diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/68708-h/68708-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68708-h/68708-h.htm | 16638 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 16638 deletions
diff --git a/old/68708-h/68708-h.htm b/old/68708-h/68708-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 3143808..0000000 --- a/old/68708-h/68708-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16638 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8" /> - <title> - A naturalist in Madagascar, by James Sibree—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - margin-top: 1.5em; - margin-bottom: .6em; - word-spacing: 0.2em; - letter-spacing: 0.1em; - line-height: 1em; - font-weight: normal; -} - -h1 {font-size: 200%; margin-top: .5em; letter-spacing: 0.2em;} -h2 {font-size: 110%;} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p1 {margin-top: 1em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} - -.noindent {text-indent: 0em;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -x-ebookmaker-drop, .x-ebookmaker-drop {} - -.pfs180 {font-size: 180%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs120 {font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs100 {font-size: 100%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs90 {font-size: 90%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs80 {font-size: 80%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs70 {font-size: 70%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs60 {font-size: 60%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} - -.fs60 {font-size: 60%; font-style: normal;} -.fs70 {font-size: 70%; font-style: normal;} -.fs80 {font-size: 80%; font-style: normal;} -.fs90 {font-size: 90%; font-style: normal;} -.fs120 {font-size: 120%; font-style: normal;} -.fs135 {font-size: 135%; font-style: normal;} -.fs150 {font-size: 150%; font-style: normal;} - - -/* for making 2 column text */ -div.textcol {display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; width: 45%; - margin-bottom: 0em; margin-left: 1em; font-size: 100%;} -div.textcol p {margin-top: .3em; margin-bottom: .3em;} - - -/* for horizontal lines */ -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 1.5em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} - -.x-ebookmaker hr.chap {width: 0%; display: none;} - - -/* for inserting info from TN and Errata changes */ -.corr { - text-decoration: none; - border-bottom: thin dashed blue;} - -.x-ebookmaker .corr { - text-decoration: none; - border-bottom: none;} - - -/* for different code on screen versus handhelds */ -.screenonly { display: block; } - -.x-ebookmaker .screenonly { display: none; } - - -/* for non-image large letter dropcaps */ -p.drop-capy {text-indent: -.3em;} - -p.drop-capy:first-letter { - float: left; - margin: 0.05em 0.1em 0em 0em; - font-size: 420%; - line-height:0.7em; - clear: both; -} - - -/* for basic lists */ -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1.5em; text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 1em;} -li.indx { margin-top: .5em; text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 1em;} -li.isub1 {text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 2em;} -li.isub4 {text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 5em;} - - -/* for tables */ -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto;} - -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } - -td {padding: .18em .3em 0 .3em;} - -.tdl {text-align: left; padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1em;} -.tdr {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.tdlx {text-align: justify; padding-left: 4em; text-indent: 0em; vertical-align: top;} -.tdcx {text-align: center; padding-top: .9em; padding-bottom: .6em;} - - -/* for spacing */ -.pad2 {padding-left: 2em;} -.pad3 {padding-left: 3em;} -.pad4 {padding-left: 4em;} -.pad6 {padding-left: 6em;} -.pad3h {padding-left: 3.4em;} - - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - color: #A9A9A9; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: .5em; -} - - -/* blockquote (/# #/) */ -.blockquot { margin: 1em 5% 1em 5%; } - - -/* sidenotes */ -.sidenote { - float: right; - clear: right; - width: 18%; - margin: .5em .3em 0 .5em; - padding: .2em; - text-align: left; - text-indent: 0em; - font-size: 60%; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed thin; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal;} - -.x-ebookmaker .sidenote { - float: right; - clear: right; - width: 18%;} - - -/* general placement and presentation */ -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} - -.right {text-align: right; margin-right: 1em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} - -sup {font-size: 60%;} -sub {font-size: 60%;} - -.lht {line-height: 2em;} - -.caption {font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%; - padding-bottom: 0.50em;} - -.antiqua {font-family: Blackletter, Fraktur, Textur, "Olde English Mt", "Olde English", Diploma, England, Gothic, serif;} - - -/* Images */ -img { - border: none; - max-width: 100%; - height: auto;} - -img.w100 {width: 100%;} - - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: .5em; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%;} - - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} -.footnote p {text-indent: 0em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {text-align: center;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -.poetry {display: inline-block; font-size: 80%} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} -.poetry .indentq {text-indent: -3.5em;} - -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em;} - - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - - -/* Poetry indents */ -.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} -.poetry .indent4 {text-indent: -1em;} - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} -.illowp63 {width: 63%;} -.illowp75 {width: 75%;} -.illowp82 {width: 82%;} - - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A naturalist in Madagascar, by James Sibree</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A naturalist in Madagascar</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: James Sibree</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 8, 2022 [eBook #68708]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Peter Becker, John Campbell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A NATURALIST IN MADAGASCAR ***</div> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, -and the footnotes have been placed at the end of each chapter.</p> - -<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a> -<span class="screenonly">These are indicated by a <ins class="corr">dashed blue</ins> underline.</span></p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="cover" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Original cover" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="frontispiece" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Old Village Gateway with Circular Stone</span><br /> - -<p>The stone is levered into position closing the opening. A deep fosse or ditch -surrounding the village completes its fortification. The man in front is carrying -two packages secured to a pole in the usual manner of the country</p></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1> -A NATURALIST<br /> -IN MADAGASCAR</h1> -</div> - -<p class="center"><em>A Record of Observation Experiences and</em><br /> -<em>Impressions made during a period of over Fifty Years’</em><br /> -<em>Intimate Association with the Natives and Study of the</em><br /> -<em>Animal & Vegetable Life of the Island</em></p> - - -<p class="p4 pfs60">BY</p> - -<p class="pfs120">JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S.</p> - -<p class="pfs80"><i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Membre de l’Academie Malgache</i></p> - -<p class="pfs60">AUTHOR OF “THE GREAT AFRICAN ISLAND,” “MADAGASCAR ORNITHOLOGY,”<br /> -&c., &c., &c.</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs70">WITH 52 ILLUSTRATIONS & 3 MAPS</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs90">PHILADELPHIA</p> - -<p class="pfs120">J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY</p> - -<p class="pfs80">LONDON: SEELEY, SERVICE & CO. LTD.</p> - -<p class="pfs90">1915</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p class="p6 pfs100 antiqua">Dedicated</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs70">WITH MUCH AFFECTION TO</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs120">MY DEAR WIFE</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs70 lht">MY CONSTANT COMPANION IN MADAGASCAR<br /> -AND FAITHFUL HELPER IN ALL<br /> -MY WORK FOR FORTY-<br /> -FOUR YEARS</p> - - -<hr class="p4 chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak fs135" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">THE title of this book may perhaps be considered by -some as too ambitious, and may provoke comparison -with others somewhat similar in name, but with whose -distinguished authors I have no claim at all to compete.</p> - -<p>I have no tales to tell of hair-breadth escapes from savage -beasts, no shooting of “big game,” no stalking of elephant or -rhinoceros, of “hippo” or giraffe. We have indeed no big -game in Madagascar. The most dangerous sport in its woods -is hunting the wild boar; the largest carnivore to be met with -is the fierce little <em>fòsa</em>, and the crocodile is the most dangerous -reptile.</p> - -<p>But I ask the courteous reader to wander with me into the -wonderful and mysterious forests, and to observe the gentle -lemurs in their home, as they leap from tree to tree, or take -refuge in the thickets of bamboo; to come out in the dusk and -watch the aye-aye as he stealthily glides along the branches, -obtaining his insect food under the bark of the trees; to listen -to the song of numerous birds, and to note their habits and -curious ways; to hear the legends and folk-tales in which the -Malagasy have preserved the wisdom of their ancestors with -regard to the feathered denizens of the woods and plains, and -to admire the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and the trees -and plants, the ferns and flowers, and even the grasses, which -are to be found in every part of the island.</p> - -<p>I invite those who may read these pages to look with me at -the little rodents and insect-eaters which abound in and near -the woods; to mark the changing chameleons which are found -here in such variety; to watch the insects which gambol in the -sunshine, or hide in the long grass, or sport on the streams. If -such unexciting pleasures as these can interest my readers, I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -can promise that there is in Madagascar enough and to spare -to delight the eye and to charm the imagination.</p> - -<p>I confess that I am one of those who take much more delight -in silently watching the birds and their pretty ways in some -quiet nook in the woods, than in shooting them to add a specimen -to a museum; and that I feel somewhat of a pang in catching -even a butterfly, and would much rather observe its lovely -colours in life, as it unfolds them to the sunshine, than study it -impaled on a pin in a cabinet. No doubt collections are -necessary, but I have never cared to make them myself.</p> - -<p>Nothing is here recorded but facts which have come under -my own observation or as related by friends and others whose -authority is unquestionable. And while my main object is to -convey a vivid and true impression of the animal and vegetable -life of Madagascar, I have also given many sketches of what is -curious and interesting in the habits and customs of the Malagasy -people, among whom I have travelled repeatedly, and -with whom I have lived for many years. I have no pretensions -to be a scientific naturalist or botanist, I have only been a careful -observer of the beautiful and wonderful things that I have seen -and I have constantly noted down what many others have -observed, and have here included information which they have -given in the following pages.</p> - -<p>I have long wished that someone far more competent than -myself would write a popular book upon the natural history -and botany of this great island; but as I have not yet heard -of any such, I venture with some diffidence to add this book -to the large amount of literature already existing about Madagascar, -but none of it exactly filling this place. For many -years I edited, together with my late friend and colleague, -the Rev. R. Baron, the numbers of <cite>The Antanànarìvo Annual</cite>, -a publication which was “a record of information on the topography -and natural productions of Madagascar, and the customs, -traditions, language and religious beliefs of its people,” -and for which I was always on the look-out for facts of all kinds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -bearing on the above-mentioned subjects. But as this magazine -was not known to the general public, and was confined to -a very limited circle of readers, I have not hesitated to draw -freely on the contents of its twenty-four numbers, as I am -confident that a great deal of the information there contained -is worthy of a much wider circulation than it had in the pages -of the <cite>Annual</cite>.</p> - -<p>Finally, as preachers say, although this book is written by -a missionary, it is not “a missionary book”; not, certainly, -because I undervalue missionary work, in which, after nearly -fifty years’ acquaintance with it, and taking an active part in it, -I believe with all my heart and soul, but because that aspect -of Madagascar has already been so fully treated. Books -written by the Revs. W. Ellis, Dr Mullens, Mr Prout, Dr -Matthews, Mr Houlder, myself and others, give all that is necessary -to understand the wonderful history of Christianity in this -island. Despite what globe-trotting critics may say, as well as -colonists who seem to consider that all coloured peoples may -be exploited for their own benefit, mission work, apart from its -simply obeying the last commands of our Lord, is <em>the</em> great -civilising, educational and benevolent influence in the world, -deny it who can! But in this book I want to show that -Madagascar is full of interest in other directions, and that the -wonderful things that live and grow here are hardly less worthy -of study than those events which have attracted the attention of -Christian and benevolent people for nearly a hundred years past.</p> - -<p>The author thanks very sincerely his friends, Mr John -Parrett, Monsieur Henri Noyer, and Razaka, for their freely -accorded permission to reproduce many photographs taken by -them and used to illustrate this book. And his grateful thanks -are also due to his old friend, the Rev. J. Peill, for the care -he has taken in going through the proof sheets, especially in -seeing that all Madagascar words are correctly given.</p> - -<p>Two or three chapters of this book cover, to some extent, -the same ground as those treated of in another book on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -Madagascar by the author, published some years ago by -Mr Fisher Unwin. The author here acknowledges, with -many thanks, Mr Fisher Unwin’s kindness in giving full -permission to produce these, which are, however, rewritten -and largely added to.</p> - -<p class="right">J. S.</p> - - -<div class="p4 fs90"> - -<em>NOTE.</em>—Throughout this book Malagasy words are accented on -the syllables which should be emphasised, and if it is borne in -mind that the vowels <em>a</em>, <em>e</em> and <em>i</em> have as nearly as possible the same -sound as in French or Italian, and that <em>o</em> is exactly like our English -<em>o</em> in <em>do</em>, <em>to</em> and <em>move</em>, and that the consonants do not differ much in -sound from those in English, except that <em>g</em> is always hard, <em>s</em> always -a sibilant and not like <em>z</em>, and <em>j</em> is like <em>dj</em> there will be no difficulty -in pronouncing Malagasy words with a fair amount of accuracy. -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak fs135" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr fs70">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">INTRODUCTORY</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Natural History of the Island—Still Little Known—Roads and Railway—We travel by Old-Fashioned Modes—Great Size and Extent of Madagascar</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE COUNTRY</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">“The Bullocker”—Landing at Tamatave—Meet with New Friends—Landing our Luggage—Bullocks and Bullock Ships—Native Houses—Strange Articles of Food—A Bed on a Counter—First Ride in a <em>Filanjàna</em>—At -the Fort—The Governor and his “Get-Up”—A Rough-and-Ready Canteen</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALONG THE SEASHORE</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Travelling in Madagascar—Absence of Roads—“General Forest and General Fever”—Pleasures and Penalties of Travel—Start for the Interior—My Private Carriage—Night at Hivòndrona—Native Canoes—Gigantic -Arums—Crows and Egrets—Malagasy Cattle—Curious Crabs—Shells of the Shore—Coast Lagoons—Lovely Scenery—Pandanus and Tangèna Trees—Pumice from Krakatoa—Sea and River Fishes—Prawns and Sharks—Hospitable Natives—Trees, -Fruits and Flowers—“The Churchyard of Foreigners”—Unpleasant Style of Cemetery—“The Hole of Serpents”—Killing a Boa-constrictor—The White-fronted Lemur—Andòvorànto—How the Aye-Aye was caught—What he is like—And where he lives—A Damp Journey</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ANDÒVORÀNTO TO MID-FOREST</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">A Canoe Voyage—Crocodiles and their Ways—River Scenery—Traveller’s Tree—Which is also “The Builder’s Tree”—Maròmby—Coffee Plantation—Orange Grove—We stick in the Mud—Difficulties of Road—Rànomafàna -and its Hot Springs—Lace-leaf Plant—Native Granaries—Endurance of Bearers—Native Traders—Appearance of the People—Native Music and Instruments—Bamboos—Ampàsimbé—Cloth Weaving—Native Looms—<em>Rofìa</em>-palms—“A Night -with the Rats”—Hard Travelling—Béfòrona—The Two Forest Belts—The Highest Mountains—Forest of Alamazaotra—Villages on Route—The Blow-Gun</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER V <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALAMAZAOTRA TO ANTANÀNARÌVO</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">“Weeping-place of Bullocks”—“Great Princess” Rock—Grandeur of the Vegetation—Scarcity of Flowers—Orchids, Bamboos, and Pendent Lichens—Apparent Paucity of Animal Life—Remarkable Fauna of Madagascar—Geological -Theories thereon—Lemurs—The Ankay Plain—An Ancient Lake—Mòramànga—River Mangòro—Grand Prospect from Ifòdy—The Tàkatra and Its Nest—Hova Houses—Insect Life—Angàvo Rock—Upper Forest—Treeless Aspect of Imèrina—Granite -Rocks—Ambàtomànga—And its big House—Grass Burning—First View of Capital—Its Size and Situation—Hova Villages—A Cloud of Locusts—Reach Antanànarìvo</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">The Seasons in Madagascar—Their Significant Names—Prospect from Summit of Antanànarìvo—Great Rice-plain—An Inundation of the Same—Springtime: September and October—Rice-planting and Rice-fields—Trees and -Foliage—Common Fruits—“Burning the Downs”—Birds—Hawks and Kestrels—Summer: November to February—Thunderstorms and Tropical Rains—Lightning and its Freaks—Effects of Rain on Roads—Rainfall—Hail—Magnificent Lightning Effects—Malagasy New Year</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">SPRING AND SUMMER</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Native Calendar—Conspicuous Flowers—Aloes and Agaves—Uniformity of Length of Days—Native Words and Phrases for Divisions of Time—And for Natural Phenomena—Hova Houses—Wooden and Clay—Their Arrangement—And -Furniture—“The Sacred Corner”—Solitary Wasps—Their Victims—The Cell-builders—The Burrowers—Wild Flowers</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Autumn: March and April—Rice Harvest—The Cardinal-Bird—The Egret and the Crow—Harvest Thanksgiving Services—Rice, the Malagasy Staff of Life—Queer “Relishes to Rice”—Fish—Water-beetles—A Dangerous Adventure -with One—Dragonflies—Useful Sedges and Rushes—Mist Effects on Winter Mornings—Spiders’ Webs—The “Fosse-Crosser” Spider—Silk from it—Silk-worm Moths—And Other Moths—The “King” Butterfly—Grasshoppers and Insect Life on the -Grass—The Dog-Locust—Gigantic Earthworms—Winter: May to August—Winter the Dry Season</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">AUTUMN AND WINTER</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Old Towns—Ancient and Modern Tombs—Memorial Stones—Great Markets—Imèrina Villages—Their Elaborate Defences—Native Houses—Houses of Nobles—Hova Children—Their Dress and Games—Village Churches—And Schools—A -School Examination—Aspects of Nightly Sky Epidemics in Cold Season—Vegetation</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">AT THE FOREST SANATORIUM</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">A Holiday at Ankèramadìnika—The Upper Forest Belt—The Flora of Madagascar—Troubles and Joys of a Collector—A Silken Bag—Ants and their Nests—In Trees and Burrows—Caterpillars and Winter Sleep—Butterflies’ -Eggs—Snakes, Lizards and Chameleons—An Arboreal Lizard—Effects of Terror—Some Extraordinary Chameleons—The River-Hog—Sun-birds</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">FOREST SCENES</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Forest Scenes and Sounds—The Goat-sucker—Owls—Flowers and Berries—Palms and other Trees—The Bamboo-palm—Climbing Plants—Mosses, Lichens and Fungi—Their Beautiful Colours—Honey—The Madagascar Bee—Its Habits -and its Enemies—Forest People—The Bétròsy Tribe—A Wild-Man-of-the-Woods—A Cyclone in the Forest—A Night of Peril</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">RAMBLES IN THE UPPER FOREST</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Forest Parts—Lost in the Woods—Native Proverbs and Dread of the Forest—Waterfalls—A Brilliant Frog—Frogs and their Croaking—A Nest-building Frog—Protective Resemblances and Mimicry—Beetles—Brilliant -Bugs—Memorial Mounds—Iron Smelting—Feather Bellows—Depths of the Ravines—Forest Leeches—Ferns—Dyes, Gums and Resins—Candle-nut Tree—Medicinal Trees and Plants—Useful Timber Trees—Superstitions about the Forest—Marvellous -Creatures—The Ball Insect—Millipedes and Centipedes—Scorpions</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">FAUNA</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">The Red-spot Spider—Various and Curious Spiders—Protective Resemblances among them—Trap-door Spiders—The Centetidæ—Malagasy Hedgehogs—The Lemurs—The Propitheques—The Red Lemur—Pensile Weaver-bird—The -Bee-eater—The Coua Cuckoos—The Glory and Mystery of the Forests—A Night in the Forest</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">ROUND ANTSIHÀNAKA</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Object of the Journey—My Companions—The Antsihànaka Province—Origin of the People—Anjozòrobé—“Travellers’ Bungalow”—A Sunday there—“Our Black Chaplain”—The “Stone Gateway”—Ankay Plain—Ants and -Serpents—Hair-dressing and Ornaments—<em>Tòaka</em> Drinking—Rice Culture—Fragrant Grasses—The Glory of the Grass—Their Height—Capital of the Province—We interview the Governor—Flowers of Oratory—The Market—Fruits -and Fertility—A Circuit of the Province—Burial Memorials—Herds of Oxen—Horns as Symbols—Malagasy Use of Oxen—A Sihànaka House—Mats and Mat-making—Water-fowl—Their Immense Numbers—Teal and Ducks—The Fen Country—Physical -Features of Antsihànaka—The Great Plain—Ampàrafàravòla—Hymn-singing—Sihànaka Bearers—“Wild-Hog’s Spear” Grass—Dinner with the Lieutenant-Governor—“How is the Gun?”—Volcanic Action—Awkward Bridges—Fighting an -Ox—Occupations of the People—Cattle-tending—Rice Culture—Fishing—Buds</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">LAKE SCENERY</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">The Alaotra Lake—Lake Scenery—A Damp Resting-place—Shortened Oratory—We cross the Lake—An Ancient and Immense Lake—The Crocodile—Mythical Water-creatures—A Pleasant Meeting—“Manypoles” Village—A -Sihànaka Funeral—Treatment of Widows—A Village in the Swamp—Unlucky Days and Taboos—Madagascar Grasses—We turn Homewards</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">LAKE ITÀSY</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Old Volcanoes—Lake Itàsy—Distant Views of it—Legends as to its Formation—Flamingoes—Water-hens—Jacanas—Other Birds—Antsìrabé—Hot Springs—Extinct Hippopotami—Gigantic Birds—Enormous Eggs</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">VOLCANIC DISTRICT</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Crater Lake of Andraikìba—Crater Lake of Trìtrìva—Colour of Water—Remarkable Appearance of Lake—Legends about it—Its Depth—View from Crater Walls—Ankàratra Mountain—Lava Outflows—An Underground -River—Extinct Lemuroid Animals—Graveyard of an Ancient Fauna—The Palæontology—And Geology of Madagascar—Volcanic Phenomena—The Madagascar Volcanic Belt—Earthquakes—A Glimpse of the Past Animal Life of the Island</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">SOUTHWARDS TO BÉTSILÉO AND THE SOUTH-EAST COAST</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Why I went South—How to secure your Bearers—The Old Style of Travelling—Route to Fianàrantsòa—Scenery—Elaborate Rice Culture—Bétsiléo Ornament and Art—Burial Memorials—We leave for the Unknown—A -Bridal Obligation—Mountains and Rocks—Parakeets and Parrots—A Dangerous Bridge—Ant-hills—The Malagasy Hades—Brotherhood by Blood—Bétsiléo Houses—“The Travelling Foreigners in their Tent”—A Tanàla Forest—Waterfalls—A -Tanàla House—Female Adornment</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">IVÒHITRÒSA</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Ivòhitròsa—Native Dress—a Grand Waterfall—Wild Raspberries—The Ring-tailed Lemur—The Mouse-Lemur—A Heathen Congregation—Unlucky Days—Month Names—The <em>Zàhitra</em> Raft—A Village Belle and her -“Get-up”—The Cardamom Plant—Beads, Charms and Arms—Bamboos and Pandanus—A Forest Altar—Rafts and Canoes—Crocodiles—Their Bird Friends—Ordeal by Crocodile—Elegant Coiffure—A Curious Congregation—Ambòhipèno Fort—We -reach the Sea—Gigantic Arums—Sea-shells—Pulpit Decoration—Butterflies—Protective Structure in a Certain Species—An Arab Colony—Arabic Manuscripts—Frigate-birds and Tropic-birds—Other Sea-birds</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">AMONG THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Hova Conquest of and Cruelties to the Coast Tribes—The Traveller’s Tree and its Fruits—A Hova Fort—Ball Head-dressing—Rice-fields—Volcanic Phenomena—Vòavòntaka Fruit—A Well-dunged Village—Water -from the Traveller’s Tree—We are stopped on our Way—A Native Distillery—Taisàka Mat Clothing—Bark Cloth—Native Houses and their Arrangement—Secondary Rocks—Ankàrana Fort—A Hospitable Reception—A Noisy Feast—“A -Fine Old <em>Malagasy</em> Gentleman”—A Hearty “Set-Off”—Primitive Spoons and Dishes—Burial Memorials</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">A Built Boat—In the Bush—A Canoe Voyage—Canoe Songs—The <em>Angræcum</em> Orchids—Pandanus and Atàfa Trees—Coast Lagoons—A Native Dance—A Wheeled Vehicle—Lost in the Woods—A Fatiguing Sunday—Dolphins -and Whales—Forest Scenery—A Tanàla Funeral—Silence of the Woods—The Sound of the Cicada—Mammalian Life—Hedgehogs and Rats—Why <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>are Birds comparatively so few?—Insect Life in the Forest—A Stick-Insect—Protective -Resemblances—The Curious Broad-bill Bird—Minute Animal Life in a River Plant—Ambòhimànga in the Forest—A Tanàla Chieftainess—River-fording and Craft—We reach the Interior Highland—Bétsiléo Tombs—Return to Antanànarìvo</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">TO SÀKALÀVA LAND AND THE NORTH-WEST</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">North-West Route to the Coast—River Embankments—Mission Stations—A Lady Bricklayer—In a Fosse with the Cattle—An Airy Church on a Stormy Night—A Strange Chameleon—The “Short” Mosquitoes—Ant-hills and -Serpents—A Sacred Tree—Andrìba Hill and Fort—An Evening Bath and a Hasty Breakfast—Parakeets, Hoopoes, and Bee-eaters—The Ikòpa Valley—Granite Boulders—Mèvatanàna: a Birdcage Town—We form an Exhibition for the Natives—Our -Canoes—Crocodiles—Shrikes and Fly-catchers—Tamarind-trees—Camping Out—The “Agy” Stinging Creeper—River Scenery—Fan-palms—Scaly Reptiles and Beautiful Birds—Fruit-eating and Other Bats—Secondary Rocks—Sparse Population—The -Sàkalàva Tribes—A Vile-smelling Tree</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIII</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">TO THE NORTH-WEST COAST</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlx">Tortoises—Gigantic Tortoises of Aldabra Island—Park-like Scenery—The Fierce Little Fòsa—Small Carnivora—Beautiful Woods—“Many Crocodiles” Town—A Curious Pulpit—A Hot Night—A Voyage in a Dhow—Close Quarters -on its Deck—An Arab Dhow and its Rig—Bèmbatòka Bay—Mojangà—An Arab and Indian Town—An Ancient Arab Colony—Baobab-trees—Valuable Timber Trees—The Fishing Eagle—Turtles and Turtle-catching—Herons—The North-West Coast—A Fishing -Fish—Oysters and Octopus—Nòsibé and Old Volcanoes—Our Last Glimpses of Madagascar</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak fs135" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Old Village Gateway with Circular Stone</td> -<td class="tdr pad4"><a href="#frontispiece"><em>Frontispiece</em></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr fs70">FACING PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">On the Coast Lagoons</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0281_ill">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Forest Road</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0321_ill">32</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Low-class Girl fetching Water</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0501_ill1">50</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Sihànaka Woman playing the Vahiha</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0501_ill2">50</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Bétsimisàraka Women</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0581_ill1">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hova Women weaving</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0581_ill2">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Family Tomb of the late Prime Minister, Antanànarìvo</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0661_ill1">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Royal Tombs, Antanànarìvo</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0661_ill2">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Earthenware Pottery</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0761_ill1">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Digging up Rice-fields</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0761_ill2">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Pounding and winnowing Rice</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0781_ill1">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hova Middle-class Family at a Meal</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0781_ill2">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Rocks near Ambàtovòry</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0921_ill">92</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Typical Hova House in the Ancient Style</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0961_ill">96</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">On the Coast Lagoons</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1061_ill">106</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Transplanting Rice</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1121_ill">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hova Tombs</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1181_ill">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Friday Market at Antanànarìvo</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1201_ill">120</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Ancient Village Gateway</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1241_ill">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Forest Village</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1341_ill">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Chameleons</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1361_ill">136</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Anàlamazàotra</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1461_ill">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Memorial Carved Posts and Ox Horns</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1561_ill1">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Blacksmith at Work</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1561_ill2">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">On the Coast Lagoons <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span></td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1661_ill">166</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Some Curious Madagascar Spiders</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1681_ill">168</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sihànaka Men</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1761_ill1">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Forest Village</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1761_ill2">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Wayside Market</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p1801_ill">180</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water-carriers</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2181_ill">218</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hide-bearers resting by the Roadside</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2301_ill1">230</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Bétsiléo Tombs</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2301_ill2">230</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Memorial Stone</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2341_ill">234</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Types of Carved Ornamentation in Houses</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2361_ill">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad4">” <span class="pad6">”</span> <span class="pad4">”</span></td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2362_ill">238</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Group of Tanàla Girls in Full Dress</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2421_ill1">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Tanàla Girls singing and clapping Hands</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2421_ill2">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Tanàla Spearmen</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2481_ill">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Coiffures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2501_ill">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Forest River</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2521_ill">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Tree Ferns</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2601_ill1">260</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Traveller’s Trees</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2601_ill2">260</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Malagasy Orchid</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2721_ill">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Malagasy Men dancing</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2741_ill">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Woman of the Antànkàrana Tribe</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2781_ill1">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Woman of the Antanòsy Tribe</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p2781_ill2">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The Fòsa</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p3021_ill1">302</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Malagasy Oxen</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p3021_ill2">302</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcx fs120" colspan="2">MAPS</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><ins class="corr" id="tn-16" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'This Physical map was listed after Etho. map'"> -Physical Sketch Map</ins> of Madagascar</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0161_map">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Ethnographical Sketch Maps of Madagascar</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p0162_map">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">General Map of Madagascar</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#p314_map">314</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p0161_map" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0161_map.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">PHYSICAL -SKETCH-MAP OF -MADAGASCAR<br /> -<em>showing lines of Forest, and limits -of high land of Interior exceeding -2500 feet above Sea-level</em></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p0162_map" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0162_map.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">ETHNOGRAPHICAL -<em>SKETCH-MAP</em> OF MADAGASCAR</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span><br /></p> - -<p class="pfs180">A NATURALIST IN<br /> -MADAGASCAR</p> -</div> - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">INTRODUCTORY</span></h2> - - -<p class="drop-capy">THE great African island of Madagascar has become -well known to Europeans during the last half-century, -and especially since the year 1895, when it was made -a colony of France. During that fifty years many books—the -majority of these in the French language—have been written -about the island and its people; what was formerly an almost -unknown country has been traversed by Europeans in all -directions; its physical geography is now clearly understood; -since the French occupation it has been scientifically surveyed, -and a considerable part of the interior has been laid down with -almost as much detail as an English ordnance map. But although -very much information has been collected with regard -to the country, the people, the geology, and the animal and -vegetable productions of Madagascar, there has hitherto been -no attempt, at least in the English language, to collect these -many scattered notices of the Malagasy fauna and flora, and -to present them to the public in a readable form.</p> - -<p>In several volumes of a monumental work that has been in -progress for many years past, written and edited by M. Alfred -Grandidier,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> the natural history and the botany of the island are -being exhaustively described in scientific fashion; but these -great quartos are in the French language, while their costly -character renders them unknown books to the general reader. -It is the object of the following pages to describe, in as familiar -and popular a fashion as may be, many of the most interesting -facts connected with the exceptional animal life of Madagascar, -and with its forestal and other vegetable productions. During<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -nearly fifty years’ connection with this country the writer has -travelled over it in many directions, and while his chief time -and energies have of course been given to missionary effort, he -has always taken a deep interest in the living creatures which -inhabit the island, as well as in its luxuriant flora, and has -always been collecting information about them. The facts -thus obtained are embodied in the following pages.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ROADS AND TRAVELLING</div> - -<p>It is probably well known to most readers of this book that -a railway now connects Tamatave, the chief port of the east -coast, with Antanànarìvo, the capital, which is about a third of -the way across the island. So that the journey from the coast -to the interior, which, up to the year 1899, used to take from -eight to ten days, can now be accomplished in one day. Besides -this, good roads now traverse the country in several -directions, so that wheeled vehicles can be used; and on some -of these a service of motor cars keeps up regular communication -with many of the chief towns and the capital.</p> - -<p>But we shall not, in these pages, have much to do with these -modern innovations, for a railway in Madagascar is very much -like a railway in Europe. Our journeys will mostly be taken -by the old-fashioned native conveyance, the <em>filanjàna</em> or light -palanquin, carried by four stout and trusty native bearers. -We shall thus not be whirled through the most interesting portion -of our route, catching only a momentary glimpse of many a -beautiful scene. We can get down and walk, whenever we like, -to observe bird or beast or insect, to gather flower or fern or -lichen or moss, or to take a rock specimen, things utterly -impracticable either by railway or motor car, and not very easy -to do in any wheeled conveyance. Our object will be, not to -get through the journey as fast as possible, but to observe all -that is worth notice during the journey. We shall therefore, -in this style of travel, not stay in modern hotels, but in native -houses, notwithstanding their drawbacks and discomforts; and -thus we shall see the Malagasy as they are, and as their ancestors -have been for generations gone by, almost untouched by -European influence, and so be able to observe their manners -and customs, and learn something of their ideas, their superstitions, -their folk-lore, and the many other ways in which they -differ from ourselves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXTENT OF THE ISLAND</div> - -<p>Let us, however, first try to get a clear notion about this great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -island, and to realise how large a country it is. Take a fair-sized -map of Madagascar, and we see that it rises like some huge -sea-monster from the waters of the Indian Ocean; or, to use -another comparison, how its outline is very like the sole—the -left-hand one—of a human foot. As we usually look at the -island in connection with a map of Africa, it appears as a mere -appendage to the great “Dark Continent”; and it is difficult to -believe that it is really a thousand miles long, and more than -three hundred miles broad, with an area of two hundred and -thirty thousand square miles, thus exceeding that of France, -Belgium and Holland all put together.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Before the year 1871 -all maps of Madagascar, as regards its interior, were pure guesswork. -A great backbone of mountains was shown, with -branches on either side, like a huge centipede. But it is now -clear that, instead of these fancy pictures, there is an extensive -elevated region occupying about two-thirds of the island to the -east and north, leaving a wide stretch of low country to the -west and south; and as the watershed is much nearer the east -than the west of the island, almost all the chief rivers flow, -not into the Indian Ocean, but into the Mozambique Channel. -When we add that a belt of dense forest runs all along the east -side of Madagascar, and is continued, with many breaks, along -the western side, and that scores of extinct volcanoes are found -in several districts of the interior, we shall have said all that is -necessary at present as to the physical geography. Many more -details of this, as well as of the geology, will come under our -notice as we travel through the country in various directions.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar</cite>, -publiée par Alfred Grandidier, Paris, à l’Imprimerie Nationale; -in fifty-two volumes, quarto.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> I have often been astonished and amused by the notions -some English people have about Madagascar. One gentleman -asked me if it was not somewhere in Russia!—and a very -intelligent lady once said to me: “I suppose it is about as large -as the Isle of Wight!”</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE COUNTRY</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-capy">IT was on a bright morning in September, 1863, that I first -came in sight of Madagascar. In those days there was -no service of steamers, either of the “Castle” or the -“Messageries Maritimes” lines, touching at any Madagascar -port, and the passage from Mauritius had to be made in what -were termed “bullockers.” These vessels were small brigs or -schooners which had been condemned for ordinary traffic, but -were still considered good enough to convey from two to three -hundred oxen from Tamatave to Port Louis or Réunion. It -need hardly be said that the accommodation on board these -ships was of the roughest, and the food was of the least appetising -kind. A diet of cabbage, beans and pumpkin led one of -my friends to describe the menu of the bullocker as “the green, -the brown, and the yellow.” Happily, the voyage to Madagascar -was usually not very long, and in my case we had a quick -and pleasant passage of three days only; but I hardly hoped -that daylight on Wednesday morning would reveal the country -on which my thoughts had been centred for several weeks past; -so it was with a strange feeling of excitement that soon after -daybreak I heard the captain calling to me down the hatchway: -“We are in sight of land!” Not many minutes elapsed before -I was on deck and looking with eager eyes upon the island in -which eventually most of my life was to be spent. We were -about five miles from the shore, running under easy sail to the -northward, until the breeze from the sea should set in and enable -us to enter the harbour of Tamatave.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS</div> - -<p>There was no very striking feature in the scene—no towering -volcanic peaks, as at Mauritius and Aden, yet it was not -without beauty. A long line of blue mountains in the distance, -covered with clouds; a comparatively level plain extending -from the hills to the sea, green and fertile with cotton and sugar -and rice plantations; while the shore was fringed with the tall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -trunks and feathery crowns of the cocoanut-palms which rose -among the low houses of the village of Tamatave. These, -together with the coral reefs forming the harbour, over which -the great waves thundered and foamed—all formed a picture -thoroughly tropical, reminding me of views of islands in the -South Pacific.</p> - -<p>The harbour of Tamatave is protected by a coral reef, which -has openings to the sea both north and south, the latter being -the principal entrance; it is somewhat difficult of access, and -the ribs and framework of wrecked vessels are (or perhaps -rather <em>were</em>) very frequently seen on the reef. The captain had -told me that sometimes many hours and even days were spent -in attempting to enter, and that it would probably be noon before -we should anchor. I therefore went below to prepare for landing, -but in less than an hour was startled to hear by the -thunder of the waves on the reef and the shouts of the seamen -reducing sail that we were already entering the harbour. The -wind had proved unexpectedly favourable, and in a few more -minutes the cable was rattling through the hawsehole, the -anchor was dropped, and we swung round at our moorings.</p> - -<p>There were several vessels in the harbour. Close to us was -H.M.’s steamer <i>Gorgon</i>, and, farther away, two or three French -men-of-war, among them the <i>Hermione</i> frigate, bearing the flag -of Commodore Dupré, their naval commandant in the Indian -Ocean, as well as plenipotentiary for the French Government -in the disputes then pending concerning the Lambert Treaty. -I was relieved to find that everything seemed peaceful and -quiet at Tamatave, and that the long white flag bearing the -name of Queen Ràsohèrina, in scarlet letters, still floated from -the fort at the southern end of the town. I had been told at -Port Louis that things were very unsettled in Madagascar, and -that I should probably find Tamatave being bombarded by the -French; but it is unnecessary to refer further to what is now -ancient history, or to touch upon political matters, which lie -quite outside the main purpose of this book.</p> - -<p>Tamatave, as a village, has not a very inviting appearance -from the sea, and man’s handiwork had certainly not added -much to the beauty of the landscape. Had it not been for the -luxuriant vegetation of the pandanus, palms, and other tropical -productions, nothing could have been less interesting than the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -native town, which possessed at that time few European residences -and no buildings erected for religious worship.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Canoes, -formed out of the trunk of a single tree, soon came off to our -ship, but I was glad to dispense with the services of these unsafe-looking -craft, and to accept a seat in the captain’s boat. Half-an-hour -after anchoring we were rowing towards the beach, and -in a few minutes I leaped upon the sand, with a thankful heart -that I had been permitted to tread the shores of Madagascar.</p> - -<p>Proceeding up the main street—a sandy road bordered by -enclosures containing the stores of a few European traders—we -came to the house of the British Vice-Consul. Here I found -Mr Samuel Procter, who was subsequently the head for many -years of one of the chief trading houses in the island, and also -Mr F. Plant, a gentleman employed by the authorities of the -British Museum to collect specimens of natural history in the -then almost unknown country. From them I learned that a -missionary party which had preceded me from Mauritius had -left only two days previously for the capital, and that Mr Plant -had kindly undertaken to accompany me on the journey for the -greater part of the distance to Antanànarìvo. At first we -thought of setting off on that same evening, so as to overtake -our friends, but finding that this would involve much fatigue, we -finally decided to wait for two or three days and take more time -to prepare for the novel experiences of a Madagascar journey. -In a little while I was domiciled at Mr Procter’s store, where -I was hospitably entertained during my stay in Tamatave.</p> - -<p>The afternoon of my first day on shore was occupied in seeing -after the landing of my baggage. This was no easy or pleasant -task; the long rolling swell from the ocean made the transfer -of large wooden cases from the vessel to the canoes a matter -requiring considerable dexterity. More than once I expected -to be swamped, and that through the rolling of the ship the -packages would be deposited at the bottom of the harbour. -It was therefore with great satisfaction that I saw all my -property landed safely on the beach.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE BULLOCKER</div> - -<p>Although Tamatave has always been the chief port on the -east coast of Madagascar, there were, for many years after my -arrival there, no facilities for landing or shipping goods. The -bullocks, which formed the staple export, were swum off to the -ships, tied by their horns to the sides of large canoes, and then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -slung on board by tackles from the yard-arm. From the shouting -and cries of the native drovers, the struggles of the oxen, -and their starting back from the water, it was often a very -exciting scene. A number of these bullockers were always -passing between the eastern ports of Madagascar and the -islands of Mauritius and Réunion, and kept the markets of these -places supplied with beef at moderate rates. The vessels -generally ceased running for about four months in the early -part of the year, when hurricanes are prevalent in the Indian -Ocean; and it may easily be supposed that the passenger -accommodation on board these ships was not of the first order. -However, compared with the discomforts and, often, the danger -and long delays endured by some, I had not much to complain -of in my first voyage to Madagascar. It had, at least, the -negative merit of not lasting long, and I had not then the -presence of nearly three hundred oxen as fellow-passengers -for about a fortnight, as on my voyage homewards, when I had -also a severe attack of malarial fever.</p> - -<p>The native houses of Tamatave, like those of the other coast -villages, were of very slight construction, being formed of a -framework of wood and bamboo, filled in with leaves of the -pandanus and the traveller’s tree. In a few of these some -attempts at neatness were observable, the walls being lined with -coarse cloth made of the fibre of <em>rofìa</em>-palm leaves, and the floor -covered with well-made mats of papyrus. But the general -aspect of the native quarter of the town was filthy and repulsive; -heaps of putrefying refuse exhaled odours which warned one to -get away as soon as possible. In almost every other house a -large rum-barrel, ready tapped, showed what an unrestricted -trade was doing to demoralise the people.</p> - -<p>I could not help noticing the strange articles of food exposed -for sale in the little market of the Bétsimisàraka quarter. Great -heaps of brown locusts seemed anything but inviting, nor were -the numbers of minute fresh-water shrimps much more tempting -in appearance. With these, however, were plentiful supplies of -manioc root, rice of several kinds, potatoes and many other -vegetables, the brilliant scarlet pods of different spices, and -many varieties of fruit—pine-apples, bananas, melons, peaches, -citrons and oranges. Beef was cheap as well as good, and there -was a lean kind of mutton, but it was much like goat-flesh.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -Great quantities of poultry are reared in the interior and are -brought down to the coast for sale to the ships trading at the -ports.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NATIVE HOUSES</div> - -<p>The houses of the Malagasy officials and the principal foreign -traders were substantially built of wooden framework, with -walls and floors of planking and thatched with the large leaves -of the traveller’s tree. No stone can be procured near Tamatave, -nor can bricks be made there, as the soil is almost entirely sand; -the town itself is indeed built on a peninsula, a sand-bank thrown -up by the sea, under the shelter of the coral reefs which form the -harbour. The house where I was staying consisted of a single -long room, with the roof open to the ridge; a small sleeping -apartment was formed at one corner by a partition of <em>rofìa</em> -cloth. There was no window, but light and air were admitted -by large doors, which were always open during the day. A few -folds of Manchester cottons, to serve as mattress, and a roll of -the same for a pillow, laid on Mr Procter’s counter, formed a -luxurious bed after the discomforts of a bullock vessel. All -around us, in the native houses, singing and rude music, with -drumming and clapping of hands, were kept up far into the -night; and these sounds, as well as the regular beating of the -waves all round the harbour, and the excitement of the new and -strange scenes of the past day, kept me from sleep until the -small hours of the morning.</p> - -<p>The following day I went to make a visit to the Governor of -Tamatave, as a new arrival in the country. My host accompanied -me, as I was of course quite unable to talk Malagasy. -As this was a visit of ceremony, it was not considered proper -to walk, so we went by the usual conveyance of the country, -the <em>filanjàna</em>. This word means anything by which articles or -persons are carried on the shoulder, and is usually translated -“palanquin,” but the <em>filanjàna</em> is a very different thing from -the little portable room which is used in India. In our case it -was a large easy-chair, attached to two poles, and carried by -four stout men, or <em>màromìta</em>, as they are called. They carried -us at a quick trot; but this novel experience struck me—I can -hardly now understand why—as irresistibly ludicrous, and I -could not restrain my laughter at the comical figure—as it then -seemed to me—that we presented, especially when I thought of -the sensation we should make in the streets of an English town.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span></p> - -<p>The motion was not unpleasant, as the men keep step together. -Every few minutes they change the poles from one shoulder to -the other, lifting them over their heads without any slackening -of speed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE GOVERNOR</div> - -<p>A few minutes brought us to the fort, at the southern end of -the town; this was a circular structure of stone, with walls -about twenty feet high, which were pierced with openings for -about a dozen cannon. We had to wait for a few minutes until -the Governor was informed of our arrival, and thus had time to -think of the scene this fort presented not twenty years before -that time, when the heads of many English and French sailors -were fixed on poles around the fort. These ghastly objects were -relics of those who were killed in an attack made upon Tamatave -in 1845, by a combined English and French force, to redress some -grievances of the foreign traders. But we need not be too hard -on the Malagasy when we remember that, not a hundred years -before that time, we in England followed the same delectable -custom, and adorned Temple Bar and other places with the -heads of traitors.</p> - -<p>Presently we were informed that the Governor was ready to -receive us. Passing through the low covered way cut through -the wall, we came into the open interior space of the fort. The -Governor’s house, a long low wooden structure, was opposite to -us; while, on the right, he was seated under the shade of a large -tree, with a number of his officers and attendants squatting -around him. They were mostly dressed in a mixture of European -and native costume—viz. a shirt and trousers, over which were -thrown the folds of the native <em>làmba</em>, an oblong piece of calico -or print, wrapped round the body, with one end thrown over -the left shoulder. Neat straw hats of native manufacture -completed their costume. The Governor, whose name was -Andrìamandròso, was dressed in English fashion, with black -silk “top hat” and worked-wool slippers. He had a very -European-looking face, dark olive complexion, and was an -<em>andrìana</em>—that is, one of a clan or tribe of the native nobility. -He did not speak English, but through Mr Procter we exchanged -a few compliments and inquiries. I assured him of the -interest the people of England took in Madagascar, and their -wish to see the country advancing. Presently wine was -brought, and after drinking to the Governor’s health we took our<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -leave. The Hova government maintained, until the French -conquest, a garrison of from two to three hundred men at -Tamatave. These troops had their quarters close to the fort, in -a number of houses placed in rows and enclosed in a large square -or <em>ròva</em>, formed of strong wooden palisades, with gateways.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A ROUGH AND READY CANTEEN</div> - -<p>The following day was occupied in making preparations for -the journey, purchasing a few of the most necessary articles of -crockery, etc., and unpacking my canteen. This latter was a -handsome teak box, and fitted up most neatly with plates, -dishes, knives and forks, etc. But Mr Plant said that both the -box and most of its contents were far too good to be exposed to -the rough usage they would undergo on the journey; so I took -out some of the things and repacked the box in its wooden case. -Subsequent experience showed the wisdom of this advice, and that -it was a mistake to use too expensive articles for such travelling -as that in Madagascar, or to have to spend much time in getting -out and putting in again everything in its proper corner. Upon -reaching the halting-place after a fatiguing journey of several -hours, it is a great convenience to get at one’s belongings with -the least possible amount of exertion; and when starting before -sunrise in the mornings, it is not less pleasant to be able to -dispense with an elaborate fitting of things into a canteen. By -my friend’s advice, I therefore bought a three-legged iron pot -for cooking fowls, some common plates, and a tin coffee-pot, -which also served as a teapot when divested of its percolator. -These things were stowed away in a mat bag, which proved the -most convenient form of canteen possible for such a journey -The contents were quickly put in, and as readily got out when -wanted; and, thus provided, we felt prepared to explore -Madagascar from north to south, quite independent of inns and -innkeepers, chambermaids and waiters, had such members of -society existed in this primitive country.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that for some years -past Tamatave has been a very different place from what is -described above. Many handsome buildings—offices, banks, -shops, hotels and government offices—have been erected; the -town is lighted at night by electricity; piers have been constructed; -and in the suburbs shady walks and roads are -bordered by comfortable villa residences and their luxuriant -gardens.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALONG THE SEASHORE</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">TRAVELLING in Madagascar fifty years ago, and indeed -for many years after that date, differed considerably -from what we have any experience of in Europe. It -was not until the year 1901 that a railway was commenced from -the east coast to the interior, and it is only a few months ago -that direct communication by rail has been completed between -Tamatave and Antanànarìvo. But until the French occupation, -in 1895, a road, in our sense of the word, did not exist in the -island; and all kinds of merchandise brought from the coast -to the interior, or taken between other places, were carried for -great distances on men’s shoulders. There were but three -modes of conveyance—viz. one’s own legs, the <em>làkana</em> or canoe, -and the <em>filanjàna</em> or palanquin. We intended to make use of -all these means of getting over the ground (and water); but by -far the greater part of the journey of two hundred and twenty -miles would be performed in the <em>filanjàna</em>, carried on the sinewy -shoulders of our bearers or <em>màromìta</em>. This was <em>the</em> conveyance -of the country (and it is still used a good deal); for during the -first thirty years and more of my residence in Madagascar -there was not a single wheeled vehicle of any kind to be seen -in the interior, nor did even a wheelbarrow come under my -observation during that time.</p> - -<p>This want of our European means of conveyance arose from -the fact that no wheeled vehicles could have been used owing to -the condition of the tracks then leading from one part of the -country to another. The lightest carriage or the strongest -waggon would have been equally impracticable in parts of the -forest where the path was almost lost in the dense undergrowth, -and where the trees barely left room for a palanquin to pass. -Nor could any team take a vehicle up and down some of the tremendous -gorges, by tracks which sometimes wind like a corkscrew<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -amidst rocks and twisted roots of trees, sometimes climb -broad surfaces of slippery basalt, where a false step would send -bearers and palanquin together into steep ravines far below, and -again are lost in sloughs of adhesive clay, in which the bearers -at times sink to the waist, and when the traveller has to leap -from the back of one man to another to reach firm standing-ground. -Shaky bridges of primitive construction, often consisting -of but a single tree trunk, were frequently the only means -of crossing the streams; while more often they had to be forded, -one of the men going cautiously in advance to test the depth of -the water. It occasionally happened that this pioneer suddenly -disappeared, affording us and his companions a good deal of -merriment at his expense. At times I have had to cross rivers -when the water came up to the necks of the bearers, the shorter -men having to jump up to get breath, while they had to hold -the palanquin high up at arm’s-length to keep me out of the -water.