. Hastings obligingly waited until he had reprimed. This -time the pistol went off, but the shot flew wide of the mark. Then -Hastings coolly returned the shot, and the bullet entered the right -side of his foe. As soon as he was well enough to travel Francis -went home to England, and poisoned men's minds against him. - -11. Hastings, indeed, had laid himself open to attack in his schemes -for raising money to pay his troops. The means he adopted for this -purpose has left a stain on his name, and an uncomfortable feeling -upon the minds of his countrymen that our empire in India has not -always been built on honourable lines. On Hastings' return to -England he was brought to trial for the wrongs he had committed in -the course of his government. The fact was clearly brought out at -his trial that, whatever his measures for obtaining money, he had -taken them with the object, not of enriching self, but of promoting -the interests of his country. After the trial had drawn its weary -length over a period of seven years, the accused was acquitted. The -nation had by this time forgotten his faults and remembered only his -great services, whereby he had preserved Britain from loss in the -East whilst her fortunes underwent eclipse in the West. - - - -(2) A GREAT LOSS TO THE EMPIRE. - -1. The triumphs in the Seven Years' War had not been won without -great cost. A long score had been run up by the nation, and to pay -the interest on the National Debt heavy taxes had to be borne. If -the money spent in the last war was not to be thrown away, it was -necessary to spend still more in order to defend what British arms -had won. The American colonies, also, were constantly exposed to -Indian raids, and the savage use of the scalping-knife. It was, -accordingly resolved by the British Government to keep a standing -army in America of ten thousand men. And for the maintenance of such -an army it was only just that the colonists should contribute. - -2. A dispute now arose between the colonists and the Home -Government, not about the amount which the former should pay, but -upon the way in which the demand for payment was made. The British -Parliament asserted its right to tax the colonists and insisted on -levying a tax on tea. The colonists urged that they should be left -free to tax themselves in their own colonial parliaments. "We will -not allow," said they, "the British Parliament to thrust their hands -into our pockets." The dispute ended in war. The thirteen American -colonies banded together, and declared themselves free and -independent states (1776). - -3. In the war that followed the colonists gained the day. They owed -their success, in no small measure, to George Washington, their -Commander-in-chief. It was only as the weary fight went on that his -countrymen learnt, little by little, the greatness of their -leader--his silence under difficulties, his calmness in the hour of -danger or defeat, the patience with which he waited for an -opportunity, the quickness and vigour with which he struck home when -it came. - -4. But success was due still more to the help the colonists received -from France and Spain. These two powers had been brought to their -knees in the Seven Years' War, and now they resolved to take -advantage of the family quarrel between Britain and her colonies to -pay off old scores: "to avenge," as they said, "old injuries, and to -put an end to that tyrannical empire which England has usurped, and -claims to maintain, upon the ocean." The main object the French had -in view was not, as we might suppose, the reconquest of Canada, but -the transfer to herself of the British possessions in the West -Indies. Spain's heart was set on the recovery of Gibraltar. Both -nations made a solemn vow to grant neither peace nor truce until -Gibraltar had fallen. - -5. Spain set about the siege of Gibraltar the moment she had -declared war (1779). The difficulty on our side was not to keep the -enemy from landing, but to keep the garrison supplied with provisions -and ammunition. Our fleets, however, proved equal to the task. They -were led to victory by Admiral Rodney, one of the greatest of English -seamen. He not only escorted his own provision ships into the -harbour of Gibraltar, but on the way captured a Spanish squadron of -seven ships-of-war and sixteen supply ships, which were added to his -own for the victualling of Gibraltar. A week later, when off Cape -St. Vincent, Rodney espied a Spanish fleet of eleven -sail-of-the-line, gave chase, and cutting in between the enemy and -his port, captured the Commander-in-chief, with six of his -battle-ships, whilst a seventh was blown up. - -6. The siege went on for three years. At last the allies, in -September, 1782, resolved to bend all their energies to finish off -the work. On the isthmus, joining the rock to the mainland, they -planted 300 pieces of artillery, and in front of the rock ten -floating batteries, which were supposed to be both shot and fire -proof. War-ships, gun-boats, and bomb-vessels were to lend their -aid. Thousands of French soldiers were brought to reinforce the -Spaniards, all held in readiness for a grand assault as soon as the -guns had made a breach large enough for troops to enter. - -7. For four days the guns on the isthmus bombarded the fortress in -vain. Then the floating-batteries were brought into action. A -furious cannonade raged for hours between the batteries afloat and -the batteries on the rock. General Eliott, who was in command of the -fortress, served his guns with red-hot balls, and at last, in spite -of the enemy's frantic efforts to extinguish the fire, one of the -batteries was well ablaze, and soon the same fate overtook the -others. In the end, nine of the ten blew up, and about two thousand -poor fellows were blown into the sea. Our commander then showed that -he was as humane as he was brave. The British guns ceased firing, -and boats, rowed by willing British hands, rescued four hundred from -death. Thus ended the last attempt to take Gibraltar by storm. - -8. A few months before her triumph at Gibraltar, Britain won a -signal victory over the French in the West Indies. A French fleet, -under Admiral De Grasse, consisting of thirty-six war-ships, with -five thousand troops on board, was ordered to join a Spanish fleet of -fourteen men-of-war, carrying eight thousand troops, off Hayti, and -then clear the British out of Jamaica and all their West India -possessions. Had the junction taken place, the combined armada of -fifty ships might have accomplished the task. But the scheme came to -nought in consequence of a splendid victory over the French fleet by -Admiral Rodney. - -9. The battle was fought in April, 1782, near a group of islets -called the _Saints_, which gives its name to the battle. For four -days the two fleets manoeuvred, circling round each other like two -birds of prey on the wing, each admiral trying to place his -antagonist at a disadvantage. At last Rodney's chance had come. The -signal was given for attack. The British fleet glided on, each ship -a cable's length, or about two hundred yards, from her neighbour; and -so perfect was the line, we are told, "that a bucket dropped from the -leading ship might have been picked up by almost any ship that -followed." Rodney drew his ships within musket-shot of the enemy's, -and then began a cannonade that soon wrapped the two lines in smoke -and flame through their whole length. All the time the ships are in -movement, the two lines sailing in opposite directions, and pouring -in their shot as ship passes ship. - -10. At length the crisis has come. One of the French ships is -disabled and leaves a gap between itself and the next. Rodney -immediately pushes his ship through the gap, thus breaking the French -line. In breaking the line, says an eye-witness, "we passed so near -the lame French ship that I could see the gunners throwing away their -sponges and hand-spikes in order to save themselves by running -below." The captains coming next to the admiral follow him through -the fatal gap, thus crumpling up the French centre, and placing the -French flag-ship and six others between two fires. - -11. De Grasse fought his flag-ship like a gallant sailor. She was -the finest ship afloat carrying 106 guns and a crew of 1300 men. In -vain he signalled for help. The ships that had formed his van and -his rear were flying in opposite directions. The British ships, one -after another, drew round the doomed ship. When his cartridges were -exhausted, De Grasse ordered powder barrels to be hoisted from the -hold, and loose powder to be poured into the guns with a ladle. By -sunset there were but three unwounded men on the upper deck. More -slain or wounded men lay around her guns than in Rodney's whole -fleet. At six o'clock, the unfortunate admiral, with his own hands, -hauled down his flag. - -12. Six ships fell to the British, but one caught fire and burned to -the water's edge, while three were so mauled that they foundered -before reaching port. The battle of Saints is famous for the skilful -tactics of the victor and for the important results of the victory. -Combined with the successful defence of Gibraltar, it induced the -allies to bring the war to a close by the Treaty of Versailles -(1783). By this treaty the independence of the United States was -acknowledged. But beyond the loss of her American colonies, Britain -had weathered the storm with little damage to herself. - -13. The forcible separation, however, between the mother-country and -her colonies bequeathed for many generations a feeling of bitterness -between the two nations. But a better day has now dawned. A new -bond of sympathy has arisen between them as two branches of the same -Anglo-Saxon race. They are divided by a wide ocean, but at critical -times it has been plainly proved that "blood is thicker than water." -A voice has passed across the ocean from either side, and this is the -message it tells:-- - - "Kinsmen, hail! - We severed have been too long: - Now let us have done with a worn-out tale, - The tale of an ancient wrong, - And our friendship last long as Love doth last, - And be stronger than death is strong." - - - -(3) AUSTRALASIA BROUGHT TO LIGHT. - -1. Britain had now lost her chief colonies in the New World, but a -newer world was waiting for her to occupy. This newer world was -Australia, whose existence was not known until fifty years after -Columbus made his famous discovery. The first to get a glimpse of -Australia were the Dutch, who called it New Holland; but they only -touched on its northern and western coasts, and knew nothing of the -extent and character of the interior. To a Dutchman also, named -Tasman, is due the honour of having first lighted on New Zealand and -Tasmania, but he did little or nothing in exploring these lands and -mapping out their coasts. It was reserved for an Englishman, the -famous Captain Cook, to explore the coasts and definitely fix the -situation of those southern lands that now form so important a part -of King Edward's Realm. - -2. This celebrated explorer was the son of a day-labourer in -Yorkshire, and, when a boy of six or seven, was set to work at -bird-scaring on a farm. The farmer's wife, taking an interest in the -lad, taught him to read and write, which few poor boys in his days -were able to do. A year or two later we find him ship-boy to a -collier. Whilst serving as a sailor before the mast, James Cook did -what was seldom done by men in his position, he went on with his -learning, and mastered the rules of navigation and the mode of making -charts. For thirteen years he went on learning his business as a -mariner, and training himself to take things as they came and to look -on hardships and coarse or scanty fare as matters of no account in a -seaman's life. - -3. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War Cook's chance came to -him. He entered the royal navy, and by his talents attracted the -notice of his captain and was appointed "master" of the _Mercury_. -Whilst holding this post he was sent to the St. Lawrence to prepare -for Wolfe's expedition to Quebec, by taking soundings of the river -and laying down a chart. So well was this work done that not only -did the fleet reach Quebec without a mishap, but the work has needed -but little re-doing from that day to this. This service to his -country was not forgotten; and when it was resolved to send an -exploring expedition to the Southern Ocean, James Cook was placed in -command. - -4. Between 1768 and 1779, Captain Cook made three voyages of -discovery from end to end of the great Pacific Ocean, from the -impassable barrier of ice in the south to that in the north. During -that time he did more to fill up the blanks on the map of the world -than any man before or since. In his first voyage Captain Cook set -sail in the _Endeavour_--a mere collier of 370 tons, but stout and -strong, built for safety rather than speed, and worked by a crew of -eighty-five men. The explorer made direct for Tahiti, and after -refitting his ship and refreshing his men at this earthly Paradise -set sail for New Zealand. - -5. Though discovered long ago by Tasman, no white man had yet set -foot on it. During his three voyages Cook thoroughly explored and -mapped out its coasts. He often landed and made the acquaintance of -some of the chiefs. The natives, who called themselves _Maoris_, -proved to be a warlike race of cannibals, who not only ate human -flesh, but boasted of the practice. The natives derived much benefit -from the visits of the explorer; for he introduced many useful -animals and plants, including pigs, fowls, potatoes, and turnips. - -6. The captain in his Journal tells us that the Maoris paid no -attention to musketry fire unless actually struck, but "great guns -they did, because they threw stones further than they could -comprehend. After they found that our arms were so superior to -theirs, and that we took no advantage of that superiority, and a -little time was given them to reflect upon it, they ever after were -our good friends." He also found in them a sense of honour which -kept them true to any bargain or agreement they had made. - -7. The great explorer next sailed for Australia, then almost an -unknown land. Cook was the first to visit the East Coast, which he -explored with great care. The first point of Australia seen by his -look-out man was Cape Howe, in the south-east corner of the country. -A few days later the _Endeavour_ anchored in Botany Bay, which owes -its name to the great variety of new plants seen there. - -8. The English made there their first acquaintance with the natives, -who on seeing the strange vessel near the shore did not seem to take -the slightest notice; "they were," says Cook, "to all appearance -wholly unconcerned about us, though we were within half-a-mile of -them." And even when the sailors threw among them little presents of -beads and pieces of cloth, they regarded such things with -indifference. The only thing they cared to accept was food, and -this, when given them, they greedily devoured. They were neither -excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by the sound of its guns. -They were evidently savages of a low order, not intelligent enough to -be curious. They stood sullenly aloof, and would enter into no -relation with the stranger. - -[Illustration: Captain Cook Presenting Pigs and Fowls to the Maoris.] - -9. For the next three or four months the explorer proceeded -northwards, making a careful survey of the coasts. At one time it -seemed likely that the ship and its crew would perish. After sailing -1300 miles along the East Coast without meeting with any accident, -the _Endeavour_ suddenly struck on a part of the Barrier Reef, whose -existence at that time was unknown. A great hole was knocked in the -vessel. A sail, with a quantity of wool and oakum lightly stitched -to it, was placed beneath the ship with ropes, and served in some -measure to stop the leak. The ship was at length got off the rock, -brought to land and beached for repairs, at a spot in Queensland -where now stands Cooktown. - -10. Cook afterwards completed the survey of the East Coast and gave -the name of New South Wales to the whole country, from Cape York to -Cape Howe. Already at Botany Bay, and at other landing places, Cook -had hoisted the British Flag, and now, before quitting Australia on -his homeward way, he once more landed and took formal possession in -the name of King George. Thus he added what turned out a whole -continent to the British Empire, and that without sacrificing a -single life in battle; and thus in great measure he made up for our -loss in the New World by opening the door of a newer world which our -people might enter and occupy. - - - -(4) FIRST SETTLEMENT IN AUSTRALIA. - -1. In former times we used to get rid of our criminals by sending -them across the seas to work, as forced labourers, on the farms of -our colonists in America. But when the colonists rose in rebellion -and fought for independence, they refused to take any longer our -thieves and vagabonds. As the war went on our prisons became crowded -with convicts, and by the time it came to an end (1783) every one saw -that some other field for convict labour must be found. - -2. An empty continent, whose whereabouts Captain Cook had made -known, was waiting to receive any who came from our shores; but it -was situated on the opposite side of the globe, twelve thousand miles -away. At length, in spite of the distance, Australia was selected as -a suitable place for our convicts. And in May, 1787, the first -convoy set sail. It carried nearly 800 convicts, with a guard of 200 -marines, and was placed under the command of Captain Phillip, who had -been appointed governor of the new settlement. - -3. The voyage lasted eight months, and in January, 1788, the fleet -arrived at Port Jackson, which struck the new-comers as "the finest -harbour in the world." All being landed, governor Phillip gathered -his subjects around him and made them a little speech, in which he -tried to inspire the convicts with new hope, and to make them feel -that their future fortune was in their own keeping. He also reminded -the marines that after three years' service, they would be at liberty -to settle there as colonists with free gifts of land for cultivation. -The ships fired three salutes, and the rest of the day was spent as a -holiday. - -4. This was the last cheery time for many years to come in the lives -of the settlers. Hard times lay before them. The first settlement -was made on the site of Sydney. The task which lay before the -governor was a gigantic one; roads to make, trees to fell, houses to -build, crops to plant; and the men and women to help him in the work, -for the most part idle and dishonest. Indeed, many of them, as the -governor said, "dread punishment less than they fear labour." To add -to his troubles, for the first two years a great drought, aided by a -fiery sun, baked the soil till it became hard and sterile. The -settlers had brought with them seeds and cattle as well as stores of -provisions; but the seeds failed to grow, and the cattle broke loose -and were lost in the "bush." - -5. Within a few months the danger of starvation came so near that -the whole colony was put on short rations. To the credit of the -governor, in this time of distress, he threw his own private stock -into the common store, and shared alike with the rest. To lessen the -chance of starving, the governor sent a large party by sea to Norfolk -Island, where the soil was less sterile, and more food could be -obtained by fishing and fowling. There also it became necessary to -collect all private stores of food, and to throw them into one common -stock, and deal out a certain quantity daily to each person. - -6. Happily the firm government and wise measures adopted in each -settlement kept the wolf from the door until fresh supplies came from -England. Governor Phillip having shared the privations of his men, -and borne the heavy strain of his responsible post for nearly five -years, returned home in December, 1792. Few men have been placed in -a more difficult position for such a length of time, and none have -brought to the fulfilment of such a thankless task as his more -courage, devotion, and humanity. "The consideration alone," he says, -"of doing a good work for my country could make amends for being -surrounded by the most infamous of mankind." The name of Arthur -Phillip deserves an honoured place on the roll of the founders of the -British Empire. - -7. Another convict settlement was soon afterwards made in Tasmania, -or Van Diemen's Land, as it was then called. And here the worst -characters were sent. As early as 1804 a batch of criminals was sent -there from England, and a settlement made where Hobart now stands. -Through mismanagement the young colony was brought to the verge of -starvation. Luckily there were large herds of kangaroo in the -island. The governor, being unable to feed his prisoners, permitted -them to hunt the kangaroo for their food. In fact, at one time, -there was little to eat but kangaroo flesh, and little to wear but -kangaroo skins. Many of the convicts became fond of this hunter's -life, and preferred the wild freedom of the "bush" to the restraints -of convict life under the eye of the governor. - -8. Fortunately, before many years had passed, free emigrants came -"to try their luck," some to Australia, others to Tasmania, being -tempted by the offer of free gifts of land, and the services of -well-behaved convicts to help in farm-labour. The free colonists of -Tasmania soon found themselves in evil plight. Many of the convicts -assigned to them fled into the "bush," where they lived in gangs, as -"bushrangers," on violence and robbery. The evil grew to such an -extent that, at last, every homestead became the scene of terror and -dismay. Nor was "bushranging" the only