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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ec042d --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #68716 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68716) diff --git a/old/68716-0.txt b/old/68716-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ff3ed58..0000000 --- a/old/68716-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3479 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Some phases of educational progress in -Latin America, by Walter A. Montgomery - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Some phases of educational progress in Latin America - -Author: Walter A. Montgomery - -Release Date: August 8, 2022 [eBook #68716] - -Language: English - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL -PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICA *** - - - - - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - - BUREAU OF EDUCATION - - BULLETIN, 1919, No. 59 - - SOME - PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS - IN LATIN AMERICA - - By - - WALTER A. MONTGOMERY - - SPECIALIST IN FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS - BUREAU OF EDUCATION - - [Advance Sheets from the Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918] - - [Illustration: DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR] - - WASHINGTON - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - 1920 - - - - - ADDITIONAL COPIES - OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM - THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - WASHINGTON, D. C. - AT - 10 CENTS PER COPY - - - - -SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICA. - -BY WALTER A. MONTGOMERY, - -_Specialist in Foreign Educational Systems, Bureau of Education_. - - CONTENTS.--Central America: Practical education; Guatemala; Salvador; - Honduras; Costa Rica; Nicaragua; Panama--British Guiana: New school - regulation--Argentina: Preliminary; illiteracy; report of National - Council of Education; progress of education in the Provinces; changes - under the projected law of 1918; secondary education; technical - education; normal-school training; higher education--Brazil: - Vocational education--Chile: Preliminary; illiteracy; primary - education; secondary education; training of teachers; technical - education--Uruguay: General introduction; primary education, public - and private; rural schools; medical inspection of schools; secondary - education; commercial education; training of teachers; higher - education--Venezuela. - - - - -PRACTICAL EDUCATION IN CENTRAL AMERICA. - - -One of the most interesting aspects of the school situation in Central -America and Panama is the important position occupied by commercial -and industrial education in the courses of study of many institutions. -Public men and teachers in Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, -Costa Rica, and Panama have taken into account the need of offering to -the new generation an education which shall be completely practical, -with the purpose of turning the thoughts and energies of all the youth -to fruitful service of their country. - -The teaching of arts and crafts, as well as that of commerce and -agriculture, was formerly not begun, as in the United States, upon the -student’s entering the secondary school, though there has for some time -been a movement to make such instruction a part of the work of the -advanced classes in the primary schools, to be continued in the liceo -and the normal schools. - -This universal interest in practical lines of education is a striking -indication of the influences and tendencies now at work in Central -America. In the different countries included under this designation -there are schools and academies, workshops and laboratories, intended -for the practical education of the student body. When it is remembered -that the introduction of practical and industrial education in the -school régime of Central America is a matter of the past few years, -the progress realized is regarded as highly satisfactory. The rapid -increase of the commerce of Central America, the improvement in -the means of intercommunication, the travels of its people abroad, -the influence of foreign elements in its territory, and the various -interests thus awakened have aroused in the interior of the Republics -composing it the belief that national greatness in modern times must -rest upon economic and industrial foundations. The influx of foreign -capital and the consequent establishment of powerful industrial -enterprises have likewise emphasized the necessity of training men -for work in such enterprises. The introduction of modern machinery, -the increase of the different forms of the application of steam, the -adoption of the inventions intended to gather up the results of labor, -and numerous similar influences have given rise to a tremendous demand -in this part of the continent for skilled and reliable mechanics. -Central America has thus addressed itself with enthusiasm to the task -of training the children of its schools for the activities of the -present day. - -The capitals, other important cities, and even many small towns -have schools devoted to practical education, generally provided -with buildings and equipment well adapted to this end. Honduras, -for example, has founded a school for scientific instruction in the -cultivation and preparation of tobacco and for the manufacture of -cigars and cigarettes in the tobacco district around Danli. In several -Provinces of the same Republic, and in Panama, where agriculture is -subordinate, the Governments have founded schools for training pupils -to weave hats and other objects. - -The more generalized industrial schools are those of arts and crafts -and the so-called practical schools for boys. Their organization -presents marked differences. In some of the countries named there exist -schools that receive pupils either as full or half time boarders, -and offer night courses as the situation demands. In all these -instruction is free. The Government generally offers a certain number -of scholarships in the boarding schools for pupils approved by the -different Departments or Provinces of the country. Tools, instruments, -and supplies used in the schools are provided by the Government. In -return the school exacts of such students certain services and thereby -carries out certain work that represents a partial reimbursement for -the amount spent upon their maintenance. This is the case with the -schools of arts and crafts in Honduras and Panama. Some small schools -of this class are maintained by means of the labor they carry on for -private individuals and by the sale of the products they turn out. - -These industrial schools are generally of two kinds: (1) Those in which -the training in commercial subjects and in arts and crafts constitutes -part of the regular course of study and (2) those devoted exclusively -to the teaching of arts and crafts. - -(1) In those of the first class the pupils study the ordinary subjects -prescribed by the department of public instruction and devote only -several hours weekly to arts and crafts. This class in its turn -includes two groups of institutions. To be admitted to those of the -first group the pupils must know how to read and write and apply -the elementary rules of arithmetic. During the entire school year -instruction is given in Spanish, geography, history, and arithmetic. -The practical schools for girls and boys are generally of this kind, -being especially numerous in Guatemala and Honduras. The schools -conducted by the Christian Brothers in Nicaragua are also of this -type. The duration of studies is from three to five years, a half -day being devoted to the classes in the ordinary subjects of primary -education and the other half to practical work. In the second group -are comprised various institutions which require certificates from the -higher elementary schools, such as the liceo and the higher colegio for -women in Costa Rica, the National Institute in Salvador, the Central -National Institute for Boys in Guatemala, and the normal schools in -these countries and in Honduras. - -(2) Of the special institutions which constitute the second category, -there are to be noted two prominent instances in the schools of arts -and crafts in Panama and in Honduras. In organization and purposes they -are schools of mechanical arts, and not schools of manual training. -Their workshops have not been established to impart general notions of -manual arts or a general apprenticeship, but to train the pupils from -entrance upon the line of education chosen by themselves. In these -schools are taught carpentry, tanning, shoemaking, blacksmithing, -cabinetmaking, electricity, installation and management of machinery, -mechanics, printing and bookbinding, telegraphy, etc. All workshops in -such schools are well equipped with machinery and tools. - -All that has been said in regard to modern educational tendencies and -influences to which boys are subject in the countries mentioned can be -extended, though in less degree, to the girls and young women. Within -the past few years women’s sphere of action has steadily been enlarged, -and has come to include not only teaching but various employments -in shops and mercantile establishments. Within the next few years -their instruction must be taken into account in schools of domestic -training, vocational schools, practical schools, and the technical -colegios. The organization and range of these institutions does not -differ materially from those for boys. The vocational school for girls -is essentially a school of arts and crafts in which the pupils devote -themselves from entrance to the study of a special line, such as -dressmaking, embroidery, millinery, and, in certain schools, cooking, -washing and ironing, etc. A certificate of proficiency is granted them -upon the completion of certain assigned courses. The other schools -for girls before mentioned combine general subjects with the special -apprenticeship in crafts upon which they enter as soon as they reach -the higher classes of the primary school and which they continue into -the high school and the normal school. - - - - -GUATEMALA. - - -The type of industrial education that prevails in Guatemala is the -combination of general studies with special instruction in the arts and -trades given in the practical schools for girls and for boys. There -also exists in the capital a school of arts and crafts for women where -instruction is given at the same time in the subjects of ordinary -instruction. In the departments of manual arts which are largely, but -not exclusively, attended by boys, are taught theoretical and practical -blacksmithing, carpentry, printing, bookbinding and weaving, besides -geography, history, botany, chemistry, zoology, geology, drawing, and -Spanish language and literature. In the schools of Guatemala much -attention is given subjects of a practical nature, with the purpose -of training competent workmen and artisans. There also exist in this -country a National School of Commerce, situated in the capital, and a -Practical School of Commerce, at Quetzaltenango. In both cities there -are schools of agriculture which admit to their first-year courses the -pupils of the first year of the central normal schools. The capital -possesses also a school of telegraphy, recently founded with the view -to installing in it a special wireless station. - - - - -SALVADOR. - - -Arts and crafts for women, commercial subjects and mechanical arts, -are generally taught in Salvador in the public schools, though their -incorporation in the courses of instruction is comparatively recent. -Many prominent teachers of the country have taken the pains to spread -abroad the appreciation of the necessity of “enlarging the educational -sphere of the State, and opening to the youth and to workmen schools -where they may acquire practical knowledge of the sciences and the -arts and by these means may contribute to the advancement of general -intelligence in the country.” In compliance with these ideas the -Government has founded in Salvador a National School of Graphic Arts -aiming “to aid the youth of Salvador to the acquisition of knowledge -of a practical nature, and to put it in a position to be successful -in the economic struggles which are the most important signs of the -modern age.” In this school the preference is given to the teaching -of physics, mechanics, drawing, printing, lithographing, carving, -bookbinding, and technical telegraphy and telephoning. Night courses -are also given in this school. - -In consequence of the public sentiment above mentioned, there has been -opened in the National Institute of Salvador a course in commercial -and economic subjects lasting three years. This course comprises the -study of various modern languages, commercial law, political economy, -industrial chemistry, commercial geography, bookkeeping, stenography -and typewriting. The pupils in this school are required to work several -hours daily for a period in the different ministerial departments -before graduation. Salvador also established in 1913 a school of -agriculture, with a department of animal husbandry. Two years later -there was established the Technical-Practical Colegio for Girls, in -which instruction in crafts for women is combined with that in general -subjects. - - - - -HONDURAS. - - -Industrial instruction has attained great importance in Honduras. The -School of Arts and Crafts of Tegucigalpa concerns itself chiefly with -products in wood and the metals and is steadily training artisans and -mechanics. There likewise exists in this city the national automobile -school managed by the Government. For some years there has been in -operation in Siguatepeque a school of English and of arts and crafts, -in which are taught fiber weaving, carpentry, dressmaking, and -embroidery. In the normal schools and in the two colegios students may -choose between the commercial courses and those relating to arts and -crafts. In 1915 was established a technical practical school for girls, -where courses in science and in crafts for women are offered parallel -with the subjects belonging to the primary schools. - - - - -COSTA RICA. - - -Costa Rica is another of the Central American countries where practical -instruction is combined with general. Five institutions of higher grade -and the vocational schools for women have well-equipped workshops, -laboratories, kitchens, and laundries. Of all Central American States, -Costa Rica gives perhaps most attention to this special branch of -instruction. It is noteworthy that manual arts and domestic science are -uniformly taught in the secondary schools conjointly with the literary -and purely scientific subjects. - - - - -NICARAGUA. - - -In Nicaragua manual arts form part of the general instruction, as has -been seen in the case of the normal schools conducted by the Christian -Brothers. Girls receive practical instruction in the normal schools. -Some years ago there was established a special school for the training -of telegraph and telephone operators. - - - - -PANAMA. - - -Like Guatemala and Honduras, Panama has devoted special attention -to industrial training. The School of Arts and Crafts of the City -of Panama is one of the largest and best equipped of its kind. It -is essentially a school for artisans and possesses sections of -electricity, carpentry, cabinetmaking, printing and bookbinding, -carving, foundry work, etc., its principal object being to train men -for the separate industrial branches. - -Panama also has a vocational school for girls in which a year’s -instruction is given in telegraphy, one in laundry work, two in -dressmaking and embroidery, two in shorthand, two in cooking, two in -millinery and flower work. - -It has likewise a school of agriculture, in which is given a three -years’ course, for which the Government offers 30 scholarships to -youths approved by local authorities. The Government has also founded -from time to time specialized schools in the interior, with the object -of encouraging agriculture or some other industry, such as that of the -manufacture of Panama hats. Like Honduras, Panama devotes the greatest -attention to special industrial schools. - -For the furtherance of commercial education in Central and South -America a Pan American College of Commerce, to be located at the City -of Panama, is projected, under the joint auspices of the Southern -Commercial Congress of the United States and the Government of the -Republic of Panama. The active support of the countries of the two -Americas is to be sought, and it is hoped that it may be opened on -January 1, 1921, the quadricentennial year of the City of Panama, -the first city to be founded by Europeans in the Western Hemisphere. -The college is designed to train the youth of the two continents in -practical courses of commerce, shipping, banking, and international -trade relations generally. - - - - -NEW SCHOOL REGULATIONS IN BRITISH GUIANA. - -The last report of the director of primary instruction in British -Guiana outlines a new regulation for the common schools. In many of -its parts it includes novel measures of school organization which -are of interest as suggestions to other South American States for -similar action. The regulations relate to the classification of -schools, the minimum period of attendance, the age limit of pupils, -the occupations of pupils after leaving school, school gardens, etc. -As an instance of its stringent character, the regulation decrees -that when any school ceases to conform to certain conditions with -regard to building, installation, equipment, and health conditions, it -shall be classified in B category; and if within 6 months it has not -satisfied the requirements of the regulation, the authorities shall -suspend the Government aid hitherto granted. It is to be noted that the -primary schools of British Guiana are not directly administered by the -authorities. - -The school also loses its governmental aid if within two consecutive -years it does not maintain a fixed minimum attendance, which varies -according to the population of the locality in which it is situated. In -return special aids are offered for schools that teach gardening for -boys and the care of smaller children for girls from 12 to 14 years. - -The greatest educational need of the colony is the establishment of -technical primary schools for the instruction of boys and girls from -11 to 15 years. It is projected to establish two such schools in -Georgetown in which there shall be taught, in addition to manual arts -and other craft, drawing in all its branches, arithmetic and geography -as related to commerce, the rudiments of experimental science, -shorthand, and business correspondence. Criticism has been directed -against the omission of instruction in agriculture, which is admitted -to be the most necessary branch in the colony. It is, however, intended -to impart agricultural instruction in special schools to be established. - -Because of the fact that the majority of the pupils leave school before -reaching 12 years, it is not possible to put into practice suggested -plans of giving them preoccupational instruction in which they might -be making a start before the end of their primary-school studies. On -the other hand the traditional primary school is not adequate to give -direction toward a vocational subject. Hence, to the regret of the -authorities, attempts to link the primary school with the occupation of -the pupil have been abandoned. - -Much interest has been developed in school gardening; and about 100 -gardens are annexed to primary schools, affording practical instruction -to pupils in agriculture and horticulture. The Government has also -established 8 model gardens, where instruction is given the pupils of -neighboring schools. - - - - -ARGENTINA. - - -PRELIMINARY. - -Two well-defined stages have marked the progress of national education -in Argentina since 1916. The first began with the reorganization of -primary instruction by act of the Federal Congress early in that year, -which came about largely through the initiative and efforts of the -minister of public instruction. It had long been felt that the legal -system in force since 1882 was unsatisfactory, especially on the point -of articulation of secondary education with the higher elementary -on the one hand and with the universities on the other. Argentine -educational thinkers asserted that secondary education prepared neither -for practical life nor for entrance to the technical schools and the -universities, inasmuch as it had remained unchanged for more than -a generation, in the face of the social, economic, scientific, and -ethnical changes through which the country had passed. - -Together with this dissatisfaction with a special division went the -conviction that governmental reform should strike deeper, and instead -of busying itself with plans of reform of courses and schedules, -should settle the fundamental question of what should be the nature -and aims of the national secondary school. This could be done only -by so modifying the prevailing system as to make it fit the needs of -the school population according to their age, social conditions, and -probable future. Proof that it had not so adapted itself was thought -to be found in the fact that of the pupils annually completing the -4a elementary grade only 45 per cent continued into the _colegios -nacionales_, as contrasted with 55 per cent who went into the 5a grade -and commercial schools, while on a moderate estimate 60 per cent left -with insufficient equipment for their needs as useful members of -society. Furthermore, the secondary school, as organized, offered no -opportunity to boys and girls of 13 and 14 years to choose the advanced -courses and vocational training for which they felt an aptitude, and -so to secure adequate preparation for the university studies or for -advanced technical, industrial, and commercial schools. - -For this lack of correlation between educational divisions it was -proposed to substitute a logical and unbroken sequence. What came -to be commonly accepted among education authorities as best serving -this purpose was a common intermediate school of three years of an -essentially practical character, carrying on general elementary -instruction by means of book lessons and developing by special -experiments and practical methods individual aptitudes by which to -determine future training. As the basis for such a school primary -education had, of course, to be modified, and after months of -discussion a scheme for general modification of the entire educational -fabric was outlined (1916). According to this, the primary school -proper was to cover four years; the uniform middle school of the first -grade one year; and the differentiated middle school of the second -grade two years. Upon these were to be based the _colegios nacionales_, -the normal schools, the industrial schools, the various higher special -schools, and the national universities. Though marking a meritorious -attempt to articulate the several divisions, the project did not work -out satisfactorily in actual operation, and as a constituent part of -the national system it was repealed after about a year of operation. - - -ILLITERACY. - -On a basis of population estimated (1917) at slightly more than eight -millions, 725,000 were estimated to be illiterate, about 42 per cent -of the school population. Illiteracy is most rife in remote Provinces -of the Andes and in the Territories, sparsely settled and inhabited by -people of roving habits and poorly developed industrially. Under the -lead of the director general of the schools of the Province of Mendoza, -a systematic campaign to eliminate illiteracy was begun in 1916. It -was recognized that financial considerations made it impossible to -establish the number of primary schools which would be demanded, -certainly not for the many remote points where only the legal minimum -of 15 or 20 illiterates were to be found. Home schools (_escuelas del -hogar_) were therefore established, officially ranking as auxiliary to -the already existent schools, for illiterates of 8 to 20 years, and -offering as a minimum curriculum reading, writing, the four fundamental -operations of arithmetic, the duties of the Argentine citizen, elements -of ethics, and personal hygiene. Such schools may begin any day of the -year, and with a minimum of five pupils. Any person desiring to open -such a school must fulfill the following conditions: - -(_a_) He must be at least 20 years of age, of good moral reputation, -certified by the chief civil official of his residence. - -(_b_) He must speak the national language correctly and be able to give -instruction in it. - -Such schools shall not be established at less distance than 5 -kilometers from an established primary school supported by national, -provincial, or local funds, but if the school be intended exclusively -for boys from 15 to 20 years old it may be located at any point. Such -schools are to be visited freely by school and civil authorities, and -by persons designated by the provincial general inspectors. - -Related in character to the _escuelas del hogar_ of the Province are -the _escuelas tutoriales_, established by national decree of 1916, -applying to all the Provinces and especially to the Territories. -In these schools, established at points designated by the National -Council of Education, any number of children not regularly enrolled in -the primary schools may be taught by private individuals who conform -to the requirements of primary teachers, and by teachers regularly -engaged in primary work. The latter, by special exception, receive -additional compensation for such instruction. The same law also -provides remuneration, to be fixed by the general council of education -of the Province or Territory for all persons, not teachers, who are -certificated to have taught illiterates, whether children or adults, to -read and write. - -Most novel of all undertakings for the wiping out of illiteracy are -the traveling schools (_escuelas ambulantes_). Provided for by the -original organic school law of 1884, these schools were not, because -of lack of funds, put into operation until 1914. Up to that time there -was a conviction that their need was insignificant by contrast with -the greater problem of illiteracy in the cities, and that to scatter -funds available for combating illiteracy was not prudent. How serious -this mistake was appeared in 1914 when it was ascertained by systematic -count that of nearly 35,000 children of the Territories not in school -only 6,000 lived in towns. - -Located first in Province of Catamarca, and in the mountain regions -of Rio Negro and the Chubut, these schools are built of materials -easily transportable, and accommodate an average of 25 pupils. Sites -are selected for them which are most accessible to the largest number -of children in the district. Teachers traverse such regions on foot -or muleback, carrying necessary equipment for instruction, and remain -four and one-half months at each place, giving instruction in reading, -writing, elements of arithmetic, and hygiene. A decided advantage is -found in this succinct curriculum, the average of successful study -by the pupils of these schools being, it is claimed, fully on a par -with that of the pupils of the nine months’ primary schools, who are -required to take the standard number of subjects. - -Within their first two years of existence, 20 of these schools were -established, as reported by the National Council of Education in -December, 1916; and 12 were added in 1917. The report of the inspector -general of the Province of Mendoza concluded as follows: - - This new type of school must exist for many years in Argentina to - answer the needs of the actual distribution of the population, the - lack of adequate means of communication, and the impossibility of - maintaining fixed schools in the greater part of the zones engaged - in agriculture and cattle raising. It behooves the authorities, - therefore, to continue the improvement of the system in such manner - that its efficiency shall be steadily greater, and that results shall - amply compensate for their maintenance. - -An interesting phase of social conscience is shown in the generous -offer of the women pupils of the third and fourth years of the normal -school at Santa Fe to instruct illiterates afternoons and nights in -reading, writing, the elements of arithmetic, national language and -history, and practical personal and school hygiene. This offer has -been highly commended both by Argentine and foreign educators as a -step toward solving the problem of illiteracy, worthy of imitation -nationally and locally. - -The struggle against illiteracy has been the subject of serious -consideration by the executive, the chief school authorities, and the -Congress. The executive has constantly urged the National Council of -Education to intensify its campaigns and has cooperated by all means in -his power in the steady diffusion of education. The Houses of Congress -have also busied themselves especially with this grave problem. These -efforts have borne fruit which, if not visible at the present time, is -certainly destined to raise the level of popular education within the -next few years. The authorities have judged that what is needed is the -patient labor which does not require an immediate and striking solution -of a most difficult problem, but is willing to continue to exercise an -ever-increasing influence upon the rising generation, confident of the -spread of education and enlightenment with the increase of population -and the improvement in means of communication; and that it is not -wise to sow schools broadcast throughout the Republic merely for the -pleasure of doing something and of doing it rapidly. The success of the -struggle against illiteracy, certain as it is, has its roots not in -merely spending much money, but in spending money well. - - -REPORT OF NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. - -The progress of education in Argentina is best epitomized in the report -of the National Council of Education for the four years ending December -31, 1916. The character of this council is unique in educational -polity, wielding, as it does, greater powers than any similar body -in countries educationally advanced, and counting in its membership -some of the ablest men in the Nation. Its reports follow traditionally -the line of national (the capital city), provincial, and territorial -administration. When the very heterogeneous character of the population -of Argentina, due to the steady stream of immigration, is taken into -account, the necessity of such a central body, vested with powers -of initiation and execution in primary education, is apparent. By -a wise division of powers in the original organic law, the control -of secondary education was left in the hands of the Provinces, with -subsidies granted by the National Government, as was the right to -prescribe subjects essential to nationalistic and patriotic training. -Concentration of effort and power is thus secured, with national -acquiescence in the official actions of the council. Its activities -center naturally around the establishment of new schools and the -construction of school buildings, and the training of teachers to meet -the demands of modern conditions. - -As a substitute for the abortive intermediate schools established in -1916, which soon proved unsatisfactory, the council decided later in -that year to establish, parallel and auxiliary to the higher primary -schools, one of practical arts and crafts for each sex in every -district of Buenos Aires. Such schools approximated 100 in number. -This type of school was designed for boys and girls not intending to -proceed to higher studies, and was later to be extended to the nation -at large. Its purpose and program of studies was two-fold--to complete -the theoretical and higher courses of the higher primary schools with -vocational, technical, and manual training, based upon and making -use of the materials which were peculiarly Argentine and local in -industries, commerce, art, and economics; and to lay stress throughout -on nationalistic and patriotic aims. An interesting feature, common to -these new schools and the continuation schools now arising in England -and France, is the provision by which they operate 2 hours in the -morning and 2 hours in the afternoon or night, and are to admit pupils -from the fourth to the sixth grade of the primary schools, who have -reached the age of 12 years. Statistics as to the success of these -schools are not as yet available. - -In the matter of building primary schools proper, the report of the -council shows progress throughout the four years covered. A total of 62 -schools, with 426 teachers and 19,563 pupils, was added to the system. -Because of national economic and financial conditions prevailing -half a century ago, the great majority of the primary schools began -operation in private buildings, which did not conform to pedagogical -or even sanitary requirements. For many years excessive rents were -often paid by the State, but upon the revaluation of property in many -Provinces in 1915, an economy in rents was effected, and the funds thus -saved were devoted to new schools. Despite high prices of material -and difficulties of labor, in December, 1916, eleven school buildings -were in process of erection, at an estimated cost of $750,000, with a -capacity of 22,000 pupils. According to the report of the council: “The -construction of properly equipped Government primary school buildings -has constituted one of the most serious problems and, therefore, one -of the chief occupations of the council.” It was frankly admitted, -however, that, with all the efforts of the council, accommodations for -children in the primary schools were still far from adequate, it being -estimated on that date that 4,000 additional schools of this grade -were needed for the more than 600,000 children in the capital and the -Territories who, for one reason or another, were not in school. - -The activity of the council continued to be marked in 1917. In April of -that year, 143 new schools were decreed, 39 for the Federal Capital, 18 -for the Provinces under the legal national subvention, and 86 for the -Territories (30 being _escuelas ambulantes_), the Congress voting two -millions in the national budget for the execution of this decree. The -centralizing tendencies of South American countries in general, and -the overwhelming dominance of the capital, secured for it so generous -a share of this that it is estimated that in the Federal capital there -will be for the first time room for all children of school age. For the -poorer Provinces, and the Territories, which by the Tainez law of 1886 -are absolutely dependent upon the central authority of the National -Council, 250 schools of one and two rooms were assigned, but on an -estimate about one-third of the children were still left unprovided -with school facilities. Attention was repeatedly called to the need of -a uniform and rigorously applied national law for compulsory school -attendance. - -During the year 1918 approximately 400 schools were established, and -the council proposes to establish as many more during 1919 in the -Provinces and the national Territories. The nation has taken charge -of many provincial schools which the respective governments could not -maintain by reason of lack of resources. The Province of Mendoza alone -transferred 130 schools to the council of education during the month of -August, 1918. Relative to the establishment of schools, regard has been -had chiefly to the population of the districts which petitioned for -them, as well as the number of children of school age, in order that -the buildings may be installed in populous centers, where a constant -attendance of pupils is reasonably assured. - -The general plan of the council for the diffusion of primary education -has not been put into practice in full, because of the lack of -resources in some instances and in others because of the scarcity of -building materials in the country. School equipment has been secured -in various countries, supplies necessary having been purchased in the -United States to the value of $350,000. The demand has been still -unsatisfied, the capital city alone calling for the establishment of -new schools every year, because of the increase of children of school -age, and the Provinces have always been behind the necessary number of -school buildings and facilities and have never reached the goal set -by the authorities. An encouraging feature of the situation is that -upon the completion of all the school buildings now under construction -accommodations for 56,000 pupils in addition will be provided. - -Peculiar attention has been given to the development of night -schools by the council, 86 having been established and maintained by -the council in the four years covered by the report. An admirably -broadened scope was given them in the appeal issued by the council to -the nation that the full purpose of such schools should be realized -not only by the attendance of illiterates, but also of youths and -adults “who, possessing some degree of education, are also desirous of -improving that as related to the needs of their lives.” All reforms -and modifications of night schools have concerned themselves with this -larger clientele. A further socializing of the night school is seen in -the appeal of the council to proprietors, managers of factories, and -employers of labor generally to encourage in every way in their power -their employees to attend night schools and to offer prizes of various -kinds for diligence and progress. Literature bearing on these schools -was distributed free by the council. - -In 1915 the council was empowered, by the terms of the will of a -philanthropic resident of Buenos Aires, Don Felix Berasconi, who -bequeathed for educational purposes a sum of three and a half million -dollars, to proceed to the erection and establishment of an institution -under State control which should give instruction in general primary, -scientific, scientific-industrial, physical, and social education. A -building was to be begun in 1916, planned in seven sections, conforming -to the most modern pedagogical and sanitary demands, and with a -capacity of more than 3,000 pupils. Designed to benefit the working -people preeminently, it was to be situated in the section of the city -showing the greatest proportion of them. - -Responding to the general feeling of dissatisfaction with the results -of primary education in the city of Buenos Aires, which has been -unaffected by criticism for seven years, the council in June, 1917, -sent out questionnaires to all inspectors and to the body of teachers -calling for an expression of opinion as to (1) the merits and defects -of the plans of studies, schedules, etc., then in force; (2) those of -projected or possible programs, with additional features worthy to -be incorporated; and (3) educational considerations bearing upon the -problems of the schools of the capital. The answers showed encouraging -grasp of the educational needs of the city, with significant unanimity -as to the practical methods of working out necessary reforms. Salient -points were: - -1. That all programs should leave room for and be closely articulated -with manual arts and domestic economy. - -2. That the courses of arithmetic in the first, second, third, fourth, -and fifth grades were overloaded, as were those of grammar in the -fourth, geometry in the third and fifth, nature study in the second, -geography in the second and fifth, singing in the second, and music. - -3. That the primary school cycle should commence at 7 years and end at -12. - -4. That primary courses and schedules for urban schools should be -strictly differentiated from those for rural and country town schools. - -5. That from October 15 to April 15 the school day should be from 7.30 -to 11.30; from April 15 to September 30 from 12 to 4. - -6. That the advancement of the teacher with the class merited a fair -trial, the teacher remaining with the same class a minimum of two years -and a maximum of three. - -7. That the establishment of normal schools essentially for rural -teachers was imperative. - -It is recognized that the clearness and sanity of these answers had a -marked effect upon the substance of the law presented to the Federal -Congress in August, 1918. - -Another interesting instance of the submission of a pedagogic matter to -the teachers of the city of Buenos Aires is shown in the questionnaire -asking their opinion as to the best method of teaching spelling, -sent out by the inspector of the tenth district, to the teachers. In -accordance with the answers to this, the vocabulary used in primary -schools was reduced to categories corresponding to the several grades, -to its difficulties, and to the actual needs of the life and dominant -occupations of the quarter of the city from which the children were -drawn. This step was highly commended in French educational circles as -marking efficient grappling with pedagogical difficulties felt in all -cities of whatsoever country. - -The regulation of the medical and dental inspection of national -schools, under decree of March, 1918, was noteworthy. According to -this, professional inspectors, chosen by the Government, must within -the first three months of each school year examine individually all -children entering school for the first time, periodically inspect the -school buildings and ground and the health conditions of the teaching -and administrative staffs, and take all prophylactic measures deemed -necessary against epidemics and contagious diseases. Such reports shall -be transmitted to the medical inspector general. Dental inspection of -schools is to have a prominent part. Every month the chief inspector -shall assemble for report and mutual discussion all medical and dental -inspectors in such territorial divisions as he shall see fit. - -Of the regulations in detail promulgated by the council in 1918, the -most important is that changing the school year to two divisions, the -first beginning March 1 and continuing until June 30, followed by three -weeks of vacation, and the second beginning July 21 and continuing -until November 20, followed by the long vacation of the year. This -change is regarded as conforming with climatic effects upon the health -of school children and as being a step long needed. - - -PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN THE PROVINCES. - -Outside the scope of the National Council are the powers of the -provincial councils. These are local, auxiliary, and reinforcing in -character. Some of the Provinces are practically inactive on the side -of primary education, contenting themselves with the provisions made -in that field by the National Government. Others, however, among them -Santa Fe, San Luis, Cordoba, Entre Rios, and, of course, Buenos -Aires, are worthy of note and commendation for steady interest in -matters educational, and in financial support of schools carried on -independently of the central authority. - -Progress in the Province of Santa Fe, as evidenced by the annual -message of the governor of that Province for 1917, was steady, despite -the need of economy in provincial finances due to conditions resulting -from the World War. An increase of 14 provincial schools over the year -previous and of the grades in 36 schools was noted. Two problems were -kept steadily in view: The improvement in the teaching personnel, -accentuated by the disclosure of the fact that more than one-third of -the teachers in the provincial schools lacked teacher training, and the -construction of better school buildings. It was estimated that with -these