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GENERAL FOREST AND GENERAL FEVER</div> - -<p>It was often asked: Why do not the native government improve -the roads? The neglect to do so was intentional on their -part, for it was evident to everyone who travelled along the -route from Tamatave to the capital that the track might have -been very much improved at a comparatively small expense. -The Malagasy shrewdly considered that the difficulty of the -route to the interior would be a formidable obstacle to an invasion -by a European power, and so they deliberately allowed -the path to remain as rugged as it is by nature. The first -Radàma is reported to have said, when told of the military genius -of foreign soldiers, that he had two officers in his service, -“General Hàzo,” and “General Tàzo” (that is, “Forest and -Fever”), whom he would match against any European commander. -Subsequent events so far justified his opinion that -the French invasion of the interior in 1895 did not follow the -east forest road, but the far easier route from the north-west -coast. The old road through the double belt of forests would -have presented formidable obstacles to the passage of disciplined -troops, and at many points it might have been -successfully contested by a small body of good marksmen, -well acquainted with the localities.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0281_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0281_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">On the Coast Lagoons</span><br /> - -Large dug-out canoes, propelled by paddles on each side, one man to each paddle</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">PLEASURES AND DISCOMFORTS</div> - -<p>It may be gathered from what has been already said that -travelling in Madagascar in the old times had not a little of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> -adventure and novelty connected with it. Provided the weather -was moderately fine, there was enough of freshness and often -of amusing incident to render the journey not unenjoyable, -especially if travelling in a party; and even to a solitary -traveller there is such a variety of scenery, and so many and -beautiful forms of vegetation, to arrest the attention, that it -was by no means monotonous. Of course there must be a -capacity for “roughing it,” and for turning the very discomforts -into sources of amusement. We must not be too much -disturbed at a superabundance of fleas or mosquitoes in the -houses, nor be frightened out of sleep by the scampering of rats -around and occasionally even upon us. It sometimes happens, -too, that a centipede or a scorpion has to be dislodged from -under the mats upon which we are about to lay our mattresses, -but, after all, a moderate amount of caution will prevent us -taking much harm.</p> - -<p>It must be confessed, however, that if the weather prove unfavourable -the discomforts are great, and it requires a resolute -effort to look at the bright side of things. To travel for several -hours in the rain, with the bearers slipping about in the stiff -adhesive clay—now sinking to the knees in a slough in the -hollows, and then painfully toiling up the rugged ascents—with -a chance of being benighted in the middle of the forest, were -not enjoyable incidents in the journey. Added to this, occasionally -the bearers of baggage and bedding and food would be -far behind, and sometimes would not turn up at all, leaving us -to go supperless, not to bed, but to do as well as we could on a -dirty mat. But, after all said and done, I can look back on -many journeys with great pleasure; and my wife and I have -even said to each other at the end, “It has been like a prolonged -picnic.” And by travelling at the proper time of the -year—for we never used, if possible, to take long journeys in -the rainy season—and with ordinary care in arranging the -different stages, there was often no more discomfort than that -inseparable from the unavoidable fatigue.</p> - -<p>Soon after breakfast on the morning of the 3rd October the -yard of Mr Procter’s house was filled with the bearers waiting to -take their packages, and, as more came than were actually required, -there was a good deal of noise and confusion until all -the loads had been apportioned. Most of my <em>màromìta</em> were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -strong and active young men, spare and lithe of limb, and proved -to possess great powers of endurance. The loads they carried -were not very heavy, but it was astonishing to see with what -steady patience they bore them hour after hour under a burning -sun, and up and down paths in the forest, where their progress -was often but a scrambling from one foothold to another. Two -men would take a load of between eighty and ninety pounds, -slung on a bamboo, between them; and this was the most -economical way of taking goods, for, on account of the difficulty -of the paths, four men found it more fatiguing to carry in one -package a weight which, divided into two, could easily be -borne by two sets of bearers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MY PALANQUIN</div> - -<p>Eight of the strongest and most active young men, accustomed -to work together, were selected to carry my palanquin, and took -it in two sets of four each, carrying alternately. Most of the -articles of my baggage were carried by two men; but my two -large flat wooden cases, containing drawing boards, paper and -instruments, required four men each. All baggage was carried -by the same men throughout the journey, without any relay or -change, except shifting the pole from one shoulder to the other; -but my palanquin, as already said, had a double set. The -personal bearers, therefore, naturally travel quicker than those -carrying the baggage, and we generally arrived at the halting-places -an hour or more before the others came up. The hollow -of the bamboos to which boxes and cases were slung served for -carrying salt, spoons, and various little properties of the bearers, -and sometimes small articles of European make for selling at -the capital. The men were, and still are, very expert in packing -and securing goods committed to their charge. Prints, calicoes -and similar materials were often covered with pandanus leaves -and so made impervious to the wet; and even sugar and salt -were carried in the same way without damage.</p> - -<p>As the conveyance of myself and my baggage required more -than thirty men, and Mr Plant took a dozen in addition, it was -some time before everything was arranged, and there was a good -deal of contention as to getting the lightest and most convenient -packages to carry. We had hoped to start early in the forenoon, -but it was after one o’clock when we sent off the last cases and -I stepped into my <em>filanjàna</em> to commence the novel experience -of a journey in Madagascar. We formed quite a large party as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -we set off from Tamatave and turned southwards into the open -country. The rear was brought up by a bearer of some intelligence -and experience, who only carried a spear, and was to act -as captain over the rest and look out accommodation for us in -the villages, etc. He had also to see after the whole of the -luggage, and take care that everyone had his proper load and -came up to time.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE FILANJÀNA</div> - -<p>My <em>filanjàna</em> was a different kind of thing from the chair in -which I had gone to visit the Governor. It was of the same -description as that commonly used by Malagasy ladies—made -of an oblong framework of light wood, filled in with a plaited -material formed of strips of sheepskin, and carried on poles, -which were the midrib of the enormous leaves of the <em>rofìa</em>-palm. -In this I sat, legs stretched out at full length, a piece of board -fixed as a rest for the back, and the whole made fairly comfortable -by means of cushions and rugs. There was plenty of space -for extra wraps, waterproof coat, telescope, books, etc. When -ladies travel any distance in this kind of <em>filanjàna</em> a hood of <em>rofìa</em> -cloth is fixed so as to draw over the head and to protect them -from the sun and rain. In my case, a stout umbrella served -instead, and a piece of waterproof cloth protected me fairly well -from the little rain that fell on the journey. (I may add here -that this was the first, and the last, journey I ever took in this -kind of <em>filanjàna</em>.) The late Dr Mullens, who also travelled up in -a similar way in 1873, said it reminded him of a picture in <cite>Punch</cite>, -of a heavy swell driving himself in a very small basket carriage, -and being remarked on by a street arab to his companion thus: -“Hallo, Bill, here’s a cove a-driving hisself home from the -wash.” My companion’s <em>filanjàna</em> was a much simpler contrivance -than mine, and consisted merely of two light poles held -together by iron bars, and with a piece of untanned hide nailed -to them for a seat. It was much more conveniently carried in -the forest than my larger and more cumbrous conveyance. It -may be added that certainly one was sometimes danced about -“like a pea in a frying-pan” in this rude machine; and it was not -long before a much more comfortable style of <em>filanjàna</em> was -adopted, with leather-covered back and arms, padded as well -as the seat, and with foot-rest, and leather or cloth bags strapped -to the side for carrying books and other small articles.</p> - -<p>It was a fine warm day when we set off, the temperature not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> -being higher than that of ordinary summer weather in England. -Our course lay due south, at no great distance from the sea, -the roar of whose waves we could hear distinctly all through the -first stage of the journey. In proceeding from Tamatave to -Antanànarìvo the road did not (and still does not, by railway) -lead immediately into the interior, but follows the coast for about -fifty miles southward. Upon reaching Andòvorànto, we had to -leave the sea and strike westward into the heart of the island, -ascending the river Ihàroka for nearly twenty miles before -climbing the line of mountains which form the edge of the -interior highland, and crossing the great forest.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE</div> - -<p>We soon left Tamatave behind us and got out into the open -country, a portion of the plain which extends for about thirty -miles between the foothills and the sea. Our men took us this -first day’s journey of nine or ten miles at a quick walk or trot -for the whole way, without any apparent fatigue. The road—which -was a mere footpath, or rather several footpaths, over a -grassy undulating plain—was bounded on one side by trees, -and on the other by low bushes and shrubs. Besides the cocoanut-palms -and the broad-leaved bananas, which were not here -very numerous, the most striking trees to a foreigner were the -agave, with long spear-shaped prickly leaves, on a high trunk, -and another very similar in form, but without any stem, both of -which might be counted by thousands. Nearer the sea was an -almost unbroken line of pandanus, which is one of the most -characteristic features of the coast vegetation. I also noticed -numbers of orchids on the trees, of two or three species of -<i>Angræcum</i>, but just past the flowering; a smaller orchid, also -with pure white flowers, was very abundant.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p0321_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0321_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Forest Road</span><br /> - -Two bearers carrying an empty palanquin, and one with luggage. -There is the usual forest vegetation</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">A NATIVE HOME</div> - -<p>I had enough to engage my attention with these new forms of -vegetation, as well as in noticing the birds, and the many butterflies -and other insects which crossed our path every moment, -until we arrived at Hivòndrona, a large straggling village on a -broad river of the same name, which here unites with other -streams and flows into the sea. Among the many birds to be -seen were flocks of small green and white paroquets, green -pigeons, scarlet cardinal-birds, and occasionally beautiful little -sun-birds (<i>Nectarinidæ</i>) with metallic colours of green, brown and -yellow. We had intended to go farther, but finding that, owing -to our late starting, we should not reach another village before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -dark, we decided to stay of Hivòndrona for the night. A house -at most of the villages on the road to the capital was provided -for travellers, who took possession at once, without paying anything -for its use. The house here, which was somewhat better -than at most of the other places, consisted, like all the dwellings -in this part of the country, of a framework of poles, thatched -with the leaves of the traveller’s tree, and the walls filled in -with a kind of lathing made of the stalks of the same leaves. -The walls and floor were both covered with matting, made from -the fibre of leaves of the <em>rofìa</em> palm. In one corner was the fireplace, -merely a yard and a half square of sand and earth, with -half-a-dozen large stones for supporting the cooking utensils. -As in most native houses, the smoke made its way out through -the thatch.</p> - -<p>Our men soon came up with the baggage and proceeded to get -out kitchen apparatus, make a fire, and put on pots and pans; -and in a short time beef, fowls and soup were being prepared. -Meanwhile Mr Plant and I walked down to the seashore and then -into the village, to call upon a creole trader, who was the only -European resident in the place. We brought him back with -us, and found dinner all ready on our return to the house. My -largest case of drawing boards formed, when turned upside down -and laid on other boxes, an excellent table; we sat round on -other packages, and found that one of our bearers, who officiated -as cook, was capable of preparing a very fair meal; and although -the surroundings were decidedly primitive, we enjoyed it all -the more from its novelty. After our visitor had left us we -prepared to sleep; three or four boxes, with a rug and my -clothes-bag, formed a comfortable bed for myself, while Mr Plant -lay on the floor, but found certain minute occupants of the house -so very active that his sleep was considerably disturbed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GIGANTIC ARUMS</div> - -<p>Next morning we were up long before daybreak, and after a -cup of coffee started a little before six o’clock. We walked down -to the river, which had to be crossed and descended for some -distance, and embarked with our baggage in seven canoes. -These canoes, like those at Tamatave, are somewhat rude contrivances, -and are hollowed out of a single tree. They are of -various lengths, from ten to thirty or forty feet, the largest -being about four feet in breadth and depth. There is no keel, -so that they are rather apt to capsize unless carefully handled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -and loaded. At each end is a kind of projecting beak, pierced -with a hole for attaching a mooring-rope. From the smoothness -of the sides, and the great length compared with the beam, -they can be propelled at considerable speed with far less exertion -than is required to move a boat of European build. Instead of -oars, paddles shaped like a wooden shovel are employed, and -these are dug into the water, the rower squatting in the canoe -and facing the bows; the paddle is held vertically, a reverse -motion being given to the handle. We went a couple of miles -down the stream, which here unites with others, so that several -islands are formed, all the banks being covered with luxuriant -vegetation. Conspicuous amongst this, and growing in the -shallow water close to the banks, were great numbers of a -gigantic arum endemic in Madagascar (<i>Typhonodorum lindleyanum</i>), -and growing to the height sometimes of twelve or -fifteen feet, and possessing a large white spathe of more than -a foot in length, enclosing a golden-yellow pistil, or what looks -like one. The leaves are most handsome and are about a yard -long. After about twenty minutes’ paddling we landed, and, -when all our little fleet had arrived, mounted our palanquins, -and set off through a narrow path in the woods. The morning -air, even on this tropical coast, was quite keen, making an overcoat -necessary before the sun got up.</p> - -<p>Our road for some miles lay along cleared forest, with stumps -of trees and charred trunks, white and black, in every direction. -It is believed that the white ants are responsible for this destruction -of the trees. We saw numbers of a large crow (<i>Corvus -scapulatus</i>), not entirely black, like our English species, but -with a broad white ring round the neck and a pure white breast, -giving them quite a clerical air. This bird, called <em>goàika</em> by the -Malagasy—evidently an imitation of his harsh croak—is larger -than a magpie, and his dark plumage is glossy bluish-black. -He is very common everywhere in the island, being often seen -in large numbers, especially near the markets, where he picks -up a living from the refuse and the scattered rice. He is a bold -and rather impudent bird, and will often attack the smaller -hawks. There were also numbers of the white egret (<i>Ardea -bubulcus</i>) or <em>vòrom-pòtsy</em> (<em>i.e.</em> “white bird”), also called <em>vòron-tìan-òmby</em> -(<em>i.e.</em> “bird liked by cattle”), from their following the -herds to feed upon the ticks which torment them. One may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -often see these egrets perched on the back of the oxen and thus -clearing them from their enemies. Wherever the animals were -feeding, these birds might be seen in numbers proportionate to -those of the cattle. This egret has the purest white plumage, -with a pale yellow plume or crest, and is a most elegant and -graceful bird.</p> - -<p>The oxen of Madagascar have very long horns, and a large -hump between the shoulders. In other respects their appearance -does not differ from the European kinds, and the quality -and flavour of the flesh is not much inferior to English beef. -The hump, which consists of a marrow-like fat, is considered -a great delicacy by the Malagasy, and when salted and eaten -cold is a very acceptable dish. When the animal is in poor -condition the hump is much diminished in size, being, like that -of the camel in similar circumstances, apparently absorbed into -the system. It then droops partly over the shoulders. These -Malagasy oxen have doubtless been brought at a rather remote -period from Africa; their native name, <em>òmby</em>, is practically the -same as the Swahili <em>ngombe</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CURIOUS CRABS</div> - -<p>We reached Trànomàro (“many houses”) at half-past nine, -and there breakfasted. My bearers proved to be a set of most -merry, good-tempered, willing fellows. As soon as they got -near the halting-places they would set off at a quick run, and -with shouts and cries carry me into the village in grand style, -making quite a commotion in the place. Leaving again at noon, -in a few minutes we came down to the sea, the path being close -to the waves which were rolling in from the broad expanse of the -Indian Ocean. I was amused by the hundreds of little red crabs, -about three inches long, taking their morning bath or watching -at the mouth of their holes, down which they dived instantaneously -at our approach. One or more species of the Madagascar -crabs has one of its pincers enormously enlarged, so that it is -about the same size as the carapace, while the other claw is -quite rudimentary. This great arm the little creature carries -held up in a ludicrous, threatening manner, as if defying all -enemies. I was disappointed in not seeing shells of any size -or beauty on the sands. The only ones I then observed -which differed from those found on our own shores were a -small bivalve of a bluish-purple hue, and an almost transparent -whorled shell, resembling the volute of an Ionic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -capital, but so fragile that it was difficult to find a perfect -specimen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SEA SHELLS</div> - -<p>But although that portion of the shore did not yield much of -conchological interest, there are many parts of the coasts of -Madagascar which produce some of the most beautifully marked -species of the genus <i>Conus</i> (<i>Conus tessellatus</i> and <i>C. nobilis</i>, -if I am not mistaken, are Madagascar species), while large -handsome species of the <em>Triton</em> (<i>T. variegatum</i>) are also found. -These latter are often employed instead of church bells to call -the congregations together, as well as to summon the people -to hear Government orders. A hole is pierced on the side of the -shell, and it requires some dexterity to blow it; but the sound -is deep and sonorous and can be heard at a considerable distance. -The circular tops of the cone shells are ground down to a thin -plate and extensively used by the Sàkalàva and other tribes as -a face ornament, being fixed by a cord on the forehead or the -temples. They are called <em>félana</em>. I have also picked up -specimens, farther south, of <i>Cypræa</i> (<i>C. madagascariensis</i>), a -well-known handsome shell, as well as of <em>Oliva</em>, <em>Mitra</em>, <em>Cassis</em>, -and others (<i>C. madagascariensis</i>). The finest examples are, -however, I believe, only to be got by dredging near the shore.</p> - -<p>After some time we left the shore and proceeded through the -woods, skirting one of those lagoons which run parallel with -the coast nearly all the way from Tamatave to Andòvorànto. -A good recent map of Madagascar will show that on this coast, -for about three hundred miles south of Hivòndrona, there is a -nearly continuous line of lakes and lagoons. They vary in -distance from the sea from a hundred yards to a couple of miles; -and in many places they look like a very straight river or a broad -canal, while frequently they extend inland, spreading out into -extensive sheets of water, two or three miles across. This -peculiar formation is probably owing, in part at least, to slight -changes of level in the land, so that the inner banks of the -lagoons were possibly an old shore-line. But this chain of -lagoons and lakes is no doubt chiefly due to east coast rivers -being continually blocked up at their outlets by bars of sand, -driven up by the prevailing south-east trade-wind and the -southerly currents. So that the river waters are forced back -into the lagoons until the pressure is so great that a breach is -made, and the fresh water rushes through into the sea. On<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -account of these sand-bars, hardly any east coast river can be -entered by ships. The rivers, in fact, flow for the most of the -time, not into the sea, but into the lagoons. These are not perfectly -continuous, although out of that three hundred miles -there are only about thirty miles where there are breaks in their -continuity and where canoes have to be hauled for a few hundred -yards, or for a mile or two, on the dry land separating them.</p> - -<p>It will at once occur to anyone travelling along this coast, -as we did, that an uninterrupted waterway might be formed by -cutting a few short canals to connect the separate lagoons, and -so bring the coast towns into communication with Tamatave. -That enlightened monarch, Radàma I. (1810-1828), did see this, -and several thousand men were at one time employed in connecting -the lagoons nearest Tamatave; but this work was -interrupted by his death and never resumed by his successors. -But soon after the French conquest the work was again taken -in hand; canals were excavated, connecting all the lakes and -lagoons between Tamatave and Andòvorànto; and for about -twelve years a service of small steamers took passengers and -goods between Hivòndrona and Brickaville, where, until quite -recently, the railway commenced. Since the line of rails has -now been completed direct to Tamatave, this waterway will -not be of the same use, at least for passenger traffic.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COAST SCENERY</div> - -<p>The scenery of this coast is of a very varied and beautiful -nature, and the combinations of wood and water present a series -of pictures which constantly recalled some of the loveliest -landscapes that English river and lake scenery can present. -Our route ran for most of the way between the lagoons and the -sea, among the woods. On the one hand we had frequent -glimpses through the trees of sheets of smooth water fringed -by tropical vegetation, and on the other hand were the tumbling -and foaming waves of the ever-restless sea. In many places -islands studded the surface of the lakes, and I noticed thousands -of a species of pandanus, with large aerial roots, spreading out as -if to anchor it firmly against floods and violent currents. In -the woods were the gum-copal tree and many kinds of palms -with slender graceful stems and crowns of feathery leaves. -The climbing plants were abundant, forming ropes of various -thicknesses, crossing from tree to tree and binding all together -in inextricable confusion, creeping on the ground, mounting to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -the tree-tops and sometimes hanging in coils like huge serpents. -Great masses of <ins class="corr" id="tn-38" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'hartstongue fern'"> -hart’s-tongue fern</ins> occurred in the forks of the -branches, and wherever a tree trunk crossed over our path it -was covered with orchids.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A POISON TREE</div> - -<p>Among other trees I recognised the celebrated tangèna, -from which was obtained the poison used in Madagascar from -a remote period as an ordeal. The tangèna is about the size of -an ordinary apple-tree, and, could it be naturalised in England, -would make a beautiful addition to our ornamental plantations. -The leaves are peculiarly grouped together in clusters and are -somewhat like those of the horse-chestnut. The poison was -procured from the kernel of the fruit, and until the reign of -Radàma II. (1861) was used with fatal effect for the trial of -accused persons, and caused the death of thousands of people, -mostly innocent, every year during the reign of the cruel -Rànavàlona I.</p> - -<p>We arrived at Andrànokòditra, a small village with a dozen -houses, early in the afternoon. From our house there was a -lovely view of the broad lake with its woods and islands, while -the sea was only two or three hundred yards’ distance in the rear. -Wild ducks and geese of several kinds were here very plentiful, -but my friend was not very successful with his gun, as a canoe -was necessary to reach the islands where they chiefly make their -haunts. After our evening meal Mr Plant slung his hammock -to the framework of our hut, and happily did not come to grief, -as occasionally happened. I was somewhat disturbed by the -cockroaches, which persisted in dropping from the roof upon and -around me. There was no remedy, however, except to forget -the annoyance in sleep.</p> - -<p>I may here notice that when travelling along this coast a few -years later (in August 1883) the sands were everywhere almost -covered with pieces of pumice, varying from lumps as big as -one’s head to pieces as small as a walnut. They were rounded -by the action of the waves, and on some of the larger pieces -oysters, serpulæ and corals had begun to form. This pumice -had no doubt been brought by the ocean currents, as well as by -the winds, both setting to the west, from the Straits of Sunda, -where they were ejected by the tremendous eruption of -Krakatoa, off the west coast of Java, during the previous May. -This fact supplies not only an interesting illustration of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -distances to which volcanic products may be carried by ocean -currents, but also throws light upon the way in which the -ancestors of the Malagasy came across the three thousand miles -of sea which separate Madagascar from Malaysia. It is easy to -understand how, in prehistoric times, single <em>prahus</em>, or even -a small fleet of them, were occasionally driven westward by a -hurricane, and that the westerly current aided in this, until at -length these vessels were stranded or gained shelter on the coast -of Madagascar, stretching north and south, as it does, for a -thousand miles. From what I have been told, the pumice -was found, if not everywhere on the east coast, at any rate -over a considerable extent of it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VARIETY OF FISH</div> - -<p>We were up soon after four o’clock on the following morning, -and started while it was still twilight. After going a short -distance through the woods we came again to the seashore, and -proceeded for some miles close to the waves, which broke -repeatedly over our bearers’ feet as they tramped on the firm -wet sand. For a considerable distance there was only a low -bank of sand between the salt water of the ocean and the fresh -water of the lake. In many places the opposite shore showed -good sections of the strata, apparently a red sandstone, with a -good deal of quartz rock. We left the sea again and went on -through the woods, a sharp shower coming on as we entered -them. We did not notice any fish in the lagoons, but I was -afterwards informed by a correspondent, Mr J. G. Connorton, -who lived for several years at Mànanjàra, and paid much attention -to natural history, that there is a great variety of fish, -crustaceans and mulluscs in the lagoons and rivers, as well as -in the sea. He kindly sent me a list of about one hundred and -twenty of these, together with many interesting particulars as -to their habits and appearance, etc. From this account I will -give a few extracts:</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ZÒMPONA</div> - -<p>“<em>Ambàtovàzana</em>, a sea-fish which comes also into the entrance -of the rivers; it has silvery scales and yellow fins. In both -upper and lower jaws are four rows of teeth very like pebbles; -these are for crushing crabs, its usual food. Its name is derived -from its peculiarly shaped teeth (<em>vàto</em>, stone; <em>vàzana</em>, molar -teeth). <em>Botàla</em>, a small sea and river fish; it is covered all over -with rough prickles. These fish inflate their bodies by filling -their stomachs with air as soon as they are taken out of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -water; if replaced in the water suddenly, out goes the air, and -they are off like a flash. It is probably <em>Tetrodon fàhaka</em>. -<em>Hìntana</em>, a river-fish, with purple colouring and darker purple -stripes from back to belly. It is generally found among weeds, -and has four long spines, one on the dorsal fin, two just behind -the gills, and one close under the tail. These spines are very -poisonous, and anyone pricked by them suffers great pain for -several hours, the parts near the wound swelling enormously. -I have not, however, heard of the wound ever proving fatal. -<em>Horìta</em>, a small species of octopus found clinging to the rocks. -The Malagasy esteem them highly, but I found them gluey and -sticky in the mouth, as well as rank in flavour. <em>Tòfoka</em>, a sea -and river fish, probably <i>Mugil borbonicus</i>. It has a habit of -jumping out of the water, and if chased by a shark it swims at -the surface with great rapidity, making enormous leaps into the -air every now and then and often doubling upon the enemy. -Perhaps the best of the many edible fish is the <em>Zòmpona</em>, a kind -of mullet, only feeding on soft substances such as weeds. It is -silvery in colour, with large scales, and is probably the best-known -fish on the east coast. When fresh from the sea, its tail -and fins have a yellowish tinge, and it is then splendid eating; -but if this tinging is lost it shows that the fish has been for some -time in fresh water, and the flesh has a muddy flavour. It -varies in size from nine to thirty inches long. The coast people -are very fond of zòmpona; and when a person is dying and is so -far gone that the case is a hopeless one, some outsider is almost -sure to say, ‘He (or she) won’t get zòmpona again.’”</p> - -<p>I can confirm my correspondent’s statements as to the -excellence of the last-named fish, having frequently eaten it -when on the coast. He also mentions several kinds of prawns -and shrimps; some of these are large and make an excellent -curry. One species of prawn, called <em>Oronkosìa</em>, is long and -slender, with immense antennæ, often a foot in length. One -species of shrimp has one large claw, like the crab already -mentioned, the other being hardly at all developed. Several -species of shark are seen off this coast, among them that -extraordinary-looking fish, the hammer-headed shark (<i>Zygæna -malleus</i>), which I have never seen in Madagascar waters, but -have noticed with great interest in South African harbours. -“The saw-fish (<i>Pristis sp.</i>), called by the natives <em>Vavàno</em>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -sometimes comes into the rivers in search of food. One was -caught in the river Mànanjàra which measured fourteen feet -from tip of saw to end of tail; the saw alone was three feet six -inches in length, seven inches broad at base, and four inches -at tip. The flesh is coarse eating, but the liver is very -palatable.”</p> - -<p>I may remark here that we seldom stopped, either at midday -or in the evening, at any village without a visit from the -headman of the place and his family, who always carried some -present. Fowls, rice, potatoes, eggs and honey were constantly -brought to us, preceded by a speech in which the names and -honours of the Queen were recited, and compliments to us on -our visiting their village. The Malagasy are a most hospitable -people, always courteous and polite to strangers; and my first -experience of them on this journey was confirmed in numberless -instances in travelling in other parts of the country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DELIGHTFUL SCENERY</div> - -<p>Leaving Vavòny, where we had our morning repast, between -eleven and twelve o’clock, we went on again through the woods -along the shores of the lake, which here spreads out into broad -sheets of water, two or three miles wide. The scenery was -delightful, both shores being thickly wooded, reminding me in -some places of the Wye, in others of the lake at Longleat, and -in narrow parts of Studley Park. Our road for miles resembled -a footpath through a nobleman’s park in England: clumps of -trees, shrubberies, and short smooth turf, all united to complete -the resemblance. These all seemed more like the work of some -expert landscape gardener than merely the natural growth. -In some parts, where the more distinctly tropical vegetation—pandanus, -cacti and palms—were not seen, the illusion was -complete. In many places we saw many sago palms (<i>Cycas -thouarsii</i>), a tree much less in height than the majority of the -palms and not exceeding twelve or fourteen feet, but with -the same long pinnate leaves characteristic of so many of -the Palmaceæ.</p> - -<p>One of the most conspicuous trees on this coast, especially as -seen from the sea, is the <em>Filào</em> (<i>Casuarina equisetifolia</i>), a tall -larch or fir-like tree, often called, from the colour of its wood, -“the beefwood tree.” Like the firs, its leaves are fine filaments, -and the wind passing through these produces a peculiar gentle -sighing noise. Very plentiful, too, is a much smaller tree bearing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -a perfectly globular-shaped fruit as large as a good-sized orange, -but having a hard shell which requires a smart blow to crack. -It contains a greyish pulp, and a number of large black seeds; -and although by no means equal to an orange in taste, its acid -flavour was refreshing enough where one was thirsty and heated -with the midday sun. A friend of mine remarks: “As they -are rather more difficult to eat in a cleanly and dainty fashion -than ripe mangoes, we smeared ourselves pretty considerably in -the process.” While the pulp is edible, the seeds are poisonous, -and we need not wonder at that when we find that the tree is -closely allied to the <i>Strychnos nux-vomica</i>. Its native name is -<em>Vòavòntaka</em> (<i>Brehmia spinosa</i>); <em>vòa</em> is the general word for -“fruit,” and enters into the composition of more than two -hundred Malagasy names of trees, plants and fruits. A species -of <i>Hibiscus</i> is widely spread along the coast, and yields a valuable -fibre. The natives say that its flowers are yellow in the morning -and red in the evening. Other noticeable flowering shrubs here -are a species of <i>Stephanotis</i>, with lovely large white flowers, and -an <i>Ipomæa</i>, which straggles far and wide on the sand of the seashore. -Along the sides of the lagoons and marshes in scattered -places may be found the curious pitcher-plant (<i>Nepenthes -madagascariensis</i>); this is a shrub about four feet high, whose -jug-shaped pitchers, four to five inches in length, contain abundant -water and numerous insects. Gum-copal is obtained from -a tree (<i>Trachylobium verrucosa</i>) growing on this coast; and -india-rubber from several plants (<i>Landolphia madagascariensis</i> -and <i>L. gummifera</i>), creepers as well as trees.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MOSQUITOES</div> - -<p>Notwithstanding the beauty of this part of the country, it is -very unhealthy for foreigners. The rivers, as we have seen, all -communicate with the lagoons, and during the rainy season -great quantities of decaying matter are brought down from the -forests. The large extent of marsh and stagnant water in the -lakes breed millions of mosquitoes, and so give rise to the dreaded -malarial fever. The earlier accounts of the French and -Portuguese settlements on the coast of Madagascar represent -this as a frightful scourge, sweeping off a large proportion of the -soldiers and settlers at their forts. From this, the Isle Ste Marie -was called the “Grave of the French,” and “the Churchyard” -and “Dead Island” of the Dutch. But the use of quinine and -modern precautions against mosquito bites have done much to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -mitigate the attacks of fever, and since the draining of the -marshes near Tamatave the town is said to be fairly healthy.</p> - -<p>The Bétsimisàraka inhabitants of this coast are accustomed -to place their dead in rude coffins hollowed out of the trunk of -a tree and covered with a roof-shaped lid. But these are not -buried, but are placed on the ground in little groups, in a sheltered -grove of trees. In the case of wealthy people, the coffins are put -on a kind of trestle, and sometimes are protected from the rain -by having a shed fixed over them. This custom, it may be -imagined, is not, for the living, a pleasant mode of disposing of -the departed, and the presence of these little cemeteries may -often be deduced from the effluvium, even if they are not seen. -During the dry season one constantly meets with groups of -people carrying up the remains of their relatives, Hova who -have died on the coast, in order that they may be buried in their -ancestral tombs. Sometimes we have had our midday meal, or -have stopped for the night, in houses against whose outer walls -these wrapped-up corpses, fastened to long poles for carriage, -have been leaning. At one place where we stayed the people -were making cakes for the funeral feast, and in pounding -the rice for these the women made a special rhythmical beat -of their pestles on the top of the rice mortar, as well as on the -meal in the hollow of the mortar.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SNAKES</div> - -<p>But to return to our journey. At about two o’clock we had -to cross the lake, but as there was only one small canoe, it took -more than two hours to get all our baggage and men over. -We therefore strolled into the woods, finding plenty to interest -us in examining the orchids, ferns, and other plants, most of -them new to me. We captured a new and splendid spider, new -to my companion, who had made entomology his special study. -We were amused by the little land-crabs, with their curious -stalked eyes, folding down into a case, when not raised to look -about them. There were also many beautifully marked lizards, -as well as other interesting living creatures in these tropical -woods. The ferry was close to a village bearing the name of -Andàvaka-mènaràna—that is, “hole of serpents.” Notwithstanding -this ominous appellation, we were not startled from -our path by even a solitary reptile, although a cave not far -distant is said to be a lurking-place for numbers of these creatures. -But on a subsequent journey along this coast I saw a large and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -handsome brown serpent on the grass close to the path. I got -down, not to kill it, but to examine its beautiful markings and -graceful movements; but on getting near it, which was not -easy to do, as its movements were so rapid, it turned and faced -me in a menacing fashion. Happily, although there are many -species of serpents in Madagascar, not one is a venomous kind—that -is, their bite is not fatal. At the same time there are some -kinds which will bite severely if attacked. Later on, I saw -another much smaller snake, of a bright green colour, on the -trunk of a tree; doubtless its tints were protective. The larger -one I saw is called <em>Màndotra</em>, and was from three to four feet -long; another species found on the coast is called <em>Màntangòra</em>, -and is a foot or more longer.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A BOA</div> - -<p>While on the subject of serpents, I will add here some particulars -my friend, Mr Houlder, gives of yet another of these -reptiles seen on this east coast, but farther north. This kind is -called <em>Akòma</em> (<i>Pelophilus madagascariensis</i>), and appears to be -a species of boa, killing fowls, rats and other creatures first by -crushing them, and then covering them with saliva before -swallowing. At a village he stayed in, my friend found the -people much excited about a large serpent seen in their neighbourhood. -Sending out his men to find it, “at last the creature -was seen. Yes, there he was, a villainous-looking monster, -apparently asleep, coiled up among the bushes with his great -flat head in the middle of the circle. The gun was loaded with -several pistol bullets. Luckily it was, perhaps, for the duck-shot -sent into him at the next discharge only just penetrated his -thick scaly skin. Advancing to within a couple of yards or so, -I raised the gun. Bang! Away went the onlookers for their -lives. Peering through the smoke which was slowly moving -away, I could just see the head coming towards me. Enough, -I bolted too. This caused a second stampede. But it was a -groundless alarm. I looked back, and saw that the poor -creature was incapable of doing serious injury. His back was -hopelessly broken. No other shot was necessary.” Mr -Houlder did not get the serpent to his house without difficulty, -owing to the terror of the bearers even when it was dead. “It -was a medium-sized specimen, about nine feet long and as -thick round the middle as the calf of a man’s leg. On each side -of its body was a long yellow, black, and reddish chain-like<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -marking on a brown ground; and near the extremity of its -tail were two abortive claws. Muscular motion did not cease -until long after it was dead.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LEMURS</div> - -<p>Although we did not see any lemurs in the coast woods, one -species at least is, or, at least, was, sometimes met with—viz. -the white-fronted lemur (<i>Lemur mongos</i>, <i>var. albifrons</i>). -Several specimens of this kind have been brought to England -from time to time, and have been kept in the Regent’s Park -Zoological Gardens from as long ago as 1830; so that their -appearance and habits are as well known to English people as -to the Malagasy themselves. Their habits are simple enough. -They often exhibit great vivacity, and are much given to -leaping from one object to another, in which they are aided by -the pad-like structure of the soles of their four hands. They -are very good-natured and tame and full of fun while still young, -but become cross and vicious when old. We shall, however, see -and hear more of the lemurs when we come into the denser -forests.</p> - -<p>A little before dusk we arrived at Andòvorànto, a large -village situated at the mouth of the river Ihàroka, and formerly -the capital of the Bétsimisàraka tribe, before they were reduced -to subjection by the Hova. This place would be the natural -port of the capital, but for the bar of sand at the entrance of -the river. Were it not for this obstruction, ships and steamers -could come up into the interior for many miles. The house in -which we stayed here was quite a large one, divided into three -rooms, the walls covered with <em>rofìa</em> matting, and actually -possessing <em>windows</em> (but, of course, without glass) and doors. -All the places where we had stayed previously had no windows, -and a mat hung over the entrance supplied the place of -a door.</p> - -<p>While our dinner was being prepared we walked down to the -sea and along the river banks, hoping to find some natural -history specimens. During our walk Mr Plant related to me -his success in obtaining a specimen of that remarkable creature, -the aye-aye, an animal peculiar to Madagascar, and of which, -at that time, only one or two specimens had reached Europe. -The example he secured was sent to England in spirits, and -from it, I believe, Sir Richard Owen prepared his monograph, -giving full details and drawings, life size, showing its remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -structure. The animal, although apparently not scarce, is -difficult to obtain, as it comes out from its retreat only at night; -besides which, the forest people have a superstitious fear of it, -so that even a large reward is often insufficient to induce them -to attempt its capture.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE AYE-AYE</div> - -<p>The aye-aye is included among the four-handed animals, but -it is very unlike the monkeys, having a smaller brain and much -less intelligence; and from its powerful teeth it was at first -thought to be a link between them and the rodentia, or gnawing -animals. Its structure presents some of the most interesting -illustrations of typical forms, being modified to serve special -ends that any animal organisation can exemplify. The food -of the aye-aye consists of a wood-boring larvæ, which tunnels -into the wood of certain trees. To obtain these, the animal -is furnished with most powerful chisel-shaped incisor teeth, with -which it cuts away the outer bark. As, however, the grub -retreats to the end of its hole, one of the fingers of the aye-aye’s -hands is slightly lengthened, but much diminished in thickness, -and is finished with a hook-like claw. Thus provided, the -finger is used as a probe, inserted in the tunnel, and the dainty -morsel drawn forth from its hiding-place. There are also other -modifications, all tending to the more perfect accomplishment -of the purposes of its creation: the eyes being very large to see -in the night, the ears widely expanded to catch the faint sound -of the grub at work, and the thumbs of the feet largely developed -so as to enable the animal to take a firm hold of the tree while -using its teeth.</p> - -<p>Since then, living specimens of the aye-aye have been sent to -Europe, and careful observations were made for several months -on the habits of one in the Regent’s Park Gardens; and other -information has been obtained as to the animal as observed in -its native forests by intelligent natives. The creature somewhat -resembles a large cat in size, being about three feet in -total length, of which its large bushy tail forms quite half. Its -colour is dark brown, the throat being yellowish-grey; a somewhat -silvery look is given to the fur in certain lights by many -whitish hairs on the back. The probe finger is used as a scoop -when the aye-aye drinks; it is carried so rapidly from the -water to the mouth that the liquid seems to pass in a continual -stream. A remarkable fact has been pointed out in the structure<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -of the lower jaw—namely, that the two sides are only joined -together by a strong ligament, and do not, as in other animals, -form one connected circle of bone. This accounts for the -prodigious power of gnawing that the aye-aye possesses. It -was seen to cut through a strip of tin-plate nailed to the door of -its cage.</p> - -<p>The aye-aye constructs true nests, about two and a half feet -in diameter, which are found on trees in the dense parts of the -forest. Near the coast these are composed of rolled-up leaves -of the traveller’s tree, and are lined with twigs and dry leaves. -The opening of the nest is at the side, and a small white insect -called <em>andaitra</em>, probably the larva of some beetle, forms the -animal’s chief food. It is said to be very savage, and strikes -rapidly with its hands. The coast people believe it to be an -embodiment of their forefathers, and so will not touch it, much -less do it an injury; and if they attempted to entrap it, they -think they would surely die in consequence; and their superstition -extends even to its nest.</p> - -<p>The aye-aye is one of the many instances which the animal -life of Madagascar presents of isolation from other forms. It -remains the only species of its genus, and, like many of the -peculiar birds of the island, is one of the many proofs that -Madagascar has for long ages been separated from Africa; so -that while allied forms have become extinct on the continent, -here, protected from the competition of stronger animals, many -birds, mammals and insects have been preserved, and so this -island is a kind of museum of ancient and elsewhere unknown -forms of life.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ANDÒVORÀNTO TO MID-FOREST</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">IT rained heavily during the night of Tuesday and nearly -until daybreak, so it was half-past six o’clock before we -were able to leave Andòvorànto. Hitherto we had -followed the seashore southwards; now we were to start westwards -into the interior. After an immense deal of shouting -and some quarrelling on the part of our bearers, who seemed to -think it necessary for everyone to give his opinion at the same -moment, we pushed off in six large canoes and paddled away -up the river Ihàroka. For several miles the stream is upwards -of a mile in width. It was a fine calm morning after a stormy -night, and as we glided rapidly over the broad smooth expanse -of water, and turned our canoe’s prow towards the interior -mountains, I began really to feel that I was on my way to the -capital.</p> - -<p>After half-an-hour we came to a point where the river is a -junction of three streams, the one we took being about half the -width of the main current. We passed many canoes and overtook -others; some of these were filled with rice and other produce, -and had but a single rower; he sat generally at the stern -and gave a few strokes with the paddle on each side of the -canoe alternately, so as to keep the craft in a fairly straight -course through the water. Other canoes were filled with what -was evidently a family party, going together to some market -held in one of the neighbouring villages. Our men seemed to -enjoy the exercise of paddling, which was a change from bearing -our palanquins and baggage on their shoulders, and they took -us up the stream at a great speed. More than once, indeed, I -wished they had been less vigorous, for they commenced racing -with the other crews, making me not a little apprehensive of -being upset. It would not have mattered much to them, as -they swam fearlessly and had nothing to lose; but it would -have been unpleasant and dangerous for us, even apart from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> -the risk of crocodiles, which abound in most of the rivers of -Madagascar.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CROCODILES</div> - -<p>These reptiles are so numerous in many parts as to be a great -pest; they often carry off sheep and cattle, and not unfrequently -women and children who incautiously go into or even -near the water. The Malagasy, however, have a superstitious -dread of these monsters, which prevents them from attempting -to kill them. They rather try to propitiate the creature by -prayers and offerings thrown into the water, and by acknowledging -its supremacy in its own element. At Itàsy, a lake -fifty miles west of the capital, the people believe that if a -crocodile be killed a human life will, within a very short time, -be exacted by the animal’s brother reptiles, as an atonement -for his death. Two or three French travellers once shot a -crocodile in this lake, and such was the people’s consternation -and dread of the consequences that their visitors found it -expedient to quit the neighbourhood as quickly as possible. -The eggs of the crocodile are collected and sold for food in the -markets, and are said to be perfectly good, but I confess I never -brought myself to test their merits.</p> - -<p>We kept near the banks of the river, and so were able to -examine and admire the luxuriant vegetation with which they -were covered. In many places the bamboo is conspicuous, -with its long-jointed, tapering stem, and its whorls of minute -leaves, of a light delicate green; but it is small here compared -with what we afterwards saw in the main forest. Plantations -of sugar-cane and manioc were mingled with banana-trees, -palms, pandanus and other trees, many not unlike English -forms. Numbers of great water-lilies with blue flowers were -growing in the shallow water, and convolvuli, as well as -numerous other flowers of new kinds and colours, everywhere -met the eye. The shores were flat at first, but became more -hilly, and the scenery more varied, as we proceeded.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TRAVELLER’S TREE</div> - -<p>As we sailed up the river the traveller’s tree (<i>Ravenala -madagascariensis</i>) became very plentiful, and soon gave quite -a peculiar character to the landscape. This remarkable and -beautiful tree belongs to the order which includes the plantains -and bananas, although in some points its structure resembles -the palm rather than the plantain. It is immediately recognised -by its graceful crown of broad green leaves, which grow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> -at the top of its trunk in the form of an immense fan. The -leaves are from twenty to thirty in number, and are from eight -to ten feet long by a foot and a half broad. They very closely -resemble those of the banana, and when unbroken by the wind -have a very striking and beautiful appearance. The name of -“traveller’s tree” is given on account of its affording at all -times a supply of cool pure water upon piercing the base of the -leaf-stalk with a spear or pointed stick. This supply is owing -to the broad surface of the leaves, which condenses the moisture -of the atmosphere, and from which the water trickles down into -the hollow, where the leaf-stalks join the stem. Each of these -forms a little reservoir, in which water may always be found. -The leaves, as are also those of the banana, are used to beat the -thatched roofs in case of fire, on account of the amount of water -which they contain.</p> - -<p>The name of “builder’s tree” might be given to it with equal -or greater propriety, for it is as useful to the coast people as the -cocoanut-palm is to the South Sea islanders. The leaves are -used for thatching, and the long leaf-stems fastened together -form the filling-in of the framework for the walls and partitions; -the bark is beaten out flat and forms the flooring; while the -trunk supplies timber for the framing. Quantities of the fresh -leaves are used every day and take the place of plates and -dishes; and at the New Year’s festival the <em>jàka</em>, or meat eaten -at that time, was always served up, together with rice, upon -pieces of the leaves of this tree or of the banana; and a kind of -spoon or ladle was, and is still, formed, made by twisting up -part of a leaf and tying it with the tendrils of some climbing -plant. The tree ranges from the sea-coast to the height of -about fifteen hundred feet, after which it begins rapidly to -disappear. At an elevation of about a thousand feet it is -extremely abundant, much more so, in fact, than any other -tree, and is the one striking and peculiar feature in the vegetation. -It is not found so much in the forests as on the hillsides in -the open country; it has some half-dozen or more different -names among the various tribes on the eastern side of the -island.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p0501_ill1" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0501_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Low-class Girl Fetching Water</span><br /> - -On her head is the <em>sìny</em>, in her hand the <em>zìnga</em></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0501_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0501_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Sihànaka Woman Playing the Valìha</span><br /> - -The strings are cut out of the bamboo, with calabash bridges</div> -</div> - -<p>Our canoe voyage was nearly twenty miles in length, the last -two or three up a narrow creek not above twenty or thirty feet -in width. In one of the narrowest parts of the stream we were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span> -stopped by a tree which had fallen across the creek, just above -the surface of the water. With some trouble and difficulty the -canoes were each hoisted over the obstruction, the luggage -being shifted from one to another. Some friends who came up -about five months afterwards told me that the tree was still -there. Probably it had caused a stoppage hundreds of times, -yet no one dreamed of taking the little extra trouble necessary -to remove it altogether from the passage. It was just the same -in the forest: when a tree fell across the path, there it lay for -months until it rotted away. Palanquins had to be hoisted -over it, or with difficulty pushed beneath it, but it was never -removed until nature helped in the work. It was no one’s -business to cut it up, or to take it out of the way; there were -no “turnpike trusts,” and the native government never gave -themselves any concern about the matter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COFFEE AND ORANGES</div> - -<p>We were glad to land at Maròmby at ten o’clock, for rain -came on, and before we were well housed it poured down heavily -for some time. Here we got as dessert, after breakfast, a -quantity of wild raspberries, which, while not equal in flavour -to the English kind, are very sweet and refreshing. Close to -the house where we stayed for our meal was a coffee plantation; -the shrubs grow to a height of seven or eight feet, and have dark -glossy leaves, with a handsome white flower. The small -scarlet fruit, in which the seed—what we term the “berry”—is -enclosed, contains a sweetish juice. The coffee plant thrives -in most parts of the island, and its produce probably will -become an important part of its exports.</p> - -<p>Near the house were also a number of orange-trees, and here -I had the gratification of seeing an orange grove with the trees -laden with thousands of the golden-hued fruit. We were -allowed to take as many as we liked, and as the day was hot and -sultry we were not slow to avail ourselves of the permission. -Perhaps there are few more beautiful sights than an orange -grove when the fruit is ripe on the trees. The “golden apples” -of the Hesperides must surely have been the produce of an -orange plantation.</p> - -<p>The rain ceased after a time, but we did not get off until past -two o’clock, for our men became rather obstinate, and evidently -wanted to stay at Maròmby for the rest of the day. This we -were not at all disposed to allow. At last we started, and in a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -few minutes had a specimen of the adventures that were in store -for us in passing through the forest. In attempting to ford a -stream, one of my men suddenly sank nearly to his waist in a -thick yellow mud. It was by the barest chance that I was not -turned over into the water; however, after some scrambling -from one man’s shoulder to another, I managed to reach dry -land. There was a shaky, rickety bridge a little higher up -the stream, and by this I contrived to get across.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DIFFICULT TRAVELLING</div> - -<p>We now struck right into the hills, up and down, down and -up, for nearly four hours. The road was a mere footpath, and -sometimes not even that, but the bed of a torrent made by the -heavy rains. It wound sometimes round the hills and sometimes -straight up them, and then down into the valleys at -inclinations difficult enough to get along without anything to -carry but oneself, but, with heavy loads, requiring immense -exertion. My palanquin described all kinds of angles; sometimes -I was resting nearly on my head, and presently almost on -my feet. When winding round the hills we were continually -in places where a false step of my bearers might have sent us -tumbling down sixty or seventy, and sometimes a hundred, feet -into the valley below. A dozen times or so we had to cross -streams foaming over rocks and stones, to scramble down to -which, and out again, were feats requiring no ordinary dexterity. -Again and again I expected to be tumbled over into the water -or down the rocks, the path being often steeper than the roof -of a house. Several times I got out and walked up and down -the hills in order to relieve the men; but I afterwards found -that I need not have troubled myself, as they easily carried me -up much steeper ascents. Some of these scenes were exceedingly -beautiful and, with the rushing, foaming waters, overhung -with palms, ferns, plantains and bamboos, made scores of scenes -in which a landscape artist would have delighted.</p> - -<p>In passing along I was struck with the peculiar outline of the -hills; they are mostly rounded cones or <em>mamelle</em>-shaped, not -connected together in chains, but detached, so it appeared that -road-making would be very difficult and would have to be very -circuitous. In almost every sheltered hollow were clumps of -the traveller’s tree, together with palms and bamboos. The -hills increased in height as we advanced, while beyond them all -in the far distance we could see the line of the mountains forming<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -the edge of the central highland, and covered with dense -forest in every part. The scene, but for the tropical trees, -resembled the Lancashire and West Riding scenery, along the -Todmorden valley. As far as I could make out, the hills appeared -to be mostly of bright clay, interspersed with quartz. -Great black masses of gneiss rock crop out on the sides of many -of them in most curious, fantastic shapes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HOT STREAMS</div> - -<p>On the east coast and for some way westward there is no -distinct rainy season, as in the interior of Madagascar; it rains -more or less all through the year. The temperature did not -exceed that of warm summer days in England, with cool -mornings and evenings. We reached Rànomafàna as it was -getting dusk, my lads bringing me in, as usual, at a smart trot, -after doing fifteen or sixteen miles in less than four hours. The -name of this village means “hot waters,” and is derived from -some hot springs which bubble up in a small stream not far -from the houses. The water close to this spot is too hot to -touch with the hand or foot; but as it mingles with the cold -river water it soon becomes tepid, and I found that in wading -in the stream I could have any degree of heat or cold as I -chose. Many people come to bathe in these hot waters, and -find benefit in certain complaints.