evil from which Tasmania's -early colonists suffered. The native blacks were naturally cruel and -crafty, and they had been goaded on to take revenge on the white -strangers by the barbarous way in which they had been treated by the -runaway convicts. - -9. From this desperate state the colony was delivered by Colonel -Arthur on his appointment as governor. To him Tasmania owes the -foundation of its prosperity. He spared no pains to ascertain his -duty and was as rigid as rock in doing it. Under his leadership the -settlers banded together against the bushrangers, and defended their -homesteads as soldiers in regular warfare. They loopholed their -buildings, posted men as sentinels, and held themselves in readiness -to fight, both by day and night. The governor rewarded the capture -of any bushranger with a grant of land, and before the end of two -years the whole gang was taken and executed. - -10. Arthur's next care was to relieve the colony of the blacks, -between whom and the whites a deadly feud existed. His desire was to -collect all the natives and confine them to one district. He -assembled all the settlers to aid his troops in driving the poor -savages out of their haunts. He placed his men at intervals, so as -to form a line stretching across the island, with orders to advance -and either catch the blacks or coop them up in a corner of the -island. After two months of marching, at an expense of £30,000, the -whole operation resulted in the capture of a man and a boy. But -kindness succeeded where force failed. They were persuaded by George -Robinson, who had proved himself their friend, to withdraw to -Flinders Island in Bass Strait. There, to his grief, they rapidly -dwindled, and in the course of a few years became extinct. - -11. Both natives and convicts have long disappeared from Tasmania, -and the colonist can now live there in peace and quietness, in a land -of natural beauty with an agreeable climate. It is not a country -where a fortune can be rapidly made, but where food is plentiful and -labour well paid. - - - -(5) PIONEER WORK IN AUSTRALIA. - -1. The chief source of wealth in Australia is, and always has been, -its excellent wool. The founder of the wool industry was Captain -McArthur, whose quick eye saw from the first that the country was -best adapted to sheep-farming. He also saw that the value of sheep -in this far-away country, with its scanty population, would depend -upon their wool rather than their flesh. He accordingly introduced -some Spanish merino sheep, and succeeded in producing a breed of -animals that thrived well on the grasses of the country and grew wool -of the finest quality. MacArthur, therefore, is entitled to the -credit of having laid the foundation of Australian prosperity. With -the same stroke of business, he did a great service to the -mother-country. The war then raging with France and Spain--just -before their defeat at Trafalgar--had cut off from English looms the -supplies of Spanish wool on which they had hitherto relied. Thus the -colony that had been chiefly valued by the Home Government as a -dumping-ground for criminals, rose high in their estimation as a -country to which our woollen manufacturers would be able to turn for -their much-needed wool. - -2. Sheep-farming is an industry that demands great stretches of -suitable land for sheep-runs. The sheep-farmers of New South Wales, -soon found it difficult to get enough elbow-room. You may think this -strange, considering the vast expanse of Australia. But in the early -days of the colony, the settlers occupied merely a narrow strip -between the mountains and the sea. The Blue Mountains, which rose at -the back of Sydney, seemed to hem them in, and to cut them off from -the unknown country beyond. - -3. For the first quarter of a century, few serious efforts were made -to cross the range. The early governors, indeed, discouraged all -such attempts; for they were afraid of its being made too easy for -the convicts to escape, since they were not kept in prison, but put -out to farm-labour. But with the coming of Macquarie, as governor, -in 1810, all this was changed. He made it his chief business to -prepare the colony as a suitable place for free settlers from home, -and for such convicts as had served out their time and became free -men. He at once set to work to rebuild Sydney, to make roads and -bridges, to clear the forests, and to improve the public property in -various ways. - -4. Seeing the importance of enlarging his domains, he encouraged the -free settlers to range as far afield as possible, and induced -Blaxland and two others to face the perils of the mountains, and try -to find a way to the interior. All previous explorers had failed -because they tried to find passes, as is usually done, by following -the valleys. But in the Blue Mountains the valleys end in -perpendicular cliffs, which say, as plainly as a man can speak, _No -road this way_. Blaxland and his companions determined to try the -ridges, keeping as high as possible all the time. For several days -they pushed through a wild and barren land, cutting every afternoon -the track along which their horses, with their packs of provisions, -would travel the next morning. On the seventeenth day they stood on -the last summit, and saw with great joy the grassy plains that lay -beyond. - -5. On their return the delighted governor sent off another party to -follow the same route and to explore still farther. They reported, -on coming back, that the new country was "equal to every demand which -this colony may have for extension of tillage and pasture lands for a -century to come." The convicts were forthwith set to work to make a -road across the Blue Mountains. This difficult undertaking was -finished in two years, and in 1815, two months before the Battle of -Waterloo brought peace to Europe, the road was ready for traffic. - -6. News of the bright prospects of the colony reached England in the -nick of time, when the end of the long war with France threw -thousands of soldiers, sailors, and workmen out of employment. A -stream of emigrants soon began to flow into Australia and to clamour -for gifts of land. From this time the colony began to prosper. The -work of exploration went steadily on. Little by little it became -clear that behind the mountain-range that skirts the east and -south-east coasts, there stretched far into the interior vast plains -capable of feeding countless flocks, where now millions of sheep -furnish wool for the looms of our manufacturers. - -7. Many years passed before any explorer came upon an important -river. There is, in fact, but one really fine river in Australia, -and that is the Murray, which was discovered, in 1830, by Captain -Sturt. Sailing down the Murrumbidgee, he found the river take a -sudden turn to the south. "We were carried," he writes, "at a -fearful rate down between its glowing and contracted banks.... At -last we found we were approaching a junction, and all of a sudden we -were hurried into a broad and noble river." It was the Murray, and -Sturt endeavoured to follow the river to its mouth, which proved to -be a distance of a thousand miles. - -8. The natives as a rule were few in number, weak, timid, and -harmless; but on this occasion they gathered, to the number of six -hundred, in a well-chosen position on a shallow reach of the river to -dispute its passage, and made their intention clear by yelling and -brandishing spears. "As we neared the sandbank," Captain Sturt -relates, "I stood up and made signs to the natives to desist, but -without success. I took up my gun, therefore, and cocking it, had -already brought it to the level. A few seconds more would have -closed the life of the nearest savage, for I was determined to take -deadly aim, in the hope that the fall of one man might save the lives -of many. But, at the very moment when my hand was on the trigger, my -purpose was checked by my companion, who directed my attention to -another party of blacks on the left bank of the river." - -9. "Turning round, I observed four men running at the top of their -speed. The foremost of them, as soon as he got ahead of the boat, -threw himself from a considerable height into the water. He -struggled across the channel to the sandbank, and in an incredibly -short time, stood in front of the savage against whom my aim had been -directed. Seizing him by the throat he pushed him backwards, and -driving all who were in the water upon the bank, he trod its margin -with a vehemence and agitation extremely striking. At one time -pointing to the boat, at another, shaking his clenched hand in the -faces of the most forward, and stamping with passion on the sand, his -voice that was at first distinct and clear, was lost in hoarse -murmurs." After a river journey of thirty-two days, from this spot, -Sturt reached, without further adventure, the coast of South -Australia. He observed that near the sea, it widened into a shallow -lagoon, which he named Lake Alexandrina, and that its course thence -to the sea, was, by shallow channels of shifting sand, difficult to -navigate. - -10. Colonists followed close on the heels of the explorer. As fast -as the news spread of the discovery of suitable lands for crops or -sheep-runs, men moved on from less favoured districts to take -possession, and the lands thus left vacant, were soon occupied by -immigrants from Britain. The arrival of so many free labourers made -convict labour no longer necessary, and the feeling of the colonists -against the reception of our rogues and scoundrels constantly grew -stronger. Accordingly, in 1840, the transportation of convicts to -New South Wales came to an end, and a few years later, every colony -in Australia shut its gates against them. - - - -(6) REMARKABLE INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS. - -1. We must now return from following the fortunes of our kinsmen on -the opposite side of the world, and see what had been going on, -meanwhile, at home. There is a vital connection between what was -happening here and what we have stated about events out there. If -our countrymen were permitted to settle down quietly in Australia, -and to take undisputed possession of the whole continent, it was not -because no other nation had a desire to appropriate any part of it, -but because we alone commanded the great highway that led to its -shores. And this command of the seas our forefathers had with might -and main to fight for while our countrymen were laying the -foundations of a new British state in the Southern Seas. - -2. When the Treaty of Versailles was signed (1783), by which Britain -acknowledged the independence of the United States, it was widely -thought that she was ruined, and that she had fallen for ever from -her proud place among the nations. The real greatness of a nation is -never so well seen as in her conduct after defeat and disaster. In -seven years from the loss of the American Colonies, the Prime -Minister was able to say, "The country at this moment is in a -situation of prosperity greater than in the most flourishing period -before the last war." The world was startled to find that Britain, -instead of being ruined by her loss, was fast becoming stronger and -greater than ever. - -3. This marvellous recovery was due, partly to the enterprising -character of our countrymen; partly to the vast resources of our -country in its stores of coal and iron; and partly to a number of -remarkable inventions that enabled us to make the most of those -resources. Indeed, the ten years that followed the Treaty of -Versailles saw a display of industrial activity in England such as -the world had never witnessed before. - -4. Owing to inventions by Arkwright and others of machines for the -spinning and weaving of cotton, England began to manufacture calicoes -and cotton prints for half the world. About the same time Josiah -Wedgwood set his wits to work to make porcelain as good as that from -China, and became the father of the potteries of Staffordshire. The -iron manufacture now began its prosperous career; for the mode of -smelting iron with pit-coal, instead of charcoal, had lately been -discovered. - -5. But the extraordinary advance in British manufactures was due -more than to anything else to the improvements made in the -steam-engine by James Watt. Under his clever hands the steam-engine -became the most powerful and obedient servant of man; and steam -became, in consequence, the great motive-power in most of our -factories. It would hardly have been possible, however, to make an -extensive use of this steam-power unless there had been some cheap -way of conveying coal to the seats of manufacture. There were in -those days, we must remember, no railways, for no locomotive engine -had yet been invented. The place of railways was supplied, in -respect to the carriage of coal and other heavy goods, by a network -of canals. - -6. The introduction of the cotton machines had, at first, a cruel -effect upon the work-people. In the long run, however, it brought -them vastly more work; for machine-made things being much cheaper -than those made by hand, it usually happens that the demand for the -cheapened article becomes so much greater as to give more employment -than before in its production. But even if this were not so, it is -well known now-a-days that it is useless to fight against the -introduction of machines. What, for instance, would be the result, -if the shoemakers of Northampton set their faces against the -introduction of certain labour-saving machines commonly used in -America? Unless such machines were used here, the English masters -would be undersold by those in America, and the trade in consequence -would fall into American hands; for, of course, people will buy where -they can get most for their money. - -7. But when the new machines for spinning cotton were first set -a-going, the uselessness of fighting against their employment was not -understood. The hungry workers only knew that the bread was taken -out of their mouths by the new machines, and therefore they regarded -the inventors--poor men for the most part like themselves--as the -enemies of their fellow-workers. Their anger often blazed forth into -open violence; machines were smashed and mills wrecked. Baulked in -one place, the inventors set up their machines in another, and it was -soon found that the bulk of the trade followed the machines. - -8. Whatever may have been the effect that the new machines had upon -the happiness and well-being of the old hand-workers, it is certain -that the country at large gained immensely in wealth. And it was -soon to stand in need of every penny it could get. For in 1793 began -"the great French war," which ended only with the victory at Waterloo -in 1815, a war lasting, with two short intervals, two and twenty -years, and so costly that it left us with a National Debt amounting -to £880,000,000. That England was able to raise such a huge sum was -due in no small measure to the cotton-mill and steam-engine. -England, indeed, might well place the statues of Arkwright and Watt -side by side with those of Nelson and Wellington; for had it not been -for the wealth which the former created, there would have been no -well-equipped fleets and armies for the latter to command. - -9. Another great source of wealth, during the war itself, was the -immense share which England gained of the carrying trade of the -world, owing to the security which her merchantmen enjoyed in -consequence of the victories of her fleets. While her mines, her -looms, her steam-engines were giving her the principal share in the -manufacture of goods, ships flying the British flag spread her own -products through the world and carried to every part of it the -products of other countries. England, in fact, was at once the -workshop of European manufactures and the ocean-carrier of its -commerce. - - - -(7) NELSON AND NAPOLEON. - -1. "The great French War," which began, as we have said, in 1793 and -lasted almost two and twenty years, ended triumphantly for the -British at Waterloo; but whilst the war continued, it was a great -drain on England's resources, and a great strain on her powers of -endurance. The war had not long gone on, when it became evident that -a great military genius had arisen among the French in the person of -Napoleon Bonaparte, and that in Horatio Nelson the British had an -equally great leader in fighting on the seas. - -2. Nelson seems to have been sent into the world to frustrate the -proud schemes of Napoleon, though one fought only on land and the -other at sea. Nelson's name only appears in our annals between 1793 -and 1805, but his career lasted long enough for the fulfilment of his -mission, which was to sweep the French war-ships from the sea, and -thus save his country from invasion, and its colonies from capture. -Such horror and alarm had the French caused by the torrent of blood -they had shed in shearing off the heads of their sovereigns and -nobles, and by the triumphant tramp of their armies over the -neighbouring states, that Nelson only expressed the general feeling -of Europe when he said, "_Down, down with the French_, ought to be -posted up in the council-room of every country in the world." - -3. Nelson first drew the eyes of the whole world upon himself, in -1798, by his famous victory of the Nile. Napoleon Bonaparte had -sailed from Toulon with 30,000 troops on board 400 transports, -escorted by a fleet of thirteen men-of-war. Nelson who was sent in -pursuit with a squadron, also numbering thirteen ships-of-the-line, -found the transports empty in the harbour of Alexandria, and the -French fleet anchored in the Bay of Aboukir. - -4. Imagine thirteen great battle-ships drawn up in a single line -parallel with the shore, but on account of the shallow water three -miles from it, with the _Orient_, the French flag-ship, in the -centre. The ship in the van, at one end of the line, was anchored so -close to an island, which stands at the western entrance to the Bay, -that no one in the French fleet imagined that there was room for a -ship to pass in between them. But as Nelson said, "Where a French -ship can swing, an English ship can either sail or anchor." - -5. Ship for ship, the French had a decided advantage in the number -and size of their guns. Nelson, however, took care not to engage the -whole line, but brought the whole weight of his guns to bear upon a -part only. This he was able to do by sailing between the French van -and the island, five of his ships taking up their stations on the -inner side of the enemy's line, and the rest on the outer side. Thus -the French van and centre were caught between two fires, whilst the -rear ships, being at anchor to leeward, were unable to come to the -rescue of their distressed sisters. - -6. It was already dusk when the first broadside was fired. Not a -moment had been lost in getting into action. Three of Nelson's ships -were miles off when the battle began. It was so dark when the -_Culloden_ arrived that it struck on a shoal and there lay useless -right through the battle. The other two, warned by her fate, reached -the scene of action in safety. They came just in time to take the -place of the _Bellerophon_, which was retiring maimed and disabled -after a combat of more than an hour with the _Orient_, the largest -ship afloat. The two new-comers, placing themselves on either side -of this monster, made up for delay by the rapidity of their fire. - -7. At the end of an hour flames were observed on the poop of the -_Orient_. The nearest English ships brought their guns and musketry -to bear upon the blazing poop, and made the task of extinguishing the -fire quite hopeless. The flames spread rapidly, upward along the -masts and the tarred rigging, downward to the lower decks, where her -undaunted crew, still ignorant of their approaching doom, worked at -the guns. Nelson, who had been struck on the forehead by a flying -piece of iron, and for the time almost blinded, demanded to be led on -deck, where he gave orders for the boats to be lowered to help in -saving the unhappy crew. He then remained watching the progress of -the fire. In less than an hour the flames reached the -powder-magazine, when a terrific explosion shattered the great vessel -into fragments, and hurled the brave seamen into the air. Ten -minutes of death-like stillness passed before a gun dared to break -the awful pause. In the meantime our sailors were busily rescuing -the unfortunate French sailors that had been blown out of their ship. - -8. At dawn it was found that the six ships of the French van had -hauled down their flag. The _Orient_ having blown up, there were six -survivors. Of these three were ashore and helpless; but the other -three, being in the rear, had received little injury, and now got -under way to make off. On setting sail one of them ran aground. The -crew escaped to the beach, and she was then set on fire by the -captain, her colours flying as she burned. The two other ships -escaped, for only one British ship was in condition to give chase. - -9. The crews were so worn out with their night's work that "as soon -as the men," writes Captain Miller of the _Theseus_, "had hove our -sheet anchor up they dropped under the capstan bars, and were asleep -in a moment in every sort of posture." Nelson took the earliest -opportunity of returning thanks to God for this great victory: - - -"_Vanguard_, 2nd August, 1798. - -"Almighty God having blessed His Majesty's arms with victory, the -Admiral intends returning Public Thanksgiving for the same at two -o'clock this day; and he recommends every ship doing the same as soon -as convenient. - -"HORATIO NELSON." - - -10. The results of Nelson's victory were highly important. In -giving England the command of the Mediterranean, it utterly spoiled -Bonaparte's design. He came to conquer Egypt, because he regarded -that country as the gate to India and