from 25 to 30 per cent of additional pupils could be taught by -the same teaching force. - -In the Province of San Luis the general inspector of provinces reported -for 1916 the establishment of 160 local associations of the national -_Amigos de la Educacion_. This society, composed of parents and others -interested in primary education, has for its objects the close linking -of home and school, the fight against illiteracy, the promotion of -good feeling and companionship between natives and immigrants, the -celebration of national festivals, the securing of better primary -enrollment and attendance especially by the poorer children, with the -inculcation of their self-respect, and cooperation with the regional -and national authorities in the safeguarding of public health. - -In this Province, by volunteer organizations of teachers and others -interested, local patriotic conferences were inaugurated on topics -of national history, hygiene, political economy, ethics, and themes -generally related to home and school matters. - -In the Province of Buenos Aires school excursions have been developed -and made an organic part of instruction in civic and national spirit. -They have been so arranged that children in the several zones may come -by personal touch to know and correspond by letter with each other. In -some places participation in these excursions has been made a reward -of good lessons and conduct. They are to be taken in the last 15 days -of October, and children are not to remain more than 3 days in one -locality. Groups of not more than 12 pupils are recommended. - -In July, 1916, the council general of the Province of Buenos Aires -initiated courses in the normal school for the training of teachers -and graduates of the normal schools in the recognition and study of -retardation and its causes, and in early correction of abnormalities -most frequently met. The program of courses includes a series of 16 -lessons on related medical and pedagogical topics. - -Of direct bearing upon educational problems among the rural population -is the project of the law recently sent by the executive of the -Province of Buenos Aires to the legislature, providing for the issuance -of bonds to the amount of $45,000,000 for the expropriation of parts of -the great landed estates and the division of the land thus expropriated -into small tracts for the use of small farmers. Subsequent purchase -under advantageous terms is to be encouraged. According to reports, the -prevailing system of “arrendatorios,” or small tenants for short terms, -has led to so acute an agrarian unrest, with the consequent shifting -and aimless wandering of an increasing element of the population, as -to constitute a social and economic menace no longer to be ignored. -The educational effects in the increase of illiteracy and the general -retardation of primary education have been manifest. - -In 1918 the Legislature of the Province of Entre Rios enacted into -law a series of provisions guaranteeing the stability of the scale of -salaries for teachers in provincial schools. Promotion and increase -of salary were based rigorously upon merit; teachers were declared -unremovable during good conduct and fitness; initial salaries were -fixed as follows: (_a_) For normal teacher, $160 per month; (_b_) for -rural normal teacher, $120 per month; (_c_) for rural teacher, $100 per -month; (_d_) for special teacher, $80 per month. Every five years the -teacher who has worked in the same place for that period shall receive -a bonus of 20 per cent on his initial salary. - -The government of the Province of Cordoba has approved a plan for the -introduction of agricultural courses in the primary schools, presented -and prepared by experts in agronomy and pedagogy, without dislocation -of existing courses and schedules. - -The inspectors of this Province presented for the consideration of the -provincial chamber of deputies the project of a law to establish a -normal school for the preparation of rural teachers exclusively, the -courses offered being: - -(_a_) The development of subjects related to fundamental studies in the -primary schools; - -(_b_) Practice teaching adapted to the needs of the primary schools of -the locality; and - -(_c_) Elementary teaching, both theoretical and practical, in manual -arts, agriculture and cattle breeding, and minor rural industries. - -Private schools conforming to governmental requirements were legally -recognized and incorporated by decree of 1917 and their consequent -validation effected. Pupils of the fifth and sixth grades of such -private schools applying for leaving certificates are required to -undergo an examination upon all subjects for those grades of the -official national programs before a board of three members appointed by -the inspector. - -Officially apart from the Ministry of Public Education but calling for -special mention was the establishment in 1917 under the encouragement -of the National Department of Agriculture of 16 schools in rural -domestic science in nine Provinces, including Buenos Aires. Courses -are offered in minor industries, such as dairying, beekeeping, care of -fowls, hog raising, agriculture, horticulture, and canning of fruits -and vegetables. Five hundred women have been enrolled. A number of -these schools, the largest at Tucuman, have been put on a permanent -basis, and private associations are working to effect this in many -places. - -School celebrations of national festivals, long popular in Argentina, -have been especially marked during the year 1918, the centennial year -for the nation. They were held in all schools on July 8, the chief -feature being the oath to the flag and the singing of the national hymn -in the presence of the school and civic authorities. - - -CHANGES UNDER THE PROJECTED LAW OF 1918. - -Following the former order of education in Argentina, the second stage -of primary education began with the educational bill submitted with -the approval of the President to the Federal Congress in August, 1918. -In this were incorporated changes of far wider scope than any ever -before projected. Not only primary education, but the entire fabric -of Argentine education was to be nationalized in content of courses, -in methods of instruction, and in special preparation of teachers for -tasks devolving on them under the new régime. The bill provided for -large development of industrial and vocational courses and called for -the use of materials peculiarly national and local. It laid stress upon -civic and patriotic training, in view of the heterogeneous constitution -of the Argentine population through steady streams of immigration -and the necessity of molding these diverse elements into a body of -patriotic and intelligent citizens. It provided for the establishment -of primary schools throughout the nation under more flexible financial -and administrative regulations than the old, for the segregation of -specific revenues for the exclusive use of the Ministry of Public -Instruction, and the consequent abolition of the old system of national -subsidies to individual localities. Especially in the fight against -illiteracy did the projected law embody progressive features. The -National Council of Education was empowered to establish standard -primary schools wherever there were as many as 20 illiterate children -of school age. In the message which accompanied the recommendation of -the law the President pointed out that the projected law tended to give -unity and stability to the several divisions of education under the -direction of the department of national instruction and adapted them to -the material progress of the nation and to latter-day civilization. -His identification of popular education with national progress -justifies a quotation at length: - - As primary education was established by law in 1864, it contains - regulations which in reality have lost their original justification; - for Argentine civilization now demands urgent reforms in the matter of - general instruction in order to give greater consistency and reason - to the latter, and in order to make it more practical, more adaptable - to the various regional needs of the Republic. It is especially - urgent to carry its action to all the sections of the country not yet - reached by the system in order to arrive at the real aims of a truly - national education. Chief among these is to eradicate illiteracy, - the most patriotic task in which we can engage and the one upon - whose successful execution alone can any real national progress and - enlightenment rest. - - The institutions of higher education have continued to develop in the - direction of autonomy and within the limit determined by the law of - 1885; but with the primary, they demand modifications in the course - and arrangement of studies in order to abolish antiquated practices - and methods and to reach the level of the great modern universities of - the world. - - Secondary instruction, in its turn, has lacked and still lacks a - law to fix it in definite form and to define its real character - in accordance with constitutional precepts and the nature of our - political institutions. It has existed subject to the continual - change of plans and regulations, harassed by the application of - widely varying educational conceptions, in a state of continuous - instability, and therefore reduced to a mere administrative mechanism - without power of initiative relative to its immediate needs and - without sufficient social influence to realize its true aims. To - remedy these evils and to fill these gaps is one of the purposes of - this law, in which the attempt has been made to include only that - which ought to be general and permanent. The primary aim of secondary - education should be to spread education among the towns and cities in - such a way that in all the country there shall be trained, educated - citizens fitted to play their part in the future civilization of the - country. Preparatory instruction has therefore been kept under the - control of the universities, which will fix their courses of study, - their duration, and their extension both general and special. Both the - plans of the preparatory courses, as well as those of the professions - taught in the faculties of the university, have been projected along - the lines already mentioned. The programs of the normal schools have - been formulated in accordance with the technical ideas which should - distinguish them, separating the general studies from those properly - called pedagogical or professional, arranging them so that the former - shall precede and the latter be intensified toward the end of the - course. - - As regards practical subjects of instruction, the project outlines - only the general features according to which they must be taught. - Instruction will be imparted in accordance with the necessities of - the immediate field of each school, with special regard to natural - production, commerce, industries, and aptitudes of the population, all - with the purpose of adjusting anew the activities of the Argentine - youth, which has hitherto been by preference inclined toward the more - speculative studies rather than those of practical and of immediate - application. It is left to the authorities of technical education - to prepare plans and courses of study adapted to each class of - institutions. - - Enrollment in all schools has been made absolutely free, a logical - consequence of compulsory education, which has as yet never been - effective, but which is an indispensible condition to placing all upon - the same plane of equality, a thing inherent in the principles of - republican institutions. - - The Government considers that the power wielded by the nation to - spread primary education in the Provinces is so ample, in the form - established by this projected law, that the regulations in force - concerning financial subventions are without reason or justification. - Once the Provinces have complied with the duty imposed upon them by - the constitution in this regard up to the limit of their capacity the - accompanying responsibility of the Federal Government will disappear. - - The executive, knowing the great value of the teaching profession - in the general concert of human activities, seeks every means - to establish and dignify the career of teacher, making it a - real profession surrounded by all the honors and all the public - considerations which it can legitimately claim. It is therefore sought - in the reform to fix proper conditions for different categories - of teachers, as well as a scale of salaries, and proportional and - periodic increase, thus guaranteeing the stability of the profession - and assuring it an honorable and tranquil retirement. With such aims - in view for the retirement of secondary teachers, the executive has - believed it equitable to establish similar lines of financial aid for - pensions and for increase of salaries as those offered to the teachers - of primary education. - - -SECONDARY EDUCATION. - -Reference has been made to the establishment of intermediate schools, -at first uniform, later differentiated, substituted for the former -fifth and sixth years of the primary school and intended to bridge -the chasm between the primary and the secondary schools. This marked -a further innovation, in that secondary education had always been -left in Argentina to the Provinces, the State nationally exercising -only a nominal oversight of this division. For financial reasons, as -well as because of the necessity of giving uniformity to a type so -widely scattered, the intermediate school was from the very first -regarded as national in scope. It may be likened in many respects to -the junior high school of American cities. It was designed to give -instruction of a general and cultural nature in languages, history, -geography, and mathematics, combined with experimental studies in the -elements of physical and natural science. Much earlier entrance, its -advocates claimed, would thus be possible upon subjects of vocational -and technical character, which should test the nascent abilities and -aptitudes of the pupil. Especial attention was to be given woodworking, -typewriting, stenography, linotyping, decorative design, photography, -and special arts and crafts favored by local conditions. - -This experiment, though marking an advance in educational methods, -was unsuccessful, and after a year of existence such schools were -discontinued. They did, however, affect instruction in secondary -education, leaving their impress in the radical requirement of early -specialization after the fifth and sixth higher primary grades. - -The educational policy of Argentina thus returned to its traditional -status; and secondary education still centers around the 37 -colegios nacionales, institutions for boys of 10 to 14 years of -age, which admit those with leaving certificates from the fifth -and sixth grades of the higher primary schools, and by revisal -of 1911 offer courses arranged by fourfold division of subjects -into the physical-mathematical, the chemical-biological, the -historical-geographical, and the literary-philosophical groups. -A decree of the National Council dated February, 1916, made the -certificate of sixth grade of the public school obligatory for -admission to the colegio. This was regarded as going far toward -settling two fundamental difficulties--the first, the long desired -abolition of the entrance examination, as discredited by experience -and prejudicial to secondary training, and the second, the official -recognition of the compulsory attendance law for children of 6 to 14 -years. - -Among the new subjects assigned for the colegios is the study of -Italian, now restored after being abolished by previous decree. In -accordance with this requirement, a course in this language has been -instituted in the normal schools for the preparation of teachers. - -The close connection of the interests of the colegio nacionale with the -university is brought out in the report of the rector of the National -University of Buenos Aires for 1916. It is of significance as striking -out new lines in what had always been a conservative division, and -carried weight in the fluid state of public opinion on education which -prevailed just at that time. - -Taking up the instructional aspect of secondary education, and the -claims put forward by zealous partisans of the opposing views that the -colegios should prepare either for higher studies or for practical -life, but not for both, he urged legal provisions for both forms of -training to supply the demand felt in all modern states for men of -thought as well as efficiency in action. In the light of this demand -all wrangling as to programs of study could only be to the damage -of the State. Since the Argentine colegios half a century ago were -modeled after the French lycées, with their emphasis upon the cultural -studies, the world had moved far, economically and socially, and sane -modifications in secondary education now clamored for recognition. - -On the side of administration the peculiar question for Argentina, -the land of great distances and many climates and productions, was -whether the best organization for secondary instruction was the -concentration of power in the hands of a council or of the minister of -public instruction, or more or less complete autonomy to be granted -to the individual institution. In either case the fixed principle was -to be accepted that the universities were directly concerned in the -discipline and studies of the students they were to receive, and that -they should therefore have the right of intervening in matters of -organization and studies of the colegios. - -A just decentralization of the colegios could be easily realized and -would bring such beneficial results as: (1) More direct and immediate -action of the authorities; (2) closer articulation of the colegios -with the universities in the matter of studies for preparation for the -latter; (3) formation of intellectual groups that would be encouraged -to take root permanently in the Provinces, thus avoiding the wholesale -migration of the directing classes to the capital; (4) ease of reform, -as contrasted with the present system, wherein every change in the -program of studies was a disturbance whose utility was not always -certain; (5) the best selection, so far as possible, of the personal -directive staff of the colegios, as the men in higher education would -be familiar with the problems of secondary instruction; (6) economy of -administrative expense; (7) the possibility of transforming certain -of the colegios into schools of arts, trades, and industries in which -general instruction, continuing the primary, might be combined with -the special and technical preparation so much needed for the material -well-being of the several regions of the Republic. - -In the projected law of public instruction, introduced in August, 1918, -it is provided that all matters relating to secondary education shall -be under the authority of the national universities, with full power to -regulate content of courses, curricula, etc. This is manifestly a step -suggested by the traditional system of Spain, in which the standard -secondary schools (_institutos_) are arranged according to university -districts and are governed by university rector and council. Its wisdom -and advisability for a country of the Western Hemisphere have been -variously considered. - - -TECHNICAL EDUCATION. - -By the projected law of August, 1918, a National Board of Technical -Education is to be established to ascertain the progress of this branch -of education in other countries, to adapt whatever may be possible to -the conditions and needs of Argentina, to foster technical instruction -in the national schools, and to keep in touch with its progress -throughout the world. - - -NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING. - -The sequence of studies prescribed for pupils of the normal school -according to the decree of March, 1916, is also worthy of notice. -Immediately following, and based upon the intermediate schools which, -as described above, were discarded after trial, the normal school -required four years for the teachers’ diploma, after which the student -might proceed to higher studies for the degree of teacher of modern -languages in two years or that of teacher of languages in normal school -in three years, or that of teacher of philosophy in any institution -in six years. A commendable gain of one year in each of these was -effected, and this feature is to be embodied in the new provisions now -under consideration. In addition, the new project of educational law -outlines a teacher’s course of four years, clearly differentiating -between the general or cultural and the pedagogical or professional -courses. The former are assigned to the first three years as required; -the latter are reserved for the last year, constituting an intensive -curriculum of pedagogical history and methods and practice teaching -in the required annexed practice school. The completion (1918) of the -Normal School Sarmiento in Buenos Aires, named in honor of the founder -of popular education in South America, is to be noted. This school, -capable of accommodating 1,000 pupils and equipped with the most modern -apparatus, is worthy of comparison with the finest schools in the other -countries educationally most advanced. - - -HIGHER EDUCATION. - -With the provision incorporated in the projected law, by which control -of national secondary education is vested in the universities, the -latter will touch national education much more intimately than ever -before. The universities of Argentina are those of Buenos Aires, -Cordoba, and La Plata, which are national, and those of Santa Fe -and Tucuman, which are provincial but will soon be nationalized. In -1917 there was a growing feeling in university circles in favor of -decentralization, with greater degree of autonomy for each university. -The report of the rector of the university of Buenos Aires for 1917 was -of interest as showing the effect of this upon the colegios as well -as the universities. How far this has been checked by the projected -provision to intrust secondary education to universities can not be -learned. - -The unrest among the student bodies in the institutions of higher -education has constituted perhaps the most remarkable feature of the -educational history of the past year. In Buenos Aires reform was -demanded in the statutes under which the university was governed, and -the adoption of methods in conformity with new tendencies in university -instruction. The students demanded especially the right to vote for -the election of the authorities. Satisfactory agreement was reached, -and the university, after several days of suspension of classes and -demonstrations on the part of the student body, resumed instruction, -which was uninterrupted for the rest of the year. At the University of -Cordoba the conflict between the students and the authorities assumed -more serious proportions. Regular work was suspended, the efforts -of the mediator appointed by the National Government to hear the -claims of the student body and to decide upon the just and practical -course for the university authorities to adopt were unsatisfactory -to the complainants, and the authority of the minister of public -instruction was invoked. Upon investigation the latter official -advocated in his report to the executive a complete reorganization of -the university in its statutes, regulations, acts of discipline, and -staff of professors. These changes were ratified by the executive and -were practically embodied in the project of the law submitted to the -Congress in those sections pertaining to university education. In the -other three universities, those of La Plata, Tucuman, and Santa Fe, the -disturbances which impeded the prosecution of the regular routine of -studies were comparatively insignificant, though the spirit of unrest -was marked and many of the reforms and changes secured in the two -leading universities were readily accepted. - -The growth of the so-called student centers (_centros estudiantiles_) -has been a feature of higher education during the past two years. These -organizations have come to be representative of student life and of the -student point of view, and have therefore gained much importance in the -eyes of the authorities. They are organized according to departments -of studies, such as the centers of medical and dental students, of -engineering students, of political science students, of students of -architecture, and of law. Each numbers from 100 to 500 members. They -are grouped as a whole into the University Federation of Buenos Aires, -in which each is represented by delegates, and which is regarded as the -mouthpiece of all university students in the metropolis. - -Plans are already under way by the executive council of the University -of Buenos Aires for the celebration of the first centenary of its -foundation, which will occur in October, 1921. Invitations have been -extended to the institutions of higher education in all countries of -the world to designate and send representatives. Though the actual -building of the ancient colegio nacional, in which the university began -its operation, has been materially changed, yet the present building -occupies the same site, and it has been decided to hold the centennial -celebration in it. - -Of interest is the projected foundation of a popular university at -Buenos Aires, constituted along industrial lines and frankly designed -to counteract the technical and industrial influence of North American -universities in South American countries. - -A survey of educational progress in Argentina may fittingly conclude -with mention of the annual American Congress of Education and -Commercial Extension, held in Montevideo in January, 1919, in which -representatives of all the Latin-American countries participated, and -those of Argentina, from her economic and educational leadership, were -most prominent. The proceedings of the congress will be discussed in -the chapter on Uruguay. - - - - -VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. - -Educational activity in Brazil has been most marked in the field of -vocational education. A special commission, appointed by the Director -General of Public Instruction, consisting of five experienced teachers -in subjects of this nature, was instructed to formulate courses for -the State schools which were to be established by law in the Federal -District. They were to serve as models for subsequent schools of the -same character in the several States and Territories. The commission, -of which Senhor Coryntho da Fonseca was the spokesman, after several -months of conference and personal visits of inspection to the -vocational schools already existent in the several centers, especially -in Sao Paulo, and after hearing reports from active teachers in the -subjects, presented its report in March, 1919. It was approved by -the Vice President, serving ad interim for the President, and was -recommended by him to be put into actual operation pending its formal -enactment into law by the Congress. - -The report as finally presented rested upon four main considerations: - -1. The State, in the field of instruction, has primarily an educational -function and only secondarily a vocational one. Courses in shop -training, designed to awake and develop an aptitude in the pupil for a -particular industry, must of course enter into any well-rounded scheme -of education. This in turn must be designed to promote a general and -not a specialized technical education which will introduce both sexes -to industrial and commercial life. For practical reasons of expense, if -for no other, the State should not be expected to prepare pupils for -specialized vocations. - -2. The task of the commission being to deal with the branches of -vocational training best adapted to give the pupil a broad outlook upon -general industrial activities, the commission judged it best to confine -its recommendations to manual work of construction in wood, metal, -and plastic material. In methods as well as content of instruction it -is emphasized that such work must proceed along the lines of teaching -by example. In such teaching much that is old and fundamental must be -stressed by way of throwing light upon the elements of the training -that are common to all branches of manual arts. - -3. In its decision to urge a general attitude toward industrial -training rather than specialized methods peculiar to one branch, the -commission was confirmed by the testimony of all except one of the -directors of the vocational institutions in Brazil. Only one advocated -specialized instruction. Written representations of the faculties of -the vocational schools Alvaro Baptista, and Souza Aguiar, in Rio, -further confirmed this view. - -4. The results of vocational instruction in Brazil as actually observed -within the last few years convinced the commission-- - -(_a_) That unspecialized training best provided the foundations for -good citizenship as well as industrial training. - -(_b_) That by this training the latent technical aptitudes of the -student were more effectively revealed and developed, as shown by -steady increase in salaries of the graduates, than was the case with -the apprentices who had been trained exclusively in one line. - -(_c_) That the superior adaptation of the graduates of the general -vocational school had been shown by tables giving information as to -their progress in skill and value to their employers. These tables were -naturally incomplete, but their general drift was undeniable. - -(_d_) That the chief cause of the poor attendance upon the vocational -instruction for boys is the prevalent idea that the vocational school -is an index of lower social standing, enrolling only those boys that -can not obtain any other means of education. Thus the vocational -school is sharply differentiated socially from other types of schools. -It suffers from being regarded as preeminently the school to train -workmen. The commission had in mind the purpose of preparing public -sentiment for the passing of this traditional prejudice when it -attempted to inspire a just estimate of manual work in the public mind -and to organize such courses as would adequately carry out this idea. - -(_e_) That the vocational school must be established as a direct -continuation of the primary school, ministering to the innate tendency -in the child to realize things with his own hands; that thus the -traditional and depressing prejudice mentioned would be counteracted, -as time would not be given for it to intervene in the child’s mind. The -workshop, thus articulated with general training, would come to be the -fulfillment of an aspiration, inculcating as well the love of work and -respect for it. - -(_f_) That the success of the projected schools depends largely upon -the cooperation of the industrial firms of Brazil, which should be -appealed to for their sympathy and for the encouragement of their -adolescent employees to attend these schools; that the granting of -daylight hours to employees to attend such schools, as has been done in -England and France, with the consequent improvement in the physical -and mental condition of the pupils, is a step to be commended to all -employers as patriotic citizens. - -The salient provisions of the report of the commission are as follows: - - ARTICLE 1. The technical and vocational instruction maintained by - the prefecture of the Federal District has for its aim to complete - the primary elementary instruction by means of a general technical - education leading the youth of both sexes preferably to industrial and - commercial activities. - - ART. 2. Technical and vocational instruction shall be given in the - following types of schools: - - (_a_) Primary vocational schools. - - (_b_) Secondary vocational institutes. - - (_c_) Secondary agricultural schools. - - (_d_) Vocational finishing courses. - - (_e_) Normal school of arts and crafts. - - Types (_a_), (_d_), and (_e_) shall be day schools exclusively; types - (_b_) and (_c_) shall offer boarding accommodations for pupils from - distance. - - ART. 3. In schools of types (_a_) and (_d_) instruction shall be - imparted predominantly in the recitation rooms. - - ART. 4. The courses of the primary vocational school for boys shall - include the following subjects: - - (_a_) The usual subjects of the complementary course of the primary - schools, with fuller development of the studies of physics, chemistry, - natural history, hygiene, and mathematics. - - (_b_) Modeling and free-hand and mechanical drawing. - - ART. 5. The courses of the primary vocational school for girls shall - include: - - (_a_) The usual subjects of the complementary course of the primary - schools, with fuller development of the studies of hygiene and - domestic economy. - - (_b_) Modeling and free-hand drawing. - - ART. 6. The subjects of the vocational finishing courses shall include: - - (_a_) In the commercial course, Portuguese and civic instruction, - commercial geography, French and one other modern language, English - or German, to be chosen by the pupil, commercial correspondence and - accounting, typewriting, stenography, and arithmetic. - - (_b_) In the industrial course, Portuguese and civic instruction, - arithmetic, and geography, elements of applied physics, chemistry, - and natural history, accounting as related to the particular vocation - selected by the pupil, free-hand and mechanical drawing. - - ART. 7. The vocational finishing courses are designed primarily for - young men already employed in industry and commerce, who seek to - improve their vocational knowledge. - - ART. 8. The two types of vocational finishing schools may be taught - conjointly in the same building. - - ART. 9. Teachers and assistants imparting instruction shall be - appointed as follows: - - (_a_) There shall be a teacher and so many assistants for each branch - as shall be made necessary by the attendance. - - (_b_) For the instruction in technical accounting related to each - vocation there shall be employed special teachers only where 15 or - more students are enrolled for each course, and they shall receive - salaries only when actually teaching. The same teachers shall be in - charge of the various related branches of technical instruction in the - shops. - - ART. 10. The courses in the secondary vocational institutes for boys - shall include-- - - (_a_) The elementary and middle instruction for pupils who have not - had them. - - (_b_) Physical exercises and military drill. - - (_c_) Vocal and instrumental music. - - ART. 11. The courses in the vocational institutes for girls shall - include-- - - (_a_) Primary instruction for such pupils as have not had it. - - (_b_) Vocational drawing and modeling. - - In the vocational institutes the elementary primary instruction shall - be followed by an intensive course in manual arts, such as sloyd, wood - carving, and weaving in straw, vine, and bamboo. - - ART. 12. The primary vocational schools shall also offer a commercial - course consisting of the following subjects: - - (_a_) Commercial correspondence and accounting. - - (_b_) Typewriting and stenography. - - (_c_) French and one other modern language, English or German. - - ART. 13. Instruction in the workshops of vocational schools for boys - shall be given first in a general compulsory course of three years, - during which the pupil shall in turn be trained in the workshops - in cold and molten metals, including foundry work and wrought-iron - work. The pupil shall then be allowed to specialize in any workshop - or section at his choice. The pupils of the vocational institutes - for boys shall likewise take a compulsory course in horticulture and - kindred subjects. - - ART. 14. The agricultural schools and the vocational institutes shall - require attendance on the courses of civil training and agronomy, with - optional specialization in any line selected when the general course - is completed. - - ART. 15. In the vocational schools and institutes for girls there - shall be a compulsory general course upon the following practical - subjects: Cooking, laundering, ironing and starching, housekeeping, - sewing and dressmaking. Along with this general course the pupils - shall attend certain vocational courses chosen by themselves from - sewing, lace making, and embroidery, artificial-flower work, etc. - - ART. 16. For admission to the schools of vocational instruction the - following shall be the legal requirements as to age: - - (_a_) For vocational and agricultural schools, minimum age 13, maximum - 21. - - (_b_) For the vocational institutes for boys, minimum age 10, maximum - 13. - - (_c_) For the vocational institutes for girls, minimum age 7, maximum - 13. - - (_d_) For the normal school of arts and trades, minimum age 14, - maximum 25. - - (_e_) For the vocational finishing courses, minimum age 13. - - ART. 17. For matriculation in the vocational and agricultural - schools and the finishing courses the candidates shall submit to an - examination upon the subjects taught in the middle course of the - primary school. In the commercial courses of the finishing schools, - in the girls’ schools, and in the normal school of arts and trades, - the entrance examination shall be upon the subjects of the final - examination of the primary schools. - - ART. 18. The school year in the entire system of vocational - instruction, with the exception of agricultural schools, shall begin - March 1 and close November 30. The period from December 1 to December - 24 shall be devoted to examinations and to school exhibitions. In the - agricultural schools, because of their nature, the pupils shall have - 60 days of annual vacation granted to them in groups by the director - in accordance with the demands of the agricultural seasons and labors. - - ART. 19. The courses of the primary vocational schools, of the - institutes, and of the finishing courses shall be divided into periods - of 4 to 5 years; the finishing courses into periods of three years; - and the commercial course of the schools for girls into a period of - two years. - - ART. 24. The officials of inspection of technical and vocational - instruction shall draw up annual statistics of attendance and of the - results of the vocational instruction upon the bases of data furnished - by the directors of the several schools and, so far as possible, - by employers and by the former pupils who have themselves left the - schools. These statistics shall relate to the following topics: - - (_a_) Number of pupils placed, with indication of the establishments - where they are employed. - - (_b_) Initial salary obtained by them as related to the period of - schooling. - - (_c_) Technical aptitude revealed by former pupils and their capacity - of adaptation to the various industrial works. - - (_d_) Progress of increase in salary of former pupils. - - (_e_) All available information as to individual former pupils with - regard to the advantages or disadvantages of their schooling in the - decision of economic life, and their success in it. - - ART. 25. All posts of assistants and substitutes in the vocational - system shall be filled by competitive examinations. - - (_a_) For the assistant in drawing in the vocational schools in - institutes for boys, the examination shall be tests in drawing, in - artistic training, and in pedagogical fitness. - - (_b_) For the filling of the same post in the vocational schools and - institutes for girls the examination shall be tests in writing at - dictation, in decorative composition, in embroidery and lacework, and - in pedagogical fitness. - - (_c_) The competitive test for filling the post of substitutes in - shopwork shall be upon vocational design of an assigned theme for - shopwork and the execution of the same. - - ART. 26. The teachers in vocational instruction shall be named by - means of promotion of the assistants and substitutes. - - ART. 27. There shall be a substitute for every group of 20 pupils in - shopwork, and an assistant for every class of 30 pupils. - - ART. 28. When any primary school is transformed into a vocational - school there shall be annexed the elementary primary course in which - shall be taught intensively the manual arts prescribed for the - elementary instruction of the institutes, but the pupils shall attend - the shopwork of the vocational courses only when they have completed - the work of the middle course and attained the age of 13 years. - - - - -EDUCATION IN CHILE. - - -PRELIMINARY. - -The last two years have seen in Chile a distinct gathering up of the -threads of educational purpose. The feeling of dissatisfaction with the -primary school system, for many years inarticulate, has found a voice, -and all signs point to Chile’s finally securing a modernized system -of public instruction. The head and front of the indictment drawn by -national students of education has been the complete Germanization of -the system through the employment of a considerable number of German -educational experts during the decade from 1904 to 1914. The climax -came in the revelations of the propagandist activities of the German -educators brought out at the meeting of the National Educational -Association in 1917. - -Financial support of public instruction in Chile has never been -stinted, so far as its existent state was concerned. As merely one item -may be adduced the fact that in March, 1916, the Congress authorized -the President to devote to public instruction for specific aims such as -the building and remodeling of schoolhouses, $4,000,000 annually for 10 -years, through the medium of the Central Council of Education, in which -was vested the discretion as to methods and objects of the expenditure. -In 1918 the budget was voted by the Congress of $35,450,000 for public -instruction, as against that of $32,373,404 for 1917. So that the -authorities of the Government must justly be credited with a practical -interest in education which encourages teachers and other active -workers in their efforts toward greater efficiency. - -In 1917 there had been increased discussion of matters educational; -and in June of that year President Sanfuentes in his message showed -that the time had come to impress on the national system of public -instruction a more practical stamp, making it adequate to the needs of -everyday life and the special conditions of the country. Along with -this he urged the specialization of secondary education as, just then, -the urgent and opportune point of attack for the development of Chile’s -scientific and industrial possibilities. - -This message was followed by action of the Congress which clearly -showed the traditional line of cleavage long prevailing in Chile’s -social and political system. The demand for some form of modernized -public instruction could no longer be repressed; and a conservative -deputy introduced the project of a law to insert in the constitution -a provision for compulsory primary schooling and compulsory religious -instruction, the only modification of the latter being the concession -to the parent to choose the forms and means of such instruction. The -radical party was not slow in countering with a project adopting the -feature of compulsory attendance but decentralizing and completely -secularizing the existing system. The latter proposal, now made for -the first time in the history of Chilean legislation, was especially -bold, as Chile has never done away with the essentially religious tone -of her education. She retains representatives of the State church on -her National Council of Education, freely recognizes parochial primary -schools, and has her secondary schools largely managed by religious -instructors and under distinctively religious auspices. - -The compromise bill formulated by a specially appointed commission -of the Congress sought to satisfy both extremes. It vested supreme -administrative authority in educational matters in a council of 18, -sitting in Santiago, presided over by the Minister of Justice and -Instruction; but it allowed 11 of the members to be named by the -Senate, the Chamber of Deputies, and the President of the Republic. -This feature was severely criticized by the liberals and by the -National Educational Association as still keeping educational authority -in the hands of politicians, not intrusting it to men really interested -in education, and making it possible to block all educational progress -whenever desired. - -The bill made four years’ attendance in primary schools, private or -public, compulsory for all children between 7 and 13, and required all -reaching the latter age without completing the prescribed course to -continue until 15. Poverty could not be pleaded in excuse, as grants -by the State were specified and graduated in amounts according to -need. Exemption from religious instruction was allowed upon written -application of the parent or upon certification of the local junta, -another feature opposed by the National Educational Association on the -ground that the junta’s powers could never be so amplified legally. -Programs of study and schedules should be under the authority of the -inspector general of primary instruction. Primary instruction was to -be imparted to complete illiterates in schools called supplementary, -managed independently of existing primary schools, and to partial -illiterates in schools called complementary, conducted in conjunction -with existent primary schools. - -The bill, as outlined above, encountered opposition from many sources, -and still remains unenacted. Pending its passage, the Minister of -Public Instruction, by virtue of the power vested in him, issued -in 1918 a decree organizing primary education in three grades of -two years each, continued by one grade of vocational education of -from one to three years. Attendance is not specifically compulsory, -though the local junta has power so to declare it in the schools of -its jurisdiction. The requirements as to qualifications of a primary -teacher are made more rigorous; he must be a citizen of Chile, of -good character, not less than 18 nor more than 40 years of age at the -time of appointment, and a graduate of a Government normal school, or -holding a degree of a Chilean or recognized foreign institution. - - -ILLITERACY. - -The problem of illiteracy in Chile is a serious one, the estimated -figures for 1917 showing 959,061 illiterates out of a total -population of 3,249,279. Since the year 1900 the struggle against it -has grown in vigor. The National Educational Association has shown -especial efficiency, and has worked through committees having the -following phases in charge: Compulsory school attendance, the legal -requirements, condition of the schools and the teaching force, school -revenues, school buildings and sanitation, and special education. - -This steady pressure prepared public sentiment for the leadership -of the most influential agency ever invoked in the fight against -illiteracy, viz. the conferences organized by the powerful newspaper El -Mercurio. Under its auspices these conferences were held in a 3-days’ -series in July, 1917, and were attended and participated in by men and -women identified with every phase of national education. The following -topics were the salient ones of those discussed: - - 1. Comparative study of illiteracy statistics in various countries. - - 2. Means of combating illiteracy in leading nations. - - 3. Practicable means of action in Chile. - - 4. Means of contribution, and proportion in which the State, the - municipal authorities, and the Provinces may contribute to the budget - necessary. - - 5. Cooperation of private initiative. - - 6. Means of making school attendance compulsory. - - 7. Regulation of child labor. - - 8. Reforms necessary in actual plans of study and in classification of - schools. - - 9. Necessity and practical means of giving the schools a more - Nationalistic character. - - 10. Minimum of knowledge to be required by compulsory attendance law. - - 11. Place of night schools, Sunday schools, and traveling schools, in - the struggle against illiteracy. - -While no action of a legal character resulted from these conferences, -yet the impetus given to the cause was powerful, and had weight in -bringing about the decree and the projected law already outlined. Such -a move, combining at once social and economic as well as educational -characteristics, seeking to bring public opinion to bear on the -solution of a problem underlying the life of a nation, and launched by -a newspaper, is unique in the history of education. - -The Territory of Magellanes has shown itself remarkably efficient in -handling the problem of illiteracy. It is the southernmost area of the -country, and little favored by nature, being a long strip of barren -and rocky coast, with a climate singularly bleak and uninviting. Its -industries are based exclusively upon its mineral resources; and its -population, though intelligent, is very sparse. By the census of -1917, its percentage of illiteracy was 20; according to the estimate -of the author of a study of the Territory, published in the Anales -de la Universidad, April, 1918, this has been reduced to 7 per cent. -Credit is largely due the Society of Popular Instruction, a private -organization, established in 1911, which offers free instruction -to pupils of all ages. In spite of the prevailing inclemency of the -climate, the sessions of its day and night schools are excellently -attended. The system is centralized in Punta Arenas. - - -PRIMARY EDUCATION. - -Unlike Argentina and Brazil, primary public education has always been -left in the hands of the central national government, the individual -Province having control of financial outlay and the construction of -school buildings, and this only when requirements of the national law -are fulfilled. Uniform programs of study and schedules of hours are -enforced throughout the nation. But conditions of scarcity of materials -and labor render it impossible to keep many of the old buildings in -repair. The tendency long criticized by the Association of Teachers, to -cram school buildings into the half dozen larger centers, seems in a -fair way to be checked.