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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: An historical and moral view of the origin and progress of the - French revolution; - and the effect it has produced in Europe - -Author: Mary Wollstonecraft - -Release Date: August 10, 2022 [eBook #68724] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from - images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW -OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION; *** - - -[Illustration: Mary Wollstonecraft] - - - - - AN - HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW - OF THE - ORIGIN AND PROGRESS - OF THE - FRENCH REVOLUTION; - AND THE - EFFECT IT HAS PRODUCED - IN - EUROPE. - - - BY MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT. - - VOLUME THE FIRST. - - LONDON: - PRINTED FOR J. JOHNSON, IN ST. PAUL’S CHURCH-YARD. - - 1794. - - - - - ADVERTISEMENT. - - -This history, taking in such a variety of facts and opinions, has grown -under my hand; especially as in writing I cannot avoid entering into -some desultory disquisitions, and descriptions of manners and things -which, though not strictly necessary to elucidate the events, are -intimately connected with the main object; I have also been led into -several theoretical investigations, whilst marking the political effects -that naturally flow from the progress of knowledge. It is probable, -therefore, that this work will be extended to two or three more volumes, -a considerable part of which is already written. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The revolution in France exhibits a scene, in the political world, not -less novel and interesting than the contrast is striking between the -narrow opinions of superstition, and the enlightened sentiments of -masculine and improved philosophy. - -To mark the prominent features of this revolution, requires a mind, not -only unsophisticated by old prejudices, and the inveterate habits of -degeneracy; but an amelioration of temper, produced by the exercise of -the most enlarged principles of humanity. - -The rapid changes, the violent, the base, and nefarious assassinations, -which have clouded the vivid prospect that began to spread a ray of joy -and gladness over the gloomy horizon of oppression, cannot fail to chill -the sympathizing bosom, and palsy intellectual vigour. To sketch these -vicissitudes is a task so arduous and melancholy, that, with a heart -trembling to the touches of nature, it becomes necessary to guard -against the erroneous inferences of sensibility; and reason beaming on -the grand theatre of political changes, can prove the only sure guide to -direct us to a favourable or just conclusion. - -This important conclusion, involving the happiness and exaltation of the -human character, demands serious and mature consideration; as it must -ultimately sink the dignity of society into contempt, and its members -into greater wretchedness; or elevate it to a degree of grandeur not -hitherto anticipated, but by the most enlightened statesmen and -philosophers. - -Contemplating then these stupendous events with the cool eye of -observation, the judgement, difficult to be preserved unwarped under the -pressure of the calamitous horrours produced by desperate and enraged -factions, will continually perceive that it is the uncontaminated mass -of the french nation, whose minds begin to grasp the sentiments of -freedom, that has secured the equilibrium of the state; often tottering -on the brink of annihilation; in spite of the folly, selfishness, -madness, treachery, and more fatal mock patriotism, the common result of -depraved manners, the concomitant of that servility and voluptuousness -which for so long a space of time has embruted the higher orders of this -celebrated nation. - -By thus attending to circumstances, we shall be able to discern clearly -that the revolution was neither produced by the abilities or intrigues -of a few individuals; nor was the effect of sudden and short-lived -enthusiasm; but the natural consequence of intellectual improvement, -gradually proceeding to perfection in the advancement of communities, -from a state of barbarism to that of polished society, till now arrived -at the point when sincerity of principles seems to be hastening the -overthrow of the tremendous empire of superstition and hypocrisy, -erected upon the ruins of gothic brutality and ignorance. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - _BOOK I._ - - - CHAPTER I. - - _Introduction. Progress of society. End of government. Rise of - political discussion amongst the french. Revolution in - America. Virtue attempted to be built on false principles. - The croisades, and the age of chivalry. Administration of - Richelieu, and of Cardinal Mazarin. Theatrical - entertainments, and dramatic poets of the - french—Moliere,—Corneille,—Racine. Louis XIV. The - regency.—Louis XV._ page 1. - - - CHAP. II. - - _Marie-Antoinette. Louis XVI. Administration of Necker, and of - Calonne. Notables convened. Calonne disgraced,—and obliged to - flee the kingdom. His character. Causes of the enslaved state - of Europe._ p. 33. - - - CHAP. III. - - _Administration of de Brienne. Dissolution of the notables. - Land tax and stamp duty recommended by them, but refused to - be sanctioned by the parliament. Bed of justice. The - parliament banished to Troyes,—but soon compromised for its - recall. Struggles of the court party to prevent the - convocation of the states-general. Banishment of the duke of - Orleans, and two spirited members of the parliament. Cour - pléniere. Remarks on the parliaments. Imprisonment of the - members. Deputies of the Province of Britanny sent to the - Bastille. The soldiery let loose upon the people._ p. 48. - - - CHAP. IV. - - _Necker recalled. His character. Notables convened a second - time. Coalition of the nobility and clergy in defence of - their privileges. Provincial assemblies of the people. - Political publications in favour of the tiers-etat. General - reflections on reform,—on the present state of Europe,—and on - the revolution in France._ p. 59. - - - _BOOK II._ - - - CHAP. I. - - _Retrospective view of grievances in France—the nobles—the - military—the clergy—the farmers general. Election of deputies - to the states-general. Arts of the courtiers. Assembly of the - states. Riots excited at Paris. Opening of the - states-general. The king’s speech. Answer to it by the keeper - of the seals. Speech of Mr. Necker. Contest respecting the - mode of assembling. Tacit establishment of the liberty of the - press. Attempt of the court to refrain it. The deputies - declare themselves a national assembly._ p. 75. - - - CHAP. II. - - _The national assembly proceed to business. Opposition of the - nobles, bishops, and court. A séance royale proclaimed, and - the hall of the assembly surrounded by soldiers. The members - adjourn to the tennis-court, and vow never to separate till a - constitution should be completed. The majority of the clergy - and two of the nobles join the commons. Séance royale. The - king’s speech. Spirited behaviour of the assembly. Speech of - Mirabeau. Persons of the deputies declared inviolable. - Minority of the nobles join the commons. At the request of - the king the minority of the clergy do the same,—and are at - length followed by the majority of the nobles. Character of - the queen of France,—of the king,—and of the nobles. Lectures - on liberty at the palais royal. Paris surrounded by troops. - Spirit of liberty infused into the soldiers. Eleven of the - french guards imprisoned because they would not fire on the - populace, and liberated by the people. Remonstrance of the - national assembly. The king proposes to remove the assembly - to Noyon, or Soissons. Necker dismissed. City militia - proposed. The populace attacked in the garden of the - Thuilleries by the prince of Lambesc. Nocturnal orgies at - Versailles._ p. 109. - - - CHAP. III. - - _Preparations of the parisians for the defence of the city. The - guards, and city watch join the citizens. The armed citizens - appoint a commander in chief. Conduct of the national - assembly during the disturbances at Paris. They publish a - declaration of rights,—and offer their mediation with the - citizens,—which is haughtily refused by the king. Proceedings - at Paris on the 14th of July. Taking of the bastille. The - mayor shot. Proceedings of the national assembly at - Versailles. Appearance of the king in the assembly. His - speech._ p. 165. - - - CHAP. IV. - - _Reflections on the conduct of the court and king. Injurious - consequences of the complication of laws. General diffusion - of knowledge. State of civilization amongst the ancients. - It’s progress. The croisades, and the reformation. Early - freedom of Britain. The british constitution. State of - liberty in Europe. Russia. Decline of the Aristotelian - philosophy, Descartes. Newton. Education improved. Germany. - Frederick II. of Prussia._ p. 215. - - - _BOOK III._ - - - CHAP. I. - - _A deputation of the national assembly arrives at Paris. - Baillie chosen mayor, and La Fayette commander in chief of - the national guards. Resignation of the ministry. Necker - recalled. The king visits Paris. Character of the parisians. - The revolution urged on prematurely. Emigrations of several - of the nobility and others. Calonne advises the french - princes to stir up foreign powers against France. Foulon - killed._ p. 241. - - - CHAP. II. - - _The duke of Liancourt chosen president. The people arm for the - defence of the country. The municipal officers appointed - under the old government superseded by committees. Some - people treacherously destroyed by springing a mine at a civic - feast. The genevese resident taken up by the patrole. The - french suspicious of the designs of Britain. Necker returns. - General amnesty resolved by the debtors of Paris. Debate on a - declaration of rights. Declaration of rights separate from - the constitution determined on. Sacrifices made by the - nobles, clergy, &c._ p. 263. - - - CHAP. III. - - _Reflections on the members of the national assembly. Secession - of several pseudo-patriots. Society ripe for improvement - throughout Europe. War natural to men in a savage state. - Remarks on the origin and progress of society. The - arts—property—inequality of conditions—war. Picture of - manners in modern France._ p. 295. - - - _BOOK IV._ - - CHAP. I. - - _Opinions on the transactions of the fourth of August. - Disorders occasioned by those transactions. Necker demands - the assembly’s sanction to a loan. A loan decreed. Tithes - abolished. Debate on the declaration of rights. The formation - of a constitution. Debate on the executive power. The - suspensive veto adopted. Pretended and real views of the - combination of despots against France. Debate on the - constitution of a senate. Means of peaceably effecting a - reform should make a part of every constitution._ p. 313. - - - CHAP. II. - - _Observations on the veto. The women offer up their ornaments - to the public. Debate whether the spanish branch of the - Bourbons could reign in France. Conduct of the king - respecting the decrees of the fourth of August. Vanity of the - french. Debates on quartering a thousand regulars at - Versailles. Individuals offer their jewels and plate to make - up the deficiency of the loan. The king sends his rich - service of plate to the mint. Necker’s proposal for every - citizen to give up a fourth of his income. Speech of Mirabeau - on it. His address to the nation._ p. 359. - - - CHAP. III. - - _Reflections on the new mode of raising supplies. No just - system of taxation yet established. Paper money. Necessity of - gradual reform._ p. 388. - - - _BOOK V._ - - - CHAP. I. - - _Errour of the national assembly in neglecting to secure the - freedom of France. It’s conduct compared with that of the - american states. Necessity of forming a new constitution as - soon as an old government is destroyed. The declaring of the - king inviolable a wrong measure. Security of the french - against a counter-revolution. The flight of the king - meditated._ p. 399. - - - CHAP. II. - - _Entertainment at Versailles. The national cockade trampled - under foot. A mob of women proceed to the hôtel-de-ville—and - thence to Versailles. The king’s reply to the national - assembly’s request, that he would sanction the declaration of - rights and the first articles of the constitution. Debates on - it. Arrival of the mob at Versailles. The king receives a - deputation from the women, and sanctions the decree for the - free circulation of grain. The assembly summoned. La Fayette - arrives with the parisian militia. The palace attacked by the - mob—who are dispersed by the national guards. Reflections on - the conduct of the duke of Orleans._ p. 420. - - - CHAP. III. - - _The mob demand the king’s removal to Paris. This city - described. The king repairs to the capital, escorted by a - deputation of the national assembly and the parisian militia. - The king’s title changed. Proceedings of the national - assembly. Reflections on the declaration of rights._ p. 470. - - - CHAP. IV. - - _Progress of reform. The encyclopedia. Liberty of the press. - Capitals. The french not properly qualified for the - revolution. Savage compared with civilized man. Effects of - extravagance—of commerce—and of manufactures. Excuse for the - ferocity of the parisians._ p. 492. - - - - - AN - HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW - OF THE - FRENCH REVOLUTION. - - - - - _BOOK I._ - - - - - CHAPTER I. -INTRODUCTION. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. END OF GOVERNMENT. RISE OF POLITICAL - DISCUSSION AMONGST THE FRENCH. REVOLUTION IN AMERICA. VIRTUE ATTEMPTED -TO BE BUILT ON FALSE PRINCIPLES. THE CROISADES, AND THE AGE OF CHIVALRY. - ADMINISTRATION OF RICHELIEU, AND OF CARDINAL MAZARIN. THEATRICAL - ENTERTAINMENTS, AND DRAMATIC POETS OF THE - FRENCH,—MOLIERE,—CORNEILLE,—RACINE. LOUIS XIV. THE REGENCY. LOUIS XV. - - -When we contemplate the infancy of man, his gradual advance towards -maturity, his miserable weakness as a solitary being, and the crudeness -of his first notions respecting the nature of civil society, it will not -appear extraordinary, that the acquirement of political knowledge has -been so extremely slow; or that public happiness has not been more -rapidly and generally diffused. - -The perfection attained by the ancients, it is true, has ever afforded -the imagination of the poetical historian a theme to deck with the -choicest flowers of rhetoric; though the cool investigation of facts -seems clearly to prove, that the civilization of the world, hitherto, -has consisted rather in cultivating the taste, than in exercising the -understanding. And were not these vaunted improvements also confined to -a small corner of the globe, whilst, the political view of the wisest -legislators seldom extending beyond the splendour and aggrandizement of -their individual nation, they trampled with a ferocious affectation of -patriotism on the most sacred rights of humanity? When the arts -flourished in Greece, and literature began to shed it’s blandishments on -society, the world was mostly inhabited by barbarians, who waged eternal -war with their more polished neighbours, the imperfection of whose -government sapping it’s foundation, the science of politics necessarily -received a check in the bud—and when we find, likewise, the roman empire -crumbling into atoms, from the germ of a deadly malady implanted in it’s -vitals; whilst voluptuousness stopped the progress of civilization, -which makes the perfection of the arts the dawn of science; we shall be -convinced, that it demanded ages of improving reason and experience in -moral philosophy, to clear away the rubbish, and exhibit the first -principles of social order. - -We have probably derived our great superiority over those nations from -the discovery of the polar attraction of the needle, the perfection -which astronomy and mathematics have attained, and the fortunate -invention of printing. For, whilst the revival of letters has added the -collected wisdom of antiquity to the improvements of modern research, -the latter most useful art has rapidly multiplied copies of the -productions of genius and compilations of learning, bringing them within -the reach of all ranks of men: the scientific discoveries also have not -only led us to new worlds; but, facilitating the communication between -different nations, the friction of arts and commerce have given to -society the transcendently pleasing polish of urbanity; and thus, by a -gradual softening of manners, the complexion of social life has been -completely changed. But the remains of superstition, and the unnatural -distinction of privileged classes, which had their origin in barbarous -folly, still fettered the opinions of man, and sullied his native -dignity; till several distinguished english writers discussed political -subjects with the energy of men, who began to feel their strength; and, -whilst only a rumour of these sentiments roused the attention and -exercised the minds of some men of letters in France, a number of -staunch disputants, who had more thoroughly digested them, fled from -oppression, to put them to the test of experience in America. - -Locke, following the track of these bold thinkers, recommended in a more -methodical manner religious toleration, and analyzed the principles of -civil liberty: for in his definition of liberty we find the elements of -_The Declaration of the Rights of Man_, which, in spite of the fatal -errours of ignorance, and the perverse obstinacy of selfishness, is now -converting sublime theories into practical truths. - -The revolution, it is true, soon introduced the corruption, that has -ever since been corroding british freedom.—Still, when the rest of -Europe groaned under the weight of the most unjust and cruel laws, the -life and property of englishmen were comparatively safe; and, if an -impress-warrant respected the distinction of ranks, when the glory of -England was at stake, splendid victories hid this flaw in the best -existing constitution; and all exultingly recollected, that the life or -liberty of a man never depended on the will of an individual. - -Englishmen were then, with reason, proud of their constitution; and, if -this noble pride have degenerated into arrogance, when the cause became -less conspicuous, it is only a venial lapse of human nature; to be -lamented merely as it stops the progress of civilization, and leads the -people to imagine, that their ancestors have done every thing possible -to secure the happiness of society, and meliorate the condition of man, -because they have done much. - -When learning was confined to a small number of the citizens of a state, -and the investigation of it’s privileges was left to a number still -smaller, governments seem to have acted, as if the people were formed -only for them; and, ingeniously confounding their rights with -metaphysical jargon, the luxurious grandeur of individuals has been -supported by the misery of the bulk of their fellow creatures, and -ambition gorged by the butchery of millions of innocent victims. - -The most artful chain of despotism has ever been supported by false -notions of duty, enforced by those who were to profit by the cheat. Thus -has the liberty of man been restrained; and the spontaneous flow of his -feelings, which would have fertilized his mind, being choked at the -source, he is rendered in the same degree unhappy as he is made -unnatural. Yet, certain opinions, planted by superstition and despotism, -hand in hand, have taken such deep root in our habits of thinking, it -may appear daringly licentious, as well as presumptuous, to observe, -that what is often termed virtue, is only want of courage to throw off -prejudices, and follow the inclinations which fear not the eye of -heaven, though they shrink from censure not founded on the natural -principles of morality. But at no period has the scanty diffusion of -knowledge permitted the body of the people to participate in the -discussion of political science; and if philosophy at length have -simplified the principles of social union, so as to render them easy to -be comprehended by every sane and thinking being; if appears to me, that -man may contemplate with benevolent complacency and becoming pride, the -approaching reign of reason and peace. - -Besides, if men have been rendered unqualified to judge with precision -of their civil and political rights, from the involved state in which -sophisticating ignorance has placed them, and thus reduced to surrender -their reasoning powers to noble fools, and pedantic knaves, it is not -surprizing, that superficial observers have formed opinions unfavourable -to the degree of perfection, which our intellectual faculties are able -to attain, or that despotism should attempt to check the spirit of -inquiry, which, with colossian strides, seems to be hastening the -overthrow of oppressive tyranny and contumelious ambition. - -Nature having made men unequal, by giving stronger bodily and mental -powers to one than to another, the end of government ought to be, to -destroy this inequality by protecting the weak. Instead of which, it has -always leaned to the opposite side, wearing itself out by disregarding -the first principle of it’s organization. - -It appears to be the grand province of government, though scarcely -acknowledged, so to hold the balance, that the abilities or riches of -individuals may not interfere with the equilibrium of the whole. For, as -it is vain to expect, that men should master their passions during the -heat of action, legislators should have this perfection of laws ever in -view, when, calmly grasping the interest of humanity, reason assures -them, that their own is best secured by the security of the commonweal. -The first social systems were certainly founded by passion; individuals -wishing to fence round their own wealth or power, and make slaves of -their brothers to prevent encroachment. Their descendants have ever been -at work to solder the chains they forged, and render the usurpations of -strength secure, by the fraud of partial laws: laws that can be -abrogated only by the exertions of reason, emancipating mankind, by -making government a science, instead of a craft, and civilizing the -grand mass, by exercising their understandings about the most important -objects of inquiry. - -After the revolution in 1688, however, political questions were no -longer discussed in England on a broad scale; because that degree of -liberty was enjoyed, which enabled thinking men to pursue without -interruption their own business; or, if some men complained, they -attached themselves to a party, and descanted on the unavoidable misery -produced by contending passions. - -But in France the bitterness of oppression was mingled in the daily cup, -and the serious folly of superstition, pampered by the sweat of labour, -stared every man of sense in the face. Against superstition then did the -writers contending for civil liberty principally direct their force, -though the tyranny of the court increased with it’s viciousness. - -Voltaire leading the way, and ridiculing with that happy mixture of -satire and gaiety, calculated to delight the french, the inconsistent -puerilities of a puppet-show religion, had the art to attach the bells -to the fool’s cap, which tinkled on every side, rousing the attention -and piquing the vanity of his readers. Rousseau also ranged himself on -the same side; and, praising his fanciful state of nature, with that -interesting eloquence, which embellishes reasoning with the charms of -sentiment, forcibly depicted the evils of a priest-ridden society, and -the sources of oppressive inequality, inducing the men who were charmed -with his language to consider his opinions. - -The talents of these two writers were particularly formed to effect a -change in the sentiments of the french, who commonly read to collect a -fund for conversation; and their biting retorts, and flowing periods, -were retained in each head, and continually slipped off the tongue in -numerous sprightly circles. - -In France, indeed, new opinions fly from mouth to mouth, with an -electrical velocity, unknown in England; so that there is not such a -difference between the sentiments of the various ranks in one country, -as is observable in the originality of character to be found in the -other. At our theatres, the boxes, pit, and galleries, relish different -scenes; and some are condescendingly born by the more polished part of -the audience, to allow the rest to have their portion of amusement. In -France, on the contrary, a highly wrought sentiment of morality, -probably rather romantic than sublime, produces a burst of applause, -when one heart seems to agitate every hand. - -But men are not content merely to laugh at oppression, when they can -scarcely catch from his gripe the necessaries of life; so that from -writing epigrams on superstition, the galled french began to compose -philippics against despotism. The enormous and iniquitous taxes, which -the nobles, the clergy, and the monarch, levied on the people, turned -the attention of benevolence to this main branch of government, and the -profound treatise of the humane M. Quesnai produced the sect of the -_economists_, the first champions for civil liberty. - -On the eve of the american war, the enlightened administration of the -comptroller general Turgot, a man formed in this school, afforded France -a glimpse of freedom, which, streaking the horizon of despotism, only -served to render the contrast more striking. Eager to correct abuses, -equally impolitic and cruel, this most excellent man, suffering his -clear judgment to be clouded by his zeal, roused the nest of wasps, that -rioted on the honey of industry in the sunshine of court favour; and he -was obliged to retire from the office, which he so worthily filled. -Disappointed in his noble plan of freeing France from the fangs of -despotism, in the course of ten years, without the miseries of anarchy, -which make the present generation pay very dear for the emancipation of -posterity, he has nevertheless greatly contributed to produce that -revolution in opinion, which, perhaps, alone can overturn the empire of -tyranny. - -The idle caprices of an effeminate court had long given the tone to the -awe-struck populace, who, stupidly admiring what they did not -understand, lived on a _vive le roi_, whilst his blood-sucking minions -drained every vein, that should have warmed their honest hearts. - -But the irresistible energy of the moral and political sentiments of -half a century, at last kindled into a blaze the illuminating rays of -truth, which, throwing new light on the mental powers of man, and giving -a fresh spring to his reasoning faculties, completely undermined the -strong holds of priestcraft and hypocrisy. - -At this glorious era, the toleration of religious opinions in America, -which the spirit of the times, when that continent was peopled with -persecuted europeans, produced, aided, not a little, to diffuse these -rational sentiments, and exhibited the phenomenon of a government -established on the basis of reason and equality. The eyes of all Europe -were watchfully fixed on the practical success of this experiment in -political science; and whilst the crowns of the old world were drawing -into their focus the hard-earned recompense of the toil and care of the -simple citizens, who lived detached from courts, deprived of the -comforts of life, the just reward of industry, or, palsied by -oppression, pined in dirt and idleness; the anglo-americans appeared to -be another race of beings, men formed to enjoy the advantages of -society, and not merely to benefit those who governed; the use to which -they had been appropriated in almost every state; considered only as the -ballast which keeps the vessel steady, necessary, yet despised. So -conspicuous in fact was the difference, that, when, frenchmen became the -auxiliaries of those brave people, during their noble struggle against -the tyrannical and inhuman ambition of the british court, it imparted to -them that stimulus, which alone was wanting to give wings to freedom, -who, hovering over France, led her indignant votaries to wreak their -vengeance on the tottering fabric of a government, the foundation of -which had been laid by benighted ignorance, and it’s walls cemented by -the calamities of millions that mock calculation—and, in it’s ruins a -system was entombed, the most baneful to human happiness and virtue. - -America fortunately found herself in a situation very different from all -the rest of the world; for she had it in her power to lay the first -stones of her government, when reason was venturing to canvass -prejudice. Availing herself of the degree of civilization of the world, -she has not retained those customs, which were only the expedients of -barbarism; or thought that constitutions formed by chance, and -continually patched up, were superiour to the plans of reason, at -liberty to profit by experience. - -When society was first regulated, the laws could not be adjusted so as -to take in the future conduct of it’s members, because the faculties of -man are unfolded and perfected by the improvements made by society: -consequently the regulations established as circumstances required were -very imperfect. What then is to hinder man, at each epoch of -civilization, from making a stand, and new modelling the materials, that -have been hastily thrown into a rude mass, which time alone has -consolidated and rendered venerable? - -When society was first subjugated to laws, probably by the ambition of -some, and the desire of safety in all, it was natural for men to be -selfish, because they were ignorant how intimately their own comfort was -connected with that of others; and it was also very natural, that -humanity, rather the effect of feeling than of reason, should have a -very limited range. But, when men once see, clear as the light of -heaven,—and I hail the glorious day from afar!—that on the general -happiness depends their own, reason will give strength to the fluttering -wings of passion, and men will “_do unto others, what they wish they -should do unto them_.” - -What has hitherto been the political perfection of the world? In the two -most celebrated nations it has only been a polish of manners, an -extension of that family love, which is rather the effect of sympathy -and selfish passions, than reasonable humanity. And in what has ended -their so much extolled patriotism? In vain glory and barbarity—every -page of history proclaims. And why has the enthusiasm for virtue thus -passed away like the dew of the morning, dazzling the eyes of it’s -admirers? Why?—because it was factitious virtue. - -During the period they had to combat against oppression, and rear an -infant state, what instances of heroism do not the annals of Greece and -Rome display! But it was merely the blaze of passion, “live smoke;” for -after vanquishing their enemies, and making the most astonishing -sacrifices to the glory of their country, they became civil tyrants, and -preyed on the very society, for whose welfare it was easier to die, than -to practise the sober duties of life, which insinuate through it the -contentment that is rather felt than seen. Like the parents who forget -all the dictates of justice and humanity, to aggrandize the very -children whom they keep in a state of dependence, these heroes loved -their country, because it was their country, ever showing by their -conduct, that it was only a part of a narrow love of themselves. - -It is time, that a more enlightened moral love of mankind should -supplant, or rather support physical affections. It is time, that the -youth approaching manhood should be led by principles, and not hurried -along by sensations—and then we may expect, that the heroes of the -present generation, still having their monsters to cope with, will -labour to establish such rational laws throughout the world, that men -will not rest in the dead letter, or become artificial beings as they -become civilized. - -We must get entirely clear of all the notions drawn from the wild -traditions of original sin: the eating of the apple, the theft of -Prometheus, the opening of Pandora’s box, and the other fables, too -tedious to enumerate, on which priests have erected their tremendous -structures of imposition, to persuade us, that we are naturally inclined -to evil: we shall then leave room for the expansion of the human heart, -and, I trust, find, that men will insensibly render each other happier -as they grow wiser. It is indeed the necessity of stifling many of it’s -most spontaneous desires, to obtain the factitious virtues of society, -that makes man vicious, by depriving him of that dignity of character, -which rests only on truth. For it is not paradoxical to assert, that the -social virtues are nipt in the bud by the very laws of society. One -principal of action is sufficient—Respect thyself—whether it be termed -fear of God—religion; love of justice—morality; or, self-love—the desire -of happiness. Yet, how can a man respect himself; and if not, how -believe in the existence of virtue; when he is practising the daily -shifts, which do not come under the cognisance of the law, in order to -obtain a respectable situation in life? It seems, in fact, to be the -business of a civilized man, to harden his heart, that on it he may -sharpen the wit; which, assuming the appellation of sagacity, or -cunning, in different characters, is only a proof, that the head is -clear, because the heart is cold. - -Besides, one great cause of misery in the present imperfect state of -society is, that the imagination, continually tantalized, becomes the -inflated wen of the mind, draining off the nourishment from the vital -parts. Nor would it, I think, be stretching the inference too far, to -insist, that men become vicious in the same proportion as they are -obliged, by the defects of society, to submit to a kind of self-denial, -which ignorance, not morals, prescribes. - -But these evils are passing away; a new spirit has gone forth, to -organise the body-politic; and where is the criterion to be found, to -estimate the means, by which the influence of this spirit can be -confined, now enthroned in the hearts of half the inhabitants of the -globe? Reason has, at last, shown her captivating face, beaming with -benevolence; and it will be impossible for the dark hand of despotism -again to obscure it’s radiance, or the lurking dagger of subordinate -tyrants to reach her bosom. The image of God implanted in our nature is -now more rapidly expanding; and, as it opens, liberty with maternal wing -seems to be soaring to regions far above vulgar annoyance, promising to -shelter all mankind. - -It is a vulgar errour, built on a superficial view of the subject, -though it seems to have the sanction of experience, that civilization -can only go as far as it has hitherto gone, and then must necessarily -fall back into barbarism. Yet thus much appears certain, that a state -will infallibly grow old and feeble, if hereditary riches support -hereditary rank, under any description. But when courts and -primogeniture are done away, and simple equal laws are established, what -is to prevent each generation from retaining the vigour of youth?—What -can weaken the body or mind, when the great majority of society must -exercise both, to earn a subsistence, and acquire respectability? - -The french revolution is a strong proof how far things will govern men, -when simple principles begin to act with one powerful spring against the -complicated wheels of ignorance; numerous in proportion to their -weakness, and constantly wanting repair, because expedients of the -moment are ever the spawn of cowardly folly, or the narrow calculations -of selfishness. To elucidate this truth, it is not necessary to rake -among the ashes of barbarous ambition; to show the ignorance and -consequent folly of the monarchs, who ruled with a rod of iron, when the -hordes of european savages began to form their governments; though the -review of this portion of history would clearly prove, that narrowness -of mind naturally produces ferociousness of temper. - -We may boast of the poetry of those ages, and of those charming flights -of imagination, which, during the paroxysms of passion, flash out in -those single acts of heroic virtue, that throw a lustre over a whole -thoughtless life; but the cultivation of the understanding, in spite of -these northern lights, appears to be the only way to tame men, whose -restlessness of spirit creates the vicious passions, that lead to -tyranny and cruelty. When the body is strong, and the blood warm, men do -not like to think, or adopt any plan of conduct, unless broken-in by -degrees: the force that has often spent itself in fatal activity becomes -a rich source of energy of mind. - -Men exclaim, only noticing the evil, against the luxury introduced with -the arts and sciences; when it is obviously the cultivation of these -alone, emphatically termed the arts of peace, that can turn the sword -into a ploughshare. War is the adventure naturally pursued by the idle, -and it requires something of this species, to excite the strong emotions -necessary to rouse inactive minds. Ignorant people, when they appear to -reflect, exercise their imagination more than their understanding; -indulging reveries, instead of pursuing a train of thinking; and thus -grow romantic, like the croisaders; or like women, who are commonly idle -and restless. - -If we turn then with disgust from ensanguined regal pomp, and the -childish rareeshows that amuse the enslaved multitude, we shall feel -still more contempt for the order of men, who cultivated their -faculties, only to enable them to consolidate their power, by leading -the ignorant astray; making the learning they concentrated in their -cells, a more polished instrument of oppression. Struggling with so many -impediments, the progress of useful knowledge for several ages was -scarcely perceptible; though respect for the public opinion, that great -softner of manners, and only substitute for moral principles, was -gaining ground. - -The croisades, however, gave a shake to society, that changed it’s face; -and the spirit of chivalry, assuming a new character during the reign of -the gallant Francis the first, began to meliorate the ferocity of the -ancient gauls and franks. The _point d’honneur_ being settled, the -character of a _gentleman_, held ever since so dear in France, was -gradually formed; and this kind of bastard morality, frequently the only -substitute for all the ties that nature has rendered sacred, kept those -men within bounds, who obeyed no other law. - -The same spirit mixed with the sanguinary treachery of the Guises, and -gave support to the manly dignity of Henry the fourth, on whom nature -had bestowed that warmth of constitution, tenderness of heart, and -rectitude of understanding, which naturally produce an energetic -character.—A supple force, that, exciting love, commands esteem. - -During the ministry of Richelieu, when the dynasty of _favouritism_ -commenced, the arts were patronized, and the italian mode of governing -by intrigue tended to weaken bodies, polished by the friction of -continual finesse. Dissimulation imperceptibly slides into falshood, and -Mazarin, dissimulation personified, paved the way for the imposing pomp -and false grandeur of the reign of the haughty and inflated Louis 14th; -which, by introducing a taste for majestic frivolity, accelerated the -perfection of that species of civilization, which consists in the -refining of the senses at the expence of the heart; the source of all -real dignity, honour, virtue, and every noble quality of the mind. -Endeavouring to make bigotry tolerate voluptuousness, and honour and -licentiousness shake hands, sight was lost of the line of distinction, -or vice was hid under the mask of it’s correlative virtue. The glory of -France, a bubble raised by the heated breath of the king, was the -pretext for undermining happiness; whilst politeness took place of -humanity, and created that fort of dependance, which leads men to barter -their corn and wine, for unwholesome mixtures of they know not what, -that, flattering a depraved appetite, destroy the tone of the stomach. - -The feudal taste for tournaments and martial feasts was now naturally -succeeded by a fondness for theatrical entertainments; when feats of -valour became too great an exertion of the weakened muscles to afford -pleasure, and men found that resource in cultivation of mind, which -renders activity of body less necessary to keep the stream of life from -stagnating. - -All the pieces written at this period, except Moliere’s, reflected the -manners of the court, and thus perverted the forming taste. That -extraordinary man alone wrote on the grand scale of human passions, for -mankind at large, leaving to inferiour authors the task of imitating the -drapery of manners, which points out the _costume_ of the age. - -Corneille, like our Dryden, often tottering on the brink of absurdity -and nonsense, full of noble ideas, which, crouding indistinctly on his -fancy, he expresses obscurely, still delights his readers by sketching -faint outlines of gigantic passions; and, whilst the charmed imagination -is lured to follow him over enchanted ground, the heart is sometimes -unexpectedly touched by a sublime or pathetic sentiment, true to nature. - -Racine, soon after, in elegant harmonious language painted the manners -of his time, and with great judgement gave a picturesque cast to many -unnatural scenes and factitious sentiments: always endeavouring to make -his characters amiable, he is unable to render them dignified; and the -refined morality, scattered throughout, belongs to the code of -politeness rather than to that of virtue[1]. Fearing to stray from -courtly propriety of behaviour, and shock a fastidious audience, the -gallantry of his heroes interests only the gallant, and literary people, -whose minds are open to different species of amusement. He was, in fact, -the father of the french stage. Nothing can equal the fondness which the -french suck in with their milk for public places, particularly the -theatre; and this taste, giving the tone to their conduct, has produced -so many stage tricks on the grand theatre of the nation, where old -principles vamped up with new scenes and decorations, are continually -represented. - -Their national character is, perhaps, more formed by their theatrical -amusements, than is generally imagined: they are in reality the schools -of vanity. And, after this kind of education, is it surprising, that -almost every thing is said and done for stage effect? or that cold -declamatory extasies blaze forth, only to mock the expectation with a -show of warmth? - -Thus sentiments spouted from the lips come oftner from the head than the -heart. Indeed natural sentiments are only the characters given by the -imagination to recollected sensations; but the french, by the continual -gratification of their senses, stifle the reveries of their imagination, -which always requires to be acted upon by outward objects; and seldom -reflecting on their feelings, their sensations are ever lively and -transitory; exhaled by every passing beam, and dissipated by the -slightest storm. - -If a relish for the broad mirth of _fun_ characterize the lower class of -english, the french of every denomination are equally delighted with a -phosphorical, sentimental gilding. This is constantly observable at the -theatres. The passions are deprived of all their radical strength, to -give smoothness to the ranting sentiments, which, with mock dignity, -like the party-coloured rags on the shrivelled branches of the tree of -liberty, stuck up in every village, are displayed as something very -grand and significant. - -The wars of Louis were, likewise, theatrical exhibitions; and the -business of his life was adjusting ceremonials, of which he himself -became the dupe, when his grandeur was in the wane, and his animal -spirits were spent[2]. But, towards the close even of his reign, the -writings of Fenelon, and the conversation of his pupil, the duke of -Burgundy, gave rise to different political discussions, of which the -theoretical basis was the happiness of the people—till death, spreading -a huge pall over the family and glory of Louis, compassion draws his -faults under the same awful canopy, and we sympathize with the man in -adversity, whose prosperity was pestiferous. - -Louis, by imposing on the senses of his people, gave a new turn to the -chivalrous humour of the age: for, with the true spirit of quixotism, -the french made a point of honour of adoring their king; and the glory -of the _grand monarque_ became the national pride, even when it cost -them most dear. - -As a proof of the perversion of mind at that period, and the false -political opinions which prevailed, making the unhappy king the slave of -his own despotism, it is sufficient to select one anecdote. - -A courtier assures us,[3] that the most humiliating circumstance that -ever happened to the king, and one of those which gave him most pain, -was the publication of a memorial circulated with great diligence by his -enemies throughout France. In this memorial the allies invited the -french to demand the assembling of their ancient _states-general_. They -tell them, “that the ambition and pride of the king were the only causes -of the wars during his reign; and that, to secure themselves a lasting -peace, it was incumbent on them not to lay down their arms till the -states-general were convoked.” - -It almost surpasses belief to add, that, in spite of the imprisonment, -exile, flight, or execution of two millions of french, this memorial -produced little effect. But the king, who was severely hurt, took care -to have a reply written[4]; though he might have comforted himself with -the recollection, that, when they were last assembled, Louis XIII -dismissed them with empty promises, forgotten as soon as made. - -The enthusiasm of the french, which, in general, hurries them from one -extreme to another, at this time produced a total change of manners. - -During the regency, vice was not only bare-faced, but audacious; and the -tide completely turned: the hypocrites were now all ranged on the other -side, the courtiers, labouring to show their abhorrence of religious -hypocrisy, set decency at defiance, and did violence to the modesty of -nature, when they wished to outrage the squeamish puerilities of -superstition. - -In the character of the regent we may trace all the vices and graces of -false refinement; forming the taste by destroying the heart. Devoted to -pleasure, he so soon exhausted the intoxicating cup of all it’s sweets, -that his life was spent in searching amongst the dregs, for the novelty -that could give a gasp of life to enjoyment. The wit, which at first was -the zest of his nocturnal orgies, soon gave place, as flat, to the -grossest excesses, in which the principal variety was flagitious -immorality. And what has he done to rescue his name from obloquy, but -protect a few debauched artists and men of letters? His goodness of -heart only appeared in sympathy. He pitied the distresses of the people, -when before his eyes; and as quickly forgot these yearnings of heart in -his sensual stye. - -He often related, with great pleasure, an anecdote of the prior de -Vendôme, who chanced to please a mistress of Charles II, and the king -could only get rid of his rival by requesting Louis XIV to recall him. - -At those moments he would bestow the warmest praises on the english -constitution; and seemed enamoured of liberty, though authorising at the -time the most flagrant violations of property, and despotic arts of -cruelty. The only good he did his country[5] arose from this frivolous -circumstance; for introducing the fashion of admiring the english, he -led men to read and translate some of their masculine writers, which -greatly contributed to rouse the sleeping manhood of the french. His -love of the fine arts, however, has led different authors to strew -flowers over his unhallowed dust—fit emblem of the brilliant qualities, -that ornamented only the soil on which they grew. - -The latter part of the reign of Louis XV is notorious for the same -atrocious debaucheries, unvarnished by wit, over which modesty would -fain draw a veil, were it not necessary to give the last touches to the -portrait of that vile despotism, under the lash of which twenty-five -millions of people groaned; till, unable to endure the increasing weight -of oppression, they rose like a vast elephant, terrible in his anger, -treading down with blind fury friends as well as foes. - -Impotence of body, and indolence of mind, rendered Louis XV the slave of -his mistresses, who sought to forget his nauseous embraces in the arms -of knaves, who found their account in caressing them. Every corner of -the kingdom was ransacked to satiate these cormorants, who wrung the -very bowels of industry, to give a new edge to sickly appetites; -corrupting the morals whilst breaking the spirit of the nation. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - MARIE-ANTOINETTE. LOUIS XVI. ADMINISTRATION OF NECKER, AND OF CALONNE. - NOTABLES CONVENED. CALONNE DISGRACED,—AND OBLIGED TO FLEE THE KINGDOM. - HIS CHARACTER. CAUSES OF THE ENSLAVED STATE OF EUROPE. - - -During this general depravation of manners, the young and beautiful -_dauphine_ arrived; and was received with a kind of idolatrous -adoration, only to be seen in France; for the inhabitants of the -metropolis, literally speaking, could think and talk of nothing else; -and in their eagerness to pay homage, or gratify affectionate curiosity, -an immense number were killed. - -In such a voluptuous atmosphere, how could she escape contagion? The -profligacy of Louis XIV, when love and war were his amusements, was -soberness, compared with the capricious intemperance of the inebriated -imagination at this period. Madame du Barry was then in the zenith of -her power, which quickly excited the jealousy of this princess, whose -strongest passion was that intolerable family pride, which heated the -blood of the whole house of Austria. An inclination for court intrigue, -under the mask of the most profound dissimulation, to preserve the -favour of Louis XV, was instantly called into action; and it soon became -the only business of her life, either to gratify resentment, or cheat -the satiety, which the continual and unrestrained indulgence of pleasure -produced. - -Her character thus formed, when she became absolute mistress, the court -of the passive Louis, not only the most dissolute and abandoned that -ever displayed the folly of royalty, but audaciously negligent with -respect to that attention to decency, which is necessary to delude the -vulgar, was deserted by all persons, who had any regard for their moral -character, or the decorum of appearances. Constrained by the -_etiquette_, which made the principal part of the imposing grandeur of -Louis XIV, the queen wished to throw aside the cumbersome brocade of -ceremony, without having discernment enough to perceive, that it was -necessary to lend mock dignity to a court, where there was not -sufficient virtue, or native beauty, to give interest or respectability -to simplicity. The harlot is seldom such a fool as to neglect her -meretricious ornaments, unless she renounces her trade; and the -pageantry of courts is the same thing on a larger scale. The lively -predilection, likewise, of the queen for her native country, and love -for her brother Joseph, to whom she repeatedly sent considerable sums, -purloined from the public, tended greatly to inspire the most ineffable -contempt for royalty, now stript of the frippery which had concealed -it’s deformity: and the sovereign disgust excited by her ruinous vices, -completely destroying all reverence for that majesty, to which power -alone lent dignity, contempt soon produced hatred. - -The infamous transaction of the necklace, in which she was probably the -dupe of the knaves she fostered, exasperated also both the nobility and -the clergy; and, with her messalinian feasts at _Trianon_, made her the -common mark of ridicule and satire. - -The attention of the people once roused was not permitted to sleep; for -fresh circumstances daily occurred, to give a new spring to discussions, -that the most iniquitous and heavy taxes brought home to every bosom; -till the extravagance of the royal family became the general subject of -sharpening execrations. - -The king, who had not sufficient resolution to support the -administration of Turgot, whom his disposition for moderation had -chosen, being at a loss what measures to take, called to the helm the -plausible Necker. He, only half comprehending the plans of his able -predecessor, was led by his vanity cautiously to adopt them; first -publishing his _Comte-rendu_, to clear the way to popularity. This work -was read with astonishing rapidity by all ranks of men; and alarming the -courtiers, Necker was, in his turn, dismissed. He retired to write his -observations on the administration of the finances, which kept alive the -spirit of inquiry, that afterwards broke the talisman of courts, and -showed the disenchanted multitude, that those, whom they had been taught -to respect as supernatural beings, were not indeed men—but monsters; -deprived by their station of humanity, and even sympathy. - -Several abortive attempts were then made by two succeeding ministers, to -keep alive public credit, and find resources to supply the expenditure -of the state, and the dissipation of the court, when the king was -persuaded to place the specious Calonne at the head of these embarrassed -affairs. - -During the prodigal administration of this man, who acted with an -audacity peculiar to the arrogance common in men of superficial yet -brilliant talents, every consideration was sacrificed to the court; the -splendid folly and wanton prodigality of which eclipsing all that has -been related in history, or told in romance, to amuse wondering fools, -only served to accelerate the destruction of public credit, and hasten -the revolution, by exciting the clamourous indignation of the people. -Numberless destructive expedients of the moment brought money into the -state coffers, only to be dissipated by the royal family, and it’s train -of parasites; till all failing, the wish of still supporting himself in -a situation so desirable as that of comptroller general of the finances, -determined him to convene an assembly of _notables_: whose very -appellation points them out as men in the aristocratical interest. - -Louis XVI, with a considerable portion of common sense, and a desire to -promote useful reformation, though always governed by those around him, -gave without hesitation the necessary orders for calling together the -assembly, that afforded the wearied nation the most pleasing prospect, -because it was a new one; but conveyed to their astonished minds at the -same time the knowledge of the enormity of a _deficit_, which a series -of vice and folly had augmented beyond all precedent. - -The immoralities of Calonne, however, had created a general distrust of -all his designs: but with an overweening presumption, the characteristic -of the man, he still thought, that he could dexterously obtain the -supplies wanted to keep the wheels of government in motion, and quiet -the clamours of the nation, by proposing the equalization of taxes; -which, humbling the nobility and dignified clergy, who were thus to be -brought down from their privileged height, to the level of citizens, -could not fail to be grateful to the rest of the nation. And the -parliaments, he concluded, would not dare to oppose his system, lest -they should draw on themselves the distrust and hatred of the public. - -Without canvassing Calonne’s intentions, which the most enlarged -charity, after his former extravagance, can scarcely suppose to have -been the interest of the people, moderate men imagined this project -might have been productive of much good; giving the french all the -liberty they were able to digest; and, warding off the tumults that have -since produced so many disastrous events, whilst coolly preparing them -for the reception of more, the effervescence of vanity and ignorance -would not have rendered their heads giddy, or their hearts savage. Yet -some sensible observers, on the contrary, rather adopted the opinion, -that as the people had discovered the magnitude of the _deficit_, they -were now persuaded, that a specific remedy was wanting, _a new -constitution_; to cure the evils, which were the excrescences of a -gigantic tyranny, that appeared to be draining away the vital juices of -labour, to fill the insatiable jaws of thousands of fawning slaves and -idle sycophants. But though the people might, for the present, have been -satisfied with this salutary reform, which would gradually have had an -effect, reasoning from analogy, that the financier did not take, into -his account, the nobility were not sufficiently enlightened to listen to -the dictates of justice or prudence. It had been, indeed, the system of -ministers, ever since Richelieu, to humble the nobles, to increase the -power of the court; and as the ministry, the generals, and the bishops, -were always noble, they aided to support the favourite, who depressed -the whole body, only for the chance of individual preferment. But this -bare-faced attempt to abolish their privileges raised a nest of hornets -about his ears, eager to secure the plunder on which they lived; for by -what other name can we call the pensions, places and even estates of -those who, taxing industry, rioted in idleness duty free[6]? - -An approaching national bankruptcy was the ostensible reason assigned -for the convening of the _notables_ in 1787; but the convocation, in -truth, ought to be ascribed to the voice of reason, founded through the -organ of twenty-five millions of human beings, who, though under the -fetters of a detestable tyranny, felt, that the crisis was at hand, when -the rights of man, and his dignity ascertained were to be enthroned on -the eternal basis of justice and humanity. - -The _notables_, once assembled, being sensible, that their conduct would -be inspected by an awakened public, now on the watch, scrupulously -examined into every national concern; and seriously investigated the -causes, that had produced the _deficit_, with something like the -independent spirit of freemen. To their inquiries, however, the minister -gave only the evasive reply, ‘that he had acted in obedience to the -pleasure of the king:’ when it was notorious to all Europe, that his -majesty was merely a cipher at Versailles; and even the accusation -brought against Calonne, by La Fayette, of exchanging the national -domains, and appropriating millions of it’s revenue to gratify the -queen, the count d’Artois, and the rest of the cabal, who kept him in -place, was generally believed. In fact, the state had been fleeced, to -support the unremitting demands of the queen; who would have dismembered -France, to aggrandize Austria, and pamper her favourites. Thus the court -conniving at peculation, the minister played a sure game; whilst the -honest labourer was groaning under a thousand abuses, and yielding the -solace of his industry, or the hoards, which youthful strength had -reserved for times of scarcity or decrepit age, to irritate the -increasing wants of a thoughtless, treacherous princess, and the avarice -of her unprincipled agents. - -This artful, though weak, machiavelian politician suffered no other -person to approach the king; who, seduced into confidence by his -colloquial powers, could not avoid being dazzled by his plausible -schemes. He had, nevertheless, a powerful enemy to contend with, in M. -de Breteuil; who, having gratified some of the little passions of the -dauphine, during her first struggles for dominion, was now protected by -the absolute power of the queen. Endeavouring to measure his strength -with her’s, the minister was discomfited; and the whole swarm of -flatterers, who had partaken of the spoil of rapine, were instantly -alert to open the eyes of Louis, over which they had long been -scattering poppies, and soon convinced him of the perfidy of his -favourite; whilst the two privileged orders joined their forces, to -overwhelm their common enemy, attending to their vengeance at the very -time they followed the dictates of prudence. - -The accusations of La Fayette served, perhaps, as the ostensible reason -with the public, and even with the king; yet it can hardly be supposed, -that they had any effect on the cabal, who invented, or connived at the -plans necessary to raise a continual supply for their pleasures. The -fact is, that, most probably being found unequal to the task, or no -longer choosing to be a docile instrument of mischief, he was thrown -aside as unfit for use. - -Disgraced, he quickly retired to his estate; but was not long permitted -to struggle with the malady of exiled ministers, in the gloomy silence -of inactivity; for, hearing that he had been denounced by the -parliament, he fled in a transport of rage out of the kingdom, covered -with the execrations of an injured people, in whose hatred, or -admiration, the mellowed shades of reflection are seldom seen. - -The extravagance of his administration exceeded that of any other -scourge of France; yet it does not appear, that he was actuated by a -plan, or even desire, of enriching himself. So far from it, with wild -prodigality he seems to have squandered away the vast sums he extorted -by force or fraud, merely to gratify or purchase friends and dependents; -till, quite exhausted, he was obliged to have recourse to Necker’s -scheme of loans. But not possessing like him the confidence of the -public, he could not with equal facility obtain a present supply, the -weight of which would be thrown forward to become a stumbling-block to -his successors. Necker, by the advantageous terms which he held out to -money-holders, had introduced a pernicious system of stock-jobbing, that -was slowly detected, because those who could best have opened the eyes -of the people were interested to keep them closed.—Still Calonne could -not induce the same body of men to trust to his offers; which, not -choosing to accept, they made a point of discrediting, to secure the -interest and exorbitant premiums that were daily becoming due. - -With an uncommon quickness of comprehension, and audacity in pursuing -crude schemes, rendered plausible by a rhetorical flow of words, -Calonne, a strong representative of the national character, seems rather -to have wanted principles than feelings of humanity; and to have been -led astray more by vanity and the love of pleasure, which imperceptibly -smooth away moral restraints, than by those deep plans of guilt, that -force men to see the extent of the mischief they are hatching, whilst -the crocodile is still in the egg. Yet, as mankind ever judge by events, -the inconsiderate presumption, if not the turpitude of his conduct, -brought on him universal censure: for, at a crisis when the general -groans of an oppressed nation proclaimed the disease of the state, and -even when the government was on the verge of dissolution, did he not -waste the treasures of his country, forgetful not only of moral -obligations, but the ties of honour, of that regard for the tacit -confidence of it’s citizens, which a statesman ought to hold sacred? -since which he has been caressed at almost every court in Europe, and -made one of the principal agents of despotism in the croisades against -the infant liberty of France. - -Reflecting on the conduct of the tools of courts, we are enabled in a -great measure to account for the slavery of Europe; and to discover, -that it’s misery has not arisen more from the imperfection of -civilization, than from the fallacy of those political systems, which -necessarily made the favourite of the day a knavish tyrant, eager to -amass riches sufficient to save himself from oblivion, when the honours, -so hardly wrestled for, should be torn from his brow. Besides, whilst -ministers have found impunity in the omnipotence, which the seal of -power gave them, and in the covert fear of those who hoped one day to -enjoy the same emoluments, they have been led by the prevalence of -depraved manners, to the commission of every atrocious folly. Kings have -been the dupes of ministers, of mistresses, and secretaries, not to -notice sly valets and cunning waiting-maids, who are seldom idle; and -these are most venal, because they have least independence of character -to support; till in the circle of corruption no one can point out the -first mover. Hence proceeds the great tenacity of courts to support -them; hence originates their great objection to republican forms of -government, which oblige their ministers to be accountable for -delinquency; and hence, likewise, might be traced their agonizing fears -of the doctrine of civil equality. - - - - - CHAPTER III. -ADMINISTRATION OF DE BRIENNE. DISSOLUTION OF THE NOTABLES. LAND TAX AND - STAMP DUTY RECOMMENDED BY THEM, BUT REFUSED TO BE SANCTIONED BY THE -PARLIAMENT. BED OF JUSTICE. THE PARLIAMENT BANISHED TO TROYES,—BUT SOON -COMPROMISED FOR IT’S RECALL. STRUGGLES OF THE COURT PARTY TO PREVENT THE - CONVOCATION OF THE STATES-GENERAL. BANISHMENT OF THE DUKE OF ORLEANS, - AND TWO SPIRITED MEMBERS OF THE PARLIAMENT. COUR PLENIERE. REMARKS ON - THE PARLIAMENTS. IMPRISONMENT OF THE MEMBERS. DEPUTIES OF THE PROVINCE - OF BRITANNY SENT TO THE BASTILLE. THE SOLDIERY LET LOOSE UPON THE - PEOPLE. - - -After the dismission of Calonne, M. de Brienne, a man whose talents -Turgot had overrated, was now chosen by the queen, because he had -formerly seconded her views, and was still the obsequious slave of that -power, which he had long been courting, to obtain the so much envied -place of minister. Having taken more pains to gain the post than to -prepare himself to fulfil it’s functions, his weak and timid mind was in -a continual tumult; and he adopted with head-long confusion the taxes -proposed by his predecessor; because money must be had, and he knew not -where to turn to procure it by an unhacknied mode of extortion. - -The _notables_ were now dissolved; and it would have been a natural -consequence of the dismission of the minister who assembled them, even -if their spirited inquiries had not rendered their presence vexatious to -the court. This, however, was an impolitic measure; for they returned -highly disgusted to their respective abodes, to propagate the free -opinions, to which resentment and argumentation had given birth. - -Before the breaking up of the _notables_, they were nevertheless -prevailed upon to recommend a land and stamp tax; and the edicts were -sent to the parliament to be enregistered. But these magistrates, never -forgetting that they enjoyed, in virtue of their office, the privileged -exemption from taxes, to elude sanctioning the first, which was to have -been an equal impost, took advantage of the public odiousness of the -second; thus avoiding, with a show of patriotism, an avowed opposition -to the interest of the people, that would clearly have proved, how much -dearer they held their own. - -The gaudy and meretricious pageantry of the court was now displayed, to -intimidate the parliament, at what was termed a bed of justice, though -in reality of all justice a solemn mockery; and, whilst pretending to -consult them, the edicts were enregistered by a mandate of state. The -parliament, in the mean time, making a merit of necessity, declared, -that the right of sanctioning the impost belonged only to the -states-general, the convocation of which they demanded. Provoked by -their sturdy opposition, the court banished them to Troyes; and they -compromised for their recall by enregistering the prolongation of the -_deuxieme vingtieme_, a cowardly desertion of their former ground. - -A century before (a proof of the progress of reason) the people, -digesting their disappointment, would have submitted, with brutal -acquiescence, to the majestic WILL of the king, without daring to scan -it’s import; but now, recognizing their own dignity, they insisted, that -all authority, which did not originate with them, was illegal and -despotic, and loudly resounded the grand truth—That it was necessary to -convoke the states-general. The government, however, like a dying wretch -cut off by intemperance, whilst the lust of enjoyment still remaining -prompts him to exhaust his strength by struggling with death, fought -some time longer inauspiciously for existence, depending on the succour -of the court empirics, who vainly flattered themselves, that they could -prevent it’s dissolution. From the moment, indeed, that Brienne -succeeded Calonne, all the machinery, which the demon of despotism could -invent, was put in motion, to divert the current of opinion, bearing on -it’s fair bosom the new sentiments of liberty with irresistible force, -and overwhelming, as it swelled, the perishing monuments of venerable -folly, and the fragile barriers of superstitious ignorance. - -But supplies were still wanting; and the court, being fruitful in -stratagems to procure a loan, which was the necessary lever of it’s -insidious designs, coalesced with some of the members of the parliament, -and the agreement was to have been ratified in a _séance royale_. Yet, -as the parliament had determined to be governed by a clear majority, the -scheme of the keeper of the seals, who intended to have the business -hurried over without telling the votes, was completely defeated. - -The discovery of this unfair attempt made the indignant magistrates, -glad to seize an occasion to recover their popularity, maintain with -boldness their own character, and the interest of the people. The duke -of Orleans, also, somewhat tauntingly suggesting to the king, that this -was only another bed of justice, was exiled, with two other members, who -had remonstrated with courage. These magistrates, now become the objects -of public adoration, were considered by the grateful public as their -only bulwark against the attacks of the ministry; which continued to -harrass invention, to contrive means to counteract a concurrence of -circumstances, that were driving before them all opposition. - -The court, for I consider the government, at this period, completely at -an end, continued to stumble out of one blunder into another, till at -last they rested all their hopes on the popular reforms projected by -Brienne, in conjunction with Lamoignon, a man with more strength of -character, to cajole the people and crush the parliament. Several -strokes, the feeble blows of angry men, who wished still to retain the -stolen sweets of office, were aimed at this body, calculated to mislead -the people, who were also promised a reformed code of penal laws. But -the time when partial remedies would have been eagerly swallowed was -past, and the people saw distinctly, that their will would soon be law, -and their power omnipotent. But the minister, Brienne, not aware of -this, to steer clear of further opposition, proposed the plan of a _cour -pléniere_: an heterogeneous assembly of princes, nobles, magistrates, -and soldiers. A happy substitute, as he imagined, for the parliament; -and which, by restoring the ancient forms of the kings of France, would -awe and amuse the people. He did not consider, that their minds were now -full of other objects, and their enthusiasm turned into another channel. - -This conduct proved more destructive to the court than any former folly -it’s advisers had committed. Imbecility now characterized every measure. -The parliament however fell into the snare, and forfeited the esteem and -confidence of the people by opposing some popular edicts; particularly -one in favour of the protestants, which they themselves had demanded ten -years before, and to which they now objected, only because it came from -another quarter. Yet the court, regardless of experience, endeavoured to -restore it’s credit by persecution; whilst, making all the clashing -movements that fear could dictate to manifest it’s power and overawe the -nation, it united all parties, and drew the whole kingdom to one point -of action. - -The despotic and extravagant steps taken, to give efficiency to the -_cour pléniere_, awakened the sensibility of the most torpid; and the -vigilance of twenty-five millions of centinels was roused, to watch the -movements of the court, and follow it’s corrupt ministers, through all -the labyrinths of sophistry and tergiversation, into the very dens of -their nefarious machinations. To prevent the different parliaments from -deliberating, and forming in consequence a plan of conduct together, the -edict to sanction this packed cabinet was to be presented to them all on -the same day; and a considerable force was assembled, to intimidate the -members, who should dare to prove refractory. But, they were forewarned -in time, to avoid being surprised into acquiescence: for, having -received an intimation of the design, a copy of the edict had been -purloined from the press, by means of the universal engine of -corruption, money. - -Warmed by the discovery of this surreptitious attempt to cheat them into -blind obedience, they bound themselves by an oath, to act in concert; -and not to enregister a decree, that had been obtained through a medium, -which violated the privilege they had usurped of having a share in the -legislation, by rendering their sanction of edicts necessary to give -them force: a privilege that belonged only to the states-general. Still, -as the government had often found it convenient to make the parliaments -a substitute for a power they dreaded to see in action, these -magistrates sometimes availed themselves of this weakness, to -remonstrate against oppression; and thus, covering usurpation with a -respectable veil, the twelve parliaments were considered by the people -as the only barriers to resist the encroachments of despotism. Yet the -sagacious chancellor L’Hôpital, not deceived by their accidental -usefulness, guarded the french against their illegal ambition: for was -it not a dangerous courtesy of the people, to allow an aristocracy of -lawyers, who bought their places, to be as it were the only -representatives of the nation? Still their resistance had frequently -been an impediment in the way of tyranny, and now provoked a discussion, -which led to the most important of all questions—namely, in whose hands -ought the sovereignty to rest?—who ought to levy the impost, and make -laws?—and the answer was the universal demand of a fair representation, -to meet at stated periods, without depending on the caprice of the -executive power. Unable to effect their purpose by art or force, the -weak ministry, stung by the disappointment, determined at least to wreak -their vengeance on two of the boldest of the members. But the united -magistrates disputing the authority of the armed force, it was necessary -to send to Versailles, to make the king sign an express order; and -towards five o’clock the next morning the sanctuary of justice was -profaned, and the two members dragged to prison, in contempt of the -visible indignation of the people. Soon after, to fill up the measure of -provocations, a deputation sent by the province of Brittany, to -remonstrate against the establishment of the _cour pléniere_, were -condemned to silence in the Bastille. - -Without money, and afraid to demand it, excepting in a circumlocutory -manner, the court, like mad men, spent themselves in idle exertions of -strength: for, whilst the citizens of Paris were burning in effigy the -two obnoxious ministers, who thus outraged them in the person of their -magistrates, they were delivered up to the fury of the hired slaves of -despotism, and trampled under foot by the cavalry; who were called in to -quell a riot purposely excited. - -Cries of horrour and indignation resounded throughout the kingdom; and -the nation, with one voice, demanded justice—Alas! justice had never -been known in France. Retaliation and vengeance had been it’s fatal -substitutes. And from this epoch we may date the commencement of those -butcheries, which have brought on that devoted country so many dreadful -calamities, by teaching the people to avenge themselves with blood! - -The hopes of the nation, it is true, were still turned towards the -promised convocation of the states-general; which every day became more -necessary. But the infatuated ministers, though unable to devise any -scheme to extricate themselves out of the crowd of difficulties, into -which they had heedlessly plunged, could not think of convening a power, -which they foresaw, without any great stretch of sagacity, would quickly -annihilate their own. - -The ferment, mean time, continued, and the blood that had been shed -served only to increase it; nay, the citizens of Grenoble prepared with -calmness to resist force by force, and the myrmidons of tyranny might -have found it a serious contest, if the intelligence of the dismission -of the ministers had not produced one of those moments of enthusiasm, -which by the most rapid operation of sympathy unites all hearts. Touched -by it, the men who lived on the wages of slaughter threw down their -arms, and melting into tears in the embraces of the citizens whom they -came to murder, remembered that they were countrymen, and groaned under -the same oppression: and, their conduct, quickly applauded with that -glow of sensibility which excites imitation, served as an example to the -whole army, forcing the soldiers to think of their situation, and might -have proved a salutary lesson to any court less depraved and insensible -than that of Versailles. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - NECKER RECALLED. HIS CHARACTER. NOTABLES CONVENED A SECOND TIME. - COALITION OF THE NOBILITY AND CLERGY IN DEFENCE OF THEIR PRIVILEGES. -PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOPLE. POLITICAL PUBLICATIONS IN FAVOUR OF - THE TIERS-ETAT. GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON REFORM,—ON THE PRESENT STATE OF - EUROPE,—AND ON THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE. - - -Such were the measures pursued to exasperate a people beginning to open -their eyes, and now clamourously demanding the restitution of their -long-estranged rights; when the court, having in vain attempted to -terrify or deceive them, found it expedient to still the storm by -recalling Necker. This man had the confidence of France, which he in -some degree merited for the light he had thrown on the state of the -revenue, and for the system of economy, that he had endeavoured to adopt -during his former administration: but unfortunately he did not possess -talents or political sagacity sufficient to pilot the state in this -perilous season. Bred up in a counting-house, he acquired that knowledge -of detail, and attention to little advantages, so necessary when a man -desires to amass riches with what is termed a fair character: and, -having accumulated a very large fortune by unremitting industry; or, to -borrow the commercial phrase, _attention to the main chance_, his house -became the resort of the men of letters of his day. - -The foibles of a rich man are always fostered, sometimes perhaps -insensibly, by his numerous dependents and visitants, who find his table -amusing or convenient. It is not then surprizing, that, with the -abilities of a tolerable financier, he was soon persuaded, that he was a -great author, and consummate statesman. Besides, when the manners of a -nation are very depraved, the men who wish to appear, and even to be, -more moral than the multitude, in general become pedantically virtuous; -and, continually contrasting their morals with the thoughtless vices -around them, the artificial, narrow character of a sectary is formed; -the manners are rendered stiff, and the heart cold. The dupes also of -their flimsey virtue, many men are harshly called hypocrites, who are -only weak; and popularity often turns the head giddy, that would have -soberly fulfilled the common duties of a man in the shade of private -life. - -Having adopted with a timid hand many of the sagacious plans of his -model, the clear headed, unaffected Turgot, Necker was considered by the -greater part of the nation as a consummate politician: neither was it -surprizing, that the people, snatched from despondency, should have -mistaken the extent of his political knowledge, when they had estimated -it by that of the greatest statesman, which France, or, perhaps, any -other country, ever produced. - -Having written on a subject, that naturally attracted the attention of -the public, he had the vanity to believe, that he deserved the -exaggerated applause he received, and the reputation of wise, when he -was only shrewd. Not content with the fame he acquired by writing on a -subject, which his turn of mind and profession enabled him to -comprehend, he wished to obtain a higher degree of celebrity, by forming -into a large book various metaphysical shreds of arguments, which he had -collected from the conversation of men, fond of ingenious subtilties; -and the style, excepting some declamatory passages, was as inflated and -confused as the thoughts were far fetched and unconnected[7]. - -As it is from this period, that we must date the commencement of those -great events, which, outrunning expectation, have almost rendered -observation breathless, it becomes necessary to enter on the task with -caution; as it ought not to be more the object of the historian to fill -up the sketch, than to trace the hidden springs and secret mechanism, -which have put in motion a revolution, the most important that has ever -been recorded in the annals of man. This was a crisis that demanded -boldness and precision; and no man in France, excepting Necker, had the -reputation of possessing extensive political talents; because the old -system of government scarcely afforded a field, in which the abilities -of men could be unfolded, and their judgment matured by experience. Yet, -whilst the kingdom was in the greatest fermentation, he seems to have -thought of none but those timid half-way measures, which always prove -disastrous in desperate cases, when the wound requires to be probed to -the quick. - -The old government was then only a vast ruin; and whilst it’s pillars -were trembling on their baseless foundations, the eyes of all France -were directed towards their admired minister. In this situation, with -all his former empiricism he began his second career, like another -Sangrado. But the people could no longer bear bleeding—for their veins -were already so lacerated, it was difficult to find room to make a fresh -incision; and the emollient prescriptions, the practice of former times, -were now insufficient to stop the progress of a deadly disease. In this -situation, listening to the voice of the nation, because he was at a -loss what step to take to maintain his popularity, he determined to -hasten the convocation of the states-general: first recalling the exiled -magistrates, and restoring the parliaments to the exercise of their -functions. His next care was to dissipate all apprehension of a famine; -a fear that had been artfully excited by the court agents, in order to -have a pretext to form magazines of provision for an army, which they -had previously resolved to assemble in the vicinity of Paris. - -Thus far he seems to have acted with some degree of prudence, at least; -but, inattentive to the robust strength which the public opinion had -then acquired, he wavered as to the mode of constituting the -states-general, whilst the parliament passed a decree to prevent their -assembling in any other manner than they did in 1614. This obstinate -pretention to legislate for the nation was no longer to be tolerated, -when they opposed the wishes of the people: yet, with the common -instinct of corporate bodies, they wrapped themselves up in the -precedents that proved their winding-sheet, provoking universal -contempt; for the herculean force of the whole empire was now clearing -away every obstacle to freedom. - -At this critical moment, the minister, enjoying great popularity, had it -in his power, could he have governed the court, to have suggested a -system, which might ultimately have proved acceptable to all parties; -and thus have prevented that dreadful convulsion, which has shook the -kingdom from one extremity to the other. Instead of that, he convened a -second time the _notables_, to take their opinion on a subject, -respecting which the public had already decided, not daring himself to -sanction it’s decision. The strongest proof he could give, that his mind -was not sufficiently elastic to expand with the opening views of the -people; and that he did not possess the eye of genius, which, quickly -distinguishing what is possible, enables a statesman to act with firm -dignity, resting on his own centre. - -Carried away by the general impulsion, with the inconsiderate fervour of -men, whose hearts always grow hard as they cool, when they have been -warmed by some sudden glow of enthusiasm or sympathy, the _notables_ -showed, by their subsequent conduct, that, though they had been led by -eloquence to support some questions of a patriotic tendency, they had -not the principles necessary to impel them to give up local advantages, -or personal prerogatives, for the good of the whole community, in which -they were only eventually to share. Indeed romantic virtue, or -friendship, seldom goes further than professions; because it is merely -the effect of that fondness for imitating great, rather than acquiring -moderate qualities, common to vain people. - -The _notables_ had now two essential points to settle; namely, to -regulate the election of the deputies, and how they were afterwards to -vote. The population and wealth of several provinces, from commercial -advantages and other causes, had given a new face to the country since -the former election; so much so, that, if the ancient division were -adhered to, the representation could not fail to be very unequal. Yet if -the natural order of population were followed, the grand question of -voting by orders or by voices seemed to be prejudged by the great -increase of the members of the _tiers-etat_. - -The nobles and the clergy immediately rallied round the standard of -privileges, insisting, that France would be ruined, if their _rights_ -were touched: and so true were they now to their insulated interest, -that all the committees into which the _notables_ were divided, -excepting that of which _monsieur_ was president, determined against -allowing the _tiers-etat_ that increase of power necessary to enable -them to be useful. Whilst, however, these disputes and cabals seemed to -promise no speedy determination, the people, weary of procrastination, -and disgusted with the obstacles continually thrown in the way of the -meeting of the states-general, by a court that was ever secretly at -work, to regain the trifling privileges, which it pretended to sacrifice -to the general good, began to assemble, and even to decide the previous -question, by deliberating together in several places. Dauphine set the -example; and the three orders uniting sketched a plan for the -organization of the whole kingdom, which served as a model for the other -provincial states, and furnished grounds for the constituent assembly to -work on when forming the constitution. Though the rumour was spread -abroad, the court, still so stupidly secure as not to see, that the -people, who at this period dared to think for themselves, would not now -be noosed like beasts, when strength is brought into subjection by -reason, beheld with wonder the arrival of deputations from different -quarters, and heard with astonishment the bold tones of men speaking of -their rights, tracing society to it’s origin, and painting with the most -forcible colours the horrid depredations of the old government. For -after the minds of men had been fatigued by the stratagems of the court, -the feeble measures of the minister, and the narrow, selfish views of -the parliaments, they examined with avidity the productions of a number -of able writers, who were daily pouring pamphlets from the press, to -excite the _tiers-etat_, to assert it’s rights on enlarged principles, -and to oppose vigorously the exorbitant claims of the privileged orders, -who stood up for ancient usurpations, as if they were the natural rights -of a particular _genus_ of man. Those of the abbé Sieyes and the marquis -de Condorcet were the most philosophical; whilst the unctuous eloquence -of Mirabeau softened these dry researches, and fed the flame of -patriotism. - -In this posture of affairs, Necker, perceiving that the people were -grown resolute, prevailed on the council to decree, that the number of -the deputies of the _tiers-etat_ should be equal to that of the two -other orders taken together: but whether they were to vote by chambers, -or in the same body, was still left undetermined. - -The people, whose patience had been worn out by injuries and -insults, now only thought of preparing instructions for their -representatives.—But, instead of looking for gradual improvement, -letting one reform calmly produce another, they seemed determined to -strike at the root of all their misery at once: the united mischiefs -of a monarchy unrestrained, a priesthood unnecessarily numerous, and -an over grown nobility: and these hasty measures, become a subject -worthy of philosophical investigation, naturally fall into two -distinct subjects of inquiry. - -1st. If, from the progress of reason, we be authorized to infer, that -all governments will be meliorated, and the happiness of man placed on -the solid basis, gradually prepared by the improvement of political -science: if the degrading distinctions of rank born in barbarism, and -nourished by chivalry, be really becoming in the estimation of all -sensible people so contemptible, that a modest man, in the course of -fifty years would probably blush at being thus distinguished: if the -complexion of manners in Europe be completely changed from what it was -half a century ago, and the liberty of it’s citizens tolerably secured: -if every day extending freedom be more firmly established in consequence -of the general dissemination of truth and knowledge: it then seems -injudicious for statesmen to force the adoption of any opinion, by -aiming at the speedy destruction of obstinate prejudices; because these -premature reforms, instead of promoting, destroy the comfort of those -unfortunate beings, who are under their dominion, affording at the same -time to despotism the strongest arguments to urge in opposition to the -theory of reason. Besides, the objects intended to be forwarded are -probably retarded, whilst the tumult of internal commotion and civil -discord leads to the most dreadful consequence—the immolating of human -victims. - -But, 2dly, it is necessary to observe, that, if the degeneracy of the -higher orders of society be such, that no remedy less fraught with -horrour can effect a radical cure; and if enjoying the fruits of -usurpation, they domineer over the weak, and check by all the means in -their power every humane effort, to draw man out of the state of -degradation, into which the inequality of fortune has sunk him; the -people are justified in having recourse to coercion, to repel coercion. -And, further, if it can be ascertained, that the silent sufferings of -the citizens of the world under the iron feet of oppression are greater, -though less obvious, than the calamities produced by such violent -convulsions as have happened in France; which, like hurricanes whirling -over the face of nature, strip off all it’s blooming graces; it may be -politically just, to pursue such measures as were taken by that -regenerating country, and at once root out those deleterious plants, -which poison the better half of human happiness. For civilization -hitherto, by producing the inequality of conditions, which makes wealth -more desirable than either talents or virtue, has so weakened all the -organs of the body-politic, and rendered man such a beast of prey, that -the strong have always devoured the weak till the very signification of -justice has been lost sight of, and charity, the most specious system of -slavery, substituted in it’s place. The rich have for ages tyrannized -over the poor, teaching them how to act when possessed of power, and now -must feel the consequence. People are rendered ferocious by misery; and -misanthropy is ever the offspring of discontent. Let not then the -happiness of one half of mankind be built on the misery of the other, -and humanity will take place of charity, and all the ostentatious -virtues of an universal aristocracy. How, in fact, can we expect to see -men live together like brothers, when we only see master and servant in -society? For till men learn mutually to assist without governing each -other, little can be done by political associations towards perfecting -the condition of mankind. - -Europe will probably be, for some years to come, in a state of anarchy; -till a change of sentiments, gradually undermining the strongholds of -custom, alters the manners, without rousing the little passions of men, -a pack of yelping curs pampered by vanity and pride. It is in reality -these minor passions, which during the summer of idleness mantle on the -heart, and taint the atmosphere, because the understanding is still. - -Several acts of ferocious folly have justly brought much obloquy on the -grand revolution, which has taken place in France; yet, I feel confident -of being able to prove, that the people are essentially good, and that -knowledge is rapidly advancing to that degree of perfectibility, when -the proud distinctions of sophisticating fools will be eclipsed by the -mild rays of philosophy, and man be considered as man—acting with the -dignity of an intelligent being. - -From implicitly obeying their sovereigns, the french became suddenly all -sovereigns; yet, because it is natural for men to run out of one extreme -into another, we should guard against inferring, that the spirit of the -moment will not evaporate, and leave the disturbed water more clear for -the fermentation. Men without principle rise like foam during a storm -sparkling on the top of the billow, in which it is soon absorbed when -the commotion dies away. Anarchy is a fearful state, and all men of -sense and benevolence have been anxiously attentive, to observe what use -frenchmen would make of their liberty, when the confusion incident to -the acquisition should subside: yet, whilst the heart sickens over a -detail of crimes and follies, and the understanding is appalled by the -labour of unravelling a black tissue of plots, which exhibits the human -character in the most revolting point of view; it is perhaps, difficult -to bring ourselves to believe, that out of this chaotic mass a fairer -government is rising than has ever shed the sweets of social life on the -world.—But things must have time to find their level. - - - - - AN - HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW - OF THE - FRENCH REVOLUTION. - - - - - _BOOK II._ - - - - - CHAPTER I. - RETROSPECTIVE VIEW OF GRIEVANCES IN FRANCE—THE NOBLES—THE MILITARY—THE -CLERGY—THE FARMERS GENERAL. ELECTION OF DEPUTIES TO THE STATES-GENERAL. - ARTS OF THE COURTIERS. ASSEMBLY OF THE STATES. RIOTS EXCITED AT PARIS. - OPENING OF THE STATES-GENERAL. THE KING’S SPEECH. ANSWER TO IT BY THE - KEEPER OF THE SEALS. SPEECH OF MR. NECKER. CONTEST RESPECTING THE MODE -OF ASSEMBLING. TACIT ESTABLISHMENT OF THE LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. ATTEMPT -OF THE COURT TO RESTRAIN IT. THE DEPUTIES DECLARE THEMSELVES A NATIONAL - ASSEMBLY. - - -Before we enter on the grand business produced by the meeting of the -states-general, it is necessary to take a retrospective glance over the -oppressions of which frenchmen so loudly complained; and, whilst we -trace their justness, the question will only be, why they did not sooner -raise their shoulders to heave off the mighty load. To ascertain this -truth, we need not enter into deep researches, though it may be -difficult to collect all the parts of the feudal chain, which linked the -despotism of sixty thousand nobles, who not only exercised all the -tyranny that the system authorized, but countenanced the still more -extensive depredations of their numerous dependents. What, indeed, could -equal the slavery of the poor husbandman; not only pillaged by the tythe -and game laws, but even obliged to let whole flocks of pigeons devour -his grain, without daring to destroy them, because those pigeons -belonged to the chateau; and afterwards forced to carry the scanty crop -to be tolled at the mill of _monseigneur_, which, to follow a -frenchman’s staff of life through all it’s stages of taxation, must then -be baked at the privileged oven? - -It would be captious, perhaps, to dwell on some of the abominable -tenures of personal servitude, which, though grown obsolete, were not -abrogated; especially as more specious, if not less grinding, not less -debasing exactions were in force, to deprave every moral feeling of the -two divisions of society; the governing, and governed. - -When chased from the country, of which the chief charm is independence, -by such worrying restraints, a man wished to pursue any occupation in a -town, he must previously purchase a patent of some privileged person, to -whom this tax had been sold by a farmer-general, or the parasite of a -minister. - -All lived by plunder; and it’s universality gave it a sanction, that -took off the odium, though nothing could varnish the injustice. Yet, -such was the insensibility of the great, the pleasures these extortions -procured were not less grateful to the senses, because paid by the sweat -of industry.—No; like Vespasian’s obnoxious tax, money was money; and -who cared on what it was levied? Thus the rich necessarily became -robbers, and the poor thieves. Talking of honour, honesty was -overlooked; and, custom giving a soft name to different atrocities, few -thought it a duty to investigate disregarded principles; or to -relinquish their share of the plunder, to satisfy a romantic singularity -of opinion, which excited ridicule rather than imitation. - -The military, a pest in every country, were here also all noble, and -leagued with a hundred thousand privileged persons, of different -descriptions, to support their prerogative of receiving a revenue, which -was a dead weight on agriculture; whilst they were not obliged, in a -direct way, to advance any thing towards defraying the public -expenditure. - -The gabelle, the corvée, the obligation to supply horses to transport -the troops from one part of the kingdom to another, even when most -necessary at the farm; clogs on husbandry, equally unjust and vexatious; -were riveted only on the ankles of labour. Activity then being -continually damped by such various restrictions, instead of being braced -by encouragement, an invincible impediment was thrown in the way of -agricultural improvements; for each individual, insulated by oppression, -lived, strictly speaking, from hand to mouth; not caring to store up -comforts, at the expence of extraordinary toil, when the enjoyment -depended on so many casualties. Yet, never beginning to be sensible of -the effect, the people were not, probably, aware of the cause; and only -exclaimed against new impositions, because they did not think -sufficiently deep to detect the old. - -Beside which, France maintained two hundred thousand priests, united in -the same spirit of licentiousness; who indulged themselves in all the -depraved pleasures of cloaked immorality, at the same time they embruted -the people by sanctifying the most diabolical prejudices; to whose -empire every consideration of justice and political improvement was -sacrificed. - -Added to evils of this magnitude, there were the canker-worms that -lurked behind monastic walls. For sixty thousand persons, who by -renouncing the world cut the thread of nature, served as a prop to the -priesthood that enjoyed more than a fourth of the produce of all France; -independent of the estates it possessed, which were immense. And this -body of men, the leeches of the kingdom, the idols of the ignorant, and -the palladium of tyranny, contributed not a farthing to the support of -the hydra, whom they were anxious to protect, as a guard to themselves. -Ostentatiously boasting of their charity, whilst revelling on the spoil -of fraud, by a sacrilege the most nefarious, their whole lives were a -mockery of the doctrines, which they taught, and pretended to reverence. -Beside these, and other vexations, almost innumerable, one entangled in -another; each petty monopoly contributed to strengthen the massy fabric -of despotism, which reared it’s head in defiance of time and reason. -Much, indeed, depended on the caprice of the individuals of the -privileged orders, whom the court could actuate at will, giving them -occasionally a sop to silence any peevish growl. - -There were also the farmers general, with their army of fifty thousand -collectors, who, by their manner of levying and amassing the revenue, -gave an additional gripe to an oppression, the most wringing that could -be invented, because it’s very principles led to the exercise of the -vilest peculation; and impunity was secured by a coalition of robbers, -that multitude of men in office, whose families and flatterers all -lived, and fattened on the spoil of their continual war with justice. -And, whilst the interest of the people was continually sacrificed by the -parliaments, the inferiour courts of law were still more venal, because -composed of those litigious practitioners, who thicken like spawn on -putrid bodies, when a state is become corrupt. - -Such were the grievances!—Such the impositions, ‘that, taken together, -levied a tax on the kingdom,’ says Rabaud, ‘which the imagination is -afraid to calculate.’ This body of men we may consider as constituting -France, till the great bulk of the people, who were slaves and dwarfs, -bursting their shackles and rising in stature, suddenly appeared with -the dignity and pretentions of human beings: Yes; With the same -feelings; or perhaps stronger, because more natural; and claiming equal -rights with those nobles, who, like the giants of old, were only great -by the courtesy of the imagination. Who is so callous to the interest of -humanity as to say it was not a noble regeneration? Who is so benumbed -by selfish fears, as not to feel a glow of warmth, at seeing the -inhabitants of a vast empire exalted from the lowest state of beastly -degradation to a summit, where, contemplating the dawn of freedom, they -may breathe the invigorating air of independence; which will give them a -new constitution of mind? Who is so much under the influence of -prejudice, as to insist, that frenchmen are a distinct race, formed by -nature, or by habit, to be slaves; and incapable of ever attaining those -noble sentiments, which characterize a free people? When the dawn of -them appeared conspicuously at the elections for the states-general, -which were the preparatory struggles to make a change of opinion produce -an essential alteration in government. - -Six millions of men were now in motion to choose the deputies, and -prepare their instructions; and in these assemblies the commons -commenced their political career; discussing, on new ground, subjects -that quickly became the only interesting topics throughout the kingdom. - -In some few places, the three orders meeting together seemed to decide -the important question respecting the equality of the representatives -but, in general, the first two chambered themselves to guard tenaciously -their trembling prerogatives; and the third, with a cautious jealousy, -to demand the redress of grievances, which they could scarcely expect -the others to denominate by so harsh a name. - -Great decorum reigned in the chamber of the nobility, though split into -various ranks; the lower of which had ill brooked, for a long time, the -overbearing insolence of those princes and peers, who haughtily -contested every step of honour. Still all agreed, to resign their -pecuniary privileges, and joined in vague terms, with the public voice, -to demand a constitution. - -The same divisions produced more visible effects amongst the clergy: for -considerable tumults were the consequence of the struggle of the -parish-priests, the commons of this order, to have their due weight in -the scale; and their success seemed a sure prognostic of the turn things -were going to take in the nation. In fact, every diocess was become the -centre of a petty despotism, more galling than the great, because at -each man’s elbow; and the parish-priests, who were not in the high road -to preferment, most oppressed, led the van in the new contest for -equality; whilst disrespect for the mitre paved the way to a contempt -for the crown. - -Indivisible as had hitherto been the clerical body, the indecent pride -of the dignitaries of the church, at this juncture, produced the schism, -which induced the majority of the clergy to side with the people; whilst -only a small minority of the nobility deserted the common cause of the -party. The parish-priests, in fact, appeared, from the time of their -election, a corps in reserve for the third-estate; where they sought for -the consequence they were denied in their own chamber, finding -themselves more nearly allied by interest, as well as inclination, to -this order than to the rich pastors, who, separating the sheep from the -goats, bade them stand aloof, as possessing less riches—the holiness of -that body, as of all others. The electing of so many of the inferiour -clergy, in spite of the menaces and intrigues of their numerous -superiours, was a striking proof, that the power of the church was in -the wane; and that the people were beginning to feel their own strength. -The disturbances at this time seemed the rumbling of the approaching -tempest; and orators, formed in these provincial assemblies, to figure -afterwards in national, were encouraged by applause to persevere. - -Having the same mark in view, an uniformity of sentiment breathed -throughout the instructions of the third-estate; principally levelled at -the privileges of the two other orders: for on these abuses the most -popular publications had hinged, rivetting conviction in the minds of -the suffering people. A celebrated pamphlet, written by the abbé Sieyes, -went through sixty editions; and the duke of Orleans, piqued at the -royal family, took great pains to spread abroad opinions, which were far -from being congenial with his own; thus, with purblind ambition, -labouring to overturn a court, the ruins of which have rebounded on his -own head. - -But the temper of the nation, sore with suffering, and warmed by these -discussions, so ran a-head of their judgment, as to lead the electors, -with hasty zeal, to instruct their representatives, to demand the -immediate suppression of a host of abuses, without guarding against the -consequences.—Such, unfortunately, is always the conduct pursued by -exasperated passions; for, during the rage to correct abuses, one is, -too frequently, only exchanged for another. So difficult is it to -impress the salutary lessons of experience on irritated minds!—And so -apt are men, in the moment of action, to fly from one extreme to the -other, without considering, that the strongest conviction of reason -cannot quickly change a habit of body; much less the manners that have -been gradually produced by certain modes of thinking and acting. - -With one voice, however, the whole nation called for a constitution, to -establish equal rights, as the foundation of freedom; and to guard -against the depredations of favourites, whether they attacked person or -property. So that the liberty of the press, and the abolition of -_lettres de cachet_, were, in general, the articles that followed the -positive injunction of confining the right of taxation to the -representative body of the nation. The institution of juries was -recommended, and the deputies were requested to take into consideration, -whether the number of capital punishments could not be lessened, or -totally abolished; remarks were made on the evil tendency of lotteries, -and on the vexatious impediments thrown in the way of trade, by barriers -and monopolies. In short, against the tyranny and injustice of the -court, the nobility, and the clergy, all remonstrated; unmasking one -species of oppression, and dilating on another; yet, among these -numerous animadversions, prayers and praises alone were addressed to the -king; and nothing like a glance at republicanism rendered their -sincerity doubtful. - -To divert the gathering storm from breaking over their heads, the cabal -determined to rest all their hopes on the aid of the foreign troops; -which they were collecting from different parts of the kingdom, not -caring to trust to the french soldiery, who were assuming the character -of citizens. Mean while, with the usual chicanery of courtiers, they -continued to amuse the deputies, till they could crush them at once; and -effectually blast the hopes of the people. The human heart is naturally -good, though so often the dupe of passion.—For though it’s feelings be -sophisticated, or stifled; though the head contrives the blackest -machinations; even in the silence of solitude, who will whisper to -himself that he is a villain? Will he not rather try, like Milton’s -devil, to find out a damned plea of necessity, to cover his -guilt?—paying homage, in spite of himself, to the eternal justice he -violates under the pretext of self-preservation. But, it is not alone -the virtues of man, those changing hues, of which the colour is -undecided, that proclaim his native dignity. No; his vices have the same -stamp of the divinity: and it is necessary to pervert the understanding, -before the heart can be led astray. Men, likewise, indolently adopt the -habits of thinking of their day, without weighing them. Thus these very -courtiers, who could coolly contemplate the massacre, which must be the -consequence of assembling the foreign troops, because it was a -continuance of the established course of things, have since started, -probably with real horrour, from the contemplation of the butcheries, -which their very tenacity produced. Such is the deceitfulness of the -human heart, and so necessary is it to render the head clear to make the -principles of action pure. - -The deputies, however, who were mostly collected from remote parts of -the country, had become in their villages the hale sons of independence. -And, though the french mania, of adoring their monarch, extended to -every part of the kingdom, it only gave hilarity to the cheering glass -at the homely tables of which they were masters; or activity to the -dance, that was a real burst of animal spirits. Very different from the -lascivious provocations to vice, exhibited at the opera, which, by -destroying the social affections that attach men to each other, stifle -all public spirit; for what is patriotism but the expansion of domestic -sympathy, rendered permanent by principle? Besides, the writings that -had awakened the spirit of these men had a little inebriated their -brain. Such is, for the most part, the baneful effect of eloquence, -that, persuading instead of convincing, the glory of the enthusiasm it -inspires is sullied by that false magnanimity, which vanity and -ignorance continually mistake for real elevation of soul; though, like -the scorching rays of the sun after rain, it dries into sterility the -heart, whose emotions are too quickly exhaled. - -The courtiers, despising their rusticity, and still considering the -people as ciphers, continued to discharge the usual routine of office, -by adjusting the ceremonials of reception; all which tended to insult -the third-estate, and show, that the deputies of the privileged orders -were to be still treated as if they were a distinct class of beings. The -insolence of such proceedings could not fail to provoke the honest -indignation, and pique the vanity of those, who had been discussing on a -broad scale the rights of man; whilst a little disconcerted by the -ceremony that constrained them, they were obliged, every moment, to -recollect, that they were the equals of these courtiers; and blushed -even to own to themselves, that they could for an instant have been awed -by such childish pomp. Nor were they more astonished at the pageantry of -Versailles, than disgusted with the haughtiness of a court, whose -magnificence was a proof how much they had impoverished the people, who -now demanded emancipation. Full, therefore, of the new notions of -independence, which made them spurn at every idea of a distinction of -men, they took advantage of the majority accorded them by the council, -and began to rally their forces. Perceiving also, as they acted -decidedly, that they possessed the confidence of the people, who, -forgetting _vive le roi_, exclaimed only vive le tiers-etat!—they every -day became more firm. - -The courtiers immediately fixed on a house of rendezvous, where they -were regularly to concert the best measures to crush the rising power of -the commons; and these, not without a portion of the mistrust, which -characterizes the nation, assembled in different places, till a mutual -interest united them in that chosen by the deputies from Brittany. The -disrespect, likewise, which the orders relative to their dress -announced, prepared them for the contempt they were destined to receive, -when separated like the indian casts, amongst whom a man fears to be -polluted by the touch of an inferiour: for true to the inveterate -prejudice in favour of precedents[8], the nobility were gaudily -caparisoned for the show, whilst the commons were stupidly commanded to -wear the black mantle, that distinguishes the lawyers. But, the tide of -opinion once turned, every thing contributes to accelerate it’s course. - -Before the meeting of the states-general, the question that was first to -agitate the various interests, whether they were to vote by orders or -poll, had been so thoroughly discussed, that it made, in many of the -instructions, one of the foremost articles. For it was evident to the -nation, were the different orders allowed to assemble in their separate -chambers, each invested with the old privilege of putting a negative on -the decisions of the other two, that they should be gulled with promises -of reform, whilst the coffers of the court were replenished with a show -of legality. It was, in fact, prudent in the court party to maintain -this ground, because it appeared to be the only way to render abortive -all the plans of reformation that struck at their authority. This then -was the prefatory business, by which they were to measure their -strength; and, would to God! the vigour manifested on this occasion had -always been displayed by the representatives of those misled people. - -We have seen the plots of this weak, headstrong cabinet every where -defeated, and traced their bloody footsteps; but we shall find them -still true to their scent, having recourse again to violence, when fraud -was of no avail. - -To furnish a pretext to introduce adroitly a considerable military -force, at the time of the assembling of the states-general, two or three -riots had been excited at Paris, in which many of the thoughtless -populace were killed. One in particular, though still involved in the -shades of mystery, occasioned great confusion and considerable -slaughter, just at the eve of their meeting. - -A respectable manufacturer in the suburbs of Paris, with the fairest -character, employed a number of poor, whom he paid liberally; yet -against this man some idle stories were industriously circulated, well -contrived to mislead and exasperate the people, because they touched -their vanity, and their most pressing want, the want of bread. The -scarcity, real or factitious, of this article, has always been taken -advantage of by those who wished to excite tumults in Paris; and at this -juncture the duped parisians rose, at the instigation of the court -agents, to destroy themselves. The riot was permitted to get a-head -before any serious attempts to quell it were taken, which rendered the -interference of a little army, the point aimed at, necessary; and -established an opinion, that the turbulent mob required to be awed by -the presence of troops, whilst the states-general deliberated. - -During this effervescence, or, at least, when it was subsiding, the -states-general was opened, the 5th of may, 1789, by a speech from the -throne, to which courtiers, in the usual phraseology, would naturally -tack the epithet—_gracious_. The king commenced with a heartless -declaration of his satisfaction at seeing himself surrounded by the -representatives of the people; and then enumerating the heavy debts of -the nation, a great part of which had been accumulated during his reign, -he added one of those idle falsehoods, which swelled his declamation -without throwing dust into any one’s eyes, _that it was in an honourable -cause_; when it was notorious, that the cause ought to have been -reckoned most dishonourable, if power had not hitherto been the true -philosopher’s stone, that transmuted the basest actions into sterling -honour. He afterwards alluded to the spirit of innovation, that had -taken possession of the minds of the people, and the general discontent -that agitated the nation: but, in the true cant of courts, dictating -whilst complimenting, he assured them, that he depended on their wisdom -and moderation; concluding with the words of course, _the humble servant -of kings_, a declaration of his attachment to the public welfare. - -The disregarded speech of the keeper of the seals was, like the reply -usually made to the king’s, in the house of commons in England, merely -an echo of his majesty’s, recommending moderation in the measures -adopted to reform the abuses of government, with the necessary quantum -of panegyric on the goodness of the king. - -Attention and applause, however, awaited Necker, though followed by -weariness and disgust. He spoke for three hours, introducing, with his -customary pomp of words, a number of trivial observations; trying thus -to escape, in a mist of rhetorical flourishes, from the subject he -feared to bring forward, because he was equally apprehensive of -offending the court, and desirous of maintaining his reputation with the -people. Not a word was uttered relative to the sole right of the -states-general to levy taxes, the first demand of the nation. And men -who for some time had been talking of nothing but liberty and reform, -were astonished, and dissatisfied, that he avoided all mention of a new -constitution. Leaning to the side of the privileged orders, he asserted, -that the mode of deliberating and voting in separate assemblies was the -pillar of the nation—yet, cautiously adding a salvo, to have a pretext -to use another language should it be necessary, he remarked, that -_sometimes_ it was better to poll. This ill-timed management naturally -displeased both parties, as is always the case, when men of weak, -compound characters, who have not the courage to act right, want -effrontery to brave the censure, that would follow an open avowal of -their undecided opinions; or rather, their determination to keep well -with the strongest. Dwelling on the arrangement of the finances, he -assured them, that a public bankruptcy might easily be avoided; and that -even the _deficit_, which had been exaggerated by France, and Europe, -was only fifty-six millions; and would appear of less consequence, when -they recollected, that, since _his_ administration, the revenue was -augmented twenty-five millions. It is true, that, on entering into -details, the greater part of this sum was found to be still in -perspective; and at the same time was to be raised by taxes, which all -good citizens hoped would soon disappear. In short, the french, after -applauding with rapture this brilliant bird’s-eye view, observed, with -the shrug of _sang froid_, ‘that these hypothetical resources were -merely faith and hope, on condition that they should be charitable.’ -With respect to the abolishing of privileges, that warred with humanity, -he made use of some of the same species of jesuitical arguments, which -are employed by the opposers of the abolition of the infamous traffic -for slaves; that, as these privileges were a kind of property, it was -necessary to find out a compensation, an indemnity, before they could be -done away—with justice. - -Thus has the spirit of justice—it is difficult to keep down indignation -when attacking such sophisms—been always outraged by the mock respect of -selfishness; for, without parrying off tergiversation, it is sufficient -to prove, that certain laws are not just, because no government had a -right to make them; and, though they may have received what is termed a -legal sanction during the times of ignorance, “the duty lies in the -breach and not in the observance.” Besides, these pitiful arguments are -an insult to the common sense, and to the distress of a people.—Where, -indeed, could the french, or english, find a fund to indemnify the -privileged orders or the planters? The abuses then, must continue to the -end of time—out of sheer respect to the sacredness of public faith! - -Thus spoke the king and Necker; but these addresses, instead of -conciliating, only rendered both parties more obstinate; so that the -smothering dispute respecting the manner of voting broke out -immediately, when they met to constitute themselves a legal assembly. -For the next day, even the deputies of the third-estate repaired to the -common hall, and agreed, that the three orders should proceed to verify -their powers together; clearly perceiving, that, were the orders once -allowed to do business separately, an union would be impracticable, and -all their efforts to obtain a constitution null, should they attempt to -make equality of rights the basis. The nobility and clergy not joining -the commons, they resolved to renew their meeting the following morning; -only as an aggregate of individuals, who had no power to act, not having -yet a political character. This very contest seemed to call upon them to -support their claim to equality, because it emphatically warned them, -that all their operations would be rendered perfectly nugatory, should -they permit the orders to be a check on each other. The most sensible -men of the commons being of opinion, that all expectations of a -permanent reform were chimerical, unless the whole representation was -formed into an indivisible assembly, encouraged the more undecided to -persevere; though the nobles signified to them, the 13th, that they had -ascertained the legality of their election. - -The clergy, however, divided in their interest, proceeded with more -caution; and the most discerning of them, perceiving that their order -was becoming obnoxious to the people, who now deified the third-estate, -proposed a committee of conciliation, with a view, as they pretended, to -promote a good understanding between all parties. The king also, in his -turn, when the nobles rejected the mediation of the clergy, offered a -plan of accommodation; a mighty nothing, that the court brought -forth.—But this tub, thrown out to the whale, did not divert the -attention of either party from the main object; though the nobles, many -of whom were in the secret of the approach of the army, should things be -carried to extremes, pretended to acquiesce; yet guarding carefully at -the same time all their ancient pretentions: and this insincerity drew -on them the universal odium they merited, mixed with the contempt which -ineffectual struggles always produce. Conciliatory measures, in fact, -were only a solemn farce at this time; though the clergy, rather -insidiously, to ingratiate themselves with the people, lamenting the -high price of bread, requested, that deputies from the three orders -should meet to deliberate how this grievance might be lessened. The -deputies of the commons, with becoming dignity, tempered with prudence, -adhered to their point; and dexterously parrying off the artful stroke -levelled at their popularity, they represented to the clergy, that this -was another powerful motive, to make them entreat all parties to rally -round the same point, to remedy evils, which excited equal sympathy in -their bosoms. - -The inactivity occasioned by these disputes could not fail to inflame -the public mind, especially as fresh publications were daily affording -it fuel. For the liberty of the press was now tacitly established, and -the freest sentiments uttered, with the heat of superficial knowledge, -in defiance of court manifestoes. Still, as a proof that the court -merely endured, for a season, what they could not prevent, the journal -of the proceedings of the states-general was stopped, by an express -order; to evade which it was continued in the form of letters from -Mirabeau to his constituents. - -This prohibition was probably dictated by a desire of keeping the -provinces quiet in the stupor of ignorance, in which they had so long -dozed; but it was injudicious to awaken attention by rigorous steps, -that, quickly abandoned, had the very contrary effect, exciting, instead -of intimidating, the spirit of opposition. In reality, the eyes of all -France were at present directed towards the commons. The hopes of the -nation rested on their magnanimity; and the future happiness of millions -depended upon their perseverance. It was in this state of things, that -they afforded a convincing proof to the whole world, and to posterity, -that vigour and precision alone are requisite in the representatives of -a people, to give dignity to their proceedings, and to secure them -against the machinations of all the combined powers of despotism. - -Almost five weeks having elapsed, and the patience of the nation being -quite exhausted by the delay, the commons resolved to present an address -to the king, written by Mirabeau, explanatory of their motives, and then -to proceed to business. But, previously, they sent a deputation to the -other orders, for the last time, to invite them once more to repair to -the common hall, that their powers might be verified together; adding, -that in default of their appearance, they should constitute themselves, -and act accordingly. This determination was a deadly blow to the power -of the two other chambers, and struck directly at the root of all -distinction. - -The nobles, whose inveterate pride and ignorance had prevented them from -joining the third-estate at the first assembling of the deputies, now -saw with dismay, that their power and influence, like the musty rolls of -their pedigree, were mouldering into common dust. The clergy, however, -more adroit, or rather a few of the parochial priests, by degrees, -attended the summons, and repaired to the hall. There can be little -doubt, but that the commons, at the first meeting, and for a long time -after, would gladly have coalesced with the nobles; by which means the -latter would have retained many of their privileges, and preserved a -weight in the nation, necessary to hinder that preponderance, on the -side of the people, which it was easy to foresee would be productive of -many excesses. This conclusion continual experience warranted; because -it generally happens, that men, who are not directed by practical -knowledge, in whatever business they engage, run precipitately from one -extreme to the other. And certainly, from the state of servility in -which the french nation was sunk, retaliation was to be expected; or, at -least, dreaded, from unbridled liberty. Like boys dismissed from school, -they might wish to ascertain their freedom by acts of mischief; and by -showing a total disregard of the arbitrary commands, that kept down -their spirits without exercising their understandings. However, the -stupid arrogance of the nobles stript them, before the time reason would -have determined, of those idle distinctions of opinion, the symbols of -barbarism, which were not completely worn out of esteem. - -The minister, still afraid to act independent of the court, blamed this -spirited conduct of the commons, as an act of temerity, which the king -ought not to sanction. Yet they, firm and resolute, though fearing that -the court, like a dying savage, mortally wounded by his enemy, might, -during the agonies of death, aim a desperate stroke at them, took the -most prudent precautions, to avoid exasperating the falling foe. But -these mild resolutions having been mistaken by the infatuated nobles, -who confounded the true fortitude of moderation with cowardice, the die -was cast, and the deputies declared themselves a _NATIONAL ASSEMBLY_. - -Enthusiasm fired every heart, and extended itself like thought from one -end of the kingdom to the other. The very novelty of this measure was -sufficient to animate a people less volatile than the french; and, -perhaps, it is impossible to form a just conception of the transports -which this decision excited in every corner of the empire. Europe also -heard with astonishment what resounding through France excited the most -lively emotions; and posterity must read with wonder the recital of the -follies and atrocities committed by the court and nobles at that -important crisis. - -The Social Contract of Rousseau, and his admirable work on the origin of -the inequalities amongst mankind, had been in the hands of all France, -and admired by many, who could not enter into the depth of the -reasoning. In short, they were learned by heart, by those whose heads -could not comprehend the chain of argument, though they were -sufficiently clear to seize the prominent ideas, and act up to their -conviction. Perhaps, the great advantage of eloquence is, that, -impressing the results of thinking on minds alive only to emotion, it -gives wings to the slow foot of reason, and fire to the cold labours of -investigation. Yet it is observable, that, in proportion as the -understanding is cultivated, the mind grows attached to the exercise of -investigation, and the combination of abstract ideas. The nobles of -France had also read these writings for amusement; but they left not on -their minds traces of conviction sufficiently strong to overcome those -prejudices self-interest rendered so dear, that they easily persuaded -themselves of their reasonableness. The nobility and clergy, with all -their dependents under the influence of the same sentiments, formed a -considerable proportion of the nation, on the rest of which they looked -down with contempt, considering them as merely the grass of the land, -necessary to clothe nature; yet only fit to be trodden under foot. But -these despised people were beginning to feel their real consequence, and -repeated with emphasis the happy comparison of the abbé Seiyes, ‘that -the nobility are like vegetable tumours, which cannot exist without the -sap of the plants they exhaust.’ Nevertheless, in treating with the -nobles, the angles of pride, which time alone could have smoothed -silently away, were, perhaps, too rudely knocked off, for the folly of -distinctions was rapidly wearing itself out, and would probably have -melted gradually before the rational opinions, that were continually -gaining ground, fructifying the soil as they dissolved; instead of which -it was drifted by a hurricane, to spread destruction around as it fell. - -Many of the officers, who had served in America during the late war, had -beheld the inhabitants of a whole empire living in a state of perfect -equality; and returned, charmed with their simplicity and integrity, the -concomitants of a just government, erected on the solid foundation of -equal liberty, to scan the rectitude, or policy of a different system. -Convinced of their inutility as nobles, these, when fired with the love -of freedom, seconded the views of the commons with heart and voice. But -the sycophants of the court, and the greater part of the nobility, who -were grossly ignorant of every thing that was not comprised in the art -of living in a continual round of pleasure, insensible of the precipice -on which they were standing, would not, at first, recede a single step -to save themselves; and this obstinacy was the chief cause that led to -the entire new organization of the constitution, framed by the national -assembly. The french in reality were arrived, through the vices of their -government, at that degree of false refinement, which makes every man, -in his own eyes, the centre of the world; and when this gross -selfishness, this complete depravity, prevails in a nation, an absolute -change must take place; because the members of it have lost the cement -of humanity, which kept them together. All other vices are, properly -speaking, superfluous strength, powers running to waste; but this morbid -spot shows, that there is death in the heart. Whatever, indeed, may be -the wisdom or folly of a mixed government of king, lords, and commons, -is of no consequence in the present history; because it appears -sufficiently obvious, that the aristocracy of France destroyed itself, -through the ignorant arrogance of it’s members; who, bewildered in a -thick fog of prejudices, could discern neither the true dignity of man, -nor the spirit of the times. - -It also deserves to be noted, that the regeneration of the french -government, at this crisis, depended on the fortitude of the national -assembly at the outset of the contest for, if the court party had -prevailed, the commons would have rested in their usual state of -insignificancy, and their whole proceedings proved only a solemn farce. -They would have wrapped themselves up in their black mantles, like the -herd of undertaker’s men at a funeral, merely to follow with servile -steps the idle cavalcade to it’s resting place; and the people would -only have seen their ancient tyranny revive, tricked out in new -habiliments. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY PROCEED TO BUSINESS. OPPOSITION OF THE NOBLES, - BISHOPS, AND COURT. A SEANCE ROYALE PROCLAIMED, AND THE HALL OF THE - ASSEMBLY SURROUNDED BY SOLDIERS. THE MEMBERS ADJOURN TO THE TENNIS - COURT, AND VOW NEVER TO SEPARATE TILL A CONSTITUTION SHOULD BE - COMPLETED. THE MAJORITY OF THE CLERGY AND TWO OF THE NOBLES JOIN THE - COMMONS. SEANCE ROYALE. THE KING’S SPEECH. SPIRITED BEHAVIOUR OF THE - ASSEMBLY. SPEECH OF MIRABEAU. PERSONS OF THE DEPUTIES DECLARED - INVIOLABLE. MINORITY OF THE NOBLES JOIN THE COMMONS. AT THE REQUEST OF - THE KING, THE MINORITY OF THE CLERGY DO THE SAME,—AND ARE AT LENGTH - FOLLOWED BY THE MAJORITY OF THE NOBLES—CHARACTER OF THE QUEEN OF - FRANCE,—OF THE KING,—AND OF THE NOBLES. LECTURES ON LIBERTY AT THE -PALAIS ROYAL. PARIS SURROUNDED BY TROOPS. SPIRIT OF LIBERTY INFUSED INTO -THE SOLDIERS. ELEVEN OF THE FRENCH GUARDS IMPRISONED BECAUSE THEY WOULD - NOT FIRE ON THE POPULACE, AND LIBERATED BY THE PEOPLE. REMONSTRANCE OF - THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. THE KING PROPOSES TO REMOVE THE ASSEMBLY TO - NOYON, OR SOISSONS. NECKER DISMISSED. CITY MILITIA PROPOSED. THE - POPULACE ATTACKED IN THE GARDEN OF THE THUILLERIES BY THE PRINCE OF - LAMBESC. NOCTURNAL ORGIES AT VERSAILLES. - - -The third-estate, having constituted themselves a national assembly, now -proceeded to business, with calm prudence, taking into consideration the -urgent necessities of the state. Closely also attending to their -instructions, they first pronounced, that all taxes not enacted by the -consent of the representatives of the people were illegal; and -afterwards gave a temporary sanction to the present levies, to avoid -dissolving one government before they had framed another. They then -turned their attention to the object next in importance, and declared, -that, as soon as, in concert with his majesty, they should be able to -fix the principles of national regeneration, they would employ -themselves to examine and liquidate the national debt; mean time the -creditors of the state were declared to be under the safe-guard of the -honour of the french nation. These decrees concluded with a resolve, -that the assembly, now become active, should dedicate it’s first moments -to inquire into the cause of the scarcity that afflicted the kingdom; -and to search for a remedy the most prompt and effectual. - -The nobles, bishops, and, in fact, the whole court, now seriously began -to rally all their forces; convinced that it was become necessary, to -oppose their united strength against the commons, to prevent their -carrying every thing before them. - -The chamber of the clergy had been engaged for several days, in -discussing the question, where they should verify their powers. A number -of them, during this discussion, appear to have advanced, feeling their -way; for when they now came to divide, the majority decided to join the -national assembly. - -Alarmed by the prospect of this junction, one of the members of the -chamber, which almost arrogated to itself the prerogative of -legislation, that of the nobles, proposed an address to the king, -beseeching him to dissolve the states-general; whilst the cause of the -people was there vigorously supported by a minority, feeble as to -numbers, but powerful in argument, animated by the popularity, which -their bold declaration could not fail to produce during the reign of -enthusiasm. - -This was a moment pregnant with great events. The court still trusted to -subterfuge, and, holding the representatives of the people in -superlative contempt, affected in some degree to yield to the prayer of -the nation; though signifying, that the king was the only fountain of -justice, and that he would grant every thing which his faithful subjects -could reasonably demand. A trick as palpable as the design was flagrant; -for at the instant they were pretending to see some reason in their -requisitions, they were guarding against their obtaining the only thing -that could secure their rights, an equal representation; holding for -this purpose mischievous councils, composed of characters most obnoxious -in the eyes of the people. In these meetings it was resolved, to amuse -the commons, until the army could be assembled; and then, in case of -obstinacy, they would draw on themselves the consequence. Accordingly -the 20th of june, the day on which the majority of the clergy was to -join the commons, the herald proclaimed a _séance royale_; and a -detachment of guards surrounded the hall of the national assembly, to -take care (such was the shallow pretext) that it should be properly -prepared for the reception of the king. The deputies came to the door at -the usual hour; but only the president (Baillie) and the secretaries -were permitted to enter to take away their papers; and they saw, that -the benches were already removed, and that all the entrances were -guarded by a great number of soldiers. - -Courage is seldom relaxed by persecution; and the firm and spirited -proceedings of the assembly on this day, gave the decided blow to the -stratagems of the court. During the first tumult of surprise, it is -true, some of the deputies talked of going immediately to Marly, to -invite the king to come among them, and in a truly paternal manner to -unite his power with their’s to promote the public good; and thus by an -energetic appeal to his heart and understanding, to convince him that -they spoke the language of truth and reason. But others, more -experienced in ministerial wiles, calmly advised to adjourn the sittings -to the neighbouring tennis-court. For they knew, that the hearts of -courtiers are fortified with icy prejudices; and that, though a moment -of sympathy, a flow of life-blood, may thaw them at the instant, it is -only to render them more hard, when the glow of genial heat is passed. - -Assembled at the tennis-court, they encouraged each other; and one mind -actuating the whole body, in the presence of an applauding crowd, they -joined hands solemnly, and took God to witness, that they would not -separate, till a constitution should be completed. The benedictions that -dropped from every tongue, and sparkled in tears of joy from every eye, -giving fresh vigour to the heroism which excited them, produced an -overflow of sensibility that kindled into a blaze of patriotism every -social feeling. The dungeons of despotism and the bayonets sharpened for -massacre, were then equally disregarded even by the most fearful; till, -in one of those instants of disinterested forgetfulness of private -pursuits, all devoted themselves to the promotion of public happiness, -promising to resist, to the last extremity, all the efforts of such an -inveterate tyranny. The absent deputies were sent for; and one, who -happened to be sick, had himself carried to unite his feeble voice with -the general cry. The very soldiers also, disobeying their officers, came -to be willing centinels at the entrance of the sanctuary of liberty, -eagerly imbibing the sentiments, which they afterwards spread through -their garrisons. - -This indignity offered to the third-estate could not fail to excite new -sensations of disgust at Paris; and give a fresh spring to the animation -of the people at large. Yet, this spirited behaviour of the commons -excited only supercilious contempt at court. For the gay circles there -were so far sunk in fastidious delicacy, and squeamish respect for -polished manners, that they could not even discover magnanimity in the -conduit of a peasant, or a shopkeeper; much less grandeur in an assembly -regardless of ceremonials. And not to be deficient themselves in these -respects, the _séance royale_ was put off another day, in order that the -galleries, which had been erected for the accommodation of spectators by -the national assembly, might be removed. - -This was another injudicious step on the part of the cabinet; because it -afforded time for the clergy to unite with the commons, who were in -search of a place sufficiently capacious to contain such a body. At -length, collected in a church, the clergy, with several bishops at their -head, and two nobles of Dauphine, joined them; and the place, seeming to -reflect a sanctity on their union, tended to consolidate, under a nobler -concave, the resolution taken in the tennis-court. - -The following day, the _séance royale_ really took place, with all the -exteriour splendour usually exhibited at these shows; which hitherto -could scarcely be termed empty, because they produced the desired -effect. But the public, having their attention turned to other things, -now viewed with contempt, what had formerly inspired almost idolatrous -respect. The deputies of the third-estate were again ordered to enter by -a separate door, and even left a considerable time standing exposed to a -heavy shower. The people, who were totally excluded, formed themselves -into groups, making indignant comments on the repeated affronts offered -to their representatives, whole minds likewise recoiled at the idle -attempt to impress them with an opinion of their insignificancy; when -the very pains taken to do it proclaimed their growing importance in the -state. - -The object of the king’s speech, on this occasion, was to annul the -whole proceedings of the national assembly, and to hold out certain -benefits, as lures to submission, which the king meant to grant to the -people; as if, observes Mirabeau, ‘the rights of the people, were the -favours of the king.’ A declaration of his sovereign will and pleasure -was then read, in which, making an insidious attempt to withdraw from -the assembly the confidence of the public, he declared, that, is they -abandoned him, he would provide for the happiness of his people, without -their assistance, knowing the purport of the instructions given to the -deputies. The first article of the king’s benevolent _intentions_, was -to grant to the states-general the power of furnishing supplies; -carefully specifying, however, that it was to consist of the three -orders, who were to vote according to the ancient mode. Some other -salutary plans of reform were also brought forward; but always with -artful modifications, that would enable the old abuses to keep a sure -footing. For example, the taxes were to be levied equally; yet a -cautious respect for property sanctioned almost every other feudal -privilege; and the absolute abolition of _lettres de cachet_,[9] though -his majesty wished to secure personal freedom, was hinted at as -incompatible with public safety, and the preservation of the honour of -private families. The liberty of the press was allowed to be necessary; -but the states-general were requested to point out a mode of rendering -it compatible with the respect due to religion, to morality, and to the -honour of the citizens. The tenour of all the rest of the articles was -the same; commencing with a plan of reform, and concluding with the -_ifs_ and _buts_, that were to render it void.—Then, winding round to -the grand object of the meeting, the king terminated his discourse, with -saying, forgetful that this was not the period to imagine himself -reigning at Constantinople, ‘I _command_ you to separate immediately, -and to attend, each of you, to-morrow, at the chamber appropriated for -your order, there to resume your sittings; and I have commanded, in -consequence, the grand master of the ceremonies to order the halls to be -prepared.’ - -The majority of the nobles, and the minority of the clergy, obeyed this -peremptory order, and obsequiously followed the king, like the trained -horses of his court. The members of the national assembly, however, -remained sitting, preserving a silence, more menacing and terrible, than -the _I will_, or _I command_, of the cabinet; when the grand master of -the ceremonies entered, and addressing himself to the president, -reminded him, in the king’s name, of the order given to separate -immediately. The president answered, ‘that the assembly was not -constituted to receive orders from any person;’ but Mirabeau, who -thought this reply too tame, started up, and addressing the messenger, -said: ‘yes; we have heard the intentions which the king has been induced -to utter; and you cannot be his organ in this assembly.—You, who have -neither seat, nor right to speak, ought not to remind us of his -discourse. However, to avoid all equivocation or delay, I declare to -you, that if you are charged to make us go from hence, you should demand -orders to employ force; for only the bayonet can oblige us to quit our -places.’ It is difficult to conceive the ardour inspired by this prompt -eloquence. It’s fire flew from breast to breast, whilst a whisper ran -round, that what Mirabeau had just uttered, gave a finishing stroke to -the revolution. - -A warm debate ensued; and the assembly declaring their adherence to -their former decrees, the abbé Sieyes said, in his dry, cogent manner: -‘gentlemen, you are to day what you were yesterday.’ A motion was then -made, by Mirabeau, who suggested, as a prudent precaution against the -measures of a desperate cabal, that the person of each deputy should be -pronounced inviolable; and, after a slight discussion, it was carried -unanimously. - -From this moment we may consider the nation and court at open war. The -court had at their command the whole military force of the empire, -amounting, at least, to 200,000 men. The people, on the contrary, had -only their bare arms, invigorated, it is true, by the new-born love of -freedom, to oppose to the various weapons of tyranny. But the army, -partaking of the common misery, were not deaf to the complaints or -arguments of their fellow citizens: and they were particularly led to -consider them with complacency, because a just apprehension, or prudent -foresight, had induced many of the popular assemblies, to insert a -clause in their instructions, recommending, that the pay of the soldiers -should be augmented. Thus recognized as fellow citizens, this class of -men, whom it had been the policy of the despots of Europe to keep at a -distance from the other inhabitants, making them a distinct class, to -oppress and corrupt the rest, began to feel an interest in the common -cause. But the court, who either could not, or would not, combine these -important facts, rashly precipitated themselves into the very quicksand, -into which they were vainly endeavouring to drive the commons. - -As Necker had not attended in his place, at the _séance royale_, it gave -colour to the rumour, which had for some time prevailed, that he -purposed to retire from the ministry: so that, when the king returned, -he was followed by an immense crowd, who could not conceal their -discontent. Under the influence also of the same fear, a number of the -deputies hastened to Necker, to entreat him not to resign. And the -consternation increasing, the queen, who has ever been the first to -desert her own plans, when there appeared a shadow of personal danger, -sent for him; and, the better to cover the project of the cabinet, -prevailed on him not to quit his post. The object of the cabinet he -either had not the penetration to discover; or he had not sufficient -magnanimity to resign a place, that gratified equally his pride and his -avarice. This measure tended to tranquillize the minds of the people, -though it was undermining their cause; for trusting to the integrity of -this minister, who promised, ‘to live or die with them,’ they did not -perceive, that he wanted the energy of soul necessary to enable him to -act up to the principles he professed. However, the cause of liberty, as -circumstances have proved, did not depend on the talents of one or two -men.—It was the fiat of the nation; and the machinations of the tyrants -of Europe have not yet been able to overturn it; though false patriots -have led them, in their ardour for reform, to the commission of actions -the most cruel and unjust. Every thing was effected by natural causes; -and we shall find, is we take a cursory view of the progress of -knowledge, that it’s advance towards simple principles is invariably in -a ratio, which must speedily change the tangled system of european -politics. - -The _séance royale_ produced so little effect, that the assembly, as if -their sittings had never been interrupted, met the next day at the old -hall; and the day after, the minority of the nobles, which consisted of -forty-seven members, came to incorporate themselves with the commons. -All of these, and particularly the duke of Orleans, who led them, -acquired by this popular conduct, the love and confidence of the nation. -How far they merited it, deceiving the public, or themselves, their -future conduct will best explain. - -The interesting events, in fact, which almost daily occurred, at the -commencement of the revolution, fired the fancies of men of different -descriptions; till, forgetting every selfish consideration, the rich and -poor saw through the same focus. But, when the former had time to cool, -and felt more forcibly than the latter the inconveniences of anarchy, -they returned with fresh vigour to their old ground; embracing, with -redoubled ardour, the prejudices which passion, not conviction, had -chased from the field, during the heat of action. This was a strong -reinforcement for the staunch aristocrats; because these were mostly -good, but short-sighted people, who really wished, that justice might be -established, as the foundation of the new government, though they -flinched when their present ease was disturbed; and it was necessary to -give more than good wishes. - -This minority of nobles must certainly be allowed to have acted more -prudently than their peers; and several of them, the most respectable -men of that class, both in talents and morals, were probably actuated by -half comprehended principles. The great body of the nobles, -nevertheless, and the minority of the clergy, continued to meet in -different chambers, where their idle deliberations marked their decayed -influence. For, shrinking into nothing, their present struggles to -regain their power were as fruitless, as their former efforts had been -presumptuous. Yet the jealousies and contumely of the nobility continued -to agitate the commons; who, animated by a consciousness of the justice -of their cause, and feeling, that they possessed the confidence of the -public, determined to proceed with the objects of their meeting, without -the concurrence of the first order; proving to them, when it was too -late to preserve their factitious distinctions, that their power and -authority were at an end. In vain were they told, that they were acting -contrary to their true interest, and risking the salvation of their -privileges. In vain did one of the most moderate of the deputies[10] -remonstrate with them, on what, most probably, would be the consequence -of their obstinacy. No argument could move them; and, blind to the -danger with which they were threatened, they persisted to attend their -councils, without any determinate rule of action. It is true, the duke -of Luxembourg declared, in a private committee held by the king, the -26th of june, that ‘the division of the orders would controul the -exorbitant claims of the people, and preserve those of the monarch; -united,’ added he, ‘they know no master, divided, they are your -subjects:’ and he concluded, with emphatically saying, that ‘it would -save the independence of the crown, and stamp with nullity the -proceedings of the national assembly.’ These were manly, though not -patriotic sentiments; and if the court had rallied round them, and -defended them to the last extremity, they would at any rate have -prevented their disgrace, by avoiding the crooked path of treachery. But -abandoning all dignity of conduct, they trusted to the art of -manœuvring, which defeated by the people, they were left entirely at -their mercy. - -With respect to the improvement of society, since the destruction of the -roman empire, England seems to have led the way, rendering certain -obstinate prejudices almost null, by a gradual change of opinion. This -observation, which facts will support, may be brought forward, to prove, -that just sentiments gain footing only in proportion as the -understanding is enlarged by cultivation, and freedom of thought, -instead of being cramped by the dread of bastilles and inquisitions. In -Italy and France, for example, where the mind dared to exercise itself -only to form the taste, the nobility were, in the strictest sense of the -word, a cast, keeping aloof from the people; whilst in England they -intermingled with the commercial men, whose equal or superiour fortunes -made the nobles overlook their inequality of birth: thus giving the -first blow to the ignorant pride that retarded the formation of just -opinions respecting true dignity of character. This monied interest, -from which political improvement first emanates, was not yet formed in -France; and the ridiculous pride of her nobles, which led them to -believe, that the purity of their families would be sullied, if they -agreed to act in the same sphere with the people, was a prevailing -motive, that prevented their junction with the commons. But the more -licentious part of the clergy, who followed with a truer scent their own -interest, thought it expedient to espouse, in time, the cause of the -power, from whence their influence derived its greatest force; and from -which alone they could hope for support. This schism proved, as it -promised, dangerous to the views of the court. - -The desertion of the clergy rendered the mobility outrageous, and -hastened the crisis when the important contest was to be brought to an -issue.—Then it was that the king perceived how contemptible his -undecided conduct had been, and exclaiming, it is said confidently, -‘that he remained _ALONE_ in the midst of the nation, occupied with the -establishment of concord.’ Vain words! and this affectation was -particularly reprehensible, because he had already given orders for the -assembling of the foreign troops: the object of which was to establish -concord with the point of the bayonet. - -This total want of character caused him to be flattered by all parties, -and trusted by none. Insignificancy had distinguished his manners in his -own court. Actions without energy, and professions without sincerity, -exhibiting a conduct destitute of steadiness, made the cabinet concert -all their measures regardless of his opinion, leaving to the queen the -task of persuading him to adopt them. The evil did not rest even here; -for the different parties following separate views, the flexibility of -his temper led him to sanction things the most at variance, and most -dangerous to his future honour and safety. For it appears obvious, that -whatever party had prevailed, he could only be considered as an -instrument; which, becoming useless when the object should be achieved, -would be treated with disrespect. Periods of revolution drawing into -action the worst as well as the best of men; and as audacity, in -general, triumphs over modest merit, when the political horizon is -ruffled by tempest; it amounted to a moral certainty, that the line of -conduct pursued by the king would lead to his disgrace and ruin. - -Seeing, however, that the people were unanimous in their approbation of -the conduct of their representatives, and watchful to discover the -designs of their enemies; it could not but occur to the cabinet, that -the only way to lull attention to sleep, was to affect to submit to -necessity. Besides, fearing, if they continued to resort to their -different chambers, that their plot would take wind before all the -agents were assembled, a fresh instance of dissimulation evinced, that -their depravity equalled their stupidity. For the king was now prevailed -on to write to the presidents of the nobility, and the minority of the -clergy, requesting them, to represent to those two orders the necessity -of uniting with the third, to proceed to the discussion of his -proposals, made at the _séance royale_. - -The clergy immediately acquiesced; but the nobility continued to oppose -a junction so humiliating, till the court invented a pretext of honour -to save the credit of their mock dignity, by declaring, that the life of -the king would be in imminent danger, should the nobles continue to -resist the desire of the nation. Pretending to believe this report, for -the secret of the cabinet was buzzed amongst them, and appearing to wish -to bury all rivalry in royalty, they attended at the common hall, the -27th. Yet even there, the first step they took was to enter a protest, -in order to guard against this concession being made a precedent. - -A general joy succeeded the terrour which had been engendered in the -minds of the people by their contumelious perverseness; and the -parisians, cherishing the most sanguine expectations, reckoned, that an -unity of exertions would secure to them a redress of grievances. - -It is perhaps unnecessary to dwell, for a moment, on the insensibility -of the court, and the credulity of the people; as they seem the only -clues, that will lead us to a precise discrimination of the causes, -which completely annihilated all confidence in the ministers, who have -succeeded the directors of those infamous measures, that swept away the -whole party; measures which involved thousands of innocent people in the -same ruin, and have produced a clamour against the proceedings of the -nation, that has obscured the glory of her labours. It is painful to -follow, through all their windings, the crimes and follies produced by -want of sagacity, and just principles of action. For instance, the -_séance royale_ was held on the 23d, when the king, not deigning to -advise, commanded the deputies to repair to their different chambers; -and only four days after he implored the nobility and clergy to wave -every consideration, and accede to the wish of the people. Acting in -this contradictory manner, it is clear, that the cabal thought only of -rendering sure the decided blow, which was to level with the dust the -power, that extorted such humiliating concessions. - -But the people, easy of belief, and glad to be light-hearted again, no -sooner heard that an union of the orders had taken place, by the desire -of the king, than they hurried from all quarters, with good-humoured -confidence, called for the king and queen, and testified, in their -presence, the grateful joy this acquiescence had inspired. How different -was this frankness of the people, from the close hypocritical conduct of -the cabal! - -The courtly, dignified politeness of the queen, with all those -complacent graces which dance round flattered beauty, whose every charm -is drawn forth by the consciousness of pleasing, promised all that a -sanguine fancy had pourtrayed of future happiness and peace. From her -fascinating smiles, indeed, was caught the careless hope, that, -expanding the heart, makes the animal spirits vibrate, in every nerve, -with pleasure:—yet, she smiled but to deceive; or, if she felt some -touches of sympathy, it was only the unison of the moment. - -It is certain, that education, and the atmosphere of manners in which a -character is formed, change the natural laws of humanity; otherwise it -would be unaccountable, how the human heart can be so dead to the tender -emotions of benevolence, which most forcibly teach us, that real or -lasting felicity flows only from a love of virtue, and the practice of -sincerity. - -The unfortunate queen of France, beside the advantages of birth and -station, possessed a very fine person; and her lovely face, sparkling -with vivacity, hid the want of intelligence. Her complexion was -dazzlingly clear; and, when she was pleased, her manners were -bewitching; for she happily mingled the most insinuating voluptuous -softness and affability, with an air of grandeur, bordering on pride, -that rendered the contrast more striking. Independence also, of whatever -kind, always gives a degree of dignity to the mien; so that monarchs and -nobles, with most ignoble souls, from believing themselves superiour to -others, have actually acquired a look of superiority. - -But her opening faculties were poisoned in the bud; for before she came -to Paris, she had already been prepared, by a corrupt, supple abbé, for -the part she was to play; and, young as she was, became so firmly -attached to the aggrandizement of her house, that, though plunged deep -in pleasure, she never omitted sending immense sums to her brother, on -every occasion. The person of the king, in itself very disgusting, was -rendered more so by gluttony, and a total disregard of delicacy, and -even decency in his apartments: and, when jealous of the queen, for whom -he had a kind of devouring passion, he treated her with great brutality, -till she acquired sufficient finesse to subjugate him. Is it then -surprizing, that a very desirable woman, with a sanguine constitution, -should shrink abhorrent from his embraces; or that an empty mind should -be employed only to vary the pleasures, which emasculated her circean -court? And, added to this, the histories of the Julias and Messalinas of -antiquity, convincingly prove, that there is no end to the vagaries of -the imagination, when power is unlimited, and reputation set at -defiance. - -Lost then in the most luxurious pleasures, or managing court intrigues, -the queen became a profound dissembler; and her heart hardened by -sensual enjoyments to such a degree, that when her family and favourites -stood on the brink of ruin, her little portion of mind was employed only -to preserve herself from danger. As a proof of the justness of this -assertion, it is only necessary to observe, that, in the general wreck, -not a scrap of her writing has been found to criminate her; neither has -she suffered a word to escape her to exasperate the people, even when -burning with rage, and contempt. The effect that adversity may have on -her choked understanding time will show[11]; but during her prosperity, -the moments of languor, that glide into the interstices of enjoyment, -were passed in the most childish manner; without the appearance of any -vigour of mind, to palliate the wanderings of the imagination.—Still she -was a woman of uncommon address; and though her conversation was -insipid, her compliments were so artfully adapted to flatter the person -she wished to please or dupe, and so eloquent is the beauty of a queen, -in the eyes even of superiour men, that she seldom failed to carry her -point when she endeavoured to gain an ascendancy over the mind of an -individual. Over that of the king she acquired unbounded sway, when, -managing the disgust she had for his person, she made him pay a kingly -price for her favours. A court is the best school in the world for -actors; it was very natural then for her to become a complete actress, -and an adept in all the arts of coquetry that debauch the mind, whilst -they render the person alluring. - -Had the hapless Louis possessed any decision of character, to support -his glimmering sense of right, he would from this period have chosen a -line of conduct, that might have saved his life by regulating his future -politics. For this returning affection of the people alone was -sufficient to prove to him, that it was not easy to eradicate their love -for royalty; because, whilst they were contending for their rights with -the nobility, they were happy to receive them as acts of beneficence -from the king. But the education of the heir apparent of a crown must -necessarily destroy the common sagacity and feelings of a man; and the -education of this monarch, like that of Louis XV, only tended to make -him a sensual bigot. - -Priests have, in general, contrived to become the preceptors of kings; -the more surely to support the church, by leaning it against the throne. -Besides; kings, who without having their understandings enlarged, are -set above attending to the forms of morality, which sometimes produce -it’s spirit, are always particularly fond of those religious systems, -which, like a sponge, wipe out the crimes that haunt the terrified -imagination of unsound minds. - -It has been the policy of the court of France, to throw an odium on the -understanding of the king, when it was lavishing praises on the goodness -of his heart. Now it is certain, that he possessed a considerable -portion of sense, and discernment; though he wanted that firmness of -mind, which constitutes character; or, in more precise words, the power -of acting according to the dictates of a man’s own reason. He was a -tolerable scholar; had sufficient patience to learn the english -language; and was an ingenious mechanic. It is also well known, that in -the council, when he followed only the light of his own reason, he often -fixed on the most sage measures, which he was afterwards persuaded to -abandon. But death seems to be the sport of kings, and, like the roman -tyrant, whose solitary amusement was transfixing flies, this man, whose -milkiness of heart has been perpetually contrasted with the pretended -watriness of his head, was extremely fond of seeing those grimaces, made -by tortured animals, which rouse to pleasure sluggish, gross sensations. -The queen, however, prevailed on him not to attempt to amuse her, or -raise a forced laugh, in a polite circle, by throwing a cat down the -chimney, or shooting an harmless ass. Taught also to dissemble, from his -cradle, he daily practised the despicable shifts of duplicity; though -led by his indolence to take, rather than to give the tone to his -domineering parasites. - -The french nobility, perhaps, the most corrupt and ignorant set of men -in the world, except in those objects of taste, which consist in giving -variety to amusement, had never lived under the controul of any law, but -the authority of the king; and having only to dread the Bastille for a -little time, should they commit any enormity, could not patiently brook -the restraints, the better government of the whole society required. -Haughtily then disregarding the suggestions of humanity, and even -prudence, they determined to subvert every thing, sooner than resign -their privileges; and this tenacity will not appear astonishing, if we -call to mind, that they considered the people as beasts of burden, and -trod them under foot with the mud. This is not a figure of rhetoric; but -a melancholy truth! For it is notorious, that, in the narrow streets of -Paris, where there are no footways to secure the walkers from danger, -they were frequently killed, without slackening, by the least emotion of -fellow-feeling, the gallop of the thoughtless being, whose manhood was -buried in a factitious character. - -I shall not now recapitulate the feudal tyrannies, which the progress of -civilization has rendered nugatory; it is sufficient to observe, that, -as neither the life nor property of the citizens was secured by equal -laws, both were often wantonly sported with by those who could do it -with impunity. Arbitrary decrees have too often assumed the sacred -majesty of law; and when men live in continual fear, and know not what -they have to apprehend, they always become cunning and pusillanimous. -Thus the abject manners, produced by despotism of any species, seem to -justify them, in the eyes of those who only judge of things from their -present appearance. This leads, likewise, to an observation, that partly -accounts for the want of industry and cleanliness in France; for people -are very apt to sport away their time, when they cannot look forward, -with some degree of certainty, to the consolidation of a plan of future -ease. - -Every precaution was taken to divide the nation, and prevent any ties of -affection, such as ought always to unite man with man, in all the -relationships of life, from bringing the two ranks together with any -thing like equality to consolidate them. If, for instance, the son of a -nobleman happened so far to forget his rank, as to marry a woman of low -birth; what misery have not those unfortunate creatures -endured!—confined in prisons, or hunted out of the common nest, as -contagious intruders. And if we remember also, that, while treated with -contempt, only a twentieth part of the profit of his labour fell to the -share of the husbandman, we shall cease to inquire, why the nobles -opposed innovations, that must necessarily have overturned the fabric of -despotism. - -The inveterate pride of the nobles, the rapacity of the clergy, and the -prodigality of the court, were, in short, the secret springs of the -plot, now almost ripe, aimed at the embryo of freedom through the heart -of the national assembly. But Paris, that city which contains so many -different characters—that vortex, which draws every vice into it’s -centre—that repository of all the materials of voluptuous -degeneracy—that den of spies and assassins—contained likewise a number -of enlightened men, and was able to raise a very formidable force, to -defend it’s opinions. - -The cabinet saw it’s rising spirit with suspicion; and, resorting to -their old wiles, produced a scarcity of bread, hoping that, when the -people should be disheartened, the approaching army under Broglio would -bring the whole affair to a speedy issue. But circumstances seemed -favourable to the people; for the electors of Paris, after they had -chosen their deputies, the election having been protracted very late, -continued to meet at the _Hôtel-de-Ville_, to prepare the instructions, -which they had not time to digest before the assembling of the -states-general. - -At this juncture also, a spacious square, equally devoted to business -and pleasure, called the _Palais Royal_, became the rendezvous of the -citizens. There the most spirited gave lectures, whilst more modest men -read the popular papers and pamphlets, on the benefits of liberty, and -the crying oppressions of absolute governments. This was the centre of -information; and the whole city flocking thither, to talk or to listen, -returned home warmed with the love of freedom, and determined to oppose, -at the risk of life, the power that should still labour to enslave -them—and when life is put on the cast, do not men generally gain that -for which they strive with those, who, wanting their enthusiasm, set -more value on the stake? - -The turbulence of the metropolis, produced in great measure by the -continual arrival of foreign troops, furnished, nevertheless, a -plausible pretext for blockading it; and thirty-five thousand men, at -least, mostly consisting of hussars and mercenary troops, were drawn -from the frontiers, and collected round Versailles. Camps were traced -out for still more; and the posts, that commanded the roads leading to -Paris, were filled with soldiers. The courtiers, then unable to repress -their joy, vaunted, that the national assembly would soon be dissolved, -and the rebellious deputies silenced by imprisonment, or death. And -should even the french soldiers abandon them, among whom there were some -symptoms of revolt, the court depended on the foreign troops, to strike -terrour into the very heart of Paris and Versailles. The gathering army -was already a very formidable force; but the spirit of enthusiasm, and a -keen sense of injuries, rendered more sharp by insults, had such an -effect on the people, that, instead of being intimidated, they coolly -began to prepare for defence. - -All had heard, or were now informed, of the efforts made by the -americans to maintain their liberty.—All had heard of the glorious -firmness of a handful of raw bostonian militia, who, on Bunker’s-hill, -resisted the british disciplined troops, crimsoning the plains of -Charles-town with the blood of the flower of their enemy’s army. This -lesson for tyrants had resounded through the kingdom; and it ought to -have taught them, that men determined to be free are always superiour to -mercenary battalions even of veterans. - -The popular leaders had also taken the surest means to ingratiate -themselves with the soldiery, by mixing with them, and continually -insinuating, that citizens ought not to allow the base ministers of -power, to treat them like passive instruments of mischief. Besides, it -was natural to expect, that the military, the most idle body of men in -the kingdom, should attend to the topics of the day, and profit by the -discussions, that disseminated new political principles. And such an -influence had the arguments in favour of liberty on their minds, that, -so early as the 23d of june, during a slight riot, two companies of the -grenadiers refused to fire on the people, whom they were sent to -disperse. But these symptoms of refractoriness roused the resentment of -the court, instead of putting it on it’s guard: consequently several -were sent to prison, and the troops were confined to their barracks; -yet, regardless of these orders, they came in crowds to the _Palais -Royal_, a day or two after, eager to unite their voices with the general -shout, _vive la nation_, which spoke the present sentiments of the -people. The regiments of french, also, that now arrived, to be stationed -with the foreign troops round Paris, were conducted to this hot-bed of -patriotism; and, meeting with the most cordial reception, they listened -with interest to the lively representations of the enormities committed -by their old government, and of the meanness of those men, who could -live on the bread earned by butchering their fellow citizens. - -Whilst these opinions were taking root, the people heard, that eleven of -the french guards, confined in the abbey, because they would not obey -the order to fire on the populace, were to be transferred to the -_Bicetre_, the most ignominious of all the prisons. The contest now -commenced; for the people hastened to deliver them, and, forcing their -way, emancipated their friends; and even the hussars, who were called -out to quell the disturbance, laid down their arms. Yet, attentive to -justice, they sent back to confinement a soldier, who had been -previously committed by the police, for some other misdemeanour. - -Exasperated as they were, the people, not yet become lawless, guarded -the men they had rescued; whilst they sent a deputation to the national -assembly, to intercede with the king in their behalf. This spirited, yet -prudent, behaviour produced the desired effect; and the assembly named a -certain number of the deputies, who with scrupulous decorum were to -demand this grace of the king: and he accordingly granted their pardon, -laying a cautious stress on it’s being the first request made by the -assembly. But it was still questionable, whether this extorted act of -lenity were not done, like the other actions of the court, only to blind -the preparations that were making, to humble effectually the soldiery, -the metropolis, and the assembly. - -During this period of general suspicion, the presence of such a -considerable force, as now was encamped on every side of the capital, -particularly alarmed the electors, who held their deliberations very -constantly to watch over the public peace; and, in order to avert the -threatening storm, they proposed raising the city militia. Yet, before -they determined, they sent to apprise the national assembly of their -intention; wishing the king to be informed, that, if an armed force were -necessary to secure the public tranquillity, the citizens themselves -were the most proper persons to be entrusted with the commission. - -The unsettled state of Paris, now suffering from a scarcity of bread, -furnished, however, a plausible pretext for the augmentation of the -troops, which increased the calamity. ‘When it is with the greatest -difficulty,’ says one of the electors, ‘that we can procure provision -for the inhabitants, was it necessary to increase the famine and our -fears, by calling together a number of soldiers, who were dispersed -through all the provinces? These troops,’ he adds, ‘were destined to -guard the frontiers, whilst the representatives of the nation are -deliberating on the formation of a constitution. But this constitution, -desired by the king, and demanded by all the provinces of France, has to -cope with dangerous interiour enemies.’ - -The national assembly, likewise, could not but perceive, that more -soldiers were stationed near them, than would have been sufficient to -repel a foreign invasion; and Mirabeau, with his usual fervour, animated -them to action, by a lively picture of their situation. ‘Thirty-five -thousand men,’ he observed, ‘are now distributed between Paris and -Versailles; and twenty thousand more are expected. Trains of artillery -follow them; and places are already marked out for batteries. They have -made sure of all the communications.—All our entrances are intercepted; -our roads, our bridges, and our public walks, are changed into military -posts. The notorious events, the secret orders, and precipitate -counter-orders—in short, preparations for war, strike every eye, and -fill with indignation every heart. Gentlemen, if the question were only -the insulted dignity of the assembly, it would demand the attention of -the king himself; for should he not take care, that we be treated with -decency, since we are deputies of the nation from which his glory -emanates, which alone constitutes the splendour of the throne?—Yes; of -that nation, who will render the person of the king honourable in -proportion as he respects himself? Since his wish is to command free -men, it is time to banish the old odious forms, those insulting -proceedings, which too easily persuade the courtiers, who surround the -prince, that royal majesty consists in the abasing relation of master -and slave; that a legitimate and beloved king ought on all occasions to -show himself with the aspect of an irritated tyrant; or, of those -usurpers condemned by their melancholy fate, to mistake the tender and -flattering sentiments of confidence.—And who will dare to say, that -circumstances have rendered necessary these menacing measures? On the -contrary, I am going to demonstrate, that they are equally useless and -dangerous, considered either with respect to good order, the quieting of -the public, or the safety of the throne: and, far from appearing the -fruit of a sincere attachment to the person of the monarch, they can -only gratify private passions, and cover perfidious designs. Undoubtedly -I do not know every pretext, every artifice of the enemies of -reformation, since I cannot divine with what plausible reason they have -coloured the pretended want of troops, at a moment, when not only their -inutility, but their danger strikes every mind. - -‘With what eye will the people, harassed by so many calamities, see this -swarm of idle soldiers come to dispute with them their morsel of bread? -The contrast of the plenty enjoyed by one, with the indigence of the -other; of the security of the soldiers, to whom the manna falls, without -it’s being necessary for them to think of to-morrow, with the anguish of -the people, who obtain nothing but by hard labour and painful sweat; is -sufficient to make every heart sink with despondency. Added to this, -gentlemen, the presence of the troops heats the imagination of the -populace; and, by continually presenting new fears, excites an universal -effervescence, till the citizens are at their very fire-sides a prey to -every kind of terrour. The people, roused and agitated, form tumultuous -assemblies; and, giving way to their impetuosity, precipitate themselves -into danger—for fear neither calculates nor reasons!’ He concluded with -moving an address to the king, representing, that the people were -extremely alarmed by the assembling of such a number of troops, and the -preparations made to form camps during this season of scarcity; and to -remonstrate respecting the conduct of those, who sought to destroy the -confidence that ought to subsist between the king and the -representatives of the people—a confidence, which alone can enable them -to fulfil their functions, and establish the reform expected from their -zeal by a suffering nation. - -This speech produced the desired effect; and the motion being carried, -Mirabeau was requested to prepare an address for their consideration. - -The purport of the address was an abridgement of the above speech; -respectful; nay, even affectionate; but spirited and noble. - -Yet this remonstrance, so well calculated to preserve the dignity of the -monarch, and appease the agitation of the public, produced no other -effect than a supercilious answer, that only tended to increase the want -of confidence, to which disgust gave a new edge. For, instead of -attending to the prayer of the nation, the king asserted, that the -tumultuous and scandalous scenes, which had passed at Paris, and at -Versailles, under his own eyes, and those of the national assembly, were -sufficient to induce him, one of whose principal duties it was to watch -over the public safety, to station troops round Paris.—Still, he -declared, that, far from intending to interrupt their freedom of debate, -he only wished to preserve them even from all apprehension of tumult and -violence. If, however, the necessary presence of the troops continue to -give umbrage, he was willing, at the request of the assembly, to -transfer the states-general to Noyon or Soissons; and to repair himself -to Compiégne, in order to maintain the requisite intercourse with the -assembly. This answer signified nothing; or, rather, it formally -announced, that the king would not send away the troops. Obvious as was -the meaning, and contemptible as was the dissimulation; yet, as it came -from the sovereign, the fountain of fortune and honours, some of the -supple hands of the deputies applauded.—But, Mirabeau was not to be -cajoled by such shallow fallacy. ‘Gentlemen,’ said he, impatiently, ‘the -goodness of the king’s heart is so well known, that we might tranquilly -confide in his virtue, did he always act from himself.—But, the -assurances of the king are no guarantee for the conduct of his -ministers, who have not ceased to mislead his good disposition.—And have -we yet to learn, that the habitual confidence of the french in their -king is less a virtue than a vice, if it extend to all parts of the -administration? - -‘Who amongst us is ignorant, in fact, that it is our blind, giddy -inconsideration, which has led us from century to century, from fault to -fault, to the crisis that now afflicts us, and which ought at last to -open our eyes, if we have not resolved to be headstrong children and -slaves, till the end of time? - -‘The reply of the king is a pointed refusal. The ministry would have it -regarded only as a simple form of assurance and goodness; and they have -affected to think, that we have made our demand, without attaching much -interest to it’s success, and only to appear to have made it. It is -necessary to undeceive the ministry—Certainly, my opinion is, not to -fail in the confidence and respect which we owe to the virtues of the -king; but I likewise advise, that we be no more inconsistent, timid, and -wavering in our measures.—Certainly, there is no need to deliberate on -the removal proposed; for, in short, notwithstanding the king’s answer, -we will not go to Noyon, nor to Soissons—We have not demanded this -permission; nor will we, because it is scarcely probable, that we should -ever desire to place ourselves between two or three bodies of troops; -those which invest Paris, and those which might fall upon us from -Flanders and Alsace. We have demanded the removal of the troops—that was -the object of our address!—We have not asked permission to flee before -them; but only that they should be sent from the capital. And it is not -for ourselves, that we have made this demand; for they know very well, -that it was suggested by a concern for the general interest, not by any -sentiment of fear. At this moment, the presence of the troops disturbs -the public order, and may produce the most melancholy events.—Our -removal, far from preventing, would, on the contrary, only aggravate the -evil. It is necessary, then, to restore peace, in spite of the friends -of disorder; it is necessary, to be consistent with ourselves; and to be -so, we have only to adhere to one line of conduct, which is to insist, -without relaxing, that the troops be sent away, as the only sure way to -obtain it.’ - -This speech, delivered on the 11th of july, produced no further decision -in the assembly, though it kept the attention of the members fixt to a -point. - -But things were now drawing rapidly to a crisis; for this very day -Necker, who had been retained in place, only to hoodwink the people, was -dismissed, with an injunction not to mention his dismission; and to -leave the kingdom in twenty-four hours. These orders he servilely -obeyed; and, with all the promptitude of personal fear, said, without -the least emotion, to the nobleman, who brought the king’s commands, ‘we -shall meet this evening at the council;’ and continued to converse, in -his usual strain of smoothness, with the company at dinner. Miserable -weakness! This man, who professed himself the friend of the people, and -who had so lately promised ‘to live or die with them,’ had not, when, -brought to the test, sufficient magnanimity to warn them where danger -threatened.—For he must have known, that this dismission was the signal -of hostilities: yet, fleeing like a felon, he departed in disguise, -keeping the secret with all the caution of cowardice.[12] - -The next day, the appointment of the new ministry, men particularly -obnoxious to the public, made it known to the people; who viewed with -melancholy horrour the awful horizon, where had long been gathering the -storm, now ready to burst on their devoted heads. The agitation of the -public mind, indeed, resembled a troubled sea; which, having been put in -motion by a raging tornado, gradually swells, until the whole element, -wave rolling on wave, exhibits one unbounded commotion. All eyes were -now opened, all saw the approaching blast; the hollow murmurs of which -had inspired a confused terrour for some time past. - -It had been proposed on the 10th, at the _Hôtel-de-Ville_, as a -regulation of the _Garde-Bourgeoise_, that twelve hundred men should be -raised at a time, to be relieved every week; and the capital having been -divided, at the election, into sixty districts, only twenty would be -called out of each. And it was further resolved, that the districts -should rest embodied until the entire evacuation of the troops, -excepting those who formed the common compliment of the guards. The -following day it was decreed; an address was voted to the national -assembly, to request their mediation with the king, to sanction -immediately the city militia; and the sittings of the committee were -adjourned till monday, the 13th. But some of the electors, having heard -on sunday, that the populace were all repairing to the _Hôtel-de-Ville_, -hastened there about six o’clock in the evening, and found the hall -indeed crowded with people of all conditions. A thousand confused voices -demanded arms, and orders to found the _tocsin_. - -At eight o’clock, the patrol guard was relieved, at the -_Hôtel-de-Ville_, and the multitude pressed on the soldiers to disarm -them; redoubling the cry for arms at the moment; and even threatened to -set fire to the hall. But, still observing some respect for -subordination, they demanded, a little imperiously, it is true, an -order, in virtue of which, the citizens might arm themselves to repulse -the danger that menaced the capital—and amidst these clamours, several -precipitate reports painted, in the most lively colours, this danger. - -One of the crowd said, that, no sooner had the news of the dismission of -Necker reached Paris, than the people hastened to a sculptor’s, and, -seizing the bulls of that minister, and of the duke of Orleans, they -were now actually carrying them through the streets:—Another informed -them, that the multitude had rushed into the different theatres, at the -hour of opening them, and required, that they should be instantly -shut;[13] and that in consequence all the spectators had been sent -away:—A third announced four cannons, placed at the entrance of the -_Champs Elysées_, with their cannoneers ready to light their matches, -which were to begin the combat; and that these four cannons were -supported by a regiment of cavalry, which, advancing under the command -of the prince de Lambesc to the place of Louis 15th, was stationed by -the bridge that leads to the Thuilleries. He added also, that a -_cavalier_ of this regiment, passing by a soldier of the french guards, -had fired his pistol at him; and, that the prince de Lambesc himself had -galloped into the garden, sabre in hand, followed by a detachment, who -put to flight the old men, women, and children, that were peaceably -taking their customary walk; nay, that he had actually killed, with his -own hand, an old man, who was escaping from the tumult. The reporter, it -is true, forgot to notice, that the populace had begun to pelt the -prince with the stones, that were lying ready, near the buildings which -were not finished. Startled, perhaps, by this resistance, and despising -the mob, that he expected, only by his presence, to have intimidated, in -a delirium, most probably, of terrour and astonishment, he wounded an -unarmed man, who fled before him. Be that as it may, this wanton outrage -excited the indignation necessary to fire every spirit. - -The electors being still pressed for arms, and unable to furnish them, -at eleven o’clock decreed, that the districts should be immediately -convoked; and that they would repair to all the posts of armed citizens, -to beg them, in the name of their country, to avoid all species of -riot.—But this was not the moment to talk of peace, when all were making -ready for battle.—The tumult now became general. To arms! To arms! -re-echoed from all quarters—and the whole city was instantly in motion, -seeking for weapons of defence. Whilst the women and children rent the -air with shrieks and lamentations, the cannons were fired; and the -_tocsins_ of the different parish churches joined by degrees, to excite, -and continue, the universal alarm. - -Still all their thoughts were turned on defensive measures. Many of the -citizens, by ransacking the warehouses of arms, and catching up spits -and pokers, appeared with weapons in their hands to second their -determinate countenances; and being joined by some of the french guards, -more completely accoutred, forced those foreign mercenaries, who had -first awakened their fury, to retreat, fleeing like the beasts of the -desert, before the bold and generous lion. Though victorious in this -midnight fray, because determined to conquer, still they had scarcely -any fire arms; and were as inexpert in the use of those they found, as -the inhabitants of capitals commonly are—But indignation made each of -them, so restless was their courage, seize something to defend himself -with: hammers, axes, shovels, pikes, all were sought for, and clenched -in hands nerved by heroism; yes, by true heroism, for personal safety -was disregarded in the common danger. Wives assisted to beat out pikes -for their husbands, and children ran about to pile up stones in -readiness for to-morrow. To increase the apprehensions of the night, one -of the barriers was set on fire; and a band of desperate robbers, taking -advantage of the confusion, began to pillage some houses. To arms! was -the cry of danger, and the watch-word of the city—for who could close -their eyes? Whilst the tocsin drowning the murmurs of rage, and -distress, made the confusion solemn. - -Different sounds excited different emotions at Versailles; for there the -heart, beating high with exultation, gave way to the most intemperate -joy.—Already the courtiers imagined, that the whole mischief was -crushed, and that they had the assembly at their mercy. - -Intoxicated by success, a little too soon reckoned on, the queen, the -count d’Artois, and their favourites, visited the haunt of the bribed -ruffians, who were lurking in ambush, ready to fall upon their prey; -encouraging them by an engaging affability of behaviour, and more -substantial marks of favour, to forget every consideration, but their -commands. And so flattered were they by the honied words, and coquetish -smiles of the queen, that they promised, as they drained the cup in her -honour, not to sheath their swords, till France was compelled to -obedience, and the national assembly dispersed. With savage ferocity -they danced to the sound of music attuned to slaughter, whilst plans of -death and devastation gave the zest to the orgies, that worked up their -animal spirits to the highest pitch. After this account, any reflections -on the baneful effects of power, or on the unrestrained indulgence of -pleasure, that could thus banish tenderness from the female bosom, and -harden the human heart, would be an insult to the reader’s sensibility. - -How silent is now Versailles!—The solitary foot, that mounts the -sumptuous stair-case, rests on each landing-place, whilst the eye -traverses the void, almost expecting to see the strong images of fancy -burst into life.—The train of the Louises, like the posterity of the -Banquoes, pass in solemn sadness, pointing at the nothingness of -grandeur, fading away on the cold canvass, which covers the nakedness of -the spacious walls—whilst the gloominess of the atmosphere gives a -deeper shade to the gigantic figures, that seem to be sinking into the -embraces of death. - -Warily entering the endless apartments, half shut up, the fleeting -shadow of the pensive wanderer, reflected in long glasses, that vainly -gleam in every direction, slacken the nerves, without appalling the -heart; though lascivious pictures, in which grace varnishes -voluptuousness, no longer seductive, strike continually home to the -bosom the melancholy moral, that anticipates the frozen lesson of -experience. The very air is chill, seeming to clog the breath; and the -wasting dampness of destruction appears to be stealing into the vast -pile, on every side. - -The oppressed heart seeks for relief in the garden; but even there the -same images glide along the wide neglected walks—all is fearfully still; -and, if a little rill creeping through the gathering moss down the -cascade, over which it used to rush, bring to mind the description of -the grand water works, it is only to excite a languid smile at the -futile attempt to equal nature. - -Lo! this was the palace of the great king!—the abode of -magnificence! Who has broken the charm?—Why does it now inspire only -pity?—Why;—because nature, smiling around, presents to the -imagination materials to build farms, and hospitable mansions, -where, without raising idle admiration, that gladness will reign, -which opens the heart to benevolence, and that industry, which -renders innocent pleasure sweet. - -Weeping—scarcely conscious that I weep, O France! over the vestiges of -thy former oppression; which, separating man from man with a fence of -iron, sophisticated all, and made many completely wretched; I tremble, -lest I should meet some unfortunate being, fleeing from the despotism of -licentious freedom, hearing the snap of the _guillotine_ at his heels; -merely because he was once noble, or has afforded an asylum to those, -whose only crime is their name—and, if my pen almost bound with -eagerness to record the day, that levelled the Bastille with the dust, -making the towers of despair tremble to their base; the recollection, -that still the abbey is appropriated to hold the victims of revenge and -suspicion, palsies the hand that would fain do justice to the assault, -which tumbled into heaps of ruins walls that seemed to mock the -resistless force of time.—Down fell the temple of despotism; -but—despotism has not been buried in it’s ruins!—Unhappy country!—when -will thy children cease to tear thy bosom?—When will a change of -opinion, producing a change of morals, render thee truly free?—When will -truth give life to real magnanimity, and justice place equality on a -stable seat?—When will thy sons trust, because they deserve to be -trusted; and private virtue become the guarantee of patriotism? Ah!—when -will thy government become the most perfect, because thy citizens are -the most virtuous! - - - - - CHAPTER III. - PREPARATIONS OF THE PARISIANS FOR THE DEFENCE OF THE CITY. THE GUARDS, - AND CITY WATCH, JOIN THE CITIZENS. THE ARMED CITIZENS APPOINT A - COMMANDER IN CHIEF. CONDUCT OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY DURING THE - DISTURBANCES AT PARIS. THEY PUBLISH A DECLARATION OF RIGHTS,—AND OFFER - THEIR MEDIATION WITH THE CITIZENS,—WHICH IS HAUGHTILY REFUSED BY THE - KING. PROCEEDINGS AT PARIS ON THE FOURTEENTH OF JULY. TAKING OF THE - BASTILLE. THE MAYOR SHOT. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AT - VERSAILLES. APPEARANCE OF THE KING IN THE ASSEMBLY. HIS SPEECH. - - -Early in the morning of the 13th, the electors hastened to the centre of -the general alarm, the _hôtel-de-ville_, and, urged by the necessity of -the moment, passed the decrees, under deliberation, for the immediate -embodying the _garde-bourgeoise_, without waiting for the requested -sanction of the national assembly. The greater number then withdrew, to -convoke their districts; whilst the few that remained endeavoured to -calm the tumult, that was every moment augmenting, by informing the -people of this decree; representing at the same time, to the citizens, -the cogent motives which should induce them to separate, and each repair -to his own district to be enrolled. But the crowd again called for arms, -pretending, that there was a great number concealed in an arsenal, which -nobody could point out. To quiet these clamours for a moment, the people -were referred to the _prévot des marchands_[14]. He accordingly came, -and requested, that the multitude would confirm his nomination to the -function, which his majesty had confided to him. A general acclamation -was the signal of their consent; and the assembled electors immediately -turned their attention to the serious business before them. - -They then established a _permanent committee_, to keep up a constant -intercourse with the different districts, to which the citizens were -again exhorted instantly to return, with all the arms they had -collected; that those arms might be properly distributed amongst the -parisian militia. But, it was impossible to pursue these important -deliberations, with any degree of order, for a fresh multitude was -continually rushing forward, to report fresh intelligence; often false -or exaggerated, and always alarming. The barriers, they were told, were -on fire; a religious house had been pillaged; and a hostile force was on -the road, in full march, to fall upon the citizens. An immense number of -coaches, waggons, and other carriages, were actually brought to the door -of the hotel; and the demands of the concourse, who had been stopped -going out of Paris, mingling with the cries of the multitude, eager to -be led towards the troops, whose approach had been announced, were only -drowned by the more lively instances of the deputies of the sixty -districts, demanding arms and ammunition, to render them active. To -appease them, and gain time, the mayor promised, if they would be -tranquil till five o’clock in the evening, then to distribute a number -of fusils; which were to be furnished by the director of a manufactory. - -These assurances produced a degree of calm. Taking advantage of it, the -committee determined, that the parisian militia, for the present, should -consist of 48,000 citizens; and that the officers should be named by -each district. Many subordinate decrees also passed, all tending to -prevent the disasters naturally produced by confusion; and to provide -for the subsistence of the city. The french guards, who had during the -night assisted the citizens, now came to testify their attachment to the -common cause; and to beg to be enrolled with them. The commander of the -city watch, a military body, likewise presented himself; to assure the -committee, that the troops under his direction were disposed to obey -their orders, and assist in defending the city. - -Among the carriages stopped was one of the prince de Lambesc. The people -imagined, that they had caught the prince himself; and, when they were -convinced of their mistake, it was impossible to save the coach, though -the horses were put into a neighbouring stable; and the portmanteau, -carefully detached, was lodged in the hall. This trivial circumstance is -worthy of notice, because it shows the respect then paid to property; -and that the public mind was entirely fixed on those grand objects, -which absorb private passions and interests. Stung also to the quick by -the insulting disregard of their claims, the people forcibly felt an -indignant sense of injustice, which rendered the struggle heroic. - -Preparations of a warlike cast were made during the whole course of this -day; and every thing was conducted with a degree of prudence scarcely to -have been expected from such impetuosity. Trenches were thrown up, -several of the streets unpaved, and barricadoes formed in the -suburbs.—Defence was the sole object of every person’s thoughts, and -deriding personal danger, all were preparing to sell their lives at a -dear rate, furbishing up old weapons, or forging new. The old men, -women, and children, were employed in making pikes, whilst the able -bodied men paraded the streets, in an orderly manner, with most resolute -looks, yet avoiding every kind of violence: there was, in fact, an -inconceivable solemnity in the quick step of a torrent of men, all -directing their exertions to one point, which distinguished this rising -of the citizens from what is commonly termed a riot.—Equality, indeed, -was then first established by an universal sympathy; and men of all -ranks joining in the throng, those of the first could not be -discriminated by any peculiar decency of demeanour, such public spirited -dignity pervaded the whole mass. - -A quantity of powder had been carried to the _hôtel-de-ville_, which the -populace, for the most unruly always collected round this central spot, -would probably have blown up in seizing, if a courageous elector[15] had -not, at the continual risk of his life, insisted on distributing it -regularly to the people. This engaged their attention a short time; but -in the evening the demand for arms became more pressing than ever, -mingled with a hoarse cry of perfidy and treason, levelled against the -mayor; which, for a while, was silenced by the arrival of a number of -military chests, thought to contain arms, and these were supposed to be -those promised by the mayor. Every possible precaution was immediately -taken by the electors, to have them speedily conveyed into the cellar, -that they might be given to those who knew best how to make use of them; -instead of being caught up by the unskilful. The french guards had -merited the confidence of the citizens; and four members of the -committee, after some deliberation, were appointed to hasten to them, to -request that they would come and take charge of the distribution. In -short, great preparations were made, previous to the opening of the -chests; but—when the chests were at last opened, in the presence of a -concourse of people, and found to contain only pieces of old -candlesticks, and such like rubbish, the impatience of the multitude, -whose courage and patriotism had been played with all day, instantly -changed into indignation and fury; and the suspicion of treason on the -part of the mayor was extended to the whole committee, whom they -threatened to blow up in their hall. - -One of the electors, the marquis de la Salle, now observed, ‘that the -greatest inconvenience in their present cruel situation was the want of -order, and subordination; and that a correspondence of the different -parts of the grand machine, so necessary to promote expedition and -success, could not subsist without a commander, known and acknowledged -by the public: for all the citizens, become soldiers, are perpetually,’ -he adds, ‘exposed to spend their zeal and intrepidity in superfluous -efforts; sometimes even counteracting their own designs. It is necessary -then to name a general of the first abilities and experience; I am far -from thinking myself worthy of your choice, though I offer all that I -can offer, my fortune and my life; and shall willingly serve in any -post.’ This motion produced a new discussion; and the duke d’Aumont was -appointed commander in chief. But, he half declining it, though he tried -to procrastinate his refusal, the post devolved to the marquis de la -Salle, who had been unanimously named second; and he entered immediately -on the discharge of this important trust. And this nomination -contributed to support the exertions of the committee; for in spite of -the chaotic shock, which seemed to have thrown into confusion all the -parts of this great city, the centre of union formed at the -_hôtel-de-ville_, by the assembling of the electors, was in a great -measure the salvation of the public. This municipal power, created by -circumstances, and tacitly consented to by the citizens, established a -great degree of order and obedience, even in the midst of terrour and -anarchy. The _garde-bourgeoise_ had been assembled in all the districts; -and the patrols relieved with the greatest exactness. The streets were -illuminated, to prevent confusion or dismay during the night; private -property was respected, and all the posts carefully superintended; but, -at the barriers, every carriage and every person was stopped, and -obliged to go to the _hôtel-de-ville_ to give an account of themselves. -The public particularly mistrusted the design of those who were going to -Versailles, or coming from it. Deputations had been regularly sent, to -inform the national assembly of the disturbances, which their danger and -the dread of a siege had occasioned in Paris, and of the measures -pursued to restrain the head-long fury of the people. - -The national assembly, indeed, now appeared with the dignified aspect -becoming the fathers of their country; seeing their own danger, without -timidly shrinking from the line of conduct, which had provoked the -violence of the court: and the president, an old man, not being thought -equal to the present toils of office, a vice-president was appointed. - -To fill this post, the marquis la Fayette was chosen: a deputy for -several reasons popular. In America, where he voluntarily risked his -life and fortune, before the french nation espoused their cause, he had -acquired certain just principles of government; and these he digested to -the extent of his understanding, which was somewhat confined. He -possessed great integrity of heart, though he was not without his -portion of the national vanity. He had already distinguished himself at -the meeting of the notables, by detecting, and exposing the peculation -of Calonne, and opposing the arbitrary proceedings of the count -d’Artois. Governed by the same motives, he had proposed, likewise, -during their sittings, some bold plans of reform, calculated to reduce -the public revenue, and lessen the grievances of the nation, at the same -stroke.—Amongst these was a motion for the abolition of the Bastille, -and other state prisons, throughout the kingdom; and the suppression of -_lettres de cachet_. And still having the same objects in view, he, the -very day the king’s sneering reply was received (the 11th), laid before -the assembly a proposal for a _DECLARATION OF RIGHTS_, similar to that -of some of the american states. The marquis de Condorcet had published a -declaration of this kind, to instruct the deputies, previous to their -meeting. La Fayette had transmitted a copy of his declaration of rights -to the assembled electors, to be read to the people; and nothing could -be better adapted to keep them firm, telling them to what point they -ought to adhere, than the short address with which it commenced.—‘Call -to mind the sentiments, that nature has engraven on the heart of every -citizen; and which take a new force, when recognized by all.—For a -nation to love liberty, it is sufficient that she knows it; and, to be -free, it is sufficient that she wills it[16].’ - -Mirabeau, even whilst supporting tenaciously the dignity of the national -assembly, felt a pang of envy, that another should bring forward such an -important business, as the sketch of a new constitution; avowedly that -the world might know how they had been employed, and what they were -contesting for, should they become the victims of their magnanimity. - -It was impossible now for the whole assembly not to see in the change of -the ministry the danger at hand, the approach of which some had affected -to treat as a chimera. Determined, however, to continue their labours, -in the very face of such hostile preparations; yet taking every prudent -precaution to secure their safety, they sent to inform the king of the -disturbances at Paris; and to point out the evils which menaced the -state, if the troops that invested the metropolis were not sent to more -distant quarters:—offering, at the same time, to throw themselves -between the army and the citizens, to endeavour to ward off the -calamities that were likely to ensue. But the king, obstinately bent to -support the present measures, or controlled by the cabal, replied, ‘that -he was the only judge of the necessity of withdrawing the troops;’ and, -treating the offered interposition of the deputies with the most -ineffable contempt, told them, ‘that they could be of no use at Paris, -and were necessary at Versailles, to pursue those important labours, -which he should continue to recommend.’ - -This answer was no sooner communicated, than La Fayette moved, that -the present ministry should be declared responsible for the -consequence of their obstinacy: and the assembly further decreed, that -Necker and the rest of the ministry, who had just been sent away, -carried with them their esteem and regret:—that, alarmed by the -apprehensions of danger produced by the reply of the king, they would -not cease to insist on the removal of the troops, and the -establishment of a _garde-bourgeoise_.—They repeated their -declaration, that no intermediate power can subsist between the king -and the national assembly:—and that the public debt, having been -placed under the safe-guard of french honour, the nation not refusing -to pay the interest of it, no power had a right to utter the infamous -word—bankruptcy.—In short, the assembly declared, that they persisted -in their former decrees:—and that the present resolves should be -presented to the king, by the president, and printed for the -information of the public. - -Still the court, despising the courageous remonstrances of the assembly, -and untouched by the apprehensions of the people, which seemed to be -driving them to the desperation that always conquers, stimulated the -king to persist in the prosecution of the measures, which they had -prevailed on him to adopt. The assembly, thus rendered vigilant by the -various tokens, that the crisis was arrived, which was to determine -their personal and political fate, in which that of their country was -involved, thought it prudent to make their sittings permanent. Animated -and united by the common danger, they reminded each other, ‘that, should -they perish, their country still surviving would recover it’s vigour; -and that their plans for the good of the public again warming the hearts -of frenchmen, a brave and generous people would erect on their tomb, as -an immortal trophy, a constitution solid as reason, and durable as -time:—whilst their martyrdom would serve as an example, to prove, that -the progress of knowledge and civilization is not to be stopped by the -massacre of a few individuals.’ - -Whatever might have been the object of the court, respecting the -national assembly, which was probably the slaughter or imprisonment -necessary to disperse them, and disconcert their theories of reform, it -is certain, that their situation wore the most threatening aspect; and -their escape was owing to the courage and resolution of the people; for -the breast of the cabinet was too callous, to feel either respect or -repugnance, when emoluments and prerogatives were in question. - -It was a circumstance favourable to the people, and the cause of -humanity, that the want of common foresight in the court prevented their -guarding against resistance. For so negligent were they, that the -citizens, who were early in the morning of the 14th every where scouring -about in search of arms, requested of the committee an order to demand -those they heard were stored up at the _hôtel des invalides_; and one of -the electors was accordingly sent with them, to desire the governor to -give up to the nation all the arms and ammunition committed to his care. -He replied, that a body of citizens having already been with him, he had -sent to Versailles for orders, and entreated them to wait till the -return of the courier, whom he expected in the course of an hour or two. -This, answer at first satisfied the people, who were preparing to wait -contentedly, till one of them observing, that this was not a day to lose -time, they insisted on entering immediately; and instantly made -themselves masters of all the arms they found, to the amount of 30,000 -muskets, and six pieces of cannon. A considerable quantity of different -sorts of arms were also carried away from the _garde meuble_, by a less -orderly party; and fell into the hands of vagabonds, who always mix in a -tumult, merely because it is a tumult. A hundred and fifty persons of -this description had been disarmed the preceding night at the -_hôtel-de-ville_, where they had dropped asleep on the stairs and -benches, stupefied by the brandy they had stolen: but, when they awoke, -and requested work, not having any money or bread, they were sent to -assist in the making of pikes, and the fabricating of other weapons, -which required little skill. None of the citizens appeared, in fact, -without some weapon, however uncouth, to brandish defiance, whilst sixty -thousand men, enrolled and distributed in different companies, were -armed in a more orderly, though not in a more warlike manner. The army -of liberty now, indeed, assumed a very formidable appearance; yet the -cabinet, never doubting of success, neglected in the thoughtlessness of -security, the only way left to oblige the roused people to accept of any -terms. - -Paris, that immense city, second, perhaps, to none in the world, had -felt a scarcity of bread for some time, and now had not sufficient flour -to support the inhabitants for days to come[17]. - -If, therefore, the mareschal Broglio had cut off the supplies, the -citizens would have been reduced to the alternative of starving, or -marching in confusion to fight his army, before they could have been -disciplined for a regular action. But directed only by the depraved -sentiments of tyranny, they deemed assassination the most speedy method -of bringing the contest to an end favourable to their designs. -Unaccustomed to govern freemen, they dreamt not of the energy of a -nation shaking off it’s fetters; or, if their classical reveries had -taught them a respect for man, whilst reading the account of that brave -handful of spartans, who drove back, at the straits of Thermopylæ, -millions of marshalled slaves; they had no conception, that the cause of -liberty was still the same, and that men obeying her impulse will always -be able to resist the attacks of all the enervated mercenaries of the -globe. - -The imaginations of the parisians, full of plots, created hourly many of -the objects of terrour from which they started; though the troops being -in motion around Paris naturally produced many false alarms, that their -suspicious temper might have exaggerated sufficiently, without the help -of invention. Various accounts of massacres and assassinations were -consequently brought to the _hôtel-de-ville_, which inflamed the people, -though afterwards they proved to be the idle rumours of fear. Thus much, -however, appeared certain; a squadron of hussars had actually been seen -hovering about the entrance of the _fauxbourg Saint-Antoine_, who -disappeared when two companies of the french guards approached. The -people of the same fauxbourg observed also, that the cannons of the -Bastille were turned towards their street. On receiving this -information, a message was sent from the committee to the governor of -the Bastille, to expostulate with him; and one to each of the districts, -desiring them to sound an alarm throughout, to break up the pavement of -the streets, dig ditches, and oppose every obstacle, in their power, to -the entrance of the troops. But, though the accounts of the hostile -demeanour of some of the detachments in the skirts of Paris excited -terrour, there was still reason to doubt the real disposition of the -soldiery; for a considerable number, belonging to different regiments, -had presented themselves at the barriers with arms and baggage, -declaring their decided intention to enter into the service of the -nation. They were received by the districts, and conducted to the -_hôtel-de-ville_: and the committee distributed them amongst the -national troops, with the precaution necessary to guard against the -surprise of treason. - -The deputation, sent to the Bastille, now returned, to give an account -of their mission. They informed the committee, that the people, rendered -furious by the menacing position of the cannon, had already surrounded -the walls; but that they had entered without much difficulty, and were -conducted to the governor, whom they had requested to change the -disposition of his cannons; and that the reply he gave was not as -explicit as they could have wished. They then demanded to pass into the -second court, and did not without great difficulty obtain permission. -The little draw-bridge, they continued, was let down; but the great one, -which led to this court yard was raised, and they entered by an iron -gate, opened at the call of the governor. In this court they had seen -three cannons ready for action, with two cannoneers, thirty-six swiss, -and a dozen of invalids, all under arms; and the staff officers were -also assembled.—They immediately summoned them, in the name of the -honour of the nation, and for the sake of their country, to change the -direction of the cannons; and, at the instance even of the governor -himself, all the officers and soldiers swore, that the cannons should -not be fired, or would they make any use of their arms, unless they were -attacked. In short, another deputation from one of the districts had -likewise been received with great politeness by the governor; and while -they were taking some refreshment, he had actually ordered the cannons -to be drawn back; and a moment after they were informed, that the order -was obeyed. - -To calm the people, these very men descended the stair-case of the -_hôtel-de-ville_, to proclaim the assurances they had received of the -amicable intentions of the governor; but, whilst the trumpet was -sounding to demand silence, the report of a cannon from the quarter of -the Bastille was heard; and at the same moment, an immense crowd -precipitated themselves into the square, fronting the hotel, with the -cry of treason. And to support the charge, they brought with them a -citizen, and a soldier of the french guards, both wounded. The rumour -was, that fifteen or twenty more, wounded at the same time, were left to -be taken care of, in different houses on the way; for that the governor, -Delaunay, had let down the first draw-bridge to engage the people to -approach, who were demanding arms; and that they, entering with -confidence on this invitation, had immediately received a discharge of -all the musketry of the fortress. This report, confirmed by the presence -of the two wounded men, demonstrated to the committee the perfidy of the -troops who guarded the Bastille, and the necessity of sending succour to -those, who, without order or sufficient force, had commenced the attack. -Mean time the fury of the people was directed against the mayor, who -endeavoured by various subterfuges to appease the rage which had been -excited by his vain promises of procuring arms. He had, it is true, -several times dispersed the multitude by sending them to different -places with orders for arms, where he knew they were not to be found; -and now, to silence the suspicions that threatned to break out in some -dreadful acts of violence, involving the whole committee in the same -destruction, he offered to make one of the third deputation; the second -appearing to be detained, to remonstrate with Delaunay, and try to -prevent an effusion of blood. A drum and colours were ordered to attend -them, because it was supposed, that the want of some signal had -prevented the others from executing their commission. - -Shortly after their departure, however, the second deputation returned, -and informed the committee, that, in their way to the Bastille, they had -met a wounded citizen, carried by his companions, who informed them, -that he had received a shot from a fusil, fired from the Bastille into -the street St. Antoine; and that immediately after they had been stopped -by a crowd, who were guarding three invalids, taken firing on their -fellow citizens. Judging by these events, added they, that the danger -was increasing, we hastened our steps, animated by the hope of putting a -stop to such an unequal combat. Arrived within a hundred paces of the -fortress, we perceived the soldiers on the towers firing upon the street -St. Antoine, and we heard the report of the guns of the citizens in the -court, discharged on the garrison. Drawing nearer, we made several -signals to the governor, which were either unobserved, or disregarded. -We then approached the gate, and saw the people, almost all without any -thing to defend themselves, rushing forward exposed to the brisk fire of -artillery, that hailed directly down upon them, making great havoc. We -prevailed on those who had arms, to stop firing for a moment, whilst we -reiterated our signal of peace; but the garrison, regardless of it, -continued their discharges, and we had the grief to see fall, by our -sides, several of the people, whose hands we had stopped. The courage of -the rest, again inflamed by indignation, pushed them forward.—Our -remonstrances, our prayers, had no longer any effect; and they declared, -that it was not a deputation they now wished for.—It was the siege of -the Bastille—the destruction of that horrible prison—the death of the -governor, that they demanded, with loud cries. Repulsed by these brave -citizens, we partook their momentary indignation, so fully justified by -the abominable act of perfidy, with which they charged the -governor.—They then repeated to us the information which has already -reached you—that in the morning a crowd having approached the Bastille -to demand arms, the governor had allowed a certain number to enter, and -then had fired upon them. Thus the treason of the governor had been the -first signal of a war, that he himself had begun with his fellow -citizens, and seemed willing to continue obstinately, since he refused -to attend to the deputation. Through all parts it was now -resounded.—‘Let us take the Bastille!’—And five pieces of cannon, -conducted by this cry, were hastening to the action. - -Some time after, the third deputation also came back, and recounted, -that, at the sight of their white flag, one had been hoisted on the top -of the Bastille, and the soldiers had grounded their arms;—that, under -the auspices of these ensigns of peace, the deputies had engaged the -people, in the name of the permanent committee, to retire to their -districts, and take the measures the most proper to re-establish -tranquillity—and, that this retreat was actually taking place; the -people all naturally passing through the court where the deputation -remained.—When, notwithstanding the white emblem of a pacific -disposition, displayed on the tower, the deputies saw a piece of cannon -planted directly at the court, and they received a sudden discharge of -musketry, which killed three persons at their feet—that this atrocity, -at the moment they were calming the people, had thrown them into a -transport of rage; and many of them had even held their bayonets at the -breasts of the deputies; saying, ‘you are also traitors, and have -brought us here that we might be more easily killed’—and it would have -been difficult to calm them, is one of the deputies had not bid them -observe, that they shared the same danger. The effervescence then -abating, they hastened back and met 300 of the french guards, followed -by the cannons taken at the invalids, all marching with a quick step, -crying that they were going to take the Bastille. One of the deputies, -who had been separated from the rest, further recited;—that having been -obliged to scramble over the dead and dying to escape, the people, who -recognized him as an elector, desired him to save himself—for that the -treason was manifest. ‘It is rather you, my friends, he replied, who -ought to retire; you who hinder our soldiers and cannons from entering -this encumbered court, where you are all going to perish, for no -purpose.’ But, that they interrupted him in a transport, -exclaiming—‘No!—No! our dead bodies will serve to fill up the trench.’ -He therefore retired with the balls hissing about his ears. These -recitals, and the rumour of the second act of treachery, spreading -through the city, violently agitated minds already alive to suspicion. - -Fresh crowds continually rushed into the _hôtel-de-ville_, and again -they threatened to set fire to it, repeating how many times the mayor -had deceived them. And, when he attempted to calm them by making -plausible excuses, they stopped his mouth by saying, with one voice,—‘he -seeks to gain time by making us lose our’s.’ Two intercepted billets -also having been read aloud, addressed to the principal officers of the -Bastille, desiring them to stand out, and promising succour; increased -the public fury, principally directed against the governor of the -Bastille, the mayor, and even the permanent committee.—Outcry followed -outcry, and naked arms were held up denouncing vengeance—when an old man -exclaimed, my friends, what do we here with these traitors!—Let us march -to the Bastille! at this cry, as at a signal of victory, all the people -hastily left the hall, and the committee unexpectedly found themselves -alone. - -In this moment of solitude and terrour, a man entered with affright -visible on every feature, saying, that the square trembled with the rage -of the people; and that they had devoted all of them to death.—‘Depart!’ -he exclaimed, running out, ‘save yourselves while you can—or you are all -lost!’ But they remained still; and were not long permitted in silence -to anticipate the approach of danger; for one party of people following -another, brought in a number of their wounded companions:—and those who -brought them, described with passion the carnage of the citizens -sacrificed under the ramparts of the Bastille. This carnage, the -military officers attributed to the disorder of the attack, and to the -intrepidity of the assailants still greater than the disorder. - -The accounts of the slaughter, nevertheless, were certainly very much -exaggerated; for the fortress appears to have been taken by the force of -mind of the multitude, pressing forward regardless of danger. The ardour -of the besiegers, rather than their numbers, threw the garrison into -confusion; for the Bastille was justly reckoned the strongest and most -terrific prison in Europe, or perhaps in the world. It was always -guarded by a considerable number of troops, and the governor had been -previously prepared for it’s defence; but the unexpected impetuosity of -the parisians was such as nothing could withstand. It is certain, that -Delaunay, at first, despised the attempt of the people; and was more -anxious to save from injury or pillage, a small elegant house he had -built in the outer court, than to avoid slaughter. Afterwards, however, -in the madness of despair, he is said to have rolled down large masses -of stone from the platform on the heads of the people, to have -endeavoured to blow up the fortress, and even to kill himself. The -french guards, it is true, who mixed with the multitude, were of -essential service in storming the Bastille, by advising them to bring -the cannon, and take some other measures, that only military experience -could have dictated; but the enthusiasm of the moment rendered a -knowledge of the art of war needless; and resolution, more powerful than -all the engines and batteries in the world, made the draw-bridges fall, -and the walls give way. - -Whilst then the people were carrying every thing before them, the -committee only thought of preventing the further effusion of blood. -Another deputation was therefore nominated, more numerous than had -hitherto been sent; and they were just setting out on this errand of -peace, when some voices announced, that the Bastille was taken. Little -attention, however, was paid them; and the news was so improbable, that -the impression made by the rumour was not sufficiently strong to stop -the outrages of the mob, who still were menacing the mayor and the -committee.