</p> - -<p>At this place I procured specimens of that remarkable -vegetable production, the lace-leaf plant, or water yam -(<i>Ouvirandra fenestralis</i>). The existence of this plant had long -been known to botanists, but it was introduced into Europe by -the Rev. W. Ellis after his first visit to Madagascar (1853-1854); -and from plants brought by him to England it was propagated, -and specimens were sent to many of the chief botanical collections, -as well as to Kew, Chiswick and the Crystal Palace. I -knew of this plant being abundant in some of the streams on the -east side of the island, and I therefore described it as well as I -could to one of my bearers. A little time after our arrival at the -village he brought me three or four plants, together with the -roots, and in one case with the flower also attached. The -leaves were from six to eight inches long and an inch and a half -wide; but I afterwards found at Mauritius that they grew to -more than double this size in the Royal Gardens <ins class="corr" id="tn-53" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'at Pamplemouses'"> -at Pamplemousses</ins>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE LACE PLANT</div> - -<p>As the name implies, the leaf is like a piece of lace-work, or,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -more strictly speaking, like a skeleton leaf, the spaces between -the veining being open. The veining is something like that of -a lily leaf, the longitudinal fibre running through the whole -length, and crossed at very regular intervals by the transverse -veins, which are of thread-like fineness. The specific name, -<i>fenestralis</i> (“windowed”), conveys this idea of a regular -arrangement of structure. The leaf-stalk varies in length with -the depth of the water, always keeping a little below the -surface. Each plant has ten or a dozen leaves branching from -the root, which in the specimens brought to me resembled a -small potato. It can be eaten, as its taste is like the farinaceous -yam, common to most tropical countries; and from this likeness -the generic name, <em>ouvirandra</em>, is derived—<em>ouvy</em> or <em>òvy</em> being -the native word for yam. The plant grows in running water and -thrives best in warm situations. The flower grows on a long -stalk and rises a little above the surface of the water; it is of -a pinkish colour, dividing into two curved hairy tufts. Few -objects can be imagined more beautiful or interesting for -cultivating in an aquarium than this lace-leaf plant, which Sir -W. J. Hooker termed “one of the most curious of nature’s -vegetable productions.” It is an endogenous plant, included -in the order <i>Juncaginaceæ</i>, to which the arrow-grasses and the -rushes belong; it is found not only in the eastern region, but -occurs in streams near the upper belt of forest in the interior. -It is said to be very tenacious of life, retaining its vitality even -if the stream where it grows is dried up; the leaves in their -various stages of growth pass through a gradation of colour, -from a pale yellow to a dark olive-green. When full grown, its -dark green leaves form the limit of a circle two or three feet in -diameter.</p> - -<p>Taking a walk round the village before it was dark, I noticed -several houses raised on posts five or six feet above the ground. -At the top of each post, just under the floor, was a projecting -circle of wood a foot or more in diameter and polished very -smooth. I found that these buildings were granaries, and were -raised in this way to protect the rice from rats, which are a -great annoyance in most parts of the country. The smooth -ring of wood effectually prevented them from getting any -farther than the top of the upright posts. The ladder for -getting up to these granaries is a very primitive contrivance; it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -consists merely of a round pole with notches cut in the upper -side to prevent the foot from slipping. On a subsequent visit -to Madagascar my wife and I had to use one of these <em>tràno -àmbo</em> (“raised houses”), as they are called, as a bedroom, and -very clean and comfortable we found it, free from all insect -plagues; the floor was of plaited bamboo, springy to walk on, -although the getting up to it or down from it was a somewhat -difficult feat.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OUR BEARERS</div> - -<p>We were astir early on the Wednesday morning and left our -quarters at six o’clock. It was a beautiful morning as we commenced -our journey and began to mount hills and descend -valleys and cross streams as before—with this difference, that -the hills became higher and steeper, and the paths more difficult. -How our men managed to carry themselves up and down, to say -nothing of the heavy loads on their shoulders, puzzled me, but -they did their work apparently without much fatigue. I -noticed that many of those who carried heavy loads had the -flesh and muscles on the shoulders thickened into a sort of pad, -caused, I suppose, from the constant weight and friction of their -burdens. When carrying they wore but little clothing, merely -the <em>salàka</em> or loin-cloth, and sometimes a sleeveless jacket of -hempen cloth or other coarse material. In the cool mornings -they generally wore over the shoulders the <em>làmba</em><a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> of <em>rofìa</em>, or -of hemp cloth; but during the rest of the day this was bound -tightly round the waist, or thrown upon the palanquin. The -two sets of four bearers used to take the work in “spells” of -a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes at a time; when the -others relieved them they did not stop, but those taking the -poles of the palanquin would stoop under and take it on their -shoulders with hardly any jerk, even when running at full speed. -Occasionally one set would take the duty for an hour or more, -while if going fast, or on very difficult ground, they relieved -each other very frequently. Every three or four minutes they -changed the load from one shoulder to another, the leaders -lifting the pole over their heads.</p> - -<p>In proceeding on our journey we met great numbers of men -bringing poultry, manioc, potatoes, rice, and other produce -from the interior to the coast. These articles are mostly -brought to Tamatave and other ports, so that the ships trading -to these places are supplied with abundance of provisions at a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -very moderate rate. The poultry were enclosed in large open -panniers or baskets made of strips of bamboo plaited together -and slung at each end of a bamboo or a pole of light wood. We -also overtook many men taking European goods up to the -capital—quantities of cheap and gaudily painted crockery, iron -cooking-pots, and a variety of other articles. Many also -carried salt, and others the same open wicker baskets in which -fowls are brought down, but now containing quantities of the -fibre of the <em>rofìa</em> palm. This is taken up into the interior to -be manufactured into cloth. Sometimes these men were met -singly, or two or three together, but more often they travelled -in companies of ten, twenty or thirty. Occasionally we met a -Hova officer in a palanquin borne by his slaves, and often with -his wife and other members of his family, also in palanquins, -with female slaves attending them and running at a good pace -to keep up with the men.</p> - -<p>In one day we often saw a great variety of face and colour, and -met representatives of several of the different tribes which -people the island; and these differ considerably in colour and -features. Among the faces we saw, although there were few -that could be called handsome, judging by a European standard, -there was yet a large proportion of good heads, with high, well-formed -foreheads, and a general look of quickness and intelligence. -The impression given was certainly not that of a race -low in mental organisation or capabilities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NATIVE MUSIC</div> - -<p>At Ambàtoharànana, where we breakfasted, we were favoured -with a little native music while our meal was being prepared. -The instrument consisted of a piece of bamboo about four feet -long, with parts of the strong outer fibre detached and strained -over small pieces of pumpkin shell like the bridge of a violin. -With this simple contrivance the performer produced a soft -plaintive kind of music, not unlike the tones of a guitar. This -instrument is called a <em>valìha</em>, and is played by the fingers. A -simpler and ruder musical effect is obtained by a kind of bow -of wood, with two or three strings, and to which, at one end, the -half of a large gourd is fixed to give resonance; this is called -<em>lokàngam-bòatàvo</em> (<em>vòatàvo</em>, pumpkin), but its sound is poor and -monotonous.</p> - -<p>Although the paths we traversed were most difficult, the -scenery was singularly delightful. There are few more beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -forms in tropical vegetation than the bamboo, which unites the -most perfect symmetry and bright colour, and in some places -a particular species<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> gave quite a special character to the scenery. -The long elastic stems, thirty or forty feet in length, three inches -or more in diameter at the base, and tapering to a fine point, -were curving over the path in every direction, and with their -feathery whorls of leaves, yellowish-green in colour, growing -from every joint, were a constant delight to the eye. Sometimes -a whole valley seemed filled with bamboos; while in -others the <em>rofìa</em> palm and the tree-ferns were the prevailing -forms.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RICHES OF THE COUNTRY</div> - -<p>Our midday journey this day was a continual ascent, until -we were evidently at a considerable elevation above the sea. -From one ridge we had a most extensive prospect and could see -the Indian Ocean fifty or sixty miles behind us, while before us -was a yet higher chain of hills, dark with dense woods of the -main line of forest. As we rode along, I could not but observe -the capabilities of the country and its vast powers of production, -were it brought extensively under cultivation. The country is -rich also in mineral wealth—iron, gold, copper, and other metals, -as well as graphite and probably also petroleum.</p> - -<p>We came this day into a belt of tree-ferns, some of large size, -with their great graceful fronds arranged horizontally in a circle -round the top of the trunk. There were also numbers of pine-apples -growing wild, with the magnificent scarlet flowers just -developing into fruit. We descended to, crossed, and for some -time went along a beautiful river, resembling in many parts -the Dove at Dovedale, and in others the Wharfe at Bolton. -The view from the top of an immense hill of the river winding -far below was most charming. The paths by which we ascended -and descended would have astonished us in England, but by -this time a moderately level and smooth path had become an -object of surprise. In some places there was only a narrow -passage between rocks overhung with vegetation, most picturesque, -but most difficult to travel by.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WEAVING</div> - -<p>We got in early in the afternoon to Ampàsimbé, a rather -large village. While waiting for dinner we watched the women -at the opposite house preparing the material from which they -make the <em>rofìa</em> cloths, called <em>rabannas</em> in Mauritius. It is the -inner fibre of the long glass-like leaves of the <em>rofìa</em>-palm.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -cuticle on each side is peeled off, leaving a thin straw-coloured -fibrous substance, which is divided by a sort of comb into -different widths, according to the fineness or otherwise of the -material to be made. The fibre is very strong and is the common -substitute for string in Madagascar. In other villages we saw -the women weaving the cloth with most rude and primitive -looms, consisting merely of four pieces of wood fixed in the mud -floor of the house, and a framework of two or three pieces of -bamboo. The material they make, however, is a good, strong-looking -article, with stripes of various colours and patterns -woven into the stuff, and is extensively used by the poorer -classes. With the same simple loom the Hova women make -many kinds of woven stuffs; of hemp, cotton, <em>rofìa</em> fibre, and -of this last, mingled with silk or cotton, very pretty and useful -cloth of a straw colour, being made in this way. Of the strong -native silk they also weave very handsome <em>làmbas</em> of bright -and varied colours and patterns, such as used to be worn on all -festive occasions by the higher classes, as well as the more -sombre dark red <em>làmbas</em> which are used by all classes for -wrapping the dead.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="p0581_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0581_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bétsimisàraka Women</span><br /> - -They are standing on a native mat outside a wooden house</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0581_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0581_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hova Woman Weaving</span><br /> - -The article is a silk làmba on a native loom</div> -</div> - -<p>We had now reached a part of the country where the <em>rofìa</em> -palm was the most prominent object in the vegetation, not on -the hills, however, like the traveller’s tree, but chiefly in the -valleys, where there is plenty of moisture. This palm grows -very abundantly and can easily be distinguished from the other -trees of its order. The trunk has a rough and rugged surface, -and this reaches the height of twenty to thirty feet; but the -leaves are its most striking feature; they are magnificent plumes, -of enormous length, quite as long as the trunk itself. The -midrib of these leaves has a very strong but light structure, -some four to five inches wide at the base, and on this account it -is largely used for ladders, for palanquin poles, for roofing, and -indeed for anything needing lightness as well as strength. On -these midribs are set a great number of grass-like pinnate -fronds, from which, as already noticed, string and fibre are -prepared for weaving. Great clusters of seeds (or fruits?), -which are enclosed in a shiny brown skin, hang down from the -top of the trunk. These are used for boxes to enclose small -articles, as jewellery, etc. At one part of our journey the only -road was through an extensive sheet of water, through which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -rose hundreds of <em>rofìas</em>, like the interior of some great temple, -a most peculiar and beautiful sight, the great fronds above us -quite shutting out the sunshine and making a green twilight -below them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PLAGUE OF RATS</div> - -<p>If we had been disposed to copy the titles of some popular -evening entertainments, the nights preceding this Wednesday’s -one might have been termed: “A Night with the Fleas,” and -“A Night with the Mosquitoes,” but this was emphatically -“A Night with the Rats.” We saw and heard them racing -round the eaves of the house before we lay down, but as soon -as the light was put out they descended and began to rattle -about our pots and pans in search of food. We got up and -fired a pistol among them, and this appeared for a time to -scare them away; but later on their attentions became so -personal that we were obliged to light a candle and keep it -burning on the floor all night. After this we had comparative -quiet, but before lighting the candle they had been scampering -over my companion in his hammock and over myself as I lay -on the floor.</p> - -<p>Thursday’s journey, although shorter than that of most days, -was perhaps the most difficult of all, especially the morning -division of it—hills steeper than ever, and, if possible, rougher -footpaths, so that we were often obliged to get down and walk, -making the journey very fatiguing. For nearly three hours we -were passing through dense forest, and in some places the path -was really frightful. I do not wonder that a small company -of soldiers brought up in the early years of the century by -Captain Le Sage laid themselves down in despair at the difficulties -of the roads they had to traverse. I found along the -roadside several varieties of those beautiful-leaved plants, -veined with scarlet and buff, which were so much cultivated -in England about that time. Ferns of all kinds were very -abundant, from the minutest species to the great tree-fern.</p> - -<p>Our afternoon’s journey took us for some distance along a -beautiful river which foamed and roared over the rocks in its -course, and which we forded repeatedly. The path was most -picturesque, but very fatiguing; in many places the track -could hardly be distinguished at all from the dense rank growth -of plants and long grass. We arrived at Béfòrona at one -o’clock and fully intended to have proceeded another stage, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -it was so early in the afternoon, but we found our men so -exhausted that we were obliged to stay there for the rest of the -day.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FOREST REGIONS</div> - -<p>Here it may be noted that we had now entered some way into -the lower and wider of the two belts of dense forest which -extend for several hundred miles along the eastern side of -Madagascar, and cover the mountains which form the great -ramparts of the highland of the interior. There is continuous -forest from nearly the north of the island to almost the southern -extremity; its greatest width is about fifty miles, north of -Antongil Bay; but to the south of the Antsihànaka province -it divides into two. Of these two belts, the upper one, which -clothes the edge of the highland, is the narrowest, being not -much above ten or twelve miles across, but the lower belt is -from twice to three times that breadth. On the western side -of Madagascar there is no such continuous line of forest; there -are, it is true, many extensive portions covered with wood, but -in many places the vegetation consists more of scattered -clumps of trees; while in the south-west, which is the driest -part of the island, the prevailing trees and shrubs are euphorbia, -and are spiny in character. Mr Baron reckoned that an area -of nearly thirty thousand square miles of the whole surface is -forest-covered country. We shall have other opportunities of -examining these extensive forest regions, so all we need say -further at present about them is, that no one with any eye for -the beautiful and wonderful can pass through them without -astonishment and delight. The variety and luxuriance of the -foliage, the great height of many of the trees, the countless -creeping and climbing plants that cover their trunks and -branches, the multitude of lianas that bind everything together -in a maze of cordage and ropes, the flowers which sometimes -cover whole trees with a mass of colour, crimson, or golden, or -purple—all these make a journey through these Madagascar -forests a new pleasure and lead one to exclaim: “O Lord, how -manifold are Thy works!”</p> - -<p>We were now also ascending towards the central highland of -the interior, which lies at an elevation of from five to six -thousand feet above the sea-level. Above this general elevation, -which, however, is broken up by lesser hills and mountains -in all directions, so that there is no level country except what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -have been the beds of ancient lakes, now dried up, the highest -mountains do not rise to great altitudes. The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">massif</i> of -Ankàratra, which forms the south-western boundary of -Imèrina, the home of the Hova tribe, does not quite reach nine -thousand feet in height above the sea. Until quite recently -the summits of Ankàratra were always supposed to be the -highest points of the island, but it has lately been discovered -that there is a mountain called Ambòro, about eighty miles from -the northernmost point, which is still higher, being nine thousand -four hundred feet above sea-level. On my return to the -coast in 1867 I found how much less difficult the journey from -Antanànarìvo to Andòvorànto was than that in the opposite -direction, owing, of course, to our descending nearly five -thousand feet instead of ascending the same.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BÉFÒRONA</div> - -<p>Béfòrona is situated in an almost circular valley, with a river -running through it and surrounded by forest-covered hills. The -village, like most in this part of the country, has the houses -arranged in a square. Their floors are generally raised a foot -or two above the surface of the ground, and are formed of bark, -beaten out flat and laid on bamboos. The framing and roof -are made of poles or bamboo, filled in with the stalks of the -traveller’s tree, and thatched with leaves of the same tree. In -the centre of these village squares was a flagstaff, and in others -a pole with the skulls and horns of bullocks fixed to it. These -are mostly memorials of the festivities connected with the last -observance of the circumcision ceremonies, which are very -important events with all the Malagasy tribes. We had a visit -from the wife of the chief of the village, who brought us a -present of fowls and rice.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A BLOW-GUN</div> - -<p>After resting a while we strolled along one of the streams -with our guns, to try to obtain specimens of some of the birds -peculiar to the neighbourhood. On our way back we observed -some boys using an instrument called <em>tsìrika</em>, with which they -were able to kill small birds. It consists of a long and straight -palm stem, taken from a small and beautiful palm with a stem -resembling a bamboo. A small arrow, tipped with an iron -point, is inserted and is discharged by blowing at the larger end. -About three inches of the end has wool to fill up the aperture -and prevent any windage. They use this blow-gun with great -precision and can strike a mark at a considerable distance. A<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -very similar weapon, but with poisoned arrows, is used by the -Indians of South America in the countries bordering the -Amazon and its tributaries.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> <em>Làmba</em> is the Malagasy word for cloth generally, but it has -also a specific use as applied to the chief article of native dress.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> <i>Raphia ruffia.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> This <em>rofìa</em> fibre has of late years been largely used in England -for tying up plants; but dealers in it persist in calling it -“<em>rofìa</em> grass,” which is certainly not a correct name.</p> - -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p0620_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0620_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lace Plant</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALAMAZAOTRA TO ANTANÀNARÌVO</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">ON the Friday morning we left Béfòrona soon after five -o’clock and for nearly four hours were passing through -the forest, here known as that of Alamazaotra, over -the highest hills and the most difficult paths we had yet seen. -Certainly this day’s journey was the most fatiguing of any on -the whole route, so that when we reached our halting-place I -was thoroughly exhausted and glad to throw myself on the floor -and sleep for an hour or more. At one part of the road there is -a long slope of clay, known as “Fitomanìanòmby,” or “weeping-place -of the bullocks,” so called from the labour and difficulty -with which the poor animals mount the steep ascent on their -way down to the coast. In coming down this and similar places -the utmost care was necessary on the part of the bearers; but -they were very surefooted and patient and took every precaution -to carry their burden safely. In ascending we often -required the help of all eight men to drag the palanquin up to -the top. The villages in the heart of these vast woods are few -and far between. Our halting-place for breakfast consisted -merely of three or four woodcutters’ huts in a few square yards -of cleared ground.</p> - -<p>Our afternoon’s work was much the same as that of the -morning. In many places the rain had made a perfect slough -of thick mud, and our men had hard work to get through. I -could not cease to wonder how my heavy luggage was brought -along. For a considerable distance our way lay along a most -romantic-looking stream, whose course was broken by great -masses and shelves of rock, reminding me of Welsh river -scenery. Often in the higher parts of the road, where the -rivers down in the gorges were hidden by the dense masses of -wood, we could hear the roar of waters in the otherwise profound -stillness of the forest. At the chief pass in this chain of -hills we passed a tremendous cliff of rock, which rises sheer out<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -of the valley to a height (so it has been ascertained) of nearly -two thousand feet, certainly one of the grandest natural objects -I had ever seen. This stupendous mass is called Andrìambàvibé, -“Great Princess”; the large trees on the summit -looked like mere bushes seen from below.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LUXURIANT FOLIAGE</div> - -<p>Notwithstanding the fatigue of the journey, it was impossible -not to be struck with admiration and delight at the grandeur -of the vegetation. The profusion and luxuriance of vegetable -life were very extraordinary. There appeared to be few trees -of great girth of trunk, but their height was considerable, -especially in the valleys. High over all the other trees shot up -the tall trunks of many varieties of palms, with their graceful -crowns of feathery leaves. A dense undergrowth of shrubs, -tree-ferns, and dwarf palms made in many places quite a green -twilight; while overhead the branches were interlaced and -bound together by countless creeping and climbing plants, -whose rope-like tendrils crossed in all directions and made a -labyrinth which it was impossible to pass through. Occasionally -we came across large trees in flower, giving a glorious mass -of colour. With these exceptions, however, flowers were comparatively -few; and during subsequent journeys I have found -that it is true in Madagascar what Dr Alfred R. Wallace has -pointed out as characteristic of all tropical countries—viz. that -in the tropics are not to be found great masses of floral colour. -For these one must go to the temperate zones; foliage, overpowering -in its luxuriance and endless variety, is indeed to be -found in the tropics, but not the large extent of colour given -by heather, buttercups, primroses, or a field of poppies in -England.</p> - -<p>The orchids, however, were very abundant. Wherever a -fallen tree hung across the path, there they found a lodging-place, -and beautified the decaying trunks with their exquisite -waxy flowers of pink and white. Although what has just been -said of wild flowers is true on the whole, there were a considerable -number to be seen, if carefully looked for. My bearers -soon perceived how interested I was in observing their novel -and curious forms, and brought to me all the different varieties -they could find, so that in the evening my palanquin contained -a collection of flowers and plants gathered during the day. I -managed to dry a few, but the greater part had to be thrown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -away, as I had no means of preserving them to take up to the -capital.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the woods the different species of bamboo -give quite a distinct character to the vistas. Some of them -shoot up in one long slender jointed stem, with fringes of delicate -leaves, and hang over the paths like enormous whips. Another -kind, a climbing species, with stems no thicker than a quill, -clothes the lower trees with a dense mantle of pale green -drapery. As we got into the higher and cooler parts of the -forest, numbers of the trees had long pendent masses of feathery -grey lichen, a species of <em>Usnea</em>, giving them quite a venerable -appearance, and reminding me of the opening lines of Longfellow’s -“Evangeline”:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="verse indentq">“This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">ANIMAL LIFE IN THE FOREST</div> - -<p>Although the vegetation was most luxuriant, I was surprised -and somewhat disappointed by the stillness of the forest, and -the few signs of animal life and the rarity of the song of birds. -It is true that at certain seasons the notes of many songsters -may be heard, and that in certain places the cries of different -species of lemur resound through the woods. Still, on the -whole, I had imagined that a tropical forest would be much -more visibly full of life. Subsequent experience and research -showed me that there <em>is</em> a considerable variety and number of -living creatures in these forests, but they have to be looked for, -and when found they are full of interest, as we shall see. It -may be noticed, too, that both bird and insect life are more -evident in the outskirts of the woods and in the occasional -openings among the trees than in the densest forest, all living -things delighting in sunlight.</p> - -<p>From what has been already said it will be seen that the -flora of Madagascar presents many new and striking forms of -vegetable life; but its fauna is still more noteworthy, for it -presents one of the strangest anomalies in the geographical -distribution of animals. This zoological peculiarity consists -as much, or more, in what is wanting, as in what is present. -Separated from Africa by a channel not three hundred miles<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -broad at one point, we should have supposed that Madagascar -would partake to a great extent of the same characteristics, as -regards animal life, as the neighbouring continent. But it is -really remarkably different. There is a strange absence of the -larger species of mammalia, and this statement applies not only -to the forests but to all parts of the island, the bare highlands -of the interior and the extensive lower plains of the west and the -south.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ABSENCE OF LARGE ANIMALS</div> - -<p>First of all, the large carnivora are all wanting; there are -no lions, leopards, tigers, panthers, or hyenas. The large -thick-skinned animals, so plentiful in the rivers and forests of -Africa, have no representatives in Madagascar; no elephant -browses in the woods, no rhinoceros or hippopotamus lazily -gambols in the streams, although there was a small species of -the last-named pachyderm which was living during the latest -quaternary epoch. The numerous species of fleet-footed -animals—antelope, gazelle, deer, and giraffe, zebra and quagga—which -scour the African plains are entirely absent; and the -ox, the sheep, the goat, the horse and the ass have all been -introduced, the three former from Africa and the others from -Europe. The order of mammalia most developed here is the -quadrumana, but this, again, is represented by but a single -division, the lemurs and their allies, which are the most characteristic -animals of the island. There are no true monkeys, -baboons, or apes, nor do the gorilla or chimpanzee put in an -appearance. The lemurs are very distinct from all these and -are pretty creatures, bearing little resemblance to the half-human, -grotesque appearance of many of the quadrumanous -animals, or to the savage character of the larger apes and -baboons. They vary in size from that of a large monkey to -species not larger than a rat. They are mostly gentle in -disposition, and some kinds are tame enough to be kept about -the house as pets.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0661_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0661_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Family Tomb of the Late Prime Minister, Antanànarìvo</span><br /> - -The tomb is under the upper open arcade</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0661_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0661_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Royal Tombs in the Courtyard of the Palace, Antanànarìvo</span><br /> - -On the right is that of Radàma I, on the left that of Ràsohèriva</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">MADAGASCAR AND AFRICA</div> - -<p>It is probable that the mammalia of Madagascar are now -fairly well known, although a few of the smallest species may -still await discovery; and the following summary may be here -given of their divisions and numbers—excluding the bats, of -which there are seventeen species, ninety species of terrestrial -mammals have been classified and described, and of the following -orders:—Lemuroida, thirty-nine species; Carnivora,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -almost all being civets and quite small animals, ten species; -Insectivora, including shrews and small creatures resembling -hedgehogs, twenty-four species; Rodentia, rats and mice, -sixteen species; and Ungulata, one or two species of river-hog. -It will be seen that about two-fifths of the mammalian fauna -belong to the lemurs, and that with very few exceptions, all the -others are small and inconspicuous animals; many, however, -are of exceptional interest, as we shall see. From a consideration -of the facts regarding the mammals, as well as those of the -other forms of animal life found here—birds, reptiles and -insects—the following conclusions may be drawn: First, -Madagascar was anciently joined to Africa, receiving its fauna -from the continent, whose animal life was then much like that -of Madagascar at the present time; but it had also certain -connections at an early geological epoch with Asia and even -with South America, as there are undoubted affinities between -its fauna and those of these distant regions. Secondly, -this African connection of Madagascar existed before the -abundant animal life of the continent entered it from the north, -and when Africa was a great continental island—that is, its -central and southern portions, and separated from Europe and -Asia by a shallow sea, now the Sahara Desert. The upheaval -of that sea-bottom was probably to some extent contemporaneous -with the subsidence of the land which is now the -Mozambique Channel. Thirdly, Madagascar must have remained -for a long period separated from every other part of -the globe; and while the western and southern portions have -been repeatedly submerged, the highland interior, of palæozoic -rocks, is very ancient land, and much of its fauna is also antique -in its character.</p> - -<p>But to leave this zoological dissertation and return to our -journey. I have not mentioned that more than once we saw -small companies of lemurs high over our heads, leaping with -wonderful agility from branch to branch, and uttering their -peculiar cry. These cries could often be heard when the -animals were not seen, and sounded almost like the cry of -children; and to myself there was always something pleasant -in it, as that of living creatures rejoicing in their freedom in -these boundless forests.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE BED OF A GREAT LAKE</div> - -<p>On Saturday morning I wished Mr Plant good-bye and set off,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -leaving him at the village, which he was to make his head-quarters -for some time while collecting natural history specimens -in the forest. The road was not nearly so difficult as on the -previous day, so that I had no need to alight from the palanquin -all the way to Ampàsimpòtsy, where I stayed to breakfast. -The hills were much more moderate in height, with a good deal -of open clearing, although the forest still continued on either -hand, but not in those dense masses of wood through which we -had passed the last three or four days. Leaving our halting-place -at noon, we gradually got clear of the woods, and early in -the afternoon ascended a very high hill, from which we could -see a great distance both westward and eastward. Behind us -were the hills and valleys covered with forest through which -we had travelled, while in front stretched a great undulating -plain, bare and almost without a tree, except in a few places, -where there were large circular patches of wood. This was the -plain of Ankay, which separates the two belts of forest, and is -the home of the Bezànozàno tribe. Beyond this again, ten or -twelve miles away, was the upper forest, clothing the slopes and -summits of the edge of the interior highland. Careful examination -of this region has shown that it was formerly the bed of a -great lake, from two to three hundred miles long, extending -from the present Lake Alaotra, farther north, and is its gradually -diminishing remnant. Subsequent action of water has, -however, so cut up its former level that it now presents a very -uneven surface.</p> - -<p>It was dull travelling alone after the pleasant companionship -of a fellow-traveller; and in making arrangements for meals, -etc., I felt how perfectly helpless a man is when he cannot -speak so as to be understood. I was a barbarian to my men, -and they were barbarians to me; for my stock of Malagasy -words was very limited, and probably almost unintelligible as to -pronunciation, so that I was at a complete standstill for nearly -everything I wanted to say. We reached Mòramànga, a rather -large village, at the commencement of the plain, soon after three -in the afternoon and there halted for the rest of the day. This -place was a military post of the Hova government, and on passing -through passports were examined by the officer in charge.</p> - -<p>Next morning we were stirring early and left Mòramànga -while it was yet dusk. There was a thick mist, and my men<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -were shivering with the cold, for we were now two thousand -nine hundred feet above the sea, and their scanty clothing was -but a poor protection. For an hour or two we saw little except -for a few yards around us; but as the sun rose the fog rolled -up like a vast curtain, revealing the line of the Ifòdy and Angàvo -hills straight before us; the slopes were partly covered with -trees, but a good deal of their surface was brown and bare. -In the deepest of the many valleys which cut the surface of the -Ankay plain runs a beautiful and rapid river, the Mangòro, -about one hundred and fifty feet wide where we crossed it in -canoes. This is the longest river of the east coast, and would -make a fine means of access to the interior, were its course not -interrupted by rapids and cataracts at many points.</p> - -<p>Soon after crossing the river we commenced the ascent of -Ifòdy, a very steep and difficult path, for an hour or more; but -as we mounted higher and higher a glorious prospect gradually -revealed itself. Looking back after we had reached the summit, -there was the Mòramànga plain, bounded by the distant forest -stretching away north and south, until lost in the dim distance, -while below us the Mangòro could be seen in a wavy blue line -in the Ankay plain. Before us, to the left, was a lovely valley, -fertile and green with rice-fields, watered by the Valàla river and -shut in by the Angàvo range of mountains, while on the right -was a confused mass of hills, looking like a mighty sea which -had suddenly been hardened and fixed in its tossings.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN EXTRAORDINARY NEST</div> - -<p>There was much more evidence of cultivation as we proceeded, -the valleys being occupied by rice-fields, which were kept -covered with a few inches of water by careful irrigation. Among -the bird population of Madagascar there are some eighteen -species of herons and storks which are seen in the marshes and -rice-fields. One of the most noticeable of these is the <em>Tàkatra</em> -or tufted umber, a long-legged stork with a large plume or -crest. It builds an extraordinarily large nest, which is visible -at a considerable distance and might be taken at first sight for -half-a-load of hay. It is usually placed on the fork of a large -tree, and is composed of sticks and grass, plastered inside with -a thick lining of mud. It is from four and a half to six feet in -diameter, dome-shaped, with a lateral entrance, and is divided -into three chambers, in one of which its two large eggs are laid. -The entrance is by a narrow tunnel and is always placed so as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -to be difficult of access, though the nest itself may be quite easy -to approach. From this conspicuous nest, and the sedate way -in which the tàkatra marches about seeking for its food, many -native superstitions have gathered about the bird, one of which -is that those who destroy its nest will become lepers. If the -sovereign’s path was crossed by a tàkatra, it was considered -unlucky to proceed, and the royal procession had to retrace its -steps. Many native proverbs also refer to this bird. There are -also two other species of stork, one of which is always found -together with other shore birds; it lives in companies of from -six to twelve individuals at river-mouths, feeding on crustacea -and mulluscs, from which habit comes its name of <em>Famàkiakòra</em> -or “shell-breaker.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE HOVAS</div> - -<p>We were now nearing the country of the Hovas, and could see -an evident difference in the appearance of the inhabitants. -They were lighter in colour and had longer and straighter hair -than the coast tribes. But owing to the fashion, at that time, -of both sexes wearing their hair done up in a number of knots, -and from the apparent absence of whisker or beard, I was -sometimes puzzled to know at first sight whether the people we -passed were men or women; and there was little difference in -dress, the <em>làmba</em> being worn by both. Not only were the people -different in appearance to those we had mostly seen, but the -dwellings also had a much more civilised look. Several of the -houses at Ambòdinangàvo were of the true Hova type, with -high-pitched roofs, made of strong timber framing and filled in, -for the walls, with thick upright planking, instead of the slight -bamboos and leaves of the coast and forest houses. Some had -boarded floors and had a room in the roof; and the crossed -rafters at the gables were carried up for two or three feet above -the ridge. The house in which I stayed had a much more -comfortable appearance than any I had been in before, having -two rooms on the ground floor, the walls covered with matting, -and there were actually chairs! a luxury I had not experienced -since leaving Tamatave. I felt that I was getting near civilisation -again.</p> - -<p>While dinner was preparing I strolled out into a ravine near -the house and was struck with the beauty and variety of the -insects, as indeed I had been in many parts of the journey. -There were butterflies of gorgeous hues, dragonflies, crimson,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -blue and dull gold in colour, grasshoppers with scarlet wings, -and the very spiders with gold and silver markings. Some -species of these latter were of great size; we saw hundreds of -them in their large geometric webs stretching over the paths as -we came along.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A COMBINATION OF BEAUTY</div> - -<p>On Monday morning, 12th October, we left the village before -sunrise and immediately began the ascent of Angàvo, which -rises from fifteen hundred to sixteen hundred feet above the -valley. It is an enormous mass of granite, capped with clay, -the summit being scarped and fortified with earthworks; it is, -however, not a detached mountain rising from a plain on every -side, but rather a vast natural bastion or outwork of a higher -level of country. There was a gorgeous sunrise, which covered -the greater part of the sky with a crimson light, unlike anything -I had ever seen before. Then for another hour or two we were -passing through the upper belt of forest, here very narrow, -being only ten or twelve miles across, but as dense and as beautiful -as the lower and wider belt. And it was just as difficult -to travel through as the other forest, descending into the gorge -of the Mandràka river and then scaling the steep ascents. One -place especially, where we crossed the stream, was a perfect -combination of beauty—rushing waters, luxuriant foliage of -fern and palm and bamboo—and hundreds of large blue and -black papilio butterflies hovering over the river.</p> - -<p>At eight o’clock we reached Ankèramadìnika, a village close -to the last ascent of the forest, and waited for a few minutes -while my bearers bought manioc root at the little market. -The people crowded round me, bringing various articles of food -for sale—sweet potatoes, honeycomb, and wild raspberries. -We had now left behind us the forest region and were on the bare -open uplands of Imèrina, the air being clear and keen. The -hills were less steep and more rounded, reminding me of some -parts of the English chalk downs, and there was hardly a tree -to be seen. In several places the granite or gneiss takes a dome-like -form; and in others the same rock formed the highest points. -For many miles I could see them rising high over every other -hill; one of these, on the southern side of a huge mountain -called Angàvokèly, was like a titanic castle; another, which is -divided into three and called Tèlomiràhavàvy (“Three Sisters”), -was like a vast church.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">AMBÀTOMÀNGA</div> - -<p>There were signs of approaching the capital in the number of -villages which came in sight. The country also was much more -cultivated, chiefly, however, in the valleys, where the bright -green patches of the newly sown rice gave a refreshing contrast -to the bare and brown appearance of the hills and downs, now -parched and dry after five or six months without rain. In -many places great black patches showed where the dry grass -had been set on fire. This is done shortly before the rains come -on, and the rank hay-like grass is succeeded by a crop of fine -short herbage suitable for pasture. About noon we caught sight -of the large village of Ambàtomànga, then two or three miles -distant. This place had an important and picturesque appearance, -being considerably larger than any town on the road. -Over a number of smaller dwellings one large house rose conspicuous, -with its lofty high-pitched roof and double verandah. -Close to the village is a lofty mass of blue gneiss rock, about a -couple of hundred feet in height, and crowned by a stone tomb -and other buildings, giving it the air of a fortification. Passing -through a large weekly market, where hundreds of people were -buying and selling, we at length entered the last station on the -road to Antanànarìvo.</p> - -<p>Ambàtomànga had quite the appearance of a fortified town, -having walls of clay surrounding it, and deep fosses outside them. -I stopped at the large house which I had noticed at first, and -found it a well-finished timber structure, with venetian shutters -and framed doors, quite a contrast to the mere sheds in which -I had slept for ten nights past. It was divided into three rooms -on the ground floor, with walls, floor and ceiling all well -planed and finished. The owner, a fine-looking man and a native -noble, gave me a welcome in a little broken English; but his -knowledge of European tongues was apparently confined to -half-a-dozen short phrases, for he repeatedly said, “Thank you, -sir,” giving me a hearty shake of the hand at the same time, -as if he thought that was the proper formula to be observed. -A little before dusk I walked out with him to the fort-like tomb -on the top of the rock. In the light of the setting sun the red -clay hills gave back the warm rays with an intensity of colour -that was remarkable. The tomb at the top is a large stone -structure, well worked, with an open balustrade and bold mouldings. -Walking round the house after dusk, I saw a lurid glare<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -in the sky on all sides, and then found it was produced by the -grass burning on the hills and downs, which showed in lines of -fire for many miles in all directions.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FIRST VIEW OF THE CAPITAL</div> - -<p>Early on Tuesday morning, with a glad heart I took my seat -in my palanquin, rejoiced to think that this was the last stage -in my long journey. About three-quarters of an hour after -leaving Ambàtomànga we caught our first sight of the capital, -still twelve or fourteen miles distant, and I could not but be -struck by its size and fine situation, a much larger city than I -had expected, built on the summit and slopes of a lofty rocky -hill some two miles long from north to south, which was covered -with dark-looking houses. In the centre stood conspicuous the -great bulk of the chief palace and its smaller neighbour, their -arched verandahs and steep roofs, all painted white, and shining -in the morning sun, towering over every other object. It was a -memorable moment to me, as I thought of what had happened -in Antanànarìvo within the last quarter-century, and that my -work was to raise lasting memorials to the brave Malagasy -who had suffered and died for their faith.</p> - -<p>On we went over the long rolling moor-like hills, losing sight -of the city every now and then, and presently coming in view of -it again as we mounted the ridges; and every half-hour brought -out more of the details of the place and revealed its masses of -dark houses, clustered on the slopes of the rocky hill. Several -streams we crossed by means of stone arched bridges, and I was -struck by the number of villages to be seen in every direction, -many of them enclosed in high walls made of red clay, laid with -care in regular courses and apparently hard and durable. The -houses were all built of the same material, and many of them -were enclosed in circular and others in square courtyards with -gateways. Many of the villages were surrounded with deep -fosses, sometimes two and even three yards deep, now generally -filled with bananas, peach and other fruit trees, and some with -walls and stone gateways, giving one the impression that there -must have formerly been much internal warfare to need such -elaborate defences. This indeed was the case before Imèrina -was governed by one sovereign, about a hundred years ago.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LOCUSTS</div> - -<p>Within a mile or two of the city we passed for a quarter of an -hour through a perfect cloud of locusts, which covered the ground -and filled the air. At a distance these insects appeared like a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -low-lying cloud of dust; and when near to one, and seen in -certain directions, the sun shining on their wings gave them -almost the appearance of a snow shower. I began to realise one -of the plagues of Egypt. Many varieties of locust are common -in Madagascar, and occasionally they do great damage to the -crops. The Malagasy, however, make use of them for food, and -when a cloud of them appears, men, women and children are all -out catching them; and for a few days afterwards great brown -heaps of them are to be seen at all the little wayside shops. -They are said to taste something like shrimps, without any -insides; but I must confess I never brought myself to taste -them, for they are anything but inviting in appearance.</p> - -<p>At length I was carried into a compound near the foot of the -city hill, and after some delay was met by one of the L.M.S. -missionaries and conducted by a most difficult and breakneck -path up into the triangular central space called Andohàlo. -At the north-eastern corner of this space was the dispensary and -dwelling of our good medical missionary, Dr Davidson, from -whom and Mrs Davidson I received a hearty welcome, and in -a short time also from the rest of the missionary brethren. -With a glad and thankful heart I found myself in the capital of -Madagascar, with cheerful anticipations of being able to do -something in the service of Him who had protected me thus far, -and of helping in various ways the Malagasy people.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND -LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">MY object in these chapters is to describe, as vividly as -I am able, the varied aspects of the different months -throughout the year in this central province of Imèrina, -as they present themselves to anyone who lives in the capital -city of Antanànarìvo, and is frequently travelling in the country -around it. I want to show the variety of nature during the -changing seasons, as the result of the heat or cold, and of -the moisture or drought of the climate. And it must be -remembered that although this central province of Madagascar -is by several degrees well within the tropics, our climate for -some months of the year is by no means the “tropical” -one supposed in our ordinary English use of that word. On -these interior highlands, from three to five thousand feet -above the sea-level, the south-easterly winds blow from June -to August with a keenness and force which it needs thick -clothing to withstand, and makes a wood fire during the -long evenings a very pleasant addition to the comforts of -home life.</p> - -<p>The seasons in the central regions of the island are practically -only two: the hot and rainy period, from the beginning of -November to the end of April; and the cool and dry period, -during the other months, from May to October. The Malagasy -are, however, accustomed to speak of four seasons of their year—viz. -the <em>Lòhataona</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “head of the year”—during September -and October, when the planting of the early rice is going on, -and a few showers give promise of the coming rains; the <em>Fàhavàratra</em>—<em>i.e.</em> -“thunder-time”—when severe storms of thunder -and lightning are frequent, with heavy downpours of rain, from -the early part of November to the end of February or into -March; the <em>Fàraràno</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “last rains”—from the beginning -of March and through April; and lastly, the <em>Rinìnina</em>—<em>i.e.</em><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -“time of bareness”—when the grass becomes dry and withered, -from June to August.</p> - -<p>Taking therefore the seasons in order, from the beginning, not -of January, which gives no natural division of the year, but -from the early part of September, when the blossoms of the trees -speak of the “good time coming” of renewed verdure, I shall -note down, in their succession, the varying aspects of the -country, in climate, vegetation, and culture of the soil, as well -as the animal life, throughout the changing year.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">“THE HEART OF IMÈRINA”</div> - -<p>Before, however, proceeding to do this, it may give greater -distinctness to the mental picture I want to draw for those who -have never been in Madagascar, if I try to describe in a few -words the appearance of this central province of the island, -especially of that portion of it which is in the neighbourhood of -the capital. From the usually pure and clear air of this elevated -region, which is not defiled by the smoke of chimneys, nor often -thickened by the mists of the lowlands, one can see for extraordinary -distances, and hills and rocks twenty or thirty miles -away stand out more sharp and distinct than they would usually -do in England at only four or five miles’ distance.</p> - -<p>Let us go up to the highest point of the long rocky ridge on -and around which Antanànarìvo is built, from which we can -“view the landscape o’er,” and try and gain a clear notion of -this “heart of Imèrina,” as it is often called by the Malagasy. -The city hill reaches the greatest elevation at a point called -Ambòhimitsímbina—<em>i.e.</em> “Hill of regarding”—which is seven -hundred feet above the general level of the rice-plains around it. -From this “coign of vantage” there is of course a very extensive -view in every direction, and we see at once that the -surrounding country is very mountainous. East and south -there is little but hills of all shapes and sizes to be seen, except -along the valleys of the river Ikòpa and its tributaries, which -come from the edge of the upper forest, thirty miles or so away -to the east. To the north the country is more undulating, but -at ten or twelve miles away high hills and moors close in the -view, some of the hills rising into mountains. The country is -everywhere in these directions, except in the river valleys, -covered with red soil of various shades of colour, through which -the granite and gneiss foundations protrude at almost every -elevated point in huge boulder-like rocks, and form the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -summits of every hill and mountain, often in dome-shaped or -boss-like masses, and in some like titanic castles and towers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0761_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0761_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Earthenware Pottery</span><br /> - -Making cooking utensils and pitchers (<em>Sìny</em>)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0761_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0761_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Digging Up Rice-fields</span><br /> - -Notice the long-handled and long-bladed native spade, the handle serving -as a lever to turn over the clods</div> -</div> - -<p>There is little foliage to be seen except on the top of some of -the hills where the ancient towns and villages are built, and in such -places a circle of old <em>àviàvy</em> trees and an occasional <em>amòntana</em> -tree give a pleasant relief to the prevailing red and ochre tints -of the soil, and, in the cold and dry season, to the russet and grey -hues of the dry grass on the bare hills and downs. The largest -mass of green is at the old capital, Ambòhimànga, eleven miles -away to the north, where the steep sides of the hill are still -covered with a remnant of the original forest, which formerly -was doubtless much more extensive in this part of the central -province. In the deep fosses which surround old villages there -is also often a considerable amount of foliage, as well as in the -hollows and along the streams. But it must be confessed that -a large extent of Imèrina, in common with the rest of the -interior, consists of bare rounded down-like hills, very uninteresting -in character; although towards sunset, in the slanting -rays, these hills have a softness of outline in their curves which -has a decided element of beauty not to be ignored.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE GRANARY OF ANTANÀNARÌVO</div> - -<p>To the west, from north to south, the prospect is very extensive. -To the south-west there rises by very gradual slopes, at -some thirty-five miles’ distance, the mass of Ankàratra, its -three or four highest peaks reaching an elevation of nearly -nine thousand feet above the sea, and about half that height -above the general level of the country. But even at such a -distance the summits usually stand out sharp and clear against -the sky. Due west and north-west is a considerable extent -of comparatively level country, beyond which mountains -fifty miles away are distinctly seen on the horizon. In the -foreground, stretching away many miles, is the great rice-plain -of Bétsimitàtatra, from which numbers of low red hills, most -of them with villages, rise like islands out of a green sea where -the rice is growing. Along the plain the river Ikòpa can be -seen, winding its way northwards to join the Bétsibòka; the -united streams, with many tributaries, flowing into the sea -through the Bay of Bèmbatòka. This great plain, “the -granary of Antanànarìvo,” was formerly an immense marsh, -and earlier still an extensive lake with numerous bays among -the surrounding hills; but since the embanking of the river by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -some of the early kings of Imèrina, it has become the finest rice-plain -of the island and, with its connected valleys, furnishes -the bulk of the food of the people of the central province.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DAMAGE BY STORMS</div> - -<p>The embankments require, of course, constant attention -during the rainy season, when the river is swollen by the -heavy rains; and during the time of the native regime, an -unusually wet season would cause them to give way, so that the -rice-fields were flooded. At such times the whole population -would be called out to help in stopping the breaches, and I -remember one occasion, a Sunday, when we had no afternoon -service, and with others of my brother missionaries I spent -several hours in carrying sods and stones, together with our -people. Another such calamity occurred in January 1893; -for on the night of Saturday, the 28th, and the following day, -there was an unusually heavy storm, doing immense damage, -destroying hundreds of houses and village churches, and -breaking the river banks, so that in a day or two hundreds of -thousands of acres of the great rice-plain were under water, -three or four feet deep. In some parts it was difficult to trace -the river banks; it was “water, water everywhere,” and scores -of low hills were again turned into islands, cut off from all -communication, except by canoe, with the world around them. -If one could have forgotten the terrible loss to the people of their -crops of rice just ready to be cut, it was a most beautiful scene, -and reminded one that in ancient times this great plain was -always a lake, when many now extinct animals, reptiles and -gigantic birds found a home in it and on its shores. For -centuries the heavy rains—probably far heavier then than now, -from the greater extent of forest—went on filling up the valleys -with the rich black and blue loam; gradually the lake became -less and less deep; slowly the river cut out its bed; and then -man came on the scene, and the old native kings aided nature -by embanking the river; the marshes became rice-fields and -supplied with food the present large population which lives all -around it.</p> - -<p>From this elevated point at least a hundred small towns and -villages can be recognised, many of them marked by the tiled -roof, and often the tower, of the village church, which shines -out distinctly amid the brown thatched roofs of most of the -houses. This view from the summit of the capital is certainly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -an unrivalled one, in Madagascar at least, for its variety and -extent, as well as for the human interest of its different parts, -as shown by the large population, the great area of cultivated -land, the embanked rivers, and the streams and water-channels -for irrigation seen in every direction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p0781_ill1" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0781_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pounding and Winnowing Rice</span><br /> - -A palanquin bearer is in the doorway</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0781_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0781_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Hova Middle-class Family at a Meal</span><br /> - -Rice is the staple food, with a meat or vegetable relish</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Springtime: September and October.</span>—With the early -days of September we may usually say that springtime in -Imèrina fairly sets in, and that the year in its natural aspects -properly commences. By a true instinct, arising doubtless -from long observation of the change of the seasons, the Malagasy -call this time <em>Lòhataona</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “the head, or beginning, of the -year”—when nature seems to awake from the comparative -deadness of the cold and dry winter months, during which the -country has looked bare and uninviting, but now begins again to -give promise of fertility and verdure. The keen cold winds and -drizzly showers of the past few weeks give place to warmer air -and clearer skies, and although usually there is but little rain -during September, the deciduous trees begin to put forth their -leaves, and flower-buds appear as heralds of the fuller display -of vegetable life which will be seen after the rains have -fallen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RICE-FIELDS</div> - -<p>The great rice-plain to the west of Antanànarìvo still looks, -during the early days of the <em>Lòhataona</em>, bare and brown; but, -if we examine the prospect more closely, we shall see that in -various places, where the plain borders the low rising grounds -on which the villages are built, there are bright patches of vivid -green. These are the <em>kètsa</em> grounds or smaller rice-fields, where -the rice is first sown thick and broadcast, and where it grows -for a month or two before being planted out in the larger fields, -which are divided from each other by a low bank of earth, a few -inches broad and only a foot or two in height.