[1] - -[1] Criticism has been freely expressed in the public press of the use -of a disproportionately large part of the primary school fund voted by -the Congress for the use of the executive. - -This new order of things is most plainly seen in the attention paid -to rural schools, which have predominated in the number built since -1916. The Government has instructed the committee on public works and -the department of primary instruction to develop a plan of building -uniform types of rural school. The expenses are to be borne out of the -fund just mentioned. Three types are contemplated, with a capacity of -80, 160, and 400 pupils respectively, solidly constructed, conforming -strictly to all modern demands of sanitation, lighting, and heating. In -many places the North American principle of consolidation of schools -has been applied, to the distinct improvement of attendance and -instruction, 200 small and struggling schools having been abolished -and 100 annexed to others more centrally situated. With these gains, -however, the crying need in Chile is acknowledged to be more schools. -It is estimated that 10,000 elementary schools are yet needed for her -approximately 750,000 children, of whom slightly less than 400,000 are -in the schools of this grade, and 50,000 in private parochial schools. -All educational thinkers are agreed that the situation calls for legal -compulsory attendance on primary instruction, rigidly enforced. - - -SECONDARY EDUCATION. - -Secondary education in Chile is organized in three grades: (1) National -high schools; (2) liceos of the second class, and (3) complete liceos -of the first class. - -(1) The high schools are a development of the last few years, and are -situated only in the larger centers. They number 30 for boys and 12 -for girls, enrolling less than 12,000 pupils, and are generally little -more than higher elementary schools. They are almost exclusively -technical, and do not prepare the pupil for advanced study. - -(2) The liceos of the second class (sometimes called colegios), of -which about 100 exist in the Provinces and Territories, offer courses -covering three years in the elementary subjects of instruction common -to scientific and literary groups. - -(3) The liceos of the first class, numbering 40 for boys and 31 for -girls, and offering the full course of six years, are representative -of the best in secondary education in Latin-America. Those for boys, -following the tradition of the Spanish system for corresponding -schools, are administered by the University of Chile; those for girls, -by the Minister of Public Instruction and the National Council. The -practical and scientific wave which swept over this division of -education in 1915 caused the reinforcement of physical and chemical -teaching. Spanish, history and geography, religion (optional), French, -mathematics, natural sciences, gymnastics and singing, and manual -training run through all six years of the course; English (or German -or Italian), philosophy, civics, penmanship and drawing, mechanical -drawing (optional), extend through varying numbers of years. Students -of secondary education are struck with the excessive number of hours -required weekly, the minimum being 29 for the first year and the -maximum 33 for each of the last three years. - -The essential purpose of the liceo of the first class is to prepare -for the university, or for the professions; and national scholarships -are granted, including maintenance at the hostels, or annexed boarding -halls which were established five years ago. - -The system of secondary education has long been criticized by Chilean -educational thinkers as being too largely mental and literary, and as -paying little, if any, attention to the physical and moral. The attempt -to organize sports and physical exercises in secondary education has -met far less encouragement than in other South American countries. - -By decree of May, 1917, classes for illiterate girls over 7 years old -were annexed to liceos for girls, the ministry basing the number to be -admitted upon the attendance of the year previous. This was stoutly -opposed by the National Educational Association as being a confusion -of classification, a violation of the continuity of the educational -system, and an evasion of the palpable duty of the school authorities, -which should press the Government to establish fitting and proper -schools for such illiterate girls. - -The Government has appointed a commission of prominent men for the -study of reforms necessary and advisable for programs of secondary -education for girls. As matters stand, the same programs of study -are set for both boys and girls, a traditional arrangement the -disadvantages of which are coming fully to be recognized. - -Despite unfavorable and antiquated programs of studies, the Province -of Nuble has made noteworthy progress in female secondary education. -In Chillan, its capital, are conducted four liceos, three of which are -for girls. Ambitious courses in the classics, social sciences, and -rudimentary science are offered. One of them, the Instituto Pedagogico, -founded in 1912, exercises far-reaching influence over the social, -moral, and artistic conditions of the Province. The American Liceo, -a private institution, conducted by teachers from the United States, -devotes especial attention to the teaching of English, colloquial and -literary, and also gives instruction generally along thoroughly modern -high-school lines. - - -TRAINING OF TEACHERS. - -Chile’s system of training teachers is distinctively eclectic, -borrowing, as it has done, from France, Sweden, Germany, and the United -States. Before 1870 French influence predominated, the great Argentine -educator, Sarmiento, himself a pupil of the school of Saint-Simon, -having founded the first normal school in 1842 while in exile from the -tyranny of the dictator Rosas. German influence became pronounced about -1880, when that nation began to supply men and women teachers in the -normals and as instructors in all grades of education. Since 25 years -ago the tide began to turn toward North American influence, especially -of the type of education developed in the Northwestern States. The -Chilean ideal is a judicious combination of (1) an institution for -the training of teachers for public schools who shall have adequate -culture, specialized training, manual skill, and theoretical and -practical knowledge of modern subjects, and (2) an institution for -training in social relations and habits, exercising steady influence on -the social environment of the school by means of popular courses and -conferences, and participation in popular movements. - -The full course in the 16 training colleges for teachers covers five -years, of which the first three are devoted to general education and -the last two to professional training. The course for the fifth year is -essentially professional, consisting of pedagogy (history, methodology, -and practice teaching), 17 hours weekly; Spanish, 1 hour; English or -French or German, 4 hours; civics and economics, 2 hours; hygiene, 2 -hours; horticulture or metallography, 2 hours; drawing, 1 hour; manual -arts, 2 hours; music, 1 hour; physical education, 3 hours. All expenses -are defrayed, in return for which the pupil is pledged to teach for -seven years in the national schools. - -The actual method of instruction is along German lines. Object lessons, -those in natural history and history and geography have all impressed -recent foreign visitors as essentially Herbartian. Perhaps in no other -country of the world, since the well-drilled German schools fell into -chaos, is the influence of the normal schools upon the system and -method of public instruction more powerful than in Chile. Indeed, -this potent influence has overleaped the boundaries of Chile proper -and affected every country of Latin America. A supreme example is -the influence of the Instituto Pedagogico, the best known of Chilean -normal schools, founded in 1909, with predominatingly German faculty, -which has developed into a type of higher normal school with a colegio -annexed, emphasizing practice teaching with subsequent criticism -and courses of general pedagogy and methodology in every subject. -Its certificates rank highest in the secondary and normal education -of the capital city; students are attracted to it from the other -Latin-American States, and return home to reorganize education there -along its lines. Its boast is that it inspired the establishment of the -Instituto Nacional at Buenos Aires. - -Scandinavian and Belgian influences are at work in the Instituto -de Profesores Especiales. Established in 1906, it was definitely -reorganized in 1910 and installed in the building especially -constructed for it. Of its 300 pupils 200 are women, and the majority -of both men and women are active teachers in the schools of the -capital. It offers courses common to all the specialized sections, -such as psychology, French, pedagogy, civics, and school legislation, -and includes five sections, fundamental to its organization: Physical -education, manual arts, drawing and penmanship, domestic economy, and -vocal music. For the convenience of teachers, instruction is given from -7 to 9 a.m. and from 4 to 8 p.m. - -The last few years have seen wide extension of the demand for rural -normal schools, and many critics of the existent schools have urged -that they follow those of the State of Wisconsin as a model. The -essential solidarity of educational aims of the South American -republics is shown by the fact that Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia -during the same period drew their inspiration from the same North -American source. - -The decree already mentioned under the head of primary education -emphasizes the duty of the normal schools to prepare free of all -expense primary teachers for any of the three grades of instruction. -Each normal school is also required to have annexed such specially -organized practice schools as shall be necessary. At the discretion of -the President of the Republic, the normal schools shall offer special -courses for those students who have passed the examinations of the -fifth year of the colegios, with the aim of attracting such students -into the field of teaching. That the need of wider training of the -teachers is a pressing one in Chile is shown by the fact that, in 1915, -of 3,000 rural teachers, only 350, and of 6,240 primary teachers of the -nation at large, only 2,435, had normal school training. The service -had to be recruited by 2,000 graduates of primary schools who passed -examinations, and by 1,850 applicants who held no certificate and were -allowed to serve as temporary substitutes. - -Of special interest is the annual reciprocity of teachers between the -Government of Chile and the Universities of the States of California -and Washington, arranged in 1918. Each party is to send four. For the -present the Chilean commission has expressed predominant interest in -secondary education, and has called for one university professor, one -normal-school teacher, one teacher of technical subjects, and one -teacher (preferably a woman) in secondary education. The universities -mentioned will act as the agents in the selection of the instructors. - -Interchange of university professors has also been arranged with -Uruguay, which is for the present confined to medical instruction. - -The National Educational Association has at many meetings pressed for -the scientific and practical training of the teachers of Chile in -vocational studies; and for the appropriation by the Congress of a -definite sum for sending normal teachers abroad for study in the modern -practical and sociological subjects. - - -TECHNICAL EDUCATION. - -For this branch of education the National Educational Association -in 1917 recommended that there be established by law a Council of -Industrial Education composed of a director and 12 members, four of -whom shall be professors of the fundamental technical branches, one -a woman inspector of vocational schools for women, one an inspector -general of primary education, one the director general of railroads, -and one a director and inspector of army munitions. Their duties should -be to exercise superintendency over the entire system of technical -and industrial education to be organized in the Republic, over the -national school of arts and trades, and over such industrial schools -for girls and women as might be established. On this board should be -likewise all inspectors and officials of such branches as might be -later established. A bill embodying these provisions was introduced in -the Congress but has not as yet been acted upon. - -Steady progress in all branches of technical education has been shown. -The schools of higher primary grade offering technical courses -number 288, with physical training and gymnastics compulsory in all -grades. There were also in operation 29 technical colegios for women; -6 agricultural colegios; 10 commercial schools, controlled by the -commission upon commercial education; and 3 schools of mines. - -The department of industrial promotion has urged upon the Congress the -establishment of a chain of industrial and agricultural schools. - -With the establishment by law of the Industrial University of -Valparaiso there will be completed the full cycle of industrial -education in Chile, consisting of: (1) Elementary industrial training -in two schools already established and in six more to be established; -(2) secondary industrial training in the School of Arts and Crafts; and -(3) higher industrial training in the Technical School of Valparaiso. - -In November, 1918, met the first National Congress of Dairying, -organized under the auspices of the Agronomic Society of Chile. -It urged the legal organization of instruction in this branch in -(1) special schools of dairying in northern and central Chile; (2) -courses annexed to already established schools of agriculture; (3) -in establishments of secondary education for youths of both sexes in -popular meetings and public traveling courses; (4) in rural primary -schools for illiterate adults. - -It is appropriate to mention just here the comprehensive project of -the board of missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United -States for the establishment of an agricultural and industrial system -of education in southern Chile. It has been approved by the Government -of Chile as a potent aid in the uplift of the peon class. A ranch of -nearly 4,000 acres has been purchased along the Malleco River, on -which it is purposed to train the native population in the rudimentary -subjects of instruction, and especially in modern agricultural methods. -The management will employ the best available experts in horticulture, -agriculture, and domestic arts to be found in the South American -countries who may be acquainted with the needs of Chilean rural life. - - -THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CHILE. - -This body plays a larger part in educational thought and leadership -than the corresponding body in any other Latin American State. Its -activities are planned for close articulation of the social and -educational needs of the nation. One of the furthest reaching is -the public-extension work in subjects of university and secondary -instruction. In 1917, its eleventh year of operation, it held 14 -conferences at the University of Chile, with an attendance of 15,000, -an increase of 50 per cent over the previous year. The subjects -treated were patriotic, historical, literary, artistic, sociological, -commercial, and medico-therapeutic. - -In secondary extension during 1917 there were held in provincial -capitals 19 conferences on subjects more popular and more exclusively -educational and sociological. - -The department of university extension has also for three years -devoted itself to collecting international data upon immigration -and naturalization laws, and has cooperated with all the labor -organizations of the Republic to hinder the passage of premature and -unscientific laws in this field. - -The activities of the association cover a wide range. In his report for -the year 1917 the president reviewed the activities of the body and -examined the most important problems to which it had addressed itself -during the period. They were: - - 1. The establishment of a rural normal school, a project not yet - realized. - - 2. Democratic education by the progressive elimination of primary - courses of education in secondary institutions. - - 3. Obligatory primary instruction, sought by a law passed by the - Chamber of Deputies in 1917, but as yet not acted upon by the Senate. - - 4. Nationalization of the Chilean system of education, a question - which needs to be presented still more in detail to the nation and the - Congress. - -Like Argentina, Chile has a grave problem in the assimilation of -alien elements, and her nationalism is alarmed at the activity of the -school organizations of diverse races existent on her soil. French -students of education are intensely interested in this development as a -vindication of their prophecies, for they have long been pointing out -the Germanization of Chilean education. - -The association has vigorously urged legislation requiring the close -and systematic inspection of all nongovernmental schools, especially -those of secondary grade in north Chile, where German propaganda has -for years been an open secret, carried on, as was well known, by a -German-Chilean Union of Teachers, and where German liceos exist in full -operation. The association urged the requirement in secondary schools -of essentially national subjects, such as Spanish and the history, -geography, and civics of Chile, taught by Chileans and descendants of -Chileans. - -In the field of physical education, the activities of the association -have been specially directed to securing proper playgrounds for schools -and to arousing practical interest in this field among philanthropists -and the public at large. The association has taken strong ground -for antialcoholic instruction in primary and secondary schools, -urging that such be incorporated in the textbooks in the study of -physiology, hygiene, and temperance, and in independent courses in -public schools and State colegios. The project encountered opposition -in the National Congress. The association has also grappled with the -problem of immorality, issuing in May, 1917, appeals to families on -sexual ethics and the systematic inculcation of ethical ideas of sex by -educational and therapeutic measures. During 1917, fraternal relations -were established with Brazil and Bolivia, on the occasion of the -inauguration of the Higher Normal Institute. - - - - -EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. - - -GENERAL INTRODUCTION. - -The marked educational awakening of Uruguay during the last biennium -has been only one phase of the universal demand of the nation for a -new social and economic adjustment. Perhaps the chief manifestation of -this has been the adoption of the new constitution in place of the old, -which had been in force exactly 90 years. At a plebiscite of November, -1917, the constitution as formulated was submitted to the people and -adopted by a vote of 85,000 to 4,000; and it became the fundamental law -of the land on March 1, 1919. As regards its bearings upon educational -administration, the most noteworthy change--and perhaps that around -which centered most opposition during its consideration--was the -provision which divides the executive power between a President and a -National Council of Administration. - -The latter body, composed of nine members elected for six years -directly by the people, and absolutely independent of the President, -has charge of all matters relating to public instruction, public works, -labor, industries, public charities, health, and the preparation of -the annual national budget. The administrative officers of public -instruction of all grades, including the minister, are appointed by -the National Council and are subject to its authority according to -such particular laws and regulations as the Congress may enact. This -substitution of a composite board for an individual as the fountainhead -of educational authority is an experiment whose operations will be -observed with much interest in a country of South America habituated by -tradition to authority concentrated in an individual. - - -ILLITERACY. - -_Instruction of adults and the night schools._--The problem of -combating illiteracy, as in all the more progressive South American -countries during the last biennium, has received more systematic -consideration than during any previous period.[2] As will be seen -later in the consideration of the rural schools, measures have been -taken which are of unusual importance for the instruction of youthful -illiterates. In the related field of instruction of adults who are -illiterates or nearly so, work of a creative nature has been done in -Uruguay. The mere statistics show progress, the courses offered for -adults in the year 1916-17 being 55 in excess of the former year and -the enrollment 5,284, an increase of 1,671 over that year; but the new -spirit animating this branch is the notable feature. The authorities -have kept it steadily in mind to carry adult education out from the -capital city to the rural districts; and the national authorities of -primary education have cooperated efficiently in lending schoolhouses -as places for adult instruction and encouraging primary teachers to -assist in this work. The Government has furthered the study of the -problem in the researches of Señor Hipolito Coirolo, director of the -largest night school for adults in Montevideo. Señor Coirolo spent -nearly two years in collecting systematic data from Argentina, Brazil, -Colombia, and Paraguay, which were naturally confronted by the same -problems in adult illiteracy. In March, 1917, he presented to the -authorities the results of his findings in a project for the organic -reform of instruction for adults in the night schools. Señor Coirolo -maintained that the time was ripe for progress in this field to keep -pace with the other educational demands, more especially as it was -admitted that the prevailing system was a more or less poorly made -combination of regulations and practices covering many localities and -periods, and had been only tentatively adopted by presidential decree -in 1903, and given legal existence in 1907, when 35 night schools -were organized. All familiar with conditions knew that they were now -completely out of touch with modern social and educational demands. - -[2] See executive message of May, 1917, accompanying project of law -for appropriation of $50,000 for appointment of 100 assistant primary -teachers for the Departments of the Republic. - -Señor Coirolo found the curriculum of night schools too largely -theoretical and bookish and in only a few instances offering practical -instruction. After careful study of the subjects offered in the night -schools of progressive countries, he urged that the night schools of -the future be organized upon the following main lines: - -1. The completion of 17 years of age requisite for admission. - -2. The division into three classes, each occupying a year according to -the degree of illiteracy, and the division of each class into three -cycles of three months each, the cycle to be the unit of time, without -limitation upon the transfer of pupils from one cycle to another. - -3. The subjects to be introduced in logical sequence and to be taught -in accordance with the development of the pupil and to consist of -reading, language work, writing, arithmetic, elements of applied -geometry, singing, drawing, moral instruction, elements of anatomy, -physiology, hygiene, civic instruction, geography, and history -(national and universal); talks and lessons on objects of daily -life, manual arts, domestic economy, and household arts; elements -of political economy, sociology, psychology, duties of parents, -accounting, and industrial training. Individual conferences with -teachers, reading, writing, and arithmetic are to be continued through -all three years; and each year is to close with a review and finishing -course, devoting attention to individual needs. - -4. Under the head of general administration the proponent urged the -elimination of religious instruction in night schools, less attention -to examinations for promotion, the prohibition of holding night -schools in buildings occupied by children during the day, and careful -inspection of night schools by appointed authorities. - -Certain of these provisions were embodied in a ministerial decree -of October, 1917, which stressed the importance of this branch of -education in the national life, and appropriated $10,000 for the -increase of the staff of teachers in commercial subjects and domestic -arts. - - -PRIMARY EDUCATION, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. - -In 1917 slightly less than 100,000 pupils were enrolled in the 1,014 -public primary schools of Uruguay, an increase of 2,500 over the -preceding year. Of these, nearly 65,000 were enrolled in the city of -Montevideo alone. - -In administration and inspection the authorities in this field were -active and progressive. Tentative reforms in the programs of study for -the schools of towns and villages, a step long urged by them, were -outlined by the minister of education; and wider latitude was allowed -such individual schools in the matter of adapting nature study and -practical courses to regular school work in accordance with local -conditions and occupations. This step was in keeping with the attention -paid to rural schools, which will be discussed later. - -By executive resolution of July, 1917, the long-discussed change in -the school year was made by which it shall hereafter open March 1 and -close December 15. As with the similar change in Argentina, beneficial -results, especially in the rural schools, are expected, as this -arrangement is in conformity with climatic conditions. The change was -made after investigation among the teaching force, and the country -teachers won a victory over their city fellows, who favored vacations -in the summer. This is but another and a significant effect of the -steady centripetal attraction of the overshadowing capital city, more -marked even in the new countries of South America than in the old -ones of Europe. The country teachers have openly expressed their wish -to spend the longest possible time in the capital, in spite of the -inconveniences of such a sojourn in the summer. A further light upon -the country teacher’s point of view is shown by the information that -the long vacations in winter permit the small landowner to employ his -children in labors of battage, which begin in December and last most -of the winter. The schools are therefore practically empty in winter. -It is manifestly wiser to put the former long vacation of July at this -time. - -Complaints having become more frequent in regard to the blocking -of educational administration in certain departments because of -disagreements among inspectors, more drastic requirements were laid -down by resolutions of the National Inspection of Primary Instruction, -dated February, 1917. The authority of the departmental inspector -over the subinspectors was confirmed; in the event of disagreement or -insubordination the departmental inspector was required to present -the case to the Department of National Inspection; the visitation -of schools was distributed as nearly equally as possible; and the -responsibility for inaction was put squarely upon the inspectors. - -These provisions, rigorous as they were, did not prove adequate, -and much of the business of the schools of the outlying departments -still remained blocked. The executive, therefore, in November, -1917, transmitted to the Congress, along with a message emphasizing -the necessity of the law, a project for the establishment of three -divisions of regional inspectors of primary education to exercise -general supervision over the departmental inspectors and the schools -of the Republic. These regional inspectors acting as a unit were to -constitute the technical inspection of the school authorities. Their -functions were to be regulated by the executive in accordance with -the reports of the national inspection and the general direction of -primary instruction. The hitherto existing chief inspectors, technical, -adjunct, and chief of statistics were to be transformed into regional -inspectors, and under their immediate supervision were to be put all -the departmental inspectors. The projected law encountered unexpected -opposition, and its passage has not as yet been secured. - -Scientific interest in the character of the textbooks adopted for use -in the primary schools of Uruguay has been aroused by the Government’s -offer of prizes for satisfactory textbooks and by the publication in -the Anales de Instruccion Primaria of illustrative lines and themes -of treatment. The general assembly has authorized the offer of $6,000 -in prizes in the contest for the composition of a book combining in a -single volume all the textbook material needed in the fourth, fifth, -and sixth classes in the public schools of Montevideo. This offer had -as its object to lower the cost of education and thus to facilitate -attendance, as the book in question was to be distributed gratuitously -in cases of need. - -A circular issued by the department of technical inspection in April, -1917, called the attention of teachers to the abuses of assigning -written home work and limited such tasks to 30 minutes in classes of -the first grade and to one hour for those in higher grades. - -By executive decree, school savings funds and a system of aid for -necessitous children, supplying clothing, midday meal, transportation, -and books, were established and placed in charge of the administrative -council for each department, composed of the departmental authorities -of primary education, and the civil authorities of the several -localities, presided over by the departmental inspectors. The funds for -the institution of this system were to be drawn from State subventions -to municipalities, school fees, and legacies and gifts to such objects. -Although the Congress in October, 1917, appropriated $30,000 to -organize the system, financial considerations have as yet prevented its -practical organization. - -_Private instruction._--For the first time in the history of Uruguay -systematic steps have been taken to ascertain the real nature and -aims of private instruction. By executive decree of May, 1917, the -inspector of private instruction and the assistant director general of -primary public instruction were directed to address to every private -educational institution in Uruguay a questionnaire in duplicate calling -for information concerning its teaching staff, the mental and physical -condition of its pupils, the hygienic conditions of the building and -site, classrooms, dormitories, playgrounds, source and nature of -drinking water, lighting conditions, school furniture and equipment, -programs of study, methods, textbooks, school hours, and the general -organization and administration of the school. No time limit was set -for the reply, but it was requested within a reasonable time. The gist -of the information gathered and the action of the Government have not -as yet been published. Such a move has naturally aroused opposition in -conservative and ecclesiastical circles, and its results are awaited -with keen interest by other South American countries which have to deal -with similar problems. - -The issues aroused by the consideration of the private schools -continued to grow more acute and culminated in the introduction of a -bill in the Congress in March, 1918, forbidding the opening of private -schools of any grade without the written permission of the inspectoral -department of private instruction or the departmental inspectors of -primary instruction; and requiring all teachers in private schools to -hold a State teacher’s diploma in accordance with the provisions of the -law of public instruction, and debarring the clergy from teaching in -any such private schools. The bill naturally became a storm center and -is as yet unenacted into law. - - -RURAL SCHOOLS. - -Until the breaking out of the World War, and the consequent upsetting -of traditions in all South American countries whose outlet is on the -Atlantic Ocean, educational thought in Uruguay concerned itself largely -with the capital city. In this respect, as in that of population (one -out of three people in Uruguay lives in Montevideo), the centralizing -tendency of South American countries is well illustrated. But a vital -change began to show itself from 1914 to 1916, and in the latter -year it acquired extraordinary impetus from the support of national -leaders and of the press. The nation has grown steadily to recognize -the proper balance to be observed between the claims of the schools of -the capital and those of the rural districts. It has come to see that -a healthy national life was possible only with organic changes in the -schools of the outlying departments, and that these of Montevideo could -without danger be left at their present status until the education of -the people from whom the great city was steadily recruited should be -attended to. It is in the light of this radical change in the national -attitude that the educational history of Uruguay for the last biennium -should be read. - -This epoch in educational progress has been further marked by the -recognition of the need of financial support for rural education, and -the further need of differentiating the subjects of instruction proper -for rural children from those adapted to the city. In getting this -principle clearly before the public mind, the educational authorities -of Uruguay have played a part excelled in few countries for skill and -devotion to the national interests. Mention should be made of the able -contributions of Señor A. J. Pérez, National Inspector of Primary -Education, especially of his study entitled “De la cultura necessaria -en la democracia” (Anales, 1918), which applies to modern conditions De -Tocqueville’s main lines of thought. - -A commission of nine experienced teachers, six men and three women, -with Señor Pérez as chairman, was appointed by executive decree to -formulate the program of study for the projected rural schools. -It began its sessions in February, 1917, and met frequently for -two months. Its report was presented in May, 1917. Approved by the -executive in June, by decree it went into effect on March 1, 1918. The -main contentions of the commission in support of its plan are well -worthy of notice: - -1. Far-reaching changes within a generation in the commercial and -industrial life of the nation have affected the rural districts and -have called for different subjects and methods of instruction for the -children of these districts. The rural school of the future must be -recognized as fundamentally an elementary industrial school adjusted to -local conditions. - -2. The successful rural school must have the following aims: To -inculcate conscientious and efficient labor; to minister to a -well-regulated and happy home life; to diffuse the knowledge of private -and public hygiene, and to further the increase of population and -public wealth and, in general, the possession of a well-founded and -enduring popular liberty. - -3. The intimate relation of the rural schools with the problems of home -life requires the new rural school to be taught by women, and therefore -the training of young women as teachers in such schools should be at -once initiated and continued as the basis of their success. Concrete -illustration is found in the successful intensive training of 24 young -women in a course of six weeks at the normal institute at Montevideo in -the summer of 1917. - -4. In the administrative organization the committee was guided by the -following general principles: (_a_) Not to install rural schools by -foundation or transfer except in localities where donations of ground -of not less than 4 hectares (10 acres) should be immediately available; -(_b_) to urge similar donations, public or private, to existing rural -schools which lacked grounds of the minimum area above indicated; -(_c_) to propose and encourage the transfer of rural schools that -had no grounds annexed nor could obtain such by donation to another -parish where such advantages could be obtained without prejudice to the -interests of the rural schools in the district. - -5. No child below 7 years of age should be admitted to the rural -schools. - -6. The programs of study for the rural schools occupied the greater -part of the commission’s time. The subjects of instruction as reported -covered three years, and were reading, language work, writing, -arithmetic, drawing, agriculture, domestic economy, elements of applied -geometry, geography and history (local, national, and universal), -singing, and gymnastics. In the view of the commission itself, the -feature which peculiarly differentiates these new programs is the -complete application of practical methods and aims to each of these -subjects, the elimination of abstract and memory teaching, and, above -all, the development of the subjects of drawing, agriculture, and -domestic economy. The fundamental aim throughout was to correlate -instruction