—When a fresh uproar, heard at first at such a distance that -it could not be distinguished, whether it were a cry of victory or of -alarm, advancing with the crash and rapidity of a tempest, came to -confirm the unlooked for intelligence.—For the Bastille was taken! - -At the instant even the great hall was inundated by a crowd of all -ranks, carrying arms of every kind.—The tumult was inexpressible—and to -increase it, some one called out, that the hotel was giving way, under -the mingled shout of victory and treason! vengeance and liberty!—About -thirty invalids and swiss soldiers were then dragged into the hall, -whose death the multitude imperiously demanded.—Hang them! Hang them! -was the universal roar. - -An officer of the queen’s regiment of guards (M. Elie) was brought in on -the shoulders of the conquerors of the Bastille, and proclaimed by them, -as the first of the citizens, who had just made themselves masters of -it. The efforts he used to repress the testimonies of honour, which were -lavished on him, were of no avail; and he was placed, in spite of his -modesty, on a table opposite the committee, and surrounded by the -prisoners, who seemed to be standing in fearful expectation of their -doom. In this situation he was crowned, and trophies of arms awkwardly -placed around, to which sentiment and circumstances gave dignity. All -the plate taken at the Bastille was brought to him, and his comrades -pressed him, in the most earnest manner, to accept it, as the richest -spoil of the vanquished enemy. But he refused with firmness, explaining -the motives of his refusal so eloquently, he persuaded all who heard -him, that the spoil did not belong to them; and that patriotism, jealous -only of glory and honour, would blush at receiving a pecuniary -recompense.—And, making a noble use of the ascendency which he had over -the people, he began to recommend moderation and clemency.—But he was -soon interrupted by the account of the death of Delaunay; seized in the -court of the Bastille, and dragged by the furious populace almost to the -_hôtel-de-ville_, before he was massacred.—And soon after the death of -three other officers was reported. - -The prisoners listened to these tales with the countenances of victims -ready to be sacrificed, whilst the exasperated crowd demanded their -instant execution. One of the electors spoke in their favour, but was -scarcely permitted to go on. The people, indeed, were principally -enraged against three of the invalids, whom they accused of being the -cannoneers, that had fired so briskly on the citizens. One of them was -wounded, and consequently inspired more compassion. The marquis de la -Salle placed himself before this poor wretch, and forcing, in some -degree, the people to hear him, he insisted on the authority which he -ought to have as commander in chief; adding, that he only wished to -secure the culprits, that they might be judged with all the rigour of -martial law. The people seemed to approve of his reasoning; and taking -advantage of this favourable turn, he made the wounded invalid pass into -another apartment.—But, whilst he was preserving the life of this -unfortunate man, the mob hurried the other two out of the hall, and -immediately hung them on the adjacent lamp-post[18]. The effervescence, -nevertheless, in spite of this overflowing of fury, still continued, and -was not even damped by these cruel acts of retaliation. Two sentiments -agitated the public mind—the joy of having conquered, and the desire of -vengeance. Confused denunciations of treason resounded on all sides, and -each individual was eager to show his sagacity in discovering a plot, or -substituted suspicion instead of conviction with equal obstinacy. The -mayor, however, had given sufficient proofs of his disposition to -support the court, to justify the rage which was breaking out against -him; and a general cry having been raised around him, that it was -necessary for him to go to the _palais royal_, to be tried by his fellow -citizens, he agreed to accompany the people. - -Mean time the clamour against the rest of the invalids redoubled. But -the french guards, who entered in groups, requested as a recompense for -the service which they had rendered to their country the pardon of their -old comrades; and M. Elie joined in the request; adding, that this -favour would be more grateful to his heart, than all the gifts and -honours which they wished to lavish on him. Touched by his eloquence, -some cried out—Pardon! and the same emotion spreading throughout the -circle—Pardon! Pardon! succeeded the ferocious demand of vengeance, -which had hitherto stifled sympathy. And to assure their safety, M. Elie -proposed making the prisoners take an oath of fidelity to the nation and -the city of Paris: and this proposition was received with testimonies of -general satisfaction. The oath being administered, the french guards -surrounded the prisoners and carried them away, in the midst of them, -without meeting with any resistance. - -The committee now endeavoured to re-establish something like order, for -in the tumult the table had been broken down, and destruction menaced on -every side—when a man entered to inform them, that an unknown, but, -indeed, a merciful hand had shot the mayor, and thus by the only -possible mean snatched him from the popular fury, The whole tenour of -his conduct, in fact, justified the charge brought against him, and -rendered at least this effect of public indignation excusable.—So -excusable, that had not the passions of the people, exasperated by -designing men, afterwards been directed to the commission of the most -barbarous atrocities, the vengeance of this day could hardly be cited as -acts of injustice or inhumanity. - -The Bastille was taken about four o’clock in the afternoon; and after -the struggle to save the prisoners, some necessary regulations were -proposed, to secure the public safety. The conduct of the men in office -had so irritated the people, that the cry against aristocrats was now -raised; and a number of persons of distinction were brought to the -_hôtel-de-ville_ this evening, by the restless populace, who, roving -about the streets, seemed to create some of the adventures, which were -necessary to employ their awakened spirit. Breathless with victory, -they, for the moment, gave a loose to joy; but the sounds of exultation -dying away with the day, night brought back all their former -apprehensions; and they listened with fresh affright to the report, that -a detachment of troops was preparing to enter one of the barriers. Not, -therefore, allowing themselves to sleep on their conquering arms, this -was, likewise, a watchful night; for the taking of the Bastille, though -it was a proof of the courage and resolution of the parisians, by no -means secured them against the insidious schemes of the court. They had -shown their determination to resist oppression very forcibly; but the -troops that excited their resistance were still apparently waiting for -an opportunity to destroy them. Every citizen then hurried to his post, -for their very success made them the more alive to fear. The _tocsin_ -was again rung, and the cannon that had forced the Bastille to surrender -dragged hastily to the place of alarm. The pavement of the adjacent -streets was torn up, with astonishing quickness, and carried to the tops -of the houses; where the women, who were equally animated, stood -prepared to hurl them down on the soldiers.—All Paris, in short, was -awake; and this vigilance either frustrated the designs of the cabal, or -intimidated the hostile force, which never appeared to have entered with -earnestness into it’s measures. For it is probable, that some decisive -stroke had been concerted; but that the officers, who expected by their -presence only to have terrified into obedience the citizens, whose -courage, on the contrary, they roused, were rendered irresolute by the -disaffection of the soldiers. Thus was the nation saved by the almost -incredible exertion of an indignant people; who felt, for the first -time, that they were sovereign, and that their power was commensurate to -their will. This was certainly a splendid example, to prove, that -nothing can resist a people determined to live free; and then it -appeared clear, that the freedom of France did not depend on a few men, -whatever might be their virtues or abilities, but alone on the will of -the nation. - -During this day, while the parisians were so active for it’s safety, the -national assembly was employed in forming a committee, to be charged -with digesting the plan of a constitution, for the deliberation of the -whole body: to secure the rights of the people on the eternal principles -of reason and justice; and thereby to guarantee the national dignity and -respectability. Towards the evening, the uncertainty of what was passing -at Paris, the mysterious conduct of the cabinet, the presence of the -troops at Versailles, the substantiated facts, and the suspected -proscriptions, gave to this sitting the involuntary emotions, that must -naturally be produced by the approach of a catastrophe, which was to -decide the salvation or destruction of a state. Mirabeau, firm to his -point, showed the necessity of insisting on the sending away the troops -without delay; and soon after the viscount de Noailles, arriving from -Paris, informed them, that the arms had been taken from the _hôtel des -invalides_; and that the Bastille was actually besieged. The first -impulse was for them to go altogether, and endeavour to open the king’s -eyes; but, after some reflection, a numerous deputation was -nominated;—to insist on the removal of the troops; and to speak to his -majesty with that energetic frankness, so much more necessary as he was -deceived by every person by whom he was surrounded. Whilst they were -absent, two persons, sent by the electors of Paris, informed the -assembly of the taking of the Bastille, and the other events of the day; -which were repeated to them, when they returned with the king’s vague -answer. - -A second deputation was then immediately sent, to inform him of these -circumstances:—To which he replied—‘You more and more distress my heart, -by the recitals you bring me of the miseries of Paris. But I cannot -believe, that the orders which I have given to the troops, is the cause -of them: I have, therefore, nothing to add to the answer that you have -already received from me.’ - -This reply tended to increase the general alarm; and they determined -again to prolong the sitting all night; either to be ready to receive -the enemy in their sacred function, or to make a last effort near the -throne to succour the metropolis. Nothing could surpass the anxious -suspense of this situation; for the most resolute of the deputies were -uneasy respecting their fate, because their personal safety was -connected with the salvation of France. Their nocturnal conversation -naturally turned on the late events that had taken place at Paris; the -commotions in the provinces; and the horrours of famine, ready to -consume those whom a civil war spared. The old men sought for an hour of -repose upon the tables and carpets; the sick rested on the benches.—All -saw the sword suspended over them, and over their country—and all feared -a morrow still more dreadful. - -Impressed by their situation, and the danger of the state, one of the -deputies (the duke de Liancourt) left his post, and sought a private -audience with the king, with whom he warmly expostulated, pointing out -the critical situation of the kingdom; and even of the royal family, -should his majesty persist to support the present measures. Monsieur, -the king’s eldest brother, and not only the most honest, but the most -sensible of the blood royal, immediately coincided with the duke, -silencing the rest of the cabal. They had at first treated with contempt -the intelligence received of the Bastille’s being taken; and now were so -stunned by the confirmation, that, at a loss how to direct the king, -they left him to follow the counsel of whoever dared to advise him.—And -he, either convinced, or persuaded, determined to extricate himself out -of the present difficulties, by yielding to necessity. - -On the morning of the 15th, the national assembly, not informed of this -circumstance, resolved to send another remonstrance to the king;—and -Mirabeau, giving a sketch of the address, drew a rapid and lively -picture of the exigencies of the moment. ‘Tell him,’ said he, ‘that the -hordes of foreigners, by whom we are besieged, have yesterday been -visited by the princes and princesses, their favourites, and their -minions, who, lavishing on them caresses and presents, exhorted them to -perseverance—tell him, that the whole night these foreign satellites, -gorged with gold and wine, have, in their impious camp, predicted the -subjugation of France, and, that they invoked, with brutal vehemence, -the destruction of the national assembly—tell him, that, even in his own -palace, the courtiers have mingled in the dance to the sound of this -barbarous music—and, tell him, that such was the scene, which announced -St. Bartholomew. - -‘Tell him, that the Henry, whose memory the world blesses, the ancestor, -whom he ought to wish to take for a model, allowed provision to pass -into Paris in a state of revolt, when he was in person besieging it; -whilst his ferocious counsellors are turning back the flour, that the -course of commerce was bringing to his faithful and famished city.’ - -The deputation left the hall; but was stopped by the duke de Liancourt; -who informed them, that the king was then coming to restore them to -tranquillity and peace. Every heart was relieved by this intelligence; -and a cynic, probably, would have found less dignity in the joy, than -the grief of the assembly. A deputy, however, moderated these first -emotions, by observing, that those transports formed a shocking contrast -with the distress which the people had already endured.—He added, ‘that -a respectful silence was the proper reception of a monarch during a -moment of public sorrow: for the silence of the people is the only -lesson of kings.’ - -Shortly after, the king appeared in the assembly, standing uncovered; -and without any attention to ceremony. He addressed the representatives -of the people with artful affection: for as it is impossible to avoid -comparing his present affectionate style, with the cold contempt with -which he answered their repeated remonstrances the preceding evening, it -is not judging harshly to despise the affectation, and to suggest, that -it was dictated rather by selfish prudence than by a sense of justice, -or a feeling of humanity. He lamented the disorder that reigned in the -capital, and requested them to think of some method to bring back order -and tranquillity. He alluded to the report, that the personal safety of -the deputies had been menaced; and, with contemptible duplicity asked, -if his well-known character did not give the lie to such a -rumour.—Reckoning then, he concluded, on the love and fidelity of his -subjects, he had given orders to the troops to repair to more distant -quarters—and he authorized, nay, invited them, to make known his -intentions to the metropolis. - -This speech was interrupted and followed by the most lively expression -of applause; though the sagacity of a number of the deputies could not -possibly have been clouded by their sympathy: and the king returning to -the palace on foot, great part of the assembly escorted him, joined by a -concourse of people, who rent the air with their benedictions. The -declaration of Louis, that, trusting to the representatives of the -people, he had ordered the troops to withdraw from Versailles, being -spread abroad, every person, feeling relieved from the oppression of -fear, and unshackled from the fetters of despotism, threw off care; and -the national assembly immediately appointed eighty-four of it’s most -respectable members, to convey to Paris the glad intelligence; that the -harrassed parisians might participate in the joy they had procured the -assembly, by the most noble exertions. - -Arrived at Paris, they were received with enthusiasm, as the saviours of -their country; and saw there more than a hundred thousand men in arms, -formed into companies; showing the superiority of a nation rising in -it’s own defence, compared with the mercenary machines of tyranny. The -transports of the people, and the sympathy of the deputies, must have -formed a highly interesting scene: success elevating the heart for the -moment, and hope gilding the future prospect.—But the imagination would -languidly pourtray this dazzling sunshine, depressed by the recollection -of the sinister events, that have since clouded the bright beams. -Precluded then by melancholy reflections from rejoicing with the happy -throng, it is necessary to turn our attention to the circumstances, from -which mankind may draw instruction:—and the first that present -themselves to our notice are those which disconcerted the flagitious -plan of the ministry;—the regulations that preserved order in the -metropolis;—the astonishing reduction of the Bastille;—the union of the -french guards with the citizens;—the prompt establishment of a city -militia;—and, in short, the behaviour of the people, who showed neither -a thirst for pillage, nor a fondness for tumult. - -The court by their criminal enterprises had entirely disorded the -political machines, that sustained the old worn out government[19]; -which, worm-eaten in all it’s pillars, and rotten in all it’s joints, -fell at the first shock—never to rise again. The destruction of the -Bastille—that fortress of tyranny! which for two centuries had been the -shame and terrour of the metropolis[20], was the sentence of death of -the old constitution. - -The junction of the three orders in fact securing the power of the -national assembly, and making the court appear a cipher, could not fail -to prove sorely mortifying to it’s old minions; and the success of the -people on the 14th of july proclaiming their supremacy, the courtiers, -resorting to their old arts, suggested to the king a line of conduct the -most plausible and flattering to the inconsiderate partizans of a -revolution; whilst it betrayed to the more discerning a dissimulation as -palpable as the motives of the advisers were flagrantly interested. For -their views being narrowed by the depravity of their character, they -imagined, that his apparent acquiescence, exciting the admiration and -affection of the nation, would be the surest mode of procuring him that -consequence in the government, which ultimately might tend to overthrow -what they termed an upstart legislature; and, by the appropriation of -chances, reinstate the tyranny of unlimited monarchy. - -This serious farce commenced previous to that memorable epocha; and in -marking the prominent features of the events that led to the disasters, -which have sullied the glory of the revolution, it is impossible to keep -too near in view the arts of the acting parties; and the credulity and -enthusiasm of the people, who, invariably directing their attention to -the same point, have always been governed in their sentiments of men by -the most popular anarchists. For this is the only way to form a just -opinion of the various changes of men, who, supplanting each other, with -such astonishing rapidity, have produced the most fatal calamities. - -The cabinet, indeed, the better to disguise their secret machinations, -made the king declare, the 23d of june, that ‘he annulled and dissolved -all powers and restrictions, which by cramping the liberty of the -deputies would hinder them either from adopting the form of deliberation -by orders separately, or in common, by the distinct voice of the three -orders,’ absolutely gave his sanction for constituting the national -assembly one and indivisible.—And in the same declaration, article the -6th, he says, ‘that he will not suffer the _cahiers_, or mandates, to be -regarded as dictatorial; for they were only to be considered as simple -instructions, entrusted to the conscience and free opinion of the -deputies, who have been chosen.’ This was giving them unbounded latitude -for their actions.—This was not only a tacit consent to their -proceedings; but it was granting them all his authority to frame a -constitution.—It was legalizing their actions, even according to the -arbitrary rules of the old despotism; and abrogating in a formal manner -that imaginary authority, the sanction of which, at a former period, -would have been necessary to their existence as representatives of the -people.—But happily that period had passed away; and those men, who had -known no rule of action paramount to the commands of their sovereign, -were now sufficiently enlightened, to demand a restitution of their -long-estranged rights;—and a constitution, upon which they could -consolidate their liberty and national fraternity. - -This imperious demand was irresistible; and the cabinet, unable to check -the current of opinion, had recourse to those stratagems, which, leading -to their ruin, has buried in the wreck all that vain grandeur elevated -on the spoil of industry, whilst it’s gilding obscured the sad objects -of misery that pined under it’s shade. Lively sanguine minds, disgusted -with the vices and artificial manners produced by the great inequality -of conditions in France, naturally hailed the dawn of a new day, when -the Bastille was destroyed; and freedom, like a lion roused from his -lair, rose with dignity, and calmly shook herself.—With delight they -marked her noble pace, without ever supposing that the tiger, who -thirsts for blood, and the whole brutal herd, must necessarily unite -against her.—Yet this has been the case; the dogs of war have been let -loose, and corruption has swarmed with noxious life.—But let not the -coldly wise exult, that their heads were not led astray by their hearts; -or imagine, that the improvement of the times does not betoken a change -of government, gradually taking place to meliorate the fate of man; for, -in spite of the perverse conduct of beings spoilt by the old system, the -preponderancy of truth has rendered principles in some respects -triumphant over men; and instruments of mischief have wondered at the -good which they have unwittingly produced. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. -REFLECTIONS ON THE CONDUCT OF THE COURT AND KING. INJURIOUS CONSEQUENCES - OF THE COMPLICATION OF LAWS. GENERAL DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE. STATE OF -CIVILIZATION AMONGST THE ANCIENTS, IT’S PROGRESS. THE CROISADES, AND THE -REFORMATION. EARLY FREEDOM OF BRITAIN. THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. FATE OF - LIBERTY IN EUROPE. RUSSIA. DECLINE OF THE ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY. -DESCARTES. NEWTON. EDUCATION IMPROVED. GERMANY. FREDERIC II. OF PRUSSIA. - - -The effect produced by the duplicity of courts must be very great, when -the vicissitudes, which had happened at Versailles, could not teach -every person of common sense, that the moment was arrived, when -subterfuge and treachery could no longer escape detection and -punishment; and that the only possibility of obtaining the durable -confidence of the people was by that strict attention to justice, which -produces a dignified sincerity of action. For after the unravelling of -the plot, contrived to cheat the expectation of the people, it was -natural to suppose, that they would entertain the most wakeful suspicion -of every person who had been privy to it. - -It would have been fortunate for France, and the unhappy Louis, if his -counsellors could have profited by experience. But, still pursuing the -old track, bounding over the mine, the bursting of which had for a -moment disconcerted them, we shall find, that the continual -dissimulation of the king, and the stratagems of his advisers, were the -principal, though perhaps not the sole cause of his ruin. He appears to -have sometimes mistrusted the cabal; yet, with that mixture of facility -and obstinacy in his character, the concomitants of indolence of mind, -he allowed himself to be governed without attempting to form any -principle of action to regulate his conduct. For if he had ever really -desired to be useful to his people, and to lighten their accumulated -burdens, as has been continually insisted, he was astonishingly -defective in judgment not to see, that he was surrounded with -sycophants, who fattened on their hearts blood, using his own hand to -brand his name with infamy. It may possibly be urged in reply, that this -yielding temper was a proof of the king’s benign desire to promote the -felicity of his subjects, and prevent the horrours of anarchy. To -confute such remarks, it is only necessary to state, that the -preparations which had been made to dissolve the national assembly, and -to reduce the people to entire subjection, if they were not his -immediate contrivance, must have had his sanction, to give them -efficiency; and that the tergiversation, which he employed on this -occasion, was sufficient to make every other transaction of his reign -suspected. And this will be found to be the case in all the steps he -afterwards took to conciliate the people, which were little regarded -after the evaporation of the lively emotions they excited; whilst the -want of morals in the court, and even in the assembly, made a prevailing -mistrust produce a capriciousness of conduct throughout the empire. -Perhaps, it is vain to expect, that a depraved nation, whatever examples -of heroism, and noble instances of disinterested conduct, it may exhibit -on sudden emergencies, or at the first statement of an useful reform, -will ever pursue with steadiness the great objects of public good, in -the direct path of virtuous ambition. - -If the calamities, however, which have followed in France the taking of -the Bastille, a noble effort, be attributed partly to ignorance, or only -to want of morals, the evils are in no degree lessened; neither does it -justify the conduct of the virulent opposers of those manly exertions -inspired by the voice of reason. The removal of a thousand grinding -oppressions had been demanded;—and promised, to delude the public; who -finding, at last, that the hopes, which had softened their misery, were -likely to be blasted by the intrigues of courtiers, can we wonder, that -the worm these courtiers were trying to crush, turned on the foot -prepared to stamp it to nothing. - -The complication of laws in every country has tended to bewilder the -understanding of man in the science of government; and whilst artful -politicians have taken advantage of the ignorance or credulity of their -fellow citizens, it was impossible to prevent a degeneracy of morals, -because impunity will always be a stimulus to the passions. This has -been the cause of the insincerity, which has so long disgraced the -courts of Europe, and pervading every class of men in their offices or -employ, has extended it’s poison throughout the higher orders of -society; and it will require a simplification of laws, an establishment -of equal rights, and the responsibility of ministers, to secure a just -and enlightened policy. But till this be effected, it ought not to -surprize us, should we hear the mock patriots of the day declaiming -about public reform, merely to answer sinister purposes; or should we -chance to discover, that the most extolled characters have ben actuated -by a miserable selfishness, or prompted by corroding resentment, to -exertions for the public good; whilst historians have ignorantly -attributed the political advantages, which have been attained by a -gradual improvement of manners, to their resolution, and the virtuous -exercise of their talents. - -And we ought not to be discouraged from attempting this simplification, -because no country has yet been able to do it; since it seems clear, -that manners and government have been in a continual and progressive -state of improvement, and that the extension of knowledge, a truth -capable of demonstration, was never at any period so general as at -present. - -If at one epocha of civilization we know, that all the improvements -which were made in arts and sciences were suddenly overturned, both in -Greece and Rome, we need not inquire, why superficial reasoners have -been induced to think, that there is only a certain degree of -civilization to which men are capable of attaining, without receding -back to a state of barbarism, by the horrid consequences of anarchy; -though it may be necessary to observe, that the causes which produced -that event can never have the same effect again:—because a degree of -knowledge has been diffused through society by the invention of -printing, which no inundation of barbarians can eradicate. Besides, the -improvement of governments do not now depend on the genius of particular -men; but on the impetus given to the whole society by the discovery of -useful truths. The opposers then of popular governments may tell us, if -they please, that Themistocles had no motive in saving his country, but -to gratify his ambition; that Cicero was vain, and Brutus only envious -of the growing greatness of Cæsar.—Or, to approach our own times;—that, -if the supercilious Wedderburne had not offered an indignity to -Franklin, he never would have become an advocate for american -independence; and that, if Mirabeau had not suffered in prison, he never -would have written against the _lettres de cachet_, or espoused the -cause of the people.—All of which assertions I am willing to admit, -because they exactly prove what I wish to enforce; namely, that—though -bad morals, and worse laws, have helped to deprave the passions of men -to such a degree, as to make the benefits which society has derived from -the talents or exertions of individuals to arise from selfish -considerations, still it has been in a state of gradual improvement, and -has arrived at such a pitch of comparative perfection, that the most -arbitrary governments in Europe, Russia excepted, begin to treat their -subjects as human beings, feeling like men, and with some powers of -thinking. - -The most high degree of civilization amongst the ancients, on the -contrary, seems to have consisted in the perfection the arts, including -language, attained; whilst the people, only domesticated brutes, were -governed and amused by religious shows, that stand on record as the most -egregious insult ever offered to the human understanding. Women were in -a state of bondage; though the men, who gave way to the most unbridled -excesses, even to the outraging of nature, expected that they should be -chaste; and took the only method to render them so in such a depraved -state of society, by ruling them with a rod of iron; making them, -excepting the courtezans, merely household, breeding animals. - -The state of slavery, likewise, of a large proportion of men, tended -probably, more than any other circumstance, to degrade the whole circle -of society. For whilst it gave that air of arrogance, which has falsely -been called dignity, to one class, the other acquired the servile mien -that fear always impresses on the relaxed countenance. It may be -delivered, I should imagine, as an aphorism, that when one leading -principle of action is founded on injustice, it sophisticates the whole -character. - -In the systems of government of the ancients, in the perfection of the -arts, and in the ingenious conjectures which supplied the place of -science, we see, however, all that the human passions can do to give -grandeur to the human character; but we only see the heroism that was -the effect of passion, if we except Aristides. For during this youth of -the world, the imagination alone was cultivated, and the subordinate -understanding merely exercised to regulate the taste, without extending -to it’s grand employ, the forming of principles. - -The laws, made by ambition rather than reason, treated with contempt the -sacred equality of man, anxious only to aggrandize, first the state and -afterwards individuals: consequently, the civilization never extended -beyond polishing the manners, often at the expence of the heart, or -morals; for the two modes of expression have, I conceive, precisely the -same signification, though the latter may have more extent. To what -purpose then do semi-philosophers exultingly show, that the vices of one -country are not the vices of another; as if this would prove, that -morality has no solid foundation; when all their examples are taken from -nations just emerging out of barbarism, regulating society on the narrow -scale of opinions suggested by their passions, and the necessity of the -moment? What, indeed, do these examples prove? Unless they be allowed to -substantiate my observation, that civilization has hitherto been only a -perfection of the arts; and a partial melioration of manners, tending -more to embellish the superiour rank of society, than to improve the -situation of all mankind. Sentiments were often noble, sympathies -just—yet the life of most men of the first class was made up of a series -of unjust acts, because the regulations thought expedient to cement -society, did violence to natural justice. Venerable as age has rendered -many of these regulations, cold substitutes for moral principles, it -would be a kind of sacrilege not to strip them of their gothic vests. -And where then will be found the man who will simply say—that a king can -do no wrong; and that, committing the vilest crimes to sully his mind, -his person still remains sacred?—Who will dare to assert, that the -priest, who takes advantage of the dying fears of a vicious man, to -cheat his heirs, is not more despicable than a highwayman?—or that -obedience to parents should go one jot beyond the deference due to -reason, enforced by affection?—And who will coolly maintain, that it is -just to deprive a woman, not to insist on her being treated as an -outcast of society, of all the rights of a citizen, because her -revolting heart turns from the man, whom, a husband only in name, and by -the tyrannical power he has over her person and property, she can -neither love nor respect, to find comfort in a more congenial or humane -bosom? These are a few of the leading prejudices, in the present -constitution of society, that blast the blossoms of hope, and render -life wretched and useless—And, when such were tolerated, nay, reckoned -sacred, who can find more than doubtful traces of the perfection of man -in a system of association pervaded with such abuses? Voluptuousness -alone softened the character down to tenderness of heart; and as taste -was cultivated, peace was sought, rather because it was convenient, than -because it was just. But, when war could not be avoided, men were hired -by the rich to secure to them the quiet enjoyment of their luxuries; so -that war, become a trade, did not render ferocious all those who -directly, or indirectly waged it. - -When, therefore, the improvements of civil life consisted almost -entirely in polishing the manners, and exercising the transient -sympathies of the heart, it is clear, that this partial civilization -must have worn itself out by destroying all energy of mind. And the -weakened character would then naturally fall back into barbarism, -because the highest degree of sensual refinement violates all the -genuine feelings of the soul, making the understanding the abject slave -of the imagination. But, when the advances of knowledge shall make -morality the real basis of social union, and not it’s shadow the mask of -selfishness, men cannot again lose the ground so surely taken, or forget -principles, though they may accomplishments. - -And that a civilization founded on reason and morality is, in fact, -taking place in the world, will appear clear to all those, who have -considered the atrocious vices and gigantic crimes, that sullied the -polish of ancient manners. What nobleman, even in the states where they -have the power of life and death, after giving an elegant entertainment, -would now attract the detestation of his company, by ordering a domestic -to be thrown into a pond to fatten the fish.[21]—What tyrant would dare, -at this time, to poison his brother at his own table; or stab his -enemy’s mother, not to mention his own, without colouring over the deed? -and do not the exclamations against boxing matches, in England, also -prove, that the amphitheatre would not now be tolerated, much less -enjoyed? If the punishment of death be not yet abolished, tortures worse -than twenty deaths are exploded, merely by the melioration of manners. A -human being is not now forced to feed the lamp that consumes him; or -allowed vainly to call for death, whilst the flesh is pinched off his -quivering limbs. Are not, likewise, many of the vices, that formerly -braved the face of day, now obliged to lurk, like beasts of prey, in -concealment, till night allows them to roam at large. And the odium -which now forces several vices, that then passed as merely the play of -the imagination, to hide their heads, may chase them out of society, -when justice is common to all, and riches no longer stand in the place -of sense and virtue. Granting then to the ancients that savage grandeur -of imagination, which, clashing with humanity, does not exclude -tenderness of heart, we should guard against paying that homage to -sentiment, only due to principles formed by reason. - -Their tragedies, this is still but a cultivation of the passions and the -taste, have been celebrated and imitated servilely; yet, touching the -heart, they corrupted it; for many of the fictions, that produced the -most striking stage effect, were absolutely immoral. The sublime -terrour, with which they fill the mind, may amuse, nay, delight; but -whence comes the improvement? Besides, uncultivated minds are the most -subject to feel astonishment, which is often only another name for -sublime sensations. What moral lesson, for example, can be drawn from -the story of Oedipus, the favourite subject of such a number of -tragedies?—The gods impel him on, and, led imperiously by blind fate, -though perfectly innocent, he is fearfully punished, with all his -hapless race, for a crime in which his will had no part. - -Formerly kings and great men openly despised the justice they violated; -but, at present, when a degree of reason, at least, regulates -governments, men find it necessary to put a gloss of morality on their -actions, though it may not be their spring. And even the jargon of crude -sentiments, now introduced into conversation, shows to what side leans -vanity, the true thermometer of the times.—An affectation of humanity is -the affectation of the day; and men almost always affect to possess the -virtue, or quality, that is rising into estimation. - -Formerly a man was safe only in one civilized patch of the globe, and -even there his life hung by a thread. Such were the sudden vicissitudes, -which, keeping the apprehension on the stretch, warmed the imagination, -that clouded the intellect. At present a man may reasonably expect to be -allowed tranquilly to follow any scientific pursuit; and when the -understanding is calmly employed, the heart imperceptibly becomes -indulgent. It is not the same with the cultivation of the arts. Artists -have commonly irritable tempers; and, inflaming their passions as they -warm their fancy, they are, generally speaking, licentious; acquiring -the manners their productions tend to spread abroad, when taste, only -the refinement of weakened sensations, stifles manly ardour. - -Taste and refined manners, however, were swept away by hordes of -uncivilized adventurers; and in Europe, where some of the seeds -remained, the state of society slowly meliorating itself till the -seventeenth century, nature seemed as much despised in the arts, as -reason in the sciences. The different professions were much more knavish -than at present, under the veil of solemn stupidity. Every kind of -learning, as in the savage state, consisted chiefly in the art of -tricking the vulgar, by impressing them with an opinion of powers, that -did not exist in nature—The priest was to save their souls without -morality; the physician to heal their bodies without medicine; and -justice was to be administered by the immediate interposition of -heaven:—all was to be done by a charm. Nothing, in short, was founded on -philosophical principles; and the amusements being barbarous, the -manners became formal and ferocious. The cultivation of the mind, -indeed, consisted rather in acquiring languages, and loading the memory -with facts, than in exercising the judgment; consequently, reason -governed neither law, nor legislation; and literature was equally devoid -of taste. The people were, strictly speaking, slaves; bound by feudal -tenures, and still more oppressive ecclesiastical restraints; the lord -of the domain leading them to slaughter, like flocks of sheep; and the -ghostly father drawing the bread out of their mouths by the idlest -impositions. The croisades, however, freed many of the vassals; and the -reformation, forcing the clergy to take a new stand, and become more -moral, and even wiser, produced a change of opinion, that soon appeared -in humanizing the manners, though not in improving the different -governments. - -But whilst all Europe was enslaved, suffering under the caprice or -tyranny of despots, whose pride and restless ambition continually -disturbed the tranquillity of their neighbours; the britons, in a great -degree, preserved the liberty that they first recovered. This singular -felicity was not more owing to the insular situation of their country, -than to their spirited efforts; and national prosperity was the reward -of their exertions. Whilst, therefore, englishmen were the only free -people in existence, they appear to have been not only content, but -charmed with their constitution; though perpetually complaining of the -abuses of their government. It was then very natural, in such an -elevated situation, for them to contemplate with graceful pride their -comparative happiness; and taking for granted, that it was the model of -perfection, they never seem to have formed an idea of a system more -simple, or better calculated to promote and maintain the freedom of -mankind. - -That system, so ingenious in theory, they thought the most perfect the -human mind was capable of conceiving; and their contentions for it’s -support contributed more to persuade them, that they actually possessed -an extensive liberty, and the best of all possible governments, than to -secure the real possession. However, if it had no specific basis beside -magna charta, till the habeas corpus act passed; or before the -revolution of 1688, but the temper of men; it is a sufficient -demonstration, that it was a government resting on principles emanating -from the consent, if not from the sense of the nation. - -Whilst liberty had been consumed by the lascivious pleasures of the -citizens of Venice and Genoa;—corroded in Switzerland by a mercenary -aristocracy;—entombed in the dykes of the covetous Hollanders;—driven -out of Sweden by an association of the nobles;—and hunted down in -Corsica by the ambition of her neighbours;—France was insensible to her -value;—Italy, Spain, and Portugal, cowering under a contemptible -bigotry, which sapped the remains of the rude liberty they had enjoyed, -formed no political plans;—and all Germany was not only enslaved, and -groaning beneath the weight of the most insulting civil tyranny, but -it’s shackles were riveted by a redoubtable military phalanx.—Despotism, -in fact, had existed in that vast empire for a greater length of time -than in any other country;—whilst Russia stretched out her arms with -mighty grasp, embracing Europe and Asia. Sullen as the amphibious bear -of the north; and so chilled by her icy regions, as to be insensible to -the charms of social life, she threatened alternate destruction to every -state in her vicinity. Huge in her projects of ambition, as her empire -is extensive, the despotism of her court seems as insatiable, as the -manners of her boors are barbarous.—Arrived at that stage of -civilization, when the grandeur and parade of a palace are mistaken for -the improvement of manners, and the false glory of desolating provinces -for wisdom and magnanimity, the tzarina would sooner have abandoned her -favourite plan of imitating the conduct of Peter the great, in labouring -to civilize her kingdom, than have allowed freedom to find a firm seat -in her dominions to assist her. She has vainly endeavoured, indeed, to -make the sweet flowers of liberty grow under the poisonous shade of -despotism; giving the russians a false taste for the luxuries of life -before the attainment of it’s conveniences. And this hasty attempt to -alter the manners of a people has produced the worst effect on their -morals: mixing the barbarism of one state of society, deprived of it’s -sincerity and simplicity, with the voluptuousness of the other, void of -elegance and urbanity, the two extremes have prematurely met. - -Thus pursued and mistaken, liberty, though still existing in the small -island of England, yet continually wounded by the arbitrary proceedings -of the british ministry, began to flap her wings, as if preparing for a -flight to more auspicious regions—And the anglo-americans having carried -with them to their place of refuge the principles of their ancestors, -she appeared in the new world with renovated charms, and sober matron -graces. - -Freedom is, indeed, the natural and imprescriptible right of man; -without the enjoyment of which, it is impossible for him to become -either a reasonable or dignified being. Freedom he enjoys in a natural -state, in it’s full extent: but formed by nature for a more intimate -society, to unfold his intellectual powers, it becomes necessary, for -carrying into execution the main objects, which induces men to establish -communities, that they should surrender a part of their natural -privileges, more effectually to guard the most important. But from the -ignorance of men, during the infancy of society, it was easy for their -leaders, by frequent usurpations, to create a despotism, which choking -up the springs that would have invigorated their minds, they seem to -have been insensible to the deprivations under which they lived; and -existing like mere animals, the tyrants of the world have continued to -treat them only as machines to promote their purposes. - -In the progress of knowledge, which however was very tardy in Europe, -because the men who studied were content to see nature through the -medium of books, without making any actual experiments themselves, the -benefits of civil liberty began to be better understood: and in the same -proportion we find the chains of despotism becoming lighter. Still the -systematizing of pedants, the ingenious fallacy of priests, and the -supercilious meanness of the literary sycophants of courts, who were the -distinguished authors of the day, continued to perplex and confound the -understandings of unlettered men. And no sooner had the republics of -Italy risen from the ashes of the roman jurisprudence, than their -principles were attacked by the apostles of Machiavel, and the efforts -made for the revival of freedom were undermined by the insidious tenets -which he gave to his prince. - -The arts, it is true, were now recovering themselves, patronized by the -family of the Medicis: but the sciences, that is, whatever claimed the -appellation, had still to struggle with aristotelean prejudices; till -Descartes ventured to think for himself; and Newton, following his -example, explained the laws of motion and gravity, displaying the -mechanism of the universe with wonderful perspicacity; for the analysis -of ideas, which has since diffused such light through every branch of -knowledge, was not before this period applied even to mathematics. The -extension of analytical truths, including political, which at first were -only viewed as splendid theories, now began to pervade every part of -Europe; stealing into the very seminaries of learning in Germany, where -formerly scholastic, dry theology, laborious compilations of the -wanderings of the human understanding, and minute collations of the -works of the ancients, had consumed the fervour of youth, and wasted the -patience of age. The college and the court are always connected:—and -literature beginning to attract the attention of several of the petty -sovereigns of the empire, they were induced to patronize those daring -men who were persecuted by the public for attacking religious or -political prejudices; and allowing them an asylum at their courts, they -acquired a relish for their conversation. The amusements of the chace -then yielding to the pleasures of colloquial disquisition on subjects of -taste and morals, the ferocity of northern despotism began imperceptible -to wear away, and the condition of it’s slaves to become more tolerable. - -Education, in particular, has been studied; and the rational modes of -instruction in useful knowledge, which are taking place of the exclusive -attention formerly paid to the dead languages, promise to render the -germans, in the course of half a century, the most enlightened people in -Europe. Whilst their simplicity of manners, and honesty of heart are in -a great degree preserved, even as they grow more refined, by the -situation of their country; which prevents that inundation of riches by -commercial sources, that destroys the morals of a nation before it’s -reason arrives at maturity. - -Frederic the IId of Prussia, with the most ardent ambition, was -nevertheless as anxious to acquire celebrity as an author, as he was -fame as a soldier. By writing an examination of Machiavel’s Prince, and -the encouragement he gave to literary talents and abilities, he -contributed very much to promote the acquirement of knowledge in his -dominions; whilst, by granting his confidence to the philosophical -Hertzberg, the administration of his government grew considerably -milder. - -His splendid reputation as a soldier continued to awe the restless -ambition of the princes of the neighbouring states, which afforded an -opportunity to the inhabitants of the empire to follow, during the reign -of tranquillity, those literary pursuits, which became fashionable even -at the half civilized court of Petersbourg. It now, indeed, appeared -certain, that Germany would gain in future important political -advantages; for men were beginning to presume to think, and scanned the -conduct of the supercilious Joseph with freedom, treating his vanity -with contempt. - -It is by thus teaching men from their youth to think, that they will be -enabled to recover their liberty; and useful learning is already so far -advanced, that nothing can stop it’s progress:—I say peremptorily -nothing; for this is not the era hesitatingly to add, short of -supernatural events. And though the unjustifiable proceeding of the -english courts of justice, or rather of the arbitrary chief judge -Mansfield, who established it as a law precedent, that the greater the -truth the greater the libel, tended materially to prevent the authors of -the american war from being attacked for those tyrannical steps, that -ultimately tended to stop the progress of knowledge and the -dissemination of political truth; yet the clamour which was raised -against that unpopular war is a proof, that, if justice slept, liberty -of thought had not forsaken the island. - -The overweening presumption, however, of men ignorant of true political -science; who beheld a nation prosperous beyond example, whilst all the -neighbouring states were languishing, and knew not how to account for -it; foolishly endeavouring to preserve this prosperity, by mad attempts -to throw impediments in the way of those very principles, which had -raised Great Britain to the elevated rank she has attained in Europe, -served only to accelerate their diffusion. And France being the first -among the nations on the continent, that had arrived at a civilization -of manners, which they have termed the only art of living, we find was -the first to throw off the yoke of her old prejudices. - -It was at this crisis of things, that the despotism of France was -completely overturned, and twenty-five millions of human beings unloosed -from the odious bands, which had for centuries benumbed their faculties, -and made them crouch under the most ignominious servitude—And it now -remains to observe the effect of this important revolution, which may -fairly be dated from the taking of the Bastille. - - - - - AN - HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW - OF THE - FRENCH REVOLUTION. - - - - - _BOOK III._ - - - - - CHAPTER I. - A DEPUTATION OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY ARRIVES AT PARIS. BAILLIE CHOSEN - MAYOR, AND LA FAYETTE COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE NATIONAL GUARDS. - RESIGNATION OF THE MINISTRY. NECKER RECALLED. THE KING VISITS PARIS. - CHARACTER OF THE PARISIANS. THE REVOLUTION URGED ON PREMATURELY. - EMIGRATIONS OF SEVERAL OF THE NOBILITY AND OTHERS. CALONNE ADVISES THE -FRENCH PRINCES TO STIR UP FOREIGN POWERS AGAINST FRANCE. FOULON KILLED. - - -The presence of the deputies had diffused throughout the capital the -most intoxicating joy—for where is joy expressed with such infantile -playfulness, such entire forgetfulness of to-morrow, as at Paris? and -the citizens, with their usual burst of gratitude, which always -resembles adoration, made choice of Baillie, the first acting president -of the national assembly, for mayor, and of La Fayette for commander in -chief of the national guards: the name now given to the -_garde-bourgeoise_, and the other soldiers incorporated with them. But -the rapture of the parisians, as transient as lively, dwindled, as their -spirits were exhausted, into the murmurs of suspicion.—The ministry, -said they, who were chosen to depress us, are not yet dismissed; and the -troops, that were to have been their instruments of mischief, still -hover round Paris, and are even augmented by the arrival of two fresh -regiments at St. Denis. A rumour was spread, that a convoy of flour had -been intercepted by the order of the ministers, in it’s way to Paris; -and some disturbances at the Bastille had given colour to a report, that -they had attempted to make themselves once more masters of this -important fortress. The night of the 15th was then another devoted to -watchfulness and anxiety; and in the morning a deputation was sent to -the national assembly, praying them to demand the dismission of the -present ministry, and the recall of Necker. - -The assembly took the subject into deliberation; but still attentive to -_etiquette_, they debated about the decorum of interfering with the -appointment of the executive power. This roused the genius of Mirabeau; -and the bubbles of fear, and the straw-like objections of timidity, were -carried away by the torrent of his eloquence. The discussion grew warm; -yet for the present occasion soon became of little importance, because -the ministry, finding that they could not stand the brunt of the storm, -resigned; Necker also, in whom the public had still the most implicit -confidence, was invited to return;—and the king, appearing to be anxious -to give every proof of his desire to establish general tranquillity, -signified, that he wished to visit Paris. A short time after they were -officially informed that the troops were promptly removing to more -distant quarters. The national assembly accordingly sent some of their -members to communicate to the parisians this welcome intelligence, to -prepare for the reception of the king by calming the fears of the -people. - -And he, adhering to his purpose, left Versailles the next day (the -17th), though his family ridiculously endeavoured to dissuade him; -insinuating, that he ought not to trust his sacred person to the mercy -of an enraged multitude; whilst rumours of projected assassinations were -repeated before him, with exaggerated comments. But, being a man of -considerable animal courage, and now almost perceiving, that all the -evils with which he was struggling had been produced by his headstrong -advisers, he seemed determined, at least for the present, not to be -governed by their dangerous councils. And he had even the sagacity to -foresee, that, convulsed as the kingdom was, they would occasion a civil -war, and his life might then be still more exposed. In this instance, as -we shall find in many others, Louis appears to have been directed by a -kind of glimmering instinct of propriety; for at the present juncture it -was particularly discreet, considering the little effect the pageantry -of the court had produced at the _séance royale_, to meet the people -without the parade of robes or guards. And, in fact, the hundred -deputies who followed him, were now the only retinue that would have -appeared respectable in the eyes of the people. What too must have been -his surprise, in spite of all he had heard, to pass through an immense -avenue of armed parisians with such a new aspect.—Till now he had always -seen a timid multitude flying before the watch, giving vent to their -vengeance in vain songs, and to their grief in feeble murmurs:—to-day he -saw them triumphant, moving orderly along, calling out on every side, -during the procession, for a constitution and laws! marching in unison -with their reflections, they advanced, but slowly; for, almost afraid to -hope, they proceeded with the measured step of thought, or rather -sadness; and the people, whose mind was still agitated, as the swell of -the sea continues after the storm has subsided, uttered not the shout of -gladness—_vive le roi_;—but the menacing memento—_vive la nation_. - -This was as ominous a sound, as the woe! woe! resounding through the -silent streets of a besieged city—for it was equally the voice of fate, -proclaiming the will of the people, disgusted with courts, and -suspicious even of the king. Louis seems to have been forcibly struck by -the energy every where displayed; and not more by the eloquent -discourses addressed to him at the hôtel-de-ville, than by the -countenance of each citizen: for the fire of liberty had already lighted -up in every face the serene lustre of manly firmness.—So impressed, -indeed, was his mind by the whole scene, that, when the animated -speakers were silent, he exclaimed in reply—‘My people! my people, may -always rely on my love.’—And taking the national cockade from the hands -of the mayor, he appeared at the window with his heart in his eyes, as -if eager to convince the multitude of his sincerity: and perhaps -conscious, that, first submitting to necessity, he now yielded to -feeling. At these words, the repetition of which flew like lightning -from rank to rank, the whole concourse of people caught the electrical -sympathy.—_Vive le roi_ was shouted from every quarter; and revived -affection glowed with the fresh fervour, that effaces the remembrance of -doubts, and makes the fear of having been unjust, the most powerful -spring of tenderness. And persuading themselves, for the moment, that -the disposition of the king was not so much at variance with their -happiness as his conduct, they poured blessings on him, bestowing all -their execrations on his counsellors. - -Pleasure, now almost mounting to a feverish height, set all Paris -quickly in motion; and the sound of the thundering artillery was the -swift harbinger of the tidings of reconciliation to Versailles, where -the royal family must have been anxiously alive to the events of the -day. - -These sudden transitions from one extreme to another, without leaving -any settled conviction behind, to confirm or eradicate the corroding -distrust, could not be seen in such a strong light any where as at -Paris, because there a variety of causes have so effeminated reason, -that the french may be considered as a nation of women; and made feeble, -probably, by the same combination of circumstances, as has rendered -these insignificant. More ingenious than profound in their researches; -more tender than impassioned in their affections; prompt to act, yet -soon weary; they seem to work only to escape from work, and to reflect -merely how they shall avoid reflection. Indolently restless, they make -the elegant furniture of their rooms, like their houses, voluptuously -handy. Every thing, in short, shows the dexterity of the people, and -their attention to present enjoyment. - -And so passive appears to be their imagination, it requires to be roused -by novelty; and then, more lively than strong, the evanescent emotions -scarcely leave any traces behind them. From being devoted to pleasure in -their youth, old age is commonly passed in such merely animal -gratifications, that a respectable looking aged man or woman is very -rarely to be seen. Independent, likewise, of the vanity which makes them -wish to appear polite, at the very moment they are ridiculing a person, -their great susceptibility of disposition leads them to take an interest -in all the sensations of others, which are forgotten almost as soon as -felt. And these transient gusts of feeling prevent their forming those -firm resolves of reason, that, bracing the nerves, when the heart is -moved, make sympathy yield to principles, and the mind triumph over the -senses. - -Besides, the climate of France is so genial, and the blood mounted so -cheerily in the veins, even of the oppressed common people, that, living -for the day, they continually basked in the sunshine, which broke from -behind the heavy clouds that hung over them. - -It is impossible, after tracing the horrid conspiracy formed by the -court against the lives and liberty of the people, not to feel the most -ineffable contempt for that kind of government, which leaves the -happiness of a nation at the mercy of a capricious minister of state. -The awful and interesting lesson, which the developement of this -treachery afforded, was such as ought to have made an indelible -impression on their minds.—It was a lesson, the very thought of which -stops for a moment the genial current of the heart.—It was a lesson, -that should be repeated to mankind, to bring home to their very senses a -conviction of the lengths to which a depraved and absolute government -will go, for the sake of holding fast it’s power.—It was, in short, a -deduction of experience, which will teach posterity that life, and every -thing dear to man, can be secured only by the preservation of liberty. - -The want of decision in the character of Louis seems to have been the -foundation of all his faults, as well as of all his misfortunes; and -every moment fresh occasions to make the observation arise as we trace -his misconduct, or compassionate his situation. - -To give a striking instance, it is only necessary to turn our attention -to the fatal effects that flowed from his consenting to assemble an army -of foreigners, to intimidate the states-general. He could not resist the -court, who counselled this measure; or silence the misgivings of his -heart, which made him averse to the troops taking any decisive step, -that might lead to slaughter. And still governed by these undisciplined -feelings, when he dismissed the army, he pursued the advice of the very -cabal, that had led him into this errour; giving way to the wishes of -the people, yet dissembling with them even in the act of reconciliation. -Thus, for ever wavering, it is difficult to mark any fixt purpose in his -actions; excepting that which does him honour—the desire to prevent the -shedding of blood. This principle has, in general, directed his conduct; -though the short-sighted measures of timid humanity, devoid of strength -of mind, turned all his efforts to a very contrary effect. - -From the presence of these troops, and their abortive attempt to crush -liberty in the egg, the shell was prematurely broken, and the enthusiasm -of frenchmen excited before their judgment was in any considerable -degree formed. Intoxicated by conquest, each began to descant on the -existing abuses, to show his own cleverness in pointing out the remedy; -and arms being once in the hands of the people, it was difficult to -persuade them to give them up for the occupations of peace. It is true, -had the national assembly been allowed quietly to have made some -reforms, paving the way for more, the Bastille, though tottering on it’s -dungeons, might yet have stood erect.—And, if it had, the sum of human -misery could scarcely have been increased. For the _guillotine_ not -finding it’s way to the splendid square it has polluted, streams of -innocent blood would not have flowed, to obliterate the remembrance of -false imprisonment, and drown the groans of solitary grief in the loud -cry of agony—when, the thread of life quickly cut in twain, the -quivering light of hope is instantly dashed out—and the billows suddenly -closing, the silence of death is felt!—This tale is soon told.—We hear -not of years languished away in misery, whilst dissolution by inches -palsies the frame, or disturbs the reason: yet, who can estimate the sum -of comfort blasted; or tell how many survivors pine the prey of an -imagination distracted by sorrow? - -The character of the french, indeed, had been so depraved by the -inveterate despotism of ages, that even amidst the heroism which -distinguished the taking of the Bastille, we are forced to see that -suspicious temper, and that vain ambition of dazzling, which have -generated all the succeeding follies and crimes. For, even in the most -public-spirited actions, celebrity seems to have been the spur, and the -glory, rather than the happiness of frenchmen, the end.—This observation -inforces the grand truth on mankind, that without morality there can be -no great strength of understanding, or real dignity of conduct. The -morals of the whole nation were destroyed by the manners formed by the -government.—Pleasure had been pursued, to fill up the void of rational -employment; and fraud combined with servility to debase the -character;—so that, when they changed their system, liberty, as it was -called, was only the acme of tyranny—merely with this difference, that, -all the force of nature being roused, the magnitude of the evil -promised, by some mighty concussion, to effect it’s own cure. - -The reunion of the king and people not only routed, but terrified, the -cabal; and as cowardly in adversity, as presumptuous in prosperity, they -immediately took to flight different ways, and even disguised. One man, -who had long been obnoxious to the people on account of inordinate -covetousness, and, vulgar tyranny, not softened by the graceful -condescension of the nobility, caused it to be reported, that he was -dead. The renowned mareschal Broglio sought an asylum at Luxemburgh, -whilst madame Polignac fled to Basle. Thus went into exile an amiable -woman, who had been the instrument of the ambition of a family, that -rapaciously availed themselves of her great favour with the queen, whose -strange predilection for handsome women blighted the reputation of every -one, whom she distinguished. - -The count d’Artois, with several others of the blood royal and principal -nobility, likewise thought it prudent to leave the kingdom for the -present; either to provide for their safety, or to seek vengeance. At -Brussels they met the unquiet Calonne, who, having heard of the -dismission of Necker, was lured back by the first glimpse of hope. For -wishing to wipe away the indignity, which he had so impatiently brooked; -and fondly believing, that the army had had sufficient time to quash the -verbal disputes of the nation; he was hastening towards France, to be -ready to come in for his share of the triumph. - -To his country this meeting has proved a source of evil, that could only -have been hatched in such an unprincipled brain, fertile in plans of -mischief, and prone to puzzle the cause which he wanted force to -subvert. His last effort for power had been to obtain a seat in the -states-general. And, had not the remembrance of his former -administration stood in his way, it is probable he would have succeeded, -and there have become a flaming patriot, could he have been the leader -of a party; for he possessed the showy talents necessary to procure -instantaneous applause in a popular assembly—a deceiving, rather than a -commanding eloquence. Mirabeau, on the contrary, seems to have had from -nature a strong perception of a dignified propriety of conduct; and -truth appearing to give earnestness to his arguments, his hearers were -compelled to agree with him out of respect to themselves. Leaving then -plausibility far behind, he always stood forth as the sturdy champion of -reason; even when, laying down his club, he loitered to dally with the -imagination. Whilst therefore Mirabeau was teaching the national -assembly dignity[22], the resentment of the vain-glorious Calonne, -sharpened to the keenest edge by disappointment, made him suggest to -those crest-fallen princes, the necessity of engaging foreign aid, to -reinstate the king in his former plenitude of power, and to heal their -wounded pride. Unfortunately, the plausibility of his manners, and the -ingenuity of his arguments, awakened their fears, and nourished their -prejudices; and quickly persuaded to assert what they wished to believe, -they protested against the conduct of the national assembly; -insinuating, that the body of the people did not support their -pretensions. The delusion, however, did not rest here; for he even -convinced them, that, if the appeal made to the national honour of the -french did not recall crowds to their chivalrous allegiance, it would -not be a difficult task to engage all the powers of Europe in behalf of -his most christian majesty, by showing them, that, if freedom were once -established in France, it would soon extend beyond it’s confines, -bounding over the Alps and Pyrenees. - -Such are the opposite sentiments, or rather conduct of court parasites, -and men struggling to be free, that it is sufficient to contrast them. -The deputies, whose lives had been threatened, and their persons grossly -insulted, not only excused the ill advised monarch for the countenance -which he had given to the violation of the most sacred principles; but -expressed a conciliatory disposition to all parties. The mob, it is -true, in the heat of rage, inhumanly butchered two of the vile -instruments of despotism. But this violence offered to justice ought not -to be attributed to the temper of the people, much less to the -connivance of the national assembly, who acted with a degree of -magnanimity, at this time, of which it can never be enough lamented that -they have since lost sight. The behaviour however of the hardened -children of oppression in all countries is the same; whether in the -amphitheatre at Rome, or around the lantern-post in Paris. - -The king’s eldest brother alone remained with the court, a man with more -resources of understanding in himself, than the rest of his family; yet, -making it a point of honour to be treated like his younger brother the -count d’Artois, he contributed by his rapacity to drain the royal -treasure, though such an expensive variety of amusements was not -necessary to give a zest to his pleasures. - -The noble depredators had now escaped; yet Foulon, the minister, the -most desperate and pusillanimous of the gang, was taken, in spite of his -mock funeral.—I purposely use the word gang; for a squeamish delicacy -with respect to terms makes us sometimes confound characters to such a -degree, that the great villain is not stigmatized with the epithet -associated with the idea of a gallows; because, by the grossest -subversion of reason, the aggravation of guilt has so palliated the -punishments, that the head, which would have disgraced a halter, has -been respectfully severed on a block. - -Once seized, no authority could prevent the murder of this miserable -wretch; and the same evening the intendant of Paris, his son-in-law, met -a death still more shocking, being prolonged by the humane interposition -of the respectable mayor, and La Fayette, in his favour. - -Strange, that a people, who often leave the theatre before the -catastrophe, should have bred up such monsters! Still we ought to -recollect, that the sex, called the tender, commit the most flagrant -acts of barbarity when irritated.—So weak is the tenderness produced -merely by sympathy, or polished manners, compared with the humanity of a -cultivated understanding. Alas!—It is morals, not feelings, which -distinguish men from the beasts of prey! These were transactions, over -which, for the honour of human nature, it were to be wished oblivion -could draw the winding-sheet, that has often enwrapped a heart, whose -benevolence has been felt, but not known. But, if it be impossible to -erase from the memory these foul deeds, which, like the stains of -deepest dye revived by remorse in the conscience, can never be rubbed -out—why dwell circumstantially on the excesses that revolt humanity, and -dim the lustre of the picture, on which the eye has gazed with rapture, -often obliged to look up to heaven to forget the misery endured on -earth? Since, however, we cannot ‘out the damned spot,’ it becomes -necessary to observe, that, whilst despotism and superstition exist, the -convulsions, which the regeneration of man occasions, will always bring -forward the vices they have engendered, to devour their parents. - -Servility, destroying the natural energy of man, stifles the noblest -sentiments of the soul.—Thus debased, heroic actions are merely directed -by the head, and the heart drops not into them it’s balm, more precious -than the trees of Arabia ever distilled! Ought we then to wonder, that -this dry substitute for humanity is often burnt up by the scorching -flame of revenge? This has now actually been the case; for there has -been seen amongst the french a spurious race of men, a set of cannibals, -who have gloried in their crimes; and tearing out the hearts that did -not feel for them, have proved, that they themselves had iron bowels. -‘But, if the anger of the people be terrible,’ exclaims Mirabeau, ‘it is -the sang froid of despotism, that is atrocious; those systematic -cruelties, which have made more wretches in a day than the popular -insurrections have immolated in a course of years![23] We often fear,’ -adds he, ‘the people, because we have injured them; and thus are forced -to fetter those we oppress.’ - -The example of the capital was followed by the provinces; and all the -citizens flew to arms, whilst the soldiers grounded their’s, swearing -not to stain their hands with the blood of their fellow citizens. Added -to the account of the conspiracy to dissolve the states-general, and -massacre their representatives, a number of idle rumours of present -danger tended to make the country people not only eager to guard against -they scarcely knew what, but also desirous to enter into the adventures, -and share the honours of the parisians. - -In all civil wars, personal vengeance mixing with public, or taking -advantage of it, has directed the dagger of the assassin: and in France -it ought particularly to have been dreaded; because, when fear induces a -man to smother his just resentment, the festering wound is only to be -cured by revenge. It is then highly probable, that most of the -barbarities in the towns were the effervescence of private anger, or the -sport of depraved, uncultivated minds, who found the same pleasure in -tormenting men, as mischievous boys in dismembering insects; for public -indignation, directed against aristocratical tyranny, was elsewhere, in -general, displayed only in burning the country castles, and the archives -of nobility. But, in the country, indeed, men rarely commit such crimes, -as lift up their reptile heads in the capital, where the rank atmosphere -affords the noxious particles necessary to give virulence to the poison. -The vices of villagers are, in fact, rather the rich exuberance of the -passions, than the vile dregs of exhausted nature. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - THE DUKE OF LIANCOURT CHOSEN PRESIDENT. THE PEOPLE ARM FOR THE DEFENCE - OF THE COUNTRY. THE MUNICIPAL OFFICERS APPOINTED UNDER THE OLD -GOVERNMENT SUPERSEDED BY COMMITTEES. SOME PEOPLE TREACHEROUSLY DESTROYED -BY SPRINGING A MINE AT A CIVIC FEAST. THE GENEVESE RESIDENT TAKEN UP BY - THE PATROL. THE FRENCH SUSPICIOUS OF THE DESIGNS OF BRITAIN. NECKER -RETURNS. GENERAL AMNESTY RESOLVED BY THE ELECTORS OF PARIS. DEBATE ON A - DECLARATION OF RIGHTS. DECLARATION OF RIGHTS SEPARATE FROM THE - CONSTITUTION DETERMINED ON. SACRIFICES MADE BY THE NOBLES, CLERGY, &C. - - -The duke of Liancourt, whose warning voice had made the king look around -him, when danger was at his heels, was now chosen president. At this -moment the obstacles, which at first clogged the exertions of the -assembly, seemed to have been overcome: still fresh ones starting up -threw a damp on their exultation; and the apprehensions of a famine, -real or factitious, were not the least alarming, though the most -frequent. - -New conspiracies were already formed on the borders of France, by the -princes, and those who had subsisted by the corruptions of the old -system. But this only proved a stimulus; because the nation, being -determined to secure the rights it had so suddenly regained, raised new -regiments in every part of the country, and was soon in a situation to -repel any attack, which it was possible for all Germany to have made; -the only quarter from which the fugitive princes, at that period, could -expect assistance. So rapid was the spirit, so general the momentum, -that in the course of a week upwards of three millions of men in arms -were formed into companies by a common interest resembling an electrical -sympathy. Such was the quick succession of events—Such the unanimous -sense of the nation; and such the formidable force which instantly -opposed itself to the impotent threats of departing despotism. History -will record this memorable era, when the disciplined forces of the most -puissant tyranny vanished before the force of truth, though still but -half unveiled; obliging the haughty sycophants to search for shelter in -the recesses of a forest, whither they stole under cover of the night -from the presence of an injured people. - -The conduct of the _garde-bourgeoise_, during the progress of the -revolution, without varnishing over the excesses produced by ebullitions -of zeal, is of itself sufficient to prove, that a national militia -should every where take place of standing armies, did not experience -invariably attest, that the laws were never respected by men, whose -business is war, unless they are reduced to mere machines by despotism. - -The old municipal officers, mostly suspected, because nominated by the -friends of the court, were now obliged to give place to committees -elected by the common voice. These taking the administration of public -business into their hands, a new order of things began every where to -prevail. Still, however, the disturbed imagination of the people was -filled with plots, to which some mysterious and fatal incidents gave -life. - -The municipality of Soissons informed the national assembly, that troops -of banditti had cut down the corn before it was ripe, and obliged the -villagers to take refuge in the towns. But on further inquiry, it -appeared, that this report arose from a simple quarrel of the peasants -amongst themselves, which had alarmed some labourers, who flew to the -neighbouring town, imagining that they had thousands of banditti at -their heels. - -Paris was also disturbed by an idle rumour of a riot at St. Denis; so -seriously affirmed by those, who declared that they had been -eye-witnesses of the violence, that troops and cannon were sent, but -they could find no traces of the disturbance. - -Another, more serious, had exasperated the people against the nobility, -and roused the indignation of the national assembly. A nobleman and -counsellor of the parliament gave a civic feast in his castle to the -inhabitants of his village; from which, on some pretext, he was absent. -All was joy and festivity; but in the midst of the dance of gladness, -the sudden explosion of a mine spread around affright and death.—Hearing -of this treachery, the people, catching up their rustic weapons, -firebrands, hastened to the neighbouring castles; some of which they -burnt, others they demolished by pulling them down. - -The recital of this atrocity produced a great effect in the national -assembly; and, says Mirabeau, ‘though great assemblies are often much -too susceptible of theatrical emotions; and this narration was -accompanied with circumstances, of which the invention is seldom -presumed; and though it was also attested by a public officer; yet the -atrocity of the crime gave it an air of improbability.’ This wanton act -of barbarity, which the historian also would fain believe a monstrous -chimera of heated brains, was, nevertheless, as well substantiated, as -such a fact could be; which nothing, but the confession of the guilty -party, can render absolutely certain, because it seems equally foolish -and barbarous. - -These disorders, warmly represented by Lally-Tolendal, determined the -assembly, on the 23d of july, to publish a proclamation, inviting all -good citizens to the maintenance of order; and declaring, that to try -and punish for all crimes of _leze-nation_ was the sole prerogative of -the national assembly, till, by the constitution which it was about to -establish, a regular tribunal should be instituted, for the trial of -such offences. After endeavouring to excuse the violence, or, more -properly speaking, to account for it, Mirabeau observed to the assembly, -‘that they ought to be thoroughly convinced, that the continuation of -this formidable dictator would expose liberty to as much risk as the -stratagems of her enemies. Society,’ he continues, ‘would soon be -dissolved, if the multitude, accustomed to blood and disorder, placed -themselves above the magistrates, and braved the authority of the law. -Instead of running to meet freedom, the people would soon throw -themselves into the abyss of servitude; for danger too often rallies men -round the standard of absolute power; and in the bosom of anarchy, a -despot even appears a saviour. For Carthage is not yet destroyed; there -remains a mass of instruments to impede our operations, and to excite -divisions in an assembly, that has only been united by danger.’ - -Some trifling incidents, swelled into importance by supposition, kept -alive the inventive mistrust of the nation, to which some innocent -victims were sacrificed, without allaying it’s brooding propensity to -produce, like jealousy, the evil it feared. Suspecting every body, and a -little vain of authority, the patroles of parisian citizens sometimes -officiously arrested whomever they thought fit, without assigning a -sufficient cause; and among the rest, they stopped the resident in -France from Geneva. Three letters were found on him; and one of them -being addressed to the count d’Artois, rendered suspicious the -circumstance of his tearing a fourth. - -The letters were sent by the mayor of Paris to the assembly; and the -facts laid before them afforded Mirabeau an opportunity, to display his -eloquence on a subject, that recalled to his mind abuses, which had -formerly touched himself—the violation of private correspondence.—Though -this did not appear to be exactly the present question; for they were -not intercepted letters, but letters to which chance had annexed some -suspicious characters, to point them out for inspection. The despotism -of opening indiscriminately all letters, to enable the government to -judge of the character and sentiments of each individual, is too obvious -to need animadversion.—And who, indeed, will not exclaim against the -tyranny, be it even parental, that dares to steal into the secrets of -the heart; or the impertinent curiosity, that seeks for information only -to diversify an idle life? The latter may be termed petty larceny; yet -often the peace of whole families is invaded by these cowardly thefts, -and quarrels are rendered irreconcilable, by giving air to angry -expressions, the utterance solely of the passion of the moment. The -allowing letters, also, surreptitiously obtained, to appear as evidence, -in courts of justice, is a gross violation of the first principle of -law; because no letters can lawfully be opened, but as other suspected -things are sought for—after information given to a magistrate. But, when -seals are broken at the discretion of an individual, and brought forward -to criminate a person, it is to the full as unjust, as to make a man -plead against himself.—And for justice to be awarded in consequence of -an act of injustice, is an abuse that demands investigation. But the -present was not a case in point. It was not a clandestine ransacking of -all letters, to search for the clue of some suspected plot; or like the -reading of the correspondence of a babbling conspirator, after the -danger was over, whose letters might contain a list of timid -accomplices, who would be driven to desperation by publicity. However, -the decided turn was given to the question by the bishop of Langres -observing, that all ages had applauded the generosity of Pompey, who -committed to the flames the letters, which the senators had addressed to -Sertorius. The mania of imitating the romans on this began to appear, -producing one of those instances of false magnanimity, that always arise -from imitation: yet so trifling, indeed, in it’s present consequence, -that it would scarcely deserve to be ridiculed, much less censured, had -not the same affectation afterwards brought forth more serious and even -fatal follies. - -The temper also of the parisians, who mix in the world very early in -life, leads them to imagine, that they have acquired the profound -knowledge of the springs of human passions, which enables a sagacious -man almost to foresee future events, only because they have often -detected the weaknesses of the human heart. This made them now suppose, -that the court of Great Britain was about to profit by their intestine -troubles. The phraseology had long been in both countries, that they -were the natural enemies of each other; and the mistrustful french -quickly imagined, that the english meant immediately to take vengeance -for their interference in favour of the americans, by seizing some of -their West-India islands. The duke of Dorset, in his justification of -England, only changed the object of mistrust, by giving rise to some -vague conjectures respecting a conspiracy for delivering Brest into the -hands of the english; and, as there was no clue to lead to the discovery -of the traitors, several nobles of Brittany, probably innocent, were -arrested. - -These were, nevertheless, but slight impediments; for the invigorating -voice of the awakened nation gave energy to the assembly, who now named -committees to expedite the present business, preparatory to their grand -talk of framing a constitution. The authority and respectability of the -assembly being acknowledged, they attentively considered the state of -the kingdom; and, mindful of the present distress of the people, issued -orders for the free circulation of provision, which had been obstructed -by the ancient forms, so opposite to the true principles of political -economy. - -At this juncture, Necker, still esteemed by the nation, unfortunately -returned. Intoxicated by popularity, this minister had not sufficient -prudence to decline the honours, which he could not support by that -dignity of conduct the present crisis required. In his way to Paris, -having heard, that the life of the baron de Benzenval, commandant of the -swiss guards, who had been with Broglio, was in danger, he humanely -interposed to stop the hand of violence; and so far he deserves praise. -But when, arrived at Paris, he was received, by the lively inhabitants, -as the tutelar genius of France, this apotheosis had it’s usual effect; -and assuming the demi-god, at the _Hôtel-de-Ville_, he was not content -to preserve this victim from the public fury, without recommending a -general amnesty; a measure which was as inconsiderately adopted, as -proposed. For the electors pretending to issue laws for the whole -nation, gave great umbrage to the parisians, who had winked at the -stretch of their power, which the pressing exigency of circumstances -required, during the moment danger menaced the capital. The wild current -thus turned, the men, who in the morning had declared, ‘that liberty was -safe, since Necker was allowed to watch over her,’ now accused him of -ambition, and a desire to keep well with the court, by facilitating the -return, or escape, of it’s minions. Such in fact was the inconstancy of -a people, always running after theatrical scenes, that the tocsin was -rung to denounce Necker as a courtier in one quarter of the city, at the -very time the _Palais Royal_ was illuminated to celebrate his return as -a patriot. - -The business, however, being referred to the national assembly, with a -modifying explanation, they decided it mildly, paying the respect due to -the good intentions from which it proceeded, though they did not pretend -to sanction the hasty resolve of the electors. - -After this tumult had subsided the narrow capacity of the minister did -not allow him to take a determined part in the grand work, in which the -deputies were engaged. His mind had not sufficient strength to burst the -shackles of it’s old opinions; and, acting with his usual commercial -calculations, he seems to have been one cause of the divisions, which -began to agitate an assembly, united rather by circumstances than by -sentiments. Besides, the sudden emancipation of the people occasioned a -delirium of joy, which required to be managed with the greatest -delicacy. A vigorous ministry was certainly necessary to check the -licentious spirit manifesting itself continually by acts of violence, in -so many parts of the kingdom, where tumults and assassinations were the -effects of the giddiness of unexpected success. Whilst complaining of -the old government, every man in his sphere seemed to be eager to try -how he himself could govern, and make up for the time he had delegated -his authority. Besides, the procrastination of the relief looked for as -the immediate consequence of the Revolution, however unavoidable, made -the people not only murmur, but, disregarding all reason, attempt to -gain more by force than could, for a long time, be granted by -justice—even had justice been unbiased by self-interest. - -The nation called for a constitution; and the assembly debated about the -declaration of rights inherent to man, and those he gives up when he -becomes a citizen, on which they designed to rest it, as an explanatory -support. - -Several members argued, that the declaration ought to conclude, and not -precede the constitution; insisting, that it was dangerous to awaken a -_somnambulist_ on the brink of a precipice; or to take a man to the top -of a mountain, to show him a vast country that belonged to him, but of -which he could not immediately claim the possession. ‘It is a veil,’ -said they, ‘that it would be imprudent to raise suddenly.—It is a -secret, that it is necessary to conceal, till the effect of a good -constitution puts them into a situation to hear it with safety[24].’ - -But Barnave terminated the sitting, though the question was still in -debate, by observing, ‘that the declaration of rights was in two -respects practically useful;—first, as it fixed the spirit of the -legislation, in order that it might not vary in future;—and, secondly, -as it would direct the representatives of the nation in the formation of -laws, in all the details of legislation, the completion of which could -only be the work of time. As to the apprehension expressed of the people -abusing these rights, when they acquire a knowledge of them, it is,’ -said he, ‘futile,—and we need only turn over the page of history, to -lose these vain fears; for we shall constantly find the people tranquil -in the same proportion as they are enlightened.’ - -Poizing thus the pillars of equal liberty, the discussion was the next -day interrupted by the report made by the committee appointed for the -purpose of digesting the information sent to the assembly, of the -melancholy intelligence which they daily received from the -provinces.—‘The taxes, the rents were no longer paid, the revenue was -exhausted, the laws were without force; and the social ties almost -broken.’ To remedy so many evils, the committee proposed to the assembly -to publish, as soon as possible, a solemn declaration to testify their -deep sense of the misery of the provinces, and their disapprobation of -the non-payment of taxes and rents; and to declare, that, till the -assembly had time to consider the decrees necessary to be passed to -regulate these objects, there did not exist any cause to justify similar -refusals. This proposition occasioned a warm debate. - -Some of the deputies represented, that the feudal laws were too -iniquitous,—the taxes too unequally assessed—the wretchedness too -general, to hope for any happy effect from such a declaration—it would -soon fall into oblivion, as had done the proclamation for peace:—it -would aggravate the misery of the state, by manifesting the impotence of -the national assembly:—it would irritate even the people, who had need -of comfort; and of whom they could not, without a kind of derision, in -their present circumstances, require the payment of taxes, of which they -knew well that each of them felt the injustice. - -Others did not fail to insist on the danger of letting the disorder -increase; on the sacredness of property; and on the immense _deficit_ -with which the nation was menaced; adding, that the national assembly -would become contemptible, if it did not take the most vigorous -measures.—They further dilated on the necessity of re-establishing the -authority of the courts of justice;—and other arguments of the same -tendency, which would have been more conclusive, more useful, if the -supporters of the declaration had brought forward the shadow of a mode -to assure it’s execution. The debate from being warm became bitter, till -it was at length resolved, that a declaration should be issued for the -security of property, and that the remaining proposals of the committee -should be discussed the next evening, the 4th of august. - -But, before they separated, the assembly was informed, that Broglio had -ordered all the arms, deposited at the town-house of Thionville, to be -carried away.—This step appeared to them the height of imprudence, at a -moment when the community was obliged to arm itself to watch over the -public safety. - -The following morning it was decided by a great majority, that there -should be a declaration of rights separate from the constitution. The -sitting of the evening was impatiently expected, and the opposers of a -new proclamation flattered themselves, that they should secure the -general suffrage, by making it appear, that patriotism demanded great -sacrifices; and that instead of the vain formality of an exhortation, -soon despised by the people, it was necessary to carry real offerings to -the altar of peace.—This was the purport of a speech made by one of the -nobles, the viscount de Noailles; who showed, in a very forcible manner, -‘that the kingdom, at this moment, fluctuated between the alternative of -the destruction of society, or of a government which would be admired -and imitated by all Europe. How is this government to be obtained?’ said -he, ‘how are the relaxed ties of society to be strengthened? By calming -the people,’ he continues, ‘by letting them see, that we are really -employed for their good; and that we resist them only where it is -manifestly conducive to their interest, that they should be resisted,—To -attain then this tranquillity, so necessary, I propose: - -‘1st. That it be declared, before the proclamation digested by the -committee, that the representatives of the nation have decided to levy -the impost, henceforward, in proportion to the income of each -individual. - -‘2dly. That all the public charges shall, in future, be equally -supported by the whole community. - -‘3dly, That all the feudal claims shall be redeemable, on a fair -valuation. - -‘4thly, That all the manorial claims, the _mains-mortes_, and other -personal services, shall be done away, without any ransom. - -‘5thly. That the manorial rents in poultry, and other kinds of -provision, shall be redeemable by the proprietor or contractor, at a -just valuation.’ - -The duke d’Aiguillon seconded this motion, which had been warmly -applauded; or rather made another tending to the same end. For dreading -the suppression of his pension, when the _Livre Rouge_ should be -reviewed, he suddenly, from being a minion of the old court, became a -loud patriot. And further to evince his zeal in the cause of liberty, he -declared, ‘that the insurrection sound it’s excuse in the vexations to -which the people were subject. The lords of manors,’ he observes, -‘seldom commit the excesses of which their vassals complain; but their -agents are often devoid of humanity, and the wretched husbandmen, -subject to the barbarous feudal laws still in force, groan under the -restriction to which they become the victims. At this happy era, when -united for the public good, and disengaged from all personal interest, -we are going to labour for the regeneration of the state, it seems to -me, gentlemen, that it is necessary, before establishing this -constitution, so desired by the nation, to prove to all the citizens, -that our intention is to establish, as soon as possible, that equality -of rights which alone can assure their liberty.’ - -It too frequently happens, that men run from one extreme to another, and -that despair adopts the most violent measures. The french people had -long been groaning under the lash of a thousand oppressions; they were -the hewers of wood, and drawers of water, for the chosen few. It was, -therefore, to be apprehended, after they had once thrown off the yoke, -which had imprinted on their character the hateful fears of servitude, -that they would expect the most unbridled freedom, detesting all -wholesome restraints, as reins they were not now bound to obey. From -observing, perhaps, that this was the disposition of the times, the -political empirics have continually inflamed the foibles of the -multitude, by flattering them. Thus the nobility, whose order would -probably lose most by the revolution, made the most popular motions, to -gain favour with the people; tickling the spirit they could not tame. -Thus also we have seen the desperate leaders of factions selecting -ingeniously the terms _sans-culottes_, _citoyen_, and _egalité_, in -order to cajole the minds of the vulgar; and hence it has happened, -that, in proportion as this cajolery was more highly seasoned, the power -of ruling has descended to the most desperate and impudent of the -smatterers in politics; whilst public anarchy, and private discord, have -been productive of the dreadful catastrophes, and wanton outrages, which -have given such home thrusts to the dignity of freedom. - -The feudal claims that insult humanity, and show how near man is to the -brute creation when laws are first made, were afterwards attempted to be -enumerated; but a general cry of indignation and horrour prevented the -deputy from finishing the frightful picture of human debasement and -brutality. The vestiges of these direful oppressions, however, were -still held dear by these very men, who, not having the compass of -morality to direct their politics, were humane rather through weakness -of nerves than soundness of understanding. - -Be this as it may, the motion of the viscount de Noailles excited a -sudden enthusiasm, mixed with anger. The members of the privileged -orders, like children, seemed to say, by their actions, if you force me -to give up this toy, it is fair that you should resign your -sugar-plumb.—One gave a blow in the face; and the retort courteous was a -back-handed stroke. For a member, that the duke d’Aiguillon should not -be generous at the expence of others, proposed the _immediate_ -suppression of all places and emoluments granted so profusely by the -court, as the heaviest burthen of the people—because obliged to support -with their necessaries the luxuries of the great; who, detained as a -kind of guards at court, were not only prevented from enlivening the -provinces by their presence, but distressed them by drawing away their -produce. Distinguishing, however, between the pensions obtained by -intrigue, and those that were the reward of actual services,—he moved, -that the former should be suppressed, and the latter reduced. - -A motion was then made, that not only feudal rights, but all the -jurisdiction of the lords of manors, established on the same arbitrary -ground, should be abolished. - -The president now, according to rule, perceiving that no one attempted -to speak against the motion, was proceeding to put it to the vote—but he -paused, reproaching himself for attempting to put an end to such an -interesting discussion before such among the clergy, as wished to speak, -had had an opportunity of declaring their sentiments. - -This artful compliment roused the bishop of Nancy to declare, ‘that, the -continual and sympathizing witnesses of the misery of the people, the -clergy undoubtedly sighed after an opportunity to contribute to their -relief; and that the motion anticipated their desire: yet, to show their -entire approbation of it, he must be permitted to propose in addition, -that the price of the ransom of ecclesiastical feudalities should not be -converted to the profit of the actual incumbent; but thrown into a fund -for the relief of the poorer part of the body.’ - -The bishop of Chartres, after approving of the sacrifices already made, -demanded, that the suppression of the game laws should be joined to -them. This worthy prelate painted the injustice of those laws, not less -absurd than oppressive, which force the farmer to be the tranquil -spectator of the ravages of his harvest; condemning him to endure cruel -punishments, if he follow the first impulse of nature, which would lead -him to kill the animals that injure him. A number of the nobility -concurred in these sentiments; for who would be outdone in heroism? and -demanded the renunciations of these unnatural privileges. - -The president de Saint-Fargeau now rose, to demand an explanation -relative to the taxes of which the clergy and nobility offered to divide -the weight. ‘We have given,’ said he, ‘hopes to the people; but we ought -to give them something more substantial; we have decreed, that, -provisionally, the taxes should continue to be paid as they have been -hitherto; that is to say, we have reserved to the clergy and the -nobility the benefit of their exemptions, till they are expressly -revoked.—Why do we delay to pronounce this revocation, so strictly -imposed in almost all our instructions?—I propose, therefore, that not -only for the last six months, but from the very commencement of the -year, all privileged persons, without exception, support their -proportional part of the public impost.’ - -As the discussion of the propositions of the viscount de Noailles -advanced, the necessity of effacing all the traces of servitude became -more and more obvious; and all the members seemed eager to point out to -their colleagues the new sacrifices, that ought to be made to the good -of their country. One demanded the suppression of the exclusive right to -warrens;—another that of fisheries; a third the sale of offices, and -that justice should be administered gratuitously. - -The parish priest of Soupes, in the name of his brethren, joined the -oblations of the poor to the hecatombs, of which the most part cost -nothing to those who proposed them; ‘he declared, that, animated by a -desire to contribute to the relief of the people, they would relinquish, -from the present time, all their casual (or surplice) fees.’ This offer, -made with great simplicity of heart, affected the assembly; nor could a -very different proposal, made by the duke du Châtelet, respecting the -buying up of the tithes, efface it entirely. - -The transition to gaiety, when a member asked permission to offer also -his sparrow, was very natural in a people, who always mix a degree of -sarcastic pleasantry, the good-humoured face of which first appears, -with the most serious things. However, after the laughter ceased,—he -continued to make his demand more seriously, by observing, that an -object, trifling in appearance, was a real grievance to the husbandmen; -he moved, therefore, for the total demolition of all the _dove-cotes_ -throughout the kingdom. - -The respectable duke de la Rochefoucault, after having applauded all -these propositions, remarked, that the king had given the example of -freeing the serfs in his demesnes; and that the moment was come, to -extend this benefit to all the kingdom. This benevolent citizen did not -stop here; but added a wish, that, before the close of the sessions, the -assembly would take into consideration the fate of the unhappy victims -of covetousness, retained in slavery under another hemisphere. - -A member now made a motion, that excited testimonies of the most sincere -satisfaction from the assembly; it was to augment the stipends of the -parish priests, the most respectable part of the clergy. - -Several dignitaries of the church, possessing two or more benefices, -unwilling to be left behind in generosity, followed with a declaration, -that, conformable to the canons, they were resolved to limit themselves -to a single one. - -The deputies of the provinces enjoying peculiar privileges receiving a -hint, that the appellation of french citizens, all partaking the same -rights, was the most glorious they could bear, immediately came forward -to renounce them. A number of propositions, more or less important, -brought up the rear. The suppression of the first fruits; the rights of -wardenship; and the abrogation of those barbarous vows, which fetter -unfortunate beings for life.—In short, full and entire liberty for the -non-catholics.—Admission of all the citizens into all offices, -ecclesiastical, civil, and military.—Abolition of the plurality of -ecclesiastical pensions.—And then, not forgetting their national -character, it was proposed, that a medal should be struck in -commemoration of this night[25]; and a decree also passed, conferring -gratuitously on the king the august title, it might savour of a style -that scarcely befits the dignity of history, to say _nick-name_, of -_RESTORER OF FRENCH LIBERTY_. A deputation was accordingly appointed to -carry this new mark of homage to the king, and to request his presence -at a solemn _Te Deum_, to be celebrated throughout the kingdom.—And -behold night closed on the renowned 4th of august! - -It is not possible, says a journalist of the day, to give a distinct -description of the scenes which were continually shifting during this -sitting.—The vivacity of the sentiments, the quick transition from a -generous emotion to an epigrammatical sensation, the disorder which made -sensibility predominate over legislative dignity—the reciprocal -mistrust, and the combat of generosity—all diversified by the amiable -and seducing enthusiasm, so characteristic of the nation, made this an -epocha in the history of the revolution, on which the contemplative -mind, accustomed to consider the varied character of man, will ponder. - -Another observation, also, naturally occurs; for it is just to remark, -as a proof of the crudeness of the political notions, not to mention -principles, of these legislators, that all talked of _sacrifices_, and -boasted of generosity, when they were only doing common justice, and -making the obvious practical comment on the declaration of rights, which -they had passed in the morning.—If such were the rights of man—they were -more or less than men, who withheld them; and the resignation, rather a -resumption of their reason than a sacrifice of their property, was -called for, the moment they acknowledged the sovereignty of the people -by becoming their representatives. - -It is very possible, that the next morning the different parties could -scarcely believe, that they had more than the imperfect recollection of -a dream in their heads. So quick, indeed, had been the determinations of -the meeting, which encroached on the midnight hour, that they had not -the sober cast of thought to give them dignity. They seem in reality to -have been mostly the effect of passion, of ambition, or a vain desire of -vengeance; for those who were led only by enthusiasm, and the vanity of -the moment, esteemed their conduct as highly extravagant, when they had -time to cool. But the commons, who had the deepest views, knew to what -they had urged them, and would not let them recede. - -It is true, the abolition of these privileges and powers had been -strictly enjoined, in the instructions given to the deputies by their -constituents; but, it is doubtful, whether they would have been attended -to, had not the most sagacious foreseen, that the neglect might occasion -a civil war. Knowing, that then property would not be cautiously -respected, they began by attacking that of their presumptuous -adversaries; and actually surprised the assembly into the unanimous -renunciation of all revenues arising from feudal dues, and even into the -abolition of tithes. The nobility, also, who saw, that they should gain -more by the suppression of tithes, than they should lose by the -sacrifice of the obnoxious manorial fees, came into the same system. The -steps likewise taken to increase the salaries of the indigent clergy, -the most numerous part of the body in the assembly, secured their -influence. And by destroying the monopoly of municipal and judicial -employments, the support of the cities was obtained.—Thus the national -assembly, without a struggle, found itself omnipotent. Their only -enemies were individuals, seemingly of importance, it is true, as they -had been accustomed to lead the great corporate bodies; but what was -their empire, when all their former subjects were withdrawn from their -control? of these enemies, the church dignitaries were of the most -consequence; but, after the confiscation of ecclesiastical property, it -would have been impossible for the court, even supposing a -counter-revolution, to provide for them; as they would have been a dead -weight on the royalists. - -Unfortunately, almost every thing human, however beautiful or splendid -the superstructure, has, hitherto, been built on the vile foundation of -selfishness; virtue has been the watch-word, patriotism the trumpet, and -glory the banner of enterprize; but pay and plunder have been the real -motives. I do not mean to assert, that there were not any real patriots -in the assembly.—I know there were many. By real patriots, I mean men -who have studied politics, and whose ideas and opinions on the subject -are reduced to principles; men who make that science so much their -principal object, as to be willing to give up time, personal safety, and -whatever society comprehends in the phrase, _personal interest_, to -secure the adoption of their plans of reform, and the diffusion of -knowledge. - -But most of the leaders of the national assembly were guided by the -vulgar import of the word, a vain desire of applause, or deep schemes of -emolument. The Lameths, for instance, who had been the obsequious slaves -of the queen, were among the hottest advocates for popular power; and -throughout the assembly there were traces of a similar spirit. - -During the first struggle, the national assembly and the people were -divided into republicans and royalists; but we shall find, from the -moment all danger of disturbance appeared to be over, the higher class -were receding from the patriots, and recruiting from the royalists, to -form for themselves, under the appellation of the _impartiaux_, the -elements of a growing aristocracy. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - REFLECTIONS ON THE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. SECESSION OF -SEVERAL PSEUDO-PATRIOTS. SOCIETY RIPE FOR IMPROVEMENT THROUGHOUT EUROPE. -WAR NATURAL TO MEN IN A SAVAGE STATE. REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS - OF SOCIETY. THE ARTS—PROPERTY—INEQUALITY OF CONDITIONS—WAR. PICTURE OF - MANNERS IN MODERN FRANCE. - - -The despotism of the former government of France having formed the most -voluptuous, artificial characters, in the higher orders of society, -makes it less extraordinary to find the leading patriots men without -principles or political knowledge, excepting what they had casually -gleaned from books, only read to while away an idle hour not employed in -pleasure. So superficial indeed was their acquaintance with any subject -that demanded thought—and so great the degeneracy of their manners, it -was natural for every man of reflection to infer, that a considerable -length of time must elapse before the new order of things, which they -were about to create, could attain stability. But this was not a -discouraging consideration, when it was obvious, that important -advantages had already been gained by the people; and by the improvement -of morals, which would necessarily follow, it was to be presumed, that -the evils, the old system produced, would vanish before gradual -amendments; whilst, by a practical knowledge of political and civil -liberty, the great objects of the revolution would be ascertained; -namely, just laws, and equal liberty. - -The depravity of the higher class, and the ignorance of the lower -respecting practical political science, rendered them equally incapable -of thinking for themselves; so that the measures which flattered the -foibles, or gratified the weakness of either, were sure to have great -influence in producing a schism in the public mind; which gave an -opportunity to the enemies of the revolution to impede it’s course. And -the number of the lower class having it’s due weight, when they became -free, the most daring innovators became the greatest favourites with the -public, to whose will every prudential consideration was obliged to -yield. - -Much had been gained on the 4th of august by the nation: the old forms -of feudal vassalage were completely overturned—and France then stood at -the point the most advantageous in which a government was ever -constructed.—She stood fair as the dawn of her liberty, having shaken -off the prejudices of ages; and reason was tracing out the road, which -leads to virtue, glory, and happiness—Still ambitious selfishness, -melancholy drawback! governed too great a proportion of the assembly; -and the nobles and clergy who had been averse to the junction of the -orders now intriguing, every debate became a bitter or violent contest, -in which the popular advocates continued to gain an ascendency. - -This disposition to intrigue, and want of sincerity, so generally -remarked in the French character, laid the foundation of universal -distrust; and the coalesced parties, who had not been actuated by a love -of liberty, or regard for the prosperity of the kingdom, but dexterously -fell in with the spirit of the day, were not aware, that a watchful, -suspicious multitude, would be as likely to mistrust them in their turn, -as the court, which had thriven on the ruin of their happiness. This was -a blindness so gross, that it appears not a little wonderful, after -considering the different characters, who succeeded each other in the -ministry, or directed the helm of the state, that men should not acquire -sufficient judgment to adopt the integrity of conduct, with which alone -people in their senses, awake to their interest and rights, will ever be -satisfied. - -For a vain-glorious ambition, mixing with the abortions of giddy -patriotism, acts as the most fatal poison to political disquisitions, -during seasons of public ferment. The solid views of deep thinkers are -adapted to the spirit of the times, and the state of reason of their -compeers. And if they find, that the current of opinion, in overturning -inveterate prejudices, and the decayed walls of laws, that no longer -suit the manners, threatens the destruction of principles the most -sacred; they ought firmly to wait at their post, until, the fervour -abating, they could, by diverting the stream, gradually restrain it -within proper bounds.—But such patriotism is of slow growth; requiring -both a luxuriant public soil, and to be fostered by virtuous emulation. -Yet this emulation will never flourish in a country where intriguing -finesse, supplying the place of exalted merit, is the surest ladder to -distinction. It was by debasing artifices, under the old government, -that men obtained favour and consequence; and whilst such men, men who -were educated and ossified by the ancient _regimen_, act on the -political stage of France, mankind will be continually distressed and -amused by their tragic and comic exhibitions. - -Art applied to art, and stratagem against stratagem, may produce, for a -time, alternate defeats; but ultimately the most cunning will triumph. - -Vanity had made every frenchman a theorist, though political aphorisms -were never ascertained under the reign of tyranny or caprice. The -sagacious part of the nation, it is true, clearly perceived, that the -period was arrived, when a revolution was inevitable; but selfishness -being incompatible with noble, comprehensive, or laudable views, it is -not wonderful, keeping in sight the national foible, that at the meeting -of the states-general every deputy had his particular plan to suggest. -Few of the leaders embraced the same; and acting, without coalescing, -the most violent measures were sure to be the most applauded. We shall -find also, that some of the most strenuous advocates for reforming -abuses, and establishing a constitution, when their favourite systems -were exploded, peevishly retired in disgust: and by afterwards venting -it, have hurried into action a race of monsters, the most flagitious -that ever alarmed the world by the murder of innocents, and the mockery -of justice; and whilst the profanation of her temple, besprinkled with -blood, has branded with an indelible stigma the sanguinary brutes, the -deserters cannot escape without a share of the odium. - -Contemplating the progress of the revolution, a melancholy reflection is -produced by observing, that almost every precipitate event has been the -consequence of a tenacity and littleness of mind in the political -actors, whilst they were affecting a roman magnanimity of conduct—to -which they appear to have been as great strangers, as they were -destitute of legitimate patriotism, and political science. - -We have first seen Calonne, in order to secure his popularity and place, -proposing an equalization of taxes; and, when he found that his -consequence and power were lost, abandoning his country in disgust, and -employing the most unwarrantable means to involve his fellow citizens in -all the horrours of a civil war. We shall find, likewise, several other -declaimers, for their subsequent conduct obliges me to consider them in -no better light, when their plans were disregarded, if not acting the -same shameful part, yet leaving their posts; their patriotism expiring -with their popularity.—And it will be only necessary to keep in mind the -conduct of all the leading men, who have been active in the revolution, -to perceive, that the disasters of the nation have arisen from the same -miserable source of vanity, and the wretched struggles of selfishness; -when the crisis required, that all enlightened patriots should have -united and formed a band, to have consolidated the great work; the -commencement of which they had accelerated. In proportion as these -desertions have taken place, the best abilities which the country -contained have disappeared. And thus it has happened, that ignorance and -audacity have triumphed, merely because there were not found those -brilliant talents, which, pursuing the straight forward line of -political economy, arrest, as it were, the suffrage of every well -disposed citizen.—Such talents existed in France: and had they combined, -and directed their views by a pure love of their country, to one point; -all the disasters, which in overwhelming the empire have destroyed the -repose of Europe, would not have occurred to disgrace the cause of -freedom. - -Every great reform requires systematic management; and however lightly -weak daring heads may treat the gravity of such a remark, the pacific -progress of every revolution will depend, in a very material degree, on -the moderation and reciprocity of concessions made by the acting -parties. It is true, that in a nation chiefly celebrated for wit so much -prudence could scarcely be expected—yet that is not a sufficient reason -for condemning all the principles, that produced the revolution: for -liberty cannot be considered as belonging exclusively to any particular -climate, or temper of mind, as a physical effect. It was peculiarly -urgent, indeed, to form such a coalition, to counteract the dangerous -consequences of old prejudices. The stubborn habits of men, whom -personal interest kept firm to their ground, it was morally certain -would interrupt the tranquil march of the revolution: it would have been -prudent then for men, who agreed in the main objects, to have overlooked -trifling differences of opinion, till they were secured: and of this -several members seem to have been aware.[26] - -Had the conduct of men been sincere, and had they really pursued that -fraternity, about which they so continually declaimed; they might, in -consolidating the rights of french citizens, have established every -political advantage, which the then state of reason was capable of -adopting for the immediate benefit of society. But resentment bursting -forth, which had long lain concealed (the effect of servitude and -contumely), joined with the vanity of excelling all other nations in the -science of government, to produce an insolent audacity of conduct, -which, aiming at overturning every thing, discouraged the wavering, and -frightened the timid. Designing knaves then conceived the plan of rising -to eminence by the accumulating foibles of the multitude, who, loosened -from all restraint, were easily caught by the insidious arts of the most -contemptible anarchists. - -The object of those monsters, who were meditating the violation of the -sacred ties of honour and humanity, was early perceived by the more -penetrating; but instead of opposing themselves to their designs, they -for the most part became initiated into their clubs; whilst others, more -haughty, though perhaps less under the direction of principles,—if there -were any among them,—emigrated, leaving their country verging towards -the whirlpool of civil discord, and all it’s concomitant wretchedness. - -It is necessary for us to attend closely to these considerations, in -order to be enabled to form a just opinion of the various revolutions -which have succeeded each other:—because, from a superficial view of -things of this nature, we frequently attribute to the passions, or -innate turpitude of man, what was merely the effect of moral depravity. -Hence it has happened, that so many of the admirers of the revolution, -in its infancy, now talk of extravagant innovations, tending to overturn -all the barriers of justice,—to trample on the feelings of humanity, and -to destroy every thing splendid and beautiful,—the production of ages, -industry, taste, and learning. - -But this revolution did not interest frenchmen alone; for it’s influence -extending throughout the continent, all the passions and prejudices of -Europe were instantly set afloat. That most favoured part of the globe -had risen to an astonishing pre-eminence, though every where it’s -inhabitants have had to contend with distinctions the most unnatural, -and prejudices the most veteran. But, having overcome those formidable -obstacles to the happiness of her citizens, society seems to have -arrived at that point of civilization, when it becomes necessary for -governments to meliorate it’s condition, or a dissolution of their power -and authority will be the consequence of a wilful disregard of the -intimations of the times. This is a truth, which the people have -perceived; but which the parasites of courts, and the advocates for -despotism have not been willing to believe. And besides, their support, -it might be said existence, being attached to the continuation of those -savage abuses, they have fought with unusual intrepidity in their -defence. Thus wars have been the business of courts, in which they have -artfully interested the passions of the people. - -Men in a savage state, without intellectual amusements, or even fields -or vineyards to employ them, depending for subsistance on the casual -supply of the chace, seem continually to have made war, one with -another, or nation with nation; and the booty taken from their enemies -formed the principal object of contest, because war was not, like -industry, a kind of abridgement of their liberty. But the social -feelings of man, after having been exercised by a perilous life, flow -over in long stories, when he reaches garrulous old age. Whilst his -listening progeny wondering at his feats, their hearts are fired with -the ambition of equaling their fire. His soul also warmed by sympathy, -feeling for the distresses of his fellow creatures, and particularly for -the helpless state of decrepit age; he begins to contemplate, as -desirable, associations of men, to prevent the inconveniencies arising -from loneliness and solitude. Hence little communities living together -in the bonds of friendship, securing to them the accumulated powers of -man, mark the origin of society: and tribes growing into nations, -spreading themselves over the globe, form different languages, which -producing different interests, and misunderstandings, excite distrust. - -The invention of the arts now affords him employment; and it is in -proportion to their extension that he becomes domestic, and attached to -his home. For whilst they were in their infancy his restless temper, and -savage manners, still kept alive his passion for war and plunder; and we -shall find, if we look back to the first improvement of man, that as his -ferocity wore away, the right of property grew sacred. The prowess or -abilities of the leaders of barbarians gave them likewise an ascendency -in their respective dynasties; which gaining strength in proportion to -the ignorance of the age, produced the distinctions of men, from which -the great inequality of conditions has originated; and they have been -preserved long since the necessity has ceased to exist. - -During the reign of ignorance, the disagreements of states could be -settled only by combats; and the art of dexterously murdering seems to -have decided differences, where reason should have been the arbitrator. -The custom then of settling disputes at the point of the bayonet, in -modern Europe, has been justified by the example of barbarians; and -whilst fools continually argue from the practice of inhuman savages, -that wars are necessary evils, courts have found them convenient to -perpetuate their power: thus slaughter has furnished a plausible pretext -for peculation. - -Fortunately, in spite of the various impediments that have thwarted the -advancement of knowledge, the blessings of society have been -sufficiently experienced to convince us, that the only solid good to be -expected from a government must result from the security of our persons -and property. And domestic felicity has given a mild lustre to human -happiness superiour to the false glory of sanguinary devastation, or -magnificent robberies. Our fields and vineyards have thus gradually -become the principal objects of our care—and it is from this general -sentiment governing the opinion of the civilized part of the world, that -we are enabled to contemplate, with some degree of certainty, the -approaching age of peace. - -All that could be done by a body of manners, without a soul of morals, -to improve mankind, had been tried in France—The result was polished -slavery; and such an inordinate love of pleasure, as led the majority to -search only for enjoyment, till the tone of nature was destroyed. Yet -some few really learned the true art of living; giving that degree of -elegance to domestic intercourse, which, prohibiting gross familiarity, -alone can render permanent the family affections, whence all the social -virtues spring. - -It is a mistake to suppose that there was no such thing as domestic -happiness in France, or even in Paris. For many french families, on the -contrary, exhibited an affectionate urbanity of behaviour to each other, -seldom to be met with where a certain easy gaiety does not soften the -difference of age and condition. The husband and wife, if not lovers, -were the civilest friends and the tenderest parents in the world—the -only parents, perhaps, who really treated their children like friends; -and the most affable masters and mistresses. Mothers were also to be -found, who, after suckling their children, paid a degree of attention to -their education, not thought compatible with the levity of character -attributed to them; whilst they acquired a portion of taste and -knowledge rarely to be found in the women of other countries. Their -hospitable boards were constantly open to relations and acquaintance, -who, without the formality of an invitation, enjoyed there cheerfulness -free from restraint; whilst more select circles closed the evening, by -discussing literary subjects. In the summer, when they retired to their -mansion houses, they spread gladness around, and partook of the -amusements of the peasantry, whom they visited with paternal solicitude. -These were, it is true, the rational few, not numerous in any -country—and where is led a more useful or rational life? - -In the provinces, likewise, more simplicity of manners prevailing, their -morals were more pure: though family pride, as in England, made the most -noble house the royal family of each village, who visited the grand -court only to import it’s follies. Besides, in France, the women have -not those factitious, supercilious manners, common to the english; and -acting more freely, they have more decision of character, and even more -generosity. Rousseau has taught them also a scrupulous attention to -personal cleanliness, not generally to be seen elsewhere: their coquetry -is not only more agreeable, but more natural: and not left a prey to -unsatisfied sensations, they were less romantic indeed than the english; -yet many of them possessed delicacy of sentiment. - -It is, perhaps, in a state of comparative idleness—pursuing employments -not absolutely necessary to support life, that the finest polish is -given to the mind, and those personal graces, which are instantly felt, -but cannot be described: and it is natural to hope, that the labour of -acquiring the substantial virtues, necessary to maintain freedom, will -not render the french less pleasing, when they become more respectable. - - - - - AN - HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW - OF THE - FRENCH REVOLUTION. - - - - - _BOOK IV._ - - - - - CHAPTER I. - OPINIONS ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOURTH OF AUGUST. DISORDERS -OCCASIONED BY THOSE TRANSACTIONS. NECKER DEMANDS THE ASSEMBLY’S SANCTION - TO A LOAN. A LOAN DECREED. TITHES ABOLISHED. DEBATE ON THE DECLARATION - OF RIGHTS. THE FORMATION OF A CONSTITUTION. DEBATE ON THE EXECUTIVE - POWER. THE SUSPENSIVE VETO ADOPTED. PRETENDED AND REAL VIEWS OF THE - COMBINATION OF DESPOTS AGAINST FRANCE. DEBATE ON THE CONSTITUTION OF A - SENATE. MEANS OF PEACEABLY EFFECTING A REFORM SHOULD MAKE A PART OF - EVERY CONSTITUTION. - - -The numerous offerings made to their country by the deputies, on the 4th -of august, excited loud applause; but not without a mixture of sarcastic -censure, and murmurs of disapprobation. - -Some blamed the decrees, which, said they, have sacrificed the property -of several thousand families to the vain desire of popularity.—Others -complained of the neglect of those forms, by which every assembly, that -aspires at putting some maturity into it’s decrees, ought to direct it’s -debates;—they disapproved of an afternoon sitting;—of the rapid -succession of subjects, not allowing time for any to be weighed;—of the -multiplicity of them;—and of the continual acclamations, which rendered -a calm discussion physically impossible.—‘What!’ they continued, ‘shall -the most important business always be treated with the levity, which -characterized us before we deserved to be termed a nation? Eternally the -sport of our vivacity, a happy turn decides with us the most serious -point; and gay sallies are ever our substitutes for arguments.—We do -madly the wisest things; and even our reason is always connected by some -filament or other to inconsistency.—The national assembly had been a -long time reproached for dwelling on trifling objects; and not attending -sufficiently to the promotion of general good.—When suddenly—in a single -night, more than twenty important laws are decided by an uproar. So much -done, in such a short time, is so astonishing, that it appears like a -dream.’ - -In reply it was said—‘Why deliberate, when all are agreed?—Does not a -general good always appear self-evident?—Was it not sufficient to -declare these patriotic propositions to prove their justness?—The first -person, who pointed out a new tribute to the public interest, only gave -utterance to what we all before felt—there was no need then of -discussion or eloquence, to make that be adopted, which had already been -resolved by the greater number of the deputies, and commanded by the -awful authority of the nation, in their mandates.—The assembly might -have proceeded more methodically; but the result could not have been -more advantageous. It seemed as if all the old effects, all the -mouldering titles of feudal oppressions were then put up to auction: and -the kind of mistrust of the different orders, which provoked reciprocal -concessions, was still for the public good.’ - -The nobles and clergy of the provinces, who had not been carried away by -the enthusiasm of the 4th of august, felt themselves particularly -aggrieved. Those who were recently noble did not like to mix again on -equal terms in towns where they had received the homage paid to princes; -and the people, eager to exercise their liberty, began to hunt down the -game, regardless of the mischief they did to the standing corn. The very -concessions of the nobility seemed to rouse the vengeance it ought to -have allayed; and the populace vented their rage by burning the castles, -which had been, as it were, legally dismantled of their feudal -fortifications. - -The clergy, in particular, complained, that their deputies had exceeded -all bounds in voting away the private property of the body; for they -would not allow, that tithes came within the description of feudal -tenures. The want of provision, likewise, tended to make the people -clamour about present grievances, without suffering the prospect of -future comfort and respectability to have it’s due force towards calming -their minds. All, therefore, flew to arms, and three millions of men -wearing the military garb, showed the natural disposition of the nation; -and their present resolve, no longer to couch supinely under oppression. -Many excesses were the consequence of this sudden change; and it is -notorious, that the people, in some instances, became the instruments of -the routed party; who continued to use every stratagem to render the -nation dissatisfied with the revolution. - -It is the nature of man, either in a savage state or living in society, -to protect his property; and it is wise in a government to encourage -this spirit. For the example now displayed by France is a notable proof -of the inexpediency of standing armies, so long as the people have an -interest in supporting the political system under which they live. The -national assembly, aware of this, invited the militia and the -municipalities, to endeavour to quell the disorders which did violence -to persons and property; and they were particularly requested to take -the most watchful care, that the convoys of wheat and flour were not -stopped by the idle and lawless. For several of the most fatal tumults -had originated from this cause. - -The decrees of the 4th of august, were then brought forward to be -examined and explained; and some attempts were made to argue away the -essence of many of the vaunted sacrifices.—But the discussion was -interrupted, to attend to business of a more pressing nature. The -present state of the nation was most alarming; and the ministers, not -knowing how to act under the new trammels of responsibility, came to -represent to the assembly;—that the laws were without force;—the courts -of justice without activity;—and they requested them, immediately to -point out the coercive measures necessary to give to the executive -authority the influence it had lost.—‘For,’ observed they, ‘whether the -irritated sense of the abuses, which the king wishes to reform, and you -desire to proscribe for ever, have led the people astray; or, the -declaration of an universal regeneration have shaken the various powers -upon which the social order reposed—or whatever, in fact, be the cause, -gentlemen, the truth is, that public order and tranquillity are -disturbed in aloft every part of the kingdom.’ - -Necker, afterwards, having explained the deplorable state of the -finances, the extraordinary expences, and the diminution in the produce -of the revenue, demanded, in the name of the king, that the assembly -would sanction a loan of thirty millions of livres, to fulfil the -engagements, and discharge the inevitable expenditure of the two -approaching months; by which time, he presumed, the constitution would -be nearly established. Thinking also, that the patriotism of -moneylenders was not to be reckoned upon, he proposed to add to the five -per cent. he mentioned some allurements of speculation, to quicken the -determination of the lenders—and he further inferred, that private -interest would then tend to quiet the kingdom, whilst they were -advancing in the formation of the constitution, which was to secure it’s -future tranquillity, and provide a permanent revenue. - -This proposal produced the most warm and loud applause.—One member -proposed, that the loan should instantly be voted in the presence of the -minister, as a mark of their entire satisfaction—another offered six -hundred thousand livres as a security, that he would raise the loan in -his own province. This effervescence, so contagious, which is after all -only physical sensibility, excited by a commotion of the animal spirits, -proves, that a considerable length of time is necessary to accustom men -to exercise their rights with deliberation; that they may be able to -defend themselves from a kind of instinctive confidence in men; and to -make them substitute respect for principles, to a blind faith in -persons, even of the most distinguished abilities.—But to elevate a -numerous assembly to this calm grandeur; to that permanent dignity, -which represses the emotions of the moment, demands, it is probable, a -more advanced state of reason. - -Lally-Tolendal supported the necessity of adopting the measures proposed -for the obtaining a loan to supply the exigencies of government, which -were become very urgent; and he refuted the objection, made by several -deputies, who were against the grant, that in their instructions they -had been strictly enjoined not to sanction any tax or loan before the -constitution was formed. On this side Mirabeau ranged himself; for with -all his great talents and superiority of genius, he could not avoid -envying inferiour abilities, when they attracted the least popularity. -He therefore, with plausible rhetoric, but shallow arguments, opposed -the loan; and with great parade moved, that the deputies should offer -their individual credit, instead of departing from the very letter of -their instructions. This was one of those instances of pretended -disinterestedness, or false patriotism, calculated to dazzle the people, -whilst it involved the nation in fresh embarrassments. - -The plan was referred to the consideration of the committee, appointed -to make financial reports: and they accordingly acknowledged the -necessity of a prompt supply; but thought, that the loan might now be -obtained without the additional advantages, which Necker mentioned as a -necessary bait. The discussion was then renewed with great heat, and -even personality; till at last the interest of the loan was fixed at -four and an half per cent.; and to slip through the knot they were -afraid to cut, it was to be sanctioned under the wing of the decrees of -the 4th of august. - -It did not, however, prove productive; for in the course of three weeks, -only two millions, six hundred thousand livres were subscribed. And this -delay of business induced the assembly to adopt, with less scruple, -another proposal for a fresh loan, instead of the one that did not -promise to answer, at a rate less advantageous to the nation: or rather -they yielded to the necessity, into which they had plunged themselves; -and lest the mode of obtaining it to the executive power, in spite of -their former objection. But it was not an easy task to inspire the -bankers and money-holders with sufficient faith in the new government, -to induce them to come forward to support it; besides, the previous -discussion had converted caution into timidity; and the more desperate -the state of the finances appeared, the stronger grew the suspicion, -that threw insurmountable obstacles in the way of a temporary relief. - -Settling the precise terms of the decrees, which were to abolish -feudal vassalage, the question respecting the including of tithes was -agitated with most earnestness; and the objections urged against the -abolition were not only ingenious, but reasonable[27]. The abbé Sieyes -spoke with great good sense, asserting, ‘that the tithes were not a -tax levied on the nation; but a rent-charge, for which a proper -allowance had been made to the present possessors of the estates, to -not one of whom they actually belonged. He, therefore, insisted, that, -if the sacrifice were necessary, it ought to be made to the public, to -relieve the people, and not to enrich the proprietors; who were, -generally speaking, of the most opulent part of the community.’ He -advised the assembly to be on their guard, lest avarice, under the -mask of zeal, should deceive them, leading the nation to reward rather -than indemnify the nobility. The fact was, that the landed interest -were only resigning obsolete privileges, which they scarcely dared -exercise, to secure a solid advantage. Society has hitherto been -constructed in such a vicious manner, that to relieve the poor you -must benefit the rich. The present subject was a delicate one; the -abolition of tithes would remove a very heavy vexatious clog, that had -long hung on the neck of industry; yet it were to be wished, that it -could have been settled in such a way as not to have secured a great -pecuniary advantage to the nobility. For though it was physically -impossible, to make this sacrifice to society at large immediately; -because the proprietors, and more particularly the leaseholders of the -estates, could not have redeemed the tithes, without distressing -themselves to a degree, that would nearly have stopped the course of -husbandry; not to mention agricultural improvements, so necessary in -France, and to be looked for as the fruit of liberty:—yet a gradual -tax on the original landlord would have prevented the nobility from -being the great gainers by their so much extolled disinterestedness, -in their fallacious sacrifice of privileges. Because, for all real -property they were to be reimbursed; and for the obnoxious feudal -tenures, such as personal servitude, with others they were ashamed to -enumerate as being due from man to man, the tithes were an ample -indemnity; or more properly speaking clear profit, except to those who -parted with the plumes which raised them above their fellows with -great regret. It was, indeed, very difficult to separate the evil from -the good, that would redound to the nation by the doing away of this -tax.—The clergy, however, cut the debate short, by resigning their -right, offering to trust to the justice of the public for the stipend -in return necessary to enable them to support the dignity of their -function. - -On the 13th, therefore, the whole discussion closed; for the other -articles did not admit of much disputation. The president accordingly -waited on the king, who received his new title with the decrees, to -which he afterwards made some objections, though the assembly considered -them as virtually sanctioned[28]. - -A committee of five had been employed to digest a declaration of rights, -to precede the constitution. The opinion of those, who thought that this -declaration ought to have been kept back, has already been alluded to; -yet the subject seems to require a little further consideration. And, -perhaps, it will appear just to separate the character of the -philosopher, who dedicates his exertions to promote the welfare, and -perfection of mankind, carrying his views beyond any time he chooses to -mark; from that of the politician, whose duty it is to attend to the -improvement and interest of the time in which he lives, and not -sacrifice any present comfort to a prospect of future perfection or -happiness. If this definition be just, the philosopher naturally becomes -a passive, the politician an active character. For though the desire of -loudly proclaiming the grand principles of liberty to extend them -quickly, be one of the most powerful a benevolent man, of every -description of mind, feels; he no sooner wishes to obey this impulse, -than he finds himself placed between two rocks.—Truth commands him to -say all; wisdom whispers to him to temporize.—A love of justice would -lead him to bound over these cautious restraints of prudence; did not -humanity, enlightened by a knowledge of human nature, make him dread to -purchase the good of posterity too dearly, by the misery of the present -generation. - -The debates respecting the adoption of the declaration of rights became -very spirited; and much heterogeneous matter was introduced, to lengthen -the discussion, and heat the disputants, as the different articles were -reviewed. The article respecting religion particularly arrested the -attention of the assembly, and produced one of those tumultuous scenes, -which have so often disgraced their deliberations. The intolerant -sentiments uttered; and even the insertion of some amendments, which -could not, without a contradiction in terms, find a place in a -declaration of rights; proved, that the assembly contained a majority, -who were still governed by prejudices inimical to the full extent of -that liberty, which is the unalienable right of each citizen, when it -does not infringe on the equal enjoyment of the same portion by his -neighbour[29]. The most sensible part of the assembly asserted, that -religion ought not to be mentioned, unless to declare, that the free -exercise of it was a right in common with the free utterance of all -opinions; which came under civil cognizance only when they assumed a -form, namely, when they produced effects, that clashed with the laws; -and even then it was the criminal action, not the passive opinion, which -was proscribed by the penalty of punishment. - -In this declaration are found the principles of political and civil -liberty, introduced by a very solemn exordium:—Declaring ‘that, as -ignorance, forgetfulness, and contempt of the rights of men, are the -sole causes of public grievances, and of the corruption of governments, -the assembly had resolved to re-establish, in a solemn declaration, the -natural, imprescriptible, and sacred rights of man; in order that this -declaration, constantly present to all the members of the social body, -may continually remind them of their rights, and of their duties; that, -having it in their power every moment to compare the acts of the -legislative and executive authorities with the purpose of all political -institutions, they may the more respect them; and that the remonstrances -of the citizens, founded, in future, on simple and incontestible -principles, may always tend to support the constitution, and to promote -the happiness of the whole community.’ - -Some temporary business, towards restoring public tranquillity, and to -give force to the laws, insulted by the licentious conduct of men -inebriated merely by the expectation of freedom, scented from afar, -being dispatched, the formation of a constitution became the standing -labour of the assembly. - -The first question naturally fell under this head—what share of power -ought the king to be allowed to possess in the legislature? This was an -important consideration for men, who were all politicians in theory; and -many of whom, having suffered under the absolute sway of the king’s -ministers, still felt the smart of their oppression, and a contempt for -the power that authorized their dominion: whilst the blind zealots for -the indefeasible rights of kings, though they were ashamed of the -phrase, heated the imagination of their party, by the most inflated -encomiums on the benefits arising from extensive kingly prerogatives, -and vapid remarks on the british constitution, and other forms of -government, obviously to display their erudition. The most noisy -indecorus debates ensued, and the assembly seemed to meet rather to -quarrel than deliberate. A division the most decided consequently took -place; which, under different appellations, and professing different -principles, has ever since continued to convulse the senate; if the -legislative assembly, or the convention, deserve a name so dignified. - -In discussing whether the royal sanction should be necessary to the -validity of the acts of the legislative body, a variety of extraneous -subjects, and others prematurely brought forward, so entangled the main -question, as to render it difficult to give a clear and brief account of -the debates; without lending a degree of reasonableness to them, that -the manner of arguing, rudely personal, and loudly uncivil, seemed to -destroy. For good lungs soon became more necessary in the assembly than -sound arguments, to enable a speaker to silence the confusion of -tongues; and make known his opinion to men, who were eager only to -announce their own. Thus modest men had no chance to be heard, though -persuasion dwelt on their lips: and even Mirabeau, with his commanding -eloquence, and justness of thought, procured attention as much by the -thundering emphasis, which he gave to his periods, as by his striking -and forcible association of ideas. - -As a nation, the french are certainly the most eloquent people in the -world; their lively feelings giving the warmth of passion to every -argument they attempt to support. And speaking fluently, vanity leads -them continually to endeavour to utter their sentiments, without -considering whether they have any thing to recommend them to notice, -beside a happy choice of expressions. Only thinking then of speaking, -they are the most impatient of hearers, coughing, hemming, and scraping -with their feet, most audibly, to beguile the time. Laying aside also, -in the assembly, not only their national politeness, but the common -restraints of civility; good manners seldom supply the place of reason, -when they are angry. And as the slightest contradiction sets them on -fire, three parts out of four of the time, which ought to have been -employed in serious investigation, was consumed in idle vehemence. -Whilst the applauses and hisses of the galleries increased the tumult; -making the vain still more eager to mount the stage. Thus every thing -contributing to excite the emotions, which lead men only to court -admiration, the good of the people was too often sacrificed to the -desire of pleasing them. And so completely was the tide of their -affection for the king turned, that they seemed averse to his having any -portion of legislative authority in the new constitution. - -The duke de Liancourt divided the question respecting the share of power -he was to enjoy as a part of the government. _1st. Is the royal sanction -indispensably necessary, to give the actual force of law to the decrees -of the national assembly? 