as a kind of jumping-off place -from which to attack our Eastern possessions. But the loss of the -French fleet left him and his army stranded in Egypt without the -means of drawing supplies from France. Bonaparte did not at once -give up all hope of reaching India. He crossed the desert into -Syria, but was brought to a standstill before the walls of Acre. And -on trying to take the place by storm, his troops were hurled back by -the Turkish garrison, with the aid of a small British squadron under -Sir Sidney Smith. Bonaparte was wont to say, in later days, that but -for Sidney Smith, he might have died Emperor of the East. - -11. To the victory of the Nile we also owe our possession of Malta; -for the destruction of the French Mediterranean fleet left our ships -free to blockade, without serious hindrance, the harbour of Valetta, -and to starve out the French garrison by whom it was held. Thus fell -into our hands one of the strongest links of the chain that binds -India to England, and what is regarded--from its strong fortress, -excellent harbour, and central situation---the best naval station in -the Mediterranean. - - - -(8) NELSON'S CROWNING VICTORY. - -1. Napoleon hastened back from Egypt to France at the first -opportunity, and being raised to supreme power took measures for -building a strong fleet. This he viewed as the first step towards -the invasion of England. He next collected an immense flotilla of -flat-bottomed boats at Boulougne, to transport an invading army -across the Channel. His troops were eagerly awaiting the signal to -embark, like hounds straining at the leash with the hare in sight. - -2. Napoleon knew that the only chance of getting his army across -"the silver streak" was to get command of the Channel for at least a -few hours. With this end in view, he had induced Spain to join him, -and devised a scheme for the union of all the French and Spanish -men-of-war and their sudden appearance in the Channel. But the -best-laid schemes often go awry, and so did this one. The allied -fleets did, indeed, come together, but not in the Channel. They were -encountered by a British fleet under Nelson, off Cape Trafalgar. - -3. The battle of Trafalgar, fought on the 21st October, 1805, is one -of the most famous sea-fights on record. The allies mustered -thirty-three battleships, the British twenty-seven. Nelson arranged -the general order of battle with his captains some days beforehand. -He drew up his ships, on the fateful day, in two columns, placing -himself at the head of one column in the _Victory_, whilst Admiral -Collingwood in the _Royal Sovereign_ took the lead in the other. The -allies received the attack with their ships arranged in a single -irregular line, stretching from north to south in front of the -harbour of Cadiz. - -4. Nelson arranged that the two British columns should advance -parallel to each other, and bear down on the enemy at right angles to -their line. Collingwood was to break through the line near the -centre and engage the ships forming the rear to the south; Nelson -himself undertook to break through the line, also near the centre, -and so dispose his forces as to leave unengaged ten or a dozen of the -enemy's ships forming the van, to the north. By the time these ships -tacked so as to come into action, it was hoped that the day would be -decided, the allied ships in the centre and rear having had to bear -the whole brunt of the attack made by the entire British fleet. - -5. Having made all arrangements for the approaching fight, Nelson -went down into his cabin to pray. The words of his prayer, written -on his knees in his private diary, the last he ever penned, ran -thus:-- - - -"May the great God, whom I worship, grant to my country, and for the -benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious victory; and may -no misconduct in any one tarnish it; and may humanity after victory -be the predominant feature of the British fleet. For myself, -individually, I commit my life to Him who made me, and may His -blessing light upon my endeavours for serving my country faithfully. -To Him I resign myself and the just cause which is entrusted to me to -defend. Amen, Amen, Amen." - - -6. Then our hero appeared on deck ready for anything that might -befall him. Just before going into action he issued the famous -signal, "England expects that every man will do his duty." The ships -of the three nations now hoisted their colours, and the admirals -their flags. Nelson wore, as usual, his admiral's frock coat, on the -left breast of which were stitched the stars of four different -orders. The officers on board the flagship saw these stars with -dismay, knowing as they did that the enemy's ships swarmed with -soldiers, many of whom were sharpshooters, and that the action would -be at close quarters. But none dared to advise their chief to make -himself less conspicuous. - -7. The _Royal Sovereign_ was the first to reach the enemy's line. -As the _Victory_ at the head of the second column advanced, she -became the target of all the ships in the enemy's centre. For forty -minutes she had to endure the hail of the enemy's shot in silence, -her speed continually getting less as one sail after another was -stripped from the yards. Despite her injuries the _Victory_ -continued to forge ahead, and at last her bows crossed the wake of -the French flag-ship, by whose stern she passed within thirty feet. -Now spoke the double-shotted guns of the _Victory_, as they passed in -succession the French admiral's ship, their shots raking the vessel -from stern to stem. Twenty guns were at once dismounted and a -hundred men laid low. - -8. The _Victory_, passing on, brought up alongside the -_Redoubtable_. The rigging of the two ships got entangled so that -they lay side by side, with their guns almost mouth to mouth. Both -ships were soon on fire. The flames, however, were soon -extinguished, but the fury of battle grew fiercer. Marksmen in the -rigging of the French ship shot down at the officers and men on the -deck of the _Victory_. The figure of a one-armed officer, with -epaulettes on his shoulders and stars upon his breast, attracted the -notice of one of these marksmen. The man fired, and the ball shot -through epaulette and shoulder and lodged in the spine. The wounded -Nelson fell into Captain Hardy's hands, saying, "They have done for -me at last." - -9. Nelson was carried to the cockpit with his handkerchief over his -face and breast, so that the crew might not become discouraged by -observing his fate. The dying hero, an hour or two later, sent for -his friend Hardy, but he was unable to leave the deck for some time. -"Well, Hardy," said Nelson, when at last he appeared, "how goes the -battle?" "Very well, my lord; we have got twelve or fourteen of the -enemy's ships already in our possession." "I hope none of our ships -have struck, Hardy." "No, my lord, there is no fear of that." -Nelson then said, "I am a dead man, Hardy. I am going fast" .... "I -feel something rising in my breast," he said, somewhat later, "which -tells me I am gone. God be praised, I have done my duty." The last -words audible were, "God and my country." - -10. By the time firing ceased, near sunset, seventeen of the enemy's -ships had struck, and one, with the tri-coloured ensign still -displayed, was burning to the water's edge. Our boats used every -effort to save the brave fellows who had so gloriously defended her; -but only two hundred and fifty were rescued, and she blew up with a -tremendous explosion. - -11. Nelson's victory secured for Britain the undisputed sovereignty -of the seas, freed her from all fear of invasion, ensured the safety -of the seas to her merchantmen, and threw a strong shield over her -colonial possessions. When Nelson died, his work was done, his -mission ended; but yet he has not ceased to be a source of living -power, "he being dead yet speaketh." Wherever danger has to be faced -and duty done, at cost to self and for the sake of fatherland, there -the name and deeds of Nelson still speak with an uplifting force. - -12. It is interesting to know that Nelson's splendid services and -his mournful death are still commemorated in the Royal Navy by -certain details, in each blue-jacket's dress, with which we are all -familiar. The three rows of white braid on the collar recall the -three greatest of Nelson's victories--the Nile, Copenhagen, and -Trafalgar; whilst the black silk handkerchief, worn by each sailor, -reminds him of the sad occasion when it was first assumed in token of -mourning for the fallen hero in the hour of victory. - - - -(9) INDIA'S NEW MASTERS. - -1. Whilst Nelson was sweeping the French war-ships off the ocean, -and securing for Britain the sovereignty of the seas, the Marquess -Wellesley was turning every French soldier out of India, and making -British rule supreme in that country. Wellesley held office as -governor-general of India between 1798 and 1805, the years of -Nelson's victories of the Nile and Trafalgar. The former victory -relieved Wellesley of all fear of a French invasion of India, and -left him free to deal with the native princes, who had now nothing to -rely upon but their own resources. - -2. The time had now come for England to make herself the mistress of -India. During the last hundred years the Mogul Empire had gone more -and more to pieces, and now the old emperor was a prisoner in the -hands of one of the Mahratta princes. It was in the interests of -good government that one power should arise strong enough to keep all -the others in order, and with a sense of justice keen enough to hold -the balance fairly between them. Our governor-general did not for a -moment doubt that the power best qualified for giving the law to -India was the British, and he resolved, if possible, to make that -power supreme. - -3. Wellesley's plan was to separate the states under native princes -from each other by encircling them with a ring of British territory, -like so many islands surrounded by the sea, and to gain possession of -the sea coasts so as to exclude all foreign foes. His first aim was -to destroy all French influence. His watchword, like Nelson's, was -"Down with the French," who at that time, we must remember, were -trying, under Napoleon, to enslave all Europe. Many of the Indian -princes had French soldiers in their pay, by whom their armies were -trained. The Marquess began his great task by persuading our ally, -the Nizam of the Deccan, to dismiss his French officers, and these he -packed off home by the next ship. The sepoys whom they had drilled -were disbanded, and then induced to take service under British -officers. - -4. The Nizam thus became a dependent ally. He was still master in -his own domains, and over his own people, but he could no longer make -war or form alliances, on his own account, with other princes. He -had, in fact, bartered his independence for protection. In any -attack from another state he was assured of being defended, if need -be, by the whole force of British India. This system of protected -states made great progress whilst Wellesley held office. - -5. The princes who put themselves under British protection were -expected to receive one of our officials at his court, and to be -guided by his advice. They were also required to admit British -troops as a part of their standing army. And when they complained of -the cost of their maintenance, the Marquess offered to accept a slice -of their territory and to pay the troops out of its revenues. This -may seem sharp practice, but it worked well in the interests of the -Hindoos who came under our rule. The ceded districts soon became the -home of an industrious population, who looked to British officials -for justice, and looked not in vain. - -6. Before Wellesley had been five years in office the whole of -Southern India, the whole plain of the Ganges, and a strip along the -whole of the eastern coast were under the direct rule of the British -or their dependent allies. The Mahratta princes alone were capable -of doing much mischief, and the time had now come to put an end, if -possible, to the bloodshed and ruin that followed the track of their -horsemen. With two of the Mahratta princes the Marquess came to -terms without fighting; with the remaining three he went to war. -Having organized two armies, he placed one under the command of -General Lake to invade the northern part of the Mahratta dominions, -and the other under the command of his brother, Arthur Wellesley, the -future Duke of Wellington, to wage war in the southern part of their -territory. - -[Illustration: Marquess Wellesley and the Nizam.] - -7. "The hero of a hundred fights" won his first great victory at -Assaye, in the Nizam's dominions, which the Mahrattas had invaded. -With a force of 5000 men he defeated the enemy, numbering, it is -said, eight to one. The English general took advantage of the -junction of two rivers, near Assaye, to place his little army in the -angle between them, so as to be open to attack only in front. But to -get into this position it was necessary to cross one of the rivers, -and his guide assured him there was no ford by which the passage -could be made. - -8. Going forward to see for himself, General Wellesley observed that -two villages stood facing each other on opposite banks of the river. -"I immediately said to myself," he tells us, "that men could not have -built two villages facing one another on opposite sides of a stream -without some means of passing from one to the other. And I was -right. I found a passage, crossed my army over. And there I fought -and won the battle, the bloodiest for the numbers that I ever saw." - - "This is England's greatest son, - He that gained a hundred fights, - Nor ever lost an English gun; - This is he that far away - Against the myriads of Assaye - Clash'd with his fiery few and won." - -9. Meanwhile, General Lake was equally successful at the other end -of the Mahratta's dominions. After a great but costly victory, he -entered Delhi in triumph, and delivered the old emperor from his long -captivity. Wellesley nominally restored him to the throne and set -apart £150,000 a year for his maintenance; but from this time the -Emperor of India was merely a pensioner in the pay of the British and -under British control, forbidden even to go beyond the walls of -Delhi, where the "Great Moguls" formerly gave the law to the whole of -India. The real masters of India, from this time, were the British. - -10. Marquess Wellesley's work in India was now done. He had -attained every object he proposed to himself. The last of the French -officers in native employ had disappeared from India; there was no -corner of the coast left on which a Frenchman could land. He not -only made Britain from this time the supreme power, but by his system -of protected states--separated from each other, and fenced round by -British territory--he did much to place that power on a firm and -lasting basis. - - - -(10) WELLINGTON AND NAPOLEON. - -1. In the great war with Napoleon, as our fleets were led to victory -by Nelson, so were our armies by Wellington. The scene of his -battles and sieges were, with one exception, the peninsula of Spain -and Portugal, and on this account the war in which he was engaged, -between 1808 and 1814, is called the _Peninsular War_. When -Wellington began his Peninsular campaigns, Napoleon was practically -the master of Europe. Some of the nations he had crushed, others he -had overawed or won over to his side, all were either his humble -servants or his forced allies. - -2. Napoleon had already been crowned Emperor of France, and his -amazing successes on the continent caused him to dream of Europe as -an empire, with Napoleon as its emperor, and Paris as its capital. -But there was one nation near his own doors that stood in his way, -and whom he would fain have struck to the ground, had his arm been -long enough to reach across "the silver streak." England might, -perhaps, after the victory at Trafalgar, have held aloof from the -strife which turned all Europe into a battle-field; she might, -perhaps, have lived in ease and security in her island-home, and left -the less-favoured nations on the continent to be trampled under the -heel of the conqueror; but she nobly chose to stand forth and take -the lion's share in the war against the tyrant. - -3. Hence arose the Peninsular War which, with varying success, was -persevered in for years as the most effectual way of draining the -life-blood of France. That war was to France like a running sore. -Napoleon sent his best generals, one after another, to put an end to -the war by driving the British out of the country. To Marshal Soult -he wrote, "You are to advance on the English, pursue them without -ceasing, beat them and fling them into the sea. The English alone -are formidable--they alone." But the English refused to be flung -into the sea. On the contrary, it was the French that had, in the -end, to take their flight homeward. - -4. In the course of his seven campaigns in the Peninsula, Wellington -found the tide of success ebb and flow. Sometimes he was able to -advance and drive the enemy before him, sometimes he was compelled to -retreat and stand on the defensive; but whether advancing or retiring -he suffered no disaster, he lost no pitched battle. Much of -Wellington's success was due to the solidity and steady discipline of -his troops, still more perhaps to his own military skill and personal -character. By patience and perseverance, by careful attention to -details, by never letting a chance slip by, by never sparing himself, -by making "duty" his watch-word; by such plain, homely virtues our -Wellington fought and won. "Wellington dazzled no one," says a -French writer, "but he beat us all the same." After being routed at -Vittoria, in 1813, the French were compelled to beat a hasty retreat -across the Pyrenees, and to seek safety in France. - -5. In the meanwhile, Napoleon's great army of 400,000 men had -perished in Russia, and in the retreat from the burning city of -Moscow. Henceforth, Napoleon is like a hunted lion whom his enemies -were gradually gathering round so as to cut off his retreat and -encage him. At length, in 1814, the fallen emperor resigned his -crown, and retired to the little island of Elba, which was to serve -as his prison. - -6. Wellington's work now seemed crowned with success, but really a -greater task was in front of him. In March, 1815, the world was -startled to hear that the lion encaged at Elba had made his escape, -and was now at large in France. Owing to the return, since the -peace, of some 200,000 of his veterans from the prisons of Germany, -Napoleon was soon at the head of a powerful army. All Europe flew to -arms. The first to encounter his troops were the British and the -Prussians. - -7. In the great battle of Waterloo (18th June, 1815), the fate of -Napoleon was finally decided. It was the first time Napoleon had -witnessed the unflinching courage and stubborn solidity of British -troops, and ere the battle began had only mocked at Soult when he -declared, "They will die rather than quit the ground on which they -stand." With his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon ceased to be the -central figure of the civilised world. He was banished to the Isle -of St. Helena, and there he died after six years spent in darkly -brooding over his broken fortunes. - -8. On Napoleon's fall, the nations of Europe entered on a long -peace. A congress was held between the great powers at Vienna, and -the map of Europe redrawn, France being thrust back within her -ancient borders. During the war England had seized the Colonial -possessions of France. Those of Holland shared the same fate, for -she had thrown in her lot with her powerful neighbour. The war had -cost Britain a vast sum of money and many thousands of lives but she -now received large additions to her empire. - -9. By the Treaty of Vienna, Britain was allowed to retain what is -now called _British Guiana_, _Ceylon_, and the _Cape of Good Hope_, -all of which she had taken from Holland. She also obtained the -island of _Mauritius_, which, lying on the sea-route to India, had -long enabled the French to strike a blow at our Indian trade and -possessions. The islands of _Trinidad_ and _Tobago_ in the West -Indies also fell to her share, and above all the island of _Malta_, -placed like a watch-tower in the centre of the Mediterranean, the -central sea of the civilised world. - -10. Nor do these important additions to the empire include all the -fruits of victory in the course of the great war with Napoleon. An -Australian writer tells us that the Australian colonies are apt to -think of these Napoleonic wars as matters having no direct bearing on -their concerns. But in reality, as he reminds them, Australia was -made British on the shores of Europe. What Hawke and Wolfe did for -Canada, Nelson and Wellington did for Australia. We owe it to -Trafalgar and Waterloo that the island-continent to-day is free and -peaceful from end to end, instead of being parcelled out among -nations of different races, all jealous of one another. We owe it to -the success of our arms, under Nelson and Wellington, that when in -later years the French asked how much of the Australian continent we -claimed, our Minister could say, "The whole," without their being -able to say "Nay." - -11. We usually associate peace with plenty; but such was not the -first results of the long peace which followed the victory at -Waterloo. The war had given employment to thousands who now found -wherever they turned for work, a notice staring them in the face, "No -more hands wanted here." One great advantage to our colonies arose -from this state of things. Finding it impossible to make a living in -the old country, large numbers in the first years of the peace -emigrated to the colonies, where brawny arms were in great demand, -and