with the conditions and occupations of life in the several -communities and to lead the pupil to see each subject as related to -practical utility. - -Following the promulgation of the report of the commission, lively -interest was manifested by the nation at large in the initiation of -such rural schools. Practical difficulties, however, were foreseen in -securing funds for their launching upon the nation-wide scale hoped -for, and restlessness in certain quarters was manifested, though the -Chamber of Deputies promptly voted the funds necessary. The National -Rural Congress of Uruguay, in session in August, 1917, addressed to -the minister of public instruction an urgent plea for carrying out the -terms of the report in time for the opening of at least a part of such -schools with the new school year. - - -MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS. - -The medical inspection of schools has been favorably regarded in -Uruguay for a number of years. It was initiated by law in 1913 with -the examination of the pupils of the normal schools in Montevideo and -the division of urban and rural schools into five groups. Since then -popular approval of its application to the schools of the nation has -steadily grown. - -Under the present law individual inspection of the physical condition -of pupils concerns itself only with those who enter for the first time. -Naturally the law is applied with varying degrees of rigor, the schools -of the capital being visited regularly by the medical inspectors, while -those of the outlying departments are dependent upon the energy and -faithfulness of the individual inspector. The law assigns to each a -certain number of schools to visit. Capable medical inspectors have -served their nation well in pointing out the grave disadvantages from -the use of primary schools for night schools for adults, especially the -danger of tuberculosis. - -Medical inspectors are also required by law to include in their -tri-monthly reports recommendations for repairs, alterations, etc., -of school buildings and grounds called for by sanitary or hygienic -considerations. - -Dental inspection has also been systematically carried on in most of -the schools of the capital, the reports of oral and dental affections -observed in the children reaching 76 per cent of the total ailments -noted. Ocular inspection in the schools of Montevideo has also been -made a separate field within the last biennium. - -By an amendment of 1916 to the existing law an annual physical -examination of teachers in the schools of Montevideo will be required. -This was naturally, and in certain instances bitterly, opposed; but the -opposition has largely died down, and the teachers themselves have come -to realize the benefits involved. - - -PHYSICAL TRAINING. - -In accordance with the wish of educational officials to diffuse among -the schools of Uruguay the benefits of international progress in the -physical betterment of school children, a commission was named by the -executive in April, 1916, to draw up a plan of physical education -in schools. This commission, acting in cooperation with the general -direction of primary instruction, recommended to the executive the -appointment of a permanent technical commission of physical training -for schools, and this recommendation was approved by executive decree -of March 8, 1918. The commission so appointed was to consist of a -member of the general direction of primary instruction, one of the -national commission of physical education, a physician of the medical -school staff, a physician to be named by the National Council of -Hygiene, the technical inspector of primary education, the technical -director of the National Commission of Physical Education, the teachers -of gymnastics of the normal institutes and of the primary schools of -the capital, and two physicians who were specialists in diseases of -children. - -The province of the commission was to draw up for the general direction -of primary instruction programs of physical exercises for schools; to -outline methods of instruction; to see that these programs and methods -were practically carried out in the public schools, to inform the -school authorities upon points of deficiency in instruction and to -indicate measures of correcting these; to organize gymnastic meetings -and exhibitions for schools, and in general to promote the diffusion of -physical education in the schools. - -In furtherance of the awakened national interest in physical education, -the executive has appointed departmental commissions in various -departments for the immediate provision of adequate playgrounds and -the acquisition of apparatus for games to be installed in town and -village plazas. These have cooperated with the National Commission -for Physical Education, the latter having decreed the establishment, -upon application of residents, of neighborhood and community playing -centers. All games, especially those of North America, which are -adapted to the climate and environment have been systematically -encouraged. In localities where it was required by law the executive -has authorized the municipal authorities, with the consent of the -national commission, to negotiate such loans as were necessary for the -financial carrying out of this nation-wide scheme. These are steps of -very great significance in a country of South America not by tradition -or racial inheritance addicted to outdoor sports. - - -SECONDARY EDUCATION. - -By executive message of February 14, 1918, the work of certain of -the departmental liceos in discovering boys of talent in the higher -elementary schools who were without means of continuing their -education, and giving them opportunities to pursue their studies by -means of a system of scholarships, was highly commended, especially -as a beginning of bridging the chasm between elementary and secondary -education. - -In response to popular demand, courses in Italian and Portuguese were -incorporated by decree of the secondary education division of public -instruction in 1917. With the object of making known to teachers -in secondary education the international progress in this field, a -journal entitled “Revista de Enseñanza Secundaria” was established by -executive decree under the direction of the secretary of this division. -All reports and public business concerning this division are to be -published in this journal. - -By executive decree of November, 1917, all courses for the training of -primary-school teachers maintained since April, 1916, in the liceos of -the outlying departments were discontinued. They had been originally -instituted by way of experiment for supplying teachers for the rural -schools, and were not regarded as serving this purpose. Furthermore, in -view of the agitation for improved rural schools, it was regarded as -useless to continue a system of training which had proved, because of -its environment, impracticable to harmonize with modern schools. - - -COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. - -The past biennium has seen a considerable development of interest -in commercial education. By executive recommendation and by law of -January, 1916, there were introduced in the liceos and national schools -of commerce in the capital and three of the larger cities courses of -varying length for the training of boys for the consular, diplomatic, -and foreign agency services. By ministerial decree of April, 1917, -there were incorporated in the national schools of commerce courses -in civil and commercial law, American history, and advanced courses -in accounting and bookkeeping; and legal permission was given the -individual school to extend the latter courses into the fifth year -wherever deemed suitable. In common with students finishing the courses -in the liceos, those from national school of commerce were granted -opportunity to compete for scholarships abroad offered by decree of -January, 1918. These scholarships are good for one or more years -according to the success of the holder, and are apportioned among the -departments according to the discretion of the council of secondary -and preparatory education. Among the usual scholastic requirements -called for are periodical reports from the holder of such a scholarship -concerning the social and economic conditions of the people among whom -he has been sent to study. - -Following the plan drawn up at Montevideo in the summer of 1918 -by governmental and educational representatives from most of the -South American countries, invitations were sent to all interested -in commercial education to attend the South American Congress of -Commercial Education to be held in that city in January-February, -1919. The best talent in this division of education was assigned the -discussion of topics which were considered as most urgent at the -present time. They were treated under two main heads, those of (_a_) -economic commercial expansion and (_b_) commercial instruction. The -former head, not being essentially educational, calls for no notice -here. The latter included the following topics: - -1. From what points, how, and by what means commercial education should -be developed on the American continent; extent and sub-division of such -instruction. - -2. Means of stimulating acquaintance among the peoples of the Americas. - -3. The centers of commercial education as professional schools, and as -institutions of modern culture. - -4. Should courses in business ethics be included in the curriculum of -the advanced classes? Morale, character, and culture of students of -commerce and of consular service. - -5. Universal history of commerce as an indispensable element in the -training of competent consuls. - -6. Are screen films necessary in giving instruction in commerce and -geography? - -7. Countinghouse practice. - -8. How should commerce be taught? - -9. Teaching of languages in the centers of commercial education. - -10. Preparation of women for a commercial career. - -Among the resolutions officially adopted by the congress which had -educational bearing were those recommending that-- - -(_a_) Institutes or sections of economic expansion in faculties -of economic science, schools, and higher centers of economic and -commercial study be established which should devote themselves -especially to the study and practical solution of the various economic -questions affecting inter-American relations and solidarity. - -(_b_) For social and economic ends American countries create and aid -industrial schools for fisheries and derived industries. - -(_c_) Propaganda primers be prepared for exchange among the public -schools of the (South) American Continent. - -(_d_) There be included in programs of higher commercial study courses -of comparative American economy and comparative customs legislation -(the latter for consular courses), and that existing seminaries of -economic investigation or higher commerce schools write the economic -and financial history of their respective countries. - -(_e_) The interchange of professors and students between the higher -institutions of commercial learning be initiated. - -(_f_) International agreements be concluded for the reciprocal -recognition of degrees issued by institutions of commercial learning -and that scholarships be granted for the interchange of students. - -(_g_) The compilation of legislation of American countries concerning -commercial education be intrusted to the permanent commission created -by the congress. The commission will be assisted in this work by a -committee of professors and experts in commercial education and will -be charged with proposing plans and curricula in accordance with the -following: Commercial instruction, which presupposes primary education, -to be divided into three categories--(_a_) Elementary instruction, -which may be dependent or independent; (_b_) secondary instruction; -(_c_) higher instruction. The purpose of these branches is: (_a_) -To train auxiliaries of commerce; (_b_) to prepare for commerce in -general; (_c_) to furnish economic, financial, and commercial knowledge -preparing for directive functions in commerce and industry, insurance -and consular work, etc. - -(_h_) Preliminary cultural studies of two grades be established, one -confined to the first and second categories of commercial instruction, -and the second for broader instruction in the third category. - -(_i_) The study of the proposal of the National Institute of Commerce -of La Paz, Bolivia, concerning education of women be referred to the -permanent commission. - -(_k_) Higher institutions of commercial education establish, if not -already existing, in their curricula the separation of commercial from -economic geography, the study of commercial geography to begin in -primary schools, with periodical competitions for the preparation of -the best commercial and economic geographies of each country and the -exchange of prize works be arranged for. - -(_l_) Institutions of bibliography and information be established, -independent of or annexed to seminaries or institutes, for -investigation existing or to be founded in America, and providing for -the widest exchange of economic, financial, and commercial information -collected. - -(_m_) The practice of the professions receiving diplomas from higher -institutions of commercial learning in commercial, civil, and -administrative matters be legally recognized. - -(_n_) An extraordinary prize to be known as the Pablo Fontaina Prize -for Commercial Studies be offered for students of higher institutions -of commercial learning. (Sr. Pablo Fontaina is director of the Superior -School of Commerce of Montevideo and played a prominent part in the -organization and work of the congress.) - -(_o_) Entrance into consular and diplomatic services be granted by -competitive examination or to candidates presenting degrees issued by -official institutions of higher commercial learning. - -(_p_) Courses of ethics in preparatory studies and lectures on -commercial ethics in higher institutions of commercial learning -delivered by distinguished professional men be established. - - -TRAINING OF TEACHERS. - -Uruguay has always been progressive in this field. In 1914 Señorita -Leonor Hourticou, the directress of the Normal Institute for Girls, -submitted to the national inspector of primary instruction a -far-reaching and systematic plan of reform in the aims and methods of -practice teaching. She urged the establishment of a general directorate -of teachers’ practice training, composed of directors of normal -institutes and the national technical inspector of schools, which -body was to operate through a salaried secretary. Practice teaching -for the first grade was to be required for one year with a minimum of -160 sessions and for the second year for at least three months with a -minimum number of 60 sessions. Twelve schools for practice teaching -were to be established at Montevideo. Local inspectors were to be -appointed by the general directorate. While this scheme was not enacted -into law, yet it had very great value in focusing the attention of the -educational authorities upon the practical problem of reorganizing -practice teaching. - -These recommendations were allowed to lapse; but along with the -demand for improved schools went a similar one for the improvement of -the schools in towns and villages. In 1916 a committee of which the -directress of the Normal Institute for Girls was chairman was appointed -to formulate a training course for nonrural teachers which should be in -keeping with the recognized needs of modern schools. In October, 1916, -it presented as its report an outline of studies recommended to be -incorporated in the three years’ training course for primary teachers. - -Taking up for the present only the teachers of the first and second -grades, the committee recommended the following courses: Arithmetic, -accounting, algebra, applied geometry, penmanship and drawing, -elements of biology, zoology, botany, mineralogy and geology, anatomy, -physiology and hygiene, physics and chemistry, studies in industries, -geography and cosmography, history (national, South American, and -universal), constitutional law, sociology and political economy, -literature and composition, French, philosophy, and pedagogy with -practice teaching. By the approval of the executive these courses were -to go into effect in September, 1917. - -_Training of rural teachers._--The movement to improve the conditions -of rural life which has been mentioned before began in earnest in -1914. In that year a report based upon an intensive study of the -social and economic needs of the rural districts was presented to the -general direction of primary instruction by a committee of teachers -especially appointed for that purpose. Though no official action was -taken at the time, the ventilation of the subject was very opportune -and aroused public interest in a field so vital to the welfare of -the nation. In every phase of rural education, and especially in the -training of the teachers required, practical reforms were recognized -as urgently necessary. From the strictly pedagogical point of view, -the projects for teacher training as laid down in that report were of -supreme interest, as constituting the basis upon which all subsequent -suggestions have rested. They called for the establishment of a normal -school exclusively for women rural teachers, which was preferably to -be located either within the capital city or within easy access of it. -This school was to work along the three main lines of agriculture, -horticulture, and domestic science. For admission there was to be -required, in addition to the usual certificates of mental, moral, and -physical fitness, the certificate of completion of at least the third -year of the program of the rural schools. - -The courses were to cover at least two years, preferably three, with -provision for four-year courses for pupils aspiring to the post of -rural inspectors, an aspiration which was encouraged in the report. -Only two or three scholarships were to be offered in each department, -and the number of pupils was to be restricted to 50 for the first -year. No purely theoretical instruction whatsoever was to be allowed. -Increasingly specialized work in the practice school annexed was to be -required of every pupil each year. For the last two years the work of -practice teaching was to be so arranged as to alternate by semesters -with the classroom work assigned. The latter, toward the end of each -semester, was to review all the work from the beginning. - -The projected institute was to be provided with all grounds, buildings, -and equipment necessary for the teaching of every phase of rural life, -including the care of fowls and cattle, with library and laboratories, -with a modern gymnasium, with a hall for the teaching of the fine arts, -and, most important of all, with a mixed practice school under the -direction of the authorities of the institute, consisting of at least -three grades and preferably four. - -Summer courses for teachers, both men and women, were to be offered, -emphasizing practical work in all courses related to rural life. -Traveling schools of agriculture were outlined to appeal especially -to youths of years beyond the rural school age and already engaged in -farming, each class to have not less than 8 pupils and not more than -15, and to continue for periods ranging from one week to two months -according to the demand in each locality. These traveling schools were -to be organized for the same unit of territory as the rural schools -already in existence. Each course was to be arranged in cycles as -follows: (1) Three years’ course in dairying; (2) four years’ course in -domestic science; (3) three years’ course for rural teachers, men and -women. Suitable certificates were to be awarded students satisfactorily -completing these courses. - -As regards the courses in rural schools, the committee found that the -advantages accruing did not justify instructing pupils below 8 years -of age in formal agriculture, satisfactory progress being made if the -pupil was awakened to a love of nature and an interest in the life of -the farm. Pupils above 8 were to be instructed in agricultural courses -progressively adapted to their maturity and to the peculiar conditions -of locality, soil, and climate. - -As regards courses in domestic science, though the subject does -not permit of a sharp age line of cleavage, yet the youngest girls -might most profitably be given the elements, while the older girls -might, in the discretion of trained teachers, take up the formal and -technical study of food values in connection with elementary chemistry, -physiology, and biology. - -Anticipating the establishment of the normal schools for the exclusive -training of teachers for the projected rural schools, the executive -in November, 1917, sent to the Congress, along with the accompanying -message, the project of a law for establishing two normal schools of -agriculture in the Departments of Colonia and San Jose. These schools -were intended to minister to the special need of these outlying -departments. Their courses were to be intensive in character, adapted -especially to the training of teachers for these localities, and to -cover a year. Indeed, the bill specifically mentioned their purposes as -intimately related with the forthcoming rural schools. The bill at once -became a law, and the schools were to begin operation in March, 1918. - - -HIGHER EDUCATION. - -In the field of university education no changes, administrative or -instructional, are recorded for the past biennium; but there has been -a certain amount of dissatisfaction with the administrative government -of the University of Montevideo. In September, 1918, the executive sent -to the Congress, along with an accompanying message, the project of -a law clearly defining the constitution of the directive councils of -the several faculties of the University of Montevideo as established -by the laws of 1908 and 1915. Contention had arisen as to the right -of electing representatives to each of these councils. By the new law -each such council was to have 10 members and a dean. In the faculty -of law four of these were to be elected by the attorneys who were also -professors; four attorneys to be selected by those neither professors -nor substitutes; one minor attorney by those neither professors nor -substitutes; one student delegate by the students themselves. - -In the faculty of medicine four members were to be elected by the -professors, substitutes, and chiefs of clinics and laboratories; three -members to be elected by the physicians not embraced in the above -categories; one member to be elected by the pharmacists; and one by the -dentists not included in the categories above; one member to be elected -by the students of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry. - -In the faculty of engineering four members were to be elected by -the professors and substitutes; three members to be elected by the -engineers; and two by the surveyors who were neither professors nor -substitutes; one member to be elected by the students of engineering -and surveying. - -In the faculty of architecture five members were to be elected by the -professors and substitutes; four members to be elected by architects -who were neither professors nor substitutes; one member to be elected -by the students of architecture. - -By decrees of 1917 enacted into law, seven years of advanced courses -were required for the degree of doctor of medicine and five years -for the degree of architect. Special courses of one and two years in -construction and materials, leading to certificates but not to degrees, -were formulated and allowed by the ministry of public instruction. - -In pursuance of the policy of exchanging professors between the various -countries of South America formulated at the Pan American Conference -held at Buenos Aires in 1910, special exchange was arranged with Chile -in 1916. - - - - -EDUCATION IN VENEZUELA. - -Primary education in Venezuela, during the biennium under -consideration, has enlisted the practical interest of the National -Government as never before. This has taken shape primarily in the two -fundamental administrative decrees of the Provisional President, Dr. -Bustillos. The first, issued in February, 1917, outlines the general -requirements laid down in the organic law of public instruction under -certain regulations for primary public schools. These are divided -into three main heads: (_a_) The primary elementary schools, in which -only those subjects belonging to compulsory primary instruction are -taught; (_b_) higher primary schools, in which are taught the subjects -belonging to higher primary instruction; (_c_) complete primary -schools, in which instruction is given in both the above divisions at -once. - -The decree requires that each school be equipped with all modern -appliances for the physical well-being of the pupils. Children are not -admitted below 7 years of age; only those below 7 years are admitted -to the mothers’ schools or the kindergartens; only those above 14 are -admitted to the schools for adults. - -The subjects required in the elementary primary schools are: Reading, -writing, and elements of Spanish; elements of arithmetic and the metric -system; rudiments of geography and history of Venezuela; rudiments of -ethics and civic instruction; rudiments of behavior and hygiene; the -national hymn and school songs; the first elements of manual arts, and, -for girls, of sewing. - -In the higher primary schools are taught the following: Elements of -Spanish grammar, elementary arithmetic, metric system, geography and -history of Venezuela, elements of universal geography and history, -elementary science, ethical and civic instruction, behavior and -elementary hygiene, elements of drawing and music, manual arts and -elements of agriculture and cattle raising for boys, sewing and -domestic economy for girls, gymnastic exercises. - -Religious instruction is imparted to pupils whose parents or guardians -require it, provided that the number of such be at least 10. The -celebration of school festivals as required by law, the establishment -of libraries in each school accessible to both pupils and teachers, and -the keeping of books and registers by teachers and directors are among -the general provisions emphasized in the regulations. - -The second decree, issued by the Provisional President in July, 1917, -sets forth the regulations for the official inspection of public -instruction. It expressly concerns the following schools: - -1. Those maintained or aided by the Federal Union. - -2. Those of primary, secondary, and normal instruction, maintained or -aided by the States or by the municipalities. - -3. Public and private schools satisfying legal requirements of good -conduct and school hygiene. - -The official inspection of schools has its ultimate authority vested in -the following grades of functionaries: - -1. Committees (juntas) constituted by law in localities maintaining a -school. - -2. Technical inspectors of primary, secondary, and normal instruction -for the Federal District and the States of the Union. - -3. A superintendent for the Federal District. - -4. Inspectors necessary for the operation of higher and special -instruction. - -5. Commissioners appointed for special educational cases. - -The duties and responsibilities imposed by law upon the juntas of -primary instruction are detailed at greatest length, as upon them -rests the proper execution of the law and the success of the entire -system. Most important of all these duties are those pertaining to the -enforcement of compulsory primary instruction. The juntas are required -to keep themselves informed of the primary instruction imparted to all -children of school age in their district, whether in schools public or -private or at home; to require all parents and guardians of children -of school age to have such children instructed as required by law; -to keep themselves informed of the progress of all such children; to -impose fines as required by law upon all parents or guardians who -neglect the instruction of children; to see that the children admitted -to schools of all grades conform in age, state of health, etc., to -the requirements of the law; to visit the schools in their district -frequently and regularly; and to keep registers of all facts pertaining -to the attendance upon such schools. - -The duties and responsibilities of the inspectoral juntas of secondary -instruction and those of normal instruction are full and exacting and -along the lines already laid down. - -The technical inspectors as a group have charge of all three grades -of instruction, each in the district assigned to him. As fixed by -ministerial decree, there are 10 of these, excluding the superintendent -for the Federal District. These functionaries are the direct agents -of the ministry of public instruction, and form the connecting link -between that office and the local juntas. They are vested with complete -power to compel the execution of the law by the local juntas under -penalties prescribed by law. They are instructed to work in complete -harmony with the juntas, to call meetings, and to outline to them their -duties under the law. They are also required to instruct teachers in -their duties. In short, the inspectors are the element upon which the -successful working of the machinery of the regulations depends. - -The superintendent of public instruction in the Federal District is -directly under the authority of the minister of education. - -The inspectors of higher and special instruction have duties and -responsibilities analogous to those of the inspectors already -mentioned, though these, for obvious reasons, are not outlined at such -length. - -In the field of primary instruction the interest aroused in rural -schools has been the most marked feature in the past biennium. -The ministry of public instruction has paid special attention to -the project of establishing rural schools, fixed or traveling, in -the vicinity of the main manufacturing, industrial, or commercial -centers of the country, and the President by decree of July, 1917, -in commending the project, urged upon the juntas wherever possible -to develop this type of schools. Especially in the agricultural or -cattle-raising sections was the project received with enthusiasm, -applying, as it did, directly to the problems of illiteracy and the -training of the country population in practical subjects related to -daily life. By special decree the President urged the introduction -of elementary courses in agriculture in the established schedule of -studies. - -Among the States which definitely established such schools the State -of Trujillo, fourth in population, took the lead by establishing 14, -with predominant emphasis upon practical courses in agriculture and -related subjects. Such schools began at once to serve as centers for -the instruction not only of the children of school age but of the -population generally in new methods, the use of machines, cooperative -societies, etc. Similarly in sections devoted to cattle raising they -were centers of inspiration and instruction in related subjects. - -During the last biennium the industrial plants located in the centers -of Venezuela have established primary schools for the children of -their operatives, with the approval of the authorities, State and -municipal. The minister of public instruction, in his memoria for -1918, urge upon the Congress the passage of a law recognizing the work -of these schools, arranging for their inspection by the governmental -technical inspectors and the classification and certification of -pupils completing the courses offered in them. Such schools have also -done much in combating the illiteracy among adults by means of night -schools, and they have in many places, by employing excellent teachers, -served the very useful purpose of raising the standard of requirement -in various districts for the public schools, State or municipal. - -Secondary education in Venezuela, according to the memoria referred to, -suffers much from the insufficiency and irregularity of the revenues -devoted to it, with the consequent inefficient equipment for modern and -scientific subjects and the inadequate salaries of the teachers. On the -pedagogical side the memoria found the effects experienced by secondary -education from the mechanical and memory instruction, too largely -prevalent in primary education, a permanent obstacle to any hope of -real reform in secondary education. - -The colegios, a type of secondary school peculiar to the -Spanish-American countries, of grade preparatory to the liceos, seem -to be disappearing from Venezuelan education. There are now left -only 13 Federal colegios, all the others maintained by the States -and municipalities having lapsed. The explanation probably lies in -the exaggerated theoretical instruction they offered and its lack of -adaptation to the actual needs of the nation. A number of them occupied -buildings of some size and pretension, and the minister in his last -memoria suggested that the vocational and industrial schools needed in -the educational system might well be installed in these buildings. - -Interest in the education of girls has made progress in Venezuela, -an especially promising liceo for girls having been established at -Caracas, offering advanced courses covering two years, with special -attention to physical training and modern subjects. - -Education in arts and crafts for men has long been popular in -Venezuela, perhaps largely because of the national talent in those -subjects. The school at Caracas, established in 1916, offers a -four-year course, with English as the only foreign language. Within two -years it reached an enrollment of 288 in the regular classes and 213 in -the night courses. - -Commercial education and training in political science courses have -grown in popularity during the last biennium. Schools of the former -have been established at Caracas, Maracaibo, Ciudad Bolívar, and Puerto -Cabello; and of the latter, at Caracas, subsidized by the Government -and regarded as an important adjunct in training for the legal -profession. - -In the field of the primary normal schools, the ministry has seen the -necessity of their serving more largely the educational needs of the -nation by supplying more and better teachers to the schools. It is, -therefore, proposed to revise them thoroughly, especially in regard to -the chief defect observed since their establishment, namely, the poor -preparation of students who enter. It is proposed to offer, preparatory -to the normal school proper, a perfecting course in essentials -covering two or three years, to which would be added French, drawing, -gymnastics, and music. Such a course would preferably be offered in -the higher primary schools. The pupil should then proceed to the -specialized subjects of pedagogy, methodology, psychology, and the -history of education, these subjects to cover one year. - -Another serious problem is the great difficulty experienced in securing -suitable candidates for the scholarships offered in the primary normal -schools by the several States and Territories. In many of them the -memoria reports that the appointments had to lapse in view of the -fact that no candidates qualified for them. The minister therefore -suggested that a system of boarding departments, annexed to the normal -schools, each accommodating about 20 boys of 10 to 13 years, should be -established as feeders to the normal school system. - -By presidential decree, dated July, 1917, special courses in practical -agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, and domestic sciences were -established in the primary normal schools, with the view of especially -equipping teachers for the rural schools, whose establishment has come -to be regarded as so necessary for the nation. - -By presidential decree of March, 1917, an experimental station -of agriculture and forestry, with an acclimatization garden, was -established near Caracas. It is intended to serve as a model for other -such stations in other parts of the country. “The objects of the -station are the improvement of the methods of cultivation of the chief -agricultural products of Venezuela; the introduction, selection, and -distribution of seeds; experiments in reforestation; the suitability of -soils to crops and of crops to various regions; and practical work for -the training of agricultural foremen and forest rangers.” - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -Page 6: “Quezaltenango” changed to “Quetzaltenango” - -Page 13: “themselves especialy” changed to “themselves especially” -“educationaly advanced” changed to “educationally advanced” - -Page 21: “original justfication” changed to “original justification” A -repeated “the” was removed. - -Page 22; “The Goverment” changed to “The Government” - -Page 29: “Artice 1.” changed to “Article 1.” - -Page 31: The original text skips from Article 19 to Article 24. -Articles 20-23 appear to have been omitted. - -Page 45: “longest posisble” changed to “longest possible” - -Page 46: “several localties” changed to “several localities” - -Page 49: “schools of Montevido” changed to “schools of Montevideo” -“hygenic considerations” changed to “hygienic considerations” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL -PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Montgomery—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - Text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; -} - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 5%; -} - - -.bb {border-bottom: 2px solid;} - -.bt {border-top: 2px double;} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} - -.right {text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} -.w10 {width: 10%;} -.x-ebookmaker .w10 {width: 13%;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -/* Footnotes */ - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.big {font-size: 1.2em;} -.small {font-size: 0.8em;} - -abbr[title] { - text-decoration: none; -} - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Some phases of educational progress in Latin America, by Walter A. Montgomery</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Some phases of educational progress in Latin America</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Walter A. Montgomery</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 8, 2022 [eBook #68716]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICA ***</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - - - - - - -<p class="center bt big">DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR</p> - -<p class="center bb">BUREAU OF EDUCATION</p> - -<p class="center big p2">BULLETIN, 1919, <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 59</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<h1>SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS <br />IN LATIN AMERICA</h1> - -<p class="center small p2">By</p> - -<p class="center">WALTER A. MONTGOMERY</p> - -<p class="center small">SPECIALIST IN FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS<br /> -BUREAU OF EDUCATION</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center small">[Advance Sheets from the Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918]</p> - -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img001"> - <img src="images/001.jpg" class="w10" alt="DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="center p4 bt small">WASHINGTON<br /> -GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> -1920<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - - - -<p class="center p2 small"> -<span class="big">ADDITIONAL COPIES</span><br /> -OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS<br /> -GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> -WASHINGTON, D. C.<br /> -AT<br /> -<span class="big">10 CENTS PER COPY</span><br /> -</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SOME_PHASES_OF_EDUCATIONAL_PROGRESS_IN_LATIN_AMERICA">SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICA.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Walter A. Montgomery</span>,</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Specialist in Foreign Educational Systems, Bureau of Education</i>.</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>—<a href="#PRACTICAL_EDUCATION_IN_CENTRAL_AMERICA">Central America: Practical education</a>; <a href="#GUATEMALA">Guatemala</a>; -<a href="#SALVADOR">Salvador</a>; <a href="#HONDURAS">Honduras</a>; <a href="#COSTA_RICA">Costa Rica</a>; <a href="#NICARAGUA">Nicaragua</a>; <a href="#PANAMA">Panama</a>—<a href="#NEW_SCHOOL_REGULATIONS_IN_BRITISH_GUIANA">British Guiana: -New school regulation</a>—<a href="#ARGENTINA">Argentina: Preliminary</a>; illiteracy; report of -National Council of Education; progress of education in the Provinces; -changes under the projected law of 1918; secondary education; -technical education; normal-school training; higher education—<a href="#VOCATIONAL_EDUCATION_IN_BRAZIL">Brazil: -Vocational education</a>—<a href="#EDUCATION_IN_CHILE">Chile: Preliminary</a>; illiteracy; primary -education; secondary education; training of teachers; technical -education—<a href="#EDUCATION_IN_URUGUAY">Uruguay: General introduction</a>; primary education, public -and private; rural schools; medical inspection of schools; secondary -education; commercial education; training of teachers; higher -education—<a href="#EDUCATION_IN_VENEZUELA">Venezuela</a>.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PRACTICAL_EDUCATION_IN_CENTRAL_AMERICA">PRACTICAL EDUCATION IN CENTRAL AMERICA.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>One of the most interesting aspects of the school situation in Central -America and Panama is the important position occupied by commercial -and industrial education in the courses of study of many institutions. -Public men and teachers in Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, -Costa Rica, and Panama have taken into account the need of offering to -the new generation an education which shall be completely practical, -with the purpose of turning the thoughts and energies of all the youth -to fruitful service of their country.</p> - -<p>The teaching of arts and crafts, as well as that of commerce and -agriculture, was formerly not begun, as in the United States, upon the -student’s entering the secondary school, though there has for some time -been a movement to make such instruction a part of the work of the -advanced classes in the primary schools, to be continued in the liceo -and the normal schools.</p> - -<p>This universal interest in practical lines of education is a striking -indication of the influences and tendencies now at work in Central -America. In the different countries included under this designation -there are schools and academies, workshops and laboratories, intended -for the practical education of the student body. When it is remembered -that the introduction of practical and industrial education in the -school régime of Central America is a matter of the past few years, -the progress realized is regarded as highly satisfactory. The rapid -increase of the commerce of Central America, the improvement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> in -the means of intercommunication, the travels of its people abroad, -the influence of foreign elements in its territory, and the various -interests thus awakened have aroused in the interior of the Republics -composing it the belief that national greatness in modern times must -rest upon economic and industrial foundations. The influx of foreign -capital and the consequent establishment of powerful industrial -enterprises have likewise emphasized the necessity of training men -for work in such enterprises. The introduction of modern machinery, -the increase of the different forms of the application of steam, the -adoption of the inventions intended to gather up the results of labor, -and numerous similar influences have given rise to a tremendous demand -in this part of the continent for skilled and reliable mechanics. -Central America has thus addressed itself with enthusiasm to the task -of training the children of its schools for the activities of the -present day.