2dly. Ought the king to be an integrant -portion of the legislature?_ In England the phrase _royal assent_ has -been adopted, as expressive of a positive act; but the french, rather -choosing to distinguish the same act of power by a negative, fixed on -the latin word _veto_, _I forbid_. And then it became a question, how -far this _veto_ ought to extend, supposing the prince to be invested -with it.—Was it decisively to obstruct the enaction of a law passed by -the legislative body? or only to suspend it, till an appeal could be -made to the people by a new election? - -The assembly in this instance seem to have acted with strange confusion -of mind, or a total ignorance of the nature of a mixed government: for -either the question was nugatory, or a king useless. Lally-Tolendal, -Mounier, and Mirabeau, argued for the absolute _veto_.—‘Two powers,’ -says Mirabeau, ‘are necessary to the existence of the body-politic, in -the orderly discharge of it’s functions:—To will—and to act. By the -first, society establishes the regulations which ought all to conspire -to one end—the good of all:—By the second, these regulations are carried -into execution; and public authority is exerted, to make society triumph -over the obstacles, which might arise from the opposite wills of -individuals. In a great nation, these two powers cannot be exercised by -the people: whence comes the necessity of representatives, to exercise -the faculty of willing, or the legislative power; and also of another -species of representation, to exercise the faculty of acting; or, the -executive power.’ - -He further insists, that ‘the possession of this power is the only way -to render a king useful, and to enable him to act as a check on the -legislative body: the majority of which might tyrannize in the most -despotic manner, even in the senate, to the very expulsion of the -members, who dared to thwart the measures they could not approve. For -under a weak prince, a little time and address alone would be necessary, -to establish legally the dominion of an army of aristocrats; who, making -the royal authority only the passive instrument of their will, might -replunge the people into their old state of debasement. - -‘The prince, therefore, being the perpetual representative of the -people, as the deputies are their representatives elected at certain -periods, is equally their safe-guard. - -‘No person exclaims against the _veto_ of the national assembly; which -is, in reality, only a right the people have confided in their -representatives, to oppose every proposition, that would tend to -re-establish ministerial despotism. Why then object to the _veto_ of the -prince, which is but another right, especially confided in him by the -people, because he and they are equally interested to prevent the -establishment of an aristocracy?’ - -He proceeds to prove, ‘that, whilst the legislative body is respectable, -the _veto_ of the king cannot do harm, though it is a salutary check on -their deliberations; and granting, that the influence of the crown has a -tendency to increase, a permanent assembly would be a sufficient -counterpoise for the royal negative. Let us,’ he concludes, ‘have an -annual national assembly, let ministers be made responsible; and the -royal sanction, without any specified restrictions, but, in fact, -perfectly limited, will be the palladium of national liberty, and the -most precious exercise of the liberty of the people.’ - -Having suffered by the abuse of absolute power, many of the deputies, -afraid to entrust their constitutional monarchs with any, opposed the -_veto_; lest it should palsy the operations of the national assembly, -and bring back the old despotism of the cabinet. The discussion likewise -extending beyond it’s walls, was as superficially and as warmly treated -by those, who thought only of the old government, when they talked of -framing a new one. And as the people were now led by hot-headed men, who -found it the shortest way to popularity, to deliver exaggerated elogiums -on liberty, they began to look for a degree of freedom in their -government, incompatible with the present state of their manners; and of -which they had no perfect idea. It is not then surprising, that it -should become a mark of patriotism, to oppose the _veto_; though -Mirabeau never gave a stronger proof of his, than in supporting it; -convinced that it was the interest of the people he was espousing, -whilst he risked their favour. - -The will of the public was, in reality, so decided, that they would -scarcely allow the _veto_ to be mentioned; and the assembly, to steer a -middle course, adopted the _suspensive veto_; after considering some -other important elements of the constitution, which seemed to them to be -intimately connected with the royal prerogative. - -Certainly a few of the most judicious deputies must have perceived the -impolicy of the _suspensive veto_; and they could only have agreed to -fall into the measure, under an idea that the minds of the people not -being completely ripe for a total change of government—from absolute -despotism to complete republicanism, it was politically necessary still -to maintain the shadow of monarchy. ‘To assign,’ says one of the -deputies, ‘a term to the _veto_, is at last to force the king to execute -a law of which he disapproves: and making him thus a blind and passive -instrument, a secret war is fomented between him and the national -assembly. It is, in short, to refuse him the _veto_; though those who -refuse it have not the courage openly to say, that France has no longer -any need of a king.’ - -But, from the commencement of the revolution, the misery of France has -originated from the folly or art of men, who have spurred the people on -too fast; tearing up prejudices by the root, which they should have -permitted to die gradually away. Had they, for example, allowed the king -to have enjoyed the share in the government promised by the _absolute -veto_, they would have let him gently down from the altitude of -unlimited sway, without making him feel the ground he lost in the -descent. And this semblance of his former authority would have gratified -him; or rather, breaking his fall, have induced him to submit patiently -to other restraints, less humiliating to him, though more beneficial to -the people. For it is evident from experience, and might have been -foreseen, that the determination on this question was one grand source -of the continual bickerings of the assembly with the court and ministry; -who took care to make the king see, that he was set up as an idol, -merely to receive the mock respect of the legislative body, till they -were quite sure of the people. - -Could it, indeed, have been ascertained, that Louis, or rather the -queen, would have tamely born with such a diminution of power, this -measure might have been deemed prudent; because it was then morally -certain, that the monarchy would have expired naturally with the -dissolution of the king. But, when the pride and restless spirit of the -queen were well known; and that it was probable, from the whole tenour -of her former life, she would contrive to have the ministry composed of -the most dissolute and headstrong men; it must appear the height of -folly only to have left the king the power of perplexing their -proceedings, after they had piqued his pride. And when, to give, as it -were, efficiency to the conspiracies, which would naturally be formed by -the courtiers, to recover the authority rest from them, we find they -afterwards voted such an enormous sum to defray the civil list, as was -sufficient to move like puppets hundreds of the corrupt french; it must -be confessed, that their absurdity and want of discernment appear not -less reprehensible, than the subsequent conduct of the court flagitious. - -The constitutional committee had given it as their opinion, that the -contested _veto_ did not concern the national assembly then existing; -which, being a constituting body, it was their duty to see that the -constitution was accepted, not sanctioned. This report carries with it -an air of imbecility, which renders it almost incredible: for, if the -assembly were determined to oblige the king to accept their decrees, -they had better have told him so with becoming dignity, and made -provision for his retiring from a post in which he was useless. Instead -of this, he was in a manner shuffled off the throne; and treated with -cruelty as well as contempt. It would have been at least ingenuous, and -might be deemed magnanimous, had they allowed him to retire with a third -of the stipend, which they afterwards voted him, when he continued to -appear like a theatrical king, only to excite the pity of the vulgar, -and to serve as a pretext for the despots of Europe to urge in -justification of their interference. The liberating an imprisoned -monarch was a plausible motive, though the real one was obviously to -stop the progress of principles, which, once permitted to extend -themselves, would ultimately sap the foundation of their tyranny, and -overturn all the courts in Europe. Pretending then only to have in view -the restoration of order in France, and to free an injured king, they -aimed at crushing the infant brood of liberty. - -Similar sentiments must have occurred to every thinking person, who ever -seriously reflected on the conduct of the germanic courts, which has -actually destroyed the tranquillity of Europe for centuries past. War is -the natural consequence of their wretched systems of government.—They -are supported by military legions; and without wars they could not have -veteran soldiers. Their aggrandisement then, and half-lived pleasures, -cast in a mould of ceremony, spring out of the miseries, and are -fostered by the blood of human beings; whom they have sacrificed with as -much _sang froid_, sending them in herds to slaughter, as the -hard-hearted savage romans viewed the horrid spectacle of their -prize-fighters; from the bare idea of which the mind turns, disgusted -with the whole empire, and particularly with the government that dared -to boast of it’s heroism and respect for justice, when not only -tolerating, but encouraging such enormities. - -To the sympathizing princes of the continent, therefore, the king should -have been given up; or, if it were necessary to humour the prejudice of -the nation, and still suffer frenchmen to have a most christian king, or -_grand monarque_, to amuse them by devouring capons or partridges before -them; it would have been but just, both in reason and policy, to have -allowed him such a portion of liberty and power, as would have formed a -consistent government. This would have prevented those clamours, which -were sure to draw together an host of enemies, to impede the settlement -of rational laws; flowing from a constitution, that would peaceably have -undermined despotism, had it been allowed gradually to change the -manners of the people. Though had this power been granted, it might have -been productive perhaps of great inconveniences; as it is not likely, -that a court accustomed to exercise unbridled sway would contentedly -have co-operated with the legislature, when possessing only reasonable -prerogatives. - -Some apprehensions of this kind may have occurred to the assembly: -though it rather appears, that they were either influenced by a -ridiculous pride, not being willing to take the british constitution, so -far as it respected the prerogative, for their model; or intimidated by -the people, who, during the long debate, had outrageously expressed -their will, and even handed about a list of proscriptions, in which the -_vetoists_ were denounced as traitors worthy of death. Be this as it -may, they determined on a half-way measure, that irritated the court -without appeasing the people. Having previously decreed, that the -national assembly should be permanent, that is always existing, instead -of being dissolved at the close of every session, they resolved, that -the _veto_ of the king should suspend the enaction of a law only during -two legislatures. ‘The wisdom of this law,’ says Rabaud, ‘was -universally acknowledged:’ though the folly of it rather merited -universal reprobation. - -From the manner indeed, in which the assembly was constituted, it was to -be dreaded, that it’s members would not long sustain the dignity, with -which they commenced the career of their business: because the party, -that opposed with such bitterness the junction of the three orders, -still opposing with rancorous heat, and wily stratagems, every measure -proposed by the really patriotic members, were indirectly seconded by -the insincere and wavering; who, having no motive to govern their -conduct, but the most detestable selfishness, the offspring of vanity or -avarice, always took the side best calculated to gratify the crude -wishes of the multitude. And this unyoked multitude, now suddenly -initiated into the science of civil and natural rights, all become -consummate politicians, began to control the decisions of a divided -assembly, rendered timid by intestine broils. - -There were besides many circumstances, which tended to make any attempt -to counteract this influence very difficult. At the meeting of the -states-general, the whole court party, with the greater proportion of -both the nobility and clergy, were in opposition to the third-estate: -and though the number of the latter was equal to that of the other two -orders, they had also to contend with the inveterate prejudices of ages. -The court had thought only of devising means to crush them; and had the -soldiery acted with the blind zeal common to men of this profession, it -would of itself have been sufficient to have completely disconcerted -their views. This conduct of the cabinet, and the discovery of the -atrocious conspiracy, which had been formed against the people and their -idolized representatives, provoking the resentment and vengeance of the -nation, palsied all authority, and rendered the laws that had emanated -from it contemptible. To oppose this torrent of opinions, like an -impetuous current, that after heavy rains, defying all resistance, bears -away on it’s raging bosom every obstacle, required the most enlightened -prudence and determined resolution. - -So much wisdom and firmness seldom fall to the lot of any country: and -it could scarcely have been expected from the depraved and volatile -french; who proudly, or ignorantly, determining to follow no political -track, seem to have fixed on a system proper only for a people in the -highest stage of civilization;—a system of itself calculated to -disorganize the government, and throw embarrassments into all it’s -operations. This was an errour so gross, as to demand the severest -animadversions. For this political plan, ever considered as utopian by -all men who had not traced the progress of reason, or calculated the -degree of perfectibility the human faculties are capable of attaining, -was, it might be presumed, the most improper for the degenerate society -of France. The exertions of the very admirers of the revolution were, -likewise, far from being permanent; and they could hardly have been -expected to possess sufficient virtue to support a government, the -duration of which they at least feared would be short. The men termed -experienced believed it physically impossible; and no arguments were -cogent enough to convince them of the contrary: so that, they leaving -the task to mock patriots and enthusiasts, a fresh odium has been thrown -on principles, which, notwithstanding are gaining ground. Things must be -left to their natural course; and the accelerating progress of truth -promises to demonstrate, what no arguments have hitherto been able to -prove. - -The foundation of liberty was laid in the declaration of rights; the -first three articles of which contain the great principles of natural, -political, and civil liberty.—First, that men are born, and always -continue, free, and equal in respect to their rights:—civil -distinctions, therefore, can be founded only on public utility. -Secondly, the end of all political associations is the preservation of -the natural and imprescriptible rights of man: which rights are—liberty, -property, security, and resistance of oppression. Thirdly, the nation is -the source of all sovereignty: no body of men, no individual, can then -be entitled to any authority, which is not derived from it. The first -article, establishing the equality of man, strikes at the root of all -useless distinctions:—the second, securing his rights against -oppression, maintains his dignity:—and the third, acknowledging the -sovereignty of the nation, confirms the authority of the people.—These -are the essential points of a good government: and it is only necessary, -when these points are ascertained by a nation, and solemnly ratified in -the hearts of it’s citizens, to take care, in the formation of a -political system, to provide against the abuse of the executive part; -whilst equal caution should be observed, not to destroy it’s efficiency, -as on that depend it’s justice, vigour, and promptitude. The other -articles are explanatory of the nature and intent of these rights, and -ought to have had more attention paid to them, when the structure was -raised, to which they served as a basis. - -Whilst defining the authority of the king, or rather determining, that -he should have no authority, unless the option of disturbing the -legislation deserve that name, they debated the question of two chambers -with equal inconsideration, and all the puerile self-sufficiency of -ignorance. The opposers of two chambers, without allowing, that there -was any political wisdom in appointing one house of representatives to -reconsider the resolves of the other, ridiculed the idea of a balance of -power, and instanced the abuses of the english government to give force -to their objections. At the same time fearing, that the nobles of the -court would contend for an hereditary senate, similar to the british -house of peers; or, at least, for a seat during life, paramount to the -representatives who they determined should be elected every two years; -they fought to bring the business to a speedy issue. The very division -of the nobility served to hasten it, and strengthened the arguments of -the popular members; who finding that they could rely on the concurrence -of the parish-priests, whose wishes in favour of the unity of the -assembly were quickly betrayed by the opinions of their leading orators, -demanded the decision of a question, that had been agitated in the most -tumultuous manner. - -Mirabeau wished to prove, that the decision of the question respecting -the permanency of the assembly had prejudged that of the two chambers; -and the plan of a senate, proposed by the constitutional committee, only -excited fresh apprehensions, that the ancient hydra would again rear -it’s head. They represented this senate as the cradle of a new -aristocracy; as a dangerous counterpoise to popular violence, because it -would still foster the prejudices, which produced inequalities amongst -men, and give continual play to the overbearing passions, that had -hitherto degraded mankind. And to show previously their entire -disinterestedness, as well as fear of allowing the exercise of power to -become familiar, much less necessary to any members of the community, -they unanimously voted, that for each legislature, the name given to the -meeting of the representatives, a total change of the deputies should -take place. - -The very nobility, in fact, were far from being united in support of two -chambers. The order was a numerous one: and to establish an equality of -privileges, it was necessary, that they should all concur to elect the -upper chamber, as the representatives of the whole body; whilst the -nobles of the court, and of the ancient houses, secretly indulged the -hope of establishing a peerage; which would not only raise them above -the commons, but keep at a proper distance the upstart nobility, with -whom they had heretofore impatiently jostled. There was even another -cause of jealousy: for it was presumed, that the forty-seven nobles, who -first joined the assembly, would now be rewarded. In short, the idle -fears and more contemptible vanity of the different parties now operated -so much in favour of an indivisible senate, that the question was -decided by a great majority, to the entire satisfaction of the public, -who were almost as eager for one chamber, as averse to the _veto_. - -The deputies, who opposed the upper chamber to promote the good of -society, did it from a belief, that it would be the asylum of a new -aristocracy; and from a total ignorance, or obscurity of ideas, -respecting it’s utility. Whilst the oppressions of the feudal system -being still present to the minds of the people, they considered a -division of the legislative body as inconsistent with the freedom and -equality they were taught to expect as the prime blessings of a new -constitution. The very mention of _two chambers_ carried them back to -the old dispute, respecting the negative of the different orders; and -seemed to subvert the revolution. Such fears, degenerating into -weakness, can only be accounted for by recollecting the many cruel -thraldoms, from which they had so recently escaped. Besides, the -remembrance of their former servitude, and the resentment excited by the -late struggle to prove they were men, created in their enthusiastic -imaginations such a multitude of horrours, and fantastic images of new -dangers, as did not allow them to exercise the full powers of their -reason. So that to convince them of the propriety of a new institution, -and heat the supporters of it, nothing more was necessary, than to show, -that it was the very reverse of those maintained by the partizans of the -old government. - -The wisdom of giving to the executive part of a government an absolute -_veto_ might very justly have been questioned; as it seems to be giving -a power to one man to counteract the will of a whole people—an absurdity -too gross to merit refutation. Still, whilst crowns are a necessary -bauble to please the multitude, it is also necessary, that their -dignity, should be supported, in order to prevent an overweening -aristocracy from concentrating all authority in themselves. This seems -to have been expedient, likewise, as long as the manners of barbarians -remained: as savages are naturally pleased with glass and beads, in -proportion as they afford a striking contrast to the rude materials of -their own fabrication. - -In the progressive influence of knowledge on manners, both dress and -governments appear to be acquiring simplicity; it may therefore be -inferred, that, as the people attain dignity of character, their -amusements will flow from a more rational source than the pageantry of -kings, or the view of the fopperies exhibited at courts. If these have -been supported hitherto by childish ignorance, they seem to be losing -their influence, as the understanding of the world approaches to -manhood: for, as they grow wiser, the people will look for the solid -advantages of society; and watching with sufficient vigilance their own -interest, the _veto_ of the executive branch of the government would -become perfectly useless; though in the hands of an unprincipled, bold -chief magistrate, it might prove a dangerous instrument. In forming a -representative plan of government it appears necessary then to take care -only, that it be so constructed, as to prevent hasty decisions; or the -carrying into laws dangerous, impolitic measures, which have been urged -by popular declaimers, who are too apt to gain an ascendancy in a -numerous assembly. Until the principles of governments become -simplified, and a knowledge of them be disseminated, it is to be feared, -that popular assemblies will often be influenced by the fascinating -charms of eloquence: and as it is possible for a man to be eloquent -without being either wise or virtuous, it is but a common precaution of -prudence in the framers of a constitution, to provide some check to the -evil. - -Besides, it is very probable, in the same state of reason, that a -faction may arise, which will control the assembly; and, acting contrary -to the dictates of wisdom, throw the state into the most dangerous -convulsions of anarchy: consequently, it ought to form a primary object -with a constituting assembly, to prevent, by some salutary contrivance, -the mischief flowing from such sources. The obvious preventative is a -second chamber, or senate, which would not, it is most likely, be under -the influence of the same faction; and it is at least certain, that it’s -decisions would not be directed by the same orators. The advantage would -be more certain if business were not conducted in the two chambers in a -similar manner. Thus by making the most numerous assembly the most -active, the other would have more time to weigh the probable consequence -of any act or decree, which would prevent those inconveniences; or, at -least, many of them, the consequence of haste or faction. - -This system in an old government is susceptible of improvement. The -minds of young men generally having more fire, activity, and invention, -it would be politically wise to restrict the age of the senators to -thirty-five, or forty years; at which period of life they most likely -would have gone through a certain routine of business; and become more -sage, and steady, they would be better calculated to decide respecting -the policy, or wisdom of the acts of the chamber of representatives. - -It is true France was in such a state at the time of the revolution, -that a like improvement could not have been instantly carried into -execution, because the aristocratical influence was justly to be -dreaded. The constituting assembly then should have remained -indivisible; and as the members became in some measure acquainted with -legislative business, they would have prepared senators for the upper -chamber. All the future legislatures being divided into two chambers, a -house of representatives, and a senate, the members of the national -assembly might have been permitted to be elected for the senate, though -they should not have attained the age prescribed; for the restriction -needed not to have taken place until the government found it’s level, -and even then, the members of the preceding house of representatives -might have been allowed to be returned for the senate. - -It has been a common remark of moralists, that we are the least -acquainted with our own characters. This has been literally the case -with the french: for certainly no people stand in such great need of a -check; and, totally destitute of experience in political science, it -must have been clear to all men of sound understanding, that some such -plan alone would have enabled them to avoid many fatal errours. - -The first efforts of the national assembly were truly magnanimous; but -the character of the men was too light, to maintain the same heroism, -when not warmed by passion—too giddy, to support with grave dignity the -splendour of sudden glory. Their vanity was also unbounded; and their -false estimate of disinterestedness of conduct, whilst they betrayed -puerility of sentiment, was not among the least of the misfortunes, -which have befallen that unhappy country. Their hearts had been too long -sophisticated, to suggest the best mode of communicating freedom to -millions; and their heads were still less calculated to lay down a -practicable plan of government, adapted to the state of knowledge of the -age. So much so, that they seem to have selected from books only the -regulations proper for a period of perfect civilization. - -The revolutions of states ought to be gradual; for during violent or -material changes it is not so much the wisdom of measures, as the -popularity they acquire by being adapted to the foibles of the great -body of the community, which gives them success.—Men are most easily led -away by the ingenious arguments, that dwell on the equality of man, and -these are always employed by the different leaders of popular -governments. - -Whilst the most ingenious theorists, or desperate partizans of the -people, take advantage of this infirmity of our nature, the consequences -must sometimes prove destructive to society, is they do not end in the -most dreadful anarchy. For when the members of a state are not directed -by practical knowledge, every one produces a plan of polity, till the -confusion becomes general, and the nation plunges into wretchedness, -pursuing the schemes of those philosophers of genius who, advancing -before their age, have sketched the model of a perfect system of -government. Thus it happened in France, that Hume’s idea of a perfect -commonwealth, the adoption of which would be eligible only when -civilization has arrived at a much greater degree of perfection, and -knowledge is more generally diffused than at the present period, was -nevertheless chosen as the model of their new government, with a few -exceptions, by the constituent assembly: which choice doubtless -proceeded from the members not having had an opportunity to acquire a -knowledge of practical liberty. Some of the members, it is true, alluded -to the improvements made by the americans on the plan of the english -constitution; but the great majority, despising experience, were for -forming, at once, a system much more perfect. And this self-sufficiency -has produced those dreadful outrages, and attacks, made by the -anarchists of that country, on personal liberty, property, and whatever -else society holds sacred. - -These melancholy considerations seem to me to afford irrefragable -arguments, to prove that it is necessary for all governments, which have -for their object the happiness of the people, to make the power of -altering peaceably a fundamental principle of their constitution. - -Still, if the attempt to carry prematurely into execution the sublime -theory, which has occupied some of the best heads to form, have afforded -an opportunity to superficial politicians, to condemn it as absurd and -chimerical, because it has not been attended with immediate success, the -advocates for the extension of truth and reason ought not to despair. -For when we contemplate the slow improvement, that has been made in the -science of government; and, that even the system of the british -constitution was considered, by some of the most enlightened ancients, -as the sublimest theory the human mind was able to conceive, though not -reducible to practice, they should not relax in their endeavours to -bring to maturity a polity more simple—which promises more equal -freedom, and general happiness to mankind. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - OBSERVATIONS ON THE VETO. THE WOMEN OFFER UP THEIR ORNAMENTS TO THE -PUBLIC. DEBATE WHETHER THE SPANISH BRANCH OF THE BOURBONS COULD REIGN IN - FRANCE. CONDUCT OF THE KING RESPECTING THE DECREES OF THE FOURTH OF -AUGUST. VANITY OF THE FRENCH. DEBATES ON QUARTERING A THOUSAND REGULARS - AT VERSAILLES. INDIVIDUALS OFFER THEIR JEWELS AND PLATE TO MAKE UP THE -DEFICIENCY OF THE LOAN. THE KING SENDS HIS RICH SERVICE OF PLATE TO THE - MINT. NECKER’S PROPOSAL FOR EVERY CITIZEN TO GIVE UP A FOURTH OF HIS - INCOME. SPEECH OF MIRABEAU ON IT. HIS ADDRESS TO THE NATION. - - -After the national assembly had determined, that the legislative body -should consist of one house, to be renewed every two years, they appear -to have had some suspicion of the impolicy of the decree; but not -allowing themselves time to comprehend the use of a senate taken from -the body of the people, they attempted to silence the fears, some -moderate men entertained, of the bad consequences which might arise from -the decisions of an impetuous assembly without a check, by assuring -them, that the delay, the _veto_ would occasion, was a sufficient -counterpoise. They represented the king’s _veto_ as the negative -archetype of the national will; adding, that it would be the duty of the -sovereign to examine with vigilance the justice or wisdom of their -decrees; and by the exertion of his power prevent the hasty -establishment of any laws inimical to the public good. So easy is it for -men to frame arguments, to cover the homely features of their own -folly—so dangerous is it to follow a refined theory, however feasible it -may appear, when the happiness of an empire depends on it’s success; and -so inconsiderately did the national assembly act in this great business, -that they did not wait even to determine the precise meaning of the word -_sanction_. - -If the king then represented the negative will of the nation, which the -assembly pretended to say he did; and if he possessed the supreme wisdom -and moderation necessary to guaranty that will, which supposing he did -not, it was a folly too gross to require any comment; in the name of -common sense—why was his _veto suspensive_? - -The truth is obvious,—the assembly had not sufficient courage to take a -decided part.—They knew, that the king and court could not be depended -upon; yet they had not the magnanimity to give them up altogether. They -justly dreaded the depravity and influence of the nobles; but they had -not the sagacity to model the government in such a manner, as would have -defeated their future conspiracies, and rendered their power nugatory; -though they had the example of the Thirteen States of America before -them, from which they had drawn what little practical knowledge of -liberty they possessed.—But, no; the regeneration of France must lead to -the regeneration of the whole globe. The political system of frenchmen -must serve as a model for all the free states in the universe!—_Vive la -liberté_ was the only cry—and _la bagatelle_ entered into every -debate—whilst the whole nation, wild with joy, was hailing the -commencement of the golden age. - -The women too, not to be outdone by the roman dames, came forward, -during this discussion, to sacrifice their ornaments for the good of -their country. And this fresh example of public spirit was also given by -the third-estate; for they were the wives and daughters of artizans, who -first renounced their female pride—or rather made one kind of vanity -take place of another. However, the offering was made with theatrical -grace; and the lively applauses of the assembly were reiterated with -great gallantry. - -Another interruption had likewise occurred, of a more serious -nature.—For after they had decreed, with an unanimous voice—That _the -person of the king is sacred and inviolable_, that _the throne is -indivisible_; that _the crown is hereditary, in the males of the -reigning family, according to the order of primogeniture, to the -perpetual exclusion of females_, a deputy proposed, that, before going -any further, they should decide ‘whether the branch reigning in Spain -could reign in France, though it had renounced the crown of the latter -kingdom by the most authentic treaties.’ - -Several of the most respectable members represented, that this was a -delicate business, with which it was impolitic to meddle at present, and -as unnecessary as imprudent. Mirabeau was of this opinion; but when he -found, that much time was likely to be consumed in idle debates, and -contemptible vehemence, he endeavoured to cut the matter short by moving -a new question—namely, ‘that no one could reign in France, who was not -born in the kingdom.’ - -But nothing could prevent the agitation of the same subject for three -days; prolonged either by the fears of one party, or the desire of -another to embroil the assembly, and retard the formation of a -constitution. Mirabeau made several severe, but just remarks, on the -character of Louis XIV, whose ambition had produced the dispute; and -reprobated with dignity, their manner of treating a people, as if they -were the property of a chief. Should any difficulty arise, in future, he -maintained, that the nation would then be competent to judge of it; and -had an equal right to determine the succession, as to choose a new -system of government. - -The assembly, though generally so inattentive to the suggestions of -sound policy, despising moderation, became now beyond measure -scrupulous. Some deputies represented the danger of alienating to the -english the commerce of Spain, by disgusting it’s court; and others -anticipated the intestine troubles, which a doubt respecting the -unchangeable descent of the crown might produce. At last they resolved -to add to the declaration, respecting the monarchy, that they did not -mean to make the decree, _by any means prejudge the effect of -renunciations_. - -Whilst they were settling these things in the assembly, the refractory -nobles and clergy were intriguing to prevent the king from giving his -assent to the promulgation of the decrees of the 4th of august. The -royal _sanction_ had been demanded before the import of the word was -scanned; and the court taking advantage of this ambiguity, made the king -pretend he misunderstood the demand; and imagined that they merely asked -for his opinion, and not to know his will. Instead then of a simple -monosyllable, he replied by a memoire. He approved, in general, of the -spirit of these determinations; but entered into an investigation, more -or less copious, of every article. He weighed the advantages and -inconveniences; and pointed out precautions and modifications, which -appeared to him necessary to realize the former and prevent the latter. -He objected particularly to the abolition of some rents; which, though -substitutes for personal service, were now actual property; he suggested -some difficulty that might attend the abolition of tithes; and hinted, -that the german princes, who had possessions in Alsace, secured to them -by treaty, might resent the infringement. In answer to the last -objection, a member observed, that the inhabitants of this province, who -had long been sinking under the weight of these privileges, daily -augmented by the connivance of ministers, had inserted an article in -their instructions expressly demanding the abolition of this destructive -system; which reduced them to despair, and forced them continually to -emigrate. Several of the deputies wished to have the king’s reply -referred to the examination of a committee; yet, a great majority -insisting, that the decrees of the 4th of august were not new laws, to -be carried into force by the executive power, but abuses which it was -absolutely necessary to clear away before the formation of the -constitution, demanded their immediate promulgation. Accordingly they -resolved, that the president should wait on the king and request him -immediately to order the promulgation of the decrees; assuring him at -the same time, that the national assembly, when considering each article -separately, would pay the most scrupulous attention to the observations -communicated by his majesty. - -This imperative petition had the desired effect, and the king acceded, -the 20th of september, to their will, sanctioning decrees he did not -approve. - -This was the first glaring instance of the constituting assembly acting -contrary to it’s pretensions; and the king, long in the habit of -dissembling, always yielding to the pressure of remonstrances, no matter -from what quarter they came, with criminal insincerity acknowledging -himself a cipher, laid the foundation of his own insignificancy, by -ordering the promulgation of decrees, which he believed were -incompatible with justice, and might involve the french monarchy in -disagreeable disputes with foreign princes, when peace was particularly -necessary to calm it’s internal convulsions. - -If a chief magistrate be of any consequence to a state, his wisdom ought -to appear in the dignity and firmness of his actions.—But, if he be -considered as the fountain of justice and honour, and do not possess the -abilities and magnanimity of a common man, in what a wretched light must -he be viewed by the eyes of discernment and common sense?—And, if the -framers of a constitution create a power that must continually act at -variance with itself, they not only undermine the pillars of their own -fabric, but they insert the scion of a disease the most destructive to -truth and morals. - -After complying with this compulsatory request, Louis, who, finding that -he was left without any share of power, seems to have thought very -little of his _suspensive veto_, determined to play a part that would -give an air of sincerity to his present conduct, whilst his object was -secretly to favour the efforts of the counter-revolutionists; and if -possible effect his own escape.—But, in the mean time, he endeavoured to -make such use of it as might prevent the total derangement of the old -system, without unveiling his secret views, and intentions. It is -difficult to determine which was the most reprehensible, the folly of -the assembly, or the duplicity of the king. If Louis were without -character, and controlled by a court without virtue, it amounted to a -demonstration, that every insidious mean would be employed by the -courtiers to reinstate the old government; and recover, if possible, -their former splendour and voluptuous ease. For, though they were -dispersed, it was notorious to all France, nay, to all Europe, that a -constant correspondence was kept up between the different parties, and -their projects concerted by one of the most intriguing of disappointed -men[30]. It was obvious, therefore, to Mirabeau, that the king ought to -be gained over to the side of the people; and made to consider himself -as their benefactor, in order to detach him from the cabal. But in this -respect he was unfortunately over-ruled. This mixture of magnanimity, -and timidity, of wisdom and headstrong folly, displayed by the assembly, -appears, at the first view, to involve such a contradiction, that every -person unacquainted with the french character would be ready to call in -question the truth of those undeniable facts, which crowd on the heels -of each other during the progress of the great events, that formed the -revolution. A superficial glance over the circumstances, will not enable -us to account for an inconsistency, which borders on improbability.—We -must, on the contrary, ever keep in our thoughts, that, whilst they were -directed in their political plans, by a wild, half comprehended theory, -their sentiments were still governed by the old chivalrous sense of -honour, which diffusing a degree of romantic heroism into all their -actions, a false magnanimity would not permit them to question the -veracity of a man, on whom they believed they were conferring favours; -and for whom they certainly made great allowance, if they did not -forgive him for countenancing plots, which tended to undermine their -favourite system. - -It is, perhaps, the characteristic of vanity, to become enamoured with -ideas, in proportion as they were remote from it’s conception, until -brought to the mind by causes so natural, as to induce it to believe, -that they are the happy and spontaneous flow of it’s own prolific brain. -Their splendour then eclipsing his judgment, the man is hurried on by -enthusiasm and self-sufficiency, like a ship at sea, without ballast or -helm, by every breath of wind: and, to carry the comparison still -further, should a tempest chance to rise in the state, he is swallowed -up in the whirlpools of confusion, into the very midst of which his -conceit has plunged him; as the vessel, that was not prepared to stem -the violence of a hurricane, is buried in the raging surge. - -The occasions of remarking, that frenchmen are the vainest men living, -often occur, and here it must be insisted on; for no sooner had they -taken possession of certain philosophical truths, persuading themselves, -that the world was indebted to them for the discovery, than they seem to -have overlooked every other consideration, but their adoption. Much evil -has been the consequence; yet France is certainly highly indebted to the -national assembly for establishing many constitutional principles of -liberty, which must greatly accelerate the improvement of the public -mind, and ultimately produce the perfect government, that they vainly -endeavoured to construct immediately with such fatal precipitation. - -The consideration of several other articles of the constitution was -continually interrupted, and not more by the variety of business, which -came under the cognizance of the assembly, than by the want of a proper -arrangement of them. Much time was lost in disputing about the choice of -subjects of deliberation; and the order in which they ought to proceed. -The business of the day was perpetually obliged to give place to -episodical scenes; and men, who came prepared to discuss one question, -being obliged to turn to another, lost in some measure the benefit of -reflection, and the energy, so different from the enthusiasm of the -moment, with which a man supports a well digested opinion. - -Two or three slight debates had arisen on the subject of quartering a -thousand men, of the regular troops, at Versailles. The commandant of -the guards had requested permission of the municipality; pointing out -the necessity for the security of the town, the national assembly, and -the person of the king. The necessity did not appear so obvious to the -public, and, in fact, the demand seemed calculated to provoke the -tumults, against which they were so officiously guarding. Mirabeau also -observed, ‘that the executive power had undoubtedly a right to augment -the military force, in any particular place, when private information, -or urgent circumstances, appeared to require it; and that the -municipality had, likewise, a right to demand the troops they judged -necessary; yet he could not help thinking it singular, that the -ministers should have entrusted the municipality with a secret, which -they did not communicate to the assembly,—who might be supposed at least -as anxious to take every precaution for the safety of the town and the -king’s person.’ To these pertinent remarks no attention was paid; and a -letter from the mayor of Paris, informing the assembly, that a great -number of the districts of the metropolis had remonstrated against the -introduction of regular troops into Versailles, to awe the national -guards, was equally neglected; whilst a letter to the president, in the -name of the king, informing him, that he had taken the different -measures necessary to prevent any disturbances in the place where the -national assembly were sitting, was thrown aside without any comment. - -The loan still failing, several individuals made magnificent presents; -sacrificing their jewels and plate, to relieve the wants of their -country. And the king sent his rich service to the mint, in spite of the -remonstrances of the assembly.—The disinterestedness of this action, it -is absurd to talk of benevolence, may fairly be doubted; because, had he -escaped, and the escape was then in contemplation, it would have been -confiscated; whilst the voluntary offer was a popular step, which might -serve for a little time to cover this design, and turn the attention of -the public from the subject of the reinforcement of the guards to the -patriotism of the king. - -These donations, which scarcely afforded a temporary supply, rather -amused than relieved the nation; though they suggested a new plan to the -minister. Necker, therefore, incapable of forming any great design for -the good of the nation, yet calculating on the general enthusiasm, which -pervaded all descriptions and ranks of people, laid before the assembly -the ruinous state of the finances, proposing at the same time, as the -only mode of remedying the evil, to require of the citizens a -contribution of one-fourth of their income. The assembly was startled by -this proposal, but Mirabeau, believing that the people would now grant -whatever their representatives required, prevailed on the assembly, by a -lively representation of the perilous state of the kingdom, to adopt the -only plan of salvation which had yet been suggested—insisting, that this -was the only expedient to avoid an infamous national bankruptcy. ‘Two -centuries of depredations and pillage,’ he exclaimed, ‘have hollowed out -an immense gulph, in which the kingdom will soon be swallowed. It is -necessary to fill up this frightful abyss. Agreed!—Choose out the rich, -that the sacrifice may fall on the fewer citizens; but, determine -quickly! There are two thousand notables, who have sufficient property -to restore order to your finances, and peace and prosperity to the -kingdom. Strike; immolate without pity these victims!—precipitate them -into the abyss—it is going to close on them—ye draw back, with -horrour—ye men! pusillanimous and inconsistent!—and see ye not in -decreeing a bankruptcy, or, which is still more contemptible, rendering -it inevitable, ye are sullied by an act a thousand times more criminal?’ - -But it is impossible to do justice to this burst of eloquence, in a -translation; besides, the most energetic appeals to the passions always -lose half their dignity, or, perhaps, appear to want the support of -reason, when they are coolly perused.—Nothing produces conviction like -passion—it seems the ray from heaven, that enlightens as it warms.—Yet -the effect once over, something like a fear of having been betrayed into -folly clings to the mind it has most strongly influenced; and an obscure -sense of shame lowers the spirits that were wound up too high. - -From the whole tenour of this speech it is clear, that Mirabeau was in -earnest; and that he had fired his imagination, by considering this plan -as an act of heroism, that would ennoble the revolution, and reflect -lasting honour on the national assembly. In this extemporary flow of -eloquence, probably the most simple and noble of modern times, mixed -none of the rhetoric which frequently entered into his studied -compositions; for his periods were often artfully formed;—but it was the -art of a man of genius. He proposed to the assembly to address their -constituents on this occasion; and he was accordingly requested to -prepare an address for their consideration. - -His address to the nation is, indeed, a master-piece; yet, being written -to persuade, and not spoken to carry a point immediately, and overwhelm -opposition, there is more reasoning in it; and more artful, though less -forcible, appeals to the passions. And, though this expedient appears to -be the most wild that folly could have blundered upon, the arguments -ought to be preserved with which it was glossed over. - -To expect a man to give the fourth of what he lived on; and that in the -course of fifteen months, leaving it to him to make the estimate, was -expecting that from virtue, which could only have been produced by -enthusiasm. All the ancient acts of heroism, were excited by the spur of -present danger; and of this kind of virtue the french were equally -capable; yet, though the plan afforded them an opportunity to give a -splendid proof of their patriotism, it by no means answered; because, it -being the effect rather of temper than of principle, selfishness had -time to find a plausible pretext to elude it; and vanity is seldom -willing to hide it’s good works in the common measure. - -As the removing the national assembly to Paris forms an epocha in the -history of the revolution, it seems proper to close this chapter with -Mirabeau’s address. - -‘The deputies of the national assembly suspend a while their labours to -lay before their constituents the wants of the state, and to call upon -their patriotism to second the measures, which a country in danger -demands. - -‘It were betraying you to dissemble. Two ways are open—the nation may -stride forward to the most glorious pre-eminence, or fall head-long into -a gulph of misfortune. - -‘A great revolution, the very plan of which some months ago would have -appeared chimerical, has taken place amongst us. Accelerated by -unforeseen circumstances, the momentum has suddenly overthrown our -ancient institutions. Without allowing us time to prop what must be -preserved, or to replace what ought to be destroyed, it has at once -surrounded us with ruins. - -‘Our efforts to support the government are fruitless, a fatal numbness -cramps all it’s powers. The public revenue is no more; and credit cannot -gain strength at a moment, when our fears equal our hopes.—This spring -of social power unbent, has weakened the whole machine; men and things, -resolution, courage, and even virtue itself, have lost their tension. If -your concurrence do not speedily restore life and motion to the -body-politic, the grandest revolutions, perishing with the hopes it -generated, will mingle again in the chaos, whence noble exertions have -drawn it; and they, who shall still preserve an unconquerable love of -liberty, will refuse to unworthy citizens the disgraceful consolation of -resuming their fetters. - -‘Since your deputies have buried all their rivalry, all their contending -interests, in a just and necessary union, the national assembly has -laboured to establish equal laws for the common safety. It has repaired -great errours, and broken the links of countless thraldoms, which -degraded human nature: it has kindled the flame of joy and hope in the -bosoms of the people, the creditors of earth and nature, whose dignity -has been so long tarnished, whose hearts have been so long discouraged: -it has restored the long-obscured equality of frenchmen, estabblished -their common right to serve the state, to enjoy it’s protection, to -merit it’s rewards: in short, conformably to your instructions, it is -gradually erecting, on the immutable basis of the imprescriptible rights -of man, a constitution mild as nature, lasting as justice, and the -imperfections of which, the consequence of the inexperience of it’s -authors, will easily be repaired. We have had to contend with the -inveterate prejudices of ages, whilst harassed by the thousand -uncertainties which accompany great changes. Our successors will have -the beaten track of experience before them; we have had only the compass -of theory to guide us through the pathless desert. They may labour -peaceably; though we have had to bear up against storms. They will know -their rights, and the limits of their power: we have had to recover the -one, and to fix the other. They will consolidate our work—they will -surpass us—What a recompense! Who shall dare, mean while, to assign -limits to the grandeur of France? Who is not elevated by hope? Who does -not felicitate himself on being a citizen of it’s empire? - -‘Such, however, is the crisis of the finances, that the state is -threatened with dissolution before this grand order of things can find -it’s centre. The cessation of the revenue has banished specie. A -thousand circumstances hasten it’s exportation. The sources of credit -are exhausted; and the wheels of government are almost at a stand. If -patriotism then step not forward to the succour of government, our -armies, our fleets, our subsistence, our arts, our trade, our -agriculture, our national debt, our country itself, will be hurried -towards that catastrophe, when she will receive laws only from disorder -and anarchy—Liberty would have glanced on our sight, only to disappear -for ever, only to leave behind the bitter consciousness, that we did not -merit the possession. And to our shame, in the eyes of the universe, the -evil could be attributed solely to ourselves. With a soil so fertile, -industry so productive, a commerce so flourishing, and such means of -prosperity—what is this embarrassment of our finances? Our wants amount -not to the expence of a summer’s campaign—and our liberty, is it not -worth more than those senseless struggles, when even victory has proved -ruinous? - -‘The present difficulty overcome, far from burdening the people, it will -be easy to meliorate their condition. Reductions, which need not -annihilate luxury; reforms, which will reduce none to indigence; a -commutation of the oppressive taxes, an equal assessment of the impost, -together with the equilibrium which must be restored between our revenue -and our expenditure; an order that must be rendered permanent by our -vigilant superintendency.—These are the scattered objects of your -consolatory perspective.—They are not the unsubstantial coinage of -fancy; but real, palpable forms—hopes capable of proof, things -subordinate to calculation. - -‘But our actual wants—the paralysis of our public strength, the hundred -and sixty extra millions necessary for this year, and the next—What can -be done? The prime minister has proposed as the great lever of the -effort, which is to decide the kingdom’s fate, a contribution -proportional to the income of each citizen. - -‘Between the necessity of providing instantly for the exigencies of the -public, and the impossibility of investigating so speedily the plan -before us; fearing to enter into a labyrinth of calculations, and seeing -nothing contrary to our duty in the minister’s proposal, we have obeyed -the dictates of our consciences, presuming they would be yours. The -attachment of the nation to the author of the plan, appeared to us a -pledge of it’s success; and we confided in his long experience, rather -than trust to the guidance of our speculative opinions. - -‘To the conscience of every citizen is left the valuation of his income: -thus the effect of the measure depends on your own patriotism. When the -nation is bursting from the nothingness of servitude to the creation of -liberty—when policy is about to concur with nature in unfolding the -inconceivable grandeur of her future destiny—shall vile passions oppose -her greatness? interest stay her flight? and the salvation of the state -weigh less than a personal contribution? - -‘No; such madness is not in nature; the passions even do not listen to -such treacherous reckonings. If the revolution, which has given us a -country, cannot rouse some frenchmen out of the torpor of indifference, -at least the tranquillity of the kingdom, the only pledge of their -individual security, will influence them. No; it is not in the whirl of -universal overthrow, in the degradation of tutelary authority, when a -crowd of indigent citizens, shut out from the work-shops, will be -clamouring for impotent pity; when the soldiery disbanded will be -forming itself into hungry gangs of armed plunderers, when property will -be violated with impunity, and the very existence of individuals -menaced—terrour and grief waiting at the door of every family—it is not -amidst such complicated wretchedness, that these cruel and selfish men -will enjoy in peace the hoards which they denied their country. The only -distinction that awaits them, in the general wreck, will be the -universal opprobrium they deserve, or the useless remorse that will -corrode the inmost recesses of their hearts. - -‘Ah! how many recent proofs have we of the public spiritedness, which -renders all success so easy! With what rapidity was formed the national -militia, those legions of citizens armed for the defence of the country, -the preservation of tranquillity, and the maintenance of the laws! A -generous emulation has beamed on all sides. Villages, towns, provinces, -have considered their privileges as odious distinctions, and solicited -the honour of depriving themselves of peculiar advantages, to enrich -their country. You know it: time was not allowed to draw up the mutual -concessions, dictated by a purely patriotic sentiment, into decrees; so -impatient was every class of citizens to restore to the great family -whatever endowed some of it’s members to the prejudice of others. - -‘Above all, since the embarrassment of our finances, the patriotic -contributions have increased. From the throne, the majesty of which a -beneficent prince exalts by his virtues, has emanated the most -striking example.—O thou, so justly the dearly beloved of thy -people—king—citizen—man of worth! it was thine to cast a glance over -the magnificence that surrounded thee, and to convert it into national -resources. The objects of luxury which thou hast sacrificed, have -added new lustre to thy dignity; and whilst the love of the french for -thy sacred person makes them murmur at the privation, their -sensibility applauds thy magnanimity; and their generosity will repay -thy beneficence by the return it covets, by an imitation of thy -virtues, by pursuing thy course in the career of public utility. - -‘How much wealth, congealed by ostentation into useless heaps, shall -melt into flowing streams of prosperity! How much the prudent economy of -individuals might contribute to the restoration of the kingdom! How many -treasures, which the piety of our forefathers accumulated on the altars -of our temples, will forsake their obscure cells without changing their -sacred destination! “This I set apart, in times of prosperity;” says -religion; “it is fitting that I dispense it in the day of adversity. It -was not for myself—a borrowed lustre adds nothing to my greatness—it was -for you, and the state, that I levied this honourable tribute on the -virtues of your forefathers.” - -‘Who can avoid being affected by such examples? What a moment to display -our resources, to invoke the aid of every corner of the empire!—O -prevent the shame, with which the violation of our engagements, our most -sacred engagements, would stain the birth of freedom! Prevent those -dreadful shocks, which, in overturning the most solid institutions, and -shattering the most established fortunes, would leave France covered -with the sad ruins of a shameful hurricane. How mistaken are those, who -at a certain distance from the capital contemplate not the links, which -connect public faith with national prosperity, and with the social -contract! They who pronounce the infamous term bankruptcy, are they not -rather a herd of ferocious beasts, than a society of men just and free? -Where is the frenchman who will dare to look his fellow citizens in the -face, when his conscience shall upbraid him with having contributed to -empoison the existence of millions of his fellow creatures? Are we the -nation to whose honour it’s enemies bear witness, who are about to sully -the proud distinction by a _BANKRUPTCY_?—Shall we give them cause to -say, we have only recovered our liberty and strength to commit, without -shuddering, crimes which paled even the cheek of despotism? - -‘Would it be any excuse to protest, that this execrable mischief was not -premeditated? Ah! no: the cries of the victims, whom we shall scatter -over Europe, will drown our voice. Act then!—Be your measures swift, -strong, sure. Dispel the cloud, that lowers over our heads, the gloom of -which sheds terrour into the hearts of the creditors of France.—If it -burst, the devastation of our national resources will be more tremendous -than the terrible plague, which has lately ravaged our provinces. - -‘How will our courage in the exercise of the functions, you have -confided to us, be renewed! With what vigour shall we labour in forming -the constitution, when secured from interruption! We have sworn to save -our country—judge of our anguish, whilst it trembles on the verge of -destruction. A momentary sacrifice is sufficient; a sacrifice offered to -the public good, and not to the encroachments of covetousness. And is -this easy expiation of the faults and blunders of a period, stigmatized -by political servitude, above our strength? Think of the price which has -been paid for liberty by other nations, who have shown themselves worthy -of it:—for this, rivers of blood have streamed—long years of woe, and -horrid civil wars, have every where preceded the glorious birth!—Of us -nothing is required, but a pecuniary sacrifice—and even this vulgar -offering is not an impoverishing gift:—it will return into our bosom, to -enrich our cities, our fields; augmenting our national glory and -prosperity.’ - - - - - CHAPTER III. - REFLECTIONS ON THE NEW MODE OF RAISING SUPPLIES. NO JUST SYSTEM OF - TAXATION YET ESTABLISHED. PAPER MONEY. NECESSITY OF GRADUAL REFORM. - - -The task certainly was very difficult, at this crisis, for a minister to -give satisfaction to the people, and yet supply the wants of the state; -for it was not very likely that the public, who had been exclaiming -against the incessant demands of the old government, would have been -pleased with new burdens, or patiently endured them. Still it is always -the height of folly in a financier, to attempt to supply the exigencies -of government by any but specific and certain means: for such vague -measures will ever produce a _deficit_, the consequences of which are -most pernicious to public credit and private comfort. - -A man, who has a precise sum to live upon, generally takes into his -estimate of expences a certain part of his income as due to the -government, for the protection and social advantages it secures him. -This proportion of his income being commonly the same from period to -period, he lays it by for that particular purpose, and contentedly -enjoys the remainder. But, should a weak minister, or a capricious -government, call on him for an additional sum, because the taxes have -proved unproductive, either through the inability of some of the members -of the state, or that they were laid on articles of consumption, and the -consumption has not been equal to the calculation; it not only deranges -his schemes of domestic economy, but may be the cause of the most -serious inconvenience. - -A man who has a limited income, and a large family, is not only obliged -to be very industrious to support them, but he is likewise necessitated -to make all his arrangements with the greatest circumspection and -exactness; because a trifling loss, by involving him in debt, might lead -to his ruin, including that of his family. The rich man, indeed, seldom -thinks of these most cruel misfortunes; for a few pounds, more or less, -are of no real importance to him. Yet the poor man, nay even the man of -moderate fortune, is liable to have his whole scheme of life broken by a -circumstance of this kind, and all his future days embittered by a -perpetual struggle with pecuniary vexations. - -Governments, which ought to protect, and not oppress mankind, cannot be -too regular in their demands; for the manner of levying taxes is of the -highest importance to political economy, and the happiness of -individuals. No government has yet established a just system of -taxation[31]: for in every country the expences of government have -fallen unequally on the citizens; and, perhaps, it is not possible to -render them perfectly equal, but by laying all the taxes on land, the -mother of every production. - -In this posture of affairs, the enthusiasm of the french in the cause of -liberty might have been turned to the advantage of a new and permanent -system of finance. An able, bold minister, who possessed the confidence -of the nation, might have recommended with success the taking of the -national property under the direct management of the assembly; and then -endeavouring to raise a loan on that property, he would have given -respectability to the new government, by immediately procuring the -supplies indispensably necessary not only to keep it, but to put it in -motion. - -In times of civil commotion, or during a general convulsion, men who -have money, and they are commonly most timid and cautious, are very apt -to take care of it, even at the expence of their interest; and, -therefore, it was to be presumed, that the monied men of France would -not have been very ready to subscribe to the different loans proposed by -the minister, unless the security had been obvious, or the speculative -advantages exorbitant. But if Necker, whom the prudent usurer adored as -his tutelar god, had said to the nation ‘there is a property worth -4,700,000,000 _l._ independent of the property of the emigrants, take it -into your immediate possession; and, whilst the sales are going on, give -it as a guarantee for the loan you want. This just and dignified measure -will not only relieve your present necessities, but it will be -sufficient to enable you to fulfil great part of your former -engagements.’ There would have been then no need of the eloquence of -Mirabeau; reason would have done the business; and men, attending to -their own interest, would have promoted the public good, without having -their heads turned giddy by romantic flights of heroism. - -The immediate and incessant wants of a state must always be supplied; -prudence therefore, requires, that the directors of the finances should -rather provide by anticipation for it’s wants than suffer a _deficit_. -The government being once in arrears, additional taxes become -indispensable to bring forward the balance, or the nation must have -recourse to paper notes; an expedient, as experience has shown, always -to be dreaded, because by increasing the debt it only extends the evil. -And this increasing debt, like a ball of snow, gathering as it rolls, -soon attains a wonderful magnitude. Every state, which has unavoidably -accumulated it’s debt, ought, provided those at the helm wish to -preserve the government, and extend the security and comforts of it’s -citizens, to take every just measure to render the interest secure, and -to fund the principal; for as it augments, like the petrifying mass, it -stands in the way of all improvement, spreading the chilling miseries of -poverty around—till the evil baffling all expedients, a mighty crash -produces a new order of things, overwhelming, with the ruins of the old, -thousands of innocent victims. - -The precious metals have been considered as the best of all possible -signs of value, to facilitate the exchange of commodities, to supply our -reciprocal wants: and they will ever be necessary to our comfort, whilst -by the common consent of mankind they are the standards of exchange. -Gold and silver have a specific value, because it is not easy to -accumulate them beyond a certain quantity. Paper, on the contrary, is a -dangerous expedient, except under a well established government: and -even then the business ought to be conducted with great moderation and -sagacity.—Perhaps it would be wise, that it’s extent should be -consistent with the commerce of the country, and the quantity of species -actually in it—But it is the spirit of commerce to stretch credit too -far. The notes, also, which are issued by a state before it’s government -is well established, will certainly be depreciated; and in proportion as -they grow precarious, the gold and silver, which was formerly in -circulation will vanish, and every article of trade, and all the -comforts of life, will bear a higher price. - -These are considerations, which ought to have occurred to the french -minister, and have led him to take decided measures. The interest of the -national debt was 255,395,141 _l._ by a report for the year -1792.—Necker, by his account dated the 1st of may, 1789, states the -income at 475,294,000 _l._, and the expences at 531,533,000 _l._: -consequently there was a deficiency of 56,239,000 _l._; and it was not -probable, it could not even be expected, that during the convulsions of -a revolution, the taxes would be regularly paid: the debt, then, and the -demands of the state, must increase. - -The credit of every government greatly depends on the regulation of it’s -finances; and the most certain way to have given stability to the new -system, would have been by making such arrangements as would have -insured promptitude of payment. No minister ever had it so much in his -power to have taken measures glorious for France, beneficial to Europe, -happy for the people of the day, and advantageous to posterity. No -epocha, since the inflated system of paper (the full blown bladders of -public credit, which may be destroyed by the prick of a pin) was -invented, ever appeared so favourable as that juncture in France, to -have overturned it completely: and by overlooking these circumstances, -the nation has probably lost most of the advantages, which her finances -might have gained by the revolution. - -Such mistakes, whilst they involve in them a thousand difficulties, -prove the necessity of gradual reform; lest the light, suddenly -breaking-in on a benighted people, should overpower the understanding it -ought to direct. The line in which Necker had been accustomed to move, -by restraining what little energy his mind was capable of exerting, -precluded the possibility of his seeing the faint lines marked on an -expansive scale, which afforded the data for calculations; and the -nation, confiding to him the direction of a business for which he had -not sufficient talents, seems to have contemplated in imagination a -prospect, which has not yet been realized; and whilst expectation -hovered on it’s margin, the dazzling scenery was obscured by clouds the -most threatening and tremendous. - -These are evils that from the beginning of time have attended -precipitate and great changes. The improvements in philosophy and morals -have been extremely tardy. All sudden revolutions have been as suddenly -overturned, and things thrown back below their former state. The -improvements in the science of politics have been still more slow in -their advancement than those of philosophy and morals; but the -revolution in France has been progressive. It was a revolution in the -minds of men; and only demanded a new system of government to be adapted -to that change. This was not generally perceived; and the politicians of -the day ran wildly from one extreme to the other, without recollecting, -that even Moses sojourning forty years in the wilderness could but -conduct the jews to the borders of the promised land, after the first -generation had perished in their prejudices; the most inveterate sins of -men. - -This is not a discouraging consideration. Our ancestors have laboured -for us; and we, in our turn, must labour for posterity. It is by tracing -the mistakes, and profiting from the discoveries of one generation, that -the next is able to take a more elevated stand. The first inventor of -any instrument has scarcely ever been able to bring it to a tolerable -degree of perfection; and the discoveries of every man of genius, the -optics of Newton excepted, have been improved, if not extended, by their -followers.