</p> - -<p>As the season advances, the people everywhere begin to be -busy digging up their rice-fields, both large and small, the clods -being piled up in heaps and rows in order to give the soil the -benefit of exposure to the sun and air. All this work is done by -the native long-handled and long and narrow bladed spade, -driven into the ground by the weight of the handle, as the -Malagasy wear no shoes and so could not drive down the spade -by the foot, in European fashion, while the plough is still an -unknown implement to them. The water-courses, by which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -water is brought to every rice-plot, are now being repaired in all -directions. The chief supply of water is from the springs found -at the head of almost every valley, which is carefully led by -channels cut and embanked round the curves of the hillsides, -being often taken thus for a considerable distance from its source. -Eventually this little canal resolves itself into a small stream -traversing the valley, from which smaller channels convey the -water to every field, so as to moisten the clods after they have -been dug over.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE WATER-SUPPLY</div> - -<p>The water-supply for the great Bétsimitàtatra plain is -derived from the Ikòpa river and its many tributaries. Canals -tap these rivers at various points, in order to irrigate the fields -at lower levels farther down their course. A large quantity of -water is thus diverted from the rivers during September and -October, so that the smaller streams are almost dry, and even -the Ikòpa and its affluents, good-sized rivers at other times of -the year, then become shallow and easily fordable.</p> - -<p>Before the end of October a large extent of the great plain, -especially to the north and north-west, is completely planted -with rice; and a green level, looking like one vast lawn, stretches -away for many miles in this direction, without any break or -visible divisions. This green is the <em>vàry alòha</em>, or “former -rice,” the first crop, which will become ripe in the month of -January, or early in February. Smaller expanses of bright -green appear in other directions also, especially along the -courses of the rivers, but a considerable extent of the plain -directly to the west of the capital is still russet-brown in colour, -and will not be planted until a month or two later. From this -will come the later rice-crop, the (<em>vàry</em>) <em>vàky ambiàty</em>, which is -planted in November or December and becomes fit for cutting -about April. This latter crop is so called because the flowering -of the <em>ambiàty</em> (<i>Vernonia appendiculata</i>) shrub, about November, -gives notice to the people that planting-time has come. This -shrub is very conspicuous about this time of the year from its -masses of white—slightly tinged with purple—flowers.</p> - -<p>The <em>kètsa</em> grounds are covered before sowing with a layer of -wood and straw ashes, so that they have quite a black appearance. -Before this, however, the clods have been broken up and -worked by the spade into a soft mud, with an inch or two of -water over all, and on this the grain is sown broadcast, springing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -up in two or three weeks’ time and looking like a brilliant -emerald carpet.</p> - -<p>There are usually a few heavy showers about the end of -September or the early part of October, which are called -<em>rànonòrana màmpisàra-taona</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “rain dividing the year”; -but occasionally no rain falls until the rainy season regularly -commences, so it is dry and dusty everywhere, the ground -cracks, and everything seems thirsting for moisture. The heat -increases as the sun gets more vertical, although the nights are -pleasantly cool. Yet notwithstanding the dry soil the trees -begin to blossom. Most conspicuous among them is the Cape -lilac (<i>Melia azederach</i>), a tree introduced from South Africa -about eighty or ninety years ago by the first L.M.S. missionaries, -and now thoroughly naturalised in the interior of Madagascar. -It grows to be a good-sized tree, and many hundreds -of them are to be seen in and around Antanànarìvo, making -the place gay with their profusion of pale greyish-lilac flowers, -and fragrant with their strong perfume.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ORCHARDS</div> - -<p>There are many large orchards in Imèrina, planted chiefly -with mango-trees and presenting a refreshing mass of evergreen -all the year round. But at this time, when looking from a -little distance, the green of the leaves is largely mingled with -a tinting of reddish-brown, caused by masses of flowers, in -spikes, chiefly in the upper part of the trees. Later on the -purplish tint of the new leaves gives another shade of colour. -The produce of these trees is an excellent fruit; and there are -three or four varieties of it, one kind, “the stone mango,” being -more globular in shape; another, “the satin-mango,” being -smaller, like a large plum, with a delicate flavour and scent. -Another most widely grown fruit is the peach, which is more -used cooked than eaten raw; and others are the <em>bìbàsy</em> or -loquat, the quince, the rose-apple, the orange, and the <em>ròtra</em>, a -good-sized tree with a profusion of small black pear-shaped -fruits, somewhat astringent when eaten raw, but excellent for -cooking and for preserves. The vine also is largely cultivated, -chiefly a black variety; while bananas and plantains and pine-apples -are to be had all the year through.</p> - -<p>The low banks of earth which form the boundary walls of -plantations are largely planted with a species of <i>Euphorbia</i>, of -which there are two varieties, one with brilliant scarlet bracts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -and the other of pale yellow tint, the leaves appearing on the -prickly stems later on.</p> - -<p>As the season advances the people burn the grass over the -hillsides and open moors, as we saw at Ambàtomànga when -coming up the country. There can be no doubt that to this -practice is largely attributable the bare and treeless appearance -of the central provinces. The young trees which would spring -up, especially in the hollows and sheltered places, have no -chance against the yearly fires which sweep over the country, -and the little vegetation which has held its own is constantly -liable to be lessened as time goes on. Sometimes a dozen fires, -long curving lines of flame, may be seen at once in different -directions, and these give a strangely picturesque appearance -to the nights of springtime in Imèrina.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BIRDS</div> - -<p>The weather often becomes very hot and sultry before the -rains come on, and the usually bright clear skies and pure -atmosphere of other months are exchanged for thick oppressive -days, when the distant hills disappear altogether, and the -nearer ones seem quite distant in the dense haze. This is -probably due, to a great extent, to the grass-burning just -described, and also to the frequent burning of the forest away -to the east. As the weather gets warmer a few birds come up -from the wooded regions of the country, and wherever there is -a small patch of wood the oft-repeated cry of the <em>Kankàfotra</em>, -the Madagascar cuckoo, may be heard, much resembling the -syllables “<em>kow-kow, kow-kow-koo</em>.”</p> - -<p>And here we must notice more fully the birds to be seen in -Imèrina. They are few compared with those in the warmer -and forest regions, and are mostly of powerful flight, principally -birds of prey, swifts, swallows and water-birds. The two -coast regions—east and west—are, on the contrary, well -peopled with birds of all sorts, and while the greater part of -these inhabit indifferently one or the other region, there are a -certain number which have their habitat almost exclusively in -one region only, and give it its special characteristics. There -are also some which keep to a still more limited area, not going -beyond a very restricted range. As far as is at present known, -two hundred and ten species of birds have been found in Madagascar; -and the very special character of its avi-fauna may be -seen from the fact that it includes forty-one genera and a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -hundred and twenty-four species, which are all peculiar to the -island.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RAPACIOUS BIRDS</div> - -<p>The rapacious birds of the country comprise twenty-two -species, the majority being hawks, kites and buzzards, with -several owls and two eagles. The most common bird of this -order is the <em>Papàngo</em> or Egyptian kite, a large hawk found all -over the island. It may be seen every day flying gracefully -along in search of lizards and snakes, and the mice, rats and -small birds which form its chief food, and continually swooping -down upon its prey. When the long dry grass is being burned -on the downs the papàngo may be noticed sweeping backwards -and forwards close to the edge of the blazing grass, so as to pick -up the smaller creatures escaping the advancing flames, or those -which have been overtaken by them and killed. I have -occasionally observed hundreds of these birds in the neighbourhood -of Ambòhimànga, describing great circles, at an immense -height, and have wondered how such large numbers could -obtain food. This kite is the dread of the country-dwelling -Malagasy, for it swoops down on their chickens and is only -scared away by their loud cries and execrations. From these -habits comes one of its provincial names, <em>Tsimalàho</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “the -one who does not ask,” but takes without saying “by your -leave.” It is constantly seen in company with the white-necked -crows, and, like them, feeds near the villages, especially -near where the oxen are killed.</p> - -<p>Another very widely spread rapacious bird is the little lively -and noisy <em>Hìtsikìtsika</em> or kestrel, which is found in or about -every village, often perched on the gable “horns” of the -houses, or even on the extreme point of the lightning conductors. -It is by no means shy, and one can sometimes approach it quite -closely and see its bright fearless eyes, before it darts away. It -is fond of the same resting-place and, after a noisy chatter with -its mate, takes a sweeping flight for a few hundred yards and -returns to its former condition. Several native proverbs refer -to the kestrel’s quick restless flight and its frequent habit of -hovering aloft, poised almost motionless, or with an occasional -quivering of the wings, which, in Malagasy idiom, is called -“dancing,” for the native dances consist as much in a graceful -motion of the hands as in that of the feet. Among some tribes, -or families, the kestrel is a tabooed bird and it is crime to kill it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">HAWKS</div> - -<p>Another hawk worth noticing, although much less common -than the two previously mentioned ones, is the lesser falcon, a -small but very courageous bird, which has long attracted the -attention of the Malagasy for its swiftness. The native name, -<em>Vòromahèry</em>, or “Powerful bird,” is also that of the tribe of -Hova Malagasy who inhabit the capital and its near neighbourhood, -and this falcon also was adopted as a crest or emblem -by the native government, and its figure was engraved on their -official seals. Its flight is extremely rapid, more like that of an -arrow than that of a bird.</p> - -<p>Many of the Malagasy hawks are beautiful birds, with -horizontal bars of alternate light and dark colour on breast and -tail; but perhaps the most handsome of them all is the Rayed -Gymnogene, which is of a pearly-grey colour, barred with black, -while on the tail and quill feathers are broad bands of pure -white and intensely glossy black. This bird stands high, having -very long legs, with a crest of feathers on the crown and neck.</p> - -<p>As the end of October draws near the people are busily at -work, not only in the rice-fields, but also repairing their houses, -mending their grass or rush roofs, and hurrying on their sun-dried -brick or clay building before the heavy rains fall. The -majority of native houses are of those materials, and everything -must be finished, or at least well protected from the weather, -before the rainy season comes on. The water-courses, too, need -attention, and the river banks must be repaired, lest a succession -of heavy rains should swell the streams, break through the -embankments and flood the rice-plains.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Summer: November, December, January and February.</span>—Summer -in central Madagascar is not only the hot season, but -it is also the rainy season, very little rain falling at any other -time of the year. It is accordingly called by the Malagasy -<em>Fàhavàratra</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “thunder-time”—since almost all heavy rain -is accompanied by a thunderstorm; and taking the average of -a good many years, this season may be said to commence at the -beginning of November.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A TROPICAL STORM</div> - -<p>As the sun gets every day more nearly vertical at noon, on -his passage towards the southern tropic, the heat increases, and -the electric tension of the air becomes more oppressive. For a -week or more previous to the actual commencement of the rains, -the clouds gather towards evening, and the heavens are lighted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -up at night by constant flashes of lightning. But at length, -after a few days of this sultry weather, towards midday the -huge cumuli gather thickly over the sky and gradually unite -into a dense mass, purple-black in colour, and soon the thunder -is heard. It rapidly approaches nearer and nearer, the clouds -touching the lower hills, then down darts the forked lightning, -followed by the roar of the thunder, and presently a wild rush -of wind, as if it came from all quarters at once, tells us that the -storm is upon us, and then comes the rain, in big heavy drops -for a few seconds and soon in torrents, as if the sluice-gates of -the clouds were opened. The lightning is almost incessant; -now and then, in one of the nearer crashes, it is as if the whole -artillery of heaven were playing upon the doomed earth; and -for half-an-hour or so there is often hardly any interval between -the crashing and reverberations of the thunder peals, the hills -around the capital echoing back the roar from the clouds. -Certainly a heavy thunderstorm in Madagascar is an awfully -grand and glorious spectacle and is not without a considerable -element of danger too, especially for anyone caught in the -storm in the open, or in a house unprotected by a lightning-conductor. -Every house of any pretensions in the central -provinces has this safeguard, for every year many people are -killed by lightning, some while walking on the road, and others -in houses unprotected by a conductor. One often hears of -strange freaks, so to speak, played by the lightning; for -instance, one of our college students, travelling with wife and -children to the Bétsiléo, was killed instantaneously, as well as -a slave near him, when sitting in a native house, while a child -he was nursing at the time escaped with a few burns only. A -missionary of the Norwegian Society was struck by lightning, -which melted the watch in his pocket, drove the nails out of his -shoes, and yet he escaped with no other harm than some burns, -which eventually healed.</p> - -<p>A large quantity of rain sometimes falls during such storms -in a very short time. On one occasion three and a quarter -inches fell in less than half-an-hour; and as the streets and -paths through the capital were formerly all very steep, and there -was no underground drainage, it may be imagined what a roar of -water there was all over the city after such a storm. The three -or four chief thoroughfares were transformed into the beds of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -rushing torrents and a series of cascades; from every compound -spouted out a jet of water to join the main stream, and it used -to be no easy matter to get about at all in the rush and the roar. -It was no wonder that most of the highways of the capital got -deeper and deeper every year. Even where there was an -attempt at a rough paving, a single storm would often tear it up -and pile the stones together in a big hole, with no more order -than obtains in the bed of a cataract. After the rains were over, -the red soil was dug away from the sides to fill up the channel -cut by the torrent, and so the road gradually sank below the -walls of the compounds on either side of it.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">RAINFALL</div> - -<p>The annual rainfall of Antanànarìvo is about fifty inches, -December and January being the wettest months, with an -average fall of ten to twelve inches each. It is very unusual -for thunderstorms to occur in the morning, they mostly come -on in the afternoon; and after the first heavy downpour a -steady rain will often continue for three or four hours, and -occasionally far into the night. It is generally bright and fine -in the early morning; all vegetation is refreshed by the plentiful -moisture; and the people are busy in their plantations on the -sloping hillsides, digging up the softened earth for planting -manioc, sweet potatoes, the edible arum, and many other -vegetables.</p> - -<p>Hail also very frequently falls during these thunderstorms; -and should it be late in the season, when the rice is in ear, great -damage is often done to the growing crop. A large extent of -rice-field will sometimes be stripped of every grain, the stalks -standing up like bare sticks. Charms against hail had therefore -in the old heathen times a prominent place in the popular -beliefs and, there can be little doubt, are still trusted in and -used by many of the more ignorant people. Occasionally -the hailstones are of very large size and kill sheep and small -animals, if they are left unsheltered. I remember a storm of -this kind, when the hailstones were as large as good-sized nuts, -while some were cushion-shaped and hexagonal, with a -hollow in the centre, and nearly one and a half inches in -diameter. In other cases they have been seen as jagged -lumps of ice; and it may be easily imagined that it is very -unpleasant and somewhat dangerous to be exposed to such a -fusillade.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">LIGHTNING</div> - -<p>Besides the thunderstorms like those just described, which -come so close and are often so awful in their results, there is -another kind of storm we frequently see in the rainy season -which is an unmixed source of delight. This is when, for two -or three hours together in the evening, a large portion of the -sky is lighted up by an almost incessant shimmer of lightning, -now revealing glimpses of a glory as if heaven itself were -opening, and anon showing many different tiers and strata of -clouds lying one behind the other, and alternately lighted up, -making clear the outlines of the nearer masses of cumulus upon -the brilliant background. How wonderful are the different -colours of this lightning! intense white, like glowing metal, -now red, and now violet; and not less wonderful are its forms! -now it is a zigzag, which plunges downwards, now it branches -out horizontally, and again it darts upwards into the clouds; -and then, for a few moments, there is nothing but an incessant -quiver and shimmer, which lights up first one quarter of the -heavens, and then another, and then the whole. All the time -no thunder is heard from this celestial display, but it is most -fascinating to watch the infinitely varied effects of light and -darkness, till we sometimes feel as if a “door was opened in -heaven,” and we could catch a glimpse of “the excellent -glory” within.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OLD STYLE DIVISION OF TIME</div> - -<p>Something may be said here about the native division of -time. Although the European months and year have become -generally known and used, the old style of months are still -recognised to some extent by the Malagasy. Their months -were lunar ones, and therefore their year was eleven days shorter -than ours, their New Year’s Day coming consequently at -different times, from the first to the twelfth month, until the -cycle was complete after thirty-three years. When I first -came to Madagascar the Malagasy New Year began in the -month of March; and this style of reckoning time was kept up -until the accession of the last native sovereign, Queen Rànavàlona -III., in 1883. The Malagasy appear never to have -made any attempt, by the insertion of intercalary days or any -other contrivance, to fill up their shorter year to the true time -occupied in the earth’s annual revolution round the sun; for -of course they must have noticed that their New Year came at -quite different periods after a few years. The names of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -Malagasy months are all Arabic in origin, as indeed are also the -days of the week (Alahàdy (Sunday), Alàtsinainy (Monday), -Talàta (Tuesday), Alarobìa (Wednesday), etc.); but it is curious -that the month names are not the Arabic names of the months, -but are those of the constellations of the Zodiac. Thus, Alàhamàdy -is the Ram, Adaoro is the Bull (<em>daoro</em> = <em>taurus</em>), -Adizaoza is the Twins, and so on. This appears to have arisen -from the connection between astrology and the divination -(<em>sikìdy</em>) introduced by the Arabs several centuries ago.</p> - -<p>The New Year was <em>the</em> great festival of the Malagasy and was -observed on the first day of the first month, Alàhamàdy. It -was called the <em>Fandròana</em> or “Bathing,” and was kept up until -the French conquest in 1895, but since then has been superseded -by the Fête of the French Republic on 14th July every -year. The ancient customs were, however, very interesting, -and were chiefly the following:—(1) The lighting of little -bundles of dried grass at dusk on the evenings of the last day of -the old year and the first of the new one. These fires, possibly -a relic of the old fire-worship, were called <em>harèndrina</em>, and -formed one of the most pleasing features of the festival in the -gathering darkness of the evening. (2) The ceremonial Royal -Bathing at the great palace, when all the principal people of the -kingdom were present, as well as representative foreigners, was -the most prominent of all the ceremonies, giving, as it did, the -name to the whole festival. At a fixed time in the evening the -queen retired behind curtains fixed at the north-east (the -sacred corner) of the great hall and bathed in a silver bath; after -which she emerged, robed and crowned, and, carrying a horn -of water in her hands, went down the assembly to the door, -sprinkling the people as she passed. (She would playfully give -some of us an extra splash as she went along.) (3) On the -following day came the killing of oxen, doubtless the most -important of all the observances in the estimation of the people -generally, at any rate of the poorer classes, who then got, for -once a year at least, a plentiful supply of beef. Presents of the -newly killed meat were sent about in all directions to relatives -and friends, and feasting and merry-making prevailed for -several days among all classes. (4) For some time previous to -the actual festival it was customary for the Malagasy to visit -their elders and superiors in rank, bringing presents of money,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> -fowls, fruit, etc., using certain complimentary formulæ and -expressions of good wishes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WILD FLOWERS</div> - -<p>The rains which usually fall in November soon make the hills -and downs, which have got so brown and dry during the cold -season, become green again. Especially does the fresh grass -brighten those portions of the hillsides where the withered grass -and fern had been burnt two or three months before; and -although, as already noticed, wild flowers are not so plentiful -or prominent in Madagascar as they are in European countries, -there are several kinds which now make their appearance and -give some beauty to the scene. Among these are the <em>vònènina</em> -(<i>Vinca rosea</i>), with large pink flowers; the <em>avòko</em> (<i>Vigna angivensis</i>), -bright crimson; the <em>nìfinakànga</em> (<i>Commelyna madagascarica</i>), -deep blue; several small vetch-like plants with yellow -flowers; many others with minute yellow compound flowers, -and some few other kinds. A beautiful scarlet gladiolus is -seen sparingly on the downs, as well as a conspicuous and -handsome white flower, with a long tubular calyx, very like a -petunia.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> It will be understood that all this refers to Antanànarìvo -under native rule. Since the French occupation the city has -been wonderfully improved; well paved and drained streets -have been engineered all over the place, with electric lighting -and abundant water-supply.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">SPRING AND SUMMER</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">BESIDES flowers growing on the ground, there are many -shrubs and small trees now in blossom, although some -are by no means confined in floral display to the warm -and rainy season. Along the hedges in some localities is a -small bush, with clusters of purple leguminous flowers, called -<em>famàmo</em> (<i>Mundulea suberosa</i>); branches of these shrubs are -sometimes placed in a pool or stream, so as to stupefy, and thus -easily obtain, any fish present in the water. Very conspicuous -are the bright yellow flowers of the <em>tainakòho</em> (<i>Cassia lævigata</i>), -and the <em>tsiàfakòmby</em> (<i>Cæsalpinia sepiaria</i>), and the orange-yellow -spikes of the <em>sèva</em> (<i>Buddleia madagascariensis</i>). More -showy and handsome still perhaps are the abundant large -yellow flowers of the prickly pear, which is so largely used for -hedges and for the defences of the old towns and villages. The -strong and sharp spines, from an inch to an inch and a half long, -are the usual native substitute for pins. A species of <i>Hibiscus</i> -(<i>Hibiscus diversifolius</i>) is not uncommon, with yellow flowers, -which have deep red in the centre; yellow seems indeed the -most common colour in the flora of Imèrina. At this time of the -year also three or four species of aloe come into flower. The -larger of these, called <em>vàhona</em> (<i>Aloe macroclada</i>) by the Malagasy, -is much used for planting as a hedge, from its fleshy leaves being -armed with sharp prickles; its tall flower spike shoots up very -rapidly to a height of four or six feet. Another and smaller -one, called <em>sahòndra</em> (<i>Aloe capitata</i>), has its flowers branching -at the top of the stalk something like a candelabra. The -numerous flowers attract, as they expand, swarms of bees. -Another plant, like an aloe in appearance, called <em>tarètra</em> -(<i>Fourcroya gigantea</i>) by the natives, has long leaves, with a -sharp spine at the ends only; and its flower-stalk shoots up -like a small mast to a height of twenty feet, with widely -spreading branchlets and an immense number of light coloured<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -flowers. Strong fibre used as thread is obtained from the -leaves, the name of the plant being indeed that used for -“thread.” The tall flower-stalks of these aloes and agaves -form quite a noticeable feature in the Imèrina landscape in the -early summer. In the orchards, soon after the mango has -finished flowering, we may see the curious whitish flowers of the -rose-apple, a sort of ball of long stamens, showing conspicuously -among the foliage.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WATER-PRODUCING INSECTS</div> - -<p>It is well known by those who live in Madagascar that there -are, at certain seasons of the year, a number of insects found -on trees which produce a constant dropping of water. Happening -one day to be standing under a peach-tree in our garden -from which water was dropping, I found that there were -clusters of insects on some of the smaller branches. In each -cluster there were about twenty to thirty insects, and these were -partly covered with froth, from which the water came. The -insects producing this appeared at first sight to be small beetles, -about half-an-inch long, black in colour, with golden-yellow -markings on the head and thorax, while on the wing-cases there -was a chequer of minute spots of yellow on the black ground. -After observing a single insect for a few seconds, I noticed that -the tail was quite flexible and moved sideways, and was constantly -protruded and then withdrawn a little, and it was -evident that these little creatures were the larval form of a -species of beetle. The sap of the tree is extracted in such -quantities as to maintain their bodies in a state of saturated -humidity. The activity of the larvæ seems to increase as the -heat of the day progresses, and to diminish again towards -evening. But the object of this abstraction of fluid from the -tree, and the purpose it serves, is still a subject needing investigation. -I have observed these insects on other trees—mangoes, -acacia, <em>zàhana</em>, and others; they appear indeed to be very -common, and the ground underneath the branches where they -cluster is covered with small patches soaked with water. A -French naturalist, M. Goudot, described an insect apparently -of the same kind as that found in Imèrina as the larva of a -species of <i>Cercopis</i>, and nearly related to the cicada of Europe. -The quantity of water produced from a tree at Tamatave seems -to have been much greater than that observed in the interior, -and resembling a small rain-shower; probably this was due to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -the greater heat of the coast. M. Goudot says that the perfect -insect attains a length of an inch and a half, and that these also -emit small drops of clear and limpid water.</p> - -<p>Towards the beginning of December the earlier crop of rice -comes into ear; and should the rains fall as usual during -November, the remaining portions of the great rice-plain will be -all planted out with the later crop, the whole of the level and its -branching valleys presenting an unbroken expanse of green. -Of this, the early rice shows distinctly as a darker shade of -colour, although it will soon begin to turn yellow, as the grain -ripens under the steady heat and the plentiful rainfall. Perhaps -this is the time when Bétsimitàtatra is seen in its most attractive -and beautiful aspect, for every part of it is covered with rice in -some stage or other of growth and cultivation.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DAYS AND NIGHTS</div> - -<p>To anyone coming for the first time into a tropical country -from England, the comparative uniformity in the length of the -days and nights throughout the year seems very strange. In -Imèrina there is only about two hours’ difference in the length -of the longest day, about Christmas, and the shortest day, early -in July. It is dark at about seven o’clock on the first of -January, and at about six o’clock on the first of July. Thus -we have no long evenings, which are such a delight in the -summer months in England; but, on the other hand, we escape -the long nights and the short gloomy days of the English winter. -We lose also the long twilights of the temperate zone, although -I have never seen the almost instantaneous darkness following -sunset which one sometimes reads about. There is a twilight -of from fifteen to twenty minutes’ duration in this part of Madagascar. -While, therefore, we miss the much greater variety of -the seasons in England, we have many compensations, especially -in the very much larger proportion of bright sunny days, -the clear skies, and the pure atmosphere of our Imèrina climate. -Very seldom have we a wet morning in any part of the year; and -the heat is not more oppressive than it is in hot summers in -England, while in the cold season the sharp keen air is bracing -and health-giving. We never see snow in Madagascar, but a -thin film of ice is very occasionally seen on the slopes of the -Ankàratra mountains in July and August.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p0921_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0921_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rocks near Ambàtovòry</span><br /> - -This shows the remains of the original forest. Cattle are grazing with a boy in charge</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE HOURS</div> - -<p>It may be interesting to notice at this point the numerous -words used by the Malagasy to indicate the different times of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -the day, from morning to evening. Clocks and watches are -comparatively a recent introduction into Madagascar, nor do -the people ever seem to have contrived any kind of sun-dial, -although, as will be seen, they did use something else as a kind -of substitute for such a time-keeper. It should be remembered -that the hours given (counting in European fashion) as equivalents -for these native divisions of the night and the day are -only approximations, and must be taken as the <em>mean</em> of the year, -or, in other words, at about the time of equal day and night, -towards the end of March or of September. They are as -follows:—</p> - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Mamaton’ alina</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Centre of night <span class="pad3h">}</span></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{ <span class="pad3">or</span></td> -<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="4">or <span class="pad6">  }   About 12.0 midnight</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Misasaka alina</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Halving of night <span class="pad3">}</span></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maenno sahona</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Frog croaking,</td> -<td class="tdc">About</td> -<td class="tdl">2.0</td> -<td class="tdc allsmcap">A.M.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maneno akaho</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Cock-crowing,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">3.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maraina alina koa</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Morning also night,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">4.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maneno goaika</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Crow croaking,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">5.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Manga vodilanitra</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Bright horizon</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Mangoan’ atsinanana</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Reddish east</td> -<td class="tdl">}   ”</td> -<td class="tdl">5.15</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Mangiran-dratsy</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Glimmer of day</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Ahitan-tsoratr’ omby</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Colours of cattle can be seen,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">5.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mazava ratsy</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Dusk,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mifoha lo-maozoto</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Diligent people awake,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maraina koa</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Early morning,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Vaky masoandro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Sunrise</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Vaky andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Daybreak</td> -<td class="tdl">}   ”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Piakandro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl pad3">”</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Antoandro be nanahary</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Broad daylight</td> -<td class="tdc">} ”  </td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Efa bana ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl pad3">” <span class="pad2">”</span></td> -<td class="tdc">} ”  </td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mihintsana ando</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Dew-falls,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.15</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mivoaka omby</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Cattle go out (to pasture),</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maim-bohon-dravina</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Leaves are dry (from dew),</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Afa-dranom-panala</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">{ Hoar-frost disappears *</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.45</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Manara vava nya ndro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">{ The day chills the mouth *</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Misandratra andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Advance of the day,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">8.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mitatao haratra</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Over (at a right angle with) the purlin,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">9.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mitatao vovonana</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Over the ridge of the roof,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">12.0</td> -<td class="tdc">noon</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mandray tokonana ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Day taking hold of the threshold,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">12.30</td> -<td class="tdc allsmcap">P.M.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Mitsidika andro</em>, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></td> -<td class="tdl">Peeping-in of the day</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Latsaka iray dia ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Day less one step (= hour?)</td> -<td class="tdl">} ”</td> -<td class="tdl">1.0</td> -<td class="tdc allsmcap">P.M.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">{<em>Solafak’ andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Slipping of the day</td> -<td class="tdl">} ”</td> -<td class="tdl"><ins class="corr" id="tn-94" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: '1.3 '"> -1.30</ins></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -<td class="tdl">  to</td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  {<em>Tafalatsaka ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Decline of the day =   }</td> -<td class="tdc" rowspan="2">”</td> -<td class="tdl" rowspan="2">2.0</td> -<td class="tdc" rowspan="2">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  {<em>Mihilana ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl pad2">afternoon <span class="pad4"> }</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Am-pitotoam-bary</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">At the rice-pounding place,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mby amin’ ny andry ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">At the house post,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Am-pamatoran-janak’ omby,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">At the place of tying the calf,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">3.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mby am-pisoko ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">At the sheep or poultry pen,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">4.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mody omby tera-bao,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">The cow newly calved comes home,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">4.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Tafapaka ny andro</em>,</td> -<td class="tdl">Sun touching (<em>i.e.</em> the eastern wall),</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">5.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mody omby,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Cattle come home,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">5.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mena masoandro,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Sunset flush,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">5.45</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maty masoandro,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Sunset (<em>lit.</em> “Sun dead”),</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Miditra akoho,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Fowls come in,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.15</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Somambisamby,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Dusk, twilight,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Maizim-bava-vilany,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Edge of rice-cooking pan obscure,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">6.45</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Manokom-bary olona,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">People begin to cook rice,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">7.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Homan-bary olona,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">People eat rice,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">8.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Tapi-mihinana,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Finished eating,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">8.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mandry olona,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">People go to sleep,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">9.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Tapi-mandry olona,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Everyone in bed,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">9.30</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mipoa-tafondro,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Gun-fire,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">10.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">  <em>Mamaton’ alina,</em></td> -<td class="tdl">Midnight,</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">12.0</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="5">* These refer only to the two or three winter months.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>This list is, I think, a very interesting one, and shows the -primitive pastoral and agricultural habits of the Hova Malagasy -before they were influenced by European civilisation. Previous -to their knowledge of clocks and watches (which are still unknown -to the majority of people away from the capital), the -native houses thus served as a rude kind of dial. As, until -recent times, these were always built with their length running -north and south, and with the single door and window facing -the west, the sunlight coming in after midday at the open -door gave, by its gradual progress along the floor, a fairly -accurate measure of time to people amongst whom time was not -of very much account. In the forenoon, the position of the sun, -nearly square with the eastern purlin of the roof, marked about -nine o’clock; and as noon approached, its vertical position,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -about the ridge-pole, or at least its reaching the meridian, -clearly showed twelve o’clock. Then, as the sunlight gradually -passed westward and began to peer in at the door, at about one -o’clock, it announced “the peeping-in of the day” (<em>mitsìdika -àndro</em>); and then, as successive points on the floor were reached -by the advancing rays, several of the hours of the afternoon -were sufficiently clearly marked off: “the place of rice-pounding” -(<em>am-pitotòam-bàry</em>), as the light fell on the rice mortar, -further into the house; “the calf-fastening place” -(<em>am-pamatòran-jànak òmby</em>), as the rays reached one of the -three central posts supporting the ridge, and where the calf -was fastened for the night; and then, “touching” (<em>tàfapàka</em>), -when the declining sunshine reached the eastern wall, at about -half-past four in the afternoon. Other words and notes of time, -it will be seen, are derived from various natural phenomena. -Some other words for the division of time used by the Malagasy -may be here noted. Thus “a rice-cooking” (<em>indray màhamàsa-bàry</em>) -is frequently used to denote about half-an-hour; while -“the frying of a locust” (<em>indray mitòna valàla</em>) is a phrase -employed to describe a moment.</p> - -<p>Many words exist in the Malagasy language to denote different -appearances of nature which are somewhat poetical and seem -to show some imaginative power. Thus the light fleecy clouds -in the upper regions of the atmosphere are called “sky -gossamer” (<em>faròran-dànitra</em>); the sun is the “day’s-eye” -(<em>masoandro</em>); the galaxy is the “dividing of the year” (<em>èfi-taona</em>); -the rainbow is “God’s great knife” (<em>àntsibèn’ Andrìamànitra</em>); -and a waterspout is the “tail of the sky” (<em>ràmbon-dànitra</em>).</p> - -<p>We saw just now that in Imèrina the native houses, with the -sun touching different parts of them, form a kind of primitive -sun-dial; so it may be well here to say something about the -structure and arrangement of a native house in this part of -Madagascar.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE HOVA HOUSE</div> - -<p>A Hova house of the old style is always built with its length -running north and south; it is an oblong, the length being -about half as much again as the breadth, and the door and -window always on the west side, so as to be sheltered from the -prevailing south-east winds; for, as there is no glass, there -would be much inconvenience in facing the windward side.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -There is frequently another window at the north end of the -house, and often one also in the north gable. The material -used always to be the hard red clay found all over the central -provinces; and this is still largely used, although sun-dried -bricks are supplanting the old style of building. This clay, -after being mixed with water, is kneaded by being trampled over -thoroughly, and is then laid in courses of about a foot to eighteen -inches in height, and about the same in thickness. Each layer -is allowed to become hard and firm before the next one is set, -and it is well beaten on both sides as it dries. If properly laid -and of good material, the cracks are not very large when the -clay is dry, and are filled up; and it makes a very substantial -and durable walling, quite as much, and more so, as the majority -of cheap brick houses in England. The boundary walls of the -compounds are also made of the same hard clay; and it is -remarkable how many years such material will last without -much damage, although exposed almost daily, for four or five -months every year, to the heavy rains of the wet season. (I -know walls which had been built for several years before I -saw them first forty-three years ago, and yet they seem little -altered since that time.)</p> - -<p>The houses of the upper classes and richer people used to be -built of timber framework, the walls being of thick upright -planks, which are grooved at the edge, a tenon of the tough -<em>anìvona</em> palm bark being inserted so as to hold them together. -Two or three lengths of the same fibrous substance were also -passed through each plank longitudinally at different heights -from the ground, so as to bind them all firmly together round -the house. The accompanying drawing will show more clearly -than any verbal description the details of the structure of a -Hova <em>tràno-kòtona</em>, as this style of wooden house is called (no -such houses are built nowadays; and very few of them -remain; the use of brick, sun-dried and burnt, has entirely -superseded them). The roof in both clay and timber houses -does not depend for its stability on the walls only, but is mainly -supported by three tall posts, which are let into the ground for -some depth and carry the ridge-piece. One of these posts is in -the centre, and one is at each end, close to the walls inside the -house. This is a wise provision, as the roofs are generally of high -pitch, and in violent winds would need much more support than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -could be given by the walls. The gables were always thatched -with the same materials as the roof, either of long grass or the -<em>hèrana</em> sedge. At each gable the outer timbers cross the apex, -and project upwards for about a foot or two, the extremities -being notched, and often having a small wooden figure of a -bird. In the houses of people of rank, the <em>tàndro-tràno</em> or -“house-horns” were three or four feet long, while in some of -the royal houses they projected ten or twelve feet, the length -being apparently some indication of the rank of the owner. In -some tribes these gable ornaments, which have become only -conventional horns among the Hovas, are carved in exact -resemblance of those adorning the head of a bullock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p0961_ill" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p0961_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A MALAGASY HOUSE.<br /> - -Showing elevation, plan, internal arrangement, and month names.<br /> - -<p class="right"><em>See <a href="#Page_96">page 96</a></em></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE INTERIOR</div> - -<p>The interior arrangements of a Hova house are very simple -and are (or perhaps it would be more correct to say <em>were</em>) -almost always the same.</p> - -<p>Let us, following Malagasy politeness, call out before we -enter, “<em>Haody, haody?</em>” equivalent to, “May we come in?” -And while we wait a minute or two, during which the mistress -of the house is reaching down a clean mat for us to sit down on, -we notice that the threshold is raised a foot or more above the -ground on either side, sometimes more, so that a stone is placed -as a step inside and out. Entering the house in response to the -hospitable welcome, “<em>Màndrosòa, Tòmpoko é</em>,” “Walk forward, -sir” (or madam), we step over the raised threshold. In some -parts of Imèrina a kind of closet, looking more like a large oven -than anything else, is made of clay at the south-east corner, -opposite the door, and here, as in an Irish cabin, the pig finds -a place at night, and above it the fowls roost. Near the door -the large wooden mortar or <em>laona</em> for pounding rice generally -stands, and near it are the <em>fanòto</em> or pestle, a long round piece of -wood, and the <em>sahàfa</em> or large shallow wooden dish in which the -rice is winnowed from husk removed by pounding. At about -the middle of the eastern side of the house are placed two or -three globular <em>sìny</em> or water-pots, the mouths covered with a -small basket to keep out the dust. Farther on, but near the -west side, is the <em>fàtana</em> or hearth, a small enclosure about three -feet square. In this are fixed five stones, on which the rice-cooking -pots are arranged over the fire. And over this is sometimes -fixed a light framework upon which the cooking-pots are -placed when not in use. There is no chimney, the smoke<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -finding its way out through windows or door or slowly through -the rush or grass thatch, and so the house is generally black and -sooty above, long strings of cobweb and soot hanging down -from the roof. Such appendages were considered as marks of -long residence and honour, and so the phrase, <em>mainty molàly</em>, -<em>lit.</em> “black from soot,” is a very honourable appellation, and is -applied to things ancient, such as the first Christian hymns; -and missionaries who have been a long time resident in the -island are given this name as a mark of respect.</p> - -<p>The north-east corner of the house is the sacred portion of it, -and is called <em>zòro firaràzana</em>—<em>i.e.</em> the corner where the <em>ràry</em> or -war-chant was sung and where any religious act connected -with the former idolatry was performed, and in which the -<em>sàmpy</em> or household charm was kept in a basket suspended -from the wall. In this corner also is the fixed bedstead, which, -especially in royal houses, was often raised up some height -above the ground and reached by a notched post serving as -a ladder, and sometimes screened with mats or coarse cloth. -West of this, close to the north roof-post, is the place of honour, -<em>avàra-pàtana</em>, “north of the hearth,” where guests are invited -to sit down, a clean mat being spread as a seat, just as a chair is -handed in European houses.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FURNITURE</div> - -<p>There is little furniture in a purely native house; a few rolls -of mats, half-a-dozen spoons in a small but long basket fixed to -the wall, some large round baskets with covers, and perhaps a -tin box containing <em>làmbas</em> for Sunday and special occasions; -a few common dishes of native pottery, and perhaps two or -three of European make; a horn or a tin <em>zìnga</em>, for drinking -water; a spade or two—these with the rice mortar and pounder -and winnower already mentioned—the water-pots, and the -implements for spinning <ins class="corr" id="tn-98" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'and wearing'"> -and weaving</ins>, constitute about the -whole household goods in the dwellings of the poorer classes. -The earthen floor is covered with coarse mats, and sometimes -the walls are lined with finer mats; in the roof an attic is often -formed for a part of or the whole length of the house and is -reached by a rude ladder. The floor of this upper chamber is -frequently covered over with a layer of earth and is used as a -cooking-place, with much advantage to the lower part of the -house, which is thus kept comparatively free from smoke and -soot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span></p> - -<p>It must be understood the foregoing description applies to -the original style of native house, as unaffected by modern -innovations. In the capital and the more important places, as -well as in many villages, numbers of brick houses, with upper -storeys and three or four or more rooms, have been built of late -years; and hundreds of six-roomed houses, with verandahs -carried on brick pillars, have also been erected, following a -model introduced about the year 1870 by the late Rev. J. -Pearse. This struck the fancy of the well-to-do people, and -similar ones have been built all over the central provinces.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NEST OF BLACK WASP</div> - -<p>Few people who have lived in Madagascar can have failed to -notice a small longish lump of light coloured clay stuck under -the eaves of the house, or on the side of a window, or, in fact, -in any sheltered place; and if we take the trouble to break off -a piece, we find that this lump of clay contains a number of -cells, all filled with caterpillars or spiders in a numbed and semi-lifeless -condition. The maker of these cells is a black wasp -about an inch long, with russet wings, and as one sits in the -verandah of one’s house one may often hear a shrill buzz -somewhere up in the rafters, and there the little worker is busy -bringing in pellets of clay with which she builds up the walls of -the cell. (When I lived at Ambòhimànga, one of these wasps -made a nest with several cells in my study, as the window was -generally open to the air.) Presently she is off again for -another load to the banks of a little stream where she has her -brick-field. Kneading the red earth with her mandibles, she -quickly forms it into a pellet of clay, about the size of a pea, -which she dexterously picks up and flies away back to the -verandah. This pellet is placed on the layer already laid, -carefully smoothed and “bonded in” with the previous -structure, until a cell is completed. Observations made by a -careful student of animal and insect life show that about -twenty-six journeys finish one cell, and that on a fine day it -takes about forty-five minutes to complete it. This is only -one out of many cells, however, placed on the top of each -other.</p> - -<p>With regard to the storing of these cells with food for the -grubs of the wasp, Mr Cory<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> found that the number of spiders -enclosed in eleven cells varied from eight to nineteen. These -are caught by the wasp, stung so as to be insensible, but not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -killed, and then the egg is laid in their bodies, so that on being -hatched the grub finds itself in the midst of food.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BUILDING AND BURROWING WASPS</div> - -<p>Another species of these solitary wasps is a much larger -insect, about two inches in length, and she makes nests, which -are extremely hard, and are like half-buried native water-pots, -with the mouths facing the observer, and arranged regularly -one above the other. When finished they are plastered over -with rough gravel. Unlike the wasp previously mentioned, -this one does not fetch the clay for building purposes from the -banks of a stream, but carries the water to the dry earth, which -it then damps and kneads into balls. The cells are stocked -with caterpillars, which are stung and numbed in the same way -as the spiders are treated by the first-named wasp. There are -usually three caterpillars placed in each cell.</p> - -<p>Another wasp, also very common, does not build cells, but -digs a burrow in the ground, even in pretty hard places, like a -well-trodden road. Some of these use caterpillars for stocking -their burrows, some large spiders, and some crickets, but all -drag or carry their prey on foot, even the largest of them. One -small wasp, when carrying a spider, first amputates all its legs -and then slings the body beneath her. The burrows of the -larger wasp are deep in comparison with the size of the insect, -being frequently a foot or more in depth. Mr Cory gives a -graphic description of a battle between one of these wasps and a -large spider, in which, however, the former managed to sting its -prey and capture it.</p> - -<p>There is one very small wasp that makes no cell or burrow, -but chooses a long hole in a piece of wood, or a small bamboo, -etc., for the rearing of its larvæ. “Each kind of wasp seems -to have its own peculiar way of hunting; some run down on -foot by scent for long distances; some dash down violently -into the web of a spider, and catch him as he drops from out of -it; while others again seize their prey upon the wing, especially -the social wasps. The males of all are lazy and do no work.”<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<p>January is usually the wettest month of the year in Imèrina; -and in some years there occurs what the Hova call the <em>hafitòana</em>, -or “seven days”—that is, of almost continuous rain, although -it more usually lasts only three or four days. Such a time is -most disastrous for houses, compounds and boundary walls, -for the continuous rain soaks into them and brings them down<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -in every direction. From the steep situation of the capital, -almost every house compound is built up on one side with a -retaining wall, and on the other is cut away so as to form a level -space.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LUXURIANT GROWTH</div> - -<p>The prolonged moisture, combined with the heat of this time -of the year, naturally makes everything grow luxuriantly. The -hillsides again become green and pleasant to the eye; our -gardens are gay with flowers, and in many places the open -downs display a considerable amount of floral beauty. I have -never seen elsewhere such a profusion of wild flowers as that -which met our view when travelling from the south-west to -Antanànarìvo in December 1887. Leaving Antsìrabé and -proceeding northwards, the level country was gay with flowers, -which literally covered the downs, and in many places gave a -distinct and bright colour to the surface of the ground. Among -these the most prominent was a pale pink flower on stems from -a foot to eighteen inches high, called by the people <em>kòtosày</em> -(<i>Sopubia triphylla</i>), and also the lovely deep blue flower called -<em>nìfinakànga</em>, which latter covered the paths and also occurred -very abundantly among the grass. In many places, especially -near villages, whether deserted or still inhabited, a -plant with small pale blue flowers (various species of <i>Cynoglossum</i>), -almost exactly like our English “forget-me-not,” -grew in dense masses, showing a blue-tinted surface even -at a considerable distance. The <em>vonènina</em>, with a pale pink -flower, was very frequent, as well as several species of -bright yellow flowers, one with a head of minute florets, looking -like a small yellow brush; others were star-shaped, the whole -forming in many places a brilliant mass of gold. Three or four -species of white-flowered plants, one of them a clematis (<i>Clematis -bojeri</i>), were very frequent; and a few late examples of terrestrial -orchids were seen. Five or six weeks previously these were -among the most abundant flowers met with, and their clusters -of waxy-white flowers were very conspicuous. Other species -of orchid, of rich crimson and also of purple, were even more -beautiful.</p> - -<p>We reckoned that there were from twenty to thirty different -species of wild flowers then in bloom on these downs of Vàkinankàratra, -gladdening our eyes by their varied beauty and -abundance on that glorious morning. The flowers, however,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -grew much scarcer as we travelled over higher ground; but six -weeks previously these upper <em>tanèty</em> had also been gay with -great masses of the brilliant crimson flowers of a leguminous -plant, which grew in clusters of many scores of spikes growing -close together. Our ride that day obliged us to modify the -opinions previously held as to the poverty of Madagascar in -wild flowers.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> The Rev. C. P. Cory, B.A., formerly of the Anglican Mission -in Madagascar.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> I am indebted for the information here given about wasps -to an interesting paper contributed by Mr Cory to the fourteenth -number of <cite>The Antanànarìvo Annual</cite> for 1890.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION -AND LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">AUTUMN: <span class="smcap">March and April.</span>—It will be understood -from what has been previously stated as to the divisions -of the seasons in the Imèrina province that, as with the -seasons in England, there is some variety in different years in -the times when they commence and finish. Generally, both -crops of rice—the earlier and the later—are all cut by the end -of April, although in the northern parts of the province it is -usually five or six weeks after that date. But if the rains are -late, and should happen to be scanty in February and March, -harvest work is still going on at the end of May. In fact, owing -to there being these two crops of rice, with no very exactly -marked division between the two, autumn, in the sense of rice -harvest, is going on for about four months, and sometimes -longer, as just mentioned, and extends over the later months -of summer as well as the two months of autumn or <em>Fàraràno</em> -(March and April). In January those portions of the great -rice-plain which lie north-west of the capital, as well as many -of the lesser plains and valleys, become golden-yellow in hue, -very much indeed like the colour of an English wheat-field in -harvest-time; and after a few days patches of water-covered -field may be noticed in different places, showing where the crop -has been cut, and the few inches of water in which it was growing -show conspicuously in the prospect. As the weeks advance, -this water-covered area extends over larger portions of the rice-plain, -until the whole of the early crop has been gathered in, so -that in many directions there appear to be extensive sheets of -water. I well remember, when once at Ambòhimanàrina, a -large village to the north-west of Antanànarìvo, how strange -it appeared to see people setting out to cross what seemed a -considerable lake. But of course there was no danger, as the -water was only a few inches deep.