</p> - -<p>The capitals, other important cities, and even many small towns -have schools devoted to practical education, generally provided -with buildings and equipment well adapted to this end. Honduras, -for example, has founded a school for scientific instruction in the -cultivation and preparation of tobacco and for the manufacture of -cigars and cigarettes in the tobacco district around Danli. In several -Provinces of the same Republic, and in Panama, where agriculture is -subordinate, the Governments have founded schools for training pupils -to weave hats and other objects.</p> - -<p>The more generalized industrial schools are those of arts and crafts -and the so-called practical schools for boys. Their organization -presents marked differences. In some of the countries named there exist -schools that receive pupils either as full or half time boarders, -and offer night courses as the situation demands. In all these -instruction is free. The Government generally offers a certain number -of scholarships in the boarding schools for pupils approved by the -different Departments or Provinces of the country. Tools, instruments, -and supplies used in the schools are provided by the Government. In -return the school exacts of such students certain services and thereby -carries out certain work that represents a partial reimbursement for -the amount spent upon their maintenance. This is the case with the -schools of arts and crafts in Honduras and Panama. Some small schools -of this class are maintained by means of the labor they carry on for -private individuals and by the sale of the products they turn out.</p> - -<p>These industrial schools are generally of two kinds: (1) Those in which -the training in commercial subjects and in arts and crafts constitutes -part of the regular course of study and (2) those devoted exclusively -to the teaching of arts and crafts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> - -<p>(1) In those of the first class the pupils study the ordinary subjects -prescribed by the department of public instruction and devote only -several hours weekly to arts and crafts. This class in its turn -includes two groups of institutions. To be admitted to those of the -first group the pupils must know how to read and write and apply -the elementary rules of arithmetic. During the entire school year -instruction is given in Spanish, geography, history, and arithmetic. -The practical schools for girls and boys are generally of this kind, -being especially numerous in Guatemala and Honduras. The schools -conducted by the Christian Brothers in Nicaragua are also of this -type. The duration of studies is from three to five years, a half -day being devoted to the classes in the ordinary subjects of primary -education and the other half to practical work. In the second group -are comprised various institutions which require certificates from the -higher elementary schools, such as the liceo and the higher colegio for -women in Costa Rica, the National Institute in Salvador, the Central -National Institute for Boys in Guatemala, and the normal schools in -these countries and in Honduras.</p> - -<p>(2) Of the special institutions which constitute the second category, -there are to be noted two prominent instances in the schools of arts -and crafts in Panama and in Honduras. In organization and purposes they -are schools of mechanical arts, and not schools of manual training. -Their workshops have not been established to impart general notions of -manual arts or a general apprenticeship, but to train the pupils from -entrance upon the line of education chosen by themselves. In these -schools are taught carpentry, tanning, shoemaking, blacksmithing, -cabinetmaking, electricity, installation and management of machinery, -mechanics, printing and bookbinding, telegraphy, etc. All workshops in -such schools are well equipped with machinery and tools.</p> - -<p>All that has been said in regard to modern educational tendencies and -influences to which boys are subject in the countries mentioned can be -extended, though in less degree, to the girls and young women. Within -the past few years women’s sphere of action has steadily been enlarged, -and has come to include not only teaching but various employments -in shops and mercantile establishments. Within the next few years -their instruction must be taken into account in schools of domestic -training, vocational schools, practical schools, and the technical -colegios. The organization and range of these institutions does not -differ materially from those for boys. The vocational school for girls -is essentially a school of arts and crafts in which the pupils devote -themselves from entrance to the study of a special line, such as -dressmaking, embroidery, millinery, and, in certain schools, cooking, -washing and ironing, etc. A certificate of proficiency is granted them -upon the completion of certain assigned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> courses. The other schools -for girls before mentioned combine general subjects with the special -apprenticeship in crafts upon which they enter as soon as they reach -the higher classes of the primary school and which they continue into -the high school and the normal school.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GUATEMALA">GUATEMALA.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The type of industrial education that prevails in Guatemala is the -combination of general studies with special instruction in the arts and -trades given in the practical schools for girls and for boys. There -also exists in the capital a school of arts and crafts for women where -instruction is given at the same time in the subjects of ordinary -instruction. In the departments of manual arts which are largely, but -not exclusively, attended by boys, are taught theoretical and practical -blacksmithing, carpentry, printing, bookbinding and weaving, besides -geography, history, botany, chemistry, zoology, geology, drawing, and -Spanish language and literature. In the schools of Guatemala much -attention is given subjects of a practical nature, with the purpose -of training competent workmen and artisans. There also exist in this -country a National School of Commerce, situated in the capital, and a -Practical School of Commerce, at Quetzaltenango. In both cities there -are schools of agriculture which admit to their first-year courses the -pupils of the first year of the central normal schools. The capital -possesses also a school of telegraphy, recently founded with the view -to installing in it a special wireless station.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SALVADOR">SALVADOR.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Arts and crafts for women, commercial subjects and mechanical arts, -are generally taught in Salvador in the public schools, though their -incorporation in the courses of instruction is comparatively recent. -Many prominent teachers of the country have taken the pains to spread -abroad the appreciation of the necessity of “enlarging the educational -sphere of the State, and opening to the youth and to workmen schools -where they may acquire practical knowledge of the sciences and the -arts and by these means may contribute to the advancement of general -intelligence in the country.” In compliance with these ideas the -Government has founded in Salvador a National School of Graphic Arts -aiming “to aid the youth of Salvador to the acquisition of knowledge -of a practical nature, and to put it in a position to be successful -in the economic struggles which are the most important signs of the -modern age.” In this school the preference is given to the teaching -of physics, mechanics, drawing, printing, lithographing, carving, -bookbinding, and technical telegraphy and telephoning. Night courses -are also given in this school.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> - -<p>In consequence of the public sentiment above mentioned, there has been -opened in the National Institute of Salvador a course in commercial -and economic subjects lasting three years. This course comprises the -study of various modern languages, commercial law, political economy, -industrial chemistry, commercial geography, bookkeeping, stenography -and typewriting. The pupils in this school are required to work several -hours daily for a period in the different ministerial departments -before graduation. Salvador also established in 1913 a school of -agriculture, with a department of animal husbandry. Two years later -there was established the Technical-Practical Colegio for Girls, in -which instruction in crafts for women is combined with that in general -subjects.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="HONDURAS">HONDURAS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Industrial instruction has attained great importance in Honduras. The -School of Arts and Crafts of Tegucigalpa concerns itself chiefly with -products in wood and the metals and is steadily training artisans and -mechanics. There likewise exists in this city the national automobile -school managed by the Government. For some years there has been in -operation in Siguatepeque a school of English and of arts and crafts, -in which are taught fiber weaving, carpentry, dressmaking, and -embroidery. In the normal schools and in the two colegios students may -choose between the commercial courses and those relating to arts and -crafts. In 1915 was established a technical practical school for girls, -where courses in science and in crafts for women are offered parallel -with the subjects belonging to the primary schools.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="COSTA_RICA">COSTA RICA.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Costa Rica is another of the Central American countries where practical -instruction is combined with general. Five institutions of higher grade -and the vocational schools for women have well-equipped workshops, -laboratories, kitchens, and laundries. Of all Central American States, -Costa Rica gives perhaps most attention to this special branch of -instruction. It is noteworthy that manual arts and domestic science are -uniformly taught in the secondary schools conjointly with the literary -and purely scientific subjects.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NICARAGUA">NICARAGUA.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In Nicaragua manual arts form part of the general instruction, as has -been seen in the case of the normal schools conducted by the Christian -Brothers. Girls receive practical instruction in the normal schools. -Some years ago there was established a special school for the training -of telegraph and telephone operators.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PANAMA">PANAMA.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Like Guatemala and Honduras, Panama has devoted special attention -to industrial training. The School of Arts and Crafts of the City -of Panama is one of the largest and best equipped of its kind. It -is essentially a school for artisans and possesses sections of -electricity, carpentry, cabinetmaking, printing and bookbinding, -carving, foundry work, etc., its principal object being to train men -for the separate industrial branches.</p> - -<p>Panama also has a vocational school for girls in which a year’s -instruction is given in telegraphy, one in laundry work, two in -dressmaking and embroidery, two in shorthand, two in cooking, two in -millinery and flower work.</p> - -<p>It has likewise a school of agriculture, in which is given a three -years’ course, for which the Government offers 30 scholarships to -youths approved by local authorities. The Government has also founded -from time to time specialized schools in the interior, with the object -of encouraging agriculture or some other industry, such as that of the -manufacture of Panama hats. Like Honduras, Panama devotes the greatest -attention to special industrial schools.</p> - -<p>For the furtherance of commercial education in Central and South -America a Pan American College of Commerce, to be located at the City -of Panama, is projected, under the joint auspices of the Southern -Commercial Congress of the United States and the Government of the -Republic of Panama. The active support of the countries of the two -Americas is to be sought, and it is hoped that it may be opened on -January 1, 1921, the quadricentennial year of the City of Panama, -the first city to be founded by Europeans in the Western Hemisphere. -The college is designed to train the youth of the two continents in -practical courses of commerce, shipping, banking, and international -trade relations generally.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NEW_SCHOOL_REGULATIONS_IN_BRITISH_GUIANA">NEW SCHOOL REGULATIONS IN BRITISH GUIANA.</h2> -</div> - -<p>The last report of the director of primary instruction in British -Guiana outlines a new regulation for the common schools. In many of -its parts it includes novel measures of school organization which -are of interest as suggestions to other South American States for -similar action. The regulations relate to the classification of -schools, the minimum period of attendance, the age limit of pupils, -the occupations of pupils after leaving school, school gardens, etc. -As an instance of its stringent character, the regulation decrees -that when any school ceases to conform to certain conditions with -regard to building, installation, equipment, and health conditions, it -shall be classified in B category; and if within 6 months it has not -satisfied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> the requirements of the regulation, the authorities shall -suspend the Government aid hitherto granted. It is to be noted that the -primary schools of British Guiana are not directly administered by the -authorities.</p> - -<p>The school also loses its governmental aid if within two consecutive -years it does not maintain a fixed minimum attendance, which varies -according to the population of the locality in which it is situated. In -return special aids are offered for schools that teach gardening for -boys and the care of smaller children for girls from 12 to 14 years.</p> - -<p>The greatest educational need of the colony is the establishment of -technical primary schools for the instruction of boys and girls from -11 to 15 years. It is projected to establish two such schools in -Georgetown in which there shall be taught, in addition to manual arts -and other craft, drawing in all its branches, arithmetic and geography -as related to commerce, the rudiments of experimental science, -shorthand, and business correspondence. Criticism has been directed -against the omission of instruction in agriculture, which is admitted -to be the most necessary branch in the colony. It is, however, intended -to impart agricultural instruction in special schools to be established.</p> - -<p>Because of the fact that the majority of the pupils leave school before -reaching 12 years, it is not possible to put into practice suggested -plans of giving them preoccupational instruction in which they might -be making a start before the end of their primary-school studies. On -the other hand the traditional primary school is not adequate to give -direction toward a vocational subject. Hence, to the regret of the -authorities, attempts to link the primary school with the occupation of -the pupil have been abandoned.</p> - -<p>Much interest has been developed in school gardening; and about 100 -gardens are annexed to primary schools, affording practical instruction -to pupils in agriculture and horticulture. The Government has also -established 8 model gardens, where instruction is given the pupils of -neighboring schools.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="ARGENTINA">ARGENTINA.</h2> -</div> - - -<h3>PRELIMINARY.</h3> - -<p>Two well-defined stages have marked the progress of national education -in Argentina since 1916. The first began with the reorganization of -primary instruction by act of the Federal Congress early in that year, -which came about largely through the initiative and efforts of the -minister of public instruction. It had long been felt that the legal -system in force since 1882 was unsatisfactory,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> especially on the point -of articulation of secondary education with the higher elementary -on the one hand and with the universities on the other. Argentine -educational thinkers asserted that secondary education prepared neither -for practical life nor for entrance to the technical schools and the -universities, inasmuch as it had remained unchanged for more than -a generation, in the face of the social, economic, scientific, and -ethnical changes through which the country had passed.</p> - -<p>Together with this dissatisfaction with a special division went the -conviction that governmental reform should strike deeper, and instead -of busying itself with plans of reform of courses and schedules, -should settle the fundamental question of what should be the nature -and aims of the national secondary school. This could be done only -by so modifying the prevailing system as to make it fit the needs of -the school population according to their age, social conditions, and -probable future. Proof that it had not so adapted itself was thought -to be found in the fact that of the pupils annually completing the -4a elementary grade only 45 per cent continued into the <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">colegios -nacionales</i>, as contrasted with 55 per cent who went into the 5a -grade and commercial schools, while on a moderate estimate 60 per cent -left with insufficient equipment for their needs as useful members of -society. Furthermore, the secondary school, as organized, offered no -opportunity to boys and girls of 13 and 14 years to choose the advanced -courses and vocational training for which they felt an aptitude, and -so to secure adequate preparation for the university studies or for -advanced technical, industrial, and commercial schools.</p> - -<p>For this lack of correlation between educational divisions it was -proposed to substitute a logical and unbroken sequence. What came -to be commonly accepted among education authorities as best serving -this purpose was a common intermediate school of three years of an -essentially practical character, carrying on general elementary -instruction by means of book lessons and developing by special -experiments and practical methods individual aptitudes by which to -determine future training. As the basis for such a school primary -education had, of course, to be modified, and after months of -discussion a scheme for general modification of the entire educational -fabric was outlined (1916). According to this, the primary school -proper was to cover four years; the uniform middle school of the -first grade one year; and the differentiated middle school of the -second grade two years. Upon these were to be based the <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">colegios -nacionales</i>, the normal schools, the industrial schools, the various -higher special schools, and the national universities. Though marking -a meritorious attempt to articulate the several divisions, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -project did not work out satisfactorily in actual operation, and as a -constituent part of the national system it was repealed after about a -year of operation.</p> - - -<h3>ILLITERACY.</h3> - -<p>On a basis of population estimated (1917) at slightly more than eight -millions, 725,000 were estimated to be illiterate, about 42 per cent -of the school population. Illiteracy is most rife in remote Provinces -of the Andes and in the Territories, sparsely settled and inhabited by -people of roving habits and poorly developed industrially. Under the -lead of the director general of the schools of the Province of Mendoza, -a systematic campaign to eliminate illiteracy was begun in 1916. It -was recognized that financial considerations made it impossible to -establish the number of primary schools which would be demanded, -certainly not for the many remote points where only the legal minimum -of 15 or 20 illiterates were to be found. Home schools (<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">escuelas del -hogar</i>) were therefore established, officially ranking as auxiliary -to the already existent schools, for illiterates of 8 to 20 years, and -offering as a minimum curriculum reading, writing, the four fundamental -operations of arithmetic, the duties of the Argentine citizen, elements -of ethics, and personal hygiene. Such schools may begin any day of the -year, and with a minimum of five pupils. Any person desiring to open -such a school must fulfill the following conditions:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) He must be at least 20 years of age, of good moral -reputation, certified by the chief civil official of his residence.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) He must speak the national language correctly and be able to -give instruction in it.</p> - -<p>Such schools shall not be established at less distance than 5 -kilometers from an established primary school supported by national, -provincial, or local funds, but if the school be intended exclusively -for boys from 15 to 20 years old it may be located at any point. Such -schools are to be visited freely by school and civil authorities, and -by persons designated by the provincial general inspectors.</p> - -<p>Related in character to the <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">escuelas del hogar</i> of the Province -are the <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">escuelas tutoriales</i>, established by national decree of -1916, applying to all the Provinces and especially to the Territories. -In these schools, established at points designated by the National -Council of Education, any number of children not regularly enrolled in -the primary schools may be taught by private individuals who conform -to the requirements of primary teachers, and by teachers regularly -engaged in primary work. The latter, by special exception, receive -additional compensation for such instruction. The same law also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -provides remuneration, to be fixed by the general council of education -of the Province or Territory for all persons, not teachers, who are -certificated to have taught illiterates, whether children or adults, to -read and write.</p> - -<p>Most novel of all undertakings for the wiping out of illiteracy are the -traveling schools (<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">escuelas ambulantes</i>). Provided for by the -original organic school law of 1884, these schools were not, because -of lack of funds, put into operation until 1914. Up to that time there -was a conviction that their need was insignificant by contrast with -the greater problem of illiteracy in the cities, and that to scatter -funds available for combating illiteracy was not prudent. How serious -this mistake was appeared in 1914 when it was ascertained by systematic -count that of nearly 35,000 children of the Territories not in school -only 6,000 lived in towns.</p> - -<p>Located first in Province of Catamarca, and in the mountain regions -of Rio Negro and the Chubut, these schools are built of materials -easily transportable, and accommodate an average of 25 pupils. Sites -are selected for them which are most accessible to the largest number -of children in the district. Teachers traverse such regions on foot -or muleback, carrying necessary equipment for instruction, and remain -four and one-half months at each place, giving instruction in reading, -writing, elements of arithmetic, and hygiene. A decided advantage is -found in this succinct curriculum, the average of successful study -by the pupils of these schools being, it is claimed, fully on a par -with that of the pupils of the nine months’ primary schools, who are -required to take the standard number of subjects.</p> - -<p>Within their first two years of existence, 20 of these schools were -established, as reported by the National Council of Education in -December, 1916; and 12 were added in 1917. The report of the inspector -general of the Province of Mendoza concluded as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>This new type of school must exist for many years in Argentina to -answer the needs of the actual distribution of the population, the -lack of adequate means of communication, and the impossibility of -maintaining fixed schools in the greater part of the zones engaged -in agriculture and cattle raising. It behooves the authorities, -therefore, to continue the improvement of the system in such manner -that its efficiency shall be steadily greater, and that results shall -amply compensate for their maintenance.</p> -</div> - -<p>An interesting phase of social conscience is shown in the generous -offer of the women pupils of the third and fourth years of the normal -school at Santa Fe to instruct illiterates afternoons and nights in -reading, writing, the elements of arithmetic, national language and -history, and practical personal and school hygiene. This offer has -been highly commended both by Argentine and foreign educators as a -step toward solving the problem of illiteracy, worthy of imitation -nationally and locally.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> - -<p>The struggle against illiteracy has been the subject of serious -consideration by the executive, the chief school authorities, and the -Congress. The executive has constantly urged the National Council of -Education to intensify its campaigns and has cooperated by all means in -his power in the steady diffusion of education. The Houses of Congress -have also busied themselves especially with this grave problem. These -efforts have borne fruit which, if not visible at the present time, is -certainly destined to raise the level of popular education within the -next few years. The authorities have judged that what is needed is the -patient labor which does not require an immediate and striking solution -of a most difficult problem, but is willing to continue to exercise an -ever-increasing influence upon the rising generation, confident of the -spread of education and enlightenment with the increase of population -and the improvement in means of communication; and that it is not -wise to sow schools broadcast throughout the Republic merely for the -pleasure of doing something and of doing it rapidly. The success of the -struggle against illiteracy, certain as it is, has its roots not in -merely spending much money, but in spending money well.</p> - - -<h3>REPORT OF NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>The progress of education in Argentina is best epitomized in the report -of the National Council of Education for the four years ending December -31, 1916. The character of this council is unique in educational -polity, wielding, as it does, greater powers than any similar body -in countries educationally advanced, and counting in its membership -some of the ablest men in the Nation. Its reports follow traditionally -the line of national (the capital city), provincial, and territorial -administration. When the very heterogeneous character of the population -of Argentina, due to the steady stream of immigration, is taken into -account, the necessity of such a central body, vested with powers -of initiation and execution in primary education, is apparent. By -a wise division of powers in the original organic law, the control -of secondary education was left in the hands of the Provinces, with -subsidies granted by the National Government, as was the right to -prescribe subjects essential to nationalistic and patriotic training. -Concentration of effort and power is thus secured, with national -acquiescence in the official actions of the council. Its activities -center naturally around the establishment of new schools and the -construction of school buildings, and the training of teachers to meet -the demands of modern conditions.</p> - -<p>As a substitute for the abortive intermediate schools established in -1916, which soon proved unsatisfactory, the council decided later in -that year to establish, parallel and auxiliary to the higher primary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -schools, one of practical arts and crafts for each sex in every -district of Buenos Aires. Such schools approximated 100 in number. -This type of school was designed for boys and girls not intending to -proceed to higher studies, and was later to be extended to the nation -at large. Its purpose and program of studies was two-fold—to complete -the theoretical and higher courses of the higher primary schools with -vocational, technical, and manual training, based upon and making -use of the materials which were peculiarly Argentine and local in -industries, commerce, art, and economics; and to lay stress throughout -on nationalistic and patriotic aims. An interesting feature, common to -these new schools and the continuation schools now arising in England -and France, is the provision by which they operate 2 hours in the -morning and 2 hours in the afternoon or night, and are to admit pupils -from the fourth to the sixth grade of the primary schools, who have -reached the age of 12 years. Statistics as to the success of these -schools are not as yet available.</p> - -<p>In the matter of building primary schools proper, the report of the -council shows progress throughout the four years covered. A total of 62 -schools, with 426 teachers and 19,563 pupils, was added to the system. -Because of national economic and financial conditions prevailing -half a century ago, the great majority of the primary schools began -operation in private buildings, which did not conform to pedagogical -or even sanitary requirements. For many years excessive rents were -often paid by the State, but upon the revaluation of property in many -Provinces in 1915, an economy in rents was effected, and the funds thus -saved were devoted to new schools. Despite high prices of material -and difficulties of labor, in December, 1916, eleven school buildings -were in process of erection, at an estimated cost of $750,000, with a -capacity of 22,000 pupils. According to the report of the council: “The -construction of properly equipped Government primary school buildings -has constituted one of the most serious problems and, therefore, one -of the chief occupations of the council.” It was frankly admitted, -however, that, with all the efforts of the council, accommodations for -children in the primary schools were still far from adequate, it being -estimated on that date that 4,000 additional schools of this grade -were needed for the more than 600,000 children in the capital and the -Territories who, for one reason or another, were not in school.</p> - -<p>The activity of the council continued to be marked in 1917. In April of -that year, 143 new schools were decreed, 39 for the Federal Capital, -18 for the Provinces under the legal national subvention, and 86 for -the Territories (30 being <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">escuelas ambulantes</i>), the Congress -voting two millions in the national budget for the execution of this -decree. The centralizing tendencies of South American countries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -in general, and the overwhelming dominance of the capital, secured -for it so generous a share of this that it is estimated that in the -Federal capital there will be for the first time room for all children -of school age. For the poorer Provinces, and the Territories, which -by the Tainez law of 1886 are absolutely dependent upon the central -authority of the National Council, 250 schools of one and two rooms -were assigned, but on an estimate about one-third of the children were -still left unprovided with school facilities. Attention was repeatedly -called to the need of a uniform and rigorously applied national law for -compulsory school attendance.</p> - -<p>During the year 1918 approximately 400 schools were established, and -the council proposes to establish as many more during 1919 in the -Provinces and the national Territories. The nation has taken charge -of many provincial schools which the respective governments could not -maintain by reason of lack of resources. The Province of Mendoza alone -transferred 130 schools to the council of education during the month of -August, 1918. Relative to the establishment of schools, regard has been -had chiefly to the population of the districts which petitioned for -them, as well as the number of children of school age, in order that -the buildings may be installed in populous centers, where a constant -attendance of pupils is reasonably assured.</p> - -<p>The general plan of the council for the diffusion of primary education -has not been put into practice in full, because of the lack of -resources in some instances and in others because of the scarcity of -building materials in the country. School equipment has been secured -in various countries, supplies necessary having been purchased in the -United States to the value of $350,000. The demand has been still -unsatisfied, the capital city alone calling for the establishment of -new schools every year, because of the increase of children of school -age, and the Provinces have always been behind the necessary number of -school buildings and facilities and have never reached the goal set -by the authorities. An encouraging feature of the situation is that -upon the completion of all the school buildings now under construction -accommodations for 56,000 pupils in addition will be provided.</p> - -<p>Peculiar attention has been given to the development of night -schools by the council, 86 having been established and maintained by -the council in the four years covered by the report. An admirably -broadened scope was given them in the appeal issued by the council to -the nation that the full purpose of such schools should be realized -not only by the attendance of illiterates, but also of youths and -adults “who, possessing some degree of education, are also desirous of -improving that as related to the needs of their lives.” All reforms -and modifications of night schools have concerned themselves with this -larger clientele. A further socializing of the night school is seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> in -the appeal of the council to proprietors, managers of factories, and -employers of labor generally to encourage in every way in their power -their employees to attend night schools and to offer prizes of various -kinds for diligence and progress. Literature bearing on these schools -was distributed free by the council.</p> - -<p>In 1915 the council was empowered, by the terms of the will of a -philanthropic resident of Buenos Aires, Don Felix Berasconi, who -bequeathed for educational purposes a sum of three and a half million -dollars, to proceed to the erection and establishment of an institution -under State control which should give instruction in general primary, -scientific, scientific-industrial, physical, and social education. A -building was to be begun in 1916, planned in seven sections, conforming -to the most modern pedagogical and sanitary demands, and with a -capacity of more than 3,000 pupils. Designed to benefit the working -people preeminently, it was to be situated in the section of the city -showing the greatest proportion of them.</p> - -<p>Responding to the general feeling of dissatisfaction with the results -of primary education in the city of Buenos Aires, which has been -unaffected by criticism for seven years, the council in June, 1917, -sent out questionnaires to all inspectors and to the body of teachers -calling for an expression of opinion as to (1) the merits and defects -of the plans of studies, schedules, etc., then in force; (2) those of -projected or possible programs, with additional features worthy to -be incorporated; and (3) educational considerations bearing upon the -problems of the schools of the capital. The answers showed encouraging -grasp of the educational needs of the city, with significant unanimity -as to the practical methods of working out necessary reforms. Salient -points were:</p> - -<p>1. That all programs should leave room for and be closely articulated -with manual arts and domestic economy.</p> - -<p>2. That the courses of arithmetic in the first, second, third, fourth, -and fifth grades were overloaded, as were those of grammar in the -fourth, geometry in the third and fifth, nature study in the second, -geography in the second and fifth, singing in the second, and music.</p> - -<p>3. That the primary school cycle should commence at 7 years and end at -12.</p> - -<p>4. That primary courses and schedules for urban schools should be -strictly differentiated from those for rural and country town schools.</p> - -<p>5. That from October 15 to April 15 the school day should be from 7.30 -to 11.30; from April 15 to September 30 from 12 to 4.</p> - -<p>6. That the advancement of the teacher with the class merited a fair -trial, the teacher remaining with the same class a minimum of two years -and a maximum of three.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> - -<p>7. That the establishment of normal schools essentially for rural -teachers was imperative.</p> - -<p>It is recognized that the clearness and sanity of these answers had a -marked effect upon the substance of the law presented to the Federal -Congress in August, 1918.</p> - -<p>Another interesting instance of the submission of a pedagogic matter to -the teachers of the city of Buenos Aires is shown in the questionnaire -asking their opinion as to the best method of teaching spelling, -sent out by the inspector of the tenth district, to the teachers. In -accordance with the answers to this, the vocabulary used in primary -schools was reduced to categories corresponding to the several grades, -to its difficulties, and to the actual needs of the life and dominant -occupations of the quarter of the city from which the children were -drawn. This step was highly commended in French educational circles as -marking efficient grappling with pedagogical difficulties felt in all -cities of whatsoever country.</p> - -<p>The regulation of the medical and dental inspection of national -schools, under decree of March, 1918, was noteworthy. According to -this, professional inspectors, chosen by the Government, must within -the first three months of each school year examine individually all -children entering school for the first time, periodically inspect the -school buildings and ground and the health conditions of the teaching -and administrative staffs, and take all prophylactic measures deemed -necessary against epidemics and contagious diseases. Such reports shall -be transmitted to the medical inspector general. Dental inspection of -schools is to have a prominent part. Every month the chief inspector -shall assemble for report and mutual discussion all medical and dental -inspectors in such territorial divisions as he shall see fit.</p> - -<p>Of the regulations in detail promulgated by the council in 1918, the -most important is that changing the school year to two divisions, the -first beginning March 1 and continuing until June 30, followed by three -weeks of vacation, and the second beginning July 21 and continuing -until November 20, followed by the long vacation of the year. This -change is regarded as conforming with climatic effects upon the health -of school children and as being a step long needed.</p> - - -<h3>PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN THE PROVINCES.</h3> - -<p>Outside the scope of the National Council are the powers of the -provincial councils. These are local, auxiliary, and reinforcing in -character. Some of the Provinces are practically inactive on the side -of primary education, contenting themselves with the provisions made -in that field by the National Government. Others, however, among them -Santa Fe, San Luis, Cordoba, Entre Rios, and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> of course, Buenos -Aires, are worthy of note and commendation for steady interest in -matters educational, and in financial support of schools carried on -independently of the central authority.</p> - -<p>Progress in the Province of Santa Fe, as evidenced by the annual -message of the governor of that Province for 1917, was steady, despite -the need of economy in provincial finances due to conditions resulting -from the World War. An increase of 14 provincial schools over the year -previous and of the grades in 36 schools was noted. Two problems were -kept steadily in view: The improvement in the teaching personnel, -accentuated by the disclosure of the fact that more than one-third of -the teachers in the provincial schools lacked teacher training, and the -construction of better school buildings. It was estimated that with -these from 25 to 30 per cent of additional pupils could be taught by -the same teaching force.</p> - -<p>In the Province of San Luis the general inspector of provinces reported -for 1916 the establishment of 160 local associations of the national -<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">Amigos de la Educacion</i>. This society, composed of parents and -others interested in primary education, has for its objects the close -linking of home and school, the fight against illiteracy, the promotion -of good feeling and companionship between natives and immigrants, the -celebration of national festivals, the securing of better primary -enrollment and attendance especially by the poorer children, with the -inculcation of their self-respect, and cooperation with the regional -and national authorities in the safeguarding of public health.</p> - -<p>In this Province, by volunteer organizations of teachers and others -interested, local patriotic conferences were inaugurated on topics -of national history, hygiene, political economy, ethics, and themes -generally related to home and school matters.</p> - -<p>In the Province of Buenos Aires school excursions have been developed -and made an organic part of instruction in civic and national spirit. -They have been so arranged that children in the several zones may come -by personal touch to know and correspond by letter with each other. In -some places participation in these excursions has been made a reward -of good lessons and conduct. They are to be taken in the last 15 days -of October, and children are not to remain more than 3 days in one -locality. Groups of not more than 12 pupils are recommended.</p> - -<p>In July, 1916, the council general of the Province of Buenos Aires -initiated courses in the normal school for the training of teachers -and graduates of the normal schools in the recognition and study of -retardation and its causes, and in early correction of abnormalities -most frequently met. The program of courses includes a series of 16 -lessons on related medical and pedagogical topics.