—Can it then be expected, that the science of politics and -finance, the most important, and most difficult of all human -improvements; a science which involves the passions, tempers, and -manners of men and nations, estimates their wants, maladies, comforts, -happiness, and misery, and computes the sum of good or evil flowing from -social institutions; will not require the same gradations, and advance -by steps equally slow to that state of perfection necessary to secure -the sacred rights of every human creature? - -The vanity and weakness of men have continually tended to retard this -progress of things: still it is going forward; and though the fatal -presumption of the headstrong french, and the more destructive ambition -of their foreign enemies, have given it a check, we may contemplate with -complacent serenity the approximation of the glorious era, when the -appellations of fool and tyrant will be synonymous. - - - - - AN - HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW - OF THE - FRENCH REVOLUTION. - - - - - _BOOK V._ - - - - - CHAPTER I. - ERROUR OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY IN NEGLECTING TO SECURE THE FREEDOM OF - FRANCE. IT’S CONDUCT COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE AMERICAN STATES. -NECESSITY OF FORMING A NEW CONSTITUTION AS SOON AS AN OLD GOVERNMENT IS - DESTROYED. THE DECLARING THE KING INVIOLABLE A WRONG MEASURE. SECURITY - OF THE FRENCH AGAINST A COUNTERREVOLUTION. THE FLIGHT OF THE KING - MEDITATED. - - -The conduct of the assembly in losing so much time—the most precious -time to secure the happiness of their country, and enable the present -generation to participate in the blessings they were preparing for -posterity, instead of having to encounter all the miseries of anarchy, -can never be sufficiently lamented. France had already gained her -freedom; the nation had already ascertained certain, and the most -important, political truths: it ought, therefore, to have been the next -consideration, how these were to be preserved, and the liberty of the -empire consolidated on a basis that time would only render more firm. - -Moderate men, or real patriots, would have been satisfied with what had -been gained, for the present, allowing the rest to follow progressively. -It was the most political and the most reasonable way to secure the -acquisition. In this situation France had to contend with the prejudices -of half Europe, at least, and to counteract the influence of the -insidious intriguers, who were opposing themselves to her regeneration; -to facilitate which the assembly ought to have made it one of their main -objects to render the king contented with the change; and then the -machinations of all the underminers of the revolution, would not have -loosened one fundamental stone, to endanger the rising edifice. - -Such is the difference between men acting from a practical knowledge, -and men who are governed entirely by theory, or no principle whatever. -Most of the United States of America formed their separate constitutions -within a month, and none took more than three, after the declaration of -their independence by congress. There certainly was a vast distinction -between those States, then the colonies of Great Britain, and France -after the 14th of july; but both countries were without a government. -America with an enemy in the heart of their empire, and France -threatened with an attack. The leading men of America, however, knew, -that there was a necessity of having some kind of government, and seem -to have perceived the ease, with which any subsequent alterations could -be effected. The members of the national assembly, on the contrary, -found themselves surrounded with ruins; and aiming at a state of -perfection for which the minds of the people were not sufficiently -mature; affecting likewise to be directed by a magnanimous -disinterestedness, they not only planted the germ of the most dangerous -and licentious spirit, but they continued to irritate the desperate -courtiers, who, having determined to oppose stratagem to force, and not -succeeding, rested all their future hopes on the king’s escape. - -The liberty of the press, which had been virtually established, at this -period, was a successful engine employed against the assembly. And to a -nation celebrated for epigrammatic fancy, and whose taste had been so -refined by art, that they had lost the zest of nature, the simplicity of -some of the members, their awkward figures, and rustic gait, compared -with the courtly mien, and easy assurance of the chevaliers of -Versailles, afforded an excellent subject. Some of these satires were -written with considerable wit, and such a happy turn of caricature, that -it is impossible not to laugh with the author, though indirectly -ridiculing the principles you hold sacred. The most respectable decrees, -the most important, and serious discussions, were twisted into jests; -which divided the people without doors into two distinct parties; one, -speaking of the assembly with sovereign contempt, as a set of upstarts -and babbling knaves; and the other, setting up new thrones for their -favourites, and viewing them with blind admiration, as if they were a -synod of demi-gods. The contenancing of this abuse of freedom was -ill-judged. The different parties were already sufficiently heated; yet -it would have been impossible, perhaps, to have restrained the temper of -the times, so strong is the intoxication of a new folly, though it would -have been easy for the assembly to have passed a decree respecting -libels. But so ardent was become their passion for liberty, that they -were unable to discriminate between a licentious use of that important -invention, and it’s real utility. Treating then with an untimely disdain -the many abusive publications, which were sold within the very walls -where they were sitting, they were not aware of the effect which they -produced on the minds of mock heroes, who, having no principle but -honour, were ready to risk their lives to sooth distressed beauty, no -matter what produced it; or to alleviate the sufferings of a king, -though the consequence of his turpitude or tergiversation. - -After the wreck of a government the plan of a new constitution ought to -be immediately formed, that is, as soon as circumstances will possibly -admit, and presented to the citizens for their acceptance; or rather the -people should depute men for that purpose, and give them a limited time -for framing one. A constitution is a standard for the people to rally -round. It is the pillar of a government, the bond of all social unity -and order. The investigation of it’s principles makes it a fountain of -light; from which issue the rays of reason, that gradually bring forward -the mental powers of the whole community. And whenever the wheels of -government, like the wheels of any other machine, are found clogged, or -do not move in a regular manner, they equally require alteration and -improvement: and these improvements will be proportionably perfect as -the people become enlightened. - -The authority of the national assembly had been acknowledged nearly -three months previous to this epocha, without their having taken any -decided steps to secure these important ends. Indeed it does not appear -to have been their first object. They seem not to have known, or at -least not to have been apprehensive, that, in proportion to the length -of time that the people are without an established government, -anarchists gain an ascendancy over their minds; and it then becomes no -easy task to form a constitution adapted to their wayward tempers. - -When a few fundamental principles are ascertained, and the state has -determined that they shall form the basis of it’s polity, it seems to be -no difficult matter to give motion to the new springs of government. It -is true, that many of the prejudices of frenchmen were still inveterate, -and in some measure influenced them; and it is also certain, that their -total ignorance of the operations of any rational system of government -was an impediment to this motion; but it is nevertheless to be presumed, -that, the liberty of frenchmen having been previously secured by the -establishment of the declaration of rights, if the assembly had formed -some kind of a constitution, and proposed it to the nation, and to the -king, if he were considered as forming a part of it, for their -acceptation, the dispute between the people and court would have been -brought to a speedy issue; and the public attention directed to a point -would have given dignity and respectability to their proceedings. If -such measures had been followed, and it appears a little strange they -were not, most probably the king and court, perceiving that their future -consequence wholly depended on their acquiescence with the state of -reason, and temper of the times, would have relinquished all those -absurd and dangerous projects for overturning the rising political -fabric of the nation, which anarchy fostered. - -It is the pillars of a building, which indicate it’s durability, and not -the minor beams that are inserted through them, in order to rear the -structure. The natural, civil, and political rights of man are the main -pillars of all social happiness; and by the firm establishment of them, -the freedom of men will be eternally secured. The moment, therefore, a -state has gained those important and sacred privileges, it is clear, -that it ought to form some kind of government, grounded upon this firm -and broad basis, that being the only possible way to give them -permanency. But the constituent assembly, unmindful of the dreadful -effects beginning to flow from an unbounded licentiousness, continued to -pursue a romantic sublimity of character, dangerous to all sublunary -laws; whilst most interestedly attentive to things that should have been -subordinate to their first object, they were led into a procrastination, -which in it’s consequence has been fatal in the extreme. - -The decree which made the king inviolable, passed on the 15th of -September, at the time the crown was declared hereditary, and the empire -indivisible, was the most idle, if not the most dangerous measure, both -for him and France, which could have been devised. The former life of -Louis had exhibited a series of follies, and displayed an insincerity -not to be tolerated, much less encouraged; and it was likely, if this -doctrine, a relict of the abasement of ignorance, that kings can do no -wrong, should be carried into a law, forming part of the constitution, -that he would avail himself of the decree of the assembly to cover his -contempt of the national sovereignty. When kings are considered by the -government of a country merely as ciphers, it is very just and proper, -that their ministers should be responsible for their political conduct: -but at the moment when a state is about to establish a constitution on -the basis of reason, to undermine that foundation by a master-piece of -absurdity, appears a solecism as glaring as the doctrine itself is -laughable, when applied to an enlightened policy. In fact, whilst -Mirabeau contended for the infallibility of the king, he seems to have -had no right from reason to deride those who respected that of the -church: for, if the government must necessarily be supported by a pious -fraud, one was as respectable as the other. - -The bigotry of Louis was well known; nay, it was notorious, that he -employed his confessor to erase from his tender conscience the -remembrance of the vices he resolved to indulge, and to reconcile the -meanest dissimulation with a servile fear of the Being whose first -attribute is truth.—This man, whose bestiality had been carefully -pampered by the queen and count d’Artois, because in those moments of -revelry, prolonged to the most disgusting excess of gluttony and -intoxication, he would sanction all their demands, was made in his -person and conduct sacred and unimpeachable. This was the extreme folly -of weakness. But, when it is also kept in view, that, at the very period -when he was declared inviolable, he was suspected, in concert with the -court, to be actually meditating his flight, there seems to be a -pusillanimity in it as contemptible as the pretended dignity of the -assembly was ridiculous. - -True firmness consists in doing whatever is just and reasonable, -uninfluenced by any other consideration. The defining the power of the -crown in the assembly to be subordinate to the authority of the people -must have appeared to the kings of Europe a dangerous encroachment on -their indefeasible rights:—a heresy tending to undermine their -privileges, should such audacity pass unchastized, and to destroy the -splendour of royalty by presuming to control it’s omnipotence. It was -then scarcely to be expected, that their resentment would be appeased by -shielding the person of Louis against the danger of intrigue and -violence. It was not, indeed, the preservation of the life of this -unfortunate man, that interested them so sensibly as to appall the -sycophants of Europe.—No; it was the attack made on despotism; and the -attempt to draw aside the splendid curtain which concealed it’s folly, -that threw them into a general ferment and agitation. This agitation -could not fail to inspire the court of Versailles with hope, and they -stood prepared to take advantage of the gathering storm, as eagerly as a -distressed mariner, who has long laid becalmed, perceiving at length a -gentle heaving of the sea, and feeling the undulating motion of his -bark, foresees the approaching breeze, and spreads his sails to catch -the first breath of wind. The effect of the feigned or real pity of many -of the admirers of the old system, who were deeply wounded by the wrong -done, as they insisted, to their king, was to be dreaded; for it was not -to be supposed, that the chivalrous spirit of France would be destroyed -in an instant, though _swords had ceased to leap out of their scabbards_ -when beauty was not deified. It was then undoubtedly to be feared, that -they would risk their lives and fortunes to support the glory of their -master, and their own notions of honour: and the assembly, by making -Louis not accountable for any of his actions, however insincere, unjust, -or atrocious, was affording all his abettors a shelter, encouraging at -the same time his hypocrisy, and relaxing the little energy of -character, which his misfortune seemed to be calling into play. - -Mistaken lenity in politics is not more dangerous than a false -magnanimity is palpable littleness in the eyes of a man of simple -integrity. Besides, had the representatives of the people considered -Louis merely as a man, it is probable he would have acted more like one. -Instead of palliating the matter, they should, on the contrary, have -proclaimed to all Europe, with a tone of dignified firmness, that the -french nation, willing for themselves, regardless of the rights and -privileges of others, though respecting their prejudices, finding that -no compromise could be formed between the court and people, whose -interest neither justice nor policy ever required should be distinct, do -not consider themselves accountable to any power or congress on earth, -for any measure they may choose to adopt in framing a constitution to -regulate their own internal polity. That treating their monarch like a -man, and not as a mere idol for state pageantry, they would wish, by -establishing the dignity of truth and justice, to give stability to the -freedom of frenchmen, and leave a monument in their institutions to -immortalize a sincere and acquiescing king. But that, though their ideas -might differ greatly from those of their neighbours, with whom they -desired to live on the most amicable terms, they would pursue the path -of eternal reason in consolidating the rights of man; and by a striking -example lay the foundation of the liberty of the whole globe, of that -liberty which had hitherto been confined to the small island of England, -and enjoyed imperfectly even there. - -The house of Austria was at this period engaged in a war with the turks, -which obliged it to withdraw most of it’s troops from Flanders; and the -intelligence, that the flemings, highly discontented with the -innovations, which the vain weathercock Joseph the Second had made in -their form of worship, were on the eve of an insurrection, more against -the folly of the man than the despotism of his court, calmed the fears -of the french, as to the danger of being immediately attacked by -Germany. This security, for they had no dread of Sardinia, made them -consider the possibility of a counter-revolution being effected by -foreign enemies as far from alarming. It is true, there was not any just -cause of apprehension, unless they took into the calculation, that the -policy of Europe for ages past had been subject to sudden changes; a -state of profound tranquillity giving place to sanguinary scenes of -confusion, and inhuman butcheries—often about such trifling insults and -idle pretentions, as individuals would be ashamed to make a pretext for -quarrelling; and having reason to expect these changes as long as the -systems of courts preserve their existence, France could not reckon, -with any degree of certainty, on the continuation of peace.—Neither did -the national assembly appear to have calculated upon it; for they -undoubtedly betrayed symptoms of pusillanimity, when they suffered their -conduct to be in the smallest degree influenced by the apprehension of a -combination of the crowned heads of Europe to replace the royal diadem -of France, should the most brilliant of it’s jewels be touched by -profane hands. - -These fears, perhaps, were the secret cause, combined with the old habit -of adoring the king, as a point of honour, and loving the court, as an -affair of taste, that induced them to preserve the shadow of monarchy in -the new order of things. It’s preservation might have been politically -necessary; because, before abolishing any ancient form, it is necessary -to secure whatever political good may have flowed from it, and guard -against being exhausted by cutting off an excrescence.—But, if the -continuance of a king in the new system were expedient to avert present -evil, they should have allowed him the power necessary to give energy to -the government; and making him responsible for the rectitude of his -actions, the man would have had a fair trial, and posterity, judging of -his conduct, would have been enabled to form a just estimate of a kingly -government. - -Machiavelian cunning, however, still directed the movements of all the -courts of Europe; and these political moles, too well perceiving the -timidity that was mixed with the blustering courage of the assembly, -only waited for a favourable season to overturn the rising edifice. -Their agents had private instructions to promote the escape of Louis, as -the surest mode of making a decided schism in the national politics; and -they firmly believed, that the affection still subsisting for his -christian majesty would facilitate the execution of their plan. The -court also presuming on the divisions and lenity of the assembly, took -the most indefatigable pains to foster in the mind of the public, nay, -in that of all Europe, pity for the degraded person of the king, and -detestation of the sacrilege, which had been committed on the dignity of -royalty. Their continual theme was the ignominious state to which the -most mild of the Bourbons was reduced, by men, who usurped the reins of -government, and trampled on the honours of that august and ancient -family. Restraining the authority of a throne, which supported the most -abominable tyranny, they were shaking the despotism, which held in -bondage nine-tenths of the inhabitants of the world. These were alarming -signals to a certain class of men, to the drones and myrmidons who live -on the spoil and blood of industry and innocence. The intrusion of -knowledge, which was sure to render them an useless set of beings in -society, was to be prevented by ingenious clamours, whilst a great -number of weak, well-meaning people, and still more knaves, enlisted -under their banner. - -The universal damp, which the revolution had given to the courts of -Europe, producing among them a lively sympathy for the sombre atmosphere -of Versailles, a general sorrow was consequently expressed by all their -minions, and expressed with unfeigned concern; for the want of the usual -routine of amusements tended to make it real. Hope, indeed, began again -to animate them, when the king was prevailed on to concert his escape; -yet their eagerness to accelerate his departure for the frontiers, where -they purposed to erect the royal standard, to avail themselves of the -proximity of german connections, was in a great degree the cause of -defeating that ill-contrived design. - -A design formed very early, and systematically pursued, was probably -rendered entirely abortive by the obstinacy of the court; who still -persisted to cherish the belief, that the public opinion was changed -only for the moment, and that their deeply rooted love of royalty would -bring them back to what they termed their duty, when the effervescence -excited by novelty had subsided. And thinking, that the cordial -reception given by the parisians to the soldiery had contributed to -estrange them, and effect the revolution, they determined to regain -their lost ground, and dazzle them by feasts, instead of stealing on -their affections by hospitality.—Still, bearing impatiently their -humiliating situation, the courtiers could not help vauntingly exposing -their project; and the babbling of joy showed the weakness of the heads, -that could so soon be intoxicated by hope. - -A preparatory step was thought necessary to awaken a sense of allegiance -in the breasts of the people, and to promote a division amongst them, if -not their entire concurrence, after the cabinet should have securely in -their possession the person of the king; and this division would then -enable them to calculate their strength, and act accordingly. For this -purpose, in spite of the comments that had been made on the festivity at -Versailles, which seemed before to insult the misery of the people, and -greatly tended to provoke the exertions that overturned the Bastille and -changed the whole face of things, they projected another entertainment -to seduce the military, encouraged to throng round the court, whilst -famine was at the very gates of Paris. But previously the old french -guards, who had been incorporated with the _garde-bourgeoise_, began to -manifest some symptoms of discontent at not being allowed to guard the -person of the king. Whether they considered their honour as wounded, or -were spirited up to aspire at regaining this privilege, is not decided; -but it is clear, that the court, either to facilitate the entrance of -fresh troops, or from a real dislike to men, who had taken such an -active part in disconcerting their first plot, opposed their wish; and -even the municipality, as has been already noticed, was induced to -request, that a regiment of fresh troops might be called in to guard the -person of the king, and keep the peace, which this trifling dispute, -swelled into an insurrection in the report, threatened to disturb. - -The king’s body-guards, whose time of service expired the first of -october, were still retained with those who came to replace them; and an -immense crowd of supernumeraries continued daily to increase this corps, -which had not yet sworn allegiance to the nation. The officers, in -particular, flocked to Versailles, amounting to between eleven or twelve -hundred, constantly parading together. The universal topic was -commiseration of the king’s fate, and insinuations respecting the -ambition of the assembly. Yet, even there the court party seemed to be -prevailing: a president attached to loyalty was elected; and Mirabeau’s -remonstrances, respecting the augmentation of the troops, were -disregarded. - -Mean time, not only the officers of the new regiment, but those of the -national guards, were caressed by the court, whilst the citizens, with -more sagacity, were lavish of their attention to the soldiers. The -cabinet had not sufficient discernment to perceive, that the people were -now to be led, not driven; and the popular promoters of anarchy, to -serve their private interest, availed themselves, unfortunately, but too -well of this want of judgment.—Thus whilst one party, declaiming on the -necessity of order, seemed to be endeavouring to rivet on them the -chains of servitude, the other lifted them above the law with vain -glorious notions of their sovereignty.—And this sovereignty of the -people, the perfection of the science of government, only to be attained -when a nation is truly enlightened, consisted in making them tyrants; -nay the worst of tyrants, because the instruments of mischief of the -men, who pretended to be subordinate to their will, though acting the -very part of the ministers whom they execrated. - - - - - CHAPTER II. -ENTERTAINMENT AT VERSAILLES. THE NATIONAL COCKADE TRAMPLED UNDER FOOT. A -MOB OF WOMEN PROCEED TO THE HOTEL-DE-VILLE—AND THENCE TO VERSAILLES. THE -KING’S REPLY TO THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY’S REQUEST, THAT HE WOULD SANCTION - THE DECLARATION OF RIGHTS AND THE FIRST ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION. - DEBATES ON IT. ARRIVAL OF THE MOB AT VERSAILLES. THE KING RECEIVES A - DEPUTATION FROM THE WOMEN, AND SANCTIONS THE DECREE FOR THE FREE -CIRCULATION OF GRAIN. THE ASSEMBLY SUMMONED. LA FAYETTE ARRIVES WITH THE - PARISIAN MILITIA. THE PALACE ATTACKED BY THE MOB—WHO ARE DISPERSED BY -THE NATIONAL GUARDS. REFLECTIONS ON THE CONDUCT OF THE DUKE OF ORLEANS. - - -On the first of october, in consequence of these fresh machinations, a -magnificent entertainment was given in the name of the king’s -body-guards; but really by some of their principal officers, at the -opera-house of the castle. The affectation of excluding the dragoons, -distinguished for their attachment to liberty, seemed to show, but too -plainly, the end in view, rendered still more conspicuous by the unusual -familiarity of persons of the first rank with the lowest soldiers. - -When their heads were heated by a sumptuous banquet, by the tumult of an -immense crowd, and the great profusion of delicious wines and -_liqueurs_, the conversation, purposely turned into one channel, became -unrestrained, and a chivalrous scene completed the folly. The queen, to -testify her satisfaction for the homage paid to her, and the wishes -expressed in her favour, exhibited herself to this half-drunken -multitude; carrying the dauphin in her arms, whom she regarded with a -mixture of sorrow and tenderness, and seeming to implore in his favour -the affection and zeal of the soldiers. - -This acting, for it is clear that the whole was a preconcerted business, -was still more intoxicating than the wine.—The exclamation _vive le roi, -vive la reine_, resounded from all sides, and the royal healths were -drunk over drawn swords, whilst that of the nation was rejected with -contempt by the body-guards. The music, the choice could not have been -the effect of chance, played the well known air—O Richard! O my king! -the universe abandons thee[32]! and during this moment of fascination -some voices, perhaps bribed for the occasion, mingled execrations -against the assembly. A grenadier even darted from the midst of his -comrades, and accusing himself of having been unfaithful to his prince, -endeavoured, several times, to plunge his sword into his bosom. His held -arm was not indeed allowed to search for the disloyal heart; but some -blood was permitted to flow—and this theatrical display of sensibility, -carried to the highest pitch, produced emotions almost convulsive in the -whole circle, of which an english reader can scarcely form an idea. The -king, who is always represented as innocent, though always giving proofs -that he more than connived at the attempts to recover his power, was -likewise prevailed on to show himself at this entertainment. And some of -the same soldiery, who had refused to second the former project of the -cabal, were now induced to utter insults and menaces against the very -authority, they then supported. ‘The national cockade,’ exclaimed -Mirabeau, ‘that emblem of the defenders of liberty, has been torn in -pieces, and stamped under foot; and another ensign put in it’s -place.—Yes; even under the eye of the monarch, who allowed himself to be -styled—_Restorer of the rights of his people_, they have dared to hoist -a signal of faction.’ - -The same scene was renewed two days after, though with less parade; and -invitations for a similar treat were given for the following week. - -The rumour respecting them, which reached Paris, contained many -exaggerated circumstances; and was regarded as the commencement of fresh -hostilities, on the part of the court. The cry now was, that the stunned -aristocracy had again reared it’s head; and that a number of old -officers, chevaliers of St. Louis, had signed a promise to join the -body-guards in a new attempt. This list was said to contain thirty -thousand signatures; and idle as the tale was, it seemed to be confirmed -by the appearance of white and black cockades, which inconsiderate -individuals displayed at the risk of their lives. These, said the -parisians, are the first indications of a projected civil war—the court -wish only to have the king safe to head them before they speak out:—he -ought, therefore, to be removed to Paris, inferred the politicians of -the palais royal. The exasperating of the people in this manner was -certainly the most absurd blundering folly that could have ruined a -party, who apparently saw the necessity of dividing the people in order -to conquer them. It was, in fact, a species of madness, and can be -accounted for only by recollecting the ineffable contempt really felt by -the court for the _canaille_, which made them still imagine the -revolution to be only a temporary convulsion, not believing it possible, -in spite of the daily events, that they could be crushed by the mass -they despised. Their presumption proceeded from their ignorance, and was -incurable. - -The queen was supposed to be at the head of this weak conspiracy, to -withdraw the soldiery from siding with the people. She had presented -colours to the national guards of Versailles, and when they waited on -her to express their thanks, she replied, with the most winning -affability, ‘the nation and the army ought to be as well affected to the -king as we ourselves are. I was quite charmed with what passed on -thursday.’ This was the day of the feast. - -A scarcity of bread, the common grievance of the revolution, aggravated -the vague fears of the parisians, and made the people so desperate, that -it was not difficult to persuade them to undertake any enterprize; and -the torrent of resentment and enthusiasm required only to be directed to -a point to carry every thing before it. Liberty was the constant watch -word; though few knew in what it consisted.—It seems, indeed, to be -necessary, that every species of enthusiasm should be fermented by -ignorance to carry it to any height. Mystery alone gives full play to -the imagination, men pursuing with ardour objects indistinctly seen or -understood, because each man shapes them to his taste, and looks for -something beyond even his own conception, when he is unable to form a -just idea. - -The parisians were now continually brooding over the wrongs they had -heretofore only enumerated in a song; and changing ridicule into -invective, all called for redress, looking for a degree of public -happiness immediately, which could not be attained, and ought not to -have been expected, before an alteration in the national character -seconded the new system of government. - -From the enjoyment of more freedom than the women of other parts of the -world, those of France have acquired more independence of spirit than -any others; it has, therefore, been the scheme of designing men very -often since the revolution, to lurk behind them as a kind of safe-guard, -working them up to some desperate act, and then terming it a folly, -because merely the rage of women, who were supposed to be actuated only -by the emotions of the moment. Early then on the fifth of october a -multitude of women by some impulse were collected together; and -hastening to the _hôtel-de-ville_ obliged every female they met to -accompany them, even entering many houses to force others to follow in -their train. - -The concourse, at first, consisted mostly of market women, and the -lowest refuse of the streets, women who had thrown off the virtues of -one sex without having power to assume more than the vices of the other. -A number of men also followed them, armed with pikes, bludgeons, and -hatchets; but they were strictly speaking a mob, affixing all the odium -to the appellation it can possibly import; and not to be confounded with -the honest multitude, who took the Bastille.—In fact, such a rabble has -seldom been gathered together; and they quickly showed, that their -movement was not the effect of public spirit. - -They first talked of addressing the committee appointed by the -municipality to superintend the operations necessary to obtain provision -for the city, and to remonstrate respecting their inattention or -indifference to the public calamity. Mean time a new cord was fixed to -the notorious lamp-iron, where the amusement of death was first -tolerated. The national guards, forming a hedge of bayonets to prevent -the women from entering the hotel, kept them in suspense a few -moments.—When, uttering a loud and general cry, they hurled a volley of -stones at the soldiers, who, unwilling, or ashamed, to fire on women, -though with the appearance of furies, retreated into the hall, and left -the passage free. They then sought for arms; and breaking open the doors -of the magazines, soon procured fusils, cannons, and ammunition; and -even took advantage of the confusion to carry off money and notes -belonging to the public. In the interim some went to search for the -volunteers of the Bastille, and chose a commander from among them to -conduct the party to Versailles; whilst others tied cords to the -carriages of the cannons to drag them along.—But these, being mostly -marine artillery, did not follow with the alacrity necessary to accord -with their wishes; they, therefore, stopped several coaches, forcing the -men to get out and the ladies to join them; fastening the cannons -behind, on which a number of the most furious mounted, brandishing -whatever weapon they had found, or the matches of the cannons. Some -drove the horses, and others charged themselves with the care of the -powder and ball, falling into ranks to facilitate their march. They took -the road by the _Champs Elysées_ about noon, to the number of four -thousand, escorted by four or five hundred men, armed with every thing -on which they could lay their hands. - -Mean time the _tocsin_ sounded from all parts; the french guards, still -urged on by wounded pride, loudly declared, that the king ought to be -brought to Paris; and many of the citizens, not on duty, concurred with -the rest of the national guards in the same opinion, particularly those -accustomed to attend the harangues at the Palais Royal. La Fayette, -refusing to accompany, endeavoured to calm them. But finding, that the -tumult increased, and that prayers were giving place to menaces, he -offered to make known to the king, at their head, the wishes of the -capital, if the municipality gave him orders to this effect. Their -council was now assembled; yet prolonging the deliberation till between -four and five o’clock in the afternoon, the people became so very -impatient, that it was thought prudent to allow them to set out: and the -exclamations of the populace proved how easy it was to govern, or lead -them astray, by every fresh hope. - -Few events have happened at Paris, that have not been attributed by the -different parties to the machinations of the leaders on the other side; -to blacken whose characters, when they had the upper hand, the most -audacious falsehoods have been industriously circulated; the detection -of which has induced many calm observers to believe, that all the -accounts of plots and conspiracies were fabricated in the same manner; -not considering, that even the universality of these suspicions was a -proof of the intriguing character of the people, who from a knowledge of -themselves became thus mistrustful of others. It was currently reported, -that very considerable sums had been distributed amongst the mob, before -it marched to Versailles; and, though many fabulous stories of showers -of gold have since been retailed by the credulous, this seems, from -their subsequent conduct, to have had some foundation: for nothing like -the heroism, the disinterestedness, appeared, which, in most other -risings of the parisians, has formed a striking contrast with their -barbarity; sometimes sufficient to oblige us, lamenting the delusions of -ignorance, to give the soft name of enthusiasm to cruelty; respecting -the intention, though detesting the effects. Now, on the contrary, -acting like a gang of thieves, they gave colour to the report—that the -first instigators of the riot were hired assassins.—And hired by -whom?—The public voice repeats, on every side, the despicable duke of -Orleans, whose immense estate had given him an undue influence in the -bailliages, and who still exercised all the means that cunning could -devise, and wealth produce, to revenge himself on the royal family. He -was particularly incensed against the queen, who having treated him with -the contempt which he doubtless merited, and even influenced the king to -banish him to one of his country seats, when he uttered some popular -sentiments, he continued to nourish the most implacable hatred to her -person, whilst the changing sentiments of the nation respecting the -present branch of his family excited in him hopes, that would at once -have gratified both his revenge and his ambition. - -There is no calculating the mischief which may be produced by a -revengeful cunning knave, possessing the forcible engine of gold to move -his projects, and acting by agency, which, like a subterraneous fire, -that for a long time has been putting the combustible matter into a -state of fusion, bursts out unexpectedly, and the sudden eruption -spreads around terrour and destruction. - -The agents of despotism, and of vengeful ambition, employed the same -means to agitate the minds of the parisians; and covered as they now are -with foul stains, it is an acknowledgement due to their original good -disposition, to note, that at this period they were so orderly it -required considerable management to lead them into any gross -irregularity of conduct. It was, therefore, necessary for the duke’s -instruments to put in motion a body of the most desperate women; some of -whom were half famished for want of bread, which had purposely been -rendered scarce to facilitate the atrocious design of murdering both the -king and queen in a broil, that would appear to be produced solely by -the rage of famine. - -The shameless manner in which the entertainment of the officers of the -body-guards had been conducted; the indiscreet visit of the queen to -interest the army in the cause of royalty, coming in artfully after the -rabble of soldiers had been allowed to enter; together with the -imprudent expressions of which she afterwards made use; served as -pretexts, nay, may have been some of the causes of these women -suspecting, that the dearth of bread in the capital was owing to the -contrivance of the court, who had so often produced the same effect to -promote their sinister purposes. They believed then, that the only sure -way to remedy such a grievous calamity, in future, would be to implore -the king to reside at Paris: and the national militia, composed of more -orderly citizens, who thought the report of a premeditated escape was -not without foundation, imagined, that they should nip a civil war in -the bud, by preventing the king’s departure, and separate him -effectually from the cabal, to whom they attributed all his misconduct. - -Whilst the multitude were advancing, the assembly were considering the -king’s reply to their request to sanction the declaration of rights, and -the first articles of the constitution, before the supplies were -granted. The reply was couched in terms somewhat vague, yet it’s meaning -could not be misunderstood.—He observed, that the articles of the -constitution could be judged of only in their connection with the whole; -nevertheless he thought it natural, that at the moment the nation was -called upon to assist the government by a signal act of confidence and -patriotism, they should expect to be re-assured respecting their -principal interest.—‘Accordingly,’ he continues, ‘taking it for granted, -that the first articles of the constitution, which you have presented to -me, united to the completion of your labours, will satisfy the wishes of -my people, and secure the happiness and prosperity of the kingdom, -conformably to your desire I accept them; but with one positive -condition, from which I will never depart; namely, that from the general -result of your deliberations the executive power shall have it’s entire -effect in the hands of the monarch. Still it remains for me to assure -you with frankness, that, if I give my sanction of acceptance to the -several articles, which you have laid before me, it is not because they -indiscriminately give me an idea of perfection; but I believe it -laudable in me to pay this respect to the wishes of the deputies of the -nation, and to the alarming circumstances, which so earnestly press us -to desire above all things the prompt re-establishment of peace, order, -and confidence. - -‘I shall not deliver my sentiments respecting your declaration of the -rights of man and of citizens. It contains excellent maxims proper to -direct your deliberations; but principles susceptible of application, -and even of different interpretations, cannot be justly appreciated, and -have only need of being so when their true sense is determined by the -laws, to which they ought to be the basis.’ - -In the subterfuge employed in this answer, the profound dissimulation of -the king appears; and that ‘pitiful respect for false honour,’ which -makes a man boggle at a naked untruth, even when uttering a number of -contemptible prevarications. Thus did he at first struggle against every -concession, against granting any real freedom to the people; yet -afterwards unable to maintain his ground, he impotently gave way before -the storm he had raised, every time losing a part of the authority which -depended on opinion. - -The assembly manifested an universal discontent. One of the members -remarked, that the king withheld his acceptance of the declaration of -rights; and only yielded to circumstances in accepting the -constitutional articles: he, therefore, moved, that no taxes should be -levied, before the declaration of rights and the constitution should be -accepted, without any reservation.—Another asserted, that the king’s -reply ought to have been counter-signed by one of the ministers. What an -absurdity! yet the inviolability of the king standing in their way, it -seemed to be necessary to secure ministerial responsibility, to render -it null; not only to prevent the ministers from finding shelter behind -it, but to make it utterly useless to the king, who was thus, literally -speaking, reduced to a cipher. Mirabeau, however, after alluding with -energy to the entertainment, which, out of derision, had been termed -patriotic, made three or four motions. One was, ‘that no act emanating -from the king should be declared without the signature of a secretary of -state.’—So inconsistent was the man, who argued with such eloquence for -the absolute _veto_:—Another was, ‘that his majesty would please to be -explicit; and not by a conditional consent, extorted by circumstances, -leave any doubt of his sincere concurrence in the mind of the people.’ -It was also noticed, to corroborate the inference, that the king was -only yielding, for the moment, to opinions which he hoped to see -exploded, that the decree for the circulation of grain had been altered -before the publication, and the usual preamble, _for such is our -pleasure_, formed a strange contrast with an acknowledgement of the -legislative rights of the nation. Robespierre, particularly, maintained, -that the nation had not any need of the assistance of the monarch to -constitute itself—that the king’s reply was not an acceptance, but a -censure; and, consequently, an attack on the rights of the people. - -This seemed virtually the opinion of the assembly, though Mirabeau’s -soft style of expressing their will was adopted. It was particularly in -this decision, that the deputies displayed a great degree of the -weakness, which mistakes temerity for courage, and the shadow of justice -for verity.—And affecting to say, to reconcile a contradiction, that the -authority of kings is suspended as often as the sovereign is occupied in -framing the elements of the constitution, or altering fundamental laws, -they demonstrated the inconsistency of their own system, and -acknowledged it’s absurdity; which is still more flagrantly shown in -Mirabeau’s irrational declaration, that, ‘by a pious fiction of the law, -the king cannot himself deceive; but the grievances of the people -demanding victims, these victims are the ministers.’ - -At this juncture of the debate the tumultuous concourse of women arrived -at Versailles: but it must not be unnoticed, that there was a number of -men with them, disguised in women’s clothes; which proves, that this was -not, as has been asserted, a sudden impulse of necessity, There were -besides men in their own garb armed like ruffians, with countenances -answerable, who, swearing vengeance against the queen and the -body-guards, seemed to be preparing to put their threats in execution. -Some barbarians, volunteers in guilt, might perhaps have joined, spurred -on solely by the hope of plunder, and a love of tumult; but it is clear, -that the principal movers played a surer game. - -The women had taken two routes; and one party, without arms, presented -themselves at the gate of the assembly, whilst the other clustered round -the palace waiting for them. The avenues were already filled with -body-guards, the flanders regiment was drawn up in ranks; in short, the -soldiers were gathered together quickly in one quarter, though the -people of Versailles were exceedingly alarmed, and particularly by the -appearance of the vagabonds, who followed the female mob. - -With some difficulty the women were prevailed on to allow a few to enter -orderly into the assembly, with a spokesman to make known their demand; -whilst crowds, taking refuge in the galleries from the rain, presented -there the strange sight of pikes, fusils, and tremendous sticks bound -with iron. Their orator represented the grievances of the people, and -the necessity of continually providing for their subsistence: he -expressed the concern of the parisians on account of the slow formation -of the constitution, and attributed this delay to the opposition of the -clergy. A bishop then presided in the absence of Mounier, the president, -who had been dispatched by the assembly with their expostulatory -petition to the king. A deputy, to spare him the embarrassment of a -reply to the insinuation against his order, reprimanded the petitioner -for calumniating that respectable body. He accordingly made an apology, -yet justified himself by declaring, that he only reported the purport of -the discontentment of Paris. They were informed, in reply, by the -vice-president, that a deputation was already sent to the king, -requesting his sanction of a decree to facilitate the interiour -circulation of grain and flour: and finding, that it was impossible to -attend to the business of the day, he adjourned the assembly, without -waiting for the return of the president. - -The women about the palace entered into conversation with the soldiers, -some of whom said, ‘that were the king to recover all his authority, the -people would never want bread!’ This indiscreet insinuation exasperated -them; and they replied in the language, that is proverbial for being the -most abusive. A fray also ensuing, brought on by a dispute relative to -the affair of the cockades, one of the body-guards drew his sword, which -provoked a national guard of Versailles to give him a blow with his -musket, that broke his arm. - -The national troops were eager to convince the mob, that they were -equally offended at the disrespect paid to the emblem of liberty; and -the flemish regiment, though they were in battle array, made the women -let their rings drop into their guns, to be convinced that they were not -charged: saying, ‘It was true, they had drunk the wine of the body -guards; but what did that engage them to do? They had also cried, _vive -le roi_, as the people themselves did every day; and it was their -intention to serve him faithfully, but not against the nation!’—with -other speeches to the same effect;—adding, ‘that one of their officers -had ordered a thousand cockades; and they knew not why they were not -distributed!’ Enraged by the tenour of this discourse, a body-guard’s -man struck one of the soldiers talking thus, who, in return, fired on -him, and fractured his arm. All was now confusion; and every thing -tended to render the body-guards more odious to the populace. - -The king arrived in the midst of it from hunting, and admitted at the -same time the deputation from the national assembly, and an address from -the women. He received the latter with great affability, testified his -sorrow on account of the scarcity of bread at Paris, and immediately -sanctioned the decree, relative to the free circulation of grain, which -he had just received from the assembly. The woman who spoke, attempting -to kiss his hand, he embraced her with politeness, and dismissed them in -the most gentleman-like manner. They immediately rejoined their -companions, charmed by the reception they had met with; and the king -sent orders to the guards not to make use of their arms. The count -d’Estaing, the commander in chief, announced likewise to the militia of -Versailles, that the body-guards would the next day take the oath of -allegiance to the nation, and put on the patriotic cockade. ‘They are -not worthy,’ was the indignant growl of the multitude. - -Some women now returning to Paris, to report the gracious behaviour of -the king, were unfortunately maltreated by a detachment of body-guards, -commanded by a nobleman; and the volunteers of the Bastille coming to -their assistance, two men, and three horses, were killed on the spot. -These same irritated women meeting, likewise, the parisian militia, on -their way to Versailles, gave them an exaggerated description of the -conduct of the guards. - -The court now taking the alarm, fearing that their plan would be -defeated, by the king’s being obliged to go to Paris, urged him -immediately to get out for Metz, and the carriages were actually -prepared. It is scarcely credible that they would have gone so far -without his concurrence. - -One loaded coach had been permitted to go out of the gate; but the -national troops beginning to suspect what was going forward, obliged it -to re-enter. The king then, with his usual address, finding his escape -at that time impracticable, and not wishing to shed blood in forcing his -way, made a merit of necessity, and declared he would rather perish than -see the blood of frenchmen streaming in his quarrel! So easy is it for a -man, versed in the language of duplicity, to impose on the credulous; -and to impress on candid minds a belief of an opinion that they would -gladly receive without any doubting allay, did not other circumstances -more strongly contradict the persuasion. This declaration, however, -which was re-echoed with great eagerness, was considered as a manifest -proof of the purity of his intentions, and a mark of his fixed adherence -to the cause which he affected to espouse. Yet, to prove the contrary, -it is only necessary to observe, that he put off the acceptance of the -declaration of rights, and the first articles of the constitution, till -after the attempt to escape was frustrated: for it was near eleven -o’clock when he sent for the president, to put into his hands a simple -acceptation, and to request him to convoke the assembly immediately, -that he might avail himself of their counsel at this crisis; alarmed by -the mob without, who, exposed to all the inclemency of the weather, it -being a very wet and stormy night, were uttering the most horrid -imprecations against the queen and the body-guards. - -A drum instantly summoned the assembly; and La Fayette arriving with his -army in less than an hour after, the president was again called for, who -returned to the assembly with the king’s assurance, that he had not even -thought of leaving them, nor would he ever separate himself from the -representatives of the people. - -La Fayette had previously assured the king of the fidelity of the -metropolis, and that he had been expressly sent by the municipality of -Paris to guard his august person. A rumour had prevailed, ever since the -arrival of the women, that the parisian militia were coming to second -them; but as the _commune_ of Paris had not determined till late in the -afternoon, the messenger from La Fayette to the palace could not have -reached Versailles long before him: but the court supposing that they -would come, and having heard of the wish of the parisians to bring the -king to Paris, where they had always spies to give them the earliest -notice of what was going forward, pressed him to set out without loss of -time; still they were actuated solely by the desire of getting him away, -and not from any apprehension that his life was in danger. - -After tranquilizing the king, La Fayette joined the parisian militia in -the avenue, to inform them, that the king had sanctioned the decree of -the assembly for expediting the more speedy circulation of provisions; -that he accepted, without any reservation, of the declaration of rights, -with the first articles of the constitution, declaring at the same time -his unshaken resolution to remain among his people; and that he -consented also to have a detachment of the national troops of Paris to -contribute to guard his person. - -Joy now took place of dread at Versailles; and the citizens distributed -their addresses amongst the soldiers, offering them lodgings; they -having been previously requested, by the beating of a drum, to receive -as many of the parisian militia as they possibly could. The rest, after -passing several hours in arms round the palace, sought for shelter, as -the morning began to dawn, in the churches. Every thing appearing quiet, -the harassed king and queen were prevailed on to seek the repose they -needed; and La Fayette, about five in the morning, retired to his -chamber, to write to the municipality an account of his proceedings, -before he likewise endeavoured to snatch a little rest. - -Scarcely an hour after, the restless mob, great part of which had taken -refuge in the hall and galleries of the assembly, began to prowl about. -The most decent of the women, who had been pressed into the service, -stole away during the night. The rest, with the whole gang of ruffians, -rushed towards the palace, and finding its avenues unguarded, entered -like a torrent; and some among them, most probably, conceived, that this -was the moment to perpetrate the crime for which they had been drawn -from their lurking-holes in Paris. - -Insulting one of the body-guards who opposed their entrance, he fired, -and killed a man. This was a fresh pretext for entering to search for -the murderer, as he was termed by these rioters; and driving the guards -before them up the grand stair-case, they began to break into the -different apartments, vowing vengeance against the body-guards, in which -were mingled the bitterest curses, all levelled at the queen. - -Catching one unfortunate guard by himself, he was dragged down the -stairs; and his head, instantly severed from his body, was mounted on a -pike, which rather served to irritate than glut the fury of the -monsters, who were still hunting after blood or plunder. - -The most desperate found their way to the queen’s chamber, and left for -dead the man who courageously disputed their entrance. But she had been -alarmed by the tumult, though the miscreants were not long in making -their way good, and, throwing a wrapping-gown around her, ran, by a -private passage, to the king’s apartment, where she found the dauphin; -but the king was gone in quest of her: he, however, quickly returning, -they waited together in a horrid state of suspense. Several of the -guards, who endeavoured to keep back the mob, were wounded; yet all this -happened in a very short space of time. - -The promptitude and rapidity of this movement, taking every circumstance -into consideration, affords additional arguments in support of the -opinion, that there had been a premeditated design to murder the royal -family. The king had granted all they asked the evening before; sending -away great part of the multitude delighted with his condescension; and -they had received no fresh provocation to excite this outrage. The -audacity of the most desperate mob has never led them, in the presence -of a superiour force, to attempt to chastise their governors; and it is -not even probable that banditti, who had been moved by the common causes -of such insurrections, should have thought of murdering their sovereign, -who, in the eyes of the greater number of frenchmen, was still shrouded -by that divinity, tacitly allowed to hover round kings, much less have -dared to attempt it. - -La Fayette was quickly roused; and, sending his _aides-de-camp_ to -assemble the national guards, he followed the ruffians with equal -celerity. They had actually forced the king’s apartment at the moment he -arrived; and the royal family were listening to the increasing tumult as -the harbinger of death,—when all was hushed,—and the door opening a -moment after, the national guards entered respectfully, saying they came -to save the king;—‘and we will save you too, gentlemen,’ added they, -addressing the body-guards, who were in the chamber. - -The vagabonds were now pursued in their turn, and driven from room to -room, in the midst of their pillage, for they had already begun to -ransack that sumptuously furnished palace. From the palace they repaired -to the stables, still intent on plunder, and carried away some horses, -which were as quickly retaken. Every where they pursued the body-guards, -and every where the generous parisian troops, forgetting their piqued -pride and personal animosity, hazarded their lives to save them.—Till, -at length, order was perfectly established. - -Such was the termination of this most mysterious affair; one of the -blackest of the machinations that have since the revolution disgraced -the dignity of man, and sullied the annals of humanity. Disappointed in -their main object, these wretches beheaded two of the guards, who fell -into their hands; and hurried away towards the metropolis, with the -_insignia_ of their atrocity on the points of the barbarous instruments -of vengeance—showing in every instance, by the difference of their -conduct, that they were a set of monsters, distinct from the people. - -Whilst nature shudders at imputing to any one a plan so inhuman, the -general character and life of the duke of Orleans warrant the belief, -that he was the author of this tumult. And when we compare the -singularly ferocious appearance of the mob, with the brutal violation of -the apartment of the queen, there remains little doubt, but that a -design was on foot against the lives of both her and the king.—Yet in -this, and most other instances, the man has wanted courage to consummate -his villany, when the plot he had been following up was ripe. - -It is, perhaps, not the least noble faculty of the mind, to question the -motives of action, which are repugnant to the feelings of nature, -outraging the most sacred feelings of the human soul. But it is the -developement of a character, that enables us to estimate it’s depravity; -and had the conduct of that wretch ever varied, the veil of mystery -might still have remained unrent, and posterity, hearing of the judgment -of the châtelet, would have believed _Egalité_ innocent. The court had -become highly obnoxious to the nation, and with it the king was -implicated, in spite of the efforts of Mirabeau, and some other -favourites of the people, to render him respectable; so that there -wanted not a plausible: reason for suspecting, that the duke might -aspire at obtaining the regency, though Louis was neither massacred, nor -allowed to escape. But the present scheme being disconcerted, fear, for -a while, damped his ambition: and La Fayette, finding that these -suspicions still formed a pretext to excite commotions, with a view to -quiet the minds of the parisians, seconded the importunities of the -duke, who wished to visit England, till the affair blew over. The king, -therefore, was prevailed on to give him a nominal commission, to be made -use of as a plea to obtain liberty of absence from the assembly, of -which he was a member. - -He was certainly very apprehensive of an investigation of the business; -and revenge and ambition equally giving way to personal fear, he left -his colleagues to finish the constitution, and his agents to recover his -fame, by representing the story as a calumny of the royalists, against -whom the public were sufficiently enraged to credit any aspersion. - -The bold tone he assumed the july following was far from being a proof -of his innocence; because it was not very probable, that a cunning man -should take his measures in such a critical affair without due -precaution.—On the contrary, he would labour to sink so entirely into -the back-ground of the plot, as to render it difficult, if not -impossible, for him to be perceived. And this was practicable to a man, -who was willing, in the promotion of his purpose, to dissipate the most -splendid fortune. - -To a disposition for low intrigue was added also a decided preference of -the grossest libertinism, seasoned with vulgarity, highly congenial with -the manners of the heroines, who composed the singular army of the -females. - -Having taken up his abode in the centre of the palais royal, a very -superb square, yet the last in which a person of any delicacy, not to -mention decorum, or morality, would choose to reside; because, excepting -the people in trade, who found it convenient, it was entirely occupied -by the most shameless girls of the town, their hectoring protectors, -gamesters, and sharpers of every denomination. In short, by the vilest -of women; by wretches, who lived in houses from which the stript bodies, -often found in the Seine, were supposed to be thrown[33]—and he was -considered as the grand sultan of this den of iniquity. Living thus in -the lap of crime, his heart was as tainted as the foul atmosphere he -breathed.—Incapable of affection, his amours were the jaundiced caprices -of satiety; and having proved in the affair of Keppel and d’Orvilliers, -that he wanted the courage of a man, he appears to have been as fit for -dark under-hand assassinations as he was unequal to any attempt flowing -from virtuous ambition. - -That a body of women should put themselves in motion to demand relief of -the king, or to remonstrate with the assembly respecting their tardy -manner of forming the constitution, is scarcely probable; and that they -should have undertaken the business, without being instigated by -designing persons, when all Paris was dissatisfied with the conduct and -the procrastination of the assembly, is a belief which the most -credulous will hardly swallow, unless they take into their view, that -the want of bread was the bye word used by those, who in a great measure -produced it; for perceiving the turn the public mind was taking, they -drove the mob on to perpetrate the mischief long designed, under the -sanction of national indignation. - -It is evident, that the court was not concerned, however desirous the -cabinet might have been to render the people discontented with the new -order of things; for they seem to have been entirely occupied with the -scheme, on which they built the most sanguine expectation, of prevailing -on the king to retire to Metz. Besides, the course the project took is a -circumstantial evidence, that, designed against Versailles, it was not -meditated there. - -That the Châtelet should not have been able to substantiate any proof of -his guilt, is not in the least extraordinary.—It is only necessary to be -acquainted with the general propensity of the french to intrigue, to -know, that there is no service, however dangerous, or purpose, however -black, for which gold will not find a man. There were wretches, who -would have considered exile as an escape from the continual dread of -menaced detection, could they carry with them a sum to commence anew -their fraudulent practices in another country; and money the duke did -not spare to gratify his passions, though sordidly mean when they were -out of the question. - -His remaining also in England for such a length of time, merely to avoid -disturbing the tranquillity of the state, when it was possible, that by -it’s disorder and agitation he might gain a sceptre, cannot be credited; -because it is well known, that he never sacrificed any selfish -consideration to the general good. Such examples of self-denial and true -patriotism are uncommon, even from the most virtuous men; and it is idle -to imagine, that a man, whom all the world allowed to be vicious, should -risk the popularity, which he had been at such pains to acquire, unless -it were to guard his life. - -On his return, nevertheless, finding that all was safe, he appeared in -the assembly, provoking the inquiry from which he had before skulked; -and braving detection, when the danger was passed, he had the address to -persuade the public of his innocence. Nay, the mock patriots of the day, -pretending to despise princes, were glad to have a prince on their side. - -The report, that Mirabeau, always an avowed advocate for a limited -monarchy, was concerned in the plot, was certainly a calumny; because it -is notorious, that he had an habitual contempt for the duke, which had -even produced a decided coolness some time before. And, if any -collateral proof of his innocence were necessary, it would be sufficient -to add, that the abbé Maury, his competitor in eloquence, and opponent -in opinion, declared there was no ground for his impeachment. - -It is unfortunate, indeed, that some of the villains employed were not -immediately interrogated. The soldiery, in chasing them from one quarter -to another, gave proofs not only of their intrepidity, but attachment to -the new government; and the only reprehensible part of their conduct was -suffering the murderers to escape, instead of apprehending as many as -they could, and bringing them to condign punishment. Such an omission, -it was to be feared, would produce the most fatal consequences, because -impunity never fails to stimulate the wretches, who have arrived at such -a pitch of wickedness, to commit fresh, and, if possible, still more -atrocious crimes; and it is by suspending the decrees of justice, that -hardened miscreants, made so by oppression, give full scope to all the -brutality of their sanguinary dispositions. - -This neglect, in their turn, was not the least reprehensible or fatal -errour, produced by the factions of the assembly. The crisis demanded -vigour and boldness.—The laws had been trampled on by a gang of banditti -the most desperate—The altar of humanity had been profaned—The dignity -of freedom had been tarnished—The sanctuary of repose, the asylum of -care and fatigue, the chaste temple of a woman, I consider the queen -only as one, the apartment where she consigns her senses to the bosom of -sleep, folded in it’s arms forgetful of the world, was violated with -murderous fury—The life of the king was assailed, when he had acceded to -all their demands—And, when their plunder was snatched from them, they -massacred the guards, who were doing their duty.—Yet these brutes were -permitted triumphantly to escape—and dignified with the appellation of -the people, their outrage was in a great measure attempted to be excused -by those deputies, who sometimes endeavoured to gain an undue influence -through the interposition of the mob. - -At this moment the assembly ought to have known, that the future -respectability of their laws must greatly depend on the conduct they -pursued on the present occasion; and it was time to show the parisians, -that, giving freedom to the nation, they meant to guard it by a strict -adherence to the laws, that naturally issue from the simple principles -of equal justice they were adopting; punishing with just severity all -such as should offer to violate, or treat them with contempt. Wisdom, -precision, and courage, are the permanent supports of authority—the -durable pillars of every just government, and they only require to be, -as it were, the porticos of the structure, to obtain for it, at once, -both the admiration and obedience of the people. To maintain -subordination in a state by any other means is not merely difficult, -but, for any length of time, impossible. - -They ought to have stood up as one man in support of insulted justice; -and by directing the arm of the law, have smothered in embryo that -spirit of rebellion and licentiousness, which, beginning to appear in -the metropolis, it was to be feared would attain herculean strength by -impunity, and ultimately overturn, with wanton thoughtlessness, or -headstrong zeal, all their labours. Yet, so contrary was their conduct -to the dictates of common sense, and the common firmness of rectitude of -intention, that they not only permitted that gang of assassins to regain -their dens; but instantly submitted to the demand of the soldiery, and -the peremptory wish of the parisians—that the king should reside within -the walls of Paris. - -The firmness of conduct, which the representatives of a people should -always maintain, had been wanting in the assembly from the moment their -power had been acknowledged; for instead of being directed by any -regular plan of proceeding, a line equally marked out by integrity and -political prudence, they were hurried along by a giddy zeal, and by a -burlesque affectation of magnanimity; as puerile as the greater part of -their debates were frivolous. Whilst their vanity was gratified by the -lively applauses lavished on their inflated and popular declamation, -they set fire to the foibles of the multitude, teaching their desperate -demagogues to become their rivals in this species of eloquence, till the -plans of the leaders of clubs, and popular societies, were generally -admired and pursued. - -The will of the people being supreme, it is not only the duty of their -representatives to respect it, but their political existence ought to -depend on their acting conformably to the will of their constituents. -Their voice, in enlightened countries, is always the voice of reason. -But in the infancy of society, and during the advancement of the science -of political liberty, it is highly necessary for the governing authority -to be guided by the progress of that science; and to prevent, by -judicious measures, any check being given to it’s advancement, whilst -equal care is taken not to produce the miseries of anarchy by -encouraging licentious freedom. The national assembly, however, -delighted with their blooming honours, suffered themselves to be hurried -forward by a multitude, on whom political light had too suddenly -flashed, and seemed to have no apprehension of the danger, which has so -fatally resulted from their tame acquiescence. - -The people of Paris, who have more than their portion of the national -vanity, believed that they had produced the revolution; and thinking -themselves both the father and mother of all the great events, which had -happened since it’s commencement, and that the national assembly, whose -conduct indeed betrayed symptoms of an understanding not adult, ought to -be directed by their leading-strings, frequently declared, that liberty -would not be secured, until the court and the assembly were brought -within the walls of the capital. This was the subject of club debates, -decided with legislative pomposity, on the rumour of the intended -evasion of the king; and the insult offered to the national cockade, the -first of october, brought them to the determination—that it was proper -he should be there.—Such was their will, the capital of the nation—now -sovereign. Foreseeing also, as they had already dreaded, that the only -security for infant freedom would be to guard the court, and place in -the centre of information their infant representatives; whom they -alternately idolized and suspected. - -The decorum of manners in a people, long subordinate to the authority of -their magistrates, had on several occasions, and even on the fifth of -october, controlled the impetuous populace, who had undertaken, or -joined in the enterprize; and considering the manner in which they were -pushed on, it is extraordinary, that they did not commit greater -depredations. For with all their brutality, and eagerness to plunder the -palace, they did not attempt to pillage Versailles, though half -famished. - -The army of La Fayette indeed, principally composed of citizens, behaved -not only in an irreproachable manner; but the celerity of their -movements, their obedience to the discipline which they had so promptly -acquired, joined to the clemency and moderation they displayed, excited -the gratitude and respect of all parties.—Still, trembling for the -rights that had been so gloriously snatched out of the clinched hand of -despotism—it was the wish of all the leaders to have the king at Paris. -It was in fact the general sentiment at Paris, and of the greater part -of the nation. - -That city, which had contributed so essentially in effecting the -revolution, viewed with anxiety the influence of a party spirit in the -assembly, though themselves split into several political sects, who -almost execrated each other. And finding, that the indecision of the -members had given fresh hopes to the court, which at last might render -their emancipation merely a dazzling meteor, they were restlessly bent -on having the king and assembly more immediately in their power. The -report, likewise, of Louis’s intended escape; which had he effected, it -was probable, that he would have been in the next place prevailed on to -join the discontented princes and nobles, thus producing a schism in the -kingdom, that must infallibly have brought on not only a cruel civil -war, but have embroiled them with all the different powers of Europe; -was a still more urgent motive: for whilst they were constantly -affecting to believe in the goodness of his heart, they never showed by -their conduct, that they had any confidence in his sincerity.—Their -opinion of the assembly was equally unfixed.—One day a deputy was -extolled as the hero of liberty, and the next denounced as a traitorous -pensioner of despotism. - -These sentiments were dangerous to the authority of the new government; -but they were sentiments which never would have been promulged, even had -they existed, had the assembly acted with integrity and magnanimity. -Because, though the people do not always reason in the most logical or -rhetorical style, yet they generally perceive in what consists the -defects of their legislators. And in every free government, when the -deputies of the state, convened to form laws, do not act with precision -and judgment, they will be sure to lose their respectability; and the -consequence will be a dissolution of all authority. - -It appears to amount to a certainty, that the assembly did not at that -time possess the implicit confidence of the people, by their demanding, -that the king should be obliged to reside within the barriers of the -capital.—It was surely as possible to guard him at Versailles as at -Paris; and if it were necessary, that he should be kept as a prisoner of -state, or hostage, the government was the proper authority to determine -how, and where:—and in giving up this necessary privilege of authority, -they surrendered their power to the multitude of Paris. - -Or rather a minority of the assembly, who wished to be removed to the -capital, by exciting and humouring the people, directed the majority; -and in the same manner has the dignity of the representative body ever -since been trampled under foot by selfishness, or the blind zeal of -vanity.—It is in reality from this epocha, not forgetting such a leading -circumstance, that the commencement of the reign of anarchy may be -fairly dated. For, though a tolerable degree of order was preserved a -considerable time after, because a multitude long accustomed to -servitude do not immediately feel their own strength; yet they soon -began to tyrannize over one part of their representatives, stimulated by -the other. They, however, continued to respect the decrees of the -national assembly especially as there were rarely any passed on which -the public opinion had not been previously consulted, directed as it was -by the popular members, who gained their constant suffrage by the stale -trick of crying out for more freedom. It was the indispensable duty of -the deputies to respect the dignity of their body—Instead of which, for -sinister purposes, many of them instructed the people how to tyrannize -over the assembly; thus deserting the main principle of representation, -the respect due to the majority. This first grand desertion of the -principles, which they affected to adopt in all their purity, led to -public misery; involving these short-sighted men in the very ruin they -had themselves produced by their mean intrigues. - -The authoritative demand of the parisians was striking so directly at -the freedom of the assembly, that they must either have been conscious -of wanting power, or they had no conception of dignity of action, -otherwise they would not have suffered the requisition of the people to -have been complied with. Yet they seem to have considered it, if it be -not paradoxical to assert it, as an advancement of their independence; -or, perhaps, as giving security to their authority, childishly proud of -regulating the business of the nation, though under the influence of the -parisian despotism. - -It is true, such things are the natural consequence of weakness, the -effects of inexperience, and the more fatal errours of cowardice. And -such will always be the effects of timid, injudicious measures. Men who -have violated the sacred feelings of eternal justice, except they are -hardened in vice, are never afterwards able to look honest men in the -face; and a legislature, watched by an intelligent public, a public that -claims the right of thinking for itself, will never after go beyond it, -or pass one decree which is not likely to be popular. - -To consult the public mind in a perfect state of civilization, will not -only be necessary, but it will be productive of the happiest -consequences, generating a government emanating from the sense of the -nation, for which alone it can legally exist. The progress of reason -being gradual, it is the wisdom of the legislature to advance the -simplification of it’s political system, in a manner best adapted to the -state of improvement of the understanding of the nation. The sudden -change which had happened in France, from the most fettering tyranny to -an unbridled liberty, made it scarcely to be expected, that any thing -should be managed with the wisdom of experience: it was morally -impossible. But it is nevertheless a deplorable reflection, that such -evils must follow every revolution, when a change of politics equally -material is required.