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE RICE CROP</div> - -<p>As there are channels to conduct water to every rice-field, -small canoes are largely used to bring the rice, both before and -after it has been threshed, to the margin of the higher grounds -and nearer to the roads. At the village just mentioned, which -is like a large island surrounded by a sea of rice-plain, there is -one point where a number of these channels meet and form quite -a port; and a very animated scene it presents at harvest-time, -as canoe after canoe, piled up with heaps of rice in the husk, or -with sheaves of it still unthreshed, comes up to the landing-place -to discharge its cargo.</p> - -<p>In a very few weeks’ time the watery covering of the plain is -hidden by another green crop, but not of so bright and vivid a -tint as the fresh-planted and growing rice. This is the <em>kòlikòly</em>, -or after-crop, which sprouts from the roots of the old plants. -This is much shorter in stalk and smaller in ear than the first -crop, and is often worth very little; but if the rains are late, so -that there is plenty of moisture, it sometimes yields a fair -quantity, but it is said to be rather bitter in taste.</p> - -<p>In cutting the rice the Malagasy use a straight-bladed knife; -and, as the work proceeds, the stalks are laid in long curving -narrow lines along the field, the heads of one sheaf being covered -over by the cut ends of the stalks of the next sheaf. This is -done to prevent the ears drying too quickly and the grain -falling out before it reaches the threshing-floor. This last-named -accessory to rice-culture is simply a square or circle of -the hard red earth, kept clear from grass and weeds, sometimes -plastered with mud, and generally on the sloping side of the -rising ground close to the rice-field. Here the sheaves are piled -round the threshing-floor like a low breastwork. (Occasionally -the rice is threshed in a space in the centre of the rice-field, mats -being spread over the stubble to prevent loss of the grain.) No -flail is used, but handfuls of the rice-stalks are beaten on a stone -fixed in the ground, until all the grain is separated from the -straw. The unhusked rice is then carried in baskets to the -owner’s compound and is usually stored in large round pits with -a circular opening dug in the hard red soil. These are lined -with straw, and the mouth is covered with a flat stone, which is -again covered over with earth; and in these receptacles it is -generally kept dry and uninjured for a considerable time.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BEAUTIFUL BIRDS</div> - -<p>In most years the end of April and the beginning of May are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -very busy times with the Malagasy; almost all other work must -give way to the getting in of the harvest; the fields are everywhere -dotted over with people reaping; most of the poorer -people we meet are carrying loads of freshly cut grain on their -heads, or baskets filled with the unhusked rice, and large -quantities are spilt along the roads and paths. Some of the -chief embankments swarm with rats and mice, which must pick -up a very good living at this time of the year. Other creatures -also take toll from the harvest, especially the <em>Fòdy</em>, or cardinal-bird, -the bright scarlet plumage of the cock-bird making a very -noticeable feature of the avi-fauna during the warmer months. -This colour is not seen on the wings, which are sober brown, but -is brilliant on head, breast and back; it fades away in the -winter months, returning again as the breeding-time comes round. -The white egret, which we saw on the coast, is equally in -evidence in Imèrina, and sometimes flocks of two or three -hundred of them may be seen in the rice-fields and marshes. -When living at Ambòhimànga we used to notice that in the -winter months a large number of the <em>Vòrompòtsy</em> were accustomed -to assemble on the open down towards sunset; and on a -signal apparently given by one of them the whole flock rose -and flew slowly away to roost in the large trees to the north-west -of the town. The white-necked crow is also plentiful, and -is perhaps the most commonly seen bird in Imèrina. On one -occasion when walking with a friend near Ambòhimànga, he -had his gun and shot one of a small flock of crows near us. For -a few seconds there was a dead silence, and then all the others -filled the air with hoarse cries and came dashing round us so -closely that I feared they would injure our eyes, so angry did -they seem with those who had killed their companion. One of -the most beautiful birds to be seen is the <em>Vintsy</em>, or kingfisher, of -lovely purplish-blue, with yellow and buff breast and belly. -With short blunt tail and long beak, it may be seen perched on -the rushes or other aquatic plants, or darting over the streams -and marshes, flying in a curious jerking manner, like a flash of -purple light, pursuing the insects which form its food.</p> - -<p>From what has been already said about rice-culture it may be -easily understood that it occupies a large amount of the time -and attention of the Malagasy. The digging and preparation -of the ground; the sowing in the <em>kètsa</em> plots; the uprooting of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -the young plants; the planting, by the women, of these again in -the soft mud of the rice-fields; the bringing of water, often from -a long distance, to the fields, and the repairing of the water-courses; -the weeding of the rice-fields; and, finally, the cutting, -the threshing, the bringing home, and the drying and storing -of the rice—all this bulks largely in their daily life through a -good deal of the year. Rice is the staff of life to the Malagasy, -and they cannot understand how Europeans can make a proper -meal without it. <em>Mihìnam-bàry</em>, “to eat rice,” is the native -equivalent for the Eastern phrase, “to eat bread”; they eat -other things of course—manioc root, a little meat or fish, and -various vegetables, but these are only <em>laoka</em> or accompaniments -to the staple food.</p> - -<p>The Malagasy have a saying, when speaking of things which -are inseparable, that they are “like rice and water.” And -when we remember that rice is sown on water, that it is transplanted -in water, that it grows still in water, that it is reaped in -water, that it is usually carried by water, in canoes, that it is -boiled in water, and that water is generally the only beverage -with which it is eaten, it will be seen that there is much force -in the comparison.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ARTICLES OF FOOD</div> - -<p>Besides the above-mentioned additions to rice, the people -eat as a relish with it other things, many of them very repulsive -to our European notions—for instance, snails, locusts, certain -kinds of caterpillars, moths, and even, so it is said, some species -of spiders! But I never realised so distinctly what queer -things they will eat as when taking a ride one afternoon to the -north of Ambòhimànga. Passing along one of the long rice-valleys, -we saw some girls dredging for fish in the shallow -water; and thinking we might perhaps buy some to take home, -we called to them to bring the basket for us to see. They -immediately complied, but, on inspecting the contents, we -found no fish, but a heap of brown, crawling, wriggling, slimy -creatures, really very disgusting in appearance, considered as -possible articles of food. This mass of creeping animal life -consisted of shrimps, water-beetles, tadpoles, and the larvæ of -many kind of insects. It is needless to say that we did <em>not</em> make -a purchase of these tempting delicacies; but I believe they -would all go into the pot in some Malagasy house that evening -and give a relish to the rice of some of our native friends.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1061_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1061_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">On the Coast Lagoons</span><br /> - -Fish traps. The way is blocked for fish with occasional openings for traps</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span></p> - -<p>The rivers of the interior are singularly deficient in fish of any -size; but in the shallow water of the rice-fields numbers of -minute shrimps are caught, as well as small fish of the kinds -called <em>Tòho</em> and <em>Tròndro</em>, but they are very bony and poor in -flavour: somewhat larger kinds, called <em>Màrakèly</em> and <em>Tòhovòkoka</em>, -are, however, very good eating, but are not plentiful. Very -large and fine eels are caught in the rivers, as well as crayfish, of -a kind peculiar to Madagascar. On the water of the streams -many kinds of water-beetles and water-boatmen may be seen -darting about in mazy circles; one of these, called <em>Tsingàla</em>, -causes death if swallowed by cattle or human beings, oxen dying -in less than twenty-four hours, unless a remedy is promptly -given. The Rev. H. T. Johnson wrote thus about this insect:</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TSINGÀLA</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“I was travelling one day to Ambòhimandròso; the day had -been very hot, and passing by a dirty pool, one of my bearers -stooped down and drank with his hands and then hastily -followed to carry the palanquin. I saw the man drink and -presently, hearing sounds behind, I turned and discovered that -the very man, who only a few minutes before had drunk the -water, was now in agonies of pain. He stood stretching out -both his arms and throwing back his head in a frantic -manner, at the same time shrieking most hideously. My first -thoughts were speedily seconded by the words of his companions, -who said, ‘He has swallowed a <em>tsingàla</em>.’ Of course, -I immediately got down and went back to the poor fellow. He -was now lying on the ground and writhing in agony, and I felt -that unless something could be done, and that speedily, the man -must die. My other bearers, seeing the extreme urgency of the -case, called to the passers-by, but none could render any assistance. -Presently a Bétsiléo was appealed to, and he said that -he knew what would cure him, but wanted to know how much -money we would give. I said immediately that it was no time -for bargaining, but that I would give him sixpence if he relieved -the poor man from his sufferings. Off he ran to procure some -leaves, with which he returned in about ten minutes; he soaked -them in water from a stream close by, and then gave the -sufferer the infusion to drink. With almost the quickness -of a flash of lightning the poor fellow showed signs of relief, -and after drinking this infusion several times more he said<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> -that he was free from pain, but felt very weak and faint. -It was some weeks before the man got thoroughly strong -again.”</p> -</div> - -<p>No one can pass along the little narrow banks and paths which -divide the rice-fields without noticing the large dragonflies -which dart over the water. Their colours are very various. A -rich crimson, steely-blue and old gold are some of these. They -are voracious creatures, as their name implies, and I saw one, -one day, deliberately, and audibly, crunching up a smaller -one. At another time, however, I noticed a fair-sized one being -devoured by a spider, which was barred with lines like a zebra.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MARSHES</div> - -<p>The marshes in Imèrina are not useless to the people, for a -variety of useful plants grow there and are also planted in them. -Among these are the <em>Hèrana</em>, a sedge which grows to three or -four feet in height, and is extensively used for thatching native -houses. If the roof is a proper pitch this sedge is very durable, -and when cut and trimmed has a very neat appearance. Then -there is the <em>Zozòro</em>, a much taller sedge, closely allied to the -papyrus, with a triangular stem, and a feathery head of flowers. -The strong tough peel is used to make the excellent mats employed -for flooring, and also all sorts and sizes of baskets; the -pith is used for stuffing pillows and mattresses; and the stems -firmly fixed together are used for temporary doors and window -shutters, and for beds. A rush, called <em>Hàzondràno</em>, is employed -for making baskets and mats.</p> - -<p>As the colder weather advances, the mornings are often -foggy, at least a thick white mist covers the plains and valleys -soon after the sun rises and remains for an hour or two until -his increasing power disperses it. Seen from the higher grounds -and from the most elevated parts of the capital, this mist often -presents a very beautiful appearance; a billowy sea of vapour -is brilliantly lit up by the sunlight, and out of this sea the hill-tops -rise up like islands. But these misty mornings also reveal -many things which cannot be seen, or can only be seen by very -close observation, in clear sunshine, especially the webs of -various species of spider. There they are all the time, but we -are not aware of their presence except on a misty autumn or -winter morning, when a very delicate thread and filmy net is -marked out by minute drops of moisture which reveal all their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -wonderful beauty of structure. Many kinds of bush are seen -to be almost covered by geometrical webs: one species seems -to choose the extremities of the branches of the <em>sòngosòngo -Euphorbia</em>, but the most common is a web averaging five or six -inches in diameter which is spread horizontally on tufts of grass, -and may be seen by thousands, half-a-dozen or so in a square -yard. This web has a funnel-shaped hole near the centre, with -a little shaft leading down to the ground. Near this, the maker -and tenant of the structure—a little greyish-brown spider about -half-an-inch long—may often be found, if carefully searched for. -As the sun gains power, these numerous webs become almost -invisible, but before the moisture is all dried from them, they -present a beautiful appearance in the sunshine, for they are -exactly like the most delicate gauze, studded with numberless -small diamonds, flashing with all the prismatic colours as we -pass by and catch the light at varying angles.</p> - -<div class="sidenote" id="neph">SPIDERS</div> - -<p>The most conspicuous of the many species of spider seen in -Madagascar is a large <i>Nephila</i>, a creature about an inch and a -half long, with a spread of legs six or seven inches in diameter. -It is handsomely marked with red and yellow, and may be -noticed by scores in the centre of its geometric web stretching -across the branches of trees. From the considerable distances -spanned by the main guys and supports of its great net, this -spider is called by the Malagasy <em>Mampìta-hàdy</em>, or “fosse-crosser”; -and these main lines are strong enough to entangle -small birds, for at the mission station at Ambàtoharànana a -cardinal-bird and a kingfisher were both caught in these nets. -The male spider is only about a quarter the size of the female -as just described, and, sad to say, he frequently is caught and -devoured by his affectionate spouse, after mating. Attempts -have been made, and with some success, to employ the silk -made by this spider in the manufacture of a woven fabric; but -it is very doubtful whether such silk could be procured in such -quantities as to be of commercial value.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS</div> - -<p>Silk from the silkworm moth is produced to a considerable -extent, and, as we have seen in speaking of native weaving, is -employed in manufacturing a variety of handsome <em>làmbas</em>. -The moth is a large and beautiful insect, with shades of buff and -brown and yellow, and with a large eye-like spot on the hind -wings. The caterpillars are fed on the leaves of the mulberry-trees<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -and also on those of the <em>tapia</em> (<i>Chrysopia sp.</i>) shrub. -Another moth, somewhat like the silk-producing one in colouring, -has an extraordinary development of the hind wings, which -have long delicate tail-like appendages; these have extremely -narrow shafts and are enlarged at the ends. Their points have -two spiral twists or folds, very graceful in appearance. There -are four distinct eye-like spots near the centre of each wing, -which are light buff in colour, with lemon-yellow. The insect -measures eight and a half inches from shoulder to point of tail, -and eight inches across the upper wings. It is allied to <i>Tropæa -leto</i>. Some species of moth, very dark brown in colour, and -yet beautifully marked, often fly into our houses at night, the -female being much larger than the male. The Malagasy are -afraid of seeing these almost black-looking insects, which they -call <em>lòlom-pàty</em> (“death-moths”), in their houses, as they think -them presages of evil and death. Another moth, with death’s-head -marking on its thorax, is also often seen. But the most -beautiful of the Malagasy lepidoptera is a diurnal moth, which -one would always call a butterfly—viz. the <i>Urania riphæa</i>, a -large and lovely insect, with golden-green, crimson and black -markings, and edged all round its wings and tails with delicate -pure white. It is a curious fact that the nearest ally to this -Madagascar species is a native of Hayti and Cuba (<i>U. sloana</i>), -a remarkable instance of discontinuity of habitat. This fact, -however, has a parallel in the family of small insectivorous -animals <ins class="corr" id="tn-110" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'called Centelidæ'"> -called Centetidæ</ins>, which are also confined to Madagascar -and some of the West India islands. During 1899 this butterfly -was unusually abundant, while in some seasons it is seldom -seen. At Isoàvina I noticed a great many flying around the -tall blue-gum trees in the dusk of the evening. Great numbers -also were seen at Ambòhimànga in the garden there. They -appeared to be intoxicated with the strong flavour of the nectar -from the loquat-trees, then in flower, so that almost any -quantity of them could have been captured in the early morning, -while still under the influence of the flowers, which have a -powerful scent of prussic acid. The Malagasy call it -<em>Andrìandòlo</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “king-butterfly.”</p> - -<p>In these bare upper highlands of Madagascar butterflies are -not found in as great variety as in the warmer regions of the -island. Still there are a few species which are common enough,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -the most plentiful being one which is satiny-blue above and -spotted with brown and grey underneath. This is to be seen -all the year round, especially hovering over the euphorbia -hedges which divide plantations from the roads. Another, -also tolerably common, is a large reddish-brown butterfly, the -wings edged with black and white. More rare is an insect with -four large round white spots on dark chocolate-brown wings; -and another, dark brown in colour, with eye-like spots of blue -and red. Several small species, yellow, white, or brown, or -silvery-grey and blue, are found hovering over, or settling on, -damp places; and there are two or three white species, with -black spots or lines on the edges of the wings. In the warmer -season a handsome large <i>Papilio</i> is rather common in our -gardens, with dark green and sulphur-yellow spots and markings. -The eggs of some of these are beautiful objects in the -microscope, being fluted and sculptured like a Greek vase. My -friend, M. Ch. Matthey, who has made large collections of -Madagascar insects, tells me that there are a few cases of -mimicry and dimorphism, especially the latter, among the -butterflies of the interior.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND LOCUSTS</div> - -<p>On the open downs, and when the sun is shining, the air is -filled with the hum of chirping insect life from the many species -of grasshoppers, crickets and small locusts which cover the -ground. Every step among the long dry grass disturbs a score -of these insects, which leap in all directions from one’s path as -we proceed, sometimes dashing on one’s face with a smart blow. -The majority of these are of various shades of brown and green, -and some of the larger species of grasshopper are remarkable -for their protective colouring. Here is one whose legs and wings -are exactly like dry grass; the body is like a broad blade of some -green plant, the antennæ are two little tufts, like yellow grass, -and the eyes are just like two small brown seeds. But, curiously -enough, when it flies, a pair of bright scarlet wings make its -flight very conspicuous. You pursue it, to catch such a brightly -coloured insect, when it settles, and lo! it has vanished, only -something resembling green or dry grass remains, which it requires -sharp eyes to distinguish from the surrounding herbage. -Other grasshoppers are entirely like green grass blades and -stalks, and others again resemble, equally closely, dried grass; -and unless the insects move under one’s eyes it is almost impossible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> -to detect them. One is puzzled to guess where the vital -organs can be placed in such dry-looking little sticks. There is -one species of mantis also, which, in the shape and colour of its -wings, legs, antennæ and body, presents as close a resemblance -to its environment as do the grasshoppers. Their curious -heads, however, which turn round and look at one in quite an -uncanny manner, and their formidably serrated fore legs or -arms, put up in mock pious fashion, give them a distinctly -different appearance from the other insects. In the dry and -cooler season on almost every square foot of ground is a large -brown caterpillar, often many of them close together, feeding -on the young blades of grass.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE</div> - -<p>But the most handsome insect one sees on the downs is the -<em>Valàlanambòa</em> or dog-locust. This is large and is gorgeously -coloured, the body being barred with stripes of yellow and -black, while the head and thorax are green and blue and gold, -with shades of crimson, and the wings are bright scarlet. It -seems a most desirable insect for a cabinet, but it is impossible -to keep one, for it has a most abominable smell, and this appears -to be its protection, as well as its probable possession of a -nauseous taste, so that no bird or other creature feeds upon it. -This insect seems therefore a good example of “warning -colours”; it has no need of “protective resemblance” lest it -should be devoured by enemies; it can flaunt its gay livery -without fear, indeed this seems exaggerated in order to say to -outsiders, “Hands off!” “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nemo me impune lacessit.</i>” The -Malagasy have a proverb which runs thus: “<em>Valàlanambòa: -ny tompony aza tsy tia azy</em>”—<em>i.e.</em> “The dog-locust, even its -owner dislikes it.”</p> - -<p>On the Imèrina downs, and on the outskirts of the forest, there -are occasionally seen some enormous earthworms. These are -about four times the size, both in length and thickness, of those -we see in England; and when I first saw a small group of them -they seemed more like small serpents than worms. Darwin’s -researches on the part played by earthworms in the renewal -of the soil have shown us what a valuable work these humble -creatures do for our benefit; and on a morning after a little -rain has fallen the grass here in Imèrina is sometimes almost -covered by the innumerable little mounds of fresh earth brought -up by worms, thus confirming what he has told us about them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1121_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1121_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Transplanting Rice</span><br /> - -The women always do this. The men, on the left, are digging up and working the clods into soft mud -with long-handled spades</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span></p> - -<p>The aspect of vegetation, except in the rice-fields, can hardly -be said to change much during the autumn months. A plant -with pale yellow flowers may be noticed by thousands in marshy -grounds, giving quite a mass of colour in many places. A -significant name given to autumn is <em>Ménàhitra</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “the -grass is red”—that is, turning brown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Winter: May, June, July and August.</span>—As already -mentioned in the introductory sentences of the <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">previous chapter</a>, -winter in central Madagascar is very different from winter in -England. We have no snow, nor is there any native word for -it, for even the highest peaks of Ankàratra are too low for snow -to fall on them; we never see ice (although adventurous -foreigners have once or twice seen a thin film of it on pools on -the highest hillsides); hoar-frost, however, is not uncommon, -and occasionally the leaves of some species of vegetables, as well -as those of the banana, turn black with the keen night air. And -since there is no rain during our Imèrina winter, the paths are -dry, and it is the best time for making long journeys, especially -as there is little to be feared from fever when going about at this -season of the year. Winter is therefore a pleasant time; the -skies are generally clear, the air is fresh and invigorating, and to -the cool and bracing temperature of the winter months is -doubtless largely due the health and strength which many -Europeans enjoy for years together in the central provinces of -Madagascar.</p> - -<p>The long period without rain at this season naturally dries -up the grass, and the hills and downs become parched and -brown. <em>Maìntàny</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “the earth is dry”—is one of the native -names for this season, and it is very appropriate to the condition -of things in general. The rice-fields lie fallow, affording a scanty -supply of grass for the cattle; and many short cuts can be -made across them in various directions, for the beaten track over -embankments, great and small, may be safely left for the dry -and level plain.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ANCIENT TOWNS</div> - -<p>In travelling about Imèrina, and indeed in the southern -central provinces as well, one cannot help noticing the evidences -of ancient towns and villages on the summits of a large number -of the high hills. These are not picturesque ruins, or remains -of buildings, but are the deep fosses cut in the hard red soil, -often three or four, one within the other, by which these old<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> -villages were defended. These show very conspicuously from -a great distance, and are from ten to twenty feet deep; and -as they are often of considerable extent they must have -required an immense amount of labour to excavate. These -elaborate fortifications are memorials of the “feudal period” -in central Madagascar, when almost every village had its -petty chief or <em>mpanjàka</em>, and when guns and gunpowder -were still unknown. These old places are now mostly -abandoned for more convenient positions in the plains or -on the low rising grounds; and the fosses or <em>hàdy</em> are -often capital hunting-grounds for ferns and other wild -plants.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HOVA TOMBS</div> - -<p>Perhaps more noticeable even than the old towns are the old -tombs, as well as more modern ones, which meet one’s eye in -the neighbourhood of every village. The Hova tombs are -mostly constructed of rough stonework, undressed and laid -without mortar; they are square in shape, from ten to twenty -feet or more each way, and generally of two or three stages of -three to four feet high, diminishing in size from the lowest. -This superstructure surrounds and surmounts a chamber -formed of massive slabs of bluish-grey granitic rock, partly sunk -in the ground, and partly above it. In this chamber are stone -shelves, on which the corpses, wrapped in a number of silk -cloths or <em>làmba</em>, are laid. The tombs of wealthy people, as well -as those of high rank, are often costly structures of dressed -stonework, with cornices and carving; some are surmounted -with an open arcade, and have stone shafts to carry lightning -conductors. Within the last few years some large tombs have -been made of burnt brick (externally), although no change is -made in the ancient style of interior construction, with single -stones for walls, roof, door and shelves. Near some villages -are a large number of these great family tombs; and at one -place, on the highroad from the present to the old capital, a -long row of such tombs, from thirty to forty in all, may be seen. -In many places a shapeless heap of stones, often overshadowed -by a <em>Fàno</em> tree, resembling an acacia, marks a grave of the -Vazìmba, the earlier inhabitants of the country. These are -still regarded with superstitious dread and veneration by the -people, and offerings of rice, sugar-cane and other food are often -placed on them.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -The winter months are a favourite time for the native -custom of <em>famadìhana</em>—that is, of wrapping the corpses of their -deceased relatives in fresh silk cloths, as well as removing some -of them to a new tomb as soon as this is finished. These are -quite holiday occasions and times of feasting and, not -infrequently, of much that is evil in the way of drinking -and licentiousness.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">AUTUMN AND WINTER</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">OTHER noticeable objects when travelling about the -central provinces are tall stones of rough undressed -granite, from eight to twelve feet high, called <em>Vàtolàhy</em> -(<em>i.e.</em> “Male stones”), which have been erected in memory of -some bygone worthy, or of some notable event, now forgotten, -and which often crown the top of prominent hills. They are -also sometimes memorials of those who went away to the wars of -olden times, and who never returned to their homes. In these -cases a square of small stones—at least three sides of one—is -formed as part of the memorial, as a kind of pseudo-tomb. -These little enclosures are from eight to ten feet square. A -wonderful variety of lichens is often to be seen on these tall -stones—red, yellow, grey of many shades, black, and pure -white embroidering the rough stone. Some have supposed, -from the name of these memorials, that we have here a relic -of phallic worship.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MARKETS</div> - -<p>A very prominent feature of the social life of the Malagasy is -the system of holding large open-air markets all over the central -province on the various days of the week. The largest of these -is naturally that held in the capital every Friday (Zomà), at -which probably from twenty thousand to thirty thousand -people are densely crowded together, and where almost everything -grown or manufactured in the province can be purchased. -But two or three of the other markets held within five or six -miles of Antanànarìvo do not fall far short of the Zomà market -in size, especially those at Asabòtsy (Saturday) to the north, -and at Alàtsinainy (Monday) to the north-east. To a stranger -these great markets present a very novel and interesting scene, -and a good idea may be obtained as to what can be purchased -here by taking a stroll through them and noticing their different -sections. In one part are oxen and sheep, many of which are -killed in the morning, while the meat is cut up and sold during<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -the day; here are turkeys, geese, ducks and fowls by the -hundred; here are great heaps of rice, both in the husk, and -either partially cleaned, as “red rice,” or perfectly so, as -“white rice”; here are piles of brown locusts, heaps of minute -red shrimps, and baskets of snails, all used as “relishes” for -the rice; here is <em>màngahàzo</em>, or manioc root, both cooked and -raw, as well as sweet potatoes, earth-nuts, arum roots (<em>saonjo</em>) -and many kinds of green vegetables, and also capsicums, -chillies and ginger. In another quarter are the stalls for -cottons and prints, sheetings and calicoes from Europe, as well -as native-made cloths of hemp, <em>rofìa</em> fibre, cotton and silk; and -not far away are basketfuls and piles of snowy or golden-coloured -cocoons of native silk for weaving. Here is the ironmongery -section, where good native-made nails, rough hinges, -and locks and bolts, knives and scissors can be bought; and -formerly were the sellers of the neat little scales of brass or iron, -with their weights for weighing the “cut money,” which -formed the small change of the Malagasy before foreign occupation. -(The five-franc pieces were cut up in pieces of all shapes -and sizes, so that buying and selling were very tedious matters.) -Then we come to the vendors of the strong and cheap mats and -baskets, made from the tough peel of the <em>zozòro</em> papyrus, and -from various kinds of grass, often with graceful interwoven -patterns. Yonder a small forest of upright pieces of wood -points out the timber market, where beams and rafters, joists -and boarding can be purchased, as well as bedsteads, chairs and -doors. Not far distant from this is the place where large -bundles of <em>hèrana</em> sedge, arranged in sheets or “leaves,” as the -Malagasy call them, for roofing, can be bought; and near these -again are the globular water-pots or <em>sìny</em> for fetching and for -storing water. But it would occupy too much space to enumerate -all the articles for sale in an Imèrina market. Before the -French occupation it was not uncommon to see slaves exposed -for sale, but happily that and slavery are now things of the past.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A NATIONAL ASSEMBLY</div> - -<p>In the old times of Malagasy independence there were few -more interesting scenes than that presented by a great national -assembly or <em>Kabàry</em>. These were summoned when new laws -were made, or a new government policy was announced, and -also when war was imminent with France, both in 1882 and -again in 1895. On such occasions the large triangular central<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -space near the summit of the capital, called Andohàlo, was -filled with many thousands of people from early morning. -Lines of native troops kept open lanes for the advance of the -queen’s representative, generally the Prime Minister, who was -always attended by a number of officers in a variety of gorgeous -uniforms. At the eastern or highest portion of Andohàlo a -place was kept open for the royal messengers, whose approach -was announced by the firing of cannon. Taking his stand so as -to be seen by the vast assembly, the Prime Minister would draw -his sword and commence the proceedings by turning towards -the palace and giving the word of command for a royal salute, -all the troops presenting arms, and all the cannon round the -upper portion of the city being fired. The next officer in rank -then took the word, and the troops all saluted the Prime Minister, -who stood bareheaded, acknowledging the respect due to his -high position. He then proceeded to give the royal message, or -read the new laws, often with a great deal of eloquence, for the -Malagasy are ready and clever speakers. At passages where -the national pride or patriotism was touched, much enthusiastic -response was often aroused, especially as each paragraph of the -speech was followed by a question: “<em>Fa tsy izày, va, ry ambànilànitra?</em>” -(“For is it not so, ye ‘under-the-heaven’?”) -These questions were replied to with shouts of “<em>Izày!</em>” (“It -is so!”) from the assembled multitude. But the greatest -pitch of loyal enthusiasm was generally evoked by the chiefs -of the different tribes, as they, one after another, replied to the -queen’s message and gave assurances of obedience and loyalty. -Surrounded by a small group of their fellow-clansmen, they -would wind their <em>làmba</em> round their waists, brandish a spear, -and at the conclusion of each part of their speech they also -demanded: “<em>Fa tsy izày va?</em>” And sometimes the whole of -the people would leap to their feet, the officers waving their -swords, the soldiers tossing up their rifles, and the people -dancing about in a perfect frenzy of excitement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1181_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1181_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hova Tombs Closed with Huge Stone Doors</span><br /> - -The bare, rocky hills are characteristic of the interior of Madagascar</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">STONE GATEWAYS</div> - -<p>We noticed just now the signs of the ancient villages and -towns in the central province; but something may be added -here as to the existing villages we see as we travel through it. -The ancient towns were, as we have seen, all built for safety -on the top of hills, and many of those now inhabited by the -people are still so situated, although in several districts the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> -French authorities have obliged them to leave the old sites and -build their houses, with plenty of space round each, on the sides -of the newly made roads. But a good number of the old style of -village still remain, and it is these I want to describe. They -mostly have deep fosses, cut in the hard red soil, surrounding -them, about twenty to thirty feet across, and as many feet deep, -sometimes still deeper; and before guns and cannons were -brought into the country they must have formed very effective -defences against an enemy, especially as there is often a double -or even treble series of them. The gateways, sometimes three -deep, are formed of stone, often in large slabs, and instead of a -gate a great circular stone, eight or ten feet in diameter, was -rolled across the opening and was fitted into rough grooves on -either side, and wedged up with other stones inside the gate. -I have slept in villages where it was necessary to call several -men before one could leave in the morning, until they had -answered our inquiry: “Who shall roll us away the stone?” -In these fosses, which are of course always damp, with good -soil, ferns and wild plants grow luxuriantly; and the bottom -forms a plantation in which peach, banana, guava and other -fruit trees are cultivated, as well as coffee, arums and a variety -of vegetables. Tall trees often grow there, so that these <em>hàdy</em> -or fosses are often the prettiest feature of the village. It must -be added that the paths between and leading to the gateways -are often winding, and formed by a thick mass of prickly -plants.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the central provinces the villages have no -deep trenches round them, but they are protected by a dense -and wide plantation of prickly pear. The thick, fleshy, twisted -stems, the gaily tinted flowers, and even the fruits, are all -armed with spines and stinging hairs; and it is no easy matter -to get rid of the minute little needles, if they once get into one’s -skin. So one sees that a thick hedge of prickly pear was a very -effectual defence against enemies, especially since the people -wore no shoes or any protection for legs and feet. In many -places, instead of prickly pear, the fence round the village is -made of <em>tsiàfakòmby</em> (“impassable by cattle”), a shrub with -bright yellow flowers and full of hook-like prickles. In some -cases, instead of a door at the gateway, a number of short poles -are hung from a cross-piece at the top, which passes through<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> -a hole in each of them; and one has to hold up two or three -poles in order to pass through.</p> - -<p>Here, however, we are at last inside the village, and we see at -once that it is a very different place from an English village, -with the turnpike road passing through it, its trim houses and -cottages, with neat gardens and flower-beds, its grey old church, -and its churchyard with elms and yews overshadowing the -graves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A MALAGASY VILLAGE</div> - -<p>There is nothing at all like this in our Malagasy village. -There are no streets intersecting it, and the houses are built -without much order, except in one point—namely, that they are -almost all built north and south, and that they have their single -door and window always on the west side, so as to be protected -from the cold and keen south-east winds which blow over -Imèrina during a great part of the year. The houses are mostly -made of the hard red earth, laid in courses of a foot or so high. -They are chiefly of one storey and of one room, but they -generally have a floor in the roof, which is used for cooking; -and, if of good size, they are sometimes divided into two rooms -by rush and mat partitions. On the east of Imèrina, near the -forest, the houses are made of rough wooden framing, filled -up with bamboo or rush, and often plastered with cow-dung. -In the neighbourhood of the capital, and indeed in most places, -the houses are now often made of sun-dried bricks, in two -storeys, with several rooms, and often with tiled roofs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1201_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1201_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Friday Market at Antanànarìvo</span><br /> - -This was before the French Conquest. Note the different types of houses, tiled and thatched</div> -</div> - -<p>Here and there throughout the province one comes across a -village which was formerly the capital of a petty kingdom, where -we find several strong and well-built timber houses. Such a -place was Ambòhitritankàdy (I say “was,” because it now -no longer exists), one of the villages in my mission district. It -was on a high hill, and in the centre of the village were ten large -houses of massive timber framing and with very high-pitched -roofs, with long “horns” at the gables, and these were arranged -five on each side of a long oblong space sunk a couple of feet -below the ground. Here, in former times, bull-fights took -place, and various games and amusements were carried on. One -of the houses, where the chief himself resided, was much larger -than the rest, and the corner posts, as well as the great central -posts supporting the ridge, were very massive pieces of timber. -It was all in one great room, without any partitions, the whole<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -being well floored with wood, and the walls covered with fine -mats. Similar houses might be seen at most of the chief towns -of Imèrina; but the house I have just described was the largest -and finest of any, not excepting those in the capital and at -Ambòhimànga. Sad to say, except at these two places, where -two ancient timber houses at the first one, and one at the other, -are still preserved as a kind of curiosity, almost all these fine -structures have been demolished in order to get well-seasoned -timber for furniture and buildings. They have been superseded -by much less picturesque, but perhaps more comfortable as well -as cheaper, houses of sun-dried or burnt brick.</p> - -<p>There is no privacy or retirement about the houses in the -village, no back-yard or outbuildings, although occasionally -low walls make a kind of enclosure around some of them. -Here and there among the houses are square pits, four or five -feet deep, and eight or ten feet square, called fàhitra. These -are pens for the oxen, which are kept in them to be fattened, -formerly especially for the national festival of the New Year. -As may be supposed, these are very dirty places, and in the wet -season are often just pools of black mud; indeed the village, -as a whole, is anything but neat and clean. All sorts of rubbish -and filth accumulate; there are no sanitary arrangements; -frequently the cattle used to be penned for the night in a part of -the village, and the cow-dung made it very muddy in wet -weather, and raised clouds of stifling dust when it was dry. -Frequently the cow-dung is collected and made into circular -cakes of six or eight inches diameter, which are then stuck on -the walls of the houses to dry. This is used as fuel for burning; -and splitting off large slabs of gneiss rock, which are employed -by the people in making their tombs.</p> - -<p>In the centre of the village may often be seen the large -family tomb of the chief man of the place, the owner of much -of the land and many of the neighbouring rice-fields. If he is -an andrìana, or of noble birth, the stonework is surmounted -by a small wooden house, with thatched or shingled roof, and a -door, but no window. This is called <em>tràno màsina</em>, “sacred -house,” or <em>tràno manàra</em>, “cold house,” because it has no -hearth or fire.</p> - -<p>Seen from a distance, these Malagasy villages often look very -pretty and picturesque, for “distance lends enchantment to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -view.” Round some of them tall trees, called <em>àviàvy</em>, a species of -<i>ficus</i>, grow, which are something like an English elm in appearance. -In others one or two great <em>amòntana</em> trees may be seen; -these are also a species of fig-tree, and have large and glossy -leaves. The <em>amòntana</em> is evergreen, while the <em>àviàvy</em> is deciduous. -A beautiful tree, called <em>zàhana</em>, is also common, with -hundreds of pink flowers and sweetish fruit like a pea-pod. In -the fosses is often seen the <em>amìana</em>, a tall tree-nettle, with large -deeply cut and velvety leaves with stinging hairs. Many -kinds of shrubs often make the place gay with flowers, especially -in the hot season.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HOVA CHILDREN</div> - -<p>But what are the Hova children like? How are they dressed? -And what do they play at? They are brown-skinned, some -very light olive in colour, and some much darker. As a rule -they have little clothing; perhaps some of the boys may have -a straw hat, but no shoes or stockings, and they are often dirty -and little cared for. On Sundays and on special occasions the -girls are often dressed in print frocks, and the boys in jackets of -similar material, and with a clean white calico <em>làmba</em> overall; -but on weekdays a small <em>làmba</em> of soiled and coarse hemp cloth -often forms almost their only clothing. Of course the children -of well-to-do people are sometimes very nicely dressed, although -they too often go about in a rather dirty fashion. I am here, -however, speaking of the majority of the children one sees, -those of the poorer children of a village.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> One day some of us -went for a ride to a village about two miles from Ambòhimànga. -A number of children followed us about as we collected ferns -in a <em>hàdy</em>, and, as a group of seven or eight of them sat near us, -we calculated that the value of all they had on would not amount -to one shilling!</p> - -<p>Poor children! they have little advantages compared with -English boys and girls, and they have few amusements. They -sometimes play at a game which is very like our “fox and -geese”; the boys spin peg-tops and play at marbles; the -little children make figures of oxen and birds, etc., out of clay; -the boys are fond of a game resembling the lassoing of wild -oxen, by trying to catch their companions by throwing a noose -over them; and the big boys have a rough and violent game -called <em>mamèly dìa mànga</em>, in which they try to throw an opponent -down by kicking backward at each other, with the sole of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> -foot, which is darted out almost as high as their heads. Ribs -are sometimes broken by a violent kick. Perhaps the most -favourite amusement of Malagasy children is to sit in parties -out of doors on fine moonlight nights and sing away for hours -some of the monotonous native chants, accompanying them -with regular clapping of hands.</p> - -<p>In about a fourth of these villages, where there are churches, -a mission day school is still carried on, and here may be seen, if -we look in, a number of bright-looking children repeating their -<em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>d</em> (not <em>c</em>), reading and writing, doing sums, learning a little -grammar and geography, and being taught their catechism, and -something about the chief facts and truths of the Bible. And -perhaps there is no more pleasant sight in Madagascar than -one of the larger chapels on the annual examination day, filled -with children from the neighbouring villages, all dressed in -their best, eager to show their knowledge, and pleased to get -the Bible or Testament or hymn-book or other prize given to -those who have done well.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GLORIOUS SUNSETS</div> - -<p>A few words may be said here about the aspect of the heavens -in Imèrina, especially at evening and night. We are highly -favoured in having sunsets of wonderful beauty; the western -sky burns with molten gold, orange and crimson; and as the -sun nears the horizon, the ruddy landscape to the east is lighted -up more and more intensely every moment with glowing colour, -the natural hue of the soil being heightened by the horizontal -rays; the distant lines of hill, range after range, are bathed in -every shade of purple light, and the long lines of red clay walls -glow like vermilion in the setting sunshine. How often have -we watched this glorious display of light and colour, and thanked -God for this beautiful world!</p> - -<p>But the nights, especially near the time of full moon, are also -very enjoyable. The moon appears more brilliant and her light -more intense than in England; it is a delight to be out of doors -and to walk in the fresh bracing air, and to have the rough paths -illuminated for us by the silvery radiance, which gives a picturesque -beauty to the most commonplace objects and scenes.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the starlit skies of the evenings of the summer -months are the most beautiful of all the year. At this season -some of the finest of the northern constellations are seen at the -same time as several of the southerly ones. The Great Bear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> -stretches over the northern sky; higher up is the Northern -Crown; the Pleiades,<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and Orion with his many brilliant -neighbours, are overhead; the Southern Cross, with its conspicuous -“pointers” in the Centaur, is high in the southern -heavens; and the Magellan Clouds are clearly seen nearer the -horizon; and all across the firmament is the Galaxy, or, as the -Malagasy call it, the <em>èfi-taona</em>, “the division,” or “separation -of the year.” And then, as the circling year revolves, the great -serpentine curve of Scorpio appears, and Sirius, Capella, -Canopus, and many another glorious lamp of heaven light up -the midnight sky with their flashing radiance.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TEMPERATURE</div> - -<p>The month of August, the closing one in this review of the -year, is often the coldest month of all, cold, that is, for a country -within the tropics. All through August the keen south-eastern -trades generally blow strong, and although in sheltered places -the afternoon sun may be quite warm, the mornings and evenings -are very cold, and during the night the mercury will often -descend to very near the freezing-point. The mornings are -frequently misty; on some days there are constant showers of -<em>èrika</em> or drizzly rain, alternating with bright sunny days and -clear skies; these latter seem the very perfection of weather, -bracing and health-giving. But this cold weather often brings -disease to the Malagasy, especially a kind of malarial fever, -which sometimes attacks great numbers of them, and also -brings affections of the throat and chest, to which many fall -victims. At such times their thin cotton clothing seems ill -adapted for protection against the climate. This circumstance -has often struck me as showing how difficult it is to change the -habits of a people; for centuries past the Hova have lived in -this cool highland region, yet, until very lately, few comparatively -have made much change in their dress, which was well -enough adapted for the purely tropical region from which -they originally came, but very unfitted for the cool air of the -winter months of a country about five thousand feet above -sea-level.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p1241_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1241_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Ancient Village Gateway</span><br /> - -A tall palanquin bearer is in front, showing by comparison the height of the -gateway. A native wooden house with high-pitched <em>hèrana</em> thatched roof is -shown, and a group of natives</div> -</div> - -<p>The great rice-plain to the west of the capital and all the -broader valleys still lie fallow, although in various places -extensive sheets of water show that irrigation is commencing. -In the lesser valleys and at the edge of the larger rice-plains the -landscape is enlivened by the bright green of the <em>kètsa</em> grounds,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> -where, as already described, the rice is sown broadcast before -transplanting into the larger fields.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TREES</div> - -<p>There are not many deciduous trees in Imèrina, so the -numerous orchards, chiefly of mango-trees, look fresh and green -throughout the year. But the Cape lilac, which does cast its -leaves, is beginning to put out its bright green fronds; the -peach-trees are a mass of pink blossom, unrelieved as yet by any -leaves, and the <em>sòngosòngo</em> (<i>Euphorbia splendens</i>), in the hedges -is just beginning to show its brilliant scarlet or pale yellow -bracts. Wild flowers are still scarce, but the lilac flowers of -the <em>sèvabé</em> (<i>Solanum auriculatum</i>) bloom all through the year. -The golden-orange panicles of the <em>sèva</em> (<i>Buddleia madagascariensis</i>), -which has a sweetish scent, now appear. Nature -is arousing from the inaction of the cold season, and the few -trees now flowering give promise of the coming spring. And so, -from year to year, every month brings some fresh interest in -tree and flower, in bird and insect, in the employments of the -people, and in the changing aspects of the sky by day and in the -starry heavens by night.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—I may add here that of late years, through foreign -influence preceding and following the French occupation, many -new trees have been introduced into Madagascar, which have -materially altered the look of the country in some provinces, -especially in the Bétsiléo district. Millions of trees, chiefly -species of eucalyptus, have been planted, especially along the -roadsides, as well as mimosa, blackwood and <em>filào</em>. The -beautiful purple bracts of the bougainvillea, and the large -brilliant scarlet ones of the poinsettia, now give a much brighter -appearance to gardens and public places, since they have been -extensively planted in the capital and other large towns, as well -as zinnias, crotons and cannas.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Of late years, since numbers of children attend Government -schools as well as those of the various missions, a considerable -improvement has taken place in children’s clothing. Knickerbockers -and jackets are now the dress of hundreds of boys; but -the native <em>làmba</em> is still largely used, and is almost always part -of girls’ dress.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<div class="sidenote">STARS</div> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Curiously enough, the Malagasy appear to have given names -only to these two prominent clusters of stars. The Pleiades -they call “<em>Kòtokèli-miàdi-laona</em>”—<em>i.e.</em> “Little boys fighting over -the rice mortar”; while the three stars of Orion’s belt they -call “<em>Tèlo-no-ho-réfy</em>”—<em>i.e.</em> “Three make a fathom.” They<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> -have no name for the first-magnitude stars, or for the planets, -except for Venus, as a morning star—viz. “<em>Fitàrikàndro</em>”—<em>i.e.</em> -“Leader of the day.”</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">AT THE FOREST SANATORIUM</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">BY the kind concern of two of the missionary societies -working in Madagascar for the comfort and health of -their representatives, who live in Imèrina, two sanatoriums -have been provided for them away from the capital. -One of these is at Ambàtovòry, about fifteen miles distant to -the east, and close to a patch of old forest still left among the -surrounding somewhat bare country; the other is at Ankèramadìnika, -at about double that distance, and is built close -to the edge of the upper belt of forest, that long line of woods -which, as already mentioned, stretches for several hundred miles -along the eastern side of Madagascar. Here, after a year’s -strenuous work in college, or school, or church, or in literary -labour, or in something of them all, it is a pleasant and healthful -change to come for two or three weeks to the quiet and restful -influences of the beautiful woods, with their wealth of vegetable -life, and with much to interest in the animal life of bird and -insect.</p> - -<p>I ask my readers to accompany me then in a visit to Ankèramadìnika, -and to wander with me in the forest and observe -the many curious and interesting things which we shall find in -our walks. The forest is here about seven or eight miles across, -and from the verandah we can see over the woods to the lower -plain of Ankay, and beyond this to the long line of blue mountains -covered by the lower and broader forest belt. A wonderful -sight this plain presents on a winter morning, when it is filled -with a white sea of mist, out of which the forest and the hills -rise like islands, and the feathery masses of cloud against their -sides have exactly the effect of waves breaking against a shore.</p> - -<p>It will be fitting here to say a few words about the flora of -Madagascar, and here I may quote what my late friend, the -Rev. R. Baron, remarked in a paper read before the Linnæan -Society in 1888.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> He says:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“It may now be said that the vegetable productions of the -island have been very extensively explored, and that the majority -of the plants inhabiting it are known to science. The country -has been traversed by botanists in many different directions, its -highest mountains have been ascended, its lakes and marshes -crossed, its forests penetrated, and large collections of plants -have been made. About four thousand one hundred species of -plants have now been named and described, and I think it may -be said with certainty that the great bulk of Madagascarian -plants have already been gathered, so that we have now -sufficient data to enable us to draw a few general conclusions -as to the character and distribution of this very interesting -and remarkable flora. Of the four thousand one hundred -indigenous plants at present known in Madagascar, about -three thousand (or three-fourths of the total flora) are, remarkable -to say, only found here. Even of the grasses and -rushes, about two-fifths of each order are peculiar to the island. -There is one natural order confined to Madagascar, the Chlænaceæ; -of ferns more than a third are endemic, and of orchids as -much as five-sixths, facts which are sufficient to give a very -marked individuality to the character of the flora.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Mr Baron gives the following graphic account of his experiences -as a collector of plants:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<div class="sidenote">BOTANISING IN MADAGASCAR</div> - -<p>“Botanising in Madagascar, as those who have travelled in -wild and uncivilised regions in other parts of the world will -easily believe, is a totally different experience from botanising -in England. Your collecting materials are carried by a native, -who may be honest, or not, in which latter case the drying -paper will begin gradually and mysteriously to disappear, and -the leather straps with which the presses are tightened will, -one by one, be quietly appropriated. For a Malagasy bearer -has a special weakness for leather straps, they being largely -used for belts, so that both for the sake of your own comfort -and the honesty of the men, the sooner you dispense with -them the better. As for the dried plants themselves, they are -secure from all pilfering; for of what possible use or value -they can be, it puzzles the natives to conceive. You might -leave your collection in a village for a whole month, and you -would find on your return it was still intact. If, after a day’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> -journey, you sit down in a hut to change the sheets of paper -containing the specimens, the villagers will be sure to come -and, standing round in a circle, gaze at you in mute astonishment -turning over the plants so well known to them. After -a few minutes’ silent gaze, there will perhaps be a sudden -outburst of amused laughter, or it may be a little whispering, -which, if it were audible, would be something to this effect: -‘Whatever in the world is the man doing?’ or, ‘What strange -creatures these white men are!’</p> - -<p>“Some of the people doubtless think that you are a kind of -sorcerer. For these dried plants—whatever can you do with -them? You cannot eat them. You cannot make them into broth. -You cannot plant them, for they are dead. You cannot form -them in bouquets or wreaths, for they are brown and withered. -Is it surprising, then, if some of the natives think that you are -dabbling in the black art, and that your plants, in the shape of -some strange and mysterious decoction, are to supply, it may be, -a potent rain-medicine, or a love-philtre, or a disease-preventing -physic? For among the natives themselves there are many -herbal quacks, who, for a consideration, are able, not only to -prescribe for the cure, and even prevention, of disease, but also -to furnish charms against fire and tempest, locusts or lightning, -leprosy or lunacy, ghosts, crocodiles, or witches. The explanation -which I have most frequently heard given, however, by -the more intelligent of the natives as to the use of the dried -plants is that the leaves are intended to be employed for -patterns in weaving.</p> - -<p>“It is not, then, the natives that you have to fear in regard -to your collections of plants; it is the weather, it is those heavy -showers that, unless protected with extreme care by waterproof -coverings, succeed in soaking your specimens and your drying -paper, so that you have occasionally to spend half the night in -some dirty hovel in doing what you can, by the aid of a large -fire, to save your collection from destruction. Still all the -difficulties and discomforts are far more than outweighed by -the pleasure you gain in the exercise, a pleasure which is enhanced -by the consciousness that you are probably the first that -has ever plucked the flowers from Nature’s bosom in that -particular locality, and that a large number of the specimens -will probably prove to be new to science.