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p> - -<p>Of direct bearing upon educational problems among the rural population -is the project of the law recently sent by the executive of the -Province of Buenos Aires to the legislature, providing for the issuance -of bonds to the amount of $45,000,000 for the expropriation of parts of -the great landed estates and the division of the land thus expropriated -into small tracts for the use of small farmers. Subsequent purchase -under advantageous terms is to be encouraged. According to reports, the -prevailing system of “arrendatorios,” or small tenants for short terms, -has led to so acute an agrarian unrest, with the consequent shifting -and aimless wandering of an increasing element of the population, as -to constitute a social and economic menace no longer to be ignored. -The educational effects in the increase of illiteracy and the general -retardation of primary education have been manifest.</p> - -<p>In 1918 the Legislature of the Province of Entre Rios enacted into -law a series of provisions guaranteeing the stability of the scale of -salaries for teachers in provincial schools. Promotion and increase -of salary were based rigorously upon merit; teachers were declared -unremovable during good conduct and fitness; initial salaries were -fixed as follows: (<i>a</i>) For normal teacher, $160 per month; -(<i>b</i>) for rural normal teacher, $120 per month; (<i>c</i>) for -rural teacher, $100 per month; (<i>d</i>) for special teacher, $80 per -month. Every five years the teacher who has worked in the same place -for that period shall receive a bonus of 20 per cent on his initial -salary.</p> - -<p>The government of the Province of Cordoba has approved a plan for the -introduction of agricultural courses in the primary schools, presented -and prepared by experts in agronomy and pedagogy, without dislocation -of existing courses and schedules.</p> - -<p>The inspectors of this Province presented for the consideration of the -provincial chamber of deputies the project of a law to establish a -normal school for the preparation of rural teachers exclusively, the -courses offered being:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The development of subjects related to fundamental studies -in the primary schools;</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Practice teaching adapted to the needs of the primary -schools of the locality; and</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Elementary teaching, both theoretical and practical, -in manual arts, agriculture and cattle breeding, and minor rural -industries.</p> - -<p>Private schools conforming to governmental requirements were legally -recognized and incorporated by decree of 1917 and their consequent -validation effected. Pupils of the fifth and sixth grades of such -private schools applying for leaving certificates are required to -undergo an examination upon all subjects for those grades of the -official national programs before a board of three members appointed by -the inspector.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></p> - -<p>Officially apart from the Ministry of Public Education but calling for -special mention was the establishment in 1917 under the encouragement -of the National Department of Agriculture of 16 schools in rural -domestic science in nine Provinces, including Buenos Aires. Courses -are offered in minor industries, such as dairying, beekeeping, care of -fowls, hog raising, agriculture, horticulture, and canning of fruits -and vegetables. Five hundred women have been enrolled. A number of -these schools, the largest at Tucuman, have been put on a permanent -basis, and private associations are working to effect this in many -places.</p> - -<p>School celebrations of national festivals, long popular in Argentina, -have been especially marked during the year 1918, the centennial year -for the nation. They were held in all schools on July 8, the chief -feature being the oath to the flag and the singing of the national hymn -in the presence of the school and civic authorities.</p> - - -<h3>CHANGES UNDER THE PROJECTED LAW OF 1918.</h3> - -<p>Following the former order of education in Argentina, the second stage -of primary education began with the educational bill submitted with -the approval of the President to the Federal Congress in August, 1918. -In this were incorporated changes of far wider scope than any ever -before projected. Not only primary education, but the entire fabric -of Argentine education was to be nationalized in content of courses, -in methods of instruction, and in special preparation of teachers for -tasks devolving on them under the new régime. The bill provided for -large development of industrial and vocational courses and called for -the use of materials peculiarly national and local. It laid stress upon -civic and patriotic training, in view of the heterogeneous constitution -of the Argentine population through steady streams of immigration -and the necessity of molding these diverse elements into a body of -patriotic and intelligent citizens. It provided for the establishment -of primary schools throughout the nation under more flexible financial -and administrative regulations than the old, for the segregation of -specific revenues for the exclusive use of the Ministry of Public -Instruction, and the consequent abolition of the old system of national -subsidies to individual localities. Especially in the fight against -illiteracy did the projected law embody progressive features. The -National Council of Education was empowered to establish standard -primary schools wherever there were as many as 20 illiterate children -of school age. In the message which accompanied the recommendation of -the law the President pointed out that the projected law tended to give -unity and stability to the several divisions of education under the -direction of the department of national instruction and adapted them to -the material<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> progress of the nation and to latter-day civilization. -His identification of popular education with national progress -justifies a quotation at length:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>As primary education was established by law in 1864, it contains -regulations which in reality have lost their original justification; -for Argentine civilization now demands urgent reforms in the matter of -general instruction in order to give greater consistency and reason -to the latter, and in order to make it more practical, more adaptable -to the various regional needs of the Republic. It is especially -urgent to carry its action to all the sections of the country not yet -reached by the system in order to arrive at the real aims of a truly -national education. Chief among these is to eradicate illiteracy, -the most patriotic task in which we can engage and the one upon -whose successful execution alone can any real national progress and -enlightenment rest.</p> - -<p>The institutions of higher education have continued to develop in the -direction of autonomy and within the limit determined by the law of -1885; but with the primary, they demand modifications in the course -and arrangement of studies in order to abolish antiquated practices -and methods and to reach the level of the great modern universities of -the world.</p> - -<p>Secondary instruction, in its turn, has lacked and still lacks a -law to fix it in definite form and to define its real character -in accordance with constitutional precepts and the nature of our -political institutions. It has existed subject to the continual -change of plans and regulations, harassed by the application of -widely varying educational conceptions, in a state of continuous -instability, and therefore reduced to a mere administrative mechanism -without power of initiative relative to its immediate needs and -without sufficient social influence to realize its true aims. To -remedy these evils and to fill these gaps is one of the purposes of -this law, in which the attempt has been made to include only that -which ought to be general and permanent. The primary aim of secondary -education should be to spread education among the towns and cities in -such a way that in all the country there shall be trained, educated -citizens fitted to play their part in the future civilization of the -country. Preparatory instruction has therefore been kept under the -control of the universities, which will fix their courses of study, -their duration, and their extension both general and special. Both the -plans of the preparatory courses, as well as those of the professions -taught in the faculties of the university, have been projected along -the lines already mentioned. The programs of the normal schools have -been formulated in accordance with the technical ideas which should -distinguish them, separating the general studies from those properly -called pedagogical or professional, arranging them so that the former -shall precede and the latter be intensified toward the end of the -course.</p> - -<p>As regards practical subjects of instruction, the project outlines -only the general features according to which they must be taught. -Instruction will be imparted in accordance with the necessities of -the immediate field of each school, with special regard to natural -production, commerce, industries, and aptitudes of the population, all -with the purpose of adjusting anew the activities of the Argentine -youth, which has hitherto been by preference inclined toward the more -speculative studies rather than those of practical and of immediate -application. It is left to the authorities of technical education -to prepare plans and courses of study adapted to each class of -institutions.</p> - -<p>Enrollment in all schools has been made absolutely free, a logical -consequence of compulsory education, which has as yet never been -effective, but which is an indispensible condition to placing all upon -the same plane of equality, a thing inherent in the principles of -republican institutions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<p>The Government considers that the power wielded by the nation to -spread primary education in the Provinces is so ample, in the form -established by this projected law, that the regulations in force -concerning financial subventions are without reason or justification. -Once the Provinces have complied with the duty imposed upon them by -the constitution in this regard up to the limit of their capacity the -accompanying responsibility of the Federal Government will disappear.</p> - -<p>The executive, knowing the great value of the teaching profession -in the general concert of human activities, seeks every means -to establish and dignify the career of teacher, making it a -real profession surrounded by all the honors and all the public -considerations which it can legitimately claim. It is therefore sought -in the reform to fix proper conditions for different categories -of teachers, as well as a scale of salaries, and proportional and -periodic increase, thus guaranteeing the stability of the profession -and assuring it an honorable and tranquil retirement. With such aims -in view for the retirement of secondary teachers, the executive has -believed it equitable to establish similar lines of financial aid for -pensions and for increase of salaries as those offered to the teachers -of primary education.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>SECONDARY EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>Reference has been made to the establishment of intermediate schools, -at first uniform, later differentiated, substituted for the former -fifth and sixth years of the primary school and intended to bridge -the chasm between the primary and the secondary schools. This marked -a further innovation, in that secondary education had always been -left in Argentina to the Provinces, the State nationally exercising -only a nominal oversight of this division. For financial reasons, as -well as because of the necessity of giving uniformity to a type so -widely scattered, the intermediate school was from the very first -regarded as national in scope. It may be likened in many respects to -the junior high school of American cities. It was designed to give -instruction of a general and cultural nature in languages, history, -geography, and mathematics, combined with experimental studies in the -elements of physical and natural science. Much earlier entrance, its -advocates claimed, would thus be possible upon subjects of vocational -and technical character, which should test the nascent abilities and -aptitudes of the pupil. Especial attention was to be given woodworking, -typewriting, stenography, linotyping, decorative design, photography, -and special arts and crafts favored by local conditions.</p> - -<p>This experiment, though marking an advance in educational methods, -was unsuccessful, and after a year of existence such schools were -discontinued. They did, however, affect instruction in secondary -education, leaving their impress in the radical requirement of early -specialization after the fifth and sixth higher primary grades.</p> - -<p>The educational policy of Argentina thus returned to its traditional -status; and secondary education still centers around the 37 -colegios nacionales, institutions for boys of 10 to 14 years of -age,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> which admit those with leaving certificates from the fifth -and sixth grades of the higher primary schools, and by revisal -of 1911 offer courses arranged by fourfold division of subjects -into the physical-mathematical, the chemical-biological, the -historical-geographical, and the literary-philosophical groups. -A decree of the National Council dated February, 1916, made the -certificate of sixth grade of the public school obligatory for -admission to the colegio. This was regarded as going far toward -settling two fundamental difficulties—the first, the long desired -abolition of the entrance examination, as discredited by experience -and prejudicial to secondary training, and the second, the official -recognition of the compulsory attendance law for children of 6 to 14 -years.</p> - -<p>Among the new subjects assigned for the colegios is the study of -Italian, now restored after being abolished by previous decree. In -accordance with this requirement, a course in this language has been -instituted in the normal schools for the preparation of teachers.</p> - -<p>The close connection of the interests of the colegio nacionale with the -university is brought out in the report of the rector of the National -University of Buenos Aires for 1916. It is of significance as striking -out new lines in what had always been a conservative division, and -carried weight in the fluid state of public opinion on education which -prevailed just at that time.</p> - -<p>Taking up the instructional aspect of secondary education, and the -claims put forward by zealous partisans of the opposing views that the -colegios should prepare either for higher studies or for practical -life, but not for both, he urged legal provisions for both forms of -training to supply the demand felt in all modern states for men of -thought as well as efficiency in action. In the light of this demand -all wrangling as to programs of study could only be to the damage -of the State. Since the Argentine colegios half a century ago were -modeled after the French lycées, with their emphasis upon the cultural -studies, the world had moved far, economically and socially, and sane -modifications in secondary education now clamored for recognition.</p> - -<p>On the side of administration the peculiar question for Argentina, -the land of great distances and many climates and productions, was -whether the best organization for secondary instruction was the -concentration of power in the hands of a council or of the minister of -public instruction, or more or less complete autonomy to be granted -to the individual institution. In either case the fixed principle was -to be accepted that the universities were directly concerned in the -discipline and studies of the students they were to receive, and that -they should therefore have the right of intervening in matters of -organization and studies of the colegios.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<p>A just decentralization of the colegios could be easily realized and -would bring such beneficial results as: (1) More direct and immediate -action of the authorities; (2) closer articulation of the colegios -with the universities in the matter of studies for preparation for the -latter; (3) formation of intellectual groups that would be encouraged -to take root permanently in the Provinces, thus avoiding the wholesale -migration of the directing classes to the capital; (4) ease of reform, -as contrasted with the present system, wherein every change in the -program of studies was a disturbance whose utility was not always -certain; (5) the best selection, so far as possible, of the personal -directive staff of the colegios, as the men in higher education would -be familiar with the problems of secondary instruction; (6) economy of -administrative expense; (7) the possibility of transforming certain -of the colegios into schools of arts, trades, and industries in which -general instruction, continuing the primary, might be combined with -the special and technical preparation so much needed for the material -well-being of the several regions of the Republic.</p> - -<p>In the projected law of public instruction, introduced in August, 1918, -it is provided that all matters relating to secondary education shall -be under the authority of the national universities, with full power to -regulate content of courses, curricula, etc. This is manifestly a step -suggested by the traditional system of Spain, in which the standard -secondary schools (<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">institutos</i>) are arranged according to -university districts and are governed by university rector and council. -Its wisdom and advisability for a country of the Western Hemisphere -have been variously considered.</p> - - -<h3>TECHNICAL EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>By the projected law of August, 1918, a National Board of Technical -Education is to be established to ascertain the progress of this branch -of education in other countries, to adapt whatever may be possible to -the conditions and needs of Argentina, to foster technical instruction -in the national schools, and to keep in touch with its progress -throughout the world.</p> - - -<h3>NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING.</h3> - -<p>The sequence of studies prescribed for pupils of the normal school -according to the decree of March, 1916, is also worthy of notice. -Immediately following, and based upon the intermediate schools which, -as described above, were discarded after trial, the normal school -required four years for the teachers’ diploma, after which the student -might proceed to higher studies for the degree of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> teacher of modern -languages in two years or that of teacher of languages in normal school -in three years, or that of teacher of philosophy in any institution -in six years. A commendable gain of one year in each of these was -effected, and this feature is to be embodied in the new provisions now -under consideration. In addition, the new project of educational law -outlines a teacher’s course of four years, clearly differentiating -between the general or cultural and the pedagogical or professional -courses. The former are assigned to the first three years as required; -the latter are reserved for the last year, constituting an intensive -curriculum of pedagogical history and methods and practice teaching -in the required annexed practice school. The completion (1918) of the -Normal School Sarmiento in Buenos Aires, named in honor of the founder -of popular education in South America, is to be noted. This school, -capable of accommodating 1,000 pupils and equipped with the most modern -apparatus, is worthy of comparison with the finest schools in the other -countries educationally most advanced.</p> - - -<h3>HIGHER EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>With the provision incorporated in the projected law, by which control -of national secondary education is vested in the universities, the -latter will touch national education much more intimately than ever -before. The universities of Argentina are those of Buenos Aires, -Cordoba, and La Plata, which are national, and those of Santa Fe -and Tucuman, which are provincial but will soon be nationalized. In -1917 there was a growing feeling in university circles in favor of -decentralization, with greater degree of autonomy for each university. -The report of the rector of the university of Buenos Aires for 1917 was -of interest as showing the effect of this upon the colegios as well -as the universities. How far this has been checked by the projected -provision to intrust secondary education to universities can not be -learned.</p> - -<p>The unrest among the student bodies in the institutions of higher -education has constituted perhaps the most remarkable feature of the -educational history of the past year. In Buenos Aires reform was -demanded in the statutes under which the university was governed, and -the adoption of methods in conformity with new tendencies in university -instruction. The students demanded especially the right to vote for -the election of the authorities. Satisfactory agreement was reached, -and the university, after several days of suspension of classes and -demonstrations on the part of the student body, resumed instruction, -which was uninterrupted for the rest of the year. At the University of -Cordoba the conflict between the students and the authorities assumed -more serious proportions. Regular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> work was suspended, the efforts -of the mediator appointed by the National Government to hear the -claims of the student body and to decide upon the just and practical -course for the university authorities to adopt were unsatisfactory -to the complainants, and the authority of the minister of public -instruction was invoked. Upon investigation the latter official -advocated in his report to the executive a complete reorganization of -the university in its statutes, regulations, acts of discipline, and -staff of professors. These changes were ratified by the executive and -were practically embodied in the project of the law submitted to the -Congress in those sections pertaining to university education. In the -other three universities, those of La Plata, Tucuman, and Santa Fe, the -disturbances which impeded the prosecution of the regular routine of -studies were comparatively insignificant, though the spirit of unrest -was marked and many of the reforms and changes secured in the two -leading universities were readily accepted.</p> - -<p>The growth of the so-called student centers (<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">centros -estudiantiles</i>) has been a feature of higher education during the -past two years. These organizations have come to be representative -of student life and of the student point of view, and have therefore -gained much importance in the eyes of the authorities. They are -organized according to departments of studies, such as the centers of -medical and dental students, of engineering students, of political -science students, of students of architecture, and of law. Each -numbers from 100 to 500 members. They are grouped as a whole into the -University Federation of Buenos Aires, in which each is represented by -delegates, and which is regarded as the mouthpiece of all university -students in the metropolis.</p> - -<p>Plans are already under way by the executive council of the University -of Buenos Aires for the celebration of the first centenary of its -foundation, which will occur in October, 1921. Invitations have been -extended to the institutions of higher education in all countries of -the world to designate and send representatives. Though the actual -building of the ancient colegio nacional, in which the university began -its operation, has been materially changed, yet the present building -occupies the same site, and it has been decided to hold the centennial -celebration in it.</p> - -<p>Of interest is the projected foundation of a popular university at -Buenos Aires, constituted along industrial lines and frankly designed -to counteract the technical and industrial influence of North American -universities in South American countries.</p> - -<p>A survey of educational progress in Argentina may fittingly conclude -with mention of the annual American Congress of Education and -Commercial Extension, held in Montevideo in January, 1919,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> in which -representatives of all the Latin-American countries participated, and -those of Argentina, from her economic and educational leadership, were -most prominent. The proceedings of the congress will be discussed in -the chapter on Uruguay.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VOCATIONAL_EDUCATION_IN_BRAZIL">VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN BRAZIL.</h2> -</div> - -<p>Educational activity in Brazil has been most marked in the field of -vocational education. A special commission, appointed by the Director -General of Public Instruction, consisting of five experienced teachers -in subjects of this nature, was instructed to formulate courses for -the State schools which were to be established by law in the Federal -District. They were to serve as models for subsequent schools of the -same character in the several States and Territories. The commission, -of which Senhor Coryntho da Fonseca was the spokesman, after several -months of conference and personal visits of inspection to the -vocational schools already existent in the several centers, especially -in Sao Paulo, and after hearing reports from active teachers in the -subjects, presented its report in March, 1919. It was approved by -the Vice President, serving ad interim for the President, and was -recommended by him to be put into actual operation pending its formal -enactment into law by the Congress.</p> - -<p>The report as finally presented rested upon four main considerations:</p> - -<p>1. The State, in the field of instruction, has primarily an educational -function and only secondarily a vocational one. Courses in shop -training, designed to awake and develop an aptitude in the pupil for a -particular industry, must of course enter into any well-rounded scheme -of education. This in turn must be designed to promote a general and -not a specialized technical education which will introduce both sexes -to industrial and commercial life. For practical reasons of expense, if -for no other, the State should not be expected to prepare pupils for -specialized vocations.</p> - -<p>2. The task of the commission being to deal with the branches of -vocational training best adapted to give the pupil a broad outlook upon -general industrial activities, the commission judged it best to confine -its recommendations to manual work of construction in wood, metal, -and plastic material. In methods as well as content of instruction it -is emphasized that such work must proceed along the lines of teaching -by example. In such teaching much that is old and fundamental must be -stressed by way of throwing light upon the elements of the training -that are common to all branches of manual arts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> - -<p>3. In its decision to urge a general attitude toward industrial -training rather than specialized methods peculiar to one branch, the -commission was confirmed by the testimony of all except one of the -directors of the vocational institutions in Brazil. Only one advocated -specialized instruction. Written representations of the faculties of -the vocational schools Alvaro Baptista, and Souza Aguiar, in Rio, -further confirmed this view.</p> - -<p>4. The results of vocational instruction in Brazil as actually observed -within the last few years convinced the commission—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) That unspecialized training best provided the foundations -for good citizenship as well as industrial training.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) That by this training the latent technical aptitudes of -the student were more effectively revealed and developed, as shown by -steady increase in salaries of the graduates, than was the case with -the apprentices who had been trained exclusively in one line.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) That the superior adaptation of the graduates of the general -vocational school had been shown by tables giving information as to -their progress in skill and value to their employers. These tables were -naturally incomplete, but their general drift was undeniable.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) That the chief cause of the poor attendance upon the -vocational instruction for boys is the prevalent idea that the -vocational school is an index of lower social standing, enrolling only -those boys that can not obtain any other means of education. Thus the -vocational school is sharply differentiated socially from other types -of schools. It suffers from being regarded as preeminently the school -to train workmen. The commission had in mind the purpose of preparing -public sentiment for the passing of this traditional prejudice when it -attempted to inspire a just estimate of manual work in the public mind -and to organize such courses as would adequately carry out this idea.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) That the vocational school must be established as a direct -continuation of the primary school, ministering to the innate tendency -in the child to realize things with his own hands; that thus the -traditional and depressing prejudice mentioned would be counteracted, -as time would not be given for it to intervene in the child’s mind. The -workshop, thus articulated with general training, would come to be the -fulfillment of an aspiration, inculcating as well the love of work and -respect for it.</p> - -<p>(<i>f</i>) That the success of the projected schools depends largely -upon the cooperation of the industrial firms of Brazil, which should -be appealed to for their sympathy and for the encouragement of their -adolescent employees to attend these schools; that the granting of -daylight hours to employees to attend such schools, as has been done in -England and France, with the consequent improvement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> in the physical -and mental condition of the pupils, is a step to be commended to all -employers as patriotic citizens.</p> - -<p>The salient provisions of the report of the commission are as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Article 1.</span> The technical and vocational instruction -maintained by the prefecture of the Federal District has for its aim -to complete the primary elementary instruction by means of a general -technical education leading the youth of both sexes preferably to -industrial and commercial activities.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 2.</span> Technical and vocational instruction shall be given -in the following types of schools:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Primary vocational schools.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Secondary vocational institutes.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Secondary agricultural schools.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) Vocational finishing courses.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) Normal school of arts and crafts.</p> - -<p>Types (<i>a</i>), (<i>d</i>), and (<i>e</i>) shall be day schools -exclusively; types (<i>b</i>) and (<i>c</i>) shall offer boarding -accommodations for pupils from distance.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 3.</span> In schools of types (<i>a</i>) and (<i>d</i>) -instruction shall be imparted predominantly in the recitation rooms.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 4.</span> The courses of the primary vocational school for boys -shall include the following subjects:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The usual subjects of the complementary course of the -primary schools, with fuller development of the studies of physics, -chemistry, natural history, hygiene, and mathematics.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Modeling and free-hand and mechanical drawing.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 5.</span> The courses of the primary vocational school for -girls shall include:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The usual subjects of the complementary course of the -primary schools, with fuller development of the studies of hygiene and -domestic economy.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Modeling and free-hand drawing.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 6.</span> The subjects of the vocational finishing courses -shall include:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) In the commercial course, Portuguese and civic instruction, -commercial geography, French and one other modern language, English -or German, to be chosen by the pupil, commercial correspondence and -accounting, typewriting, stenography, and arithmetic.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) In the industrial course, Portuguese and civic instruction, -arithmetic, and geography, elements of applied physics, chemistry, -and natural history, accounting as related to the particular vocation -selected by the pupil, free-hand and mechanical drawing.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 7.</span> The vocational finishing courses are designed -primarily for young men already employed in industry and commerce, who -seek to improve their vocational knowledge.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 8.</span> The two types of vocational finishing schools may be -taught conjointly in the same building.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 9.</span> Teachers and assistants imparting instruction shall -be appointed as follows:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) There shall be a teacher and so many assistants for each -branch as shall be made necessary by the attendance.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) For the instruction in technical accounting related to -each vocation there shall be employed special teachers only where 15 -or more students are enrolled for each course, and they shall receive -salaries only when actually teaching. The same teachers shall be in -charge of the various related branches of technical instruction in the -shops.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 10.</span> The courses in the secondary vocational institutes -for boys shall include—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The elementary and middle instruction for pupils who have -not had them.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Physical exercises and military drill.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Vocal and instrumental music.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 11.</span> The courses in the vocational institutes for girls -shall include—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Primary instruction for such pupils as have not had it.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Vocational drawing and modeling.</p> - -<p>In the vocational institutes the elementary primary instruction shall -be followed by an intensive course in manual arts, such as sloyd, wood -carving, and weaving in straw, vine, and bamboo.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 12.</span> The primary vocational schools shall also offer a -commercial course consisting of the following subjects:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Commercial correspondence and accounting.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Typewriting and stenography.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) French and one other modern language, English or German.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 13.</span> Instruction in the workshops of vocational schools -for boys shall be given first in a general compulsory course of -three years, during which the pupil shall in turn be trained in the -workshops in cold and molten metals, including foundry work and -wrought-iron work. The pupil shall then be allowed to specialize in -any workshop or section at his choice. The pupils of the vocational -institutes for boys shall likewise take a compulsory course in -horticulture and kindred subjects.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 14.</span> The agricultural schools and the vocational -institutes shall require attendance on the courses of civil training -and agronomy, with optional specialization in any line selected when -the general course is completed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 15.</span> In the vocational schools and institutes for -girls there shall be a compulsory general course upon the following -practical subjects: Cooking, laundering, ironing and starching, -housekeeping, sewing and dressmaking. Along with this general -course the pupils shall attend certain vocational courses chosen by -themselves from sewing, lace making, and embroidery, artificial-flower -work, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 16.</span> For admission to the schools of vocational -instruction the following shall be the legal requirements as to age:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) For vocational and agricultural schools, minimum age 13, -maximum 21.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) For the vocational institutes for boys, minimum age 10, -maximum 13.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) For the vocational institutes for girls, minimum age 7, -maximum 13.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) For the normal school of arts and trades, minimum age 14, -maximum 25.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) For the vocational finishing courses, minimum age 13.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 17.</span> For matriculation in the vocational and agricultural -schools and the finishing courses the candidates shall submit to an -examination upon the subjects taught in the middle course of the -primary school. In the commercial courses of the finishing schools, -in the girls’ schools, and in the normal school of arts and trades, -the entrance examination shall be upon the subjects of the final -examination of the primary schools.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 18.</span> The school year in the entire system of vocational -instruction, with the exception of agricultural schools, shall begin -March 1 and close November 30. The period from December 1 to December -24 shall be devoted to examinations and to school exhibitions. In the -agricultural schools, because of their nature, the pupils shall have -60 days of annual vacation granted to them in groups by the director -in accordance with the demands of the agricultural seasons and labors.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 19.</span> The courses of the primary vocational schools, of -the institutes, and of the finishing courses shall be divided into -periods of 4 to 5 years; the finishing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> courses into periods of three -years; and the commercial course of the schools for girls into a -period of two years.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 24.</span> The officials of inspection of technical and -vocational instruction shall draw up annual statistics of attendance -and of the results of the vocational instruction upon the bases of -data furnished by the directors of the several schools and, so far as -possible, by employers and by the former pupils who have themselves -left the schools. These statistics shall relate to the following -topics:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Number of pupils placed, with indication of the -establishments where they are employed.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Initial salary obtained by them as related to the period of -schooling.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Technical aptitude revealed by former pupils and their -capacity of adaptation to the various industrial works.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) Progress of increase in salary of former pupils.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) All available information as to individual former pupils -with regard to the advantages or disadvantages of their schooling in -the decision of economic life, and their success in it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 25.</span> All posts of assistants and substitutes in the -vocational system shall be filled by competitive examinations.</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) For the assistant in drawing in the vocational schools in -institutes for boys, the examination shall be tests in drawing, in -artistic training, and in pedagogical fitness.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) For the filling of the same post in the vocational schools -and institutes for girls the examination shall be tests in writing at -dictation, in decorative composition, in embroidery and lacework, and -in pedagogical fitness.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) The competitive test for filling the post of substitutes -in shopwork shall be upon vocational design of an assigned theme for -shopwork and the execution of the same.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 26.</span> The teachers in vocational instruction shall be -named by means of promotion of the assistants and substitutes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 27.</span> There shall be a substitute for every group of 20 -pupils in shopwork, and an assistant for every class of 30 pupils.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><abbr title="article">Art.</abbr> 28.</span> When any primary school is transformed into a -vocational school there shall be annexed the elementary primary course -in which shall be taught intensively the manual arts prescribed for -the elementary instruction of the institutes, but the pupils shall -attend the shopwork of the vocational courses only when they have -completed the work of the middle course and attained the age of 13 -years.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="EDUCATION_IN_CHILE">EDUCATION IN CHILE.</h2> -</div> - - -<h3>PRELIMINARY.</h3> - -<p>The last two years have seen in Chile a distinct gathering up of the -threads of educational purpose. The feeling of dissatisfaction with the -primary school system, for many years inarticulate, has found a voice, -and all signs point to Chile’s finally securing a modernized system -of public instruction. The head and front of the indictment drawn by -national students of education has been the complete Germanization of -the system through the employment of a considerable number of German -educational experts during the decade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> from 1904 to 1914. The climax -came in the revelations of the propagandist activities of the German -educators brought out at the meeting of the National Educational -Association in 1917.</p> - -<p>Financial support of public instruction in Chile has never been -stinted, so far as its existent state was concerned. As merely one item -may be adduced the fact that in March, 1916, the Congress authorized -the President to devote to public instruction for specific aims such as -the building and remodeling of schoolhouses, $4,000,000 annually for 10 -years, through the medium of the Central Council of Education, in which -was vested the discretion as to methods and objects of the expenditure. -In 1918 the budget was voted by the Congress of $35,450,000 for public -instruction, as against that of $32,373,404 for 1917. So that the -authorities of the Government must justly be credited with a practical -interest in education which encourages teachers and other active -workers in their efforts toward greater efficiency.