—Thus it becomes more peculiarly the duty of the -historian to record truth; and comment with freedom. - -Every nation, deprived by the progress of it’s civilization of strength -of character, in changing it’s government from absolute despotism to -enlightened freedom, will, most probably, be plunged into anarchy, and -have to struggle with various species of tyranny before it is able to -consolidate it’s liberty; and that, perhaps, cannot be done, until the -manners and amusements of the people are completely changed. - -The refinement of the senses, by producing a susceptibility of temper, -which from it’s capriciousness leaves no time for reflection, interdicts -the exercise of the judgment. The lively effusions of mind, -characteristically peculiar to the french, are as violent as the -impressions are transitory: and their benevolence evaporating in sudden -gusts of sympathy, they become cold in the same proportion as their -emotions are quick, and the combinations of their fancy brilliant. -People who are carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment, are most -frequently betrayed by their imagination, and commit some errour, the -conviction of which not only damps their heroism, but relaxes the nerve -of common exertions. Freedom is a solid good, that requires to be -treated with reverence and respect.—But, whilst an effeminate race of -heroes are contending for her smiles, with all the blandishments of -gallantry, it is to their more vigorous and natural posterity, that she -will consign herself with all the mild effulgence of artless charms. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - THE MOB DEMAND THE KING’S REMOVAL TO PARIS. THIS CITY DESCRIBED. THE - KING REPAIRS TO THE CAPITAL, ESCORTED BY A DEPUTATION OF THE NATIONAL -ASSEMBLY AND THE PARISIAN MILITIA. THE KING’S TITLE CHANGED. PROCEEDINGS - OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLARATION OF RIGHTS. - - -After the wild tumult, on the morning of the 6th of october, abated, the -king showed himself to the people, in the balcony, and the queen -followed with the dauphin in her arms. At first, he vainly attempted to -speak; but La Fayette informed the people, that his majesty came forward -to assure them, that it should be the business of his life to contribute -to the happiness of his people. _The king at Paris_, exclaimed a voice, -which was quickly re-echoed by the crowd. ‘My children,’ replied the -king, ‘you wish me to be at Paris, and I will go; but it is on the -condition, that my wife and family accompany me.’ A loud shout of _vive -le roi_ testified the extacy of the moment. The king made a sign to -demand silence; and then, with tears in his eyes addressed them -again.—‘Ah! my children, run to the relief of my guards.’ Immediately -two or three appeared in the balcony with the national cockade in their -hats, or the cap of liberty on their heads. The king threw his arms -round one of them, and the people following his example embraced those -whom they had taken prisoners in the court. One sentiment of gladness -seemed to animate the whole concourse of people; and their sensibility -produced as mad demonstrations of joy as lately had been displayed of -ferocity. The soldiery all mingled together, exchanging swords, hats, or -shoulder belts—exhibiting in the most striking manner the prominent -features of the french character. - -Meanwhile the assembly, instead of instantly examining into the -particulars of that alarming convulsion, and exerting themselves to -cause a proper respect to be paid to the sovereignty of the law, -childishly gave way to the universal transport: instead of considering -the peremptory wish of the people to remove the king to Paris as a -distrust of their wisdom, as well as of the veracity of the court, which -was in some measure the case, they unanimously agreed to the motion of -Mirabeau, seconded by Barnave, ‘that the king and assembly should not be -separated during the present sessions.’ Mirabeau, and other popular -members, were probably glad to have the person of the king secured, -without being obliged to appear, in an ostensible manner, in the affair; -because they always endeavoured to keep a little hold on the court, -whilst they led the people. Such are the pitiful shifts of men, who are -not guided by the compass of moral principles, which alone render the -character dignified or consistent. Readily then acquiescing in a measure -the most fatal and contemptible, they decreed, that the assembly was -inseparable from the person of the king, and sent a deputation to inform -him of this resolve, previous to his departure. - -That Louis, finding all his projects for the present defeated, and after -such a narrow escape for his life, should readily have acceded to the -demand of the multitude, is not in the least extraordinary.—But, that -the representatives of the nation should, without resistance or -remonstrance, have surrendered their authority, and thrown themselves -head-long into the heart of a city, which could be suddenly agitated, -and put into the most disorderly and dangerous commotion, by the -intrigues or folly of any desperate or factious leader of the -multitude—suffering themselves to be environed by it’s wall, shut in by -it’s barriers—in a word—choosing to live in a capacious prison; for men -forced, or drawn into any such situation, are in reality slaves or -prisoners,—almost surpasses belief. This absurd conduct, in fact, can be -accounted for only by considering the national character, and the -different though equally interested views, of the court and popular -parties, in the assembly. - -Independent of the additional incense of praise, with which Mirabeau -wished to be continually regaled, in the metropolis, he had a decided -preference for it, frequently asserting, that it was the only place -where society was truly desirable; the people and place, in spite of -their vices and follies, equally attaching the taste they cultivated. - -Exclaiming against capitals, the impartial observer must acknowledge, -that much has been done to render this a superb monument of human -ingenuity. - -The entrance into Paris, by the Thuilleries, is certainly very -magnificent. The roads have an expansion that agrees with the idea of a -large luxurious city, and with the beauty of the buildings in the noble -square, that first attracts the travellers eye. The lofty trees on each -side of the road, forming charming alleys, in which the people walk and -lounge with an easy gaiety peculiar to the nation, seem calculated -equally to secure their health and promote their pleasure. The barriers, -likewise, are stately edifices, that tower with grandeur, rendering the -view, as the city is approached, truly picturesque. - -But—these very barriers, built by Calonne, who liked to have Paris -compared with Athens, excite the most melancholy reflections.—They were -first erected by despotism to secure the payment of an oppressive tax, -and since have fatally assisted to render anarchy more violent by -concentration, cutting off the possibility of innocent victims escaping -from the fury, or the mistake, of the moment.—Thus miscreants have had -sufficient influence to guard these barriers, and caging the objects of -their fear or vengeance, have slaughtered them; or, violating the purity -of justice, have coolly wrested laws hastily formed to serve sinister -designs—changing it’s sacred sword into a dagger, and terming the -assassin’s stab the stroke of justice, because given with the mock -ceremonials of equity, which only rendered the crime more atrocious. The -tyrant, who, bounding over all restraint, braves the eternal law he -tramples on, is not half so detestable as the reptile who crawls under -the shelter of the principles he violates. Such has been the effect of -the enclosure of Paris: and the reflections of wounded humanity -disenchanting the senses, the elegant structures, which served as gates -to this great prison, no longer appear magnificent porticos. - -Still the eye of taste rests with pleasure on its buildings and -decorations: proportion and harmony gratify the sight, whilst airy -ornaments seem to toss a simple, playful elegance around. The heavens -too smile, diffusing fragrance: and as the inhabitants trip along the -charming boulevard, the genial atmosphere seems instantaneously to -inspire the animal spirits, which give birth to the varied graces that -glide around. Clustering flowers, with luxuriant pomp, lend their -sweets, giving a freshness to the fairy scene—nature and art combining -with great felicity to charm the senses, and touch the heart, alive to -the social feelings, and to the beauties most dear to fancy. - -Why starts the tear of anguish to mingle with recollections that -sentiment fosters—even in obedience to reason?—For it is wise to be -happy!—and nature and virtue will always open inlets of joy to the -heart. But how quickly vanishes this prospect of delights! of delights -such as man ought to taste!—The cavalcade of death moves along, shedding -mildew over all the beauties of the scene, and blasting every joy! The -elegance of the palaces and buildings is revolting, when they are viewed -as prisons, and the sprightliness of the people disgusting, when they -are hastening to view the operations of the guillotine, or carelessly -passing over the earth stained with blood. Exasperated humanity then, -with bitterness of soul, devotes the city to destruction; whilst turning -from such a nest of crimes, it seeks for consolation only in the -conviction, that, as the world is growing wiser, it must become happier; -and that, as the cultivation of the soil meliorates a climate, the -improvement of the understanding will prevent those baneful excesses of -passion which poison the heart. - -A deputation of the national assembly accompanied the royal family to -Paris, as well as the parisian militia. A number of the women preceded -them, mounted on the carriages which they had taken in their way to -Versailles, and on the cannons, covered with national cockades, and -dragging in the dirt those that were considered as symbols of -aristocracy. Soon after they set out, either by chance, or, which is -more probable, pursuant to a plan contrived by some person in power, -forty or fifty loads of wheat and flour fell into the procession, just -before the king, giving weight to the exclamation of the populace, that -they had brought the baker and his family to town. - -The assembly continued to sit at Versailles till the nineteenth; and -several interesting debates were entered upon, particularly one brought -forward by the bishop of Autun, respecting the appropriation of the -estates of the clergy to supply the exigences of the government. The -abolition of _lettres de cachet_ was considered, and a fresh -organization of the municipalities proposed; but as none of these -motions were carried before they were more fully discussed at Paris, it -seems best to bring the different arguments on those important subjects -under one point of view. - -Settling the articles of the constitution, however, which previously -occupied them, several frivolous discussions, respecting the style of -expression to be adopted to signify the king’s acceptance of their -decrees, were lengthened out with warmth, and puerile objections made to -ancient forms—that were merely forms. After some disputation, the title -of the monarch was changed from king of France, with the rest of the -formule, for that of king of the French; because Rousseau had remarked, -perhaps fastidiously, that the title ought to express rather the chief -of the people, than the master of the soil. - -The intended removal of the assembly to Paris also produced several warm -debates. This resolution, indeed, excited, not without reason, -apprehensions in the breasts of some of the deputies, relative to their -personal safety, should they, in future, venture to oppose any of the -motions of the popular party, which that party instructed the mob of -Paris to support. - -The president, Mounier, pleading his bad state of health, begged to be -dismissed; and Lally-Tolendal, thinking that he could not stem the -torrent, retired from public business at the same time. A great many of -the members hinting their fears, that the assembly would not be free at -Paris, on various pretexts demanded such a number of passports, as to -make the president express some apprehension lest the assembly should -thus indirectly dissolve itself; whilst other deputies uttered a -profusion of indecent sarcasms on a conduct, which the behaviour of the -populace, and even of these very orators, seemed to justify. Mirabeau, -who so earnestly desired to be at Paris, ridiculed with unbecoming -bitterness every opposition made to the removal of the assembly; yet, -listening to the representation, that the allowing so many malecontents -to retire into the provinces might produce dangerous fermentations, he -proposed that no passport should be granted, till the deputy who -demanded it had made known his reason for so doing to the assembly. A -letter from the king, notifying his intention of residing most part of -his time at Paris, and expressing his assurance, that they did not mean -to separate themselves from him, now requested them to send -commissioners to Paris, to search for a proper place, where they might -in future hold their sessions. They accordingly determined to go -thither, conformably to the decree of the sixth of october, when a -convenient situation should be found. - -After this determination, several members gave an account of the gross -insults they had received at Paris. One in particular, who was not -obnoxious to the public, narrowly escaped with life, only because he was -mistaken for a deputy against whom the mob had vowed vengeance. Another, -who had also been insulted, with proper spirit moved, that a decree -respecting libels should instantly be passed. ‘Are we,’ he asked, ‘to be -led to liberty only by licentiousness? No; the people, deceived and -intoxicated, are rendered furious. How many times (he added) have I -lamented the impetuosity of this assembly, who have accustomed the -public, seated in our galleries, to praise, to blame, to deride our -opinions, without understanding them.—And who has inspired them with -this audacity?’—He was interrupted by signs of disapprobation; and -personalities now disgraced the debate, in which Mirabeau mingled -satirical observations and retorts, that did more credit to his -abilities than to his heart. But, a day or two after, recollecting -himself, he presented the plan of a decree to prevent riots, which he -introduced, by saying, that it was an imitation, though not a copy, of -the English riot act. - -The evening before the departure of the assembly for Paris, passports -being still demanded with earnestness, a decree was made, ‘that -passports should be granted only for a short and determinate time, on -account of urgent business; and that unlimited passports, in cases of -ill health, should not be granted before the deputies were replaced by -their substitutes;’ and further, cutting a knot that might have revived -old claims and animosities, had it been brought forward alone, they -decreed, ‘that in future the substitutes should be nominated by the -citizens at large; and that, eight days after the first session at -Paris, there should be a call of the house; suspending till then the -consideration of the propriety of printing and sending to the provinces -the list of the absent deputies.’ - -The constraining so many members to remain at their posts, and -condemning a man to a state of ignominious servitude, whilst they were -talking of nothing but liberty, was as contemptibly little, as the -policy was injudicious. For if the king pretended to acquiesce in their -measures the better to disguise his real intention, which doubtless was -to fly as soon as he could find an opportunity, or was at liberty, what -did they gain? For as they must have known, that his emancipation would -be the consequence of his acceptance of the constitution, his -imprisonment could only tend to retard their operations: yet they had -neither the magnanimity to allow him to depart with an handsome stipend, -if such were his wish; nor to grant him such a portion of power, in the -new constitution, as would, by rendering him respectable in his own -eyes, have reconciled him to the deprivation of the rest. But, as things -were settled, it was morally certain, that, whenever his friends were -ready, a blow would be directed against them, which they were then as -well prepared to meet as they could be at a subsequent period. - -Under the influence of fixed systems, certain moral effects are as -infallible as physical.—That every insidious attempt would be made by -the courts of Europe, to overturn the new government of France, was -therefore certain; and, unless they had all been overturned at the same -time, was as much to be expected as any effect from a natural cause. The -most likely mean then to have parried the evil would have been a decided -firmness of conduct, which, flowing from a real love of justice, -produces true magnanimity; and not a parading affectation of the virtues -of romans, with the degenerate minds of their posterity. - -Precision, wisdom, and courage, never fail to secure the admiration and -respect of all descriptions of people; and every government thus -directed will keep in awe it’s licentious neighbours. But fear and -timidity betray symptoms of weakness, that, creating contempt and -disrespect, encourage the attempts of ambitious despots; so that the -noblest causes are sometimes ruined or vilified by the folly or -indiscretion of their directors. All Europe saw, and all good men saw -with dread, that the french had undertaken to support a cause, which -they had neither sufficient purity of heart, nor maturity of judgment, -to conduct with moderation and prudence; whilst malevolence has been -gratified by the errours they have committed, attributing that -imperfection to the theory they adopted, which was applicable only to -the folly of their practice. - -However, frenchmen have reason to rejoice, and posterity will be -grateful, for what was done by the assembly. - -The economy of government had been so ably treated by the writers of the -present age, that it was impossible for them, acting on the great scale -of public good, not to lay the foundations of many useful plans, as they -reformed many grievous and grinding abuses.—Accordingly we find, though -they had not sufficient penetration to foresee the dreadful consequences -of years of anarchy, the probable result of their manner of proceeding, -still by following, in some degree, the instructions of their -constituents, who had digested, from the bright lines of philosophical -truths, the prominent rules of political science, they, in laying the -main pillars of the constitution, established beyond a possibility of -obliteration, the great principles of liberty and equality. - -It is allowed by all parties, that civilization is a blessing, so far as -it gives security to person and property, and the milder graces of taste -to society and manners. If, therefore, the polishing of man, and the -improvement of his intellect, become necessary to secure these -advantages, it follows, of course, that the more general such -improvement grows, the greater the extension of human happiness. - -In a savage state man is distinguished only by superiority of genius, -prowess, and eloquence. I say eloquence, for I believe, that in this -stage of society he is most eloquent, because most natural. For it is -only in the progress of governments, that hereditary distinctions, -cruelly abridging rational liberty, have prevented man from rising to -his just point of elevation, by the exercise of his improveable -faculties. - -That there is a superiority of natural genius among men does not admit -of dispute; and that in countries the most free there will always be -distinctions proceeding from superiority of judgment, and the power of -acquiring more delicacy of taste, which may be the effect of the -peculiar organization, or whatever cause produces it, is an -incontestible truth. But it is a palpable errour to suppose, that men of -every class are not equally susceptible of common improvement: if -therefore it be the contrivance of any government, to preclude from a -chance of improvement the greater part of the citizens of the state, it -can be considered in no other light than as a monstrous tyranny, a -barbarous oppression, equally injurious to the two parties, though in -different ways. For all the advantages of civilization cannot be felt, -unless it pervades the whole mass, humanizing every description of -men—and then it is the first of blessings, the true perfection of man. - -The melioration of the old government of France arose entirely from a -degree of urbanity acquired by the higher class, which insensibly -produced, by a kind of natural courtesy, a small portion of civil -liberty. But, as for political liberty, there was not the shadow of it; -or could it ever have been generated under such a system: because, -whilst men were prevented not only from arriving at public offices, or -voting for the nomination of others to fill them, but even from -attaining any distinct idea of what was meant by liberty in a practical -sense, the great bulk of the people were worse than savages; retaining -much of the ignorance of barbarians, after having poisoned the noble -qualities of nature by imbibing some of the habits of degenerate -refinement. To the national assembly it is, that France is indebted for -having prepared a simple code of instruction, containing all the truths -necessary to give a comprehensive perception of political science; which -will enable the ignorant to climb the mount of knowledge, whence they -may view the ruins of the ingenious fabric of despotism, that had so -long disgraced the dignity of man by it’s odious and debasing claims. - -The declaration of rights contains an aggregate of principles the most -beneficial; yet so simple, that the most ordinary capacity cannot fail -to comprehend their import. It begins by asserting, that the rights of -men are equal, and that no distinctions can exist in a wholesome -government, but what are founded on public utility. Then showing, that -political associations are intended only for the preservation of the -natural and imprescriptible rights of man, which are his liberty, -security of property, and resistance against oppression; and asserting -also, that the nation is the source of all sovereignty; it delineates, -in a plain and perspicuous manner, in what these rights, and this -sovereignty, consist. In this delineation men may learn, that, in the -exercise of their natural rights, they have the power of doing whatever -does not injure another; and that this power has no limits, which are -not determined by law—the laws being at the same time an expression of -the will of the community, because all the citizens of the state, either -personally, or by their representatives, have a right to concur in the -formation. - -Thus, having taught the citizens the fundamental principles of a -legitimate government, it proceeds to show how the opinion of each may -be ascertained; which he has a right to give personally, or by his -representatives, to determine the necessity of public contributions, -their appropriation, mode of assessment, and duration. - -The simplicity of these principles, promulged by the men of genius of -the last and present ages, and their justness, acknowledged by every -description of unprejudiced men, had not been recognised by any senate -or government in Europe; and it was an honour worthy to be reserved for -the representatives of twenty-five millions of men, rising to the sense -and feeling of rational beings, to be the first to dare to ratify such -sacred and beneficial truths—truths, the existence of which had been -eternal; and which required only to be made known, to be generally -acknowledged—truths, which have been fostered by the genius of -philosophy, whilst hereditary wealth and the bayonet of despotism have -continually been opposed to their establishment. - -The publicity of a government acting conformably to the principles of -reason, in contradistinction to the maxims of oppression, affords the -people an opportunity, or at least a chance, of judging of the wisdom -and moderation of their ministers; and the eye of discernment, when -permitted to make known it’s observations, will always prove a check on -the profligacy or dangerous ambition of aspiring men.—So that in -contemplating the extension of representative systems of polity, we have -solid ground on which to rest the expectation—that wars and their -calamitous effects will become less frequent, in proportion as the -people, who are obliged to support them with their sweat and blood, are -consulted respecting their necessity and consequences. - -Such consultations can take place under representative systems of -government only—under systems which demand the responsibility of their -ministers, and secure the publicity of their political conduct. The -mysteries of courts, and the intrigues of their parasites, have -continually deluged Europe with the blood of it’s most worthy and heroic -citizens, and there is no specific cure for such evils, but by enabling -the people to form an opinion respecting the subject of dispute. - -The court of Versailles, with powers the most ample, was the most busy -and insidious of any in Europe; and the horrours which she has -occasioned, at different periods, were as incalculable, as her ambition -was unbounded, and her councils base, unprincipled, and dishonourable. -If, then, it were only for abolishing her sway, Europe ought to be -thankful for a change, that, by altering the political systems of the -most improved quarter of the globe, must ultimately lead to universal -freedom, virtue, and happiness. - -But it is to be presumed, when the effervescence, which now agitates the -prejudices of the whole continent, subsides, the justness of the -principles brought forward in the declaration of the rights of men and -citizens will be generally granted; and that governments, in future, -acquiring reason and dignity, feeling for the sufferings of the people, -whilst reprobating the sacrilege of tyranny, will make it their -principal object, to counteract it’s baneful tendency, by restraining -within just bounds the ambition of individuals. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - PROGRESS OF REFORM. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA. LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. CAPITALS. - THE FRENCH NOT PROPERLY QUALIFIED FOR THE REVOLUTION. SAVAGE COMPARED - WITH CIVILIZED MAN. EFFECTS OF EXTRAVAGANCE—OF COMMERCE—AND OF - MANUFACTURES. EXCUSE FOR THE FEROCITY OF THE PARISIANS. - - -People thinking for themselves have more energy in their voice, than any -government, which it is possible for human wisdom to invent; and every -government not aware of this sacred truth will, at some period, be -suddenly overturned. Whilst men in a savage state preserve their -independence, they adopt no regular system of policy, nor ever attempt -to digest their rude code of laws into a constitution, to ensure -political liberty. Consequently we find in every country, after it’s -civilization has arrived at a certain height, that the people, the -moment they are displeased with their rulers, begin to clamour against -them; and, finally rejecting all authority but their own will, in -breaking the shackles of folly or tyranny, they glut their resentment by -the mischievous destruction of the works of ages, only considering them -as the moments of their servitude. - -From the social disposition of man, in proportion as he becomes -civilized, he will mingle more and more with society. The first interest -he takes in the business of his fellow-men is in that of his neighbour; -next he contemplates the comfort, misery, and happiness of the nation to -which he belongs, investigates the degree of wisdom and justice in the -political system, under which he lives, and, striding into the regions -of science, his researches embrace all human kind. Thus he is enabled to -estimate the portion of evil or good which the government of his country -produces, compared with that of others; and the comparison, granting him -superiour powers of mind, leads him to conceive a model of a more -perfect form. - -This spirit of inquiry first manifests itself in hamlets; when his views -of improvement are confined to local advantages: but the approximation -of different districts leading to further intercourse, roads of -communication are opened, until a central or favourite spot becomes the -vortex of men and things. Then the rising spires, pompous domes, and -majestic monuments, point out the capital; the focus of information, the -reservoir of genius, the school of arts, the seat of voluptuous -gratification, and the hot-bed of vice and immorality. - -The centrifugal rays of knowledge and science now stealing through the -empire, the whole intellectual faculties of man partake of their -influence, and one general sentiment governs the civil and political -body. In the progress of these improvements the state undergoing a -variety of changes, the happiness or misery produced occasions a -diversity of opinions; and to prevent confusion, absolute governments -have been tolerated by the most enlightened part of the people. But, -probably, this toleration was merely the effect of the strong social -feelings of men; who preferred tranquillity, and the prosperity of their -country, to a resistance, which, judging from the ignorance of their -fellow citizens, they believed would bring more harm than good in it’s -train. In short, however long a combination of tyranny has retarded the -progress, it has been one of the advantages of the large cities of -Europe] to light up the sparks of reason, and to extend the principles -of truth. - -Such is the good and evil flowing from the capitals of states, that -during the infancy of governments, though they tend to corrupt and -enervate the mind, they accelerate the introduction of science, and give -the tone to the national sentiments and taste. - -But this influence is extremely gradual; and it requires a great length -of time, for the remote corners of the empire to experience either the -one, or the other of these effects. Hence we have seen the inhabitants -of a metropolis feeble and vitiated, and those of the provinces robust -and virtuous. Hence we have seen oppositions in a city (riots as they -are called) to illegal governments instantly defeated, and their leaders -hanged or tortured; because the judgment of the state was not -sufficiently matured to support the struggle of the unhappy victims in a -righteous cause. And hence it has happened, that the despots of the -world have found it necessary to maintain large standing armies, in -order to counteract the effects of truth and reason. - -The continuation of the feudal system, however, for a great length of -time, by giving an overgrown influence to the nobility of France, had -contributed, in no small degree, to counteract the despotism of her -kings. Thus it was not until after the arbitrary administration of -Richelieu, who had terrified the whole order by a tyranny peculiar to -himself, that the insidious Mazarine broke the independent spirit of the -nation by introducing the sale of honours; and that Louis XIV, by the -magnificence of his follies, and the meretricious decorations of stars, -crosses, and other marks of distinction, or badges of slavery, drew the -nobles from their castles; and, by concentrating the pleasures and -wealth of the kingdom in Paris, the luxury of the court became -commensurate to the product of the nation. Besides, the encouragement -given to enervating pleasures, and the venality of titles, purchased -either with money, or ignoble services, soon rendered the nobility as -notorious for effeminacy as they had been illustrious for heroism in the -days of the gallant Henry. - -The arts had already formed a school, and men of science and literature -were hurrying from every part of the kingdom to the metropolis, in -search of employment and of honour; and whilst it was giving it’s tone -to the empire, the parisian taste was pervading Europe. - -The vanity of leading the fashions, in the higher orders of society, is -not the smallest weakness produced by the sluggishness into which people -of quality naturally fall. The depravity of manners, and the sameness of -pleasure, which compose a life of idleness, are sure to produce an -insupportable _ennui_; and, in proportion to the stupidity of the man, -or as his sensibility becomes deadened, he has recourse to variety, -finding a zest only from a new creation of charms; and commonly the most -unnatural are necessary to rouse sickly, fastidious senses. Still in the -same degree as the refinement of sentiment, and the improvement of taste -advance, the company of celebrated literary characters is sought after -with avidity; and from the prevalence of fashion, the empire of wit -succeeds the reign of formal insipidity, after the squeamish palate has -been rendered delicate even by the nauseous banquets of voluptuousness. - -This is the natural consequence of the improvement of manners, the -harbinger of reason; and from the ratio of it’s advancement throughout -society, we are enabled to estimate the progress of political science. -For no sooner had the disquisition of philosophical subjects become -general in the select parties of amusement, extending by degrees to -every class of society, than the rigour of the ancient government of -France began to soften; till it’s mildness became so considerable, that -superficial observers have attributed the exercise of lenity in the -administration to the wisdom and excellence of the system itself. - -A confederacy of philosophers, whose opinions furnished the food of -colloquial entertainment, gave a turn for instructive and useful reading -to the leaders of circles, and drew the attention of the nation to the -principles of political and civil government. Whilst by the compilation -of the Encyclopedia, the repository of their thoughts, as an abstract -work, they eluded the dangerous vigilance of absolute ministers; thus in -a body disseminating those truths in the economy of finance, which, -perhaps, they would not have had sufficient courage separately to have -produced in individual publications; or, if they had, they would most -probably have been suppressed. - -This is one of the few instances of an association of men becoming -useful, instead of being cramped by joint exertions. And the cause is -clear:—the work did not require a little party spirit; but each had a -distinct subject of investigation to pursue with solitary energy. His -destination was traced upon a calm sea, which could not expose him to -the Scylla or Charybdis of vanity or interest. - -The economists, carrying away the palm, from their opponents, showed -that the prosperity of a state depends on the freedom of industry; that -talents should be permitted to find their level; that the unshackling of -commerce is the only secret to render it flourishing, and answer more -effectually the ends for which it is politically necessary; and that the -imposts should be laid upon the surplus remaining, after the husbandman -has been reimbursed for his labour and expences. - -Ideas so new, and yet so just and simple, could not fail to produce a -great effect on the minds of frenchmen; who, constitutionally attached -to novelty and ingenious speculations, were sure to be enamoured with a -prospect of consolidating the great advantages of such a novel and -enlightened system; and without calculating the danger of attacking old -prejudices; nay, without ever considering, that it was a much easier -task to pull down than to build up, they gave themselves little trouble -to examine the gradual steps by which other countries have attained -their degree of political improvement. - -The many vexatious taxes, which under the french government not only -enervated the exertions of unprivileged persons, stagnating the live -stream of trade, but were extremely teasing inconveniences to every -private man, who could not travel from one place to another without -being stopped at barriers, and searched by officers of different -descriptions, were almost insuperable impediments in the way of the -improvements of industry: and the abridgment of liberty was not more -grievous in it’s pecuniary consequences, than in the personal -mortification of being compelled to observe regulations as troublesome -as they were at variance with sound policy. - -Irritations of the temper produce more poignant sensations of disgust -than serious injuries. Frenchmen, indeed, had been so long accustomed to -these vexatious forms, that, like the ox who is daily yoked, they were -no longer galled in spirit, or exhaled their angry ebullitions in a -song. Still it might have been supposed, that after reflecting little, -and talking much, about the sublimity and superiour excellence of the -plans of _french_ writers above those of other nations, they would -become as passionate for liberty, as a man restrained by some idle -religious vow is to possess a mistress, to whose charms the imagination -has lent all it’s own world of graces. - -Besides, the very manner of living in France gives a lively turn to the -character of the people; for by the destruction of the animal juices, in -dressing their food, they are subject to none of that dulness, the -effect of more nutritive diet in other countries; and this gaiety is -increased by the moderate quantity of weak wine, which they drink at -their meats, bidding defiance to phlegm. The people also living entirely -in villages and towns are more social; so that the tone of the capital, -the instant it had a note distinct from that of the court, became the -key of the nation; though the inhabitants of the provinces polished -their manners with less danger to their morals, or natural simplicity of -character. But this mode of peopling the country tended more to civilize -the inhabitants, than to change the face of the soil, or lead to -agricultural improvements. For it is by residing in the midst of their -land, that farmers make the most of it, in every sense of the word—so -that the rude state of husbandry, and the awkwardness of the implements -used by these ingenious people, may be imputed solely to this cause. - -The situation of France was likewise very favourable for collecting the -information, acquired in other parts of the world. Paris, having been -made a thoroughfare to all the kingdoms on the continent, received in -it’s bosom strangers from every quarter; and itself resembling a full -hive, the very drones buzzed into every corner all the sentiments of -liberty, which it is possible for a people to possess, who have never -been enlightened by the broad sunshine of freedom; yet more romantically -enthusiastic, probably, for that very reason. Paris, therefore, having -not only disseminated information, but presented herself as a bulwark to -oppose the despotism of the court, standing the brunt of the fray, seems -with some reason, to pride herself on being the author of the -revolution. - -Though the liberty of the press had not existed in any part of the -world, England and America excepted, still the disquisition of political -questions had long occupied the intelligent parts of Europe; and in -France, more than in any other country, books written with licentious -freedom were handed from house to house, with the circumspection that -irritates curiosity. Not to lay great stress on the universality of the -language, which made one general opinion on the benefits arising from -the advancement of science and reason pervade the neighbouring states, -particularly Germany; where original compositions began to take place of -that laborious erudition, which being employed only in the elucidation -of ancient writers, the judgment lies dormant, or is merely called into -action to weigh the import of words rather than to estimate the value of -things. In Paris, likewise, a knot of ingenious, if not profound -writers, twinkled their light into every circle; for being caressed by -the great, they did not inhabit the homely recesses of indigence, -rusticating their manners as they cultivated their understandings; on -the contrary, the finesse required to convey their free sentiments in -their books, broken into the small shot of innuendoes, gave an oiliness -to their conversation, and enabled them to take the lead at tables, the -voluptuousness of which was grateful to philosophers, rather of the -epicurean than the stoic sect. - -It had long been the fashion to talk of liberty, and to dispute on -hypothetical and logical points of political economy; and these -disputations disseminated gleams of truth, and generated more demagogues -than had ever appeared in any modern city.—The number exceeded, perhaps, -any comparison with that of Athens itself. - -The habit also of passing a part of most of their evenings at some -theatre gave them an ear for harmony of language, and a fastidious taste -for sheer declamation, in which a sentimental jargon extinguishes all -the simplicity and fire of passion: the great number of play-houses[34], -and the moderate prices of the pit and different ranges of boxes, -bringing it within the compass of every citizen to frequent the -amusement so much beloved by the french. - -The arrangement of sounds, and the adjustment of masculine and feminine -rhymes, being the secrets of their poetry, the pomp of diction gives a -semblance of grandeur to common observations and hackneyed sentiments; -because the french language, though copious in the phrases that give -each shade of sentiment, has not, like the italian, the english, the -german, a phraseology peculiar to poetry; yet it’s happy turns, -equivocal, nay even concise expressions, and numerous epithets, which, -when ingeniously applied, convey a sentence, or afford matter for half a -dozen, make it better adapted to oratorical flourishes than that of any -other nation. The french therefore are all rhetoricians, and they have a -singular fund of superficial knowledge, caught in the tumult of pleasure -from the shallow stream of conversation; so that if they have not the -depth of thought which is obtained only by contemplation, they have all -the shrewdness of sharpened wit; and their acquirements are so near -their tongue’s end, that they never miss an opportunity of saying a -pertinent thing, or tripping up, by a smart retort, the arguments with -which they have not strength fairly to wrestle. - -Every political good carried to the extreme must be productive of evil; -yet every poison has it’s antidote; and there is a pitch of luxury and -refinement, which, when reached, will overturn all the absolute -governments in the world. The ascertainment of these antidotes is a task -the most difficult; and whilst it remains imperfect, a number of men -will continue to be the victims of mistaken applications. Like the -empirics, who bled a patient to death to prevent a mortification from -becoming fatal, the tyrants of the earth have had recourse to cutting -off the heads, or torturing the bodies, of those persons who have -attempted to check their sway, or doubt their omnipotence. But, though -thousands have perished the victims of empirics, and of despots, yet the -improvements made both in medicine and moral philosophy have kept a -sure, though gradual pace.—And, if men have not clearly discovered a -specific remedy for every evil, physical, moral, and political, it is to -be presumed, that the accumulation of experimental facts will greatly -tend to lessen them in future. - -Whilst, therefore, the sumptuous galas of the court of France were the -grand source of the refinement of the arts, taste became the antidote to -_ennui_; and when sentiment had taken place of chivalrous and gothic -tournaments, the reign of philosophy succeeded that of the imagination. -And though the government, enveloped in precedents, adjusted still the -idle ceremonials, which were no longer imposing, blind to the -imperceptible change of things and opinions, as if their faculties were -bound by an eternal frost, the progress was invariable; till, reaching a -certain point, Paris, which from the particular formation of the empire -had been such an useful head to it, began to be the cause of dreadful -calamities, extending from individuals to the nation, and from the -nation to Europe. Thus it is, that we are led to blame those, who -insist, that, because a state of things has been productive of good, it -is always respectable; when, on the contrary, the endeavouring to keep -alive any hoary establishment, beyond it’s natural date, is often -pernicious and always useless. - -In the infancy of governments, or rather of civilization, courts seem to -be necessary to accelerate the improvement of arts and manners, to lead -to that of science and morals. Large capitals are the obvious -consequences of the riches and luxury of courts; but as, after they have -arrived at a certain magnitude and degree of refinement, they become -dangerous to the freedom of the people, and incompatible with the safety -of a republican government, it may be questioned whether Paris will not -occasion more disturbance in settling the new order of things, than is -equivalent to the good she produced by accelerating the epocha of the -revolution. - -However, it appears very certain, that should a republican government be -consolidated, Paris must rapidly crumble into decay. It’s rise and -splendour were owing chiefly, if not entirely, to the old system of -government; and since the foundation of it’s luxury has been shaken, and -it is not likely that the disparting structure will ever again rest -securely on it’s basis, we may fairly infer, that, in proportion as the -charms of solitary reflection and agricultural recreations are felt, the -people, by leaving the villages and cities, will give a new complexion -to the face of the country—and we may then look for a turn of mind more -solid, principles more fixed, and a conduct more consistent and -virtuous. - -The occupations and habits of life have a wonderful influence on the -forming mind; so great, that the superinductions of art stop the growth -of the spontaneous shoots of nature, till it is difficult to distinguish -natural from factitious morals and feelings; and as the energy of -thinking will always proceed, in a great measure, either from our -education or manner of living, the frivolity of the french character may -be accounted for, without taking refuge in the old hiding place of -ignorance—occult causes. - -When it is the object of education to prepare the pupil to please every -body, and of course to deceive, accomplishments are the one thing -needful; and the desire to be admired ever being uppermost, the passions -are subjugated, or all drawn into the whirlpool of egotism[35]. This -gives to each person, however different the temper, a tincture of -vanity, and that weak vacillation of opinion, which is incompatible with -what we term character. - -Thus a frenchman, like most women, may be said to have no character -distinguishable from that of the nation; unless little shades, and -casual lights, be allowed to constitute an essential characteristic. -What then could have been expected, when their ambition was mostly -confined to dancing gracefully, entering a room with easy assurance, and -smiling on and complimenting the very persons whom they meant to -ridicule at the next fashionable assembly? The learning to fence with -skill, it is true, was useful to a people, whose false notions of honour -required that at least a drop of blood should atone for the shadow of an -affront. The knack also of uttering sprightly repartees became a -necessary art, to supply the place of that real interest only to be -nourished in the affectionate intercourse of domestic intimacy, where -confidence enlarges the heart it opens. Besides, the desire of eating of -every dish at table, no matter if there were fifty, and the custom of -separating immediately after the repast, destroy the social affections, -reminding a stranger of the vulgar saying—‘every man for himself, and -God for us all.’ After these cursory observations, it is not going too -far to advance, that the french were in some respects the most -unqualified of any people in Europe to undertake the important work in -which they are embarked. - -Whilst pleasure was the sole object of living among the higher orders of -society, it was the business of the lower to give life to their joys, -and convenience to their luxury. This cast-like division, by destroying -all strength of character in the former, and debasing the latter to -machines, taught frenchmen to be more ingenious in their contrivances -for pleasure and show, than the men of any other country; whilst, with -respect to the abridgment of labour in the mechanic arts, or to promote -the comfort of common life, they were far behind. They had never, in -fact, acquired an idea of that independent, comfortable situation, in -which contentment is sought rather than happiness; because the slaves of -pleasure or power can be roused only by lively emotions and extravagant -hopes. Indeed they have no word in their vocabulary to express -_comfort_—that state of existence, in which reason renders serene and -useful the days, which passion would only cheat with flying dreams of -happiness. - -A change of character cannot be so sudden as some sanguine calculators -expect: yet by the destruction of the rights of primogeniture, a greater -degree of equality of property is sure to follow; and as Paris cannot -maintain it’s splendour, but by the trade of luxury, which can never be -carried to the same height it was formerly, the opulent having strong -motives to induce them to live more in the country, they must acquire -new inclinations and opinions.—As a change also of the system of -education and domestic manners will be a natural consequence of the -revolution, the french will insensibly rise to a dignity of character -far above that of the present race; and then the fruit of their liberty, -ripening gradually, will have a relish not to be expected during it’s -crude and forced state. - -The late arrangement of things seems to have been the common effect of -an absolute government, a domineering priesthood, and a great inequality -of fortune; and whilst it completely destroyed the most important end of -society, the comfort and independence of the people, it generated the -most shameful depravity and weakness of intellect; so that we have seen -the french engaged in a business the most sacred to mankind, giving, by -their enthusiasm, splendid examples of their fortitude at one moment, -and at another, by their want of firmness and deficiency of judgment, -affording the most glaring and fatal proofs of the just estimate, which -all nations have formed of their character. - -Men so thoroughly sophisticated, it was to be supposed, would never -conduct any business with steadiness and moderation: but it required a -knowledge of the nation and their manners, to form a distinct idea of -their disgusting conceit and wretched egotism; so far surpassing all the -calculations of reason, that, perhaps, should not a faithful picture be -now sketched, posterity would be at loss to account for their folly; and -attribute to madness, what arose from imbecility. - -The natural feelings of man seldom become so contaminated and debased as -not sometimes to let escape a gleam of the generous fire, an ethereal -spark of the soul; and it is these glowing emotions, in the inmost -recesses of the heart, which have continued to feed feelings, that on -sudden occasions manifest themselves with all their pristine purity and -vigour. But, by the habitual slothfulness of rusty intellects, or the -depravity of the heart, lulled into hardness on the lascivious couch of -pleasure, those heavenly beams are obscured, and man appears either an -hideous monster, a devouring beast; or a spiritless reptile, without -dignity or humanity. - -Those miserable wretches who crawl under the feet of others are seldom -to be found among savages, where men accustomed to exercise and -temperance are, in general, brave, hospitable, and magnanimous; and it -is only as they surrender their rights, that they lose those noble -qualities of the heart. The ferocity of the savage is of a distinct -nature from that of the degenerate slaves of tyrants. One murders from -mistaken notions of courage; yet he respects his enemy in proportion to -his fortitude, and contempt of death: the other assassinates without -remorse, whilst his trembling nerves betray the weakness of his -affrighted soul at every appearance of danger. Among the former, men are -respected according to their abilities; consequently idle drones are -driven out of this society; but among the latter, men are raised to -honours and employments in proportion as a talent for intrigue, the sure -proof of littleness of mind, has rendered them servile. The most -melancholy reflections are produced by a retrospective glance over the -rise and progress of the governments of different countries, when we are -compelled to remark, that flagrant follies and atrocious crimes have -been more common under the governments of modern Europe, than in any of -the ancient nations, if we except the jews. Sanguinary tortures, -insidious poisonings, and dark assassinations, have alternately -exhibited a race of monsters in human shape, the contemplation of whose -ferocity chills the blood, and darkens every enlivening expectation of -humanity: but we ought to observe, to reanimate the hopes of -benevolence, that the perpetration of these horrid deeds has arisen from -a despotism in the government, which reason is teaching us to remedy. -Sometimes, it is true, restrained by an iron police, the people appear -peaceable, when they are Only stunned; so that we find, whenever the mob -has broken loose, the fury of the populace has been shocking and -calamitous. These considerations account for the contradictions in the -french character, which must strike a stranger: for robberies are very -rare in France, where daily frauds and sly pilfering, prove, that the -lower class have as little honesty as sincerity. Besides murder and -cruelty almost always show the dastardly ferocity of fear in France; -whilst in England, where the spirit of liberty has prevailed, it is -usual for an highwayman, demanding your money, not only to avoid -barbarity, but to behave with humanity, and even complaisance. - -Degeneracy of morals, with polished manners, produces the worst of -passions, which floating through the social body, the genial current of -natural feelings has been poisoned; and, committing crimes with -trembling inquietude, the culprits have not only drawn on themselves the -vengeance of the law, but thrown an odium on their nature, that has -blackened the face of humanity. And whilst it’s temple has been -sacrilegiously profaned by the drops of blood, which have issued from -the very hearts of the sad victims of their folly; a hardness of temper, -under the veil of sentiment, calling it vice, has prevented our sympathy -from leading us to examine into the sources of the atrocity of our -species, and obscured the true cause of disgraceful and vicious habits. - -Since the existence of courts, whose aggrandisement has been conspicuous -in the same degree as the miseries of the debased people have -accumulated, the convenience and comfort of men have been sacrificed to -the ostentatious display of pomp and ridiculous pageantry. For every -order of men, from the beggar to the king, has tended to introduce that -extravagance into society, which equally blasts domestic virtue and -happiness. The prevailing custom of living beyond their income has had -the most baneful effect on the independence of individuals of every -class in England, as well as in France; so that whilst they have lived -in habits of idleness, they have been drawn into excesses, which, -proving ruinous, produced consequences equally pernicious to the -community, and degrading to the private character. Extravagance forces -the peer to prostitute his talents and influence for a place, to repair -his broken fortune; and the country gentleman, becomes venal in the -senate, to enable himself to live on a par with him, or reimburse -himself for the expences of electioneering, into which he was led by -sheer vanity. The professions, on the same account, become equally -unprincipled. The one, whose characteristic ought to be integrity, -descends to chicanery; whilst another trifles with the health, of which -it knows all the importance. The merchant likewise enters into -speculations so closely bordering on fraudulency, that common straight -forward minds can scarcely distinguish the devious art of selling any -thing for a price far beyond that necessary to ensure a just profit, -from sheer dishonesty, aggravated by hard-heartedness, when it is to -take advantage of the necessities of the indigent. - -The destructive influence of commerce, it is true, carried on by men who -are eager by overgrown riches to partake of the respect paid to -nobility, is felt in a variety of ways. The most pernicious, perhaps, is -it’s producing an aristocracy of wealth, which degrades mankind, by -making them only exchange savageness for tame servility, instead of -acquiring the urbanity of improved reason. Commerce also, overstocking a -country with people, obliges the majority to become manufacturers rather -than husbandmen; and then the division of labour, solely to enrich the -proprietor, renders the mind entirely inactive. The time which, a -celebrated writer says, is sauntered away, in going from one part of an -employment to another, is the very time that preserves the man from -degenerating into a brute; for every one must have observed how much -more intelligent are the blacksmiths, carpenters, and masons in the -country, than the journeymen in great towns; and, respecting morals, -there is no making a comparison. The very gait of the man, who is his -own master, is so much more steady than the slouching step of the -servant of a servant, that it is unnecessary to ask which proves by his -actions he has the most independence of character. - -The acquiring of a fortune is likewise the least arduous road to -pre-eminence, and the most sure; thus are whole knots of men turned into -machines, to enable a keen speculator to become wealthy; and every noble -principle of nature is eradicated by making a man passes his life in -stretching wire, pointing a pin, heading a nail, or spreading a sheet of -paper on a plain surface. Besides, it is allowed, that all associations -of men render them sensual, and consequently selfish; and whilst lazy -friars are driven out of their cells as stagnate bodies that corrupt -society, it may admit of a doubt whether large work-shops do not contain -men equally tending to impede that gradual progress of improvement, -which leads to the perfection of reason, and the establishment of -rational equality. - -The deprivation of natural, equal, civil and political rights, reduced -the most cunning of the lower orders to practise fraud, and the rest to -habits of stealing, audacious robberies, and murders. And why? because -the rich and poor were separated into bands of tyrants and slaves, and -the retaliation of slaves is always terrible. In short, every sacred -feeling, moral and divine, has been obliterated, and the dignity of man -sullied, by a system of policy and jurisprudence as repugnant to reason, -as at variance with humanity. - -The only excuse that can be made for the ferocity of the parisians is -then simply to observe, that they had not any confidence in the laws, -which they had always found to be merely cobwebs to catch small flies. -Accustomed to be punished themselves for every trifle, and often for -only being in the way of the rich, or their parasites; when, in fact, -had the parisians seen the execution of a noble, or priest, though -convicted of crimes beyond the daring of vulgar minds?—When justice, or -the law, is so partial, the day of retribution will come with the red -sky of vengeance, to confound the innocent with the guilty. The mob were -barbarous beyond the tiger’s cruelty: for how could they trust a court -that had so often deceived them, or expect to see it’s agents punished, -when the same measures were pursuing? - -Let us cast our eyes over the history of man, and we shall scarcely find -a page that is not tarnished by some foul deed, or bloody transaction. -Let us examine the catalogue of the vices of men in a savage state, and -contrast them with those of men civilized; we shall find, that a -barbarian, considered as a moral being, is an angel, compared with the -refined villain of artificial life. Let us investigate the causes which -have produced this degeneracy, and we shall discover, that they are -those unjust plans of government, which have been formed by peculiar -circumstances in every part of the globe.—Then let us coolly and -impartially contemplate the improvements, which are gaining ground in -the formation of principles of policy; and I flatter myself it will be -allowed by every humane and considerate being, that a political system -more simple than has hitherto existed would effectually check those -aspiring follies, which, by imitation, leading to vice, have banished -from governments the very shadow of justice and magnanimity. - -Thus had France grown up, and sickened on the corruption of a state -diseased. But, as in medicine there is a species of complaint in the -bowels which works it’s own cure, and, leaving the body healthy, gives -an invigorated tone to the system, so there is in politics: and whilst -the agitation of it’s regeneration continues, the excrementitious -humours exuding from the contaminated body will excite a general dislike -and contempt for the nation; and it is only the philosophical eye, which -looks into the nature and weighs the consequences of human actions, that -will be able to discern the cause, which has produced so many dreadful -effects. - - - END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - What else could be expected from the courtier, who could write in - these terms to madame de Maintenon: _God has been so gracious to me, - madam, that, in whatever company I find myself, I never have occasion - to blush for the gospel or the king_. - -Footnote 2: - - For example, the reception of a portuguese adventurer, under the - character of a persian ambassador. A farce made by the court to rouse - the blunted senses of the king. - -Footnote 3: - - Memoires du marechal de Richelieu. - -Footnote 4: - - In this reply will be found many of the reasons, that have been lately - repeated; and some (a proof of the progress of reason), which no one - had the audacity to repeat, when standing up in defence of privileges. - -Footnote 5: - - It is well known, that for a long time he wished to convoke the - states-general; and it was not without difficulty, that Dubois made - him abandon this design. During the year 1789, a curious memorial has - been reprinted, which he wrote on this occasion; and it is, like the - author, a model of impudence. - -Footnote 6: - - Since the constituent assembly equalized the impost, Calonne has - boasted, that he proposed a mode of levying equal taxes; but that the - nobility would not listen to any such motion, tenaciously maintaining - their privileges. This blind obstinacy of opposing all reform, that - touched their exemptions, may be reckoned among the foremost causes, - which, in hurrying the removal of old abuses, tended to introduce - violence and disorder.—And if it be kept in remembrance, that a - conduct equally illiberal and disingenuous warped all their political - sentiments, it must be clear, that the people, from whom they - considered themselves as separated by immutable laws, had cogent - grounds to conclude, that it would be next to impossible to effect a - reform of the greater part of those perplexing exemptions and - arbitrary customs, the weight of which made the peculiar urgency, and - called with the most forcible energy for the revolution. Surely all - the folly of the people taken together was less reprehensible, than - this total want of discernment, this adherence to a prejudice, the - jaundiced perception of contumelious ignorance, in a class of men, who - from the opportunity they had of acquiring knowledge, ought to have - acted with more judgment. For they were goaded into action by inhuman - provocations, by acts of the most flagrant injustice, when they had - neither rule nor experience to direct them, and after their temperance - had been destroyed by years of sufferings, and an endless catalogue of - reiterated and contemptuous privations. - -Footnote 7: - - Importance of religious opinions. - -Footnote 8: - - ‘The code of étiquette’, says Mirabeau, ‘has been hitherto the sacred - fire of the court and privileged orders.’ - -Footnote 9: - - Under the reign of Louis XV two hundred and thirty thousand _lettres - de cachet_ had been issued; and after this, who will assert, that this - was not an inveterate evil, which ought to be eradicated; for it is an - insult to human reason, to talk of the modification of such abuses, as - seem to be experiments to try how far human patience can be stretched. - -Footnote 10: - - Count Lally-Tolendal. - -Footnote 11: - - This was written some months before the death of the queen. - -Footnote 12: - - Such is ever the conduct of _soi-disant_ patriots. - -Footnote 13: - - This is an event much more important at Paris, than it would be in - London. - -Footnote 14: - - The mayor. - -Footnote 15: - - This man, the abbé Lefebure, remained all night, and the greater part - of the next day, standing over a barrel of gun-powder, persisting to - keep off the people, with undaunted courage, though several of them, - to torment him, brought pipes to smoke near it; and one actually fired - a pistol close by, that set fire to his hair. - -Footnote 16: - - Lally-Tolendal said of La Fayette, at this time, that ‘he spoke of - liberty as he had defended it.’ - -Footnote 17: - - The supplying of Paris with provision always depended on a nice - arrangement of circumstances, capable of being controlled by the - government of the state. It is not like London, and other great - cities, the local position of which was previously pointed out by - nature, and of which the welfare depends on the great and perpetual - movements of commerce, which they themselves regulate. To cut off the - provision from London, you must block up the port, and interdict in an - open manner an intercourse, on which the wealth of the nation in a - great measure depends. Paris, on the contrary, might be famished in a - few days by a secret order of the court. All the people of the place - would feel the effect, and no person be able to ascertain the cause. - These considerations render it easy to account for the continued - scarcity of provision in Paris during the summer of 1789. No person - can doubt, but the court viewed the revolution with horrour; and that, - among the measures which they took to prevent it, they would not - overlook so obvious an expedient, as that of cutting off the supplies - from the capital; as they supposed the people would lay the blame on - the new order of things, and thus be disgusted with the revolution. - -Footnote 18: - - The lamp-posts, which are only to be found in squares, and places - where there are not two rows of houses, are much more substantial than - in England. - -Footnote 19: - - ‘In August 1778,’ says Lally-Tolendal, ‘the laws were overturned; and - twenty-five millions of men without justice or judges;—the public - treasury without funds, and without resource;—the sovereign authority - was usurped by the ministers;—and the people without any other hope - than the states-general;—yet without confidence in the promise of the - king.’ - - And, Mounier also gives a similar sketch. ‘We have not a fixed or - complete form of government—we have not a constitution, because all - the powers are confounded—because no boundary is traced out.—The - judicial power is not even separated from the legislative.—Authority - is dispersed; it’s various parts are always in opposition; and amidst - their perpetual shocks the rights of the lower class of citizens are - betrayed.—The laws are openly despised, or rather we are not agreed - what ought to be called laws.’ - -Footnote 20: - - In the Bastille, it is true, were found but seven prisoners.—Yet, it - ought to be remarked, that three of them had lost their reason—that, - when the secrets of the prison-house were laid open, men started with - horrour from the inspection of instruments of torture, that appeared - to be almost worn out by the exercise of tyranny—and that citizens - were afraid even for a moment to enter the noisome dungeons, in which - their fellow creatures had been confined for years. - -Footnote 21: - - The cruelties of the half civilized romans, combined with their - unnatural vices, even when literature and the arts were most - cultivated, prove, that humanity is the offspring of the - understanding, and that the progress of the sciences alone can make - men wiser and happier. - -Footnote 22: - - Mirabeau appears to have been continually hurt by the want of dignity - in the assembly.—By the inconsistency, which made them stalk as heroes - one moment, with a true theatrical stride, and the next cringe with - the flexible backs of habitual slaves. - -Footnote 23: - - ‘Let us compare,’ he further adds, ‘the number of innocents sacrificed - by mistake, by the sanguinary maxims of the courts of criminal - judicature, and the ministerial vengeance exercised secretly in the - dungeons of Vincennes, and in the cells of the Bastille, with the - sudden and impetuous vengeance of the multitude, and then decide on - which side barbarity appears. At the moment when the hell created by - tyranny for the torment of it’s victims opens itself to the public - eye; at the moment when all the citizens have been permitted to - descend into those gloomy caves, to poize the chains of their friends, - of their defenders; at the moment when the registers of those - iniquitous archives are fallen into all hands; it is necessary, that - the people should be essentially good, or this manifestation of the - atrocities of ministers would have rendered them as cruel as - themselves!’ - -Footnote 24: - - These members seem to have formed a just estimate of the french - character. - -Footnote 25: - - Some french wags have laid a great stress on these decrees passing - after dinner. - -Footnote 26: - - Lally-Tolendal, in particular; for giving his opinion on the subject - of two chambers, he said:—‘It is not doubtful at present, and for this - first assembly, that a single chamber is preferable, and perhaps - necessary—There are so many difficulties to be surmounted, so many - prejudices to be conquered, so many sacrifices to be made, such old - habits to root out, so great a power to control; in a word so much to - destroy, and almost all to create anew. This moment, gentlemen, which - we are so happy as to have seen, of which it is impossible a - description can be given—when private characters, orders of men, and - provinces, are vying with each other, who will make the greatest - sacrifices to the public good—when all press together at the tribune, - to renounce voluntarily, not only odious privileges, but even those - just rights, which appear to you an obstacle to the fraternity and - equality of all the citizens. This moment, gentlemen, this noble and - rich enthusiasm which hurries you along, this new order of things - which you have begun—all this—most assuredly, could never have been - produced but from the union of all persons, of all opinions, and of - all hearts.’— - -Footnote 27: - - ‘It is worthy of remark, that the _divine right_ of tithes was never - insisted on,’ says a french writer, ‘even by the clergy, during this - debate. Yet the year before, when the same question was brought - forward in the irish house of parliament, great stress was laid on - this gothic idea of their origin.’ - -Footnote 28: - - It is observable, that the satisfaction of the people was by no means - equal to the discontent manifested by the privileged orders. - -Footnote 29: - - See the article 10. ‘No man ought to be molested on account of his - opinions, not even on account of his religious opinions, provided his - avowal of them does not disturb the public order established by law.’ - -Footnote 30: - - Calonne. - -Footnote 31: - - In Holland almost all the taxes are collected in the shape of excise. - - In France, formerly, the taxes were generally internal; but, since the - mode established of making a revenue of 300,000,000 _l._ by the land - and house tax part of the 580,000,000 _l._ estimated to be the peace - establishment, it appears, that this was too great a proportion to be - obtained in that way. Hence the revenue of France has lately failed in - a great degree. - - In America the taxes of the federal government have been lately - established solely on the customs, that is to say, on goods imported. - These operate two ways; encouraging home manufactures, and - discouraging the manufactures of other countries. - - Great Britain has levied her revenue on customs both inwards and - outwards; on excise, principally internal; on stamps, which operate - both internally and externally; and on fixed objects, as well as - internal consumption, (as salt). - -Footnote 32: - - ‘O Richard, O mon roi, - L’univers t’abandonne!’ - -Footnote 33: - - They used to lie to be owned in a conspicuous part of the city. - -Footnote 34: - - There are upwards of thirty scattered throughout the city. - -Footnote 35: - - I use this word according to the french acceptation, because we have - not one to express so forcibly the same signification. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _Lately published_, - - RIGHTS OF WOMAN. - - BY MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT. - - THE SECOND EDITION: - - (PRICE SIX SHILLINGS IN BOARDS.) - - PRINTED FOR J. JOHNSON IN ST. PAUL’S CHURCH-YARD. - - - _Where may be had_, - - 1. MARY: A Fiction. 3s. sewed. - - 2. THOUGHTS on the EDUCATION of DAUGHTERS. 2s. 6d. sewed. - - 3. ORIGINAL STORIES from REAL LIFE; calculated to regulate the - Affections, and form the Mind to Truth and Goodness. 2s. 6d. bound, - with cuts; or 2s. without. - - 4. ELEMENTS of MORALITY, with fifty copper-plates. 3 vols. 10s. 6d. - bound. - - 5. YOUNG GRANDISON: Letters from Young Persons to their Friends. 2 - vols. 6s. bound. - - 6. The FEMALE READER: Select Pieces in Prose and Verse, from the best - Writers, for the Improvement of Young Women. With a PREFACE on - FEMALE EDUCATION. 3s. 6d. bound. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in - spelling. - 2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. - 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN HISTORICAL AND MORAL VIEW OF -THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION; *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. 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