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">NESTS OF INSECTS</div> - -<p>Although to anyone merely travelling through it, this upper -forest seems, especially in the cold season, to be singularly -deficient in animal life, yet to those who will carefully observe, -as they ramble through these woods, there are numerous small -living creatures well worth careful study. One cannot pass -many yards along a forest path without noticing here and there -a long white bag hanging on the trees and bushes. These vary -in length from about six inches to a foot, or even eighteen inches, -and are a long oval in shape; the upper part shines with a silky -lustre, and the whole would do so, but for its being filled at the -lower part with a mass of dark brown earthy substance, which -soils its purity. On cutting open the upper portion of the bag, -which is tough and strong, it is found to be filled with a mass -of brown caterpillars, about an inch and a half long, all wriggling -about when thus disturbed in their comfortable home. The -dark substance is evidently the droppings of these caterpillars; -and the opening at the lower end, sometimes small holes -around it, give exit and entrance, for generally two or three of -the insects are seen crawling on the outside. It would appear, -therefore, that this silken bag is the nest or home spun by the -caterpillars, a common habitation in which they undergo the -next change before becoming perfect insects. One always sees -that the branches near that on which the bag is suspended are -stripped of the leaves, no doubt by its inmates. I noticed that, -a day or two after I had cut open one of these bags, a thin film -of web had been spun over the opening, so as to close up the -entrance I had unceremoniously made into the privacy of the -little community.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ANTS</div> - -<p>No one can pass through the upper or lower forests without -noticing the much more prominent nests made in the trees by -another insect, a small species of black ant. These nests are -often as large as a football, and are apparently made of cow-dung, -or earthy and vegetable matter, forming a coarse papery -substance; they are peopled by large numbers of ants, and are -dark brown in colour. If one is procured—not an easy matter, -for the little inhabitants rush out and attack the intruder, and -dig their jaws into one’s flesh in a way to make one jump—it -will be seen, on cutting open the nest vertically, that there is a -series of thin floors about half-an-inch apart and supported by -pillars. The ants run about frantically, their chief care being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -to carry the white eggs and pupæ to a place of safety. But it -will be observed that in the nest there are to be seen a number -of very small but handsome beetles, perhaps in the proportion -of one to a hundred of the ants. What purpose do these entirely -different insects serve in the economy of ant life? It appears -that this is a fact observed in the nests of many other kinds of -ants, for the Rev. J. G. Wood, in his charming book, “Homes -without Hands,” says that above thirty species of beetle are -known as inhabiting ants’ nests. But he can throw no light -upon the purpose served by the presence of the beetles. Besides -these large and conspicuous nests, containing probably thousands -of ants, other nests, of all sizes, from about that of a nut -to an orange and upwards, may be seen: the hamlets, villages, -and small towns of the ant world, while the large nests are the -great cities of their commonwealth. The ants inhabiting these -dwellings appear to be all of one species, and about three-sixteenths -of an inch in length. What can these little creatures -live upon?—for they can hardly descend for it to the ground, -from heights of twenty, thirty, and even fifty or sixty, feet.</p> - -<p>A very different kind of ants’ nest is seen in the more open -and sunny forest paths (and also in the bare interior country). -These have the form of a low circular mound, from eighteen -inches or more in diameter, and perhaps eight to ten inches -high, and have a large opening at the top—a miniature “crater.” -This mound consists of the fine grains of earth and sand brought -up and thrown out by the little workers in excavating their -subterraneous dwelling. These ants are larger insects than the -arboreal species; they are about three-eighths of an inch long, -and seem to exist in great numbers in their homes, the entrance -being like a crowded street, with passengers going to and fro. -They may be met with all round their nests, often at a considerable -distance from them, frequently tugging along pieces of -chewed sugar-cane, or portions of dead insects, enormous in size -compared with themselves. The ants are the scavengers of the -country; no beetle, or worm, or grub, or animal matter of any -kind, can be many minutes on the ground before it is detected by -some ant, which communicates the fact forthwith to its fellows, -and they immediately fall on the spoil, cut it in pieces and -convey it to their stronghold. It is astonishing to see the heavy -loads that two or three ants will stagger along with for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -common weal. Truly, although they are a small folk, they are -“exceeding wise.”</p> - -<p>Another species of ant, which does not appear to construct -a nest, but inhabits the crevices and under the bark of trees, -is rather conspicuous from a large tuft or cushion of pale -brown velvet-like hairs on the upper side of the abdomen, and -a smaller one on the thorax. Its eggs and pupæ are carefully -hidden away under pieces of the bark which have become partly -detached.</p> - -<p>On the top of the Ambàtovòry rock I found another and -smaller species of ant, about an eighth of an inch long. This ant -inhabits the dried flower-stalk of the <em>vàhona</em>, a small aloe -growing plentifully on the shallow soil close to rocks. On -breaking in two one of these stalks, the ants and a number of -pupæ fell out, long white cases, in which the dark body of the immature -insect could be seen. The little creatures seemed greatly -relieved to be able to gather up these precious pupæ, and they -soon collected them all, and brought them again into their -home. On examining the stalk I could see no entrance except -a minute hole, like a pinprick, at the top, just below where the -head of flowers had blossomed. It seems probable that the ants -find food in the pithy interior of these leaf-stalks.</p> - -<p>In passing through the bush or the secondary forest, one -frequently sees the leaves of certain bushes withered and folded -up together. On opening one of such nests, it proves to be the -home of a species of beetle, a very handsome insect, about an -inch long, with a long slender thorax, and of a beautiful metallic-purple -colour. Enclosed in portions of the leaf are small green -caterpillars, and in others are chrysalides. A much smaller -beetle is also found in many of these nests. The edges of -the leaves appear as if sewn together at different places with -fine silk.</p> - -<p>Although butterflies are scarce in these woods in the cold -season, caterpillars are numerous. Those making a large silken -bag have already been noticed; but there are others which -appear to be just now (in August) in a state of torpor. Here, -for instance, is a cluster of a dozen or so of brown caterpillars, -all clinging closely together around one another on the top -of a small twig. They seem perfectly motionless. Are they -hibernating? Here again is a collection of beautiful little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span> -caterpillars, about an inch long, of lovely pale green and bluish-green -colour, with markings of orange dots along the sides, and -four tufts of yellow hairs on head and tail. These are lying side -by side, half-a-dozen together on a leaf, and also appear perfectly -torpid, for they do not move for several days together. -Here again, on a leaf, are about thirty small caterpillars, -about five-eighths of an inch long. These are seen to be striped -with dark lines, like black velvet, with delicate markings and -spots of bright yellow. These insects, like those just -mentioned, are motionless and crowded together, as if for -warmth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WALKS FULL OF INTEREST</div> - -<p>Walking slowly along, one notices a peculiar marking on a -twig; this on close inspection is seen to be an assemblage of the -eggs of some butterfly or moth, about a hundred of them, arranged -in four or five regular rows, pretty minute globes, light greyish-brown -in colour, with a minute black spot on the top, and -hardly one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. In bushes and -small trees, somewhat unsightly little bundles of leaves are -sometimes very conspicuous. These are bound together with -an irregular mass of web; and cutting one of them open, it -is found to be full of the elytra of small beetles and the -chitinous portions of other insects, as well as leaves, forming -a closely compacted ball. This appears to be the work of a -small spider, which is generally found in some portion of the -nest.</p> - -<p>There are many pleasant walks in different directions through -the woods, some of them merely woodcutters’ paths, and others -broader, where a palanquin can be taken. One cannot go far, -however, without having to go down steep descents and again -having a stiff climb; but the variety of leafage, the frequent -occurrence of some beautiful flower or bright-coloured berry -or fruit, or gay insect makes a walk full of interest; and when -we reach a high point there are extensive views over the undulating -masses of green foliage of very varied tints around -one, and the bare Ankay plain, with the distant lower forest, -twenty or thirty miles away, and fading into the distance north -and south.</p> - -<p>Reptiles are not very conspicuous in these woods; one -seldom sees a snake, although probably the dense undergrowth -affords them sufficient concealment. In the outskirts of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -forest, however, and indeed all over Imèrina, a pretty snake, -from eighteen inches to two feet long, is frequently seen, dark -brown in colour, with fine white lines along its slender length. -The under side is white. Notwithstanding the innocuous -character of these little snakes, it is amusing to see the dread -the people have of them; our bearers, for instance, will leap -away from them as if they were treading on the sharpest -thorns. Some superstitious notions may partly account for -this fear, as one of the former chief idols of the Hova, called -Ramàhavàly (“the Avenger”), was supposed to be the patron -and lord of serpents. One sometimes sees a water-snake -swimming over the surface of a pond in a most graceful -fashion.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LIZARDS</div> - -<p>Lizards are now and then seen; one is a large unpleasant-looking -creature, nearly two feet long, of which the tail is about -one foot. But a much smaller and prettier one is not uncommon, -with delicate markings. Other species, in the south-west region, -vary in length from six to nine inches. And here, on the fleshy -leaves of an aloe, we may see, basking in the hot sunshine, a -beautiful little bright green lizard, or darting over the surface -with such a rapid movement that it is difficult to observe it -closely. Its colour is so exactly like its habitat that it is doubtless -a “protective resemblance.” While staying at the sanatorium -in November 1899 a very curious arboreal lizard was brought -to us by some boys. This creature was clinging to a stick, and -at first sight, and until closely examined, I could not distinguish -it from the branch to which it clung. It was about six inches -long, the body was somewhat flattened, as well as the head, and -the eyes were large and bright. The feet were somewhat -webbed, the toes ending in small disks like those of the geckoes. -The tail was broad and flat, lying close to the branch, and -shaped something like that of a beaver. But the most interesting -point about this lizard was the wonderful resemblance -of its colouring to that of the bark of a tree. The minute scales -of the skin were mottled with brown, grey, green and white, so -as exactly to resemble tree bark, with the usual clothing of -lichens precisely the same in colour, together with small irregularities -of surface; so that until examined minutely, one could -hardly believe that the small patches of colour on the animal’s -skin were not also due to vegetable growths. It was difficult<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -at a few inches’ distance to see where the lizard began and the -wood ended; and in the forest it would be impossible to distinguish -it from the branch to which it clings. It proved, on -being sent to England, to form a new genus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1341_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1341_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Forest Village</span><br /> - -A native lady being carried in her palanquin. Notice the thatched huts and small verandahs. The village is built in a -clearing of the forest on the route from the coast to the interior</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">CHAMELEONS</div> - -<p>Chameleons are very frequently met with, not only in the -woods but also in the open country of Imèrina; and in our -gardens at the capital we often see them on the bushes or the -paths, from the little baby one of an inch long to the full-grown -one of six to eight inches. In the paths near the sanatorium one -may see them digging holes and depositing their eggs, which are -about the size of a small bean. Their colouring is often very -beautiful, with its shades of green and yellow and black, brown -and red markings, and there are certainly very rapid changes -of colour according to the different surroundings. The bright -tints they exhibit in sunshine and on leaves become dull dark -brown in the shade, or on dark coloured resting-places. Sometimes -they lose all colour, for I one day saw, on the path near the -woods, a chameleon in the coils of a small snake, which had -wound itself three times round the body and was apparently -preparing to swallow it, beginning at the head, although it -seemed almost impossible that the bulky body of the chameleon -could pass through so small an opening. And this was a curious -fact: the chameleon was perfectly <em>white</em>. From a sentimental -pity for the little creature, I unwound the snake from it and -placed it on a bush. It was apparently uninjured and soon -began to resume its ordinary colouring, of which its terror had -temporarily deprived it.</p> - -<p>It is a noteworthy fact that Madagascar is one of the head-quarters -of the Chameleonidæ, for out of fifty known species -twenty-one at least are found in this island; and of the twenty-five -kinds which have been enumerated as having horns and -other remarkable processes on the head, no less than seventeen -are peculiar to this country. One species has a nose dilated -and toothed on each side; another has the top of the head -conically produced; while four species have two flat diverging -nasal prominences covered with large scutes; and in yet -another species, the single long conical appendage to the nose is -flexible. The largest Madagascar chameleon known is about -a foot long and is called Ramìlahèloka, which may perhaps be -(freely) translated, “Naughty old boy,” probably from its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -uncanny appearance and earthy colour; it is apparently always -found on the ground. Of this creature the natives assert that -anyone stepping on it, accidentally or otherwise, or seizing it, -becomes ill. From the slow, deliberate pace of the chameleon, -the Malagasy proverb advises foresight and retrospect: -“<em>Ataovy toy ny dìan-tàna</em>: <em>jerèo ny alòha, todìho ny aorìana</em>”—<em>i.e.</em> -“Act like the stepping of a chameleon: look where you are -going, look back the way you have come.” Naughty little -native boys are fond of making the male chameleons fight -together, and it is curious to see how widely the red mouth is -opened at such times.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LAND-SHELLS</div> - -<p>While staying near the forest I occasionally saw and had -brought to me specimens of some of the land-shells which are -often found in damp places in the woods. Many years ago -more than two hundred of these were known, and this number -has probably been considerably added to since, and will still -be increased as the country becomes more perfectly explored. -Of non-operculate species about eighty were then described, of -operculate species about fifty, and about fifty forms had been -recorded from the lakes and rivers. The largest of these shells -is a species of <em>Helix</em> (<i>bicingulata</i>), warm brown in colour, with -diaper-like markings, flattish in shape, and three inches in its -longest diameter. There are several other smaller <em>helices</em>; also -examples of <i>Cyclostoma</i>, the opening of which, as the name -implies, is almost a perfect circle; species of <i>Ampullaria</i>, which -have a very large opening; <i>Stenogyra</i>, a long oval and spiral -shell; dark green <i>Melanatria</i>, a large spiral shell like <i>Turritella</i>, -three inches long, which I have gathered in forest streams; -while the most delicately marked shells are species of <i>Neritina</i>, -with black lines, like fine etchings, on a pale yellow ground. -Species of <i>Bultimus</i>, also a beautifully marked shell, and of -<i>Limnea</i>, <i>Physa</i>, <i>Phanorbis</i>, and many others are among the -fluviatile and terrestrial mollusca of Madagascar.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p1361_ill" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1361_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chameleon Minor.</span><br /> - -Madagascar is one of the head-quarters of the Chameleonidæ, for out of fifty known species -twenty-one at least are found in this island.</div> -</div> - -<p>In walking through the woods one constantly comes across -traces of the wild boar, or, more properly, the river-hog (<i>Potamochærus -larvatus</i>), although the animal itself is rarely seen. It -is a somewhat ugly creature, with high withers, long back and -little hair. It has an enormous tubercle, supported by a bony -protuberance in the jaw, which renders the face of the animal -extremely disagreeable. It must exist in large numbers, for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -it digs up the ground in search of roots and often does much -damage to plantations. The hunting of the wild boar is a -favourite sport with the Malagasy of certain districts, and -Europeans who have joined in the hunt have found it an exciting -sport, with a distinct element of danger, for the beast, when -infuriated, is a formidable animal from its long and powerful -tusks. Some naturalists are of opinion that there are two -distinct species of this river-hog, one found in the upper forest, -and the other on the coast and the lower forest region; of these, -the latter is the larger animal.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SUN-BIRDS</div> - -<p>Turning now from boars to birds. Many of the Madagascar -birds are by no means deficient in the power of producing sweet -sounds of a very pleasing character and in considerable variety -of note; and there are some few whose song has even been -considered to resemble that of our European nightingale. -Although in the cold season there are comparatively few birds -seen or heard, yet it is not so in the warmer months, or in the -lower forest all through the year. Staying near the upper forest -in the month of December 1884, we sat down on the margin of a -stream, enjoying greatly the beauty of the woods and especially -the singing of the birds. Never before had I heard in a Madagascar -forest so many different notes, or so constant a sound of -bird life. Besides this, there was the low undertone of water -over the rapids some little distance away and the hum of insects. -It was a great enjoyment just to sit and listen, and see the birds -as they flew around us. Among these were the <em>Sòikèly</em>, a -species of sun-bird, a very little fellow, who sat on the topmost -point of a bare branch. There are three species of Nectarinidæ -found in the island, one of which, the glittering sickle-billed -sun-bird (<i>Neodrepanis coruscans</i>) belongs to a genus peculiar -to Madagascar. Many of the birds of this family rival, in the -Old World, the gem-like and metallic tints of the hummingbirds -of the New World, and this is true of those found here. -M. Pollen observes of them that they live in flocks, and all day -long one sees them darting about the flowering shrubs, sucking -with their long tongue the nectar which forms their principal -food. Their song is long, very agreeable, but little varied, and -they have the habit of suspending themselves by their claws -from the small branches. The male bird of one species has -metallic tints of purple, green, red and yellow. The other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -species is black underneath, with green and purple metallic -reflections on head, back and wings.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ROLLERS</div> - -<p>Among the most beautiful birds in Madagascar are several -species of the rollers (<i>Coraciadæ</i>), so called from their peculiar -habit of flight. The five species found here live mostly on the -ground and come out chiefly at dusk. The <em>Vòrondrèo</em>, or -Kiròmbo roller, plays a great part in the chants and religious -recitations and folk-tales of the Malagasy. These birds live -chiefly on grasshoppers, but they also devour chameleons and -lizards. When they cry they puff out the throat, so that this -portion of the body has the appearance of a pendent bag. The -colouring of this species is perhaps the “quietest” of the five, -having a good deal of slaty-grey on head and breast. But both -it and its companions have shades of “shot” colour, purple and -green, or red and green, as looked at in different lights. The -others exhibit larger masses of bright colour; the violet roller -having, as its name denotes, a good deal of violet or purple -tinting. Four of them are rather large birds, but the scaly -ground roller is small, with a curious collar of black and white -feathers, reminding one of the strange neck and throat appendages -of some of the paradise birds.</p> - -<p>Other birds we saw and heard that day were the <em>Railòvy</em>, a -species of shrike, with long forked tail; the <em>Bolòky</em>, or grey -parrot, with a long repeated whistle, as if going up the gamut; -the <em>Vòrondrèo</em>, one of the rollers, with its prolonged whistle -ending in a sudden drop; the <em>Parètika</em>, one of the warblers, -with a creaky little short note, something like a child’s rattle; -together with these sounds was the <em>kow-kow</em> of the <em>Kankàfotra</em> -cuckoo, the varied mellow notes of the <em>Tolòho</em> cuckoo, the -cooing sound of the <em>Fòny</em>, or wood-pigeon, and also the call of -one of the hawks.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<div class="sidenote">MR BARON</div> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Mr Baron was for thirty-five years a missionary of the -L.M.S. A good writer, an eloquent speaker, and an earnest -missionary, he was also a very able botanist and an accomplished -geologist, and at the time of his lamented death, in 1907, -he probably knew more about both these sciences, as regards -Madagascar, than any other European. On account of his -researches, and the large collections he made, he was elected -a Fellow of both the Linnæan and the Geological Societies, -honours never conferred except for substantial scientific work. -He also received a specially fitted microscope from the Royal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -Society for petrological study, in which he became very proficient. -During his residence in Madagascar he sent home -many hundreds of plants, a great proportion of which were new -to science, and also a large number of rock sections for microscopical -and polariscope study. Twice he was offered valuable -positions under the French Government in this island, but he -was too true a missionary to give up Christian work.</p> - -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1390_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1390_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="fs150">Chamæleons</span><br /> - -<p>CHAMÆLEON LONGICAUDA <em>⅔ full size</em></p> - -<p class="center"><em>Heads, from above</em></p> - -<p class="right">CHAMÆLEON WILLSII</p></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">FOREST SCENES</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">ANYONE who has stayed near the upper forest during -December or January, and has quietly watched for -a short time among the trees, will not complain of -scarcity of bird life to admire and study. The beautiful -creatures will come and alight all around us, if we only remain -perfectly still, seeking their food as they hop on the ground, or -flutter from branch to branch. We may watch their nests and -see their eggs, and then the newly fledged birds, noting from -day to day how they develop; until one morning the nest is -empty, for its little inmates have found out their power of wing, -and have left it to set up for themselves and add another little -company to the tenants of the forests. It may be truly said -that the note of one bird or another is never silent at this time -of the year all day long, while some are heard also at night. I -remember especially watching one of the two species of goat-sucker, -which are found here: for although it is called <em>Matòriàndro</em>, -or “day-sleeper,” from its nocturnal habits, it may be -seen in shady places at midday; its beautifully mottled shades -of brown and grey giving it, no doubt, protection, from their -resemblance to its surroundings. They have the habit of rising -from a slight elevation straight into the air; then they let -themselves suddenly fall, to resume their ordinary mode of -flight. It will also fly along the paths, permitting one to -approach it again and again, and when flying it reveals the -black and white colouring under the wings. They feed exclusively -on nocturnal insects, chiefly moths and beetles.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OWLS</div> - -<p>While speaking of the birds of the interior, one must not -forget the owls, of which six or seven species are known in -Madagascar; two of these, the scops owl and the barn owl, are -tolerably plentiful. The last-mentioned appears to be exactly -identical with the almost world-wide and well-known bird of -that name. As among most other peoples, the owl is regarded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -by the Malagasy as a bird of ill-omen; they call it <em>Vòrondòlo</em>—<em>i.e.</em> -“spirit-bird”—thinking it an embodiment of the spirits of -the wicked; and when its startling screeching cry is heard in -the night they believe it to be a presage of misfortune. There -are numerous fables and stories about the owl, illustrating the -popular dread of the bird. But like the owls in all other parts -of the world, the Madagascar species are really public benefactors, -by keeping down the number of rats and mice and other -vermin; and yet their nocturnal habits, their large staring eyes, -the “uncanny” ear-like feathers of some, and especially their -unearthly screech, have all combined to make them objects of -dread. One species of owl is really a beautifully coloured bird, -its plumage being pale brown, spotted with silvery markings.</p> - -<p>The bush and woods of small trees which are found surrounding -the upper belt of forest do not show many flowers during -the cold season of the year. Yet even during these cooler -months—May to August—innumerable objects of interest -present themselves to those who will use their eyes as they walk -along the woodland paths. Among the few flowers that are -to be seen, besides the ever-present orange spikes of the <em>Sèva</em> -(<i>Buddleia madagascariensis</i>), and the purple flowers of the -<em>Sèvabé</em> (<i>Solanum auriculatum</i>) are the bell-like reddish flowers of -a species of <i>Kitchingia</i>, which are rather plentiful; and towards -the end of August a number of small trees and bushes are -showing clusters of handsome crimson flowers; while a purple -trumpet-shaped flower is to be seen here and there. Not -uncommon is a shrub with small red flowers, like honeysuckle, -growing at the axils of the leaves and all along the stems. More -rare is a good-sized bush, with large light green and glossy -leaves, and with clusters of yellow fruits, much like large white -currants. This shrub would be a handsome addition to a -garden. Berries of various hues—black, red, orange and -yellow—are fairly plentiful; and in many bushes and trees -the lack of flowers is almost made up for by the brilliant scarlet, -or crimson, or orange colours of the new leaves, and in others -again by the bright orange or red of the fading leaves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PALMS</div> - -<p>There are few trees of any size left in the woods in the immediate -vicinity of the sanatorium, or near the paths through -them; they have all been cut down for the timber market in -the capital, or for house-building in the nearer villages. But<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> -in the deep valleys not a mile distant there is still much virgin -forest, and many trees of considerable height; and on the roadside -in the Mandràka valley, along which the automobile road -and then the railway have been constructed within the last ten -or twelve years, both cut through dense forest, there are many -lofty and isolated trees still left standing, as well as numbers of -them in the adjoining woods. Like most tropical trees, these -show the generally vertical habit of the branches; in the crowd -of competitors there is no room for lateral expansion by wide-spreading -branches; every tree presses upwards to get the -light and heat of the sun. In many parts of the forest, the -small palm, commonly called the “bamboo-palm” (<em>Mal. -Fàri-hàzo</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “woody sugar-cane”), is very plentiful, giving a -thoroughly tropical appearance to the vegetation. Few trees -are more beautiful than this palm, with its ringed stem, three -to four inches in diameter, and its graceful crown of light green -pinnate leaves, through which the sunlight shines. Its usual -height is twelve or fourteen feet, but it occasionally attains -double that height, or more, in certain situations. A much -larger, but far less common, palm is the <em>anìvona</em>, but this is -because of its being cut down for the sake of its tough wiry -bark, of which the people make the flooring of their houses, and -also use in the construction of the old-fashioned timber-framed -Hova dwellings. The bamboo-palm seems of much less -practical use, and is therefore much more plentiful. Here and -there a still smaller species of palm may be found, with a stem -not exceeding an inch in diameter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CLIMBERS</div> - -<p>A very noticeable feature of these woods, as indeed of all -tropical forests, is the profusion of climbing plants. Even the -smaller trees and bushes have their twining and creeping -parasites, tightly wound round their stems. And from the -tallest trees there hang and intertwine all manner of lianas, -some as big as a ship’s cable, and others of all intermediate sizes—ropes -of every dimension, down to the finest cord, and often -forming an almost impassable barrier, an inextricable tangle -of dense vegetation. Frequently these climbing plants seem -to strangle and squeeze out the life of their unfortunate hosts; -and it is often difficult to distinguish the foliage of the original -tree, and that of the parvenu, which has used its more robust -neighbour to climb up to the light and heat above the surrounding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -mass of leafage. Some of these climbers have prominent -and beautiful flowers, which mark their presence very distinctly; -one of these, first sent home by a lady, proved to be a new -species. This liana is about as thick as a one-inch rope, and its -spikes of creamy-yellow flowers are set from one to two feet -apart on the main stem. These spikes are from ten to sixteen -inches in length, each containing from forty to sixty large -flowers growing closely together, so that they are very conspicuous -in the forest, forming immense festoons of flowers, -mounting to the tops of lofty trees, crossing from one tree to -another, and shining almost golden in colour in the brilliant -sunshine. These lianas are very plentiful and may be recognised -at a considerable distance, so that they form in November -one of the noticeable features of the upper line of forest. In the -cold season, during which many of these observations were -made, of course this liana is indistinguishable from the tangled -mass of vegetation.</p> - -<p>Although during the winter months flowers, as already -mentioned, are scarce in the upper forest, there is very much -to interest one in the cryptogamic vegetation which is so -abundant everywhere around us. The mosses are seen in great -profusion, and of many species. Frequently they occur in -dense masses, carpeting the ground and the bases of the trees -with a thick cushion-like covering. And of what beautiful and -varied colours are these humble plants! light green and all -shades of darker green, star-like mosses of pale pink, browns -and greys, some bright crimson in colour, and some with waxy-looking -fructification stalks; and of all kinds of growth; hair-like -filaments, delicate branching forms, some thick like grass, -others like seaweeds, others silvery-white on one side and -chocolate-brown on the other; but words fail to give any -adequate idea of their variety and beauty. During a short -ramble a score of well-marked species may soon be gathered.</p> - -<p>And the lichens are hardly less numerous or beautiful than -the mosses: indeed it is sometimes difficult to tell to which -order of plants some of these organisms belong. In many drier -places the ground is covered with masses of a pale grey species, -delicately branched. And almost everywhere the bushes and -trees are festooned with the hanging filaments of another pale -greyish-white lichen (<i>Usnea sp.</i>), which give them quite a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -venerable appearance. Another common species is a branching -coral-like one, pale green above, with beautiful shades of brown -underneath. The rocks seen all over Imèrina are sometimes -perfectly white with minute forms of lichen, but more frequently -present a mosaic of differently coloured species: black, white, -orange, russet and red.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FUNGI</div> - -<p>And the fungi again are quite as noticeable as the other -cryptogams, and their colours make them even more conspicuous. -On decaying timber, their circular and collar-like forms -and bright tints constantly strike one’s attention. From one -inch to three or four inches in diameter these plants present -a great variety of colour; pure white, pale buff edged with -brown, brilliant scarlet, orange, yellow, dark brown, etc.; all -these are very common. Some fungi are hard and woody in -substance; others are leathery and flexible, others soft and -gelatinous; and occasionally one sees specimens a foot in -diameter, with delicate shades of browns and greys on their -upper surface.</p> - -<p>It may be easily imagined that with this wealth and variety -of cryptogamic forms many of the tree trunks are a perfect -flora of the humbler kinds of vegetable growths; for we have -not mentioned the delicate hymenophyllum ferns which also -cover them in damp situations; or the great hart’s-tongue -ferns, which often occupy the forks of the branches; or the -innumerable small bulbs of the orchids, which cling, by their -long aerial roots, to the trunks and boughs of the trees.</p> - -<p>In walking through the woods one sometimes becomes -conscious of a sickly sweet smell somewhere near us. This -proceeds from a hive of bees not very far away, generally in the -hollow of a tree. The honey, which is usually excellent, is -generally brought for sale to us in the comb by some of the -woodmen. Occasionally, however, it is somewhat bitter, -through being obtained from the flowers of certain trees or -plants. The Madagascar bee, known to entomologists as -<i>Apis unicolor</i>, differs but little in appearance from the English -species, although it is somewhat smaller, darker, and less -hardy. It chooses, if left to nature, the same kind of situation -for its hive, and multiplies in the same way. The drones also -are idle and are killed off at certain seasons. The Madagascar -insect is much more gentle when handled than the English one,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -but there is great difficulty in hiving the swarms. These bees -continue to store honey during the winter months, although -that is the dry season, with few flowers; and they work in all -weathers, even during a heavy thunderstorm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DEATH’S-HEAD MOTH</div> - -<p>The enemies of the Madagascar bee are, in the first place, rats, -then ants and the wax-moth; but the greatest enemy of all is -the death’s-head moth (<i>Sphinxatropos</i>), which is very common. -He enters the hive fearlessly, for although the bees crowd round -him they have no power to stop him, as their stings cannot -pierce that downy body, with its tough skin, but merely slip -along it harmlessly. As soon as he is within he keeps his wings -vibrating with a low humming noise and leisurely sucks his -fill—a very long fill. The damage he does is immense, and hives -have been known to be sucked dry, and not a drop of honey to -be found in them, so that the bees quite give up resisting. -Other enemies of the bee are a parasitical solitary wasp, which -lays its eggs in the hive; and another wasp which seizes the -bees when returning to the hive for the sake of their laden -honey-bag, and it also kills them with wonderful celerity.</p> - -<p>The Malagasy have a good general idea of the economy of the -hive, and of the habits of the bees. They usually find the wild -nests by watching the flight of the laden bees, and then by -listening during the hot part of the day, when the bees are -“playing.” At most places the people know of a number of -wild nests, over which they keep supervision. In many -villages they make large quantities of mead, more especially -when the rite of circumcision is being observed. For bees’-wax -there is always a ready sale.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -<p>Madagascar, like most tropical countries, is not without a -fair share of spiny and prickly plants. Perhaps most in -evidence in the interior is the prickly pear (<i>Opuntia ferox</i>), -which was universally used in old times as a thick hedge for -the defence of the ancient towns and villages. With its large -needle-like spines, an inch to an inch and a half long, studding its -broad fleshy leaves, and capable of inflicting a wound difficult -to heal, and with smaller spines covering the flowers and the -fruit, it is easy to see that to a barefooted and lightly clothed -people such a hedge presented a very formidable, not to say -impassable, barrier. The flowers are large and handsome, -yellow and red in colour, and growing at the edge of the leaves—if<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> -indeed they can be called such; the fruit, which is about as -large as a pear, turns yellow when ripe and is not unpalatable, -being something like an unripe gooseberry; but it is exceedingly -difficult to get it peeled without being hurt by its hair-like -needles. The large spines are the ordinary Malagasy pins, and -are very useful for this purpose.</p> - -<p>Another very noticeable plant is the <em>Sòngosòngo</em>, a species of -<i>Euphorbia</i>, with spiny stems and brilliant scarlet flowers. This -is planted on the top of the low earthen banks which form -the boundaries between private properties and the roads; but -it is not nearly such a formidable defence as the prickly pear. -A very common variety of this plant has pale yellow flowers.</p> - -<p>Another prickly plant is the Mysore thorn, or <em>Tsiàfakòmby</em> -(<em>lit.</em> “impassable by cattle”), which is largely used for fences -and stockades. From its numerous hook-like thorns, it also -is not a plant which can be easily passed through, when growing -thickly. It has a large spike of yellow flowers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">STINGING PLANTS</div> - -<p>Another plant or shrub, which grows to the size of a tree, is -not prickly, but stinging. This is the <em>Amìana</em> (<i>Urera radula</i>). -The large velvety leaves sting like those of a nettle; they are, -however, of beautiful and complicated outline, and I have -pressed specimens taken from young plants which are as much -as two feet across, and which would be admirable patterns for -ornamentation. The wood is very soft and, when on fire, -smoulders for a long time. The trunk, which is tall and straight, -in some specimens is nearly two feet in diameter. Some five -different species have been described.</p> - -<p>Another stinging plant, the <em>Agy</em>, with fine needle-like hairs, -which fall in showers and produce fearful irritation, is described -in a <a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">subsequent chapter</a>. Many trees in the forest are armed -with blunt prickles, which injure the hand if they are touched -when making one’s way through the dense vegetation. In the -extreme south of the island there are trees or shrubs called -<em>Fàntsi-òlotra</em> (“nail-edged”?), probably a species of <i>Didierea</i>, -whose thorny stems, always turned towards the south, are said -to resemble a barricade of elephants’ trunks; the stem, which -is as big as a man’s thigh, is entirely covered with large thorns, -between which grow the small round leaves. On one of these -thorny trees, however, M. Lemaire found a white lemur -(<i>Propithecus verrauxii</i>) clinging, which, when dislodged, went<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -leaping across the country on its hind legs, after the fashion of a -kangaroo.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1461_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1461_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Anàlamazàotra a Village in the Great Forest</span><br /> - -Cattle pens and characteristic forest trees are shown</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">FOREST DWELLERS</div> - -<p>Someone may perhaps ask: Where are the people of these -woods? In the upper belt of forest there are few inhabitants -except woodcutters, and in small hamlets on the side of the -main tracks passing through it; but farther south, where the -two lines unite, we shall find, as we travel past the Bétsiléo -province and east of it, a considerable number of people, who -are loosely called “Tanàla,” which simply means “forest-dwellers,” -and of these there are many subdivisions. There -are vague and uncertain accounts given by the Malagasy of a -tribe of people whom they call Béhòsy, and who are said to live -in a wooded country in the west of the island. Their food is -honey, eels and lemurs, which latter are caught in traps and -fattened. They are very dark in colour and are much like the -Sàkalàva in appearance, and are said to jump from tree to tree -like monkeys, and cannot easily be followed, as the country is -rocky. They make network of cords, hence their name (<em>hòsy</em>, -string, twine). They are extremely timid, and, if captured, die -of fright. These Béhòsy seem to resemble in some of their -habits the “monkey-men” of Dourga Strait, New Guinea; but -it is much to be wished that more definite information could -be obtained about them, for, if what we hear of them is correct, -they are probably of a different stock to the rest of the -inhabitants of Madagascar.</p> - -<p>An apparently well-authenticated account was given by a -Mauritius trader of a wild man of the woods having been -caught by some Malagasy in the year 1879. He was asleep on -the branch of a tree, and when taken resisted violently, biting -his captors severely; after a few days’ confinement, however, he -ceased to be aggressive. He was described as a powerfully -built man, his face and body being thickly covered with long -black hair. His mode of walking was very peculiar, as he -travelled very fast, occasionally going on all-fours, his eyes -being invariably fixed on the ground. When caught he was -perfectly nude, but wore clothes when provided with them. He -could never be induced to eat flesh, but lived entirely on manioc -and other roots; nor would he sleep in a recumbent position. -After some months he learned a few words, and by means of -these and signs it was understood that he had a father and two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> -brothers in the forest. These were found, and surrounded by -a search-party one night, but easily eluded their pursuers, -jumping from tree to tree and running on all-fours. The -captured man died five months after being taken (see <cite>Proc. -Roy. Geogr. Soc.</cite>, May 1889).</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CYCLONES</div> - -<p>The central part of the Indian Ocean is well known as the -region of cyclones, and these dreaded storms often include in -their revolving course the islands of Mauritius and Réunion, and -occasionally touch the eastern shores of Madagascar. A notable -example of this was the cyclone of November 1912, which -stranded the S.S. <i>Salazie</i>, and wrecked Diego-Suarez and many -villages in the north of the island. It is very seldom, however, -that these storms reach the interior; but in the month of -February 1876 a cyclone did ascend to the upper region -of the island and did considerable damage. With my wife and -children I was staying for a holiday at that time at Andràngalòaka, -a small village on the edge of the upper forest, but five or -six miles south of Ankèramadìnika, where our good friend, Dr -A. Davidson, had a country house, which he often placed at the -disposal of ourselves and other friends; and never shall we -forget the experiences of that night of peril.</p> - -<p>It was a Sunday evening and the sun set with a radiance which -covered the whole sky with a crimson glow, in a very remarkable -manner. We settled down after our evening meal for a little -reading aloud, but the wind rose rapidly, and after a time the -roar was so great that we could not go on. We found that its -violence increased, and at length we perceived that it was -slowly changing in its direction. We went to bed, but not to -sleep, for the rain poured in from the roof, and the howl of the -wind made sleep impossible. We lay trembling on our beds, -fearing every now and then, as a more violent burst shook the -house, that it would be blown down over us, and we buried in -its ruins. Such would have been the case, I believe, had not -the gables been built of burnt brick and strengthened by the -chimney-stacks. During the night the metal roofing of the -verandah was torn off with a fearful clatter, and soon after -dawn—and how long that dawn seemed in coming!—the outer -roof of the house, which was of grass, fixed over the tiled roof, -was bodily seized by the wind and carried off altogether with -its timbers, with a great crash, and then we thought the house<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -itself was all going. But towards nine <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> the wind gradually -subsided, after having blown from about three-quarters of the -circle of the compass.</p> - -<p>Scores of country chapels as well as houses were unroofed -and greatly damaged by this storm. A day or two after it we -tried to take one of our usual walks through the woods, but the -paths were almost obliterated by fallen trees and branches. -In the valleys scores of great trees had been torn up by the -roots, with masses of soil clinging to them; in other places they -had been broken off short, snapped as if they had been mere -twigs; and in the prostrate branches were numbers of arboreal -creatures—chameleons, lizards, serpents and tree-frogs—dashed -down from their homes. It was all striking evidence of the -force with which the fierce wind had roared, especially up the -valleys, and had laid low everything in its path.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> For most of the information here given about the Madagascar -bee, I am again <ins class="corr" id="tn-149" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'indebted to the the'"> -indebted to the</ins> Rev. C. P. Cory, -formerly of the Anglican Mission in Madagascar.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">RAMBLES IN THE UPPER FOREST</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">THERE are a number of paths in the forest which may be -followed from the sanatorium, north, east and south, -and with a considerable variety of scene. But it is -easy to get lost in them, for I remember one day when a party -of us set out for a morning’s walk, but could not find our way -back, although we often caught sight of the house; and it was -late in the afternoon before we at length got home, very tired -and very hungry. Two of our friends, who were well acquainted -with the neighbourhood, were lost in paths not very far from -the sanatorium, and had to spend the night in the woods, -making as comfortable a resting-place as they could with -leaves and bracken, but getting no sleep from the multitude -of mosquitoes. And a curious circumstance was, that the -Malagasy from the house, who came out to seek for them, were -afraid either to shout out loud to them, or to show the lights -they carried, for fear of offending the <em>lòlo</em>, or spirits, which they -think haunt the woods. Had they done either of these things, -our friends would probably have escaped being benighted. -Happily, the time of this adventure was in the dry season, or -it might have had serious consequences.</p> - -<p>From what has been said in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapters IV.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a> about the -difficult paths through the chief forest, it is not strange that the -Malagasy have considerable dread of it and do not share in our -admiration of its beauties. So one of their proverbs says: -“<em>Roa lahy miditra ala: ka izy tokiko, ary izaho tokiny</em>”—that is, -“Two men entering the forest: it’s ‘He’s my confidence, and -I am his’”; the fact is that both are afraid. It is to them the -“dark forest,” full of mystery and fear, and it may easily be -imagined that before any practicable roads were made through -it, it had much to inspire dread. One of the native hymns, -often sung when the natives have friends going away to a -distance, prays for protection for them in the forest and also in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -crossing the rivers, on account of the many things in both -which may injure the traveller.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">A MADAGASCAR FOREST</div> - -<p>It would probably be a very serious matter for a European -to be lost for long in a Madagascar forest, for he would be -entirely at a loss for food, and would most likely be unable to -produce fire to cook anything he could find. To a Malagasy, -however, especially one living in the neighbourhood of the -woods, it would not matter so much, as there are several species -of yam, which he would easily find. These <em>Ovinàla</em> are climbing -plants common in the forest, belonging to the genus <i>Dioscorea</i>, -and have very large edible tubers, which are much sought after -by the people; their taste is similar to other yams which are so -largely used as food in other parts of the world. In Drury’s -“Adventures,” he speaks frequently of procuring these yams -in the south-western forests; for, living many years, as he did, -like a native in that part of the island, he became well versed -in woodcraft and could live as the people lived.</p> - -<p>A European would be equally puzzled as to obtaining fire to -cook his yams, were he so fortunate as to find any; but a forest-dwelling -Malagasy could easily produce fire by friction. Choosing -two pieces of a particular kind of wood, he would cut one to -the shape of a round stick with a pointed end; the other he -would make into a flatter piece, in which a slight groove is cut. -Taking hold of the pointed stick, the operator twirls it first one -way and then another, until the friction produces smoke and -then fire, which is communicated to a little tinder placed close -to the point. Gently blowing upon the spark which is produced, -the tinder bursts into flame, the whole operation occupying only -a few minutes. There are special words for this mode of -obtaining fire: <em>mamòsitra</em>, which is also used for the boring -of a hole by an insect, or a chameleon, to deposit its eggs; and -<em>miraingy</em>, the pieces of wood being called <em>raingy</em>. But it may -be feared that the universal use of Swedish matches will soon -render this means of producing fire one of the lost arts.</p> - -<p>To tend a fire is, in Malagasy, to <em>misòrona àfo</em>; and since -<em>misòrona</em> also means “to exercise a priestly function,” it looks -as if this word or phrase was a relic of ancient reverence for fire -as a sacred thing, a feeling which is found in the customs and -speech of many peoples.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WATERFALLS</div> - -<p>In several directions there are beautiful waterfalls, to which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span> -a pleasant picnic excursion may be made. One of these is -called “Tsi-màharé-rìtsoka,” which means, “Where a whisper -cannot be heard,” for indeed, when near it, you must bawl as -loud as you can to be heard at all; this fall is a succession of -cascades, coming down from a considerable height. At another -place a large body of water pours at one sweep over a great ledge -of rock, perhaps thirty feet deep. And along the automobile -road, only a few yards from it up a little valley leading into -the main valley of the river Mandràka, we were fortunate one -day to discover a most lovely waterfall of considerable height -in the midst of dense wood, with a large pool of water at its foot, -where a delightful bathe might be taken; an ideal place for a -summer day. But the largest and grandest waterfall, and -within a little over an hour’s walk from the sanatorium, is -really an artificial one; for in making the automobile road to -Tamatave along the Mandràka valley, the river was diverted -from a circuitous course over a number of rapids, and brought -by a short-cutting over a nearly sheer fall of about a hundred -and fifty feet, where it pours down a magnificent body of water, -with a roar and clouds of spray that wet everything for a long -way round. The sides of the cutting are being rapidly covered -with vegetation from the constant moisture, so that in a short -time it will have all the effect of a natural fall. The noise is -tremendous, and the fall can be seen from several points on the -main road.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FROGS</div> - -<p>At the foot of the second of the waterfalls just mentioned I -was fortunate enough to see a rather rare frog, which is peculiar -to Madagascar. This little creature is only an inch long, as -regards the body, but on that and its long hind legs there are -semicircular patches of bright red on a black ground, so that -it is very conspicuous (<i>Mantella baroni</i>) (see illustration). -There is also a much larger frog, three inches in length, with -hind legs quite six inches long (<i>Rhacophoras albilabris</i>); this -species appears to be, in part at least, arboreal as well as -aquatic, as its toes are furnished with little disks instead of -claws (see illustration). He is, however, a giant compared with -the majority of the frogs found in the island, which are not -very different in colouring or size from the common English -species. These creatures are very plentiful in the rice-fields, -and as one walks along the <em>vàlamparìa</em>, or little banks separating<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -the fields, the frogs jump off and “plop” into the water at every -step one takes. In the early morning, after a rainy night, the -noise of their croaking is very loud, almost deafening, as they -apparently find the increased depth of water much to their liking.</p> - -<p>From some small structural peculiarities, many of the Madagascar -frogs have been arranged in a distinct genus, called -<i>Mantidactylus</i>, and of this genus at least sixteen species have -been described. Of the widely distributed genus <i>Rana</i>, one -species, <i>R. fasciata</i>, is said by a careful observer to build a kind -of nest. These frogs construct regular passages under the -grass during the dry season; their paths are made as regularly -as those of a mole, by the little creatures pressing down the -short grass near the earth, and drawing together the longer -blades, thus rendering them invisible. The nests are from -eight to ten inches in diameter by four in height, and made -ingeniously by weaving the layers of grass together. When -frightened, these frogs throw out a limpid stream of water, -which has been stored up in time of need, as in very dry weather, -and which is distributed over the body, so as to keep the whole -of it moist. The tree-frogs are very pretty little creatures, their -light green colour exactly matching that of the leaves on which -they live, so that it is difficult to detect their presence, except by -close inspection. Their toes end in small disks, so as to adhere -closely to the smooth surface of the leaves.</p> - -<p>We have already seen that many of the living creatures of -Madagascar gain great protection from enemies from the -assimilation of their colour to that of their surroundings. This -is the case also with many species of grasshopper and of mantis. -You see an insect with bright scarlet wings flit by you and settle -on a bush; wanting to observe it more closely, you try to find -it, but it has disappeared, and not a vestige of bright colour is -to be seen. Still, if you are patient and search carefully, you -may presently see a mantis moving its head about in an uncanny -fashion, and its fore legs held up in a mock devotional attitude, -from which its specific name of <i>Religiosa</i> has been given it. But -the scarlet wings are folded under its green wing-cases so as to -be perfectly unseen, and these coverings are just like a leaf, the -rest of its body being exactly the colour of its resting-place. In -some of the grasshoppers, this mimicry of vegetable forms is -still more wonderful. Here is one which resembles <em>green</em> grass,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> -and its body, legs, wing-sheaths and antennæ are all as like -grass as they can possibly be. But here again is another kind, -whose body is equally imitative of <em>dry</em> grass, and so all parts of -it are just like the stalks or the blades of yellowish-brown grass, -dried up during the cold season. Even the eyes are imitative, -and exactly resemble a small brown seed, such as many grasses -bear.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BEETLES</div> - -<p>There are many species of beetles to be seen, although none -of them are very handsome or conspicuous. The most common -kind is a broad flat insect, about an inch long and dull dark -brown in colour, which crosses one’s path at every step. Another -is seen chiefly on the bushes, a smaller insect, but bright shining -jet-black. Another, which appears as if it mimicked a wasp in -its habit of flight, is shot with brown and green, with very long -legs, and is constantly taking short flights or running rapidly. -Another one, but much more rare, has golden-green and metallic -tints on its wing-cases. But the insect which has puzzled us -most is one that I have seen on a large bush of <em>Ròimémy</em>, a plant -with acacia-like leaves, with prickles along the leaf-stalks. -This beetle is about five-eighths of an inch long, and almost -hemispherical in shape. It is warm reddish-brown in colour, -with a line of black and then of yellow next the head, and is -perfectly flat below. These insects cluster closely, as thick as -they can lie, in groups of from a dozen to more than a hundred -together, all round the thicker stems, so that they look at a -little distance like strings of large brown beads; and in some -of the topmost branches they form a continuous mass for two -or three feet. Amongst these shining brown insects are a few -others of quite a different colour and shape, perfectly flat, like a -minute tortoise, and of a uniform grey, exactly resembling the -lichen on the bark of the tree, and the edges of the carapace -scalloped. These grey insects are in the proportion of about -one to forty or fifty of the darker coloured ones. There are -also a few individuals of the same shape as the brown one, but -yellowish-green in colour. What these grey insects can be, and -what relation they bear to the much more numerous brown ones, -I cannot make out.</p> - -<p>Other insects, at first sight resembling beetles, are gaudily -coloured. Yonder is a bush which is conspicuous from some -little distance, from the quantity of insects clustered on it;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -they are about half-an-inch long, but are most brilliant with -scarlet, blue and green. Be careful, however, how you handle -them, for their scent is anything but agreeable; and, notwithstanding -their gay colours, they are, after all, a species of bug. -A beetle which I have often noticed in the woods is an insect -an inch and a half long, but with a very long slender proboscis, -with which it appears to pierce the bark of the stems on which -it rests; I think it feeds on the juices of the bush or tree, and -is probably a species of weevil (<i>Eupholus sp?</i>).</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MIMICRY</div> - -<p>Mimicry, however, is not confined to Madagascar animals, but -also occurs among plants. Mr Baron says: “In some marshy -ground on the top of Ankàratra mountain, I found a small -whitish orchid, a few specimens of which I gathered. After -getting about half-a-dozen, I discovered, to my great surprise, -that some of them were labiate plants. I was utterly deceived, -thinking it was the same plant I was gathering all the time, so -exactly alike were the two species in almost all outward appearances. -I felt at once convinced that this was a case of mimicry. -At the east foot of the mountain I discovered a similar phenomenon, -in a large labiate plant (<i>Salvia</i>), strikingly similar to -another orchid. No doubt the labiate in each case mimics the -orchid, not vice versa, in order to ensure fertilisation.”</p> - -<p>In one of our rambles near the large patch of old forest which -still remains near the L.M.S. sanatorium at Ambàtovòry I -came one day across a cluster of very large earthworms; at -first sight these looked more like a number of small snakes than -worms, as they were at least three times the size of any English -worms, having about as large a diameter as a good-sized man’s -finger. They are not, however, very common, as I have only -seen them on that one occasion; so they probably do not play -the same important part in the renewal of the soil here as Mr -Darwin has shown is done by earthworms in Europe.</p> - -<p>Anyone who walks through the forest will notice at points -where the paths branch off a pile of bracken, branches of trees, -moss, etc. These heaps, as well as those of stones in similar -positions in the open country, are known as <em>fànataovana</em>. These -have been formed by passers-by throwing a stick or stone on the -heap, for luck, expressing the hope that, if on a journey, they -may have a safe return, as well as success in their undertakings. -A similar custom prevails in the eastern parts of Africa, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -also in Sumatra and Timor, and probably in other countries as -well.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NATIVE FOUNDRIES</div> - -<p>A walk along the upper edge of the forest, although at some -distance from Ankèramadìnika, will bring us to one of the -native smelting and forging stations, where iron is obtained -and made into pigs for the use of blacksmiths, as well as into -various implements. Iron is very abundant in the interior of -Madagascar, indeed the whole soil over an immense extent of it -is reddened by iron oxide, and in some places there is so much -magnetite that a compass is seriously deflected and is quite -unreliable. At such a foundry one may see in use the “feather-bellows,” -which the Malagasy brought with them from their -far-off Malayan home, and which I believe is nowhere to be -found but in Madagascar and Malaysia. This consists of two -cylinders, about five feet long and six inches to eight inches -wide, made from the trunks of trees hollowed out. These are -made air-tight at the lower end and fixed in the earth in a -vertical position, about eighteen inches to two feet apart. In -each cylinder a hole is made a few inches from the ground, and -in these a bamboo cane or an old musket-barrel is inserted, the -other end being fixed into the stone or clay wall of the furnace. -A piston with feather valves is fitted into each cylinder, and -the shafts or piston-rods are worked up and down alternately -by a boy or man seated on a board uniting the cylinders. In -this way a continuous blast is produced in the furnace. (Such -bellows are also used by blacksmiths.)