</p> - -<p>In 1917 there had been increased discussion of matters educational; -and in June of that year President Sanfuentes in his message showed -that the time had come to impress on the national system of public -instruction a more practical stamp, making it adequate to the needs of -everyday life and the special conditions of the country. Along with -this he urged the specialization of secondary education as, just then, -the urgent and opportune point of attack for the development of Chile’s -scientific and industrial possibilities.</p> - -<p>This message was followed by action of the Congress which clearly -showed the traditional line of cleavage long prevailing in Chile’s -social and political system. The demand for some form of modernized -public instruction could no longer be repressed; and a conservative -deputy introduced the project of a law to insert in the constitution -a provision for compulsory primary schooling and compulsory religious -instruction, the only modification of the latter being the concession -to the parent to choose the forms and means of such instruction. The -radical party was not slow in countering with a project adopting the -feature of compulsory attendance but decentralizing and completely -secularizing the existing system. The latter proposal, now made for -the first time in the history of Chilean legislation, was especially -bold, as Chile has never done away with the essentially religious tone -of her education. She retains representatives of the State church on -her National Council of Education, freely recognizes parochial primary -schools, and has her secondary schools largely managed by religious -instructors and under distinctively religious auspices.</p> - -<p>The compromise bill formulated by a specially appointed commission -of the Congress sought to satisfy both extremes. It vested supreme<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -administrative authority in educational matters in a council of 18, -sitting in Santiago, presided over by the Minister of Justice and -Instruction; but it allowed 11 of the members to be named by the -Senate, the Chamber of Deputies, and the President of the Republic. -This feature was severely criticized by the liberals and by the -National Educational Association as still keeping educational authority -in the hands of politicians, not intrusting it to men really interested -in education, and making it possible to block all educational progress -whenever desired.</p> - -<p>The bill made four years’ attendance in primary schools, private or -public, compulsory for all children between 7 and 13, and required all -reaching the latter age without completing the prescribed course to -continue until 15. Poverty could not be pleaded in excuse, as grants -by the State were specified and graduated in amounts according to -need. Exemption from religious instruction was allowed upon written -application of the parent or upon certification of the local junta, -another feature opposed by the National Educational Association on the -ground that the junta’s powers could never be so amplified legally. -Programs of study and schedules should be under the authority of the -inspector general of primary instruction. Primary instruction was to -be imparted to complete illiterates in schools called supplementary, -managed independently of existing primary schools, and to partial -illiterates in schools called complementary, conducted in conjunction -with existent primary schools.</p> - -<p>The bill, as outlined above, encountered opposition from many sources, -and still remains unenacted. Pending its passage, the Minister of -Public Instruction, by virtue of the power vested in him, issued -in 1918 a decree organizing primary education in three grades of -two years each, continued by one grade of vocational education of -from one to three years. Attendance is not specifically compulsory, -though the local junta has power so to declare it in the schools of -its jurisdiction. The requirements as to qualifications of a primary -teacher are made more rigorous; he must be a citizen of Chile, of -good character, not less than 18 nor more than 40 years of age at the -time of appointment, and a graduate of a Government normal school, or -holding a degree of a Chilean or recognized foreign institution.</p> - - -<h3>ILLITERACY.</h3> - -<p>The problem of illiteracy in Chile is a serious one, the estimated -figures for 1917 showing 959,061 illiterates out of a total -population of 3,249,279. Since the year 1900 the struggle against it -has grown in vigor. The National Educational Association has shown -especial efficiency, and has worked through committees having the -following phases in charge: Compulsory school attendance, the legal -requirements,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> condition of the schools and the teaching force, school -revenues, school buildings and sanitation, and special education.</p> - -<p>This steady pressure prepared public sentiment for the leadership -of the most influential agency ever invoked in the fight against -illiteracy, viz. the conferences organized by the powerful newspaper El -Mercurio. Under its auspices these conferences were held in a 3-days’ -series in July, 1917, and were attended and participated in by men and -women identified with every phase of national education. The following -topics were the salient ones of those discussed:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>1. Comparative study of illiteracy statistics in various countries.</p> - -<p>2. Means of combating illiteracy in leading nations.</p> - -<p>3. Practicable means of action in Chile.</p> - -<p>4. Means of contribution, and proportion in which the State, the -municipal authorities, and the Provinces may contribute to the budget -necessary.</p> - -<p>5. Cooperation of private initiative.</p> - -<p>6. Means of making school attendance compulsory.</p> - -<p>7. Regulation of child labor.</p> - -<p>8. Reforms necessary in actual plans of study and in classification of -schools.</p> - -<p>9. Necessity and practical means of giving the schools a more -Nationalistic character.</p> - -<p>10. Minimum of knowledge to be required by compulsory attendance law.</p> - -<p>11. Place of night schools, Sunday schools, and traveling schools, in -the struggle against illiteracy.</p> -</div> - -<p>While no action of a legal character resulted from these conferences, -yet the impetus given to the cause was powerful, and had weight in -bringing about the decree and the projected law already outlined. Such -a move, combining at once social and economic as well as educational -characteristics, seeking to bring public opinion to bear on the -solution of a problem underlying the life of a nation, and launched by -a newspaper, is unique in the history of education.</p> - -<p>The Territory of Magellanes has shown itself remarkably efficient in -handling the problem of illiteracy. It is the southernmost area of the -country, and little favored by nature, being a long strip of barren -and rocky coast, with a climate singularly bleak and uninviting. Its -industries are based exclusively upon its mineral resources; and its -population, though intelligent, is very sparse. By the census of -1917, its percentage of illiteracy was 20; according to the estimate -of the author of a study of the Territory, published in the Anales -de la Universidad, April, 1918, this has been reduced to 7 per cent. -Credit is largely due the Society of Popular Instruction, a private -organization, established in 1911, which offers free<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> instruction -to pupils of all ages. In spite of the prevailing inclemency of the -climate, the sessions of its day and night schools are excellently -attended. The system is centralized in Punta Arenas.</p> - - -<h3>PRIMARY EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>Unlike Argentina and Brazil, primary public education has always been -left in the hands of the central national government, the individual -Province having control of financial outlay and the construction of -school buildings, and this only when requirements of the national law -are fulfilled. Uniform programs of study and schedules of hours are -enforced throughout the nation. But conditions of scarcity of materials -and labor render it impossible to keep many of the old buildings in -repair. The tendency long criticized by the Association of Teachers, to -cram school buildings into the half dozen larger centers, seems in a -fair way to be checked.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Criticism has been freely expressed in the public press of -the use of a disproportionately large part of the primary school fund -voted by the Congress for the use of the executive.</p> - -</div> - -<p>This new order of things is most plainly seen in the attention paid -to rural schools, which have predominated in the number built since -1916. The Government has instructed the committee on public works and -the department of primary instruction to develop a plan of building -uniform types of rural school. The expenses are to be borne out of the -fund just mentioned. Three types are contemplated, with a capacity of -80, 160, and 400 pupils respectively, solidly constructed, conforming -strictly to all modern demands of sanitation, lighting, and heating. In -many places the North American principle of consolidation of schools -has been applied, to the distinct improvement of attendance and -instruction, 200 small and struggling schools having been abolished -and 100 annexed to others more centrally situated. With these gains, -however, the crying need in Chile is acknowledged to be more schools. -It is estimated that 10,000 elementary schools are yet needed for her -approximately 750,000 children, of whom slightly less than 400,000 are -in the schools of this grade, and 50,000 in private parochial schools. -All educational thinkers are agreed that the situation calls for legal -compulsory attendance on primary instruction, rigidly enforced.</p> - - -<h3>SECONDARY EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>Secondary education in Chile is organized in three grades: (1) National -high schools; (2) liceos of the second class, and (3) complete liceos -of the first class.</p> - -<p>(1) The high schools are a development of the last few years, and are -situated only in the larger centers. They number 30 for boys<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> and 12 -for girls, enrolling less than 12,000 pupils, and are generally little -more than higher elementary schools. They are almost exclusively -technical, and do not prepare the pupil for advanced study.</p> - -<p>(2) The liceos of the second class (sometimes called colegios), of -which about 100 exist in the Provinces and Territories, offer courses -covering three years in the elementary subjects of instruction common -to scientific and literary groups.</p> - -<p>(3) The liceos of the first class, numbering 40 for boys and 31 for -girls, and offering the full course of six years, are representative -of the best in secondary education in Latin-America. Those for boys, -following the tradition of the Spanish system for corresponding -schools, are administered by the University of Chile; those for girls, -by the Minister of Public Instruction and the National Council. The -practical and scientific wave which swept over this division of -education in 1915 caused the reinforcement of physical and chemical -teaching. Spanish, history and geography, religion (optional), French, -mathematics, natural sciences, gymnastics and singing, and manual -training run through all six years of the course; English (or German -or Italian), philosophy, civics, penmanship and drawing, mechanical -drawing (optional), extend through varying numbers of years. Students -of secondary education are struck with the excessive number of hours -required weekly, the minimum being 29 for the first year and the -maximum 33 for each of the last three years.</p> - -<p>The essential purpose of the liceo of the first class is to prepare -for the university, or for the professions; and national scholarships -are granted, including maintenance at the hostels, or annexed boarding -halls which were established five years ago.</p> - -<p>The system of secondary education has long been criticized by Chilean -educational thinkers as being too largely mental and literary, and as -paying little, if any, attention to the physical and moral. The attempt -to organize sports and physical exercises in secondary education has -met far less encouragement than in other South American countries.</p> - -<p>By decree of May, 1917, classes for illiterate girls over 7 years old -were annexed to liceos for girls, the ministry basing the number to be -admitted upon the attendance of the year previous. This was stoutly -opposed by the National Educational Association as being a confusion -of classification, a violation of the continuity of the educational -system, and an evasion of the palpable duty of the school authorities, -which should press the Government to establish fitting and proper -schools for such illiterate girls.</p> - -<p>The Government has appointed a commission of prominent men for the -study of reforms necessary and advisable for programs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> secondary -education for girls. As matters stand, the same programs of study -are set for both boys and girls, a traditional arrangement the -disadvantages of which are coming fully to be recognized.</p> - -<p>Despite unfavorable and antiquated programs of studies, the Province -of Nuble has made noteworthy progress in female secondary education. -In Chillan, its capital, are conducted four liceos, three of which are -for girls. Ambitious courses in the classics, social sciences, and -rudimentary science are offered. One of them, the Instituto Pedagogico, -founded in 1912, exercises far-reaching influence over the social, -moral, and artistic conditions of the Province. The American Liceo, -a private institution, conducted by teachers from the United States, -devotes especial attention to the teaching of English, colloquial and -literary, and also gives instruction generally along thoroughly modern -high-school lines.</p> - - -<h3>TRAINING OF TEACHERS.</h3> - -<p>Chile’s system of training teachers is distinctively eclectic, -borrowing, as it has done, from France, Sweden, Germany, and the United -States. Before 1870 French influence predominated, the great Argentine -educator, Sarmiento, himself a pupil of the school of Saint-Simon, -having founded the first normal school in 1842 while in exile from the -tyranny of the dictator Rosas. German influence became pronounced about -1880, when that nation began to supply men and women teachers in the -normals and as instructors in all grades of education. Since 25 years -ago the tide began to turn toward North American influence, especially -of the type of education developed in the Northwestern States. The -Chilean ideal is a judicious combination of (1) an institution for -the training of teachers for public schools who shall have adequate -culture, specialized training, manual skill, and theoretical and -practical knowledge of modern subjects, and (2) an institution for -training in social relations and habits, exercising steady influence on -the social environment of the school by means of popular courses and -conferences, and participation in popular movements.</p> - -<p>The full course in the 16 training colleges for teachers covers five -years, of which the first three are devoted to general education and -the last two to professional training. The course for the fifth year is -essentially professional, consisting of pedagogy (history, methodology, -and practice teaching), 17 hours weekly; Spanish, 1 hour; English or -French or German, 4 hours; civics and economics, 2 hours; hygiene, 2 -hours; horticulture or metallography, 2 hours; drawing, 1 hour; manual -arts, 2 hours; music, 1 hour; physical education, 3 hours. All expenses -are defrayed, in return for which the pupil is pledged to teach for -seven years in the national schools.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> - -<p>The actual method of instruction is along German lines. Object lessons, -those in natural history and history and geography have all impressed -recent foreign visitors as essentially Herbartian. Perhaps in no other -country of the world, since the well-drilled German schools fell into -chaos, is the influence of the normal schools upon the system and -method of public instruction more powerful than in Chile. Indeed, -this potent influence has overleaped the boundaries of Chile proper -and affected every country of Latin America. A supreme example is -the influence of the Instituto Pedagogico, the best known of Chilean -normal schools, founded in 1909, with predominatingly German faculty, -which has developed into a type of higher normal school with a colegio -annexed, emphasizing practice teaching with subsequent criticism -and courses of general pedagogy and methodology in every subject. -Its certificates rank highest in the secondary and normal education -of the capital city; students are attracted to it from the other -Latin-American States, and return home to reorganize education there -along its lines. Its boast is that it inspired the establishment of the -Instituto Nacional at Buenos Aires.</p> - -<p>Scandinavian and Belgian influences are at work in the Instituto -de Profesores Especiales. Established in 1906, it was definitely -reorganized in 1910 and installed in the building especially -constructed for it. Of its 300 pupils 200 are women, and the majority -of both men and women are active teachers in the schools of the -capital. It offers courses common to all the specialized sections, -such as psychology, French, pedagogy, civics, and school legislation, -and includes five sections, fundamental to its organization: Physical -education, manual arts, drawing and penmanship, domestic economy, and -vocal music. For the convenience of teachers, instruction is given from -7 to 9 a.m. and from 4 to 8 p.m.</p> - -<p>The last few years have seen wide extension of the demand for rural -normal schools, and many critics of the existent schools have urged -that they follow those of the State of Wisconsin as a model. The -essential solidarity of educational aims of the South American -republics is shown by the fact that Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia -during the same period drew their inspiration from the same North -American source.</p> - -<p>The decree already mentioned under the head of primary education -emphasizes the duty of the normal schools to prepare free of all -expense primary teachers for any of the three grades of instruction. -Each normal school is also required to have annexed such specially -organized practice schools as shall be necessary. At the discretion of -the President of the Republic, the normal schools shall offer special -courses for those students who have passed the examinations of the -fifth year of the colegios, with the aim of attracting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> such students -into the field of teaching. That the need of wider training of the -teachers is a pressing one in Chile is shown by the fact that, in 1915, -of 3,000 rural teachers, only 350, and of 6,240 primary teachers of the -nation at large, only 2,435, had normal school training. The service -had to be recruited by 2,000 graduates of primary schools who passed -examinations, and by 1,850 applicants who held no certificate and were -allowed to serve as temporary substitutes.</p> - -<p>Of special interest is the annual reciprocity of teachers between the -Government of Chile and the Universities of the States of California -and Washington, arranged in 1918. Each party is to send four. For the -present the Chilean commission has expressed predominant interest in -secondary education, and has called for one university professor, one -normal-school teacher, one teacher of technical subjects, and one -teacher (preferably a woman) in secondary education. The universities -mentioned will act as the agents in the selection of the instructors.</p> - -<p>Interchange of university professors has also been arranged with -Uruguay, which is for the present confined to medical instruction.</p> - -<p>The National Educational Association has at many meetings pressed for -the scientific and practical training of the teachers of Chile in -vocational studies; and for the appropriation by the Congress of a -definite sum for sending normal teachers abroad for study in the modern -practical and sociological subjects.</p> - - -<h3>TECHNICAL EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>For this branch of education the National Educational Association -in 1917 recommended that there be established by law a Council of -Industrial Education composed of a director and 12 members, four of -whom shall be professors of the fundamental technical branches, one -a woman inspector of vocational schools for women, one an inspector -general of primary education, one the director general of railroads, -and one a director and inspector of army munitions. Their duties should -be to exercise superintendency over the entire system of technical -and industrial education to be organized in the Republic, over the -national school of arts and trades, and over such industrial schools -for girls and women as might be established. On this board should be -likewise all inspectors and officials of such branches as might be -later established. A bill embodying these provisions was introduced in -the Congress but has not as yet been acted upon.</p> - -<p>Steady progress in all branches of technical education has been shown. -The schools of higher primary grade offering technical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> courses -number 288, with physical training and gymnastics compulsory in all -grades. There were also in operation 29 technical colegios for women; -6 agricultural colegios; 10 commercial schools, controlled by the -commission upon commercial education; and 3 schools of mines.</p> - -<p>The department of industrial promotion has urged upon the Congress the -establishment of a chain of industrial and agricultural schools.</p> - -<p>With the establishment by law of the Industrial University of -Valparaiso there will be completed the full cycle of industrial -education in Chile, consisting of: (1) Elementary industrial training -in two schools already established and in six more to be established; -(2) secondary industrial training in the School of Arts and Crafts; and -(3) higher industrial training in the Technical School of Valparaiso.</p> - -<p>In November, 1918, met the first National Congress of Dairying, -organized under the auspices of the Agronomic Society of Chile. -It urged the legal organization of instruction in this branch in -(1) special schools of dairying in northern and central Chile; (2) -courses annexed to already established schools of agriculture; (3) -in establishments of secondary education for youths of both sexes in -popular meetings and public traveling courses; (4) in rural primary -schools for illiterate adults.</p> - -<p>It is appropriate to mention just here the comprehensive project of -the board of missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United -States for the establishment of an agricultural and industrial system -of education in southern Chile. It has been approved by the Government -of Chile as a potent aid in the uplift of the peon class. A ranch of -nearly 4,000 acres has been purchased along the Malleco River, on -which it is purposed to train the native population in the rudimentary -subjects of instruction, and especially in modern agricultural methods. -The management will employ the best available experts in horticulture, -agriculture, and domestic arts to be found in the South American -countries who may be acquainted with the needs of Chilean rural life.</p> - - -<h3>THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CHILE.</h3> - -<p>This body plays a larger part in educational thought and leadership -than the corresponding body in any other Latin American State. Its -activities are planned for close articulation of the social and -educational needs of the nation. One of the furthest reaching is -the public-extension work in subjects of university and secondary -instruction. In 1917, its eleventh year of operation, it held 14 -conferences at the University of Chile, with an attendance of 15,000, -an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> increase of 50 per cent over the previous year. The subjects -treated were patriotic, historical, literary, artistic, sociological, -commercial, and medico-therapeutic.</p> - -<p>In secondary extension during 1917 there were held in provincial -capitals 19 conferences on subjects more popular and more exclusively -educational and sociological.</p> - -<p>The department of university extension has also for three years -devoted itself to collecting international data upon immigration -and naturalization laws, and has cooperated with all the labor -organizations of the Republic to hinder the passage of premature and -unscientific laws in this field.</p> - -<p>The activities of the association cover a wide range. In his report for -the year 1917 the president reviewed the activities of the body and -examined the most important problems to which it had addressed itself -during the period. They were:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>1. The establishment of a rural normal school, a project not yet -realized.</p> - -<p>2. Democratic education by the progressive elimination of primary -courses of education in secondary institutions.</p> - -<p>3. Obligatory primary instruction, sought by a law passed by the -Chamber of Deputies in 1917, but as yet not acted upon by the Senate.</p> - -<p>4. Nationalization of the Chilean system of education, a question -which needs to be presented still more in detail to the nation and the -Congress.</p> -</div> - -<p>Like Argentina, Chile has a grave problem in the assimilation of -alien elements, and her nationalism is alarmed at the activity of the -school organizations of diverse races existent on her soil. French -students of education are intensely interested in this development as a -vindication of their prophecies, for they have long been pointing out -the Germanization of Chilean education.</p> - -<p>The association has vigorously urged legislation requiring the close -and systematic inspection of all nongovernmental schools, especially -those of secondary grade in north Chile, where German propaganda has -for years been an open secret, carried on, as was well known, by a -German-Chilean Union of Teachers, and where German liceos exist in full -operation. The association urged the requirement in secondary schools -of essentially national subjects, such as Spanish and the history, -geography, and civics of Chile, taught by Chileans and descendants of -Chileans.</p> - -<p>In the field of physical education, the activities of the association -have been specially directed to securing proper playgrounds for schools -and to arousing practical interest in this field among philanthropists -and the public at large. The association has taken strong ground -for antialcoholic instruction in primary and secondary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> schools, -urging that such be incorporated in the textbooks in the study of -physiology, hygiene, and temperance, and in independent courses in -public schools and State colegios. The project encountered opposition -in the National Congress. The association has also grappled with the -problem of immorality, issuing in May, 1917, appeals to families on -sexual ethics and the systematic inculcation of ethical ideas of sex by -educational and therapeutic measures. During 1917, fraternal relations -were established with Brazil and Bolivia, on the occasion of the -inauguration of the Higher Normal Institute.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="EDUCATION_IN_URUGUAY">EDUCATION IN URUGUAY.</h2> -</div> - - -<h3>GENERAL INTRODUCTION.</h3> - -<p>The marked educational awakening of Uruguay during the last biennium -has been only one phase of the universal demand of the nation for a -new social and economic adjustment. Perhaps the chief manifestation of -this has been the adoption of the new constitution in place of the old, -which had been in force exactly 90 years. At a plebiscite of November, -1917, the constitution as formulated was submitted to the people and -adopted by a vote of 85,000 to 4,000; and it became the fundamental law -of the land on March 1, 1919. As regards its bearings upon educational -administration, the most noteworthy change—and perhaps that around -which centered most opposition during its consideration—was the -provision which divides the executive power between a President and a -National Council of Administration.</p> - -<p>The latter body, composed of nine members elected for six years -directly by the people, and absolutely independent of the President, -has charge of all matters relating to public instruction, public works, -labor, industries, public charities, health, and the preparation of -the annual national budget. The administrative officers of public -instruction of all grades, including the minister, are appointed by -the National Council and are subject to its authority according to -such particular laws and regulations as the Congress may enact. This -substitution of a composite board for an individual as the fountainhead -of educational authority is an experiment whose operations will be -observed with much interest in a country of South America habituated by -tradition to authority concentrated in an individual.</p> - - -<h3>ILLITERACY.</h3> - -<p><i>Instruction of adults and the night schools.</i>—The problem of -combating illiteracy, as in all the more progressive South American -countries during the last biennium, has received more systematic -consideration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> than during any previous period.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> As will be seen -later in the consideration of the rural schools, measures have been -taken which are of unusual importance for the instruction of youthful -illiterates. In the related field of instruction of adults who are -illiterates or nearly so, work of a creative nature has been done in -Uruguay. The mere statistics show progress, the courses offered for -adults in the year 1916-17 being 55 in excess of the former year and -the enrollment 5,284, an increase of 1,671 over that year; but the new -spirit animating this branch is the notable feature. The authorities -have kept it steadily in mind to carry adult education out from the -capital city to the rural districts; and the national authorities of -primary education have cooperated efficiently in lending schoolhouses -as places for adult instruction and encouraging primary teachers to -assist in this work. The Government has furthered the study of the -problem in the researches of Señor Hipolito Coirolo, director of the -largest night school for adults in Montevideo. Señor Coirolo spent -nearly two years in collecting systematic data from Argentina, Brazil, -Colombia, and Paraguay, which were naturally confronted by the same -problems in adult illiteracy. In March, 1917, he presented to the -authorities the results of his findings in a project for the organic -reform of instruction for adults in the night schools. Señor Coirolo -maintained that the time was ripe for progress in this field to keep -pace with the other educational demands, more especially as it was -admitted that the prevailing system was a more or less poorly made -combination of regulations and practices covering many localities and -periods, and had been only tentatively adopted by presidential decree -in 1903, and given legal existence in 1907, when 35 night schools -were organized. All familiar with conditions knew that they were now -completely out of touch with modern social and educational demands.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> See executive message of May, 1917, accompanying project -of law for appropriation of $50,000 for appointment of 100 assistant -primary teachers for the Departments of the Republic.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Señor Coirolo found the curriculum of night schools too largely -theoretical and bookish and in only a few instances offering practical -instruction. After careful study of the subjects offered in the night -schools of progressive countries, he urged that the night schools of -the future be organized upon the following main lines:</p> - -<p>1. The completion of 17 years of age requisite for admission.</p> - -<p>2. The division into three classes, each occupying a year according to -the degree of illiteracy, and the division of each class into three -cycles of three months each, the cycle to be the unit of time, without -limitation upon the transfer of pupils from one cycle to another.</p> - -<p>3. The subjects to be introduced in logical sequence and to be taught -in accordance with the development of the pupil and to consist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> of -reading, language work, writing, arithmetic, elements of applied -geometry, singing, drawing, moral instruction, elements of anatomy, -physiology, hygiene, civic instruction, geography, and history -(national and universal); talks and lessons on objects of daily -life, manual arts, domestic economy, and household arts; elements -of political economy, sociology, psychology, duties of parents, -accounting, and industrial training. Individual conferences with -teachers, reading, writing, and arithmetic are to be continued through -all three years; and each year is to close with a review and finishing -course, devoting attention to individual needs.</p> - -<p>4. Under the head of general administration the proponent urged the -elimination of religious instruction in night schools, less attention -to examinations for promotion, the prohibition of holding night -schools in buildings occupied by children during the day, and careful -inspection of night schools by appointed authorities.</p> - -<p>Certain of these provisions were embodied in a ministerial decree -of October, 1917, which stressed the importance of this branch of -education in the national life, and appropriated $10,000 for the -increase of the staff of teachers in commercial subjects and domestic -arts.</p> - - -<h3>PRIMARY EDUCATION, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.</h3> - -<p>In 1917 slightly less than 100,000 pupils were enrolled in the 1,014 -public primary schools of Uruguay, an increase of 2,500 over the -preceding year. Of these, nearly 65,000 were enrolled in the city of -Montevideo alone.</p> - -<p>In administration and inspection the authorities in this field were -active and progressive. Tentative reforms in the programs of study for -the schools of towns and villages, a step long urged by them, were -outlined by the minister of education; and wider latitude was allowed -such individual schools in the matter of adapting nature study and -practical courses to regular school work in accordance with local -conditions and occupations. This step was in keeping with the attention -paid to rural schools, which will be discussed later.</p> - -<p>By executive resolution of July, 1917, the long-discussed change in -the school year was made by which it shall hereafter open March 1 and -close December 15. As with the similar change in Argentina, beneficial -results, especially in the rural schools, are expected, as this -arrangement is in conformity with climatic conditions. The change was -made after investigation among the teaching force, and the country -teachers won a victory over their city fellows, who favored vacations -in the summer. This is but another and a significant effect of the -steady centripetal attraction of the overshadowing capital city, more -marked even in the new countries of South America than in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> old -ones of Europe. The country teachers have openly expressed their wish -to spend the longest possible time in the capital, in spite of the -inconveniences of such a sojourn in the summer. A further light upon -the country teacher’s point of view is shown by the information that -the long vacations in winter permit the small landowner to employ his -children in labors of battage, which begin in December and last most -of the winter. The schools are therefore practically empty in winter. -It is manifestly wiser to put the former long vacation of July at this -time.</p> - -<p>Complaints having become more frequent in regard to the blocking -of educational administration in certain departments because of -disagreements among inspectors, more drastic requirements were laid -down by resolutions of the National Inspection of Primary Instruction, -dated February, 1917. The authority of the departmental inspector -over the subinspectors was confirmed; in the event of disagreement or -insubordination the departmental inspector was required to present -the case to the Department of National Inspection; the visitation -of schools was distributed as nearly equally as possible; and the -responsibility for inaction was put squarely upon the inspectors.</p> - -<p>These provisions, rigorous as they were, did not prove adequate, -and much of the business of the schools of the outlying departments -still remained blocked. The executive, therefore, in November, -1917, transmitted to the Congress, along with a message emphasizing -the necessity of the law, a project for the establishment of three -divisions of regional inspectors of primary education to exercise -general supervision over the departmental inspectors and the schools -of the Republic. These regional inspectors acting as a unit were to -constitute the technical inspection of the school authorities. Their -functions were to be regulated by the executive in accordance with -the reports of the national inspection and the general direction of -primary instruction. The hitherto existing chief inspectors, technical, -adjunct, and chief of statistics were to be transformed into regional -inspectors, and under their immediate supervision were to be put all -the departmental inspectors. The projected law encountered unexpected -opposition, and its passage has not as yet been secured.</p> - -<p>Scientific interest in the character of the textbooks adopted for use -in the primary schools of Uruguay has been aroused by the Government’s -offer of prizes for satisfactory textbooks and by the publication in -the Anales de Instruccion Primaria of illustrative lines and themes -of treatment. The general assembly has authorized the offer of $6,000 -in prizes in the contest for the composition of a book combining in a -single volume all the textbook material needed in the fourth, fifth, -and sixth classes in the public schools of Montevideo. This offer had -as its object to lower the cost of education and thus to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> facilitate -attendance, as the book in question was to be distributed gratuitously -in cases of need.</p> - -<p>A circular issued by the department of technical inspection in April, -1917, called the attention of teachers to the abuses of assigning -written home work and limited such tasks to 30 minutes in classes of -the first grade and to one hour for those in higher grades.</p> - -<p>By executive decree, school savings funds and a system of aid for -necessitous children, supplying clothing, midday meal, transportation, -and books, were established and placed in charge of the administrative -council for each department, composed of the departmental authorities -of primary education, and the civil authorities of the several -localities, presided over by the departmental inspectors. The funds for -the institution of this system were to be drawn from State subventions -to municipalities, school fees, and legacies and gifts to such objects. -Although the Congress in October, 1917, appropriated $30,000 to -organize the system, financial considerations have as yet prevented its -practical organization.</p> - -<p><i>Private instruction.</i>—For the first time in the history of -Uruguay systematic steps have been taken to ascertain the real nature -and aims of private instruction. By executive decree of May, 1917, the -inspector of private instruction and the assistant director general of -primary public instruction were directed to address to every private -educational institution in Uruguay a questionnaire in duplicate calling -for information concerning its teaching staff, the mental and physical -condition of its pupils, the hygienic conditions of the building and -site, classrooms, dormitories, playgrounds, source and nature of -drinking water, lighting conditions, school furniture and equipment, -programs of study, methods, textbooks, school hours, and the general -organization and administration of the school. No time limit was set -for the reply, but it was requested within a reasonable time. The gist -of the information gathered and the action of the Government have not -as yet been published. Such a move has naturally aroused opposition in -conservative and ecclesiastical circles, and its results are awaited -with keen interest by other South American countries which have to deal -with similar problems.</p> - -<p>The issues aroused by the consideration of the private schools -continued to grow more acute and culminated in the introduction of a -bill in the Congress in March, 1918, forbidding the opening of private -schools of any grade without the written permission of the inspectoral -department of private instruction or the departmental inspectors of -primary instruction; and requiring all teachers in private schools to -hold a State teacher’s diploma in accordance with the provisions of the -law of public instruction, and debarring the clergy from teaching in -any such private schools. The bill naturally became a storm center and -is as yet unenacted into law.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p> - - -<h3>RURAL SCHOOLS.</h3> - -<p>Until the breaking out of the World War, and the consequent upsetting -of traditions in all South American countries whose outlet is on the -Atlantic Ocean, educational thought in Uruguay concerned itself largely -with the capital city. In this respect, as in that of population (one -out of three people in Uruguay lives in Montevideo), the centralizing -tendency of South American countries is well illustrated. But a vital -change began to show itself from 1914 to 1916, and in the latter -year it acquired extraordinary impetus from the support of national -leaders and of the press. The nation has grown steadily to recognize -the proper balance to be observed between the claims of the schools of -the capital and those of the rural districts. It has come to see that -a healthy national life was possible only with organic changes in the -schools of the outlying departments, and that these of Montevideo could -without danger be left at their present status until the education of -the people from whom the great city was steadily recruited should be -attended to. It is in the light of this radical change in the national -attitude that the educational history of Uruguay for the last biennium -should be read.