where food was cheap and plentiful. We shall presently follow -the fortunes of our countrymen who now go forth to plant nations on -the shores of Australia, to people the valleys of Tasmania, to share -New Zealand with the Maoris, to take possession of South Africa and -lay there the foundation of a great state,--driven across the seas by - - "Such wind as scatters young men through the world - To seek their fortunes further than at home, - Where small experience grows," - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - -Progress of India and the Colonies - -(Since 1815). - - -(1) COLONIAL SELF-GOVERNMENT - -(Canada). - -1. The French Canadians, after the conquest of their country by the -British, were turned into loyal citizens of the empire by being left -in the enjoyment of their own language, laws, and religion. Even -when our American colonies rose in rebellion, they remained true to -the British Crown. The same feeling of loyalty led many of the -American colonists themselves to throw in their lot with the old -country. They banded themselves together as the _United Empire -Loyalists_, and fought on the side of Britain rather than help their -fellow-colonists to rend the empire. - -2. On the conclusion of the war that gave the American colonies -their independence (1783), thousands of the "Loyalists" came -streaming across the Canadian frontier, leaving behind them the bulk -of their property, and forced to starve and struggle for years before -they could carve comfortable homes out of the Canadian forests. Many -of them migrated to Nova Scotia, others found rest in the beautiful -valley of the St. John river, and founded the province of New -Brunswick, whilst others toiled up the St. Lawrence to create the -fertile and busy province of Ontario, thus building up a British -colony in Upper Canada by the side of the old French colony in Lower -Canada. - -3. The inrush of loyalist refugees from the lost colonies was -followed by a large immigration from the mother-country, and -especially from Scotland. Of the Scotch peasants who emigrated many -came from the same district, and held together in the new country. -On the downfall of Napoleon the tide of emigration flowed more -strongly than ever. We hear of four hundred discharged Irish -soldiers coming over in a body with their old regimental officers at -their head, and forming a regular military camp in the backwoods, -till their united efforts had cut out the roads and fields, and built -the houses required for the settlement. We find, in fact, that a -large proportion of the early settlers were old soldiers, and they -handled the pruning-hook none the worse for having once handled the -sword. While the silence of the desert spread over the barren moors -and hillsides of Scotland and Ireland, the Canadian woods were -ringing with the settler's axe. - -4. Emigration to Canada has gone on ever since, though at a slower -rate than in those early years when 160,000 emigrants landed on -Canadian soil in the space of four years. One of the most -interesting experiments in Canadian emigration has been made in our -own day. During the last ten or a dozen years about ten thousand -picked boys and girls, from the homes of the "National Waifs' -Association," have been settled by Dr. Barnardo on a large estate in -Manitoba, or placed out as labourers and servants on Canadian farms, -with the happiest results. - -5. Canada has not seen much war since the days of Wolfe, though she -has not been left wholly at peace. During the great French war a -dispute arose between Britain and the United States, which foolishly -led to a half-hearted war between the two nations, and to the -invasion of Canada by American troops. After three campaigns, in -which the British and French Canadians fought side by side, the war -ended without the loss of an inch of their territory. The only -result was, to create a feeling of mutual sympathy and respect -between the two races that shared Canada between them. - -6. However, as time went on, and new emigrants came pouring in, the -Canadian form of government, which had well served its purpose for -some years, began to encumber the young limbs of a nation so rapidly -growing. The fact is, time always works changes, and nations pass -through stages--childhood, youth, and manhood--as well as -individuals. Thus constant changes are required in the machinery of -government to keep pace with the changing circumstances and varying -wants of a people. In the year that Queen Victoria came to the -throne (1837), all Canada was discontented, and the lower province on -the eve of rebellion, which actually broke out a little later. The -rebels, however, were easily put down, and the leaders were soon -either in prison or exile. - -7. The Home Government in this crisis acted wisely and promptly. -They sent over Lord Durham with the olive branch of peace, and -directed him to ascertain the cause of the rebellion, and to find out -remedies. He reported that the root of the whole mischief was to be -found in the Constitution under which the people were governed. The -Canadians elected men to form an "Assembly," like our House of -Commons, and though these men were free to express the wishes of the -people, they had no power to make the ministers and officials of the -Government give effect to them. They were expected to vote funds for -the public service, but they could not call the ministers to account -if they misspent the money. - -8. At Lord Durham's suggestion all this was changed. The -governor-general was henceforth to employ as his ministers such men -as had the confidence of the "Assembly," and the ministers were to be -responsible to that House for the advice they gave the -governor-general, and for the way in which the public revenue was -spent. The first Canadian Parliament, under the new regulations, met -in 1841, and from this year we date the self-government of the -British colonies. - -9. What was done now for Canada became in due time the rule for the -other colonies in which men of our race have chiefly settled. All in -turn, as they became capable of self-government, were entrusted with -the power to mark out their own course, and to manage their own -affairs in their own way. By this system of government full play is -given to local opinions and feelings, the laws are framed by the -colonists themselves, through their representatives, and the public -affairs of the whole colony are managed by ministers who have -obtained the confidence and esteem of its inhabitants. Moreover, the -same system of self-government in respect to local affairs is usually -extended to every town and district in the colony. Thus the -principle of self-government is brought home to the door of each -colonist, whenever circumstances admit. This is the secret of -England's success in keeping her world-wide empire peaceful and -contented, under the protection of one flag, and in allegiance to one -sovereign. - - - -(2) BIRTH OF A NATION - -(Canada). - -1. The new era that smiled on Canada with the grant of -self-government, in 1841, was marked by a rapid growth of the -population. So great was the number of emigrants who came flocking -into the country that in the next quarter-century the population -nearly trebled itself. Canada at that time, it must be remembered, -was but a shred of the vast expanse that reddens the map of North -America to-day. The settled part included the two provinces now -called Quebec and Ontario, the three provinces of Nova Scotia, New -Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and the island of Newfoundland. -The whole of the remainder--known as the great "North-West"--was, -until 1870, the happy hunting-ground of the "Hudson Bay Company." - -2. It is true that the Company did not, as did that great hunter, -William the Conqueror, turn a peopled country into an uninhabited -wilderness, but they took good care that the vast wilderness in their -possession should not become a country inhabited by white men. Their -whole territory was nothing but a vast game preserve from which all -settlers were warned off. The red man was looked upon with favour, -for he was as the game-keeper who trapped the fur-bearing animals and -brought their skins to exchange for their masters' goods. Dotted -over the Company's wide domains stood the log or stone forts where -the furs were collected, and where lived one of the Company's -factors--usually a Scotsman--to trade with the Indians. Around the -fort no village was allowed to spring up. Some idea may be formed of -the solitary life led by the factor, when we are told that the -postman only visited him once a year. - -3. The Company made enormous profits, for the goods they supplied to -the Indians cost a mere trifle compared with the value of the furs -they received in exchange. For a long time the nation, at home, was -kept in the dark, not only as to the profits of the fur trade, but as -to the real nature of the country from which the fur was obtained. -The people, in fact, supposed that the fur country was an -irreclaimable wilderness in which no white settlers could possibly -make a living. At length it became known that in the great -"North-West" there were immense prairies (over which roamed herds of -buffalo) that would yield, if cultivated, rich crops of the finest -wheat. When this discovery was made the country was thrown open to -settlers (1870), and the province of Manitoba soon became the granary -of Canada. - -4. Another discovery had already led to the colonizing of British -Columbia, the country beyond the Rocky Mountains. This was the -discovery of gold (1858). The Indians, canoeing down the river -Fraser, brought with them quantities of the precious metal which they -had found along the river-bed. The men who had ransacked California -for gold now rushed to the new gold country. The hardships they had -to encounter were appalling. - -5. At the season when the miners flocked into Columbia the water in -the rivers was at its highest, and the sand-bars in which they hoped -to find gold were hidden deep beneath its surface. The rivers -themselves flowed through gloomy gorges, along which not even a mule -could make its way. All provisions had to be carried on men's backs, -and before a mule-track could be cut the miners were reduced to a -diet of wild berries. Hundreds of miles had to be traversed before -the rich Cariboo district was reached, where nuggets could be picked -up in an old river-bed. News of this "find" brought men into the -country so much faster than flour that all were reduced to the verge -of starvation. The same thing has occurred in our own day, still -further north, in the district of Klondyke. - -6. Gold is a powerful magnet. It is one of the best colonizing -agents known. What hardships will not men face to fill their pockets -with gold! Wherever gold is to be picked up, there thousands of -adventurers soon gather, and if the country is suitable for a colony -thousands of settlers remain. Thus British Columbia owes its -position as a colony, in the first place, to the gold-nuggets sown in -the sands of its river-beds. - -7. Attached to British Columbia is the island of Vancouver, and here -also a discovery was made, which has much enhanced its value and -attracted colonists. A settlement had already been made at Victoria -on its southern shores, when, one day, came some Indians from the -northern part of the island, and entering a smithy were surprised to -find a fire of coals. When told that the fuel had been brought -thousands of miles across the sea, they were much amused, as there -was any quantity, they said, of the same sort of "black stone" on -that very island. And so it proved. At the present time, indeed, -the output amounts to one million tons a year. - -8. Canada now extended over a region nearly the size of Europe, -embracing besides the old provinces in the east, British Columbia in -the far west, Manitoba in the centre, and the unsettled lands of the -great "North-West." The next thing was to knit together the various -provinces and out of them to make one great nation. This was made -possible by the Confederation Act of 1867. By this Act the _Dominion -of Canada_ came into being, with a constitution, settling the terms -on which the different provinces could unite. In less than seven -years all the Canadian provinces, except Newfoundland, consented to -join. Thus a new nation was born on the great American continent. - -9. By the new constitution each province continues to manage its own -local affairs, whilst all matters of national concern are brought -before the Dominion Parliament. This parliament consists of an Upper -House styled the Senate, and a Lower House called the House of -Commons. The former is composed of life-members nominated by the -Crown, the latter of members elected by the people, and having full -control of the public purse. The Sovereign is represented by the -governor-general, appointed by the Crown, and no laws are valid -without his consent. - -10. To avoid all jealousy between the province of Ontario and that -of Quebec, neither of their capitals was selected as the seat of the -national or federal government. That honour was given to the little -town of Ottawa, situated on their common border. Ottawa has now -grown into an important city, and in its Houses of Parliament -possesses two of the finest edifices on the continent of America. - - - -(3) PROMISE OF NATIONAL GREATNESS - -(Canada). - -1. With the union of the Canadian provinces into the _Dominion of -Canada_, a new nation sprang into existence (1867). As no nation -deserves to be free unless it can defend itself when attacked, Canada -at once took steps for guarding her existence. A law was passed -requiring every able-bodied man between sixteen and sixty to enrol -himself for the defence of the Dominion, and to prepare for that duty -by spending a certain number of days each year in drill and -rifle-shooting. - -2. Though Canada is a distinct nation, with her destiny in her own -hands, either to make or mar, she is, at the same time, a member of -the great British Empire. This connection obliges her to make no -treaty with a foreign power without the consent of the British -Government; but as a set-off, it entitles her in time of danger to -the powerful assistance of the British army and navy. And, as we -have seen in the great Boer war, Canada is willing, on her part, to -come to the aid of the mother-country in the time of stress and -strain. No more gallant men than her sons have fought in that war -and it is a great satisfaction to England to know that the support -she has received from Canada has been freely rendered by Canadians of -French origin as well as by those of British descent. Thus the -defeated foe of Wolfe's day has, by just treatment, been turned into -the loyal friend of to-day. - -3. After providing for her defence Canada's next care was to bring -the different provinces into touch with each other. By means of a -wonderful network of waterways, a person can go through the length -and breadth of the land almost entirely by water. But this mode of -travelling is slow and difficult. Steps were, therefore, taken by -the Dominion Parliament to bind the different provinces together by -means of a line of rails. What a gigantic task lay before them! The -distance to be crossed between the two oceans was no less than 3000 -miles, a distance so great that it would take an ordinary train, -going day and night, almost a week to accomplish the journey. - -4. The task, however, was completed in five years. The Canadian -Pacific Railway, as it is called, was begun in 1880 and finished in -1885. Thus the Dominion of Canada, which now stretches from the -Atlantic to the Pacific, is linked together by the iron road, and its -most distant parts brought into easy communication with each other by -rail and wire. To British Columbia and Manitoba, in particular, such -a line meant everything. It afforded settlers easy access to the -interior and gave an outlet to the markets for the produce of their -farms. And to the mother-country also this railway is of great value -as an important link in the chain that binds together the various -parts of the British Empire. Mails from England to the Far East are -now carried by way of Canada more quickly than by any other route. -Troops may be transported from Liverpool to Hong Kong in less than -thirty days. - -5. Canada has everything required to make a nation great and -prosperous. Her various provinces have each their own special -character and productions. _Nova Scotia_, for instance, is the great -coal-cellar of the eastern provinces, and it stands first in the -whole Dominion for its fisheries; whilst the supply of wood-pulp for -making paper is almost unlimited. - -6. The province of _Quebec_ was formerly a vast forest, and the -lumber trade is still its most important industry. Its inhabitants -are chiefly of French origin, and they still cling to the language -and customs of their ancestors. The French Canadian does not seem to -move with the stream of time. He is content to smoke his home-grown -tobacco and to get his sugar from the sap of the maple. He wears a -strong "home-spun" cloth, spun and woven at his own fire-side; in -fact, he is content to go on as his fathers before him. The people -of _Ontario_ are strikingly different. They are mostly of British -origin and are always pushing on, trying to make what is good still -better. Their fruit orchards, vineyards, and dairy-farms are a -growing source of wealth, and a great surprise to those who have -thought of Canada as the land of ice and snow. Canadian butter and -cheese are now largely exported; in 1900, for example, about twenty -million pounds of butter and 200 million pounds of cheese were sent -abroad. - -7. On entering _Manitoba_, the central province, the traveller finds -himself in a new world. Here are vast plains presenting in summer -the appearance of a sea of waving corn. The farms are immense, all -so different from our English farms with their small fields and -hedge-rows. Think of a farm where the furrows are four miles long -and as straight as an arrow! Continuing westward we come to the -slope of the Rocky Mountains which are specially adapted to the -raising of cattle. This is the "ranch" country of Canada, where the -horses and cattle range wild, and as a rule manage to provide for -themselves both in winter and summer. - -8. Of _British Columbia_, on the western side of the Rockies, we -have already spoken as rich in gold and coal. This province is also -valuable for its timber and salmon. If you buy a tin of preserved -salmon, you will be almost sure to find that it has come from this -colony. So plentiful are the salmon in this part of Canada that at -times they swarm up the rivers like a shoal of herrings on the coast -of Cornwall. - -9. Canada, then, it will be seen is bountifully supplied by nature -with all she needs to make her the land of plenty. She has been -styled "Our Lady of the Snows," and it must be admitted that the -Canadian climate is very cold in winter, and that the snow lies on -the ground for some months over most of the country. The snow, -however, is really one of the boons of nature: protecting the ground -from extreme frosts, bridging the streams, converting rough tracts -into the smoothest of roads, and turning with the warm breath of -spring into water to moisten the ground for the upspringing crops. - -10. Canada's great want is men of the right stamp to turn the gifts -of nature to account, and these will come in time. She has now five -millions of people, but could well support ten times as many. She -possesses every element essential to national greatness, both in the -character of her people and the wealth of her resources. The -fisheries of her maritime provinces, the timber of her ancient -forests, the granaries of the prairie region, the ranches of the -Rockies, and the treasures of her mines, together with her intricate -network of water-ways--all combine to give Canada the promise of an -honoured place among the great nations of the world, and to make us -proud to remember that she is a staunch and loyal friend to the -British name and nation. - - - -(4) "THE GOOD OF THE GOVERNED" - -(India). - -1. We have already seen how Clive laid the foundations of British -rule in India, how Warren Hastings tightened our hold on the country, -and how the Marquess Wellesley reduced the native princes to a state -of dependence, and made the British the real masters of India. To -establish a firm and just rule, and to save India from anarchy and -its people from oppression, were all that the early rulers of India -could attempt. But with the appointment of Lord Bentinck as -governor-general, in 1828, our rule began to have a higher aim, and -that was to build British greatness upon Indian happiness. - -2. Of his many services to India, two stand out conspicuously: one -was the rooting out of the _Thugs_, who made the robbing and -murdering of travellers a pious duty, thinking that such acts would -win them the favour of the dread goddess Kali. An old French -traveller speaks of them as "the cunningest robbers in the world, who -use a certain slip, with a running noose, which they can cast so -deftly about a man's neck, that they strangle him in a trice." No -person whom they attacked ever escaped to tell the tale. They went -in bands disguised as travellers or rich merchants, and always -carried tools for digging the graves of their victims. After each -successful attack, offerings were made in the temples of the goddess. -Within six years nearly all the members of this strange profession -were hanged or placed in safe custody for life. - -3. A still greater service, perhaps, was the putting an end to the -custom of _suttee_. When any Hindu died, his widow was expected, in -some parts of India, to accompany him to the next world by throwing -herself into