</p> - -<p>These foundries are always situated near a running stream of -water, so that the ore may be washed and cleared as much as -possible from earth and sand. The furnace itself is a hole about -six feet in diameter and one or two feet deep; its walls are of -rough stonework, built up three or four feet, and thickly -plastered outside with clay. Charcoal is used in smelting and, -notwithstanding these rude appliances and methods, the iron -produced has been pronounced by competent judges to be of -excellent quality. Spade-blades, knives, nails, bolts and many -other articles are produced by the native smiths; and in the -construction of the Memorial Churches, more than forty years -ago, I had ornamental hinges, railings, finial crosses, and other -requisite ironwork all excellently made and finished by Malagasy -blacksmiths.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p1561_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1561_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Memorial Carved Posts and Ox Horns, Bétsiléo Province</span><br /> - -Generally the horns are of oxen killed at the funeral</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1561_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1561_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Blacksmith at Work</span><br /> - -Note the feather-piston bellows, and the man playing a single-stringed gourd guitar</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span></p> - -<p>Several of the paths in the forest lead down into ravines of -considerable depth and also of great beauty; the combinations -of luxuriant foliage, rushing water and lichen-embroidered -rocks, ferns and mosses are very varied, and one valley especially -reminds one of the celebrated “Fairy Glen” in North -Wales. But there are occasionally certain drawbacks even in -this natural loveliness, for if you are not very careful you may -find yourself attacked by the small leeches which lie in wait on -the grass and bushes, and transfer themselves to you as you -brush by them. Before you feel any annoyance, you may find -yourself streaming with blood from the punctures made by -these little pests, which have got under your clothing and are -feeding at your expense. Happily, they do not cause any pain -worth speaking of, nor are there any unpleasant after-effects, the -only discomfort is the blood you lose and having it outside -instead of inside your skin.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CRAYFISH</div> - -<p>While staying near the upper forest we had frequently -brought to us for sale a basketful of crayfish, which seems -fairly plentiful in the streams. This species (<i>Astacoides madagascariensis</i>), -with its genus, is endemic in Madagascar, and -in the interior is of small size, averaging about three inches in -length; the flavour, however, is excellent, and it makes a very -good curry. In the south-east provinces, and probably in other -coast districts as well, it attains larger dimensions than the -above, being about six inches long. It is a curious fact that -crustaceans are entirely absent in the African continent, and -that the Madagascar species is much like the kind found in -Australia, except that the latter is about twice the size of -<i>Astacoides</i>.</p> - -<p>There is a great variety of ferns to be found in every damp -place in the valleys, from the minute hymenophyllums on the -tree trunks to the larger species of Asplenium, Osmunda, Nephrodium -and many others, up to the tree-ferns, of which there are -about twenty different kinds, and which give a special charm to -the vegetation in many places. On the eastern side of Madagascar -the ferns occupy a prominent place in the flora, there -being above two hundred species already known, and comprising -no less than above thirteen per cent. of the whole flora of that -region. Among the Filici are the beautiful gold ferns and silver -ferns, the seed-vessels on the under side of the fronds having<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -quite the effect of the two precious metals. The young leaves -of a tree found in the forest (<i>Eleocarpus sericeus</i>), when dried -and pressed, form the beautiful objects known as “gold leaves.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VALUABLE TREES</div> - -<p>A large number of the forest trees yield substances of commercial -value. Two species of climbing plants afford india-rubber, -one of the most valuable exports of the island. A tree -called Nàto supplies a bark which is largely employed by the -natives in dyeing the deep red used for their silk <em>làmbas</em>, especially -those used to wrap the bodies of the dead. Other trees -yield various gums and resins, one of these being the valuable -gum-copal, of which quantities are exported. From several -other trees tough fibres are obtained for the manufacture of -cord and rope; while from a palm called Vònitra the “bass -fibre” or piassava is taken, which is used for making brooms, -brushes, etc. A shrub, a species of castor-oil plant, supplies -seeds which are so full of oil or fat that they are strung on a reed -like beads and are used to give light, so that it is called “the -candle-nut tree.” When one end is lit, the seeds burn steadily, -giving a light about equal to that of two good candles and -leaving no ash. A very considerable number of trees and -plants are employed in various ways by the Malagasy as medicine, -both for internal and external use; and although the -virtue of some of these may be imaginative only, there can be -little doubt that in numbers of instances these native remedies -are of value. Probably a careful examination of them would -give some valuable additions to the pharmacopœia.</p> - -<p>Among the forest trees is a considerable number which yield -valuable timber, most of them hard and beautifully grained -woods, which are employed for cabinet-work as well as in house -carpentry. In the great palace at Antanànarìvo, the three -central columns supporting the ridge of the roof are said to be -each formed of the trunk of a single tree; the roof is a hundred -and twenty feet high, and these pillars are sunk some way in -the earth. One of these timber trees, called <em>Vòambòana</em>, is -extensively used for making furniture—tables, sideboards, -wardrobes, writing-desks, bookshelves, etc.—and resembles -mahogany. Another tree called <em>Hàrahàra</em> has extremely hard -wood, and is employed for the long spade handles, and formerly -for spear shafts. One species of pine known as <em>Hètatra</em>, the -only example of that order in the island, gives a hard white<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> -wood used for flooring; while ebony is procured from one or -two endemic species of <i>Diospyros</i>; sandalwood is also reported -to be found in certain localities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SUPERSTITIONS</div> - -<p>It will easily be believed that the mysteriousness of the -forest has produced many superstitious notions among the -Malagasy, and they have curious stories of marvellous creatures -and monsters inhabiting these dense woods. One of these is -called <em>Kinòly</em>, and is said to be human in origin, for although it -has no intestines or stomach, yet in all its other parts it is like -a living person. Its eyes are red, and its nails long; and, with -others of its kind, it is said to be constantly thieving, so that -when anyone leaves out cooked rice or other food, it takes it. -It is difficult, however, to reconcile such accounts with that of -their bowelless condition; it is thought to be a great misfortune -to meet a kinòly. Another strange creature is called <em>Tòkan-tòngotra</em>, -or “Single foot,” because it is said to have only one -fore and one hind leg! It is so exceedingly swift that no other -creature has a chance of escaping it; it eats men and goes about -at night. Still another strange beast is called <em>Siòna</em>, which has -also, like the kinòly, something human about it. It is said to -live away from men, and when anyone goes through the woods -and leaves his rice, or his axe, these are taken by the siòna and -conveyed to its abode. When the woodmen go to sleep and -leave a fire still burning (for their custom is to leave a big log on -the hearth, so that they may be kept warm), then this creature -comes and warms itself. Possibly the habits of some of the -larger lemurs have given rise to such stories, aided by a good -deal of imagination; and the tòkan-tòngotra story probably -comes from the herons or flamingoes, which have the habit of -standing on one leg when asleep.</p> - -<p>In passing along the forest paths we frequently come across -examples of the curious ball-insect (<i>Spherotherium sp.</i>), of which -there are several species, at least six, in Madagascar. These -insects, which are wingless and many-footed, and are called, -not very elegantly, by the Malagasy <em>Tainkìntana</em>, or “Star-droppings,” -have the power of instantaneously rolling themselves -into an almost perfect sphere, which form they retain as -long as any danger threatens them, and no force short of pulling -them to pieces can make them unroll. The animal is formed of -nine or ten segments, each with a pair of legs and covered with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -a plate of armour; while the head and tail are defended by -larger plates, each of which fits into the other and makes a more -perfectly fitting suit of armour than was ever worn by medieval -knight. There are several species of these pretty and curious -creatures. The most common kind here is one which forms a -ball barely an inch in diameter and shining black in colour. -Another, more rarely seen in the interior open country, but -common enough in the upper belt of forest, is of a beautiful -brown colour like russia leather, and is quite double the size of -the first-mentioned one. In passing through the main forest in -1892, we came suddenly one day to a part of the road which -was so thickly covered by such a great number of these creatures -that our bearers could not avoid trampling on them. These -were of a bronze-green tint and belong to a third species, and -were quite three inches in length. Other species of these -Sphærotheria are found in Africa, Asia, Australia and some of -the neighbouring islands.</p> - -<p>Another many-footed and wingless creature is common -enough in the upper forest, for we often found it on the upper -verandah of the house at Andràngalòaka; this is a shining -black millipede, about a foot in length, and half to three-quarters -of an inch in thickness. It is called by the natives <em>Kòdikòdy</em>, -and its numerous reddish legs, not far short of a thousand in -number, have a curious effect of successive waves as it moves -along. Although not very inviting in appearance, it is quite -harmless and is a vegetable feeder. There is another species, -which is marked longitudinally with black and red stripes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CENTIPEDES</div> - -<div class="sidenote">SCORPIONS</div> - -<p>More unpleasant by far is another many-legged creature, the -centipede, whose sting is said to be exceedingly painful, -resembling the puncture of a hot iron, and which is not uncommon -in the interior as well as in the forest. The mere -touch of its minute claws, if it happens to crawl over one, is said -to produce pain and inflammation. I have turned small -centipedes out of the hole in a window-sill where the bolt would -fall; and I remember one morning, before getting out of bed, -seeing a pretty large one marching across our bedroom floor. -Happily these, which are among the few noxious creatures we -have in Madagascar, are not very common. Another unpleasant -visitor is the scorpion, which is rather apt to get into -a house which has much stonework in the basement; we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> -frequently killed small ones about an inch long at Antanànarìvo. -Examples twice that size are found in the Vàvavàto district; -while on the shores of Bèmbatòka Bay (N.W.Co.) scorpions -five inches long occur, and Captain Owen says that they may -be found, one or more, under almost every stone. He states -a curious fact, if indeed it is one—viz. that the most destructive -enemy to the scorpion is the common mouse.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a></p> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -“<em>Ao ny àndro mamanala,</em><br /> -<em>Sakambino ao an-àla;</em><br /> -<em>Raha mandeha mita rano,</em><br /> -<em>Mba hazòny sy tantano</em>”;<br /> -etc.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -“There are the chilly days,<br /> -Sustain them in the forest;<br /> -When they ford the rivers,<br /> -O uphold and guide them,”<br /> -etc.</p> -</div> - -<p><em>Ala</em>, at the end of the first two lines, is the native word for -“forest,” and the native word translated here “chilly” is from -the damp and cold woods.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Here I may notice that, in addition to the above-named -unpleasant inhabitants of Madagascar, we have had, within -the last eighteen years, a most unwelcome accession to the -insect pests, by the introduction of the chigoe, or “jigger,” -which was brought by the Senegalese black troops employed in -the French conquest of 1895. This minute flea does not jump, -but runs over one’s body, and burrows under the skin, chiefly in -the feet, but also sometimes in the hands, where it causes -intolerable itching, and, if not speedily removed with a needle, -becomes in four or five days full of eggs, and causes sores and -inflammation. It is a great pest to the Malagasy, the great -majority of whom go barefoot. But those who have boots and -shoes on get no exemption from the attacks of the jiggers.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">FAUNA</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">WHILE on the subject of noxious creatures, we -remember that one, if not more, of the spiders of -Madagascar must be included in the list. This is a -small arachnid, about the size and shape of a marble, shining -glossy black in colour, except for a small red spot on the -fundament. It is greatly dreaded by the natives, who believe -its bite to be fatal, and it is probably so if cauterisation and -other remedies are not immediately applied. Dr Vinson, a -French naturalist, ascertained that this spider, called <em>Mènavòdy</em> -by the people, is closely allied to the malignant <i>Latrodectus</i> of -Elba and Corsica, whose bite is believed to be fatal, and also -to another spider found in Martinique, which is equally -dangerous. People bitten by this Madagascar spider scream -out with pain at intervals of a minute or two, as if it came -on in paroxysms. I remember that one of our servants when -bringing one of these spiders to look at took care to hold it -at a very respectful distance from himself, at the end of a -long stick.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SPIDERS</div> - -<p>As we push through the bushes we break through many -spiders’ webs, and are struck by the extraordinary shape of -some of those whose snares we unwittingly destroy by our -passing along. Here is one, small and reddish in colour, but -much broader than it is long, each side projecting into a long -sharp spike—indeed it is spiky in several directions, and is -utterly unlike any other spider we know of. This is, I believe, -a species of <i>Cærostris</i> (<i>C. stygiana?</i>), and belongs to a genus of -which several species have names denoting their demoniacal -shape and colouring—<em>e.g.</em> <i>avernalis</i>, <i>stygiana</i>, etc.</p> - -<p>As we stop to observe his geometric web, and his bizarre -shape, we see on the tree to which several of his main “guys” -are fixed a very different spider’s house and a very different -spider from our angular friend just mentioned. This creature<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -is a much larger species than the other, with jet-black legs and -satiny dark grey abdomen as large as a good-sized nut. He -apparently hunts his prey, for he has no net, but hides himself -in an inverted cup-shaped house of strong web. As I tap the -top of this retreat he shams dead and tumbles down into the -grass, from which he will presently ascend as soon as the enemy -is clear off the ground.</p> - -<p>Close by this hunting spider’s home we see the large web of a -third species, quite different from the other two. At first sight -this appears to be the same insect as the large <i>Nephila</i>, which -is so plentiful in Imèrina, in orchards and outside houses. A -closer inspection, however, shows that it is a different species -from that common large spider, for this one has a long filbert-shaped -abdomen, striped with brown lines, very different from -the golden and silvery markings of the more abundant species. -It appears to be strictly a forest spider and seems rather -rare.</p> - -<p>In rambling along the edge of one of the pretty rice-valleys -north of Ambòhimànga, I came across a species I had not met -with before. This was of medium size, but was striped in -transverse lines of white and black across the abdomen, so as -to give it a zebra-like appearance. The under side was almost -white; altogether it is a handsome species, and is probably -still undescribed scientifically. It makes a geometrical web, -and, like several other Madagascar spiders, puts the web into -rapid vibration if it is disturbed. Some species draw up their -legs close to the body when lying in wait in the centre of their -web, so that they too resemble a small lump of earth or a stone. -Is not this also done as a disguise? It seems to me highly -probable. Other species have the habit of stretching out their -legs in couples, so as to seem almost as if they had only four or -six legs instead of eight, and thus appear to mimic insects. Is -this also intended to hide their predaceous character?</p> - -<p>A traveller through the Tanòsy country, south-east coast, -speaks of the uncanny aspect of one of the villages in which he -stayed; and he says that what increased his impression of it, as -like a town of wicked enchanters, was that all the houses were -festooned and closely linked together overhead by tangled masses -of gigantic spiders’ webs, amongst which lay in wait monstrous -black spiders. Some of the coast villages, he says, were almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> -completely roofed in by these great webs. Spaces of quite -thirty feet have been observed spanned by the lines of the -nephila mentioned in a <a href="#neph">former chapter</a>; and I have noticed -that the angles and outer spaces of its great web are frequently -filled up by the minute geometric webs of smaller species. -These lesser fry appear to be tolerated, if not encouraged, by -their giant neighbour, as they probably catch what would be -insignificant to her, and very likely clear her web of what she -rejects; and so they all live together in harmony in a small -colony.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE</div> - -<p>Looking about in the undergrowth for wild flowers and fruit, -and happening to rub against the stem of one of the bushes, a -small rough roundish ball falls off on to the ground; this appears -exactly like a bit of round wrinkled bark, but on watching -for a minute or two, it develops four pairs of legs, and runs -nimbly away under cover, revealing itself as a spider, with a -marvellous protective resemblance to its surroundings. Unless -the creature actually moves, it is impossible to detect it, it is -so exactly like a knobby bit of the brown bark.</p> - -<p>Protective resemblance in quite a different style appears in -a small spider, perfectly white in colour—thorax, legs and -abdomen—which scuttles out of the coralla of certain white -flowers when these are examined or shaken. This also, unless -it moves, is all but invisible; and there can be no doubt that -it is thus enabled to catch the many small flies which are -attracted by the honey and fragrance of the flowers. A larger -and green spider, a handsome species, with a long oval abdomen -striped with red, probably also a hunter, thanks to its close -resemblance to green leaves and the pale reddish veining seen -on many leaves, by which it is thus protected from observation -until it can pounce upon its prey. This is one species of the -many spiders which are caught by some of the solitary wasps, as -described in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII.</a></p> - -<p>As we notice these curious disguises in spiders, as well as in -numbers of other living creatures, we are reminded of the old -nursery tales and fables of the gift of invisibility supposed to be -conferred by certain plants, or by certain charms or ceremonies. -With these spiders, as well as in many other creatures, some -lower, and others much higher, than them in organisation, this -power of becoming at will unseen, even under the closest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> -observation, is no fable, but a veritable fact. There is a -curious habit which I have observed in several species of Malagasy -spiders which is apparently also used for protection. If -they are disturbed, or if their web is shaken, they immediately -throw themselves into a state of violent vibration, so that the -eye cannot follow them; and this rapid motion is continued for -two or three minutes, until the supposed danger has passed -away. It would seem as if this must be done to confuse a -possible enemy intending to attack them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VENOMOUS SPIDERS</div> - -<p>Besides the red-spot spider, there is another kind called by the -natives <em>Fòka</em>; this is rather common in gardens and is extremely -like a small crab, with a lozenge-shaped abdomen; it is covered -with tubercles, and its legs are roughened, like those of a crustacean. -Its bite is followed by swelling, which spreads from -the wounded part through the whole body. This dangerous -spider’s bite is said to be often fatal. There is another spider, -apparently a species of <i>Mygale</i>, called by the people <em>Tàrabìby</em>, -found fifty to sixty miles west of the capital, whose bite is also -said to be dangerous, if not actually fatal. It appears to be a -trap-door species. Besides this one, another species of trap-door -spider is also said to be found in Imèrina, but I have not -seen a specimen myself; it is said to leave the door of its -dwelling open.</p> - -<p>The illustration given herewith will give a better idea than -any mere description can of the strange shapes of many -Madagascar spiders. The largest figure shows an <i>Epeira</i> of -extraordinary shape; it will be seen that the abdomen is like -a set of three cones, fixed into one another and terminated by a -sharpish point. A still more bizarre figure is presented by -<i>Epeira mitralis</i>, as it crouches, fixed close to a branch or twig; -whether viewed from the back or front or side, it is equally -“uncanny” in its appearance. Then, again, the two <i>Gastera-canthæ</i>, -with their bodies much broader than they are long, are -very unlike our ordinary idea of a spider, while the formidable -spikes with which they are armed would appear a very efficient -protection from any insect-eating bird or beast. The rather -diabolical-looking <i>Thomisus foka</i>, with its crab-like pincers, is -much dreaded by the Malagasy, as giving a fatal bite, if speedy -remedies are not applied. Happily, it is not very common.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SPIDERS</div> - -<p>There is a considerable variety in the webs of Malagasy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> -spiders. Here is one which may be seen by hundreds, filling -up the space between the sharp-pointed leaves of the aloes. At -first sight it appears only a tangled mass of web, but on closer -examination we see that the groundwork is a geometrical web -in the centre, but as it is stretched horizontally, and not vertically, -it is cup-shaped. But from it, above and below, stretches -a labyrinth of lines, like the crossing and recrossing of the -lianas in the forest. In the centre of this maze of lines the -owner of the structure lies in wait, a small spider, handsomely -marked with black and white. Not far off a grey silken bag is -hung, which contains the eggs, from which a swarm of little -spiders will eventually proceed, not bigger than small ants.</p> - -<p>A word or two may be added about a very common house -spider which is abundant in Imèrina. This is a rather large -species, light brown in colour, but its peculiarity is that it is -extremely thin and flat—a case almost of extension without -thickness, as it is hardly thicker than a piece of stout paper; -and so it is enabled to wait for its prey hidden in narrow and -almost imperceptible cracks. It is emphatically a hunting -spider and makes apparently no nest or web, and it is amusing -to see the adroit way in which it will cautiously approach the -edge of a crack in a board and sweep off an unwary fly.</p> - -<p>One more curious spider may be noticed here; this has a very -small body, hardly larger than a big pin’s head, but it has -extraordinarily long thread-like legs, covering a very wide area -when compared with its minute body.</p> - -<p>There must be still a large number of these Arachnidæ yet -unknown to science, for they are very numerous in species in -some localities. I remember spending an afternoon, many -years ago, on a hill a few miles south of the capital, together -with two or three friends, hunting spiders. We caught at least -thirty different species among the bushes on the hill-top and -slopes. Doubtless some of these are described and figured in -one of the volumes of M. Grandidier’s great work on Madagascar, -still in progress. But there are probably a much larger number -of these creatures still awaiting the careful observations of anyone -who will note their interesting habits and homes, and their -very varied appearance and structure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1661_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1661_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">On the Coast Lagoons</span><br /> - -Pandanus (hòfa) trees</div> -</div> - -<p>I fancy my readers will now say, you have told us a good deal -about the insects, and something about the reptiles and birds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> -of the forest, but are there no four-footed animals in the Madagascar -woods except the wild boar? Yes, there certainly are -many such, for there are at least fifty species of quadrupeds -already known in addition to the lemurs; but as they are, most -of them, small—sixteen are species of rats and mice, and -twenty-three are a kind of hedgehog, and therefore are burrowing -animals—they are not at all conspicuous and must be -sought for if we want to observe their habits; and the ten -species of carnivora are also mostly small in size. Leaving for -the present the carnivora and the rodentia, let me say here -what can be said of interest about a group of small animals -which are in habit and appearance much like the European -hedgehogs, being of the same order (the insect-eaters), but -belonging to a distinct family, the Centetidæ, which, except -for one genus, are peculiar to Madagascar. Some of these -animals have a covering of strong spines, while in other species -this consists rather of firm prickly hairs, which, however, do -not cover the whole of the body. The larger kinds, called -<em>Tràndraka</em> by the Malagasy, are used by them for food, and -have very much the taste of pork. (I have eaten them once -or twice, but they are rather rich and greasy.) They are found -in the woods, but especially in the scattered brushwood in the -vicinity of the forests; and we occasionally met with two or -three varieties of these harmless creatures while rambling in the -outskirts of the woods. Our dog often chased and attempted -to worry them, but she usually came back with her mouth and -nose stuck full of prickles and looking like a pincushion, and -apparently very uncomfortable.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TAIL-LESS TENREC</div> - -<p>The tail-less tenrec (<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>) is the largest and -best known of its family. Its manner of life is remarkable, for -it passes half the year, the cold season, in a profound sleep, in -a burrow which it excavates about May or June. The female -is very prolific, bringing forth from twelve to twenty-two -young ones, which are bravely defended by the mother against -every enemy. Their food consists chiefly of earthworms, and -also of roots, fruits and insects. They sleep almost constantly -during the day, while they are very active during the night; -and what has been here said of the <em>Tràndraka</em> as to habits, food, -etc., may be taken as representing what might be said of most -of the Centetidæ. The striped tenrec is about the size of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> -mole, and is streaked with black and yellow, as are indeed the -young of other species. The spiny tenrec is much like our -European hedgehog, as it is covered with strong spines, and can -roll itself up into a ball when attacked. Another species, -called <em>Sòra</em> by the natives, is about five inches long. A female -of this kind was one day brought to us for sale, together with -eight or nine tiny young ones only a few days old. These were -prettily banded with yellow and brown stripes, their hair being -still soft. They were about the size of a large egg, and a most -curious little family of creatures they looked. The rice tenrec -inhabits the plains between the two lines of forest, and does -immense injury to the rice crops by burrowing into the earth -and rooting up the young plants. Another species (and genus) -is strikingly modified for aquatic life, having webbed toes, and -a thick and powerful tail. The smallest species known is only -two inches long, with a tail of three inches. Small as the -animals of this family are, they are remarkable from the fact -that in no equally confined area are they represented by so many -peculiar types as in Madagascar. But it is still more remarkable -that the only other known genus of Centetidæ is found in -the West India Islands; two portions of the same family being -separated from each other by an extensive continent as well as -by a deep ocean.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p1681_ill" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1681_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Some Curious Madagascar Spiders.</span><br /> - -<p class="center">Epeira Coquerelii</p> - -<p>Gasteracantha madagas<sup>sis</sup></p> - -<p class="right">Epeira mitralis<br /><em>back</em>       </p> - -<p>Gasteracantha formosa</p> - -<p class="right"><em>side</em> <span class="pad3"><em>front</em></span></p> - -<p>Thomisus foka</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">LEMURS</div> - -<p>These sketches of the forest would be very incomplete without -saying something about what are the most characteristic -animals of Madagascar—viz. the lemurs; for though there are -a few allied forms found in Africa on the one side, and in -Southern Asia on the other, this island is <em>the</em> home of Lemuroid -animals. It was indeed proposed to call a supposed former -continent in the Indian Ocean by the name of “Lemuria.” It -must be said, however, that there are few of them to be seen in -the neighbourhood of the sanatorium, although the cries of -some may be heard, a strange long-drawn-out wailing sound, as -if of people in distress, or children crying. Yet it was always -a pleasant sound to me, as a sign of life, and probably of enjoyment, -in these active and harmless denizens of the woods. -There are no fewer than thirty-nine different species of these -animals living in Madagascar, of which twenty-nine are the true -lemurs, while the other ten are closely allied to them and are -lemur-like (Lemuroida). The eastern and north-eastern forests<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -contain about a third of the larger number; and M. Grandidier -has pointed out that while some species have a wide range, -others have a very distinctly defined habitat, which is frequently -limited by two rivers, one to the north and the other to the -south of their district.</p> - -<p>Three species of the Propitheques (Lemuroida) are known by -the Malagasy under the common name of <em>Sìmpona</em>. They live -in companies of from six to eight, and are diurnal animals; one -may see them morning and evening, when the heat is not too -great, leaping in the woods from tree to tree in search of food. -Often they may be surprised at sunrise, says M. Grandidier, -squatting on the fork of a tree, their long legs bent under them, -touching the chin, their hands resting on their knees, stretching -out their arms and legs so as not to lose a single ray of the -newly risen sun. The food of these animals is entirely vegetable; -and they are formed for purely arboreal life, for there -is a membrane along the arms and legs which acts, to a certain -extent, as a parachute, so that they make leaps of from twenty-five -to thirty feet without apparent effort, and they seem to fly -through the air. On the rare occasions when they leave the -woods they advance by leaps, as if their feet were tied together, -and have a most comical appearance as they go across a bit of -open ground. One of these sìmpona is silvery-grey in colour, -with black head and neck; another is entirely white, except for -its dark brown face; and a third species is black or dark brown -in colour. Of the true lemurs, I had the good fortune once to -see a pair of the kind called red lemur (<i>Lemur varius</i>, var. <i>ruber</i>) -cross a path near the house; these were large and handsome -animals, warm reddish-brown in colour, and took astonishing -leaps in a most graceful manner; but they were out of sight -in an instant, and I can easily believe what is said by collectors, -that it is easier to shoot a flying bird than a lemur in motion.</p> - -<p>In the small streams which occur at the bottom of many of -the ravines, we may often come across the curious nests of the -pensile weaver-bird (<i>Ploceus pensilis</i>), which are beautifully -and ingeniously constructed, shaped like an inverted chemical -retort, and are suspended from the extremities of the branches -of the trees and usually over running water. These nests are -about a foot or fourteen inches long, the bulb giving ample -room for the eggs or nestlings, and the tube, forming the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -entrance from below, being three to four inches in diameter. -The native name for this species, <em>Fòdifètsy</em>—<em>i.e.</em> the “Crafty -Fòdy”—recognises this skill of the bird in protecting its young. -The nests of another species are large and simply globular in -shape, and, from thirty to forty in number, may be seen hanging -from a single tree. The Madagascar bee-eater is one of the -most beautiful birds to be seen in the forest, both from its -elegance of form and its bright colouring of various shades of -green (<i>Merops superciliosus</i>). It has a very long curved beak, -and an extremely long tail, with two long feathers extending -beyond the others. Its nests are excavated about a foot deep -on a sand-bank bordering streams.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COUAS</div> - -<p>Another group of birds, also conspicuous from their size and -colouring, must be noticed here—viz. the couas, a genus of -cuckoos peculiar to Madagascar, and of which twelve species are -known. They are large and handsomely coloured, and are, says -M. Grandidier, strictly local in their habitat, most of them being -confined to one district, out of which they are never found. -Five species of coua inhabit the forests or wooded regions, while -the other seven live on the plains. The blue coua (<i>Coua -cerulea</i>), the only species I have seen in the upper forest, is -fairly common, and is conspicuous from its colouring; while -the crested coua is found all over the wooded regions. One of -the twelve species goes from rock to rock, seeking the large -land-shells which form its principal food (<i>Coua delalandei</i>). -These molluscs it breaks by striking their shells against a stone, -from which habit comes its native name of <em>Famàki-sìfotra</em>, or -“snail-breaker.”</p> - -<p>But several chapters would be required to say all that might -be said of interest about the birds inhabiting the upper belt of -woods, and I will not weary my readers by further descriptions, -in this place at least. I will conclude this chapter by quoting -a few sentences written about the wonder and mystery of the -Madagascar forests by my late friend, Mr Baron; for no one -knew better than he did how to explore and how to describe -them.</p> - -<p>After speaking of the fatigue of travelling in the forest, Mr -Baron says:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“But the true lover of Nature almost loses any sense -of fatigue in the excitement and pleasure afforded by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -infinitely varied and beautiful forms of vegetable and animal -life that are around him. The tall trees of innumerable species, -in fierce competition with their neighbours, rearing their great -trunks heavenwards that they may spread out their foliage, -and open their blossoms in the light above, the fantastic foldings -and twistings of the snake-like lianas, the countless shapes and -tints of the leaves, the bright colours of some brilliant beetle, the -delicately traced wing design of some happy butterfly, the -merry chirping of some gaily adorned bird, the hurried steps -of the busy little ants, the languid movements of a chameleon, -with its strange skin and stranger eyes, the patient watching -for prey of a red three-cornered spider, the tiny mosses and -delicate ferns nestling snugly among their big brothers under the -rocks—all these and a thousand other objects of interest and -beauty help one to forget the exertion and the toil caused by -the difficulties of the road, and make one feel that it is with a -lavish and artistic hand that their great Maker has formed and -bedecked them all. Moreover, there is in travelling in the -forest a strange and fascinating illusion, a vague feeling of -expectancy, which persistently recurs, in spite of disappointment, -that somewhere on in front something of exceptional -interest will be found.”</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">A NIGHT IN THE FOREST</div> - -<p>I have of course, during many journeys in Madagascar, spent -many a night in small villages surrounded by forest, but I have -not had quite the experiences described by Mr Baron in another -passage which I shall venture to quote. Mr Baron says:</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NOCTURNAL NOISES</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“To spend a night in the forest is an experience worth having. -Bivouacked in some open glade, through which a small stream -creeps lazily along, with a warm cheering fire to keep off the dew -and chill of the night, one gains a quite different knowledge of -the forest from that which one gets in the daytime, for all -nature is not asleep even in the midnight hour. Just as darkness -is setting in the fireflies with their tiny lanterns flit about -among the bushes; and the cicada, of various species, perched -on the trunks of trees, commence their strange song. They are -small in size, but certainly they make a big din. Well may the -Malagasy proverb say: ‘Don’t be like the cicada, whose voice -fills the whole valley, though the creature itself is but a mouthful.’ -The sound it makes is not a buzz-z exactly, and it is not -a hum-m-m. It is a deafening, unceasing, rasping, irritating<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> -monotone. As the darkness increases, various nocturnal -creatures come forth from their hiding-places, and every now -and then pounce on their unconscious prey. Keep awake a -while and listen to the strange and, for the most part, mysterious -sounds. Suddenly there is a terrific scream. Some bird -or beastie finds itself all at once in the jaws of death. And -what is that ceaseless creaking throughout the night? Fancy -or fear pictures some strange hobgoblin; it is, however, nothing -but the leaves of a screw-pine twisted and strained by the -breeze. And what is that remarkable string of sounds for all -the world like water bubbling out a bottle? It is the <em>Tolòho</em>, -a kind of cuckoo, disturbed in its night’s repose. And then, at -regular intervals, ‘<em>kow-kow-koo, kow-kow-koo</em>’; what is that? -Another cuckoo, the <em>Kankàfotra</em>, which never seems to go to -sleep. From the stream or marsh close by there rises the -unmusical croak of the frogs. After an interval of silence, you -first of all hear a single croak, then another, and another, until -gradually there arises a perfect chorus, which is kept up throughout -the night. The tree-frogs also, perched on the leaves, not -a whit behind their cousins in the marsh, pass the night in -croaking. Numerous other strange and weird noises are to be -heard during the night in the forest, but from what throats they -proceed it is beyond me to say.”</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p1720_ill" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1720_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Epeira Madagascariensis</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">ROUND ANTSIHÀNAKA</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">SOME years ago I was asked to accompany two gentlemen -on a journey to one of the then least-known provinces -of Madagascar, that occupied by the Sihànaka or lake-dwellers. -Two of our party took surveying instruments with -them, and we were thus able to prepare the first accurate map -of the Antsihànaka province.</p> - -<p>My companions on this journey were the late Rev. Dr -Mullens, then Foreign Secretary of the London Missionary -Society, and the late Rev. John Pillans, one of the directors -of the same society, and most pleasant and genial companions -they were. Dr Mullens was very fond of a joke and enjoyed -recalling humorous passages from Dickens or from <cite>Punch</cite>; he -was also a born geographer and had a wonderful eye for the -beautiful and the picturesque in scenery. Mr Pillans was a -graver man, but one of solid worth and good judgment; and in -the tent which we carried with us we three had many a happy -evening together. Like all journeys made in those days, this -one was performed in the <em>filanjàna</em> or light palanquin; and -not only did Dr Mullens, with an azimuth compass, take angles -and bearings for the map, but he also took a number of photographs -all along our route. I had with me a good theodolite, -so that we were able to compare and check each other’s -observations.</p> - -<p>A few words may be said here about the position of the -Antsihànaka province. Repeated reference has been already -made in this book to the double belt of forest which runs for -several hundred miles along the eastern side of Madagascar. A -glance at a physical map of the island will show that, at about -the seventeenth parallel of south latitude, this double line unites -into one broader belt, becoming very wide west of Antongil -Bay. It is the open country south of the junction of the two -forests that forms the home of the Sihànaka tribe. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -valley or plain, for it is enclosed on each side by forest-covered -ranges of hills, is about thirty miles across; it is perfectly level, -and the greater portion of it is marsh; and at the north-eastern -corner of the marsh is a fine lake called Alaotra, which communicates -with the sea by the river Màningòry. It seems probable -that the people came up from the coast by the valley of this -river, and then settled on the edges of the plain, as their villages -are most numerous around the north-eastern bay of the lake; -while there is a large tract of fertile country to the south of -them which is almost entirely without inhabitants. The name -of the people is no doubt derived from the character of the -country they inhabit, for the verb <em>mihànaka</em> means to spread -out as a liquid, as ink on blotting-paper, for instance. <em>Hànaka</em> -is also used as a synonym for the words meaning lake, pool, -etc. Until about the commencement of the past century the -Sihànaka were independent of any external authority, but at -that period they were conquered by the Hova, although not -without a severe struggle. After that they quietly submitted -to the central government, and until the French conquest (1895) -their two chief towns were garrisoned by Hova officers and -soldiers, as at the time of our visit. No European missionary -had then lived in Antsihànaka, and the congregations and -schools we saw, wherever we went, were largely the result of -the work of a Hova evangelist, who lived among the people for -two or three years.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE SIHÀNAKA</div> - -<p>After two days’ journey over high moory country, and then -over a range of mountains called Ambòhitsitàkatra, from which -we took a number of compass bearings, we arrived on a Friday -afternoon at the village of Anjozòrobé (“At much papyrus”), -a place containing about seventy houses pretty closely packed -together within a circular fence of prickly pear and other spiny -shrubs. It was built on rising ground overlooking a level plain -to the north-west, evidently a former lake-bottom, through which -the river Mànanàra flows in a very serpentine course to join the -Bétsibòka. We crossed the river, here about thirty yards wide, -with a strong body of water, by a bridge of two massive balks of -timber supported by a rough pier of stones in the centre, and -then ascended by a very steep path to the neat chapel, which -stood in a compound a little way from the village. We took -up our quarters in this clean whitewashed building; and here<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> -I may remark that in former times the rude village chapels -generally formed the missionary’s “Travellers’ Bungalow.” -They were usually not encumbered with pews or seats, or, -indeed, much furniture or fittings of any kind; they were more -roomy than the native houses and generally much cleaner, at -least they had no soot hanging in festoons from the roof; so -that they formed very convenient resting-places for a missionary -traveller, and a favourable place for meeting the people and -prescribing for their ailments.</p> - -<p>We had intended to proceed northwards on the following -day, but as we had to pass through the inner belt of forest and -enter on entirely unknown ground, as to which we could get no -definite information with regard to villages or congregations, -we eventually determined to stay at Anjozòrobé over the -Sunday. Saturday morning was occupied in ascending a -mountain, four or five miles distant to the north (Ambòhimiàrimbé—<em>i.e.</em> -“The High Uplifting One”), to take bearings, -etc., and the afternoon in taking photographs of the village -and river valley.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN EXTENSIVE VIEW</div> - -<p>On Monday morning we resumed our journey northward, -and towards midday entered the belt of forest which covers -that western line of hills of which I have already spoken. -We had been approaching it obliquely in a north-north-east -direction for the last two days. An ascent of about five -hundred feet brought us to the summit, for the road passes -along the narrow knife-edge-like ridge of the very highest -point, a hill called Ambàravàrambàto (“At the Stone -Gateway”), having two heads of almost equal height, with -a depression between them. These points, from their peculiar -outline, gave us a useful landmark to connect our journey -northwards with the ground we had already traversed. Soon -after noon we stopped for a few minutes at the top, and had -an extensive view all around us. North and south, the line -of forest-covered hills dividing Imèrina from the lower plateau -of Ankay stretched away on either hand into the far distance. -Behind us were the bare hills and downs of Imèrina, before us -the Ankay plain, many of the low hills covered, and almost -every valley filled, with bright green woods. Beyond this were -lines of hills increasing in height until they met the mountains -of Béfòrona and Anàlamazàotra, clothed with the broader of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> -two belts of forest which run down the eastern side of Madagascar. -Far to the north in the dim distance we could just see the -southern portion of the Antsihànaka plain. A very steep -descent, first down an exceedingly rugged kind of stone staircase, -and then through dense wood, hardly allowing passage for the -palanquin in several places, brought us down to a charming -valley between two great spurs of the hills. After about an -hour more we came to a little village, where we were glad to get -some rest and food after six or seven hours’ hard travelling. -The aneroid informed us that we had descended more than -one thousand two hundred feet from the summit of the hill, and -about seven hundred feet from the upper plateau of Imèrina. -We had to pitch the tent in the open plain that night, for a -village of which we had heard, and had expected to be a good-sized -place, proved to be only a collection of eight or nine -miserable huts, scattered about in twos and threes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ANT-HILLS</div> - -<p>The following day our journey northward was over a pleasant -undulating country, but almost entirely uninhabited; here and -there were solitary houses far apart from each other, but no -villages. On the bare downs we frequently came across ant-hills, -about two feet high and formed of the greyish soil. It is -said by the people all over the island that a serpent called -<em>Rènivìtsika</em> (<em>i.e.</em> “mother of ants”) is enticed by these ants -into its nest, and is then fattened, killed and eaten by them. -The Hova in the centre of the island, the Bétsiléo in the south, -the Sàkalàva in the west, and Sihànaka in the north-east, all -affirm that this is a fact; and it seems difficult to doubt their -united testimony. After a long ride of six hours we at last -came to a group of six or seven houses called Andrànokòbaka, -where we rested for a time and had tiffin. This place appeared -to be the first of the Sihànaka villages from the south. There -was an evident difference in the appearance of the people; the -women reminded me of the Bétsimisàraka on the east coast, and -both men and women had their hair plaited in a great number -of little ropes ending in a knot, and hanging loosely all round -the head. The women and children, even those who had no -kind of clothing, all had some kind of ornament: necklaces of -red beads or silver chains, and armlets of silver, a striking contrast -to the lower class of Hovas, who only put on ornaments -on extraordinary occasions. The village smelt strongly of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -<em>tòaka</em>, the native rum, and the quantities of chopped sugar-cane, -from which the spirit is made, lying about the place, all told -of the liking of the people for strong drink.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p1761_ill1" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1761_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sihànaka Men with Meat Baskets</span><br /> - -Note how the làmba is worn</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1761_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1761_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Forest Village</span><br /> - -Note the baskets for carrying fowls against the doorway of the house</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE DRINK EVIL</div> - -<p>This indeed is one of the flagrant evils common among the -Sihànaka, as it is also of many of the outlying tribes. My -friend, Mr Stribling, who lived among these people for several -years, gives the following incident illustrating the power which -rum has over them:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Calling at a village one day for shelter from a sudden -storm, we were most graciously received by a native, who -was decidedly ‘the worse’ for drink. Wishing to be sociable, -however, I said to my host, ‘Well, my friend, how many horns -of rum can you drink before becoming drunk?’ (The Sihànaka -use the horns of oxen instead of glasses, for drinking.) In -a most friendly manner the man replied, ‘Well, I can drink -three hornfuls at least’ (about one and a half quarts). ‘How -much water would you mix with it?’ ‘Water! why, we -never put water into the rum, that would make it insipid.’ -Thereupon, turning to a little girl about six years old, the -man said, ‘This is my daughter, a scholar in your mission -school at Ambàndrika.’ ‘And does she also drink rum?’ ‘Of -course, why not?’ He then told me that the baby, a year -old, who was also present, was a son of his. ‘And does he -also drink rum?’ ‘O dear, no! he is still only a fool.’ ‘Then -he will drink it when he becomes wise?’ ‘Of course he will; -we all drink it when we come to understand what is good.’”</p> -</div> - -<p>We encamped again in the open grassy plain, near two or -three houses and a cattle-fold; and the following morning -proceeded on our journey to the north-north-east. An hour -and a half’s ride brought us to two considerable villages near an -extensive rice-valley. Here we were surprised to see the fields -dotted over with round stacks of rice with conical heads, much -like those in an English farmyard. And we also found that -here and all through Antsihànaka the rice is not transplanted, -as in Imèrina, but after the ground has been trampled over by -oxen the seed is sown broadcast, and the rice grows there until -it is fit for cutting. After leaving these villages we began to -mount a line of hills which forms the eastern boundary of the -more level portion of the Ankay valley; and on reaching its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> -summit we saw before us the vast green plain of Antsihànaka -stretching away to the northward, level as a lake, with long -lines of promontory jutting out into it from the north-west and -south-east, and a few low rounded hills rising out of it like -islands from a sea. In the far north-east the waters of the lake -Alaotra gleamed in the sunshine. To the south and east of the -plain we could see several large villages, but the chief town, -Ambàtondrazàka, was hidden from view by an intervening line -of hill. We crossed ridge after ridge and valley after valley, -hoping each would prove the last. The path over one of these -valleys, a mile and a half wide, was especially difficult; a -narrow winding track amongst swamp, prickly bamboo, -enormous papyrus and rushes, with here and there deep running -streams, whose only bridge was a slippery round pole partly -under water; so that we afterwards spoke of it as “the great -dismal swamp!” But we met with others equally bad, if not -worse, on our subsequent journeys round the plain, and the -passage seemed not nearly so formidable on our return.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GRASSES</div> - -<p>I was struck here, as well as in many other parts of the district, -by the remarkable and varied fragrance of the wild plants -growing among the grass. The scents appeared to me as -equally a convincing proof as the sights and sounds that one -was really in a tropical country. And here, as we have been -travelling for several days over country that is chiefly bare -moor (except the narrow belt of forest at the “Stone Gateway”), -I may appropriately say something about the grasses of Madagascar, -which must attract the attention of every observant -traveller. They are of great variety and beauty, and prominent -among them are different species of <em>Véro</em>. Of these the one -called simply <em>Véro</em> rises to a height of eight or ten feet, and has -a head of flowers somewhat like oats, but much longer. This -tall grass presents a varied appearance at different stages of its -growth. When in full flower, the heads contain a large number -of oat-like seeds with long awns, but later on the seeds fall off, -and at the head of each little branchlet there appears a minute -tuft of feathery plumes, like little stars, giving the grass quite -a different aspect from its first one. Another species, called -<em>Vérontsànjy</em>, has a still more beautiful floral crown, and is as tall -as the first-named one, but not so common. These two grasses, -when seen in a mass, give a warm brown tint to the spots where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> -they grow. In some parts, however, a much shorter grass, of -a pale buff colour, is the prevailing growth. In other places, -another very tall grass called <em>Famòa</em> flourishes; this is a light -graceful grass, with fine branchlets from its head, and the seeds -showing prominently; and the whole is of a delicate pea-green -colour. Then there are other grasses, which are richly marked -with shades of dark red or purple, displaying masses of these -tints when seen from a little distance. The shorter grasses are -not less beautiful than the taller species just mentioned; but -without coloured drawings it is impossible to give any adequate -idea of their charm and variety.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THEIR HEIGHT</div> - -<p>There is one thing especially which strikes a European newly -come into the country with regard to the Madagascar grasses, -and that is, the height to which they grow, if left undisturbed. -In sheltered valleys and other places not reached by the fires -which sweep over the downs in the dry season, the grass grows -considerably above one’s head, so that I have felt how soon one -might be lost in certain conditions. After the year of rebellion -against French rule in 1896, I found the véro and other grasses -grown as high as I was when sitting in my palanquin—about -eight feet above the ground. For several months large tracts -of country had been desolate and left uncultivated, and were returning -to a state of nature. And in many places, at every few -yards, we disturbed coveys of partridges or quails or other wild -birds, which had greatly multiplied in the depopulated country.</p> - -<p>Soon after four o’clock we mounted the last low ridge, and -Ambàtondrazàka lay before us, about a mile and a half distant. -The town, which consisted of about four hundred houses, is -situated on a low peninsula projecting from the hills on the -southern side of the plain. It had a pleasant, civilised appearance -after the wretched huts we had seen for the last two or -three days. A broad road running down from the hill seemed -to divide the town into two pretty nearly equal parts. West -of this road a large substantial chapel showed out conspicuously, -and on the opposite side was the square palisaded enclosure -called the <em>ròva</em>, filled with the houses of the Hova officers -and soldiers who formed the garrison of the place. At the -north-east corner of the enclosure the <em>làpa</em>, or government house, -a two-storeyed building surrounded by verandahs, stood out -prominent above the rows of smaller houses. We soon established<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> -ourselves inside the chapel, which was well built of clay -walls with brick gables, ninety feet long by thirty-six broad, -with good doors and windows, all well finished. The walls were -smoothly plastered and whitened, and the floor was covered with -fine mats, all sewn together.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A VISIT TO THE GOVERNOR</div> - -<p>Sending in our letters of introduction to the Governor, we -were in a few minutes invited to go over and see him. Passing -through the double lines of palisading and the rows of Hova -houses, we came to the <em>làpa</em>, inside an inner enclosure of its own. -Entering the large room on the ground floor, we found the -Governor waiting to receive us. His chief officers and the civil -authorities were seated round two sides of the room, and a -number of the lower class squatted on the floor on the third side, -while on the fourth side three chairs were placed for us. As -soon as we were seated, the Governor, a tall elderly man, -receiving us most cordially, addressed us with a formal speech, -after the custom of the Malagasy officials to anyone who came -from the capital; and as this may serve as an example of the -way in which we were received in all the principal places, I will -give it pretty fully; it was in the following form:—“Since you, -gentlemen, have come from the capital, we ask of you, How is -Queen Rànavàlona, sovereign of the land? How is Rainibaiàrivòny, -Prime Minister, protector of the kingdom? How -is our father, Rainingòry (the oldest officer in the army, nearly -a hundred years old)? How is Rainimàharàvo, Chief Secretary -of State, chief of the officers of the palace? How is Rabé -(son of the preceding)? How is the kingdom of Ambòhimànga -and Antanànarìvo (the ancient and modern capitals)? How -are ‘the-under-the-heaven’ (the people, the subjects)? How -are you, our friends? And how is your fatigue after your -journey?” etc. To these inquiries I, as interpreter to the -expedition, gravely replied <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seriatim</i>, saying that her Majesty -was well, that the Prime Minister was well, etc., etc., and then -inquired how the Governor and his officers, and the people of the -town and neighbourhood were. We then had more general and -less formal conversation, in which I explained the objects of our -visit to Antsihànaka, and our proposed route round the district.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p1801_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p1801_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Wayside Market</span><br /> - -The umbrellas are to protect the vendors and goods from the sun. Beef, soap, candles, cooked rice, manioc, etc., -are exposed for sale</div> -</div> - -<p>The Governor then courteously led us by the hand back to -the chapel, where he joined us in our dinner; and as soon as -that was finished asked us to come outside. Here we found a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> -quantity of provisions brought for us and our bearers; baskets -of rice, geese, fowls, yams, and a large fat pig (a most unwilling -offering <em>he</em> was, and loudly protested against the whole business). -In a formal speech, as soon as silence could be obtained, the -Governor offered these things to us, saying that the provisions -presented were not theirs, but the Queen’s, the Prime Minister’s, -etc., etc., while <em>they</em> only took charge of it all (a polite and loyal -fiction, by the way, meaning nothing). We found a comfortable -(if somewhat airy) bedroom in the spacious chapel, which -formed a pleasant contrast to the confinement of our little tent -of eleven feet square.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MARKET DAY</div> - -<p>The next day, Thursday, was market day, and a number of -people from the country were collected together buying and -selling on an open piece of rising ground to the south of the -town. The morning we devoted to inspecting the place, -ascertaining the number of houses, and taking bearings, observations -and photographs from a point half-a-mile to the east of -the market. Our proceedings caused intense interest, as the -camera, theodolite, etc., were carried past; business came to a -standstill for some time, and a glance at the crowd through the -field-glass showed rows of dark faces all turned in our direction, -intently watching our mysterious proceedings. We afterwards -walked through the market, hoping to find some articles of -food or manufacture new to us; but there was not much that -differed from what may be seen every day in Imèrina. In fruit -I fancied I had found something new—viz. what appeared like -a kind of small banana with black skin; but more minute -inspection showed that the supposed fruits were small fish from -the lake, smoke-dried, strung on a strong reed. Some large -wooden spoons with tin ornaments on the handles reminded me -of those made by the Bétsiléo. Bananas, very large and fine, -seemed the most plentiful fruit; sugar-cane grows to a great -size, ten to twelve feet high; and from what we saw all round -Antsihànaka it appeared a most fertile district, with rich -alluvial soil; were the whole marsh drained and brought under -cultivation, as the marshy plain to the west and north-west of -the capital has been, it would support a population many times -greater than that which inhabits Imèrina. All round Ambàtondrazàka -many hundred acres of the level are occupied by -rice-fields, and it is the same in the neighbourhood of all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -villages bordering the plain; although a large proportion of the -area is still covered with marsh, reeds, rushes and papyrus. -From the rising ground we could count numerous herds of fine -cattle, generally from seventy to eighty in each herd, and -wherever we went we found cattle in great abundance feeding -on the rich pasture. Large numbers of these cattle belonged -to rich people in Imèrina. One noble was said to have nearly -ten thousand; others had five thousand; many people had -a thousand, and the majority of the Sihànaka had at least a -hundred each.