</p> - -<p>This epoch in educational progress has been further marked by the -recognition of the need of financial support for rural education, and -the further need of differentiating the subjects of instruction proper -for rural children from those adapted to the city. In getting this -principle clearly before the public mind, the educational authorities -of Uruguay have played a part excelled in few countries for skill and -devotion to the national interests. Mention should be made of the able -contributions of Señor A. J. Pérez, National Inspector of Primary -Education, especially of his study entitled “De la cultura necessaria -en la democracia” (Anales, 1918), which applies to modern conditions De -Tocqueville’s main lines of thought.</p> - -<p>A commission of nine experienced teachers, six men and three women, -with Señor Pérez as chairman, was appointed by executive decree to -formulate the program of study for the projected rural schools. -It began its sessions in February, 1917, and met frequently for -two months. Its report was presented in May, 1917. Approved by the -executive in June, by decree it went into effect on March 1, 1918. The -main contentions of the commission in support of its plan are well -worthy of notice:</p> - -<p>1. Far-reaching changes within a generation in the commercial and -industrial life of the nation have affected the rural districts and -have called for different subjects and methods of instruction for the -children of these districts. The rural school of the future must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -recognized as fundamentally an elementary industrial school adjusted to -local conditions.</p> - -<p>2. The successful rural school must have the following aims: To -inculcate conscientious and efficient labor; to minister to a -well-regulated and happy home life; to diffuse the knowledge of private -and public hygiene, and to further the increase of population and -public wealth and, in general, the possession of a well-founded and -enduring popular liberty.</p> - -<p>3. The intimate relation of the rural schools with the problems of home -life requires the new rural school to be taught by women, and therefore -the training of young women as teachers in such schools should be at -once initiated and continued as the basis of their success. Concrete -illustration is found in the successful intensive training of 24 young -women in a course of six weeks at the normal institute at Montevideo in -the summer of 1917.</p> - -<p>4. In the administrative organization the committee was guided by the -following general principles: (<i>a</i>) Not to install rural schools -by foundation or transfer except in localities where donations of -ground of not less than 4 hectares (10 acres) should be immediately -available; (<i>b</i>) to urge similar donations, public or private, to -existing rural schools which lacked grounds of the minimum area above -indicated; (<i>c</i>) to propose and encourage the transfer of rural -schools that had no grounds annexed nor could obtain such by donation -to another parish where such advantages could be obtained without -prejudice to the interests of the rural schools in the district.</p> - -<p>5. No child below 7 years of age should be admitted to the rural -schools.</p> - -<p>6. The programs of study for the rural schools occupied the greater -part of the commission’s time. The subjects of instruction as reported -covered three years, and were reading, language work, writing, -arithmetic, drawing, agriculture, domestic economy, elements of applied -geometry, geography and history (local, national, and universal), -singing, and gymnastics. In the view of the commission itself, the -feature which peculiarly differentiates these new programs is the -complete application of practical methods and aims to each of these -subjects, the elimination of abstract and memory teaching, and, above -all, the development of the subjects of drawing, agriculture, and -domestic economy. The fundamental aim throughout was to correlate -instruction with the conditions and occupations of life in the several -communities and to lead the pupil to see each subject as related to -practical utility.</p> - -<p>Following the promulgation of the report of the commission, lively -interest was manifested by the nation at large in the initiation of -such rural schools. Practical difficulties, however, were foreseen in -securing funds for their launching upon the nation-wide scale hoped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -for, and restlessness in certain quarters was manifested, though the -Chamber of Deputies promptly voted the funds necessary. The National -Rural Congress of Uruguay, in session in August, 1917, addressed to -the minister of public instruction an urgent plea for carrying out the -terms of the report in time for the opening of at least a part of such -schools with the new school year.</p> - - -<h3>MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.</h3> - -<p>The medical inspection of schools has been favorably regarded in -Uruguay for a number of years. It was initiated by law in 1913 with -the examination of the pupils of the normal schools in Montevideo and -the division of urban and rural schools into five groups. Since then -popular approval of its application to the schools of the nation has -steadily grown.</p> - -<p>Under the present law individual inspection of the physical condition -of pupils concerns itself only with those who enter for the first time. -Naturally the law is applied with varying degrees of rigor, the schools -of the capital being visited regularly by the medical inspectors, while -those of the outlying departments are dependent upon the energy and -faithfulness of the individual inspector. The law assigns to each a -certain number of schools to visit. Capable medical inspectors have -served their nation well in pointing out the grave disadvantages from -the use of primary schools for night schools for adults, especially the -danger of tuberculosis.</p> - -<p>Medical inspectors are also required by law to include in their -tri-monthly reports recommendations for repairs, alterations, etc., -of school buildings and grounds called for by sanitary or hygienic -considerations.</p> - -<p>Dental inspection has also been systematically carried on in most of -the schools of the capital, the reports of oral and dental affections -observed in the children reaching 76 per cent of the total ailments -noted. Ocular inspection in the schools of Montevideo has also been -made a separate field within the last biennium.</p> - -<p>By an amendment of 1916 to the existing law an annual physical -examination of teachers in the schools of Montevideo will be required. -This was naturally, and in certain instances bitterly, opposed; but the -opposition has largely died down, and the teachers themselves have come -to realize the benefits involved.</p> - - -<h3>PHYSICAL TRAINING.</h3> - -<p>In accordance with the wish of educational officials to diffuse among -the schools of Uruguay the benefits of international progress in the -physical betterment of school children, a commission was named by the -executive in April, 1916, to draw up a plan of physical education<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -in schools. This commission, acting in cooperation with the general -direction of primary instruction, recommended to the executive the -appointment of a permanent technical commission of physical training -for schools, and this recommendation was approved by executive decree -of March 8, 1918. The commission so appointed was to consist of a -member of the general direction of primary instruction, one of the -national commission of physical education, a physician of the medical -school staff, a physician to be named by the National Council of -Hygiene, the technical inspector of primary education, the technical -director of the National Commission of Physical Education, the teachers -of gymnastics of the normal institutes and of the primary schools of -the capital, and two physicians who were specialists in diseases of -children.</p> - -<p>The province of the commission was to draw up for the general direction -of primary instruction programs of physical exercises for schools; to -outline methods of instruction; to see that these programs and methods -were practically carried out in the public schools, to inform the -school authorities upon points of deficiency in instruction and to -indicate measures of correcting these; to organize gymnastic meetings -and exhibitions for schools, and in general to promote the diffusion of -physical education in the schools.</p> - -<p>In furtherance of the awakened national interest in physical education, -the executive has appointed departmental commissions in various -departments for the immediate provision of adequate playgrounds and -the acquisition of apparatus for games to be installed in town and -village plazas. These have cooperated with the National Commission -for Physical Education, the latter having decreed the establishment, -upon application of residents, of neighborhood and community playing -centers. All games, especially those of North America, which are -adapted to the climate and environment have been systematically -encouraged. In localities where it was required by law the executive -has authorized the municipal authorities, with the consent of the -national commission, to negotiate such loans as were necessary for the -financial carrying out of this nation-wide scheme. These are steps of -very great significance in a country of South America not by tradition -or racial inheritance addicted to outdoor sports.</p> - - -<h3>SECONDARY EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>By executive message of February 14, 1918, the work of certain of -the departmental liceos in discovering boys of talent in the higher -elementary schools who were without means of continuing their -education, and giving them opportunities to pursue their studies by -means of a system of scholarships, was highly commended, especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -as a beginning of bridging the chasm between elementary and secondary -education.</p> - -<p>In response to popular demand, courses in Italian and Portuguese were -incorporated by decree of the secondary education division of public -instruction in 1917. With the object of making known to teachers -in secondary education the international progress in this field, a -journal entitled “Revista de Enseñanza Secundaria” was established by -executive decree under the direction of the secretary of this division. -All reports and public business concerning this division are to be -published in this journal.</p> - -<p>By executive decree of November, 1917, all courses for the training of -primary-school teachers maintained since April, 1916, in the liceos of -the outlying departments were discontinued. They had been originally -instituted by way of experiment for supplying teachers for the rural -schools, and were not regarded as serving this purpose. Furthermore, in -view of the agitation for improved rural schools, it was regarded as -useless to continue a system of training which had proved, because of -its environment, impracticable to harmonize with modern schools.</p> - - -<h3>COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>The past biennium has seen a considerable development of interest -in commercial education. By executive recommendation and by law of -January, 1916, there were introduced in the liceos and national schools -of commerce in the capital and three of the larger cities courses of -varying length for the training of boys for the consular, diplomatic, -and foreign agency services. By ministerial decree of April, 1917, -there were incorporated in the national schools of commerce courses -in civil and commercial law, American history, and advanced courses -in accounting and bookkeeping; and legal permission was given the -individual school to extend the latter courses into the fifth year -wherever deemed suitable. In common with students finishing the courses -in the liceos, those from national school of commerce were granted -opportunity to compete for scholarships abroad offered by decree of -January, 1918. These scholarships are good for one or more years -according to the success of the holder, and are apportioned among the -departments according to the discretion of the council of secondary -and preparatory education. Among the usual scholastic requirements -called for are periodical reports from the holder of such a scholarship -concerning the social and economic conditions of the people among whom -he has been sent to study.</p> - -<p>Following the plan drawn up at Montevideo in the summer of 1918 -by governmental and educational representatives from most of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> the -South American countries, invitations were sent to all interested -in commercial education to attend the South American Congress of -Commercial Education to be held in that city in January-February, -1919. The best talent in this division of education was assigned -the discussion of topics which were considered as most urgent at -the present time. They were treated under two main heads, those of -(<i>a</i>) economic commercial expansion and (<i>b</i>) commercial -instruction. The former head, not being essentially educational, calls -for no notice here. The latter included the following topics:</p> - -<p>1. From what points, how, and by what means commercial education should -be developed on the American continent; extent and sub-division of such -instruction.</p> - -<p>2. Means of stimulating acquaintance among the peoples of the Americas.</p> - -<p>3. The centers of commercial education as professional schools, and as -institutions of modern culture.</p> - -<p>4. Should courses in business ethics be included in the curriculum of -the advanced classes? Morale, character, and culture of students of -commerce and of consular service.</p> - -<p>5. Universal history of commerce as an indispensable element in the -training of competent consuls.</p> - -<p>6. Are screen films necessary in giving instruction in commerce and -geography?</p> - -<p>7. Countinghouse practice.</p> - -<p>8. How should commerce be taught?</p> - -<p>9. Teaching of languages in the centers of commercial education.</p> - -<p>10. Preparation of women for a commercial career.</p> - -<p>Among the resolutions officially adopted by the congress which had -educational bearing were those recommending that—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Institutes or sections of economic expansion in faculties -of economic science, schools, and higher centers of economic and -commercial study be established which should devote themselves -especially to the study and practical solution of the various economic -questions affecting inter-American relations and solidarity.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) For social and economic ends American countries create and -aid industrial schools for fisheries and derived industries.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Propaganda primers be prepared for exchange among the public -schools of the (South) American Continent.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) There be included in programs of higher commercial study -courses of comparative American economy and comparative customs -legislation (the latter for consular courses), and that existing -seminaries of economic investigation or higher commerce schools write -the economic and financial history of their respective countries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span></p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) The interchange of professors and students between the -higher institutions of commercial learning be initiated.</p> - -<p>(<i>f</i>) International agreements be concluded for the reciprocal -recognition of degrees issued by institutions of commercial learning -and that scholarships be granted for the interchange of students.</p> - -<p>(<i>g</i>) The compilation of legislation of American countries -concerning commercial education be intrusted to the permanent -commission created by the congress. The commission will be -assisted in this work by a committee of professors and experts in -commercial education and will be charged with proposing plans and -curricula in accordance with the following: Commercial instruction, -which presupposes primary education, to be divided into three -categories—(<i>a</i>) Elementary instruction, which may be dependent -or independent; (<i>b</i>) secondary instruction; (<i>c</i>) higher -instruction. The purpose of these branches is: (<i>a</i>) To train -auxiliaries of commerce; (<i>b</i>) to prepare for commerce in general; -(<i>c</i>) to furnish economic, financial, and commercial knowledge -preparing for directive functions in commerce and industry, insurance -and consular work, etc.</p> - -<p>(<i>h</i>) Preliminary cultural studies of two grades be established, -one confined to the first and second categories of commercial -instruction, and the second for broader instruction in the third -category.</p> - -<p>(<i>i</i>) The study of the proposal of the National Institute of -Commerce of La Paz, Bolivia, concerning education of women be referred -to the permanent commission.</p> - -<p>(<i>k</i>) Higher institutions of commercial education establish, if -not already existing, in their curricula the separation of commercial -from economic geography, the study of commercial geography to begin in -primary schools, with periodical competitions for the preparation of -the best commercial and economic geographies of each country and the -exchange of prize works be arranged for.</p> - -<p>(<i>l</i>) Institutions of bibliography and information be established, -independent of or annexed to seminaries or institutes, for -investigation existing or to be founded in America, and providing for -the widest exchange of economic, financial, and commercial information -collected.</p> - -<p>(<i>m</i>) The practice of the professions receiving diplomas from -higher institutions of commercial learning in commercial, civil, and -administrative matters be legally recognized.</p> - -<p>(<i>n</i>) An extraordinary prize to be known as the Pablo Fontaina -Prize for Commercial Studies be offered for students of higher -institutions of commercial learning. (Sr. Pablo Fontaina is director of -the Superior School of Commerce of Montevideo and played a prominent -part in the organization and work of the congress.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p> - -<p>(<i>o</i>) Entrance into consular and diplomatic services be granted by -competitive examination or to candidates presenting degrees issued by -official institutions of higher commercial learning.</p> - -<p>(<i>p</i>) Courses of ethics in preparatory studies and lectures -on commercial ethics in higher institutions of commercial learning -delivered by distinguished professional men be established.</p> - - -<h3>TRAINING OF TEACHERS.</h3> - -<p>Uruguay has always been progressive in this field. In 1914 Señorita -Leonor Hourticou, the directress of the Normal Institute for Girls, -submitted to the national inspector of primary instruction a -far-reaching and systematic plan of reform in the aims and methods of -practice teaching. She urged the establishment of a general directorate -of teachers’ practice training, composed of directors of normal -institutes and the national technical inspector of schools, which -body was to operate through a salaried secretary. Practice teaching -for the first grade was to be required for one year with a minimum of -160 sessions and for the second year for at least three months with a -minimum number of 60 sessions. Twelve schools for practice teaching -were to be established at Montevideo. Local inspectors were to be -appointed by the general directorate. While this scheme was not enacted -into law, yet it had very great value in focusing the attention of the -educational authorities upon the practical problem of reorganizing -practice teaching.</p> - -<p>These recommendations were allowed to lapse; but along with the -demand for improved schools went a similar one for the improvement of -the schools in towns and villages. In 1916 a committee of which the -directress of the Normal Institute for Girls was chairman was appointed -to formulate a training course for nonrural teachers which should be in -keeping with the recognized needs of modern schools. In October, 1916, -it presented as its report an outline of studies recommended to be -incorporated in the three years’ training course for primary teachers.</p> - -<p>Taking up for the present only the teachers of the first and second -grades, the committee recommended the following courses: Arithmetic, -accounting, algebra, applied geometry, penmanship and drawing, -elements of biology, zoology, botany, mineralogy and geology, anatomy, -physiology and hygiene, physics and chemistry, studies in industries, -geography and cosmography, history (national, South American, and -universal), constitutional law, sociology and political economy, -literature and composition, French, philosophy, and pedagogy with -practice teaching. By the approval of the executive these courses were -to go into effect in September, 1917.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p> - -<p><i>Training of rural teachers.</i>—The movement to improve the -conditions of rural life which has been mentioned before began in -earnest in 1914. In that year a report based upon an intensive study of -the social and economic needs of the rural districts was presented to -the general direction of primary instruction by a committee of teachers -especially appointed for that purpose. Though no official action was -taken at the time, the ventilation of the subject was very opportune -and aroused public interest in a field so vital to the welfare of -the nation. In every phase of rural education, and especially in the -training of the teachers required, practical reforms were recognized -as urgently necessary. From the strictly pedagogical point of view, -the projects for teacher training as laid down in that report were of -supreme interest, as constituting the basis upon which all subsequent -suggestions have rested. They called for the establishment of a normal -school exclusively for women rural teachers, which was preferably to -be located either within the capital city or within easy access of it. -This school was to work along the three main lines of agriculture, -horticulture, and domestic science. For admission there was to be -required, in addition to the usual certificates of mental, moral, and -physical fitness, the certificate of completion of at least the third -year of the program of the rural schools.</p> - -<p>The courses were to cover at least two years, preferably three, with -provision for four-year courses for pupils aspiring to the post of -rural inspectors, an aspiration which was encouraged in the report. -Only two or three scholarships were to be offered in each department, -and the number of pupils was to be restricted to 50 for the first -year. No purely theoretical instruction whatsoever was to be allowed. -Increasingly specialized work in the practice school annexed was to be -required of every pupil each year. For the last two years the work of -practice teaching was to be so arranged as to alternate by semesters -with the classroom work assigned. The latter, toward the end of each -semester, was to review all the work from the beginning.</p> - -<p>The projected institute was to be provided with all grounds, buildings, -and equipment necessary for the teaching of every phase of rural life, -including the care of fowls and cattle, with library and laboratories, -with a modern gymnasium, with a hall for the teaching of the fine arts, -and, most important of all, with a mixed practice school under the -direction of the authorities of the institute, consisting of at least -three grades and preferably four.</p> - -<p>Summer courses for teachers, both men and women, were to be offered, -emphasizing practical work in all courses related to rural life. -Traveling schools of agriculture were outlined to appeal especially -to youths of years beyond the rural school age and already engaged in -farming, each class to have not less than 8 pupils and not more than -15, and to continue for periods ranging from one week<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> to two months -according to the demand in each locality. These traveling schools were -to be organized for the same unit of territory as the rural schools -already in existence. Each course was to be arranged in cycles as -follows: (1) Three years’ course in dairying; (2) four years’ course in -domestic science; (3) three years’ course for rural teachers, men and -women. Suitable certificates were to be awarded students satisfactorily -completing these courses.</p> - -<p>As regards the courses in rural schools, the committee found that the -advantages accruing did not justify instructing pupils below 8 years -of age in formal agriculture, satisfactory progress being made if the -pupil was awakened to a love of nature and an interest in the life of -the farm. Pupils above 8 were to be instructed in agricultural courses -progressively adapted to their maturity and to the peculiar conditions -of locality, soil, and climate.</p> - -<p>As regards courses in domestic science, though the subject does -not permit of a sharp age line of cleavage, yet the youngest girls -might most profitably be given the elements, while the older girls -might, in the discretion of trained teachers, take up the formal and -technical study of food values in connection with elementary chemistry, -physiology, and biology.</p> - -<p>Anticipating the establishment of the normal schools for the exclusive -training of teachers for the projected rural schools, the executive -in November, 1917, sent to the Congress, along with the accompanying -message, the project of a law for establishing two normal schools of -agriculture in the Departments of Colonia and San Jose. These schools -were intended to minister to the special need of these outlying -departments. Their courses were to be intensive in character, adapted -especially to the training of teachers for these localities, and to -cover a year. Indeed, the bill specifically mentioned their purposes as -intimately related with the forthcoming rural schools. The bill at once -became a law, and the schools were to begin operation in March, 1918.</p> - - -<h3>HIGHER EDUCATION.</h3> - -<p>In the field of university education no changes, administrative or -instructional, are recorded for the past biennium; but there has been -a certain amount of dissatisfaction with the administrative government -of the University of Montevideo. In September, 1918, the executive sent -to the Congress, along with an accompanying message, the project of -a law clearly defining the constitution of the directive councils of -the several faculties of the University of Montevideo as established -by the laws of 1908 and 1915. Contention had arisen as to the right -of electing representatives to each of these councils. By the new law -each such council was to have 10<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> members and a dean. In the faculty -of law four of these were to be elected by the attorneys who were also -professors; four attorneys to be selected by those neither professors -nor substitutes; one minor attorney by those neither professors nor -substitutes; one student delegate by the students themselves.</p> - -<p>In the faculty of medicine four members were to be elected by the -professors, substitutes, and chiefs of clinics and laboratories; three -members to be elected by the physicians not embraced in the above -categories; one member to be elected by the pharmacists; and one by the -dentists not included in the categories above; one member to be elected -by the students of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry.</p> - -<p>In the faculty of engineering four members were to be elected by -the professors and substitutes; three members to be elected by the -engineers; and two by the surveyors who were neither professors nor -substitutes; one member to be elected by the students of engineering -and surveying.</p> - -<p>In the faculty of architecture five members were to be elected by the -professors and substitutes; four members to be elected by architects -who were neither professors nor substitutes; one member to be elected -by the students of architecture.</p> - -<p>By decrees of 1917 enacted into law, seven years of advanced courses -were required for the degree of doctor of medicine and five years -for the degree of architect. Special courses of one and two years in -construction and materials, leading to certificates but not to degrees, -were formulated and allowed by the ministry of public instruction.</p> - -<p>In pursuance of the policy of exchanging professors between the various -countries of South America formulated at the Pan American Conference -held at Buenos Aires in 1910, special exchange was arranged with Chile -in 1916.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="EDUCATION_IN_VENEZUELA">EDUCATION IN VENEZUELA.</h2> -</div> - -<p>Primary education in Venezuela, during the biennium under -consideration, has enlisted the practical interest of the National -Government as never before. This has taken shape primarily in the two -fundamental administrative decrees of the Provisional President, Dr. -Bustillos. The first, issued in February, 1917, outlines the general -requirements laid down in the organic law of public instruction under -certain regulations for primary public schools. These are divided into -three main heads: (<i>a</i>) The primary elementary schools, in which -only those subjects belonging to compulsory primary instruction are -taught; (<i>b</i>) higher primary schools, in which are taught the -subjects belonging to higher primary instruction; (<i>c</i>) complete<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -primary schools, in which instruction is given in both the above -divisions at once.</p> - -<p>The decree requires that each school be equipped with all modern -appliances for the physical well-being of the pupils. Children are not -admitted below 7 years of age; only those below 7 years are admitted -to the mothers’ schools or the kindergartens; only those above 14 are -admitted to the schools for adults.</p> - -<p>The subjects required in the elementary primary schools are: Reading, -writing, and elements of Spanish; elements of arithmetic and the metric -system; rudiments of geography and history of Venezuela; rudiments of -ethics and civic instruction; rudiments of behavior and hygiene; the -national hymn and school songs; the first elements of manual arts, and, -for girls, of sewing.</p> - -<p>In the higher primary schools are taught the following: Elements of -Spanish grammar, elementary arithmetic, metric system, geography and -history of Venezuela, elements of universal geography and history, -elementary science, ethical and civic instruction, behavior and -elementary hygiene, elements of drawing and music, manual arts and -elements of agriculture and cattle raising for boys, sewing and -domestic economy for girls, gymnastic exercises.</p> - -<p>Religious instruction is imparted to pupils whose parents or guardians -require it, provided that the number of such be at least 10. The -celebration of school festivals as required by law, the establishment -of libraries in each school accessible to both pupils and teachers, and -the keeping of books and registers by teachers and directors are among -the general provisions emphasized in the regulations.</p> - -<p>The second decree, issued by the Provisional President in July, 1917, -sets forth the regulations for the official inspection of public -instruction. It expressly concerns the following schools:</p> - -<p>1. Those maintained or aided by the Federal Union.</p> - -<p>2. Those of primary, secondary, and normal instruction, maintained or -aided by the States or by the municipalities.</p> - -<p>3. Public and private schools satisfying legal requirements of good -conduct and school hygiene.</p> - -<p>The official inspection of schools has its ultimate authority vested in -the following grades of functionaries:</p> - -<p>1. Committees (juntas) constituted by law in localities maintaining a -school.</p> - -<p>2. Technical inspectors of primary, secondary, and normal instruction -for the Federal District and the States of the Union.</p> - -<p>3. A superintendent for the Federal District.</p> - -<p>4. Inspectors necessary for the operation of higher and special -instruction.</p> - -<p>5. Commissioners appointed for special educational cases.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p> - -<p>The duties and responsibilities imposed by law upon the juntas of -primary instruction are detailed at greatest length, as upon them -rests the proper execution of the law and the success of the entire -system. Most important of all these duties are those pertaining to the -enforcement of compulsory primary instruction. The juntas are required -to keep themselves informed of the primary instruction imparted to all -children of school age in their district, whether in schools public or -private or at home; to require all parents and guardians of children -of school age to have such children instructed as required by law; -to keep themselves informed of the progress of all such children; to -impose fines as required by law upon all parents or guardians who -neglect the instruction of children; to see that the children admitted -to schools of all grades conform in age, state of health, etc., to -the requirements of the law; to visit the schools in their district -frequently and regularly; and to keep registers of all facts pertaining -to the attendance upon such schools.</p> - -<p>The duties and responsibilities of the inspectoral juntas of secondary -instruction and those of normal instruction are full and exacting and -along the lines already laid down.</p> - -<p>The technical inspectors as a group have charge of all three grades -of instruction, each in the district assigned to him. As fixed by -ministerial decree, there are 10 of these, excluding the superintendent -for the Federal District. These functionaries are the direct agents -of the ministry of public instruction, and form the connecting link -between that office and the local juntas. They are vested with complete -power to compel the execution of the law by the local juntas under -penalties prescribed by law. They are instructed to work in complete -harmony with the juntas, to call meetings, and to outline to them their -duties under the law. They are also required to instruct teachers in -their duties. In short, the inspectors are the element upon which the -successful working of the machinery of the regulations depends.</p> - -<p>The superintendent of public instruction in the Federal District is -directly under the authority of the minister of education.</p> - -<p>The inspectors of higher and special instruction have duties and -responsibilities analogous to those of the inspectors already -mentioned, though these, for obvious reasons, are not outlined at such -length.</p> - -<p>In the field of primary instruction the interest aroused in rural -schools has been the most marked feature in the past biennium. -The ministry of public instruction has paid special attention to -the project of establishing rural schools, fixed or traveling, in -the vicinity of the main manufacturing, industrial, or commercial -centers of the country, and the President by decree of July, 1917, -in commending<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> the project, urged upon the juntas wherever possible -to develop this type of schools. Especially in the agricultural or -cattle-raising sections was the project received with enthusiasm, -applying, as it did, directly to the problems of illiteracy and the -training of the country population in practical subjects related to -daily life. By special decree the President urged the introduction -of elementary courses in agriculture in the established schedule of -studies.</p> - -<p>Among the States which definitely established such schools the State -of Trujillo, fourth in population, took the lead by establishing 14, -with predominant emphasis upon practical courses in agriculture and -related subjects. Such schools began at once to serve as centers for -the instruction not only of the children of school age but of the -population generally in new methods, the use of machines, cooperative -societies, etc. Similarly in sections devoted to cattle raising they -were centers of inspiration and instruction in related subjects.</p> - -<p>During the last biennium the industrial plants located in the centers -of Venezuela have established primary schools for the children of -their operatives, with the approval of the authorities, State and -municipal. The minister of public instruction, in his memoria for -1918, urge upon the Congress the passage of a law recognizing the work -of these schools, arranging for their inspection by the governmental -technical inspectors and the classification and certification of -pupils completing the courses offered in them. Such schools have also -done much in combating the illiteracy among adults by means of night -schools, and they have in many places, by employing excellent teachers, -served the very useful purpose of raising the standard of requirement -in various districts for the public schools, State or municipal.</p> - -<p>Secondary education in Venezuela, according to the memoria referred to, -suffers much from the insufficiency and irregularity of the revenues -devoted to it, with the consequent inefficient equipment for modern and -scientific subjects and the inadequate salaries of the teachers. On the -pedagogical side the memoria found the effects experienced by secondary -education from the mechanical and memory instruction, too largely -prevalent in primary education, a permanent obstacle to any hope of -real reform in secondary education.</p> - -<p>The colegios, a type of secondary school peculiar to the -Spanish-American countries, of grade preparatory to the liceos, seem -to be disappearing from Venezuelan education. There are now left -only 13 Federal colegios, all the others maintained by the States -and municipalities having lapsed. The explanation probably lies in -the exaggerated theoretical instruction they offered and its lack of -adaptation to the actual needs of the nation. A number of them occupied -buildings of some size and pretension, and the minister in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> his last -memoria suggested that the vocational and industrial schools needed in -the educational system might well be installed in these buildings.</p> - -<p>Interest in the education of girls has made progress in Venezuela, -an especially promising liceo for girls having been established at -Caracas, offering advanced courses covering two years, with special -attention to physical training and modern subjects.</p> - -<p>Education in arts and crafts for men has long been popular in -Venezuela, perhaps largely because of the national talent in those -subjects. The school at Caracas, established in 1916, offers a -four-year course, with English as the only foreign language. Within two -years it reached an enrollment of 288 in the regular classes and 213 in -the night courses.</p> - -<p>Commercial education and training in political science courses have -grown in popularity during the last biennium. Schools of the former -have been established at Caracas, Maracaibo, Ciudad Bolívar, and Puerto -Cabello; and of the latter, at Caracas, subsidized by the Government -and regarded as an important adjunct in training for the legal -profession.</p> - -<p>In the field of the primary normal schools, the ministry has seen the -necessity of their serving more largely the educational needs of the -nation by supplying more and better teachers to the schools. It is, -therefore, proposed to revise them thoroughly, especially in regard to -the chief defect observed since their establishment, namely, the poor -preparation of students who enter. It is proposed to offer, preparatory -to the normal school proper, a perfecting course in essentials -covering two or three years, to which would be added French, drawing, -gymnastics, and music. Such a course would preferably be offered in -the higher primary schools. The pupil should then proceed to the -specialized subjects of pedagogy, methodology, psychology, and the -history of education, these subjects to cover one year.</p> - -<p>Another serious problem is the great difficulty experienced in securing -suitable candidates for the scholarships offered in the primary normal -schools by the several States and Territories. In many of them the -memoria reports that the appointments had to lapse in view of the -fact that no candidates qualified for them. The minister therefore -suggested that a system of boarding departments, annexed to the normal -schools, each accommodating about 20 boys of 10 to 13 years, should be -established as feeders to the normal school system.</p> - -<p>By presidential decree, dated July, 1917, special courses in practical -agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, and domestic sciences were -established in the primary normal schools, with the view of especially -equipping teachers for the rural schools, whose establishment has come -to be regarded as so necessary for the nation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p> - -<p>By presidential decree of March, 1917, an experimental station -of agriculture and forestry, with an acclimatization garden, was -established near Caracas. It is intended to serve as a model for other -such stations in other parts of the country. “The objects of the -station are the improvement of the methods of cultivation of the chief -agricultural products of Venezuela; the introduction, selection, and -distribution of seeds; experiments in reforestation; the suitability of -soils to crops and of crops to various regions; and practical work for -the training of agricultural foremen and forest rangers.”</p> - - -<hr class="x-ebookmaker-drop chap" /> -<div class="transnote chapter"> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p><a href="#Page_6">Page 6</a>: “Quezaltenango” changed to “Quetzaltenango”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_13">Page 13</a>: “themselves especialy” changed to “themselves especially” -“educationaly advanced” changed to “educationally advanced”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_21">Page 21</a>: “original justfication” changed to “original justification” A -repeated “the” was removed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_22">Page 22</a>; “The Goverment” changed to “The Government”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_29">Page 29</a>: “Artice 1.” changed to “Article 1.”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_31">Page 31</a>: The original text skips from Article 19 to Article 24. -Articles 20-23 appear to have been omitted.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_45">Page 45</a>: “longest posisble” changed to “longest possible”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_46">Page 46</a>: “several localties” changed to “several localities”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_49">Page 49</a>: “schools of Montevido” changed to “schools of Montevideo” -“hygenic considerations” changed to “hygienic considerations”</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICA ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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