his funeral pile, and perishing in the flames. So -common was the practice that in a single year, in Bengal alone, seven -hundred widows were burnt alive. To this day the country is, in -certain districts, thickly dotted with little white pillars, each in -memory of a _suttee_. Lord Bentinck made a proclamation declaring -that henceforth all who took part in a _suttee_ would be held guilty -of murder. - -4. When Bentinck's seven years of office were over, a statue was -erected to his memory with this inscription: - - To - William Cavendish Bentinck, - WHO INFUSED INTO ORIENTAL DESPOTISM THE SPIRIT - OF BRITISH FREEDOM; - WHO NEVER FORGOT THAT THE END OF GOVERNMENT IS - THE HAPPINESS OF THE GOVERNED. - - -5. We pass on to the next great landmark in the story of British -rule in India. This was the governor-generalship of the Earl of -Dalhousie, who ruled India between 1848 and 1856. Though he added to -the empire more territory than any other British ruler in India, -before or since, he did it all for the good of India as well as for -the greatness of Britain. Believing that rulers exist only for the -good of the governed, he made it his great aim to do away with -abuses, to redress wrongs, to deal even-handed justice all round, and -to promote the happiness of the people under his care. - -6. It may seem strange that Dalhousie, whose great maxim was "the -good of the governed" should have done so much to extend the British -Empire in India. This was partly due to the fact that wars were -forced on him, and partly to the fact that he believed that people -were better off under British rule than any other. This -consideration led him to take advantage of every opportunity to -substitute British rule for that of a native prince. When, for -instance, a native ruler died without offspring, instead of allowing -his adopted son, as was the custom in India, to succeed him, -Dalhousie annexed the territory thus left kingless. - -7. Our governor-general also dethroned unworthy rulers, including -the King of Oudh, whose realm was naturally the fairest province of -all India. It may be remembered that in all the dependent states a -British official resided at court to give his advice, and to watch -over British interests. The British resident at Lucknow, the capital -of Oudh, reported to Dalhousie that under its native ruler, Oudh knew -neither law nor justice, that "great crimes stain almost every acre -of land in his dominions." The strong, he said, everywhere preyed -upon the weak, and what might be the garden of India was fast -becoming a wilderness, whilst the king amused himself in the company -of fiddlers, singers, buffoons, and dancing girls. After a solemn -warning, and a reprieve of five years, the corrupt monarch was -deposed and his kingdom added to our Indian Empire. - -8. During Dalhousie's rule much was done to bring the different -parts of this great empire into closer touch with each other. A -cheap uniform postage was introduced, by which a letter could be sent -from one end of India to the other for half an anna, about three -farthings. A short railway was laid down as an experiment, and it -proved highly successful. The new mode of travelling rose at once -into favour with the natives of India. They soon saw the advantage -of cheap travelling at the rate of twenty or thirty miles an hour in -carriages drawn by the "English fire-horse." - -9. Lord Dalhousie then drew up a scheme for laying down 4000 miles -of rails between the great centres of population and the seats of -government. And he succeeded in getting the necessary capital for -this vast undertaking by offering it to public companies with the -guarantee, on the part of the Indian Government, of a fair profit on -their outlay. So great was the success of this scheme that in the -course of the next quarter-century £100,000,000 were spent on Indian -railways. - -10. It would not be easy to overrate the importance of railways in -this vast country, in the interests both of Britain and India. They -form so many iron bands to unite the scattered provinces under -British rule, and to enable our military forces to be sent speedily -to any threatened quarter. They also serve to bring supplies to -districts suffering from famine, whereas in former times it often -happened that people in one part of India were dying for want of the -food that was stored up in rich abundance in some distant part. The -advantages that the railways offer to trade are still more important. -"Great tracts," wrote Dalhousie, "are teeming with produce they -cannot dispose of. Others are scantily bearing what they would carry -in abundance, if only it could be conveyed whither it is needed.... -Ships from every part of the world crowd our ports in search of -produce which we have, or could obtain in the interior, but which at -present we cannot profitably fetch to them." So great an impulse was -given to trade in the course of the seven years of Lord Dalhousie's -rule, that the export of raw cotton was doubled and that of grain -increased threefold, whilst the total annual exports rose from -thirteen millions to twenty-three. - -11. The great viceroy also, meanwhile, set in action a scheme for -binding all India together by a network of telegraph wires. In the -last two years of his rule, no less than 4000 miles of electric -telegraph were put in working order. The difficulties to be overcome -were very great. The wires had to be carried on bamboo poles, or on -pillars of stone and iron, over broad swamps and rocky wastes, -through dense and deadly jungles, up wild mountain steeps, across -deep gorges, and seventy large rivers. And all this had to be done -in spite of the depredations of white ants, wild beasts, and -half-civilised men. A famous writer thus describes the difficulties -the engineers had to contend with: - -12. "His posts had to pass through jungles, where wild beasts used -them for scratching-stations, and savages stole them for firewood and -rafters for huts. Inquisitive monkeys spoiled the work by dragging -the wires into festoons, or dangling an ill-conducting tail from wire -to wire. Crows, kites, and fishing-eagles made roosting-places of -the wires in numbers so great as to bring them to the ground; though -once or twice a flash of lightning, striking a wet wire, would strew -the ground with the carcases of the feathered trespassers by dozens. -The white ant nibbled galleries in the posts, and the porcupine -burrowed under them." - -13. It is owing to the telegraph that all India is held under the -control of the governor-general. The wires are as the nerves that -pass through the whole body of India and terminate, as it were, in -his hands. By their means the latest news reaches him from every -part of India, and by the same means he flashes back his commands. -In the great mutiny that broke out, at the close of Dalhousie's term -of office, it was the telegraph that saved us from many a disaster. -"It is that accursed string that strangles us," exclaimed a mutineer -pointing to the telegraph wire as he was led out to execution. - - - -(5) SPOILS OF VICTORY - -(India). - -1. The story of India cannot be told without frequent reference to -war. Though the Marquis of Dalhousie was so much occupied, as we -have seen, with the arts of peace, he was obliged to wage more than -one great war. On landing at Calcutta (1848) he was told by the last -governor-general that so far as human foresight could predict, "it -would not be necessary to fire a gun in India for seven years to -come." Yet, within a twelvemonth, the whole scene was changed. - -2. The Punjab, or Land of the Five Rivers, was inhabited by the -Sikhs, a brave and warlike people. They had already fought -desperately for the mastery of India and had been defeated. A -British army had marched into Lahore, their capital, and dictated -terms of peace, by which the Sikhs were left under the rule of a -native prince, but required to receive a British officer at the royal -court and to be guided by his advice. Dalhousie had scarcely been in -office six months when the Punjab was all aflame again, and he found -himself compelled to renew the war. "I have wished for peace," he -said, "I have striven for it. But untaught by experience, the Sikh -nation has called for war, and on my word, sirs, they shall have it -with a vengeance." - -3. The work that lay before the British army was a terribly -difficult one. After a trying campaign in which we came near defeat, -the two armies met for a decisive encounter at Gujerat. It ended in -the rout of the Sikhs, who fled in dismay, leaving behind them most -of their guns and standards, their ammunition, stores, and tents. -The defeated troops were never allowed to rally, and within three -weeks the last gun had been abandoned and the last soldier had laid -down his arms. The Sikhs cheerfully owned themselves beaten, and -heard with delight that their Afghan allies "had ridden down through -their hills like lions and ran back into them like dogs." - -4. The conquest of the Punjab was followed by its annexation. The -Sikhs were informed that they must henceforth regard themselves as -British subjects, and the Land of the Five Rivers as a part of -British India. Two famous brothers, Henry and John Lawrence, were -appointed to set things in order in this great province and to -establish a firm and just government. The Sikh soldiers readily took -service under our flag. They were proud to be enlisted in the -regiments that had so well beaten them. Forts were built to defend -the new frontier, the taxes were lightened and made more even, canals -were cut, roads laid out, criminals punished, and honest labour -protected; in fact, in a few short years the latest British conquest -became the best managed, the most contented, and the most loyal of -all the British provinces in India. - -5. Three years after the annexation of the Punjab, war broke out at -the opposite end of the Indian Empire, in what was then called -Further India. It is known as the _Second Burmese War_ (1852). -Burma was at that time under the rule of an upstart king, whore -throne was at Ava. He seems to have been as ignorant and arrogant as -the King of Ava in the First Burmese War (1824), who on being -requested by the governor-general of India to withdraw his troops -from Assam, which they had invaded, ordered his commander-in-chief to -proceed to Calcutta, arrest the governor-general, and bring him to -Ava, bound in golden fetters, for execution. As a result of that -First Burmese War Assam had been added to the empire. It now forms -the great tea-plantation of India. - -6. The spoils of the Second Burmese War were still more valuable. -The most brilliant feat of arms in that war was the storming of -Rangoon. The Burmese troops held the city and pagoda of Rangoon with -18,000 men; the British could only bring one-third that number to the -attack. Among the Burmese were the picked guards known as "The -Immortals of the Golden Country," whose military oath compelled them -to conquer or die at their posts. The courage of the ordinary troops -was also insured, as their women and children were fastened up at the -back of the fort to incite the valour of their husbands, sons, and -brothers. But all to no purpose. The headlong rush of our troops, -and the fierce cheer with which they came on, seemed to take the -heart out of the defenders, and when the storming party entered at -one gate the garrison fled by the opposite one, the brave Immortals -in their gilt lacquer accoutrements leading the way. - -7. Before the end of the year the whole of Lower Burma was at our -disposal. As the people of that province everywhere greeted us as -friends, and besought us to deliver them from the tyranny of their -king, there was good reason to believe that it could be held by a -small number of troops. It was, accordingly, annexed to our Indian -Empire. Rangoon has become one of the great ports of the empire. In -thirty years its population increased fifteen-fold, and its trade -grew in the same proportion. The rest of Burma was annexed as the -result of another war some years later. - -8. The British India which Lord Dalhousie left to his successor was -more than one-third larger than the India of which he had received -charge seven years before. The great changes which he had made -produced a spirit of unrest among the inhabitants. The native -princes naturally felt their thrones insecure; the introduction of -railways and telegraphs was to the old-fashioned native a sign that a -new era had begun, and that old customs were giving place to new; -whilst many began to fear that even their religion was in danger of -being supplanted. - -9. Lord Canning, the next governor-general, seems to have seen signs -of the coming upheaval; for on taking office, he said at the send-off -banquet in London, "We must not forget that in the sky of India, -serene as it is, a small cloud may arise, at first no bigger than a -man's hand, but which growing bigger and bigger may at last threaten -to overwhelm us with ruin." He knew that the same instrument that we -had used to help us to conquer India might be turned against -ourselves. And what made our position the more serious was the fact -that the Sepoys in our army--who constituted that instrument--were -five times as numerous as our own troops, and that the native gunners -outnumbered ours by two to one. - -10. On reaching India, Lord Canning heard the first muttering of the -storm which threatened to drive the British out of India. There had -long been a prophecy among the natives that British rule would come -to an end at the close of a hundred years from its commencement. The -fateful year (1857) had now come, and with it came the great mutiny -of our Sepoy regiments. England, in her hour of danger, has never -lacked brave and patriotic sons to defend and maintain her cause, and -never has this been more conspicuously the case than in the _Sepoy -Mutiny_. - - - -(6) DEEDS OF HEROISM - -(India). - -1. The Sepoy Mutiny had its centre at Delhi, where lived the old -emperor in great state and luxury, but without a vestige of power or -authority. The mutineers placed this shadow of an emperor at their -head, making him their centre of union, and his sovereignty a cause -to fight for. The great powder-magazine within the city was luckily -in British hands. Of the garrison in charge of it were two British -officers, who, at the sacrifice of their own lives, applied a torch -to the powder, and in a moment the building, with hundreds of Sepoy -mutineers, was sent flying into the air. - -2. There were two circumstances which in the most providential -manner enabled our countrymen to hold their own until succour reached -them from England. These were the loyalty of the Sikhs, who had -recently been conquered, and the passage across the seas of British -troops on their way to China. These troops were intercepted at Cape -Town and Singapore, and diverted to India. The Sikhs threw in their -lot with their conquerors, and fought like lions for them throughout -the Mutiny. A few weeks after the first outbreak, a combined British -and Sikh force arrived at Delhi. Our men posted themselves on a -commanding ridge outside the city, and held it against all comers, -whilst waiting for reinforcements. - -3. Sir John Lawrence was straining every nerve to collect forces in -the Punjab, and to push them on, with all speed, to Delhi; whilst his -brother, Sir Henry Lawrence, was rendering a service, scarcely less -valuable, at Lucknow. Forewarned by telegraph, he made every -preparation for defence within his power before the rebels in the -city heard of the outbreak. He brought all the Europeans within the -"Residency," as the government buildings were called, and stocked it -well with provisions and ammunition. Lawrence himself was mortally -wounded, near the beginning of the siege, by the bursting of a shell -that crashed into his room, where he was writing at table. When -dying he desired that on his tomb should be engraven: - - HERE LIES - Henry Lawrence - WHO TRIED TO DO HIS DUTY. - -4. The siege of Lucknow is one of the most memorable in our history. -We may well be proud of the splendid stand which a small band of our -countrymen made here, in the presence of their wives and children, -against myriads of the enemy, who were kept in check for nearly three -terrible months, until relief came. - -5. All this time the eyes of India and Great Britain were earnestly -fixed on Delhi. It was there all felt the question was being fought -out, who should be masters of India. For three weary months our men -had to cling to their position on the ridge, outside the city, before -obtaining guns sufficiently heavy to begin the siege. Great was the -joy in the British camp when the guns arrived, and with them General -Nicholson, known alike to friend and foe for his daring valour. All -were eager to follow where he led. - -6. After a bombardment of three days, two great breaches in the -walls opened the way for the assault, and an entrance at each breach -was made at the point of the bayonet, but whilst leading on his men -the gallant Nicholson was slain. Of the many daring deeds performed -that day the most memorable was the perilous exploit of blowing up -the Cashmere gate, to make a third entrance for our troops. A small -band of heroic men volunteered to place bags of powder under the -gate, and to take the risk of being shot or blown up in the attempt. - -7. "I placed my bag," said Sergeant Smith, "and then at a great risk -reached Carmichael's bag (for he was killed), and having placed it in -position with my own, arranged the fuse for the explosion, and -reported all ready to Lieutenant Salkeld, who held a quick-match. In -stooping down to light the quick-match, he was shot, but in falling -had the presence of mind to hold it to me. Burgess was next him and -took it. I told him to keep cool and fire the charge. He turned -round and said, 'It won't go off, sir; it has gone out, sir.' I gave -him a box of lucifers, and, as he took them, he let them fall into my -hand, he being shot through the body at that moment. I was then left -alone, and was proceeding to strike a light, when the fuse went off -in my face, the light not having gone out as we thought. I took up -my gun and jumped into the ditch but before I had reached the ground -the charge went off, and filled the ditch with smoke." Before the -smoke cleared away our troops were through the gateway. - -8. But though the entrance to the city was gained the work had only -begun. Every street and public building had been fortified, and had -to be won by steady and continuous fighting. It was not until the -sixth day that our men had fought their way to the palace in the -heart of the city. When the British flag waved over the palace, all -felt that the neck of the rebellion was broken, and that our Indian -Empire was saved. The old emperor was sent as a state prisoner to -Rangoon, where he died in 1862, being buried in the night-time near -his bungalow, so that no native might know the resting-place of the -last of the emperors. - -9. Three days after the fall of Delhi, General Havelock reached the -Residency at Lucknow, after fighting half a dozen battles on the road -and forcing his way through streets lined with armed rebels. We can -imagine the kind of welcome the troops received on their arrival. -"In a moment," writes a lady, one of the survivors of the garrison, -"big, rough-bearded soldiers were seizing the little children out of -our arms, kissing them with tears rolling down their cheeks, and -thanking God that they had come in time." They had come in time to -save the women and children from falling into the enemy's hands, but -not in sufficient numbers to remove them. - -10. For final deliverance they had to wait nearly two months longer, -until the arrival of the Commander-in-chief, Sir Colin Campbell, at -the head of a small army of 5,000 men. It is interesting to know -that Lieutenant Roberts, now Field-Marshal Lord Roberts, was an -officer in the relieving force, and gave proof of his daring spirit, -as the troops fought their way through the city, by hoisting the -British flag, amid a shower of bullets, on the tower of a fort they -had captured. Sir Colin now turned his arms against every city in -revolt, and before the end of the following year (1858), the embers -of the rebellion were finally stamped out. - - - -(7) BRITISH RULE ON A NEW FOOTING - -(India). - -1. As soon as peace was restored to India, after the Mutiny, a -proclamation, at Calcutta, declared that the governing power of the -East India Company was abolished, and that henceforth the sovereign -of England would be the immediate ruler of India. In this -proclamation, which may be regarded as the Magna Charta of the people -of India, it was announced, in the name of the queen, that we desire -no further extension of territory in India, but that what we had got -we intended to hold; that we would respect the rights, dignity, and -honour of the native princes; that we would in every way endeavour to -further the interests of the people, and in no way interfere with -their religious convictions. - -[Illustration: BLOWING UP THE CASHMERE GATE.] - -2. The title of _Empress of India_ was not assumed until some years -later. But the assumption of that title, and the change in the form -of government, as stated in the proclamation, gave great satisfaction -to the princes and people of India. Our Indian government acquired -new dignity in their eyes, and our rule became more acceptable, since -they could now regard themselves as fellow-subjects with ourselves of -the same personal sovereign. They had now distinct promises on which -they could rely, for they knew by experience that their English -masters would feel themselves bound by their own words. Nothing is -more gratifying to our national pride than the reliance thus placed -on the pledged word of our Government. "It is certain," says a great -Polish writer, in reference to the Boer war, "that if King Edward -VII. guaranteed to the Boers, with his royal word, the enjoyment of -their liberty and laws, not an Englishman would be found throughout -the gigantic British Empire, who would not burn with shame if the -royal promise were broken." - -3. The improved state of feeling among the people of India, in -consequence of the changes which had been made, and the distinct -promises they had received, showed itself very clearly, when, a few -years later, the Prince of Wales--now King Edward VII.--paid a visit -to India as the representative of Queen Victoria. His progress -through the land called forth a succession of brilliant -demonstrations--cities, temples, and palaces, being illuminated in -his honour. All the princes and rajahs of India vied with each other -in the magnificence of their trappings and the splendour of their -welcome. And when at last the Prince set sail for England, the ship -was laden with numerous memorials and presents of great variety, -value, and interest. The proclamation in the following year of the -queen's new title, as Empress of India, tended to draw still closer -the ties of love and loyalty between Her Majesty and her Indian -subjects. - -4. Sweeping changes were made in our Indian army at the close of the -Mutiny. That army now contains only two natives to one European, and -the artillery is kept almost entirely in the hands of British -soldiers. Many wars have occurred in India since it came under the -British crown, but they have all been wars on her borders, keeping -strife and danger far removed from every home in India. They have -been wars to preserve internal peace, and to strengthen our -frontiers, especially on the borders of Afghanistan, the only quarter -from which an invading army could approach India except by sea. - -5. But the chief enemy we have had to fight in India since the days -of the Mutiny is famine, which has been known to carry off in a -single year five millions of people. This calamity has arisen not -from want of food in India, but from the difficulty of transporting -it to the distressed districts. As famine in India is caused by an -insufficient rainfall, great works have been executed to store water -in vast tanks or lakes--for instance, by damming up the outlet of -some mountain valley--and to cut canals for carrying water to the -crops suffering from drought. Great engineering works have been -taken in hand to keep the great rivers in bounds, and to prevent -their waters in time of flood from rushing with ruin and havoc over -the land. - -6. If the British were to abandon India to-morrow they would leave -behind them a grand memorial of their works for the good of the -country, in their schools and colleges, their telegraphs, railways, -roads, bridges, canals, reservoirs, and river embankments. People -who have only seen such things in our own island-home, have no -conception of the great scale on which such works have been carried -out in a large country like India--a country as large as all Europe, -leaving out Russia--where the rivers are immense, and subject to -terrible floods from the down-pouring tropical rains which fall most -copiously on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. - -7. It is true that we do not give India the same kind of government -we give Canada and Australia. We are obliged to govern India, not -according to the notions of the natives, but according to our own. -We take care, however, to keep order and see justice done, not only -in the provinces under direct British rule, but also in the dependent -states, which occupy about two-fifths of the country, and contain -one-fourth of the population. There are no less than seven hundred -of these states, great and small; none of them may make alliance with -any other state except Britain; each of them must admit a British -resident, who keeps an eye on its government. If any prince, after -repeated warnings, fails to reform, he is replaced by another native, -for Britain annexes no longer. On the other hand, a prince who does -his duty and governs wisely, receives from the Emperor some mark of -distinction or titular honour, nowhere in the world more valued than -in India. - -8. It will be seen then that our government of India is despotic, -like that of a schoolmaster, who makes his own laws and administers -them for the good of his scholars. There is, however, this -difference. In India, the natives themselves are admitted to a large -share in the administration of the laws and in the service of the -state, an arrangement tending to keep the educated natives contented -and to train them for the work of self-government. - -9. On the whole, it may be said with truth that there is nothing -more wonderful in the history of the world than that, under the flag -of these two little islands, there should have grown up the greatest -and most beneficent despotism that the world has sees. The very face -of the country has changed; pestiferous swamps have been drained, and -are now fertile lands with healthy cities. Wide tracts of jungle, -the secure refuge of evil beasts, have been reclaimed. The great -rivers are now brought under control; canals receive their surplus -waters, and instead of causing desolation, bring fertilizing streams -to a thirsty land. Railroads transport corn and rice through tunnels -cut in the mountains, and across mighty rivers, to distant -famine-stricken districts. In short, the story of India's progress -under British rule is one of which we may well be proud. - -10. The advantage, however, has not been all on one side. The -connection with India has brought, and still brings, much grist to -our own mill. It provides high salaries for about eight hundred of -our most competent countrymen, acting as governors, magistrates, and -high state officials; it offers employment for our engineers and land -surveyors; it serves as an excellent training-ground for our officers -and soldiers; and, above all, it opens up a splendid trade to our -merchants and manufacturers. Were India to fall into the hands of a -foreign power, like Russia, our merchants would probably find -themselves, if not shut out entirely from the markets of India, much -hampered in doing a profitable business. But with the government in -our own hands we can make such regulations as tend to the mutual -advantage of the two countries. So flourishing is the trade between -them now that its annual value amounts to more than £50,000,000. - -11. Such being the mutual advantages to India and Britain of our -rule in that great country, it would be an indelible stain on our -name and nation, if through indifference, or negligence, or -faint-heartedness, we were to lose an empire built up by so much -genius and heroism under the controlling hand of an unseen Power. - - "We sailed wherever ship could sail, - We founded many a mighty state; - Pray God our greatness may not fail - Thro' craven fears of being great." - - - -(8) BARS TO PROGRESS - -(Australia). - -1. To measure the progress that has been made by our kinsmen in -Australia, we must know something of the country in its natural -condition, and of the special difficulties they have had to contend -with. One of these difficulties was of our own making, and that was -the landing there of shiploads of our worst criminals, many of whom -fled to the "bush," and preyed upon the lonely settlers, or committed -outrages upon the natives, who naturally tried to take revenge upon -any white men that came in their way. - -2. The plants found in Australia by the early explorers had, with -few exceptions, never been seen in any other parts of the world. -Strange to say, no wheat or any other cereal grew there, and but few -fruits or vegetables fit for human food, although both soil and -climate are in many parts so favourable to their growth that, since -their introduction, they have thriven as well as in most countries. - -3. The animals peculiar to Australia are even more strange than its -plants. Of all the useful animals belonging to other countries, not -a single representative was found here. All our domestic animals, -however, have been introduced, and thrive remarkably well. One, -indeed, the rabbit, has thriven so well as to form a serious pest. -So rapidly do these animals multiply here that the colonists are -obliged to incur much expense in the effort to keep down their -numbers. Of the quadrupeds found elsewhere Australia only possessed, -when first discovered, some species of rats and mice and a sort of -wild dog, or dingo. Most of the native animals are pouched, like the -kangaroo. - -4. Dingoes cannot be trained for the service of man. They are -always ready to prey upon his flocks. So great a pest are these -animals, in certain parts, that each man on a sheep-station is -expected to carry strychnine, in order to poison the carcase of any -dead animal he may chance to find in his wanderings, with the view of -destroying the dingoes that may happen to feed upon it. These -animals destroy far more than they devour. On entering a sheepfold -they bite and kill without stint or stay. There is, however, one -drawback to their wholesale destruction, as they are the natural -enemies of the kangaroo. Since the dingoes have become scarce, the -kangaroo has multiplied greatly. In some districts droves of these -animals are still seen, eating up every blade of grass and starving -the sheep off the land. - -5. As the native productions of Australia are of little service to -man, it is not surprising to find the natives a low order of savages. -There is no bond of union between them. They consist of many tribes, -always ready to go to war with each other. It is supposed that about -50,000 survive, but through intemperance, wars and diseases, their -numbers are gradually dwindling. They have already almost -disappeared from the more settled parts, but as such a large -proportion of Australia is uninhabitable by white men, they will -probably long linger in the more remote quarters of the continent. - -6. Like all wandering savages, their senses are remarkably acute, -and their skill and cunning in hunting and snaring beasts and birds -can hardly be surpassed. Advantage is taken of this fact by the -Australians, who employ them to track out fugitives, when offenders -against the law have to be pursued, or when cattle have strayed. - -7. The natives were at first a source of great trouble to the -settlers. They stole their sheep and ran off with their horses, -caused their cattle to stampede, and killed their shepherds and -herdsmen. But as the colonist never moved out of doors without his -firearms, they soon gained a wholesome dread of his power. One tribe -of "blacks" also was always ready to help the white man to pursue and -punish the men of another tribe. In Queensland, indeed, a body of -native police, officered by Europeans, was formed to cope with the -disorders and depredations of the savages, who are bolder and more -numerous in that part of Australia. But the experiment was attended -by dreadful results, for a member of one tribe displays savage -enjoyment in the slaughter of members of any other tribe. Among the -settlers also were men who had been dangerous criminals, and who had -no compunction in murdering "blacks," as if they were devoid of human -souls. - -8. One of the great bars to progress in Australia is the irregular -supply of rain. Whilst droughts are not infrequent, there is -occasionally an excessive downpour, causing disastrous floods. The -amount of rain that falls from first to last would probably be -sufficient to make Australia a well-watered country. But owing to -the extreme irregularity of the rainfall the plains are liable to be -alternately deluged and burnt up. Explorers have often been in -danger of perishing with thirst from this cause; for instead of -finding a large lake, where they had seen one on a former occasion, -they find nothing but a stretch of baked mud. - -9. In times of drought the rivers, too, dwindle into mere threads of -water, or become too shallow for navigation. Even the Murray, the -largest of Australian rivers, is at times but an indifferent -waterway. Still worse, its mouth consists of shallow channels of -shifting sand, so that no steamer can enter it from the sea. Large -sums have been expended in trying to remove the bar at its mouth and -form a harbour; but the attempt has been abandoned, for as fast as -the sand is dredged away, fresh deposits of silt take its place. - -10. These are some of the difficulties and drawbacks which the -Australian colonists have had to fight against. But in spite of them -an extraordinary advance has been made, thanks to their own energy -and enterprise, to the mineral wealth of their country, and to their -freedom from war. Contrary to the experience of nations, in other -continents, the Australians have never had to fight a regular battle -in their own land. This immunity from war they owe, in large -measure, to the protecting arm of the mother-country, and to the -wisdom she has shown in granting self-government to her Australian -colonies as soon as they became fit to manage their own affairs. - - - -(9) EFFECT OF THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD - -(Australia). - -1. Next to wool as a source of Australian wealth comes gold. The -discovery of gold, in 1851, had a wonderful effect on the progress of -Australia. The discovery was made, near Bathurst, in New South -Wales, by Hargraves, one of the numerous adventurers that left the -colony in 1848 to dig for gold in California. The first thing which -impressed him on his arrival in the gold country was the resemblance -between it and the district around his own home in Australia. The -more he saw of the gold-diggings in California, the more he was -struck with the likeness. At length he resolved to return, and on -searching a creek near his old home, he found it rich in gold. - -2. At the news of this discovery, thousands hastened to the diggings -from all parts of the colony. The news of this "rush" for gold had -hardly reached the people of Victoria, when it became known that -there was a still richer gold-field at Ballarat in their own country. -The gold fever seized upon the Victorians, and in a few weeks most of -the men in the colony were grubbing for gold. Workshops were left -without workmen, ships without crews, and houses without tenants. -The squatters were left to look after their own sheep, and farmers -saw their crops spoiling for want of labourers to harvest them. -Ordinary business came to a standstill, and even schools were closed -for want of teachers. - -3. To the streams of men from every part of Australia was soon added -a flood of adventurers from all quarters of the world, including -numbers of escaped convicts from Tasmania. Of those who came in the -hope of rapidly making a fortune at the diggings, the majority were -doomed to disappointment. But a few picked up gold nuggets of -considerable size, and one miner at Ballarat hit upon the largest -mass of gold ever found. It was called the "welcome stranger," and -was worth upwards of £8000. The scene at the gold-fields is thus -described in the "Story of the Nations:"-- - -4. "The banks of the Yarrowee presented a strange appearance, with -the eager line of men standing shoulder to shoulder, washing in the -muddy water the dirt brought them from time to time by a companion. -A little further back the earth was cut into innumerable holes, -flanked by great mounds of red soil, in and around which men busily -ran or dug with feverish energy. At night the scene was even more -weirdly curious, for the glaring lights of the theatres and grog -shanties, with the flaring torches and fires of the miners, joined in -throwing into strong relief the shadows of the tents and their wild -surroundings. Above all rose the hum of a city, broken now and again -by bursts of noisy revelry. Wealth easily won was as readily -squandered, and the lucky digger showered gold with a free hand. -Prices were exorbitant, for the miner, drunk with fortune, seldom -asked for change, and the style of living generally was recklessly -extravagant." - -5. The value to Australia of the discovery of gold within her -territory has been far greater than the worth of the gold itself, -though that, in forty years from its first discovery in 1851, -amounted to the extraordinary sum of £300,000,000. It has been the -means of bringing to her shores hundreds of thousands of enterprising -men, who on leaving the gold-fields have settled down in the country -to gain a livelihood, if not a fortune, by steady industry in some -useful employment. Thus, just before the discovery of gold, the -population of Victoria was less than 80,000; now, half a century -later, the population is nearly one-and-a-quarter millions. - -6. Gold-mining is now one of the regular industries of Australia. -But gold is no longer to be picked up on the surface. It is now only -obtained by sinking shafts, and much expensive machinery is required -in working the mines. The yield of gold in Victoria and New South -Wales is, of course, much less than it was, but the annual value is -still considerable. - -7. Gold-mining has also been long carried on in Queensland. Indeed, -the Mount Morgan mine in that colony has proved itself one of the -richest mines in the world. Its story is a curious one. A young -squatter had bought a farm near Rockhampton, but it was on a rocky -hill, and he found that for grazing or cultivation it was useless. -He was, accordingly, glad to sell it to three brothers, named Morgan, -at £1 an acre. The dirty grey rocks of which the hilly farm was -composed turned out to be so rich in gold, that the hill, which had -cost the Morgans £640, was sold for £8,000,000. And now West -Australia, which has long lagged behind the sister colonies, can also -boast of its gold mines, and has fairly started on its onward march. - -8. Australia has lately followed the example of Canada, and formed -her six colonies into one great dominion, under the name of the -_Commonwealth of Australia_, which started on its new career on the -first day of the twentieth century. Each colony, or state, retains -control over its own local affairs, but the Parliament of the -Commonwealth is empowered to decide all questions relating to -defence, railways and telegraphs, customs duties and postal rates, -and all other matters common to the whole country. - - - -(10) EXPLORATION AND ITS MARTYRS - -(Australia). - -1. The story of Australian exploration tells of hardships and -hazards innumerable. It is a story that is highly creditable to the -dauntless courage and persevering energy of our brothers in -Australia. As landlords of a vast estate, they have endeavoured to -ascertain its nature, and to learn how best to turn it to profitable -account. This knowledge could only be gained at the expense of many -lives, and at the cost of great self-sacrifice. The explorers who -have lost their lives in the fulfilment of their self-imposed task, -if not entitled to a place on the roll of martyrs, have certainly -earned a place among the makers of our empire. Of such men we can -only give one or two examples in this brief account. - -2. The vast interior is worse to cross than the Sahara, for while it -is often quite as hot and quite as dry, it is covered in many parts -with a dense "scrub," consisting of prickly shrubs and the dreaded -porcupine grass. The constant pricking of this grass causes raw and -bleeding swellings round the horses' legs; and to escape from it, -they will prefer to force their way through the densest scrubs. Here -they rush along, frequently forcing sticks between their backs and -their loads; then comes a frantic crashing through the scrub, packs -are forced off, and the horses are lost sight of for hours or even -days. - -3. Mr. Kennedy, who explored in Queensland, describes the difficulty -of travelling in the tropical jungles of that colony. He speaks, in -particular, of the terrible lawyer vine and the equally-dreaded -tree-nettle. The former is a species of rattan, armed with hooks and -spurs, which once fast never let go. The other is a forest-tree -belonging to the nettle family, and its broad leaves sting so -severely as to cause serious inflammation; horses, indeed, which have -plunged about and got stung all over, sometimes die from the effects. - -4. For exploring the interior, Adelaide, in South Australia, has -been a favourite starting-point; in 1840 Mr. Eyre made his perilous -journey along the shores of the Australian Bight to King George's -Sound, a distance of 1,200 miles. The greatest difficulty was to -find water. He had with him ten horses and six sheep. Before moving -the animals from their halting-place it was necessary to secure water -for them, and Eyre himself explored in advance, sometimes five or six -days at a time, without finding a drop, being reduced to collecting -dew with a sponge and rags. When 600 miles from his destination Eyre -was left with one native servant, two horses, 40 lbs. of flour, and -four gallons of water. It was 150 miles further before they obtained -a fresh supply of water. Thus they struggled on for a month, living -on horse-flesh, with a little flower-paste or damper. They had then -the good luck to attract the notice of a whaling ship near the shore, -and were kindly received on board for a fortnight. Being -sufficiently recruited, they continued their journey, and after -undergoing further hardships for twenty-three days, succeeded in -reaching King George's Sound. - -5. In 1860 an expedition set out from Melbourne to cross the -continent from south to north. Burke and Wills were first and second -in command. These two men accomplished the last part of the journey -alone, and on foot, for all the camels had sunk with fatigue. Having -reached the shores of Carpentaria, they retraced their steps in the -expectation of coming across the men and stores they had left at a -certain place on the route. Four months and a half after leaving the -depot they reached it again, only to find a notice stating that their -friends had left that same morning. The word "dig" was cut on a -neighbouring tree, and buried beneath it they discovered a small -supply of provisions. - -6. On their way back to the depot they had been rejoined by one of -the party. The three deserted wanderers rested for a couple of days, -and then started for Adelaide. They were rapidly dying of hunger -when they met some natives, who treated them in a friendly manner. -After resting with them for four days they resumed their journey. -But first Wills, and then Burke, completely broke down and died. The -only survivor wandered on until he met with a tribe who permitted him -to stay with them. He was afterwards found by a rescue party from -Victoria, but so weak that he could scarcely speak. The blacks were -rewarded for their kindness with gifts of looking-glasses, gay pieces -of ribbon, and other articles of finery. - -7. While the explorers just mentioned were crossing the continent -from Melbourne, another expedition, under Stuart, was attempting to -cross from Adelaide. About the centre of the continent Stuart -reached a mountain, which has been named Central Mount Stuart. He -had penetrated within 200 miles of the Gulf of Carpentaria, when he -was forced to turn back through the hostility of a numerous tribe of -natives. Nothing daunted, Stuart set out again from Adelaide on New -Year's Day, 1861, and got about 100 miles beyond the point already -reached, when his further progress was barred by an impenetrable -scrub. He made strenuous efforts to pass the obstacle, but without -success. Reluctantly compelled to turn back for want of provisions, -he arrived safely in the settled districts, north of Adelaide, and -for the third time attempted to reach the goal; and this time with -well-earned success. Neither on this, nor on any of his previous -journeys, did Mr. Stuart lose a single man of his party. - -8. This journey had important results. It showed that through the -centre of the continent was a chain of fertile spots and grassy -plains, through which a track might be found for a telegraph line, -stretching from Adelaide in the south to Port Darwin in the north. -But the difficulties to be overcome in carrying this line across the -continent were considerable. For one thing, the two ends of the wire -were 1,600 miles apart, and for no small part of the way it had to -pass through a desolate region void of water and pasture. The -northern section of the work proved the most difficult to accomplish; -for there were no trees for posts, and the tropical heat was too -great for European labour. Indian coolies and Chinese labourers were -hired, wells were dug along the route, iron posts were imported, and -by great exertions the task was, in 1872, completed. - -9. It is by this telegraph line that Australia is in constant -communication with the rest of the world. Thanks to this magical -wire, Australians are able to read at their breakfast tables events -which had occurred on the opposite side of the globe a few hours -previously. Thanks to the same wire, if an important cricket match -is being played in Australia, we at home can almost stand round the -field and watch it in progress. Whilst the telegraph has brought us -within easy speaking distance of Australia, the steam-ship has also -wrought its wonders. It is worth remembering that at the time when -Australia received its first ship-load of settlers, the Orkneys and -other remote parts of Scotland were as far distant from London, in -respect to the time taken in travelling, as are the Australian -colonies to-day, whilst the difficulties and risks of the journey -were considerably greater. - - - -(11) MUTUAL ADVANTAGE OF MOTHERLAND AND COLONY - -(New Zealand). - -1. Of all the colonies, with the exception of Tasmania perhaps, New -Zealand most resembles the mother-country both in climate and -scenery. At the same time it is wholly unlike Australia. If a -long-sleeping Briton could be set down among the Otago hills, and, on -awaking, be told that he was travelling in Galway or the west of -Scotland, he might be easily deceived, though he knew those countries -well; but he would feel at once that he was being hoaxed, if he were -told in any part of Australia that he was travelling among Irish or -British scenery. - -2. Everything English seems to flourish here. The only quadrupeds -seen are those imported from Europe. The complaint is that many of -our English animals and plants thrive only too well. Hosts of pigs -run wild; rabbits also spread over the country in battalions, and do -great damage to the crops. Gorse and sweet-briar, brought by the -early settlers from "home" are with difficulty kept in check. Even -the English grasses are displacing those of native origin. Our -house-sparrow is now the most common bird in New Zealand, and our -house-fly seems likely to be as often seen there as here. - -[Illustration: HER MAJESTY QUEEN ALEXANDRA.] - -3. In colonising Australia little account had to be taken of the -natives, who were both few and feeble. It was otherwise with the -natives of New Zealand. The _Maoris_, as they called themselves, -were a fierce, warlike race, strong and brave, who were not content -with killing their enemies, but fed upon their flesh afterwards. -They were not, however, mere naked savages. They wove mats and -clothing from flax, and cloaks of great value from the dressed skins -of dogs. In the narrative of the wars between the Maoris and the -colonists, one is constantly reminded of the war between the ancient -Britons and the Romans; in both cases the natives were brave and -skilled in war, and owed their final defeat to their own divisions -and to the superior arms of their enemies. - -4. The first settlement was made here in 1840 after a friendly -treaty had been made with the Maoris. By this treaty they took Queen -Victoria for their sovereign, but on the express understanding that -their lands should remain at their own disposal. "The shadow of our -lands," said an old chief, "will go to the queen, but the substance -will remain in our own hands." Emigrants began to pour in and to -purchase lands at a low price. At the end of twenty years the Maoris -began to awake to the fact that the settlers were increasing very -rapidly, and now outnumbered themselves, whilst their lands were -continually passing out of their hands. A movement, accordingly, -soon took place among themselves for the purpose of stopping the sale -of land to the stranger. - -5. The war that ensued lasted, off and on, for ten years. Aided by -British troops, the colonists at last convinced the Maoris that their -cause was hopeless. They consented to live at peace on the terms -offered, and have ever since been as good as their word. All, except -a few of the older people, call themselves Christians. They have -become to a certain extent educated and civilised; many of them have -farms and ships. But with the change in their habits has come a -change in their spirit. They seem to feel themselves a doomed race. -"As the white man's rat," they say, "has extirpated our rat, as the -European fly is driving out our fly, as the foreign clover is killing -our ferns, so the Maori himself will disappear before the white man." - -6. Since 1870, when the war ended, the whole of New Zealand has made -steady progress. In the course of the next ten years, such a stream -of emigrants came flowing in that the population almost doubled -itself. All skilled labourers who came found ready employment and -good pay. It was a time when much money was spent on public works. -The New Zealand Government had raised a loan of ten millions from men -of capital in England. The money thus borrowed was devoted to three -purposes: (1) to improve the means of communication by constructing -roads, railroads, bridges, telegraphs, and coasting-vessels; (2) to -purchase lands from the natives whenever they were willing to sell; -and (3) to aid men of the right stamp to emigrate from Britain. - -7. New Zealand is, as I have intimated, an eminently _British_ -Colony. The colonists are almost entirely of British descent. Their -trade is nearly confined to the British Empire, seven-tenths of it -being with the mother-country, and nearly all the rest with -Australia, India, and Fiji. The discovery of the method of keeping -meat frozen in cold air chambers during the passage of a vessel -through the tropics has been a great boon to New Zealand, and a great -advantage to our own land, enabling British workmen to purchase -excellent meat at a moderate price. - -8. A moment's reflection on these facts will serve to bring home to -our minds the mutual advantages accruing to the mother-country and -her colonies, when in friendly relations with each other. We observe -that New Zealand has received the aid of British troops in her war -with the natives; she has been able to raise a large loan for public -works at a moderate rate of interest from men of property at home; -and she enjoys here a ready market for her produce. - -9. The mother-country, on her part, has been able to provide new -homes for her surplus population in a country like their own; she has -secured seven-tenths of the trade of New Zealand, increasing thereby -the amount of profitable employment for her workpeople; she has drawn -from the colony supplies of cheap food to help fill the hungry mouths -of her millions, and quite recently she has received the substantial -aid of 6,000 New Zealand troops in her war in South Africa. - - - -(12) A DIFFICULT BRITISH STATE TO BUILD - -(South Africa). - -1. The story of South Africa, since the British gained a footing -there, is marked by many a dark spot of misfortune and disaster that -we would gladly forget. When Britain, in 1806, took possession of -the Cape, the country was occupied by Boers, Hottentots, and Kaffirs. -The building up of a British state, with such conflicting elements, -has been a work of extreme difficulty, which has put the best -qualities of the British race to a severe test, and much of the work -still remains to be done. - -2. The Home Government, for many years, only valued the Cape as a -military post and naval station, occupying a commanding position on -the waterway to India. They shrank, accordingly, from extending -British rule in South Africa beyond the narrowest limits, and for -many years made no attempt to colonize the country. It was not until -1820 that a body of picked emigrants, numbering 5,000, were landed at -Algoa Bay, and, having been taken 100 miles inland, were put in -possession of farms of 100 acres each. - -3. The first three years were years of blight which killed the -growing grain, and then came a flood which washed away their cottages -and gardens. Many of the emigrants were good artisans but bad -farmers. They had been set out like so many plants, in well-ordered -rows, and told to grow where they were placed. But the experiment -was bound to fail. Before long many of the men deserted their farms -and found work as artisans, whilst those who were fitted for -farm-work added the derelict farms to their own, and thus in time -each one found himself in the sphere for which he was best adapted. - -4. The coming of the British settlers had a marked effect on the -government of the colony. The governor was no longer able to rule -simply as he thought best. The new-comers were not disposed to be -treated as children. They wanted law and government, but insisted on -their right to question the acts of the governor, and to see that he -governed according to law, and not merely according to his own will -and pleasure. It is interesting to find from an official report made -to the House of Commons that,--"The introduction of the English -settlers, and the right of discussion which they claimed and -exercised, have had the effect of exciting in the Dutch and native -population a spirit of vigilance and attention, that never existed -before, to the acts of the government, and which may render all -future exertion of authority objectionable _that is not founded upon -the law_." - -5. The history of South Africa, for more than thirty years after the -first British settlement, is marked by two special features, both -arising from the fact that three races--British, Boer, and -Kaffir--were contending for the mastery. One feature was the -repeated migrations of the Boers to get away from British rule and -taxation, and from British justice, which was dealt out even-handed -to black men and white men alike. The Boers succeeded in forming two -republics--the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. They also -attempted to settle in Natal, but that colony was annexed by the -British government (1843). - -6. The other feature of those early days was the frequent necessity -of going to war with the Kaffirs. Several serious wars had to be -fought with the natives, who were very numerous, before they were -convinced that the white man had come to stay, and that his arm was -stronger than theirs. Each war with the Kaffirs ended in an -extension of British territory, and by the middle of the century -nearly the whole country south of the Orange river was taken under -British rule. - -7. The governor that did most for the peace of the colony was Sir -George Grey, who had already done a good work for the empire in South -Australia and New Zealand. He secured the good offices of the Kaffir -chiefs by taking them into his pay, and he opened schools where their -young men might be trained in some useful occupation, as farming, -gardening, and carpentry. But he met with only moderate success. -Like the negroes of the West Indies, most Kaffirs hate work and have -no desire to better their condition. Given a noisy musical -instrument, a bright sun, and a gaudy dress, and their mirth and -gaiety seem boundless. - -8. Sir George Grey also tried to cure the natives of their belief in -witchcraft, but in this he miserably failed. He did much, however, -to put down the practice of "smelling out" witches. The Kaffirs -believe that diseases and disasters of all kinds are caused by -wizards and witches, and in every tribe there was a professional -witch-finder whose duty it was to go through certain forms, calling -"smelling-out," and then point out the individual, who was supposed -to have caused the mischief. This practice did not commend itself to -the governor's sense of justice, and he did all he possibly could to -put it down. - -9. The superstitious belief of the Kaffirs was the cause of a -terrible tragedy during Grey's term of office. Thousands of their -cattle had been carried off by a pestilence, when a Kaffir prophet -consoled the poor natives by assuring them that the Kaffir chiefs, -long dead and gone, were about to return to earth with a new breed of -cattle, which disease could not touch, and that their coming would -result in the triumph of the black men over the white. But all this, -he said, would only happen if all the present cattle and corn were -destroyed. Thousands took the madman at his word and made away with -their corn and cattle. The great day of deliverance was fixed for -February 18th, 1857, and to their amazement the sun rose and set as -usual, leaving the poor dupes face to face with starvation. The -Kaffirs suffered so dreadfully from the scourge of famine, and their -numbers were in consequence so much reduced, that we hear of no more -wars during the next twenty years. - -10. During this peaceful time Cape Colony made steady but slow -progress, but, in 1870, an event occurred which awoke the colony to -new life. This was the discovery of a rich diamond-field around -Kimberley. Men and capital began to flow into the country and the -wheels of industry began to turn more rapidly. Farmers obtained a -good market, trade became brisk, railways were speedily laid down. -The diamonds are found in a kind of "blue ground," which is nothing -but a stream of volcanic mud cast up in ages past. So rich is it in -diamonds that the mines have yielded, since 1870, a yearly revenue of -between two and three million pounds. - -11. The blacks in 1878 made one more hopeless attempt to oust the -white men. The struggle ended in the British government taking -possession of all the Kaffir lands, except Basutoland, and adding -them to Cape Colony. Basutoland is a native state under the direct -rule of the British Crown. This arrangement was made in response to -the prayer of a Basuto chief: "Let me and my people rest and live -under the large folds of the flag of England." - - - -(13) A GREAT EXTENSION OF BRITISH TERRITORY - -(South Africa). - -1. No sooner had we put down the Kaffirs and annexed their territory -to Cape Colony than we had to advance into Zululand and finally add -that country to the Empire. The Zulus were then under the rule of -their king Cetewayo, who kept a large army, well drilled and armed -with musket and assegai. This force was a standing peril to Natal, -and to save this colony from the horrors it feared, a British force -crossed the Tugela--which separates Natal from Zululand--to destroy, -if possible, the Zulu king's "man-slaying machine." - -2. The invading army crossed the river at a ford called _Rorke's -Drift_ (1879), and a division of the troops suffered a great -disaster, not far from there, at Isandlana. Happily, a small -detachment had been left to guard the passage at the ford. The -command of this post was in the hands of Lieutenants Chard and -Bromhead, whose names deserve an honoured place in our memory. With -a force of 104 men they made an heroic defence against a savage host -of 3000 warriors, who had reddened their assegais in the blood of our -countrymen, taken by surprise, at Isandlana. - -3. During the fight a building used as a hospital was set on fire by -the Zulus. The brave defenders gallantly repulsed every attack -whilst the sick were removed. A sort of redoubt was then constructed -of bags of mealies in the centre of the camp, and when hard pressed -to this they retired. The vigour of the siege continued from four in -the afternoon until midnight. With the first light of morning the -Zulus retired, on hearing of the approach of the British main-body, -leaving three hundred black corpses on the ground. Of the gallant -defenders seventeen were killed and ten wounded. - -4. When the British General first came in sight of Rorke's Drift and -saw smoke rising from the burning hospital, he felt certain that the -depot had been captured, and that Natal, at that moment, lay at the -mercy of a horde of savages. But he was quickly relieved at the -sight of a British flag and the sound of a British cheer, and then he -learned the story of the defence of that isolated post by the -undaunted resolution of a little band of heroes, by whose conduct -Natal was saved from invasion and massacre. - -5. After a large force had landed from England, the invasion of -Zululand was renewed, and a pitched battle, fought at Ulundi, brought -the war to a close. To prevent the country from falling into the -hands of the Boers, Zululand was annexed to Natal, and now forms part -of the British Empire. The Zulus have ever since lived in peace and -contentment. - -6. It also became necessary to take under our wing the country of -the Bechuanas on the west of the Transvaal; for there also many of -the Boers were settling and making themselves at home on their -neighbour's territory. Khama, a king of the Bechuanas sent to ask -for British protection. "There are three things," he wrote, "which -distress me very much--war, selling people, and drink. All these I -shall find in the Boers, and it is these things which destroy people -to make an end of them in the country." A part of Bechuanaland was, -accordingly, brought under British rule, and the remaining part under -British protection. - -7. The next addition to the empire in South Africa was a vast -country now known as _Rhodesia_, a country that owes its name to -Cecil Rhodes, to whose marvellous enterprise its possession is mainly -due. From its fertility, climate, and mineral wealth, it now bids -fair to become a flourishing British Colony. - -8. It was, however, difficult at first to make a settlement here, -because it was partly occupied by the warlike Matabele, a tribe akin -to the dreaded Zulus. Their king, Lobengula, kept an army of 10,000 -warriors, who lived only for the joy of fighting. Permission, -however, was purchased from Lobengula to search for, and work, the -minerals within his territory. And a pioneer force was sent to turn -this permission to account (1890). Before two years had passed it -became quite clear that the Matabele warriors must be crushed before -any progress could be made. Thanks to our machine-guns and modern -rifles, this was soon effected. - -9. A decisive engagement was fought near Bulawayo, the Matabele -capital. The enemy foolishly hurled themselves against our small -force when some were laagered, the rest entrenched. After an hour's -carnage, they began to retreat with the loss of 1000 killed and -wounded. A day or two later a loud report rent the air, and huge -columns of smoke were observed to rise from Bulawayo. The king had -fled after ordering his magazine to be blown up. Lobengula died -shortly afterwards of fever, and his kingdom was placed under British -rule. - -10 The patriot that secured Rhodesia for the empire, has, unhappily, -had his work cut short by an early death. Much as he had done for -his country he hoped to do still more. His keen disappointment finds -utterance in his last words: "So little done, so much to do." - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - -Unity of the Empire. - - -(1) GROWTH OF FREEDOM. - -1. It cannot be said that such is the unity of the British Empire -that go where you will in it, you will find the same amount of -liberty as at home, and exercise as large a share in the making of -the laws. That can only be said if you go to one of the -self-governing colonies, like Canada and Australia. But wherever you -go within the limits of the empire, you may be pretty sure of being -governed by law and not by caprice, and if wronged, of getting -justice in a court of law. The empire stands for law and justice. -These are two strands of the cord that unites the whole empire, -independently of race and colour. - -2. But the colonies which are peopled mainly by our own kinsmen -enjoy with us the advantage of liberty in its fullest sense. It is -worth while considering what is included in that word _liberty_. It -means the right to form our own opinion on all subjects, and to -express the same freely, without injury to others, in speaking or -writing. It means the right for employers and workmen, like buyers -and sellers, to settle their own terms without interference. It -means the right to worship God according to conscience without having -to suffer penalties or disabilities on account of our religion. It -means the right to be governed according to law, and to be judged -without fear or favour; and above all, the right to take part in -levying taxes and making new laws by means of our representatives in -Parliament. - -3. So far as a people enjoys the right last named, it may in a real -sense be said to govern itself. And it is this self-government which -constitutes the crown of liberty. Only it must be remembered that it -is not every nation, nor all in any nation, that are fit to govern -themselves. Some nations are like children, not wise enough to know -what is for their own good. Every nation, indeed, passes through the -stages of childhood and youth before it reaches an age when it -becomes capable of managing its own affairs with discretion. - -4. In the colonies where men of our own race have chiefly settled, -the period of childhood and youth has soon passed away, because I -suppose their ancestors had spent a long period in these stages in -the old country. It is astonishing on looking back a hundred years -to see how much remained to be done in the cause of freedom even in -England, which is now able to boast of being free and the mother of -free nations. The mention of a few of the evils then existing will -show how far we have travelled on the path of freedom since the -centenarian of to-day was born. - -5. The slave trade still went on, and slaves were still employed in -our colonies; Roman Catholics were still at a serious disadvantage on -account of their religion; children were permitted to work in mines -and factories, however young, and even to climb chimneys for the -purpose of sweeping them; crimes like stealing a sheep or a horse -were punishable by hanging; trade was in fetters--scarcely was a -thing imported duty free, even wheat from abroad was heavily taxed. - -6. For a nation to be free the law must be supreme, and the people -must have a share in making it through their representatives. Yet, a -century ago, such large towns as Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham, -sent no members to Parliament at all; whilst old decayed boroughs -sent two. And the franchise, or right to vote at Parliamentary -Elections, was limited to a privileged few. Thus one class of the -people made the laws which all were expected to obey. These blots -were removed by three Reform Bills, which were passed at intervals of -twenty or thirty years. - -7. It is worth observing from this example how gradual have been the -changes made in our Constitution, or system of government. We seem -to have learnt the lesson that true freedom can only be obtained when -it is allowed to grow, when time is given for it to strike its roots -deep in the life of the people. For the enjoyment of real freedom -the law must be adapted to the wishes as well as the needs of the -governed; that is to say, it must be moulded by public opinion, and -the two must grow together so as to fit in with each other. - -8. This is the secret of the ready obedience paid to the law by -English people in general. Nothing so strikes a foreigner, on -entering "the land of the free," as this willing submission to -authority, especially as exemplified in the crowded streets of -London, where all drivers instantly obey the policeman whose duty it -is to direct the traffic. The coachman may have a prince or a duke -in his carriage. It makes no difference. He must wait his turn. -All alike willingly obey the officer in authority because he acts -without fear or favour, with a single eye to the public convenience. -Here we have a typical instance of the close connection that exists -between _law_, _order_, and _liberty_, those three watchwords of -every true Briton throughout the empire. The British are a -law-abiding nation, because they join in making their laws, and as a -practical people realise the fact that without obedience to law there -can be no order, and without order no enjoyment of liberty. - -9. It is interesting to read the impressions of an Eastern Potentate -in his recent visit to England. "I have been particularly struck in -this enormous metropolis with the loyal, willing recognition of -lawful authority which pervades all classes, enabling your civil and -municipal government to work smoothly, and your press to speak out -fearlessly, and like watchdogs to bark at the least sign of -encroachment upon the liberties of the subject. By a wave of his -hand the police officer directs traffic at crossings and junctions of -streets. By his writ or summons the magistrate orders you to appear -to bear witness in a court of law. No one thinks of disobeying the -policeman or the magistrate. Both are recognised as acting in the -execution of their respective spheres of duty. I cannot think of -Britain without realising how the source of all her strength is -founded upon obedience. You detest tyranny. You love liberty. You -bow to authority." - -10. Much of what is here said about us resolves itself into one -great characteristic, which stamps us all as one people, in whatever -part of the empire we may chance to live, and that is the passionate -love of justice or _fair-play_. What men of our race ask for is a -fair field and no favour. - - - -(2) IMPERIAL SPIRIT OF OUR RACE. - -1. Not long ago a discovery was made which turned all eyes to South -Africa as the land paved with gold (1886). In a district known as -the Rand, in the west of the Transvaal, gold reefs were discovered of -extraordinary richness. Many important results have grown out of -this discovery, the most momentous being the great Boer War. - -2. The gold-fields of the Transvaal drew a large stream of -adventurers and gold-miners from all parts of the world. These -"outlanders," as the Boers called them, included a large proportion -of men of British nationality. These men were treated by the Boer -government with gross injustice, and by Boer officials with open -contempt. And when our government demanded fair treatment for -British subjects, the Boers took offence at what they considered -undue interference. Here then was one cause of the quarrel which -ended in war. - -3. But there was another cause not less potent. The gold mines of -the Transvaal were so productive that the Boer treasury soon -overflowed with gold. This wealth stirred the ambition of the Boer -leaders, and made them dream of South Africa as a great federal -Republic, with the Transvaal as the leading state, and the Boer flag -as the national standard. This, of course, meant the sweeping of -British authority out of South Africa. - -4. The gold at their disposal seemed to the Boers to give them a -fair chance of accomplishing this result. At any rate, it enabled -them to build forts, to provide arms of the best modern type in -abundance, and to employ European officers as artillery instructors. -It is true, they may have reflected, our numbers are comparatively -small, but all our forces are close at hand, whilst the British will -have to draw theirs from a country 6,000 miles away. - -5. And so at last the die was cast, and, on the 11th October, 1899, -a Boer force entered Natal in the hope of driving the small British -army into the sea before reinforcements could arrive from England. -In this they failed, as we know, by the splendid stand made by our -troops, under Sir George White, at Ladysmith. It is not our -intention to tell the story of the war, whose main incidents are -fresh in our minds, but to show what a marvellous effect that war has -had in drawing out the great qualities of our race, and in uniting -the whole empire. - -6. In the beginning of the war our arms met with serious reverses. -In one dark week of December came the news of three disastrous -failures, in our attack on the enemy's position, in three different -quarters. But what was the effect of this threefold misfortune? It -braced the nation to put forth its strength, it stiffened their -resolve to conquer in the end, whatever the cost in blood or -treasure. A mighty wave of patriotism swept over the land, and -thousands of our best and bravest responded to the call to arms. -Regulars, militia, volunteers, yeomanry--all alike, men of all -classes from prince to peasant, eagerly proffered their services. - -7. Still more remarkable was the effect which the need of the great -mother had upon her sons in all parts of the empire. From Canada, -from Australia, from New Zealand thousands of brave men hastened to -the rescue, all sent off from their distant homes with the -acclamations of enthusiastic crowds. Offers of help came from every -corner of the empire; nor were such offers limited to men of British -origin. Indian princes pressed their services on our acceptance, and -the Maoris of New Zealand were as eager as any in their land to fight -for the flag. But the British government wisely declined the -services of all who were not of British blood. The war was a contest -between the Boers and the British for supremacy in South Africa, and -it was resolved to make it a fair stand-up fight between the two -races. - -8. The spirit in which our nation girded themselves for the fight, -when the blows of misfortune fell hard upon them in that dark -December week, is well exemplified in the prompt response of Lord -Roberts to the call made upon his services, as commander-in-chief of -our army in South Africa, at the very moment when he had received the -crushing news of the death of his son, in a gallant attempt to rescue -some guns after the battle of Colenso. - -9. No need to tell of the splendid services Lord Roberts rendered at -the seat of war, how, within six months from his departure from -England, he led his army in triumph into the capitals of the two Boer -states, and made their conquest in the end almost a certainty. In -taking his farewell of the army, the general paid a well-deserved -tribute of praise to our soldiers, who "by their pluck, endurance, -discipline, and devotion to duty" had covered themselves with glory. -"For months together," said their commander, "in fierce heat, in -biting cold, in pouring rain, you have marched and fought without -halt, and bivouacked without shelter... You have forced your way -through dense jungles, over precipitous mountains, through and over -which, with infinite labour, you have had to drag heavy guns and -ox-waggons.... You have endured the suffering, inevitable in war, to -sick and wounded men, without murmur, and even with cheerfulness." - -10. And if any other testimony is needed in favour of "Tommy -Atkins," as we fondly call our soldiers, we have it in the despatch -of a German officer: "We can only marvel," he says, "at the heroism -with which British troops in close order attempt to scale steep -heights under a fierce hail of bullets. We can only marvel at the -intrepidity with which they try to force a passage through narrow -mountain passes where the enemy lie concealed." - -11. A thrill of pride, then, may well go through the heart of every -Briton when he thinks of the deeds of courage, the splendid -resolution, and the cheerful patience of our troops in South Africa. -The nation, too, has given full proof that the spirit of their -fathers, the same old spirit that has carried the old flag through so -many times of stress and strain, is still active as ever, that the -fibre of our race is as hard and well-knit as in days of yore. - -12. War is at best a great calamity, but the war we have waged with -the Boers has brought us compensations. It has proved that our -soldiers and sailors are as truly hearts of oak now as formerly, and -that our brothers in the colonies are made of the same stuff as the -best of ourselves. It has done still more in revealing to the whole -world that the British Empire is not a mere name for a number of -territories scattered over the globe, but that it is a living whole -animated by one and the same spirit. All nations may now know that -the honour and interests of the empire are dear not to Britain alone, -but to the whole family of nations that have sprung from her; and -that in any future contest with Great Britain they will have to -reckon also with the Greater Britain beyond the seas. "Shoulder to -shoulder, _all for each_, and _each for all_, we stand united before -the world, and our children have shown that they are not unwilling to -share with us the obligations as well as the dignity of the empire." - -13. The union of the empire has now been cemented by the blood so -freely shed by our kinsmen in South Africa. In confirmation of the -hope that the bonds of that union will only grow stronger with the -increasing years, we may mention the impressions that the Prince of -Wales has brought home with him from his tour round the empire. "If -asked," he says, "to specify any particular impressions derived from -our journey, I should unhesitatingly place before all others that of -loyalty to the Crown, and of attachment to the old country, which -they invariably referred to as _Home_. And with this loyalty was -unmistakable evidence of the consciousness of strength, of a true and -living membership in the empire, and of power and readiness to share -the burden and responsibility of that membership." - -14. Everywhere the prince had evidence of that pride of race, that -unity of sentiment and purpose, that feeling of common loyalty and -obligation, that eager desire to claim their share in the glories of -a great empire with a great past and, perchance, a greater future--in -a word, that imperial patriotism, which keeps in view the welfare of -the whole empire,-- - - "One with Britain, heart and soul! - One life, one flag, one fleet, one throne!" - - - -(3) THE SOVEREIGN IN RELATION TO THE EMPIRE. - -1. Our sovereign serves the same purpose in the empire that a -keystone does in an arch, and that is to lock the whole fabric -together. The recognition of this fact has led King Edward in -assuming his title to call himself king, not only of the United -Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, but also of the British -Dominions beyond the seas. It has led him also to send his son the -Prince of Wales, round the empire to carry his message of sympathy -with his subjects on the loss of their beloved queen, and of thanks -for the splendid way in which they had rallied round the old flag in -South Africa. - -2. It is by the interchange of such kind offices and services that -the various parts of the empire are knit together; and it is the -sovereign who has in his keeping the chief power of drawing them all -more closely together by a common attachment to his person and -loyalty to his throne. That the spirit of unity in the empire has -for many years been steadily growing in strength is largely due to -the character and example of our great Queen Victoria. - -3. When Her Majesty celebrated her Diamond Jubilee, the -demonstrations of love and loyalty, on the part of her people, in all -parts of her empire, were so striking that it seemed impossible for -that love and loyalty to be surpassed; yet it is certain that the -noble part the queen played in the course of the Boer war intensified -those feelings of devotion, and placed her on a still higher pinnacle -of glory, not only in the eyes of her subjects, but of the civilised -world. - -4. It would take too long to mention one tithe of the queen's kind -acts and words of comfort to the mourners and sufferers as the war -went on. Her many kind messages to the besieged as well as the sick -and wounded, her hearty congratulations to generals and soldiers on -their gaining some victory or important success, her farewells to -those going out to hazard their lives, her reception of troops -returning from the war, and her visits to the military hospitals with -her words of sympathy to those maimed or wounded in their country's -service--all these things are written indelibly on the hearts and -memories of the British people. - -5. Nor will they ever forget the example of calm fortitude the queen -set the nation in the days darkened by sad news from the seat of war, -nor her self-sacrifice in visiting London and Dublin, after the turn -of the tide, to show her admiration and gratitude for the devotion -and bravery of her troops, and the patriotic spirit of her people. -The task was only achieved at the cost of great fatigue and -exhausting excitement, for Her Majesty's years numbered more than -fourscore. As in this Boer war, so throughout her long reign, Queen -Victoria was ever the centre of our national life, and the vital link -between all parts of her world-wide empire. - -6. The great Queen is dead, but we have every reason to believe that -her son and successor, King Edward VII., will prove equally worthy of -his exalted position. As Prince of Wales we all know he did his -utmost to promote the well-being of the whole nation. His name is -associated with numberless institutions set on foot for benevolent -purposes. The affectionate relation existing between King Edward, -when Prince of Wales, and the British people have been especially -shown on two turning points in his life--his happy marriage and his -dangerous illness. - -7. Nothing could have exceeded the warm welcome given to the -Princess Alexandra when she entered London to become his bride, or -the great rejoicing throughout the land when she became the Princess -of Wales (1863). But the joy of the nation on this happy event was -of small significance compared with the wondrous sympathy manifested -when the Prince seemed on the bed of death, and the Princess on the -point of becoming a widow. All the nation seemed to stand around -that bed, and to watch with increased hope or fear, every change in -the progress of the disease. It was then perceived that as a nation -we had a heart that could throb as with one pulse. - -8. When the Prince was raised from the bed of sickness, a day of -National Thanksgiving was solemnly observed. The Queen, accompanied -by the Prince and Princess of Wales, appeared in St. Paul's -Cathedral, with ten thousand of her subjects, to, acknowledge the -hand of God in restoring health to the Prince, and the Prince to the -nation (1872). Since then both prince and people have felt that they -belong to each other. - -9. We may, therefore, confidently hope that the link between the -King and the nation will only grow stronger with the advancing years. -And this hope is confirmed by the assurance that the King's solemn -resolution, as he withdrew from the death-bed of the good and wise -Queen, was to reign in the same spirit and after her example. This -is apparent from his address, on the following morning, to his Privy -Council:-- - - - Your Royal Highnesses, my Lords and Gentlemen, - - This is the most painful occasion on which I shall ever be called - upon to address you. - - My first and melancholy duty is to announce to you the death of - my beloved mother, the Queen, and I know how deeply you, the - whole nation, and I think I may say the whole world, sympathise - with me in the irreparable loss we have all sustained. - - I need hardly say that my constant endeavour will be always to - walk in her footsteps. In undertaking the heavy load which now - devolves upon me, I am fully determined to be a Constitutional - Sovereign in the strictest sense of the word, and as long as - there is breath in my body to work for the good and amelioration - of my people.... - - In conclusion, I trust to Parliament and the nation to support me - in the arduous duties which now devolve upon me by inheritance, - and to which I am determined to devote my whole strength during - the remainder of my life. - - -[Illustration: King's address] - -10. In this address, we observe, the King solemnly declares that he -will act as "a Constitutional Sovereign in the strictest sense of the -word." This means that in his official acts the Sovereign will be -guided by the advice of his ministers, not merely by his own personal -will and wisdom. This principle is the corner-stone of the British -Constitution, as it makes the King's ministers responsible for his -action, in all state affairs, and enables the nation, through -Parliament, to call them to account for the same. - -11. It is a maxim of our Constitution that "the king never dies," -which implies that at the moment one reign ends the next begins. -Hence the accession of Edward VII. dates from the 22nd January, 1901, -but his solemn installation as king was deferred until June 26th, -1902, a day that will long be remembered as _Coronation-day_, when -King Edward received the crown, as the symbol of sovereignty, in the -presence of representatives from every corner of his wide dominions. - - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KING EDWARD'S REALM *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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