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PAPYRUS</div> - -<p>After our usual employments of school examination, conversation -with the pastor and others, and renewed presents of food, -on Friday morning we set off on our circuit round the plain to -visit as many of the congregations, and see as much of the -country and the position of the Sihànaka villages, as was possible -in six days, as our time was limited to that period. Proceeding -first westward, and skirting the edge of the level ground, we -passed for some distance through swamp, with dense thickets -of <em>hèrana</em> and <em>zozòro</em>, the first being, as already seen in Imèrina, -a strong sedge extensively used for roofing, and the other, a -species of papyrus, employed for a variety of purposes. This -latter grows here to a great size, some ten or twelve feet high, -with a triangular and exceedingly tough stem, about two and -a half inches each way, nearly double the size it attains in the -cooler Imèrina province.</p> - -<p>We had to cross numerous little streams by rickety bridges -of plank. From the level of the rice-fields the plain stretched -northward like an immense green lake; the rotundity of the -earth was as clearly seen from the perfect level as it is from the -surface of the sea, for the distant low hills appeared like detached -islands with nothing to connect their bases. Our course -lay west by north-west, cutting diagonally across several of -those promontories formed by the parallel lines of hills which -run down each side of the Ankay valley. Every village of the -Sihànaka has near its entrance a group of two or three tall -straight trunks of trees fixed in the ground, varying from -thirty to fifty feet in height; the top of these has the appearance -of an enormous pair of horns, for the fork of a tree is fixed -to the pole, and each branch is sharpened to a fine point. -Besides these, there are generally half-a-dozen lower poles, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> -which are fixed a number of the skulls and horns of bullocks -killed at the funeral of the people of whom these poles are the -memorial. One thing struck us as curious: several of the -higher poles had small tin trunks, generally painted oak colour, -impaled on one point of the fork; and in several instances -baskets and mats were also placed on a railing of wood close to -the poles supporting the bullock horns. These various articles -were the property of the deceased, and put near his grave with -the hope of their being of some benefit to his spirit; or perhaps -from the idea, common to most of the Malagasy tribes, of there -being pollution attached to anything connected with the dead. -In several cases, on the very highest point of the lofty poles, -there was a small tin fixed, having a strong resemblance to -those we import containing jam or preserved provisions.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> As -among many Eastern peoples, so in Madagascar, the horn is a -symbol of power and protection; the native army was termed -<em>tàndroky ny fanjakàna</em>—“horns of the kingdom.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CATTLE</div> - -<p>Some of the cattle we saw were magnificent animals, and it is -not strange that the bull was used frequently in public speeches, -as an emblem of strength, as it is the largest of all the animals -known to the Malagasy. It frequently occurs in this sense in -the formulæ and the songs connected with the circumcision -ceremonial; for the observance of this native custom was a -time of very great importance in the old native regime. Bull-fighting -was a favourite amusement with the Malagasy sovereigns; -and in digging the foundations for a new gateway to the -palace yard at Antanànarìvo, the remains of a bull were discovered, -wrapped up in a red silk <em>làmba</em>, the same style of -burial as that employed for rich people. This was the honour -paid to a famous fighting bull belonging to Queen Rànavàlona I. -It seems pretty certain that anciently the killing of an ox was -regarded as a semi-religious or sacrificial observance, and only -the chief of a tribe was allowed to do this, as priest of his -people. Robert Drury, an English lad who, with others, was -wrecked on the south-west coast of Madagascar in 1702, and -remained in the country as a slave for fifteen years, gives many -particulars about this custom of the southern Sàkalàva people.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE OX</div> - -<p>An old Malagasy saying thus describes the various uses of the -different portions of an ox when killed: “The ox is the chief -of the animals kept by the people, and they are very beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -in this country. Our forefathers here knew well how it should -be used, and they said thus, when they invoked a blessing (at -the circumcision): The ox’s horns go to the spoon-maker; its -molar teeth to the mat-maker (for smoothing out the <em>zozòro</em> -peel); its ears are for making medicine for nettle-rash; its -hump for making ointment; its rump to the sovereign; its -feet to the oil-maker; its spleen to the old man; its liver to the -old woman; its lungs to the son-in-law; its intestines to those -who brought the ropes; its neck to him who brought the axe; -its haunch to the crier; its tail to the weaver; its suet to the -soap-maker; its skin to the drummer; its head to the speech-maker; -its eyes to be made into beads (used in the divination), -and its hoofs to the gun-maker.”</p> - -<p>Our next morning’s ride brought us to Ambòhidèhilàhy, a -large village of a hundred and twenty or a hundred and thirty -houses, occupying the northern end of one of the promontories.</p> - -<p>For the first time since we had left Ambòhimànga we had a -meal in an ordinary house, and could notice the arrangement -of a Sihànaka dwelling. I immediately observed that instead -of there being <em>one</em> post at each end and at the centre of the -house to support the ridge, as in the Imèrina houses, this had -<em>three</em> at each gable, just as the Bétsimisàraka have; another -confirmation, by the way, of my belief, that the Sihànaka are -connected with the coast tribes, and have come up from the sea -and settled on the margin of the fertile plain. Instead of the -one door and window on the west side, as in the Hova houses, -the Sihànaka make two doors on that side, with high thresholds, -dividing it into three equal parts, and a low door on the -eastern side, coming where the fixed bedstead is placed in -Imèrina. Here the bedstead was at the south-east instead of -the north-east corner; and the hearth, with its framework -above for supporting property of various kinds, at the south-east -instead of the mid-west side of the house.</p> - -<p>After dinner we set off over level ground for Manàkambahìny, -a village nearly south from us, which we could see on a low hill -forming the extremity of the high ridge bounding the Mangòro -valley to the west. We found that the small rivers between the -parallel ranges of hills spread out into many shallow streams -over a wide surface, forming a swamp with luxuriant rushes and -vegetation. The wild birds seemed plentiful here. In several<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -places was a kind of snare for taking them on the wing, consisting -of several stout bamboos fixed in the ground a few feet apart, -with cords stretched between them, and loops of string suspended -from these cords. We were only able to stay a short -time at the village, and then pushed on, crossing the level -ground at the southern extremity of the Antsihànaka plain and -coming at sunset to Ambòdinònoka, a good-sized village on -its western edge. Here we had reached our farthest south in -our journey round the province.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SIHÀNAKA MATS</div> - -<p>We have just seen the interior of a Sihànaka house, and -we ought to have noticed the fine and strong mats with which -they are furnished. From the immense extent of marsh, the -material for making these is very abundant, and all women can -make them; so no Sihànaka <em>buys</em> a mat, for they think that a -disgrace. Of the <em>zozòro</em> outer peel, or skin, the very long mats -called the Queen’s are made, which are from eighteen feet to -twenty-four feet long. The houses of many people here are -clean and neat from the abundance of such mats. The largest -kind of <em>zozòro</em>, called <em>tèry</em>, is as strong as wood, and the firm -triangular stems are used for the walls of the houses.</p> - -<p>We were off early on Saturday morning, for, as we wished to -get to the second town in size, Ampàrafàravòla, for Sunday, we -had a long day’s journey northward of nine or ten hours before -us. We were now skirting the western edge of the great level, -now and then crossing patches of swamp, and then following -the windings of a small river, which we had at last to cross by -canoes. The whole country appeared to abound with wild -birds of different kinds—herons, black and white storks, wild -geese, wild ducks, partridges and many others. The fen -country of the eastern midland counties of England, before the -great drainage works were carried out and the waters led off to -the sea, must have been very much like this Antsihànaka plain, -which is certainly a paradise for sportsmen. There are said to -be no fewer than thirty-four species of aquatic birds found on -the Alaotra lake and in the surrounding marshy country. In -the little museum at the L.M.S. College at Antanànarìvo we -have, among other Malagasy birds’ eggs, a number from -Antsihànaka, chiefly of water-fowl; most of these are white, -showing probably that they are well protected and so have no -need of imitative colouring.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">WATER-BIRDS</div> - -<p>Of these numerous ducks and geese, perhaps the whistling -teal is the most common, not only in this province, but also in -other marshy regions. In the western part of Imèrina the -<em>Tsirìry</em>, as it is called, may be seen in flocks of five hundred -together, so that a certain district probably gets its name of -“Bé (many) tsiriry” from their numbers. At evening this -bird and a tree duck (<em>Tahìa</em>) settle down in such numbers -along the shore of the lake that one cannot walk by the waterside, -for the ground is black with them. The tsiriry builds its -nest on hillocks among the grass, and the young birds are -taken to the water as soon as hatched. Another bird, the -humped duck (<em>Aròsy</em>), lays its eggs in the crevices of rocks. -Many of the native names of these wild fowl are imitative of -their screaming cry; others are descriptive, as “white-wings,” -“handsome-bird,” “white-eyes,” “many-shields,” etc. Besides -the above-mentioned birds, there are also coots, water-hens, -herons, ibises, grebes, snipes and curlews in the lake and the -marshes. Of the white-backed duck (<em>Tafiòtra</em>) the natives -say that the female bird experiences some difficulty in the -laying of her eggs, which are very large in proportion to the -size of her body; this is said to make her faint and become -unconscious, so that she may be taken off her nest with the -hand. On account this of peculiarity, the duck is <em>fàdy</em>, or -tabooed, by the native women, who think that they would -experience a similar difficulty in child-birth were they to eat -the bird.</p> - -<p>From the abundance of water-birds in this province, the -keeping of ducks and geese is an important occupation of the -Sihànaka. Geese are greatly esteemed, and alive or killed -are always presented as a mark of respect to strangers. On -account of their abundance, goose quills for pens, as well as -chillies and fine long mats, formed the tribute formerly paid by -the people to the queen at Antanànarìvo. Guinea-fowls are also -plentiful and are found in flocks of from twenty to thirty -together, but chiefly in unfrequented places.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AMBÒHITRÒMBY</div> - -<p>After about two hours and a half’s journey we arrived at -Ambòhitròmby, a large village of nearly a hundred houses, -situated on a rounded hill which rose like an island from the -plain. We were formally received by an old man in a red -<em>làmba</em>, the chief of the village, in the presence of a large number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -of people, and the accustomed speech-making had to be gone -through. We then went into the chapel, a long, narrow and -low rush building, where the scholars and most of the women -were assembled. On going out of the chapel we were asked to -meet the chief people again to receive beef, rice, etc. This was -done with a formality and respect exceeding that shown on any -previous occasion. A mat was spread on an open space, on this -three chairs were placed for us, and in front of this, on another -mat, were arranged the provisions. Speech-making, compliments -and replies then followed as usual.</p> - -<p>After tiffin, and taking some compass observations, we left -Ambòhitròmby soon after twelve o’clock, keeping still along -the western shore of the plain, and several times crossing bays -which run westward between the hills. Here we had much -floundering about in the bog, and crossing of cranky wooden -bridges of the primitive single round-pole construction. We -passed Mòraràno and Moraféno, good-sized villages, but were -unable to stop at either place, as they were both a little way out -of the direct road, and we were pressed for time. The population -appeared considerable about this part of the plain, for there -were many other villages at no great distance, and a very large -extent of its margin was cultivated, the stacks of rice dotting -over the level surface for two or three miles to the eastward, -and for a long way north and south. After three or four hours’ -walking and riding we turned to the north-east, crossing a great -bay formed by one of the long promontories which stretch into -the level from the north-west as well as from the south-east -shores of the plain. These have evidently in an earlier -(geological) period formed continuous lines of hills, for they do -not run in the same direction as the main valley or depression -of the country, but cut it at an angle of about forty-five degrees—that -is to say, while the general direction of the Antsihànaka -valley is north-north-east and south-south-west, the lines of hills -on either side have a bearing of north-north-west and south-south-east. -This is seen very distinctly in the map of the -district made on my return home: for many of the ridges seem -to be broken off more or less abruptly by the level ground, and -then to be continued on the other side of the plain. It seemed -impossible to avoid the conclusion that by some great convulsion -in long-past geologic ages a vast rent and depression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> -had been made across the lines of hills in a diagonal direction; -while the water-worn and wasted remains of some few of -these towards the south, forming a line of low detached hills, -suggested that probably the action of water, either as an arm -of the sea running up the Ankay valley, or a great river, had -completed what was commenced by more violent agencies. -The unmistakable evidence of former volcanic action, in the -presence of extinct craters and lava streams to the west, -north and north-east of the plain, seems to show what was -the agency which caused this great depression of the surface.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A NATURAL EMBANKMENT</div> - -<p>Half-an-hour brought us to the end of the promontory, which -was like an enormous dyke or sea-wall, one face having a steep -slope, and the other a long gentle rise. It was a pleasant and -smooth level road along the top of this great natural embankment -to the north-west. From it we had a delightful view, for -the great flat surface of the plain looked like an immense green -lake, from which the distant eastern line of hills seemed to rise -like shores out of a green expanse of water. The high mountains -beyond these were lit up by afternoon sunlight, and the western -side or a still larger and higher promontory to the east of us, -broken up by lateral buttresses, produced charming effects of -light and shadow, and variety of colour. At the head of the -bay formed by these two long points we could see the high -rounded hill which rises above Ampàrafàravòla, and after a -time the little town itself began to show above the plain.</p> - -<p>At a little before five o’clock we came to a hollow at the end -of the promontory, with a long piece of water dividing it from -a steep abrupt hill, on which the large village of Ambòhipèno -is situated. This place had a clay wall surrounding it, and -contained about ninety houses. The “road” to it is the water -just mentioned, about four feet wide, where the papyrus had -been cut away; this being past, the path was up a steep clay -slope. As we got near the village, we could see a number of -people assembled to meet us, and on arriving at the top had a -most pleasing reception. As we cleared the water and began to -ascend, the singers struck up a hymn; they were all seated on -one side of the road, the school-children on the other, while a -little farther on were a crowd of people headed by the elderly -men of the place. One of these, the judge of the district, a -pleasant old man, then received us with the usual speeches, to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span> -which I had of course to reply. After a few minutes’ delay, and -promising to come and preach to them on the following afternoon, -we pushed on, for it was near sunset, and we had still -three or four miles to traverse before reaching our destination.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A HOSPITABLE RECEPTION</div> - -<p>It was about an hour after sundown before we reached Ampàrafàravòla, -but a bright moon near the full prevented any difficulty -in travelling. The town itself was almost entirely Hova, -and consisted of about ninety houses in a square stockade of -palisading, a double line of which ran all around it; but there -were as many more Sihànaka houses within half-a-mile of the -<em>ròva</em>, and two or three small villages at no great distance. On -the west side of the town was a large, well-built, clay chapel, -not then finished. Our first look at it, without any doors or -windows, made us doubtful whether we could use it as a lodging, -especially as the evening breeze blew sharply through the -numerous openings; however, as we found there were temporary -doors and shutters of <em>zozòro</em>, which filled them up to some -extent, we decided that we had better stay in it. A few -minutes after our arrival, the lieutenant-governor of the district -and his attendants came out of the <em>ròva</em> to meet us; and then, -of course, came loyal inquiries and polite speeches and, after -a little time, beef, rice and poultry, etc. We were glad at last -to get some tea, but we found the chapel very windy and letting -in far too many mosquitoes to be pleasant, so we pitched the -tent at the far end of the building as a sleeping apartment, and -by dexterous management Mr Pillans and I stole a march on -our bloodthirsty little tormentors, and managed to get a good -night’s rest; while the doctor secured the same under the protection -of his mosquito net.</p> - -<p>On Sunday morning the people assembled early (rather too -early for us) outside the chapel; and as soon as we had breakfasted, -stowed away our packages, beds, etc., at the farther end, -and covered them over with our tent to make things tidy, we -let the people in. Mr Pillans’ gorgeous rug again did duty as -covering for the rough little table which served as a reading-desk, -while the doctor’s photographic chemical box made it a convenient -height. The chapel was soon well filled with people, -about four hundred and fifty in number; they came in following -the governor and his officers, who took their seats first. -Then came the commander’s wife, a very stout, pleasant-looking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> -lady, who, with two or three others, were dressed in European -style, as also were the chief men of the congregation. The -ladies, however, did not patronise chairs, but had cushions laid -on the floor. About half the congregation seemed to be -Sihànaka, the rest were Hovas. As soon as service was over, -the singers begged that I would teach them a new tune; so, as -at other places, the large paper copy of one, which was then -new and very popular at the capital, was brought out, and we -practised it until we had to ask them to let our lunch be got -ready. They then removed into the schoolhouse and sang -away until it was almost time for the afternoon service; and -then again in the evening until late at night. They also learned -another new tune and hymn; and not only on Sunday night, -but early next morning, they were still at these two tunes, and -the last thing heard as we left the place was, “There is a happy -land,” etc., over and over again.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ANNOYING AND PAINFUL GRASS</div> - -<p>In the afternoon Mr Pillans and I set off to preach to the -people at Ambòhipèno, who had received us so pleasantly on -the preceding evening. We wanted to give our own men a -perfect rest, and so got some Sihànaka bearers. They jolted -us not a little; carrying logs of timber was much more in their -line than carrying English missionaries. However, we got there -quickly and found the little chapel filled with people waiting -for us. On our way to and fro we noticed a peculiar appearance -in the grass, as if small handfuls of it were tied together in a -bundle, while still growing. On examining a tuft of this, we -found the unusual appearance was caused by a small mass of -fibres growing around, and the long awns intertwining, involving -the neighbouring grasses in their clasp; the end of each is -armed with a sharp and barbed point, fine and strong enough -to pierce the skin. This grass (<i>Andropogon contortus</i>) the -natives call <em>Léfon-dàmbo</em> (“wild-hog’s spear”). In walking -among this grass the awns cling to one’s trousers by hundreds, -and gradually make their way through to the skin, causing a -pricking like so many pins. Almost as annoying, although -not so painful, is a plant called <em>Anantsinàhy</em>, which is found all -over the central province, and of which the small dry seeds, -called <em>Tsipòlotra</em>, are furnished with fine prickles, which make -the seeds stick to your clothes by scores, as you pass through -any piece of waste ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">A DINNER WITH THE GOVERNOR</div> - -<p>On getting back to Ampàrafàravòla, we found that the -Governor wished us to dine with him and his officers in a small -house which then served <ins class="corr" id="tn-191" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'as the lòpa'"> -as the <em>làpa</em></ins>. In the courtyard was a -little shed, much out of repair, in which was a small cannon -mounted on a very large carriage, one of those made by -M. Laborde for the old queen. At some of the places we subsequently -visited, after the usual loyal inquiries for the queen, -great officers, and for the governor and lieutenant-governor of the -Sihànaka, inquiry was also made as to the welfare of this little -two-pounder gun! We <em>might</em> have replied, but did not, that a -cleaning now and then, and a little more thatch on the roof -of its shed, would probably tend to prolong its existence and -conduce to its general well-being. Our dinner was served in -thoroughly native style, being cooked in the same place where -we ate it, and with about a score of people helping to serve us -guests, three in number. They gave us rice and some excellently -cooked beef and turkey, and milk to drink. The chief -cook would not allow us to make any permanent impression on -the heaped-up piles of rice on our plates, for every few minutes -they were replenished by fresh supplies of rice and gravy, so we -were obliged at last to relinquish the unequal contest. Before -dinner they came to ask us if the band should play during the -entertainment (as is customary when the great people in Imèrina -give feasts); but as I felt doubtful as to the character of the -tunes that the bandmaster might have available for the occasion, -I said that, being Sunday, it might be well to omit the -compliment; but I very readily agreed to their suggestion that -the singers should sing a hymn tune instead, which they did -outside the house. After doing justice to the fare, we returned -to our chapel lodgings, greatly pleased with much we had seen -during the day.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Subsequently, my friends, the late Rev. J. Pearse and his -wife, lived and did a great work, both medical and religious, -among the Sihànaka for several years; and after them, the late -Rev. E. H. Stribling and other missionaries continued that -work until 1895. For some years past Christian teaching has -been carried on by Malagasy sent by the native missionary -society.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<div class="sidenote">OLD TINS</div> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> It may be remarked here how ubiquitous are the disused -tins in which various provisions made by English manufacturers -are packed. We were amused during our tour by the evidence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> -of this in different parts of Antsihànaka. It is usual in the -Malagasy congregations for a small tin box to be fixed near the -door of the church to receive money contributions and “the -weekly offering.” We found that in some villages old jam tins -were employed for this purpose; in others again sardine boxes -were the favourite receptacle for the gifts of the congregation; -while in yet other districts a military feeling was apparently -the prominent one, for old powder flasks were suspended from -the wall for the Sunday contributions.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">LAKE SCENERY</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">WE were up early on Monday morning, the doctor to -prepare paper for photographs, Mr Pillans and I to -survey. He and I walked up a rounded scarped hill, -about a mile to the north-east of the town. This was the only -place we had seen in the neighbourhood which showed this rude -kind of fortress, so common on the hills of Imèrina and the -Bétsiléo country. It was a dull cloudy morning, and we could not -get any distant points, but took the bearings of a few neighbouring -villages. But we were greatly interested to find that the hill -had certainly been the centre of volcanic action, was, in fact, an -extinct crater, for large masses of lava were scattered all over -the hill, from the base to the summit. We afterwards found, as -we proceeded on our journey round its north-western slopes, -that the crater was on that side, and that from it a stream of -molten rock had poured down, spreading over a considerable -surface of ground. After bidding our good friends farewell, -although they much wished to keep us longer, we left at nine -o’clock, still going northward. We crossed over the head of -the large bay of the plain formed by the long promontory, -passed a little cluster of villages called Mòraràno, and then -ascended the ridge of hills, coming out on some very high -ground which forms the western boundary or shore of this part -of the plain. From it we had an extensive view over the great -level surface, and could see the whole length of the Alaotra -lake from north to south. There was a fine variety of outline -in the eastern line of hills and mountains, and towards the -north end of the plain there was a great opening between the -hills, showing the valley through which the Màningòry river -runs from the lake to the sea. We soon left the high ground -and came down to the plain, skirting its edge, generally on low -hills, and occasionally crossing great arms of it running westward. -Several of these were very boggy and difficult to cross,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> -with the most complicated and impracticable bridges we had -yet seen, even in Antsihànaka; some of them were in three -stages, one a steepish ascent, the middle span on the level, and -another going down again into <em>water</em>, not on to dry land, and -none boasting more than a slippery round pole as roadway.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A CURIOUS CUSTOM</div> - -<p>Our journey of six hours and three-quarters to-day was only -broken by half-an-hour’s halt on a low hill to take observations; -indeed there was no village, nor even a house, where we could -have stayed, for we were travelling over a perfectly uninhabited -country. After we left Mòraràno, about an hour north of -Ampàrafàravòla, we saw not a single human habitation nor -trace of cultivation, although there were numerous fertile and -spacious valleys, until we arrived at Ambòhijànahàry. The -only object we saw that gave any sign of man’s presence was a -large herd of fine cattle. I was afterwards told of a curious -custom formerly practised by the Sihànaka at the time of the -circumcision. They used to choose one of the largest oxen to -be found and sharpened his horns to a fine point; after two or -three days’ continuous drinking, when they had got perfectly -maddened with spirits and were ready for any foolhardy -adventure, a party would rush out to attack this ox, but without -any weapons. As the animal became infuriated, he of course -defended himself by goring his enemies, many of whom he generally -seriously hurt, and some occasionally killed outright, while -the man who escaped without injury was considered as born -under a lucky star, and was resorted to by numbers of people -to give them charms to protect them from various kinds of -calamity.</p> - -<p>Soon after four o’clock we reached Ambòhijànahàry, a large -village of about a hundred houses, on rising ground, and -approached by a long narrow passage between dense thickets -of prickly pear. It is a poor dirty place, and the chapel the -smallest one we had yet seen in the district, being only twenty-two -feet by sixteen wide. However, it was clean and neatly -matted, and after stopping up a door and a window on the -windward side we put up the tent as a canopy for sleeping -under, as the gables were exceedingly well ventilated. Then -came speeches, beef, etc., etc., and replies as usual, <em>my</em> oratorical -efforts becoming very brief; my companions remarked that -the flowery parts of my speeches in reply were gradually<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> -curtailed as we proceeded farther on our journey. To the -north of the village is a lofty point, called Ankìtsika; it has a -double cone-shaped outline—that is, a small cone upon a large -truncated one—and is doubtless of volcanic origin. The word -Ankìtsika means “at a cave,” and there is said to be a -cave at the top, where, in former times, the people took -refuge when their enemies, the Sàkalàva, made a raid upon -them.</p> - -<p>The village which we had now come to was “our farthest -north,” for from here we began to turn our faces homewards; -and as we had now seen the largest villages in the province, I -may as well say something here about the Sihànaka, and their -occupations and means of subsistence.</p> - -<p>Their occupations are, chiefly, tending cattle, growing rice, -fishing, and making <em>tòaka</em> (rum). Almost every family keeps -cattle, save the very poorest, and there is nothing the people -like better than to follow their herds and camp out in the -pastures with their wives and children. The day of cutting -the ears of the young animals (so as to distinguish them from -those of the queen) was always kept as a day of rejoicing, -killing oxen, and feasting. Yet very few milk their cattle, for -they prefer the broth made from fish to milk.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">STORING RICE</div> - -<p>As we went round the outside edge of the plain, we saw a large -extent of rice ground under cultivation; but the people do not -dig the soil, or transplant the rice, as is the custom in Imèrina, -but cultivate their fields in the following way. First of all they -make a number of low earthen banks, which are intended to -hold the water. That being done, oxen are driven over the -ground to be planted, where the water is a few inches deep, and -when the soil has been well turned over, then the rice is sown; -and there it is left until it is reaped, without transplanting or -weeding. When the rice has been reaped, it is heaped together -in round stacks, which are of a considerable size. When quite -dry, the grain is threshed out with a stick, two men or more -striking in regular turn. The rice is not stored in pits, as in -Imèrina, but in an enormous kind of basket or round enclosure, -made of papyrus plaited together, and about eight feet high -and from twenty to thirty feet in diameter. These are in the -fields, and are roofed over; and rice being so cheap and plentiful -with them, the people do not measure the rice itself, but they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> -reckon it by the number of these <em>vòlovàry</em>, of which the richer -Sihànaka have seven or eight or more.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CATCHING FISH</div> - -<p>Catching fish in the lake and in the numerous streams and -pieces of water is the business of both men and women. The -men angle for eels, the women dredge for small fish in the -shallow water (using a kind of basket like a large sieve), and -the little children fish with bait. All the children have a tiny -canoe, in which they go fishing in the early morning from six -to nine o’clock, when they return home, for their small canoes -would be upset by the wind and waves as the day advances. -The women catch, by dredging, small fish called <em>tòho</em> and also -shrimps. These they dry in the sun, sew up in baskets, and take -for sale to the markets, many people becoming wealthy by their -sale. Until a few years ago all sales were done by barter, for -little money was employed. And it is the custom for the men -not to bring home what they have caught, but to leave it by -the waterside for the women to fetch.</p> - -<p>There is abundance of <em>tòaka</em> (rum) made in Antsihànaka, and -its manufacture is the work of poor old men and women and -(formerly) of slaves. In every house it is to be found, for they -think it shows a want of respect to visitors if they have not -plenty of <em>tòaka</em> to give them. Whatever be the business in -hand, whether funerals or rejoicings, nothing can be done without -drinking <em>tòaka</em> (see an earlier paragraph).</p> - -<p>We left Ambòhijànahàry on Tuesday morning and turned -eastward. Our road lay through low swampy ground, often -wading through water and floundering through bog. But there -was also a large extent of land covered with rice-fields, and we -passed several villages. We left the lines of hills, which come -down and terminate abruptly at the edge of the plain. Rain -fell during the last half of the journey and a thick mist shut -out everything from view; there was water above and around, -and water and bog below, so it was the most uncomfortable of -all our journeys. The only objects to interest were the clouds -of birds, which flew over our heads in immense numbers in -every direction. Soon after ten o’clock we got to a village of -seventy or eighty houses, called very inappropriately, Ambòhitsàra -(“good town”), for it was quite in the swamp, -raised only a few inches above the level, and surrounded by -water, most of it stagnant. Here the people of the village, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> -their speech to us, spoke of our staying there that night, and -crossing the lake the following morning; but as it was still -early in the day, and the water was not an hour distant, we felt -most unwilling to stop, especially as we feared risk of fever by -staying the night in such a low and damp situation. We therefore -told them that we must, if possible, get across the lake that -day, and requested them to lose no time in getting sufficient -canoes to take us over. After tiffin, we determined to go and -see for ourselves, and with much difficulty got our men off. -The path was better than in the morning, a large extent of -land here being fine pasture and covered with cattle.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PLEASANT PICTURE</div> - -<p>Three-quarters of an hour brought us to the lake, a beautiful -expanse of water, but only one small canoe was visible, and a -stiff breeze from the east had raised waves of a size quite -formidable to such cranky craft as Malagasy canoes are. The -shore opposite to us seemed from three to four miles distant; -to the northward the water extended for several miles, with -bays running up among the hills, and a large arm turning eastward -in the direction of the valley through which the river -draining the lake flows into the sea. Many of the villages on -the rising ground across the water were seen quite distinctly (for -it had turned out a lovely afternoon) and seemed large places. -A considerable portion of the population is indeed massed -round this north-east corner of the lake, and we regretted being -obliged to leave so many large villages unvisited, but our time -would not allow us to go round the head of the Alaotra. The -picture was a pleasant one from the shore; the expanse of blue -water, with the waves dancing and sparkling in the sunlight; -the villages on the green hills across the lake; and behind them -grand masses of mountain, with a good deal of dark forest -capping them. To the north of the Màningòry valley was -distinctly visible an extinct volcanic crater, with a large portion -of one of its sides broken down and revealing the immense cup-shaped -hollow within. The aneroid showed that the surface of -the lake was twenty-six hundred feet above the sea, about -nineteen hundred feet below the height of the capital.</p> - -<p>We waited and waited on the shore, sweeping the opposite -banks with our telescopes for signs of approaching canoes, but -looked in vain; nothing like a canoe was to be seen, and the -waves got higher and higher; evidently it would not have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> -safe to cross so late in the day, when the sea breeze, as is the -case also on the coast lagoons, makes a considerable swell, and -crossing is practicable only for the largest canoes. And while -we are waiting, we may remark that this Lake Alaotra is the -largest one in Madagascar, and is about twenty-five miles long, -by four or five in average breadth. But as the level marshy -land to the west and south is only a few inches above its surface, -the lake is of much greater extent in the wet season. It receives -the drainage of the northern portion of the Ankay plain, so that -a considerable body of water must issue from its north-eastern -arm and flow towards the sea. According to the Rev. L. -Dahle, the name “Alaotra” is probably the Arabic <em>Al-lutat</em>, -“the dashing of the waves,” the sea. The Arabs of the -Comoro Islands and East Africa are known among the Malagasy -as the “Taloatra”—<em>i.e.</em> “those from beyond the ocean.”<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">IRRITATING DELAY</div> - -<p>The afternoon wore on; the doctor took photographs of the -opposite shore; Mr Pillans and I took bearings for the map, -and collected shells; and at last, after waiting two hours, we -reluctantly came to the conclusion that we must go back to the -village in the swamp, which we accordingly did. However, we -were not so uncomfortable as we had feared, nor did we take -any harm from the damp conditions. The head people came to -present beef, etc., but I fear I answered them rather curtly, for -we saw plainly it was never intended to let us get over the lake -until the following day; but, with the usual native unwillingness -to speak out plainly, they would not say so to begin with. In -the book which Dr Mullens wrote on his return to England he -says of this afternoon’s experiences: “I am afraid that the -general depression seriously interfered with the reply of our -friend, Mr Sibree. The dignity and fulness with which he -usually dwelt upon the affairs of the kingdom and the health of -the authorities, and the flowery eloquence with which he would -describe the purpose of our visit, entirely failed him here. His -reply was brief and guarded, and the two-pounder gun he -passed over in total silence.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A DEEP LAKE</div> - -<p>On Wednesday morning we left Ambòhitsàra at half-past -six, so as to cross the lake as soon after sunrise as possible, as -this is always the calmest time of the day in Madagascar -waters. We found about a dozen large canoes waiting for -us; several of these were from thirty to forty feet long,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -and three to four feet beam, hollowed out of a single tree. -We all embarked and got off soon after half-past seven, but the -wind had already risen somewhat, and there was quite a swell -on the water. But the sail across was most delightful. As we -proceeded, the northern shores opened up, showing two deep -bays stretching far away between the hills, and an island, where -the Sihànaka made their last stand in resisting Hova domination. -From that time it has not been allowed to be inhabited, -but is only used for planting vegetables. We had only two -paddlers, one at the head, and the other at the stern of the -canoe, and so were an hour and ten minutes in crossing. We -made an attempt to ascertain the depth of the lake with an old -knife as a sinker, and a piece of string as a line, while the doctor, -in true scientific fashion, “hove the lead.” I regret to say that -no accurate information was obtained, for the sounding line was -again and again thrown with the report, “no bottom.” But our -short line was no doubt the reason of our ill-success. The lake -is probably deep at its northern end, and it is certainly shallow -at its southern extremity, gradually changing into marsh. Some -of my missionary friends, who subsequently lived in Antsihànaka, -have described voyages across the southern end of the -Alaotra, where, amongst the dense growth of papyrus, rush, and -tall grasses, the only practicable paths for a canoe are dark -passages, almost tunnel-like, among the rank vegetation; and -where a stranger might easily be lost in the watery and reedy -wastes around him.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the present lake is but a small -remnant of a much larger one; for, at a not very distant -period, the water must have covered the whole plain of Antsihànaka, -thus forming a lake five or six times the size of the -present Alaotra. But at a yet earlier period still, this lake -extended for a hundred miles farther south, down the Ankay -plain, and for at least two hundred miles farther north, -forming an immense extent of water, not much unlike the -Tànganyika in Central Africa in size and outline, and of considerable -depth; for Mr Baron found numerous indications of -old shore-lines at elevations of eleven to twelve hundred feet -above the present level. Doubtless, the gradual lowering of -the valleys of the Mangòro to the south, and of the Màningòry -to the north-east, drained off this great lake, leaving only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -the present comparatively small sheet of water as its -representative.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BIRD LIFE</div> - -<p>To an ordinary observer the Alaotra lake presents a good -deal of bird life, as well as the large reptiles which bask in the -sun on its shores. But to those who will examine more closely -and will use a good microscope, there are minute forms of life, -both animal and vegetable, which are wonderful for their -beauty and their variety. Among the latter are the Algæ, of -which my late friend, Mr Baron, made a collection, mostly from -the neighbourhood of Alaotra, including a hundred and eighty -species, of which seventy proved to be new to science. In a -quarto pamphlet of fifty pages, with plates of two hundred -different figures, these fresh-water algæ were minutely described, -as belonging to thirteen different orders and thirty-one -genera.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> Many new and interesting species were thus revealed, -and considerable additional knowledge of the distribution of -known forms attained. Without actual inspection of the -plates it is difficult to give any clear notion of the various -remarkable, often strange, and frequently beautiful forms of -these lowly organised plants as revealed by the microscope. -The bi-lobed outlines of the <i>Cosmaria</i> are especially noticeable, -and hardly less so are the stellate, triangular and multangular -forms of other species. It is difficult to believe that some of -these remarkable organisms are plants at all; in many cases -they are more like some beautiful shell, delicately and elaborately -sculptured; while in others they take the form of a -simple cell—round, oval or triangular—often as if about to -increase by fissure; while others again have curious processes, -more like those of some grotesque polyp than anything belonging -to the vegetable kingdom. These plants are additional illustrations -of the wonders that lie hidden from ordinary observation -in the mud of almost every pond and in the slime that gathers -round almost every water-plant.</p> - -<p>It is a rather interesting fact that the crocodile found in the -Alaotra is a different species to that inhabiting all the rivers -of Madagascar; but it is identical with the crocodile found -fossil, together with the remains of the extinct hippopotamus -and the gigantic birds and lemurs which inhabited the island -probably until the appearance of man upon the scene. These -reptiles are very numerous in the lake, for in the afternoons, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> -the small rocky islets which rise only a little above the water, -the crocodiles are seen snapping at each other to get space to -bask in the sun. In the small streams flowing into Alaotra they -are numerous at all times of the day, so that if there are only -a few canoes, people dare not cross for fear of being upset. -Tortoises are also plentiful on the shores and islets of the lake. -Two species of water-lily are found in the water, one being -identical with the lotus of the Nile; besides these there are -numerous other water-plants, one being a twining plant, -called <em>Tsihìtafòtotra</em> (“the root not seen”), which twines about -other plants in all possible directions, clinging to them by -numerous little disks; and there are also two species of convolvulus -(<em>Ipomæa</em>), with large red flowers. Besides the masses -of papyrus (<em>zozòro</em>) and <em>hèrana</em> sedge, growing in the marshes -and shallow parts of the lake, a gigantic and handsome grass, -called <em>Bàraràta</em>, growing from twelve to fifteen feet high, is very -abundant. It would be taken by ordinary people for a species -of bamboo, for its size and the thickness of its jointed stem; its -sharp prickly leaf sheaths near the root make it very unpleasant -for the unshod feet of the natives. In and about the marshes -occur the <em>Jaboàdy</em>, a species of wild cat, and also a kind of muskrat, -both of strong scent.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MYTHICAL CREATURES</div> - -<p>There are certain mythical creatures firmly believed by the -Sihànaka to exist in Lake Alaotra. One of these is a monster -having seven heads and known as <em>Fanànim-pìto-lòha</em>. It is said -to be a sort of serpent, and when it lifts itself out of the water, -as it does occasionally, its head touches the sky! There are -also <em>Andrìambàviràno</em> (<em>lit.</em> “water-princesses”). These creatures, -though residing beneath the water, never get wet, as they -live in water-tight palaces. They are said to have hair reaching -down to the waist. Veritable water-nymphs these!</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A GRATIFYING CHANGE</div> - -<p>But to return to our journey, we landed at the foot of the hill -on which Ambòhitsòa, a village of about eighty houses, is built, -and mounted to the top by a steep pathway. Here a most -extensive and lovely view presented itself, I think <em>the</em> most -beautiful of its kind I had ever seen in Madagascar. The -lake lay before us, stretching far away to the southward in a -great rounded curve, and with its indented bays and island -fastness to the northward. The changing shades of purple and -blue of the water; the green of the plain beyond; and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -varied outline of hills and mountains in the far background to -west and north—all lit up by bright sunshine—made as charming -a picture as an artist could desire to transfer to canvas. But -we had little time to spare, and so after hastily taking bearings -we went to Màrosalàzana, the next village to the south, which -we could see on a high hill at three or four miles’ distance. On -entering the village, a place with about sixty houses, we found -a crowd of about four hundred people waiting to receive us. -These were not all inhabitants of the place, for many of them had -come from Ambòhitsòa to meet us. After a formal reception -by the authorities we found the school-children assembled on an -open raised space in the centre of the village, a group of nearly -a hundred altogether, dressed in their best. Many of the girls -had a peculiar kind of collar to their dress, consisting of seven -or eight massive silver chains of different patterns; they also -wore armlets of silver. Many of these children and young -people had most intelligent and pleasant faces. We heard them -read, and then I was delighted to find they knew the smaller -catechism well. I talked to them a little about it, and then -addressed a few words to the numbers of people crowded round -the children, speaking to them of the great love of God in sending -His Son. It was an interesting scene, and one we did not soon -forget: the bright intelligent group of children in the centre; -the crowd of wondering Sihànaka on each side; the little knots -of women in their dark blue dresses and silver ornaments; and -the lovely scene around us—all made a picture attractive in its -outward aspects, but still more interesting when one thought -of these people as seemingly prepared to welcome a fuller -teaching than they had yet received.</p> - -<p>The pleasant scene at this village, as well as what we had -witnessed at others, gave a cheering promise of what might be -expected were the people more thoroughly instructed. In a -short report supplied by Rabé, the native evangelist, he says -that when he first went to Antsihànaka, “only a person could -be found here and there who washed their clothes, for everyone’s -dress was smeared with castor-oil, and they thought it would -spoil their clothes to wash them, as they would soon be worn -out; so that the clothing of the people was offensive to the last -degree. For that reason the dark blue cotton was generally -worn, as it was nearly black to begin with. But now there is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> -hardly anyone who does not wash his clothes, and has not white -dress. Not long ago, when it was evening, the young men in -the villages used to form into two parties, and had violent -boxing-matches all through the village, the women also often -joining in the fray. But now no one practises this rough sport. -Not long ago rum was what the people chiefly delighted in; and -if any strangers who visited them were not made thoroughly -drunk, the owner of the house was looked upon as inhospitable, -although he gave them the best of everything to eat.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXPENSIVE FUNERALS</div> - -<p>We left Màrosalàzana at one o’clock, and found outside the -village something which gives the explanation of its name, -“many poles”—viz. a group of more than twenty poles stuck -in the ground close together, and holding ox skulls and horns. -This was the largest group we had yet seen, and there also were -many more lying mouldering on the ground. Besides these, -there were several very high poles with forked tops, such as -we had already seen at almost all the Sihànaka villages. These -lofty poles are called <em>jìro</em>, a word which in Hova Malagasy -signifies a “lamp.” We had already seen these on our journey -northwards, but here was a larger number than we had hitherto -met with. These <em>jìro</em> are only raised in memory of a <em>male</em> -Sihànaka; to eulogise a woman, the rush mats and baskets -which she made and possessed while living are arranged on poles -by the wayside to meet the public gaze. These people spend -a large amount of money and property on the funerals of their -relatives. Mr Pearse gives the following account of what was -expended at that of a man dying at a village called Màngalàza:—Thirty -silk <em>làmbas</em>, to wrap up the corpse, value two -hundred and sixty-nine dollars; a hundred oxen, value three -hundred dollars; drink and food, principally the former, -thirty-nine dollars’ worth; showing an expenditure of more -than six hundred dollars on this particular funeral. (At that -time a dollar was worth as much or more to the Malagasy as -a pound would be to us.)</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A WIDOW</div> - -<p>After returning home from Antsihànaka, I heard many other -particulars about the people and their habits, and among them -the following curious, and cruel, custom with regard to widows; -and as this is so utterly different from anything practised by any -other Malagasy tribe, as far as I am aware, it is well to put -it on record. It is much more like a Hindu custom than a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> -Malagasy one, and is as follows:—When the corpse of the -deceased husband is about to be buried, the widow is decorated -profusely with all the ornaments she possesses, wearing a -scarlet <em>làmba</em>, with beads and silver chains on her neck and -wrists and ankles, long ear-rings depending from her ears to -her shoulders, and silver ornaments on her head. Then she is -placed in the house, so that it may be seen by everyone how -her husband adorned her while he was yet living; and when -the people go away to the funeral, she remains still in the -house, and does not go to the grave. When the relatives and -friends have returned home and seen the widow sitting in her -grand clothing and ornaments, they rush upon her, tearing her -dress and violently pulling off her ornaments, so as to hurt her, -and say at the same time: “This is the cause of our losing our -relative”; for they believe that the <em>vìntana</em>—<em>i.e.</em> fate or luck -of the wife—is stronger than that of her husband and so has -caused his death. Then they give her a coarse <em>làmba</em>, a spoon -with a broken handle, and a round dish with the stand broken -off; her hair is dishevelled, and she is covered up with a coarse -mat; and under it she remains all day long, and can only leave -it at night; and whoever goes into the house, the widow may -not speak to them. She is not allowed to wash her face or her -hands, but only the tips of her fingers. She endures all this -sometimes for a year, or at least for eight months; and even -then, her time of mourning is not ended, but endures for a considerable -time afterwards. And she is not allowed to go home -to her own relatives until she has been divorced first by the -husband’s family.</p> - -<p>The house in which people die is left by the survivors, and -no one occupies it again; they do not pull it down, but let it -fall to pieces of itself, but they do not leave the village as do -the Sàkalàva in similar circumstances. Such houses are called -<em>tràno fòlaka</em> (“broken houses”); but I am informed that this -last custom is falling into disuse; and happily, the influence of -Christian teaching has caused the treatment of widows to be -greatly altered, so that it is now becoming a thing of the past.</p> - -<p>After leaving the “village of many poles,” our afternoon -journey was southward, first crossing several spurs of the higher -hills with their intermediate valleys; and then down a long -level tract of country between the lake and a bold wall-like line<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> -of hills, which here forms the eastern boundary of the plain. We -passed several large villages, and stopped for the night at a place -of forty or fifty houses, called Ambòhimànga.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">UNLUCKY DAYS</div> - -<p>In one of the villages situated in the dense papyrus thickets -which cover the marshes to the south of the lake, a place called -Ànoròro, lives a strange tribe of people who seem quite -isolated, not only in their dwelling-place, but also in their -barbarous habits, from the other Sihànaka, and who speak a -distinctly different dialect. In the rainy season, when the -water rises, it enters into the houses of these people, and they -then put together several layers of <em>zozòro</em> to form a kind of raft, -so that as the water rises, this raft rises with it. Upon these -<em>zozòro</em> they make their hearths and their beds; and there they -live, rising and falling with the water, until the rainy season is -over and they can live on the ground again. There are some -curious stories about the simplicity of these people and their -fathers, for they have no intercourse with anyone outside their -village except on a certain day, when they go out to sell the -fish they have caught. These people appear to have no fewer -than eight unlucky days in each month, so that during more -than a quarter of their time their superstition prevents them -from going about or engaging in any work.</p> - -<p>While speaking of unlucky days, it must be here noticed that -all over Antsihànaka, Thursday is considered as <em>fàdy</em> (tabooed), -and no one will work their rice-fields on that day. To build -brick or clay houses is not permitted, death being the supposed -penalty in case of transgression. To use hemp also, either in -the form of cloth, or for smoking, is also universally tabooed. -And besides the <em>fàdy</em> common to all Sihànaka, each family or -clan has inherited a set of <em>fàdy</em> of its own, so that in addition to -the universal abstinence from work on Thursday, there will be -another day of the week on which nothing may be taken out of -the house, the mats may not be swept, etc. Various foods and -actions, too numerous to particularise, are <em>fàdy</em> to certain -villages; while considered quite harmless in some places, they -would bring all manner of evil in others.</p> - -<p>On Thursday morning we set off again, and after two hours’ -journey along the east edge of the plain, left it and made a -straight course over the rice-fields for Ambàtondrazàka, leaving -the great semicircular bay to the east of the town on our left.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> -We got in at ten o’clock, all very wet with the heavy drizzle, -but we were soon comfortably settled in the chapel, and got -our things dried in the sun. We were again most kindly -received by the officers and the congregation there, but we were -obliged to leave soon, so as to get back to Antanànarìvo for some -important engagements. On consultation with our bearers, we -found that they were willing to make a long journey for a day -or two (encouraged also thereto by promises of an extra day’s -pay), so that we might get quickly over the uninhabited country, -and reach Anjozòrobé by Saturday afternoon. So we left Ambàtondrazàka -at midday and arrived at Màngantàny by sunset.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BEAUTY OF THE GRASS</div> - -<p>Again were we charmed with the varied scenery of the route, -and especially by the grasses, about which I have already spoken -in this chapter, and which Dr Mullens graphically describes in -a passage which may well conclude this account of our Antsihànaka -journey. He says:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“I received the impression, afterwards repeatedly confirmed, -that one of the most beautiful things to be -found in Madagascar is its grass. It is beautiful in the -sheltered valleys, where the tender blades, enriched by the -dew and the rain, are refreshing to the eye, and yield like -velvet to the foot. But here the grass is in its glory on the -great hills. Burnt year after year by long sweeping fires, it -springs up again with a profusion which clasps huge rocks within -its soft embrace. Here it is short but strong; there it rises in -vast tufts, each of which contains many thousand blades and -covers many feet of ground; and yet again it spreads over vast -patches of country in thick, tall masses, which tower above -men’s heads, open their tinted blades to the warm sun, and -wave their myriads of golden feathers in the summer winds. -And it is when we contemplate this rich but simple provision of -the divine bounty, when we watch these masses of slender -blades, each tuft a forest in itself, clothing with beauty what -man has neglected, laying up store for man and beast, opening -their golden hair to the dews by night and the warm winds by -day, and joyously revelling in the life given them from above, -that then we can, with Mr Ruskin, appreciate and share the -admiration and the praise given by the Psalmist to Him ‘Who -maketh the grass to grow upon the mountains.’”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">“NO MAN’S LAND”</div> - -<p>The following day we had a long journey over “no man’s -land,” taking provisions with us and stopping to dine by a -stream half-way, and reached Mandànivàtsy before nightfall. -Saturday morning we crossed the high ridge in the forest, -entering Imèrina again, and got to Anjozòrobé in good time in -the afternoon. After the fatigues of the week we had another -pleasant Sabbath, the first of the month, with the good people -there. Monday evening brought us to Ambòhitrérana, and a -couple of hours’ ride on Tuesday morning took us home to -Ambòhimànga in time for breakfast; thus completing in little -more than nineteen days our very interesting journey and -exploration.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Among the Sàkalàva, <em>Alaotra</em> means “ocean” or “sea,” so -that it is the sea-like sheet of water. <em>Cf.</em> the use of <em>Bahr</em> -among the Arabs, in <em>Bahr-Tabariyeh</em>, Sea of Tiberias, and <em>Bahr-Lut</em>, -Sea of Lot—Dead Sea.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> <cite>Trans. Linn. Soc.</cite>, vol. v., pt. 2 (<cite>Botany, 2nd Ser.</cite>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> It is a significant fact that the Malagasy word for “glory,” -“honour,” is <em>vòninàhitra</em>, which, literally translated, is “flower -of the grass.” Did this expression arise from the native -admiration of some of these beautiful grasses, similar to that -which so excited Dr Mullens’ delight when travelling in this -country.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">LAKE ITÀSY</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">MADAGASCAR is not at present one of those regions -of the earth where volcanic disturbances occur; but -there is ample evidence, from the numerous extinct -craters found in various parts of the island, that at a very -recent period, geologically considered—possibly even within the -occupation of the country by its present inhabitants—it was -the theatre of very extensive outbursts of subterranean -energy. The whole island has not yet been examined with -sufficient minuteness to determine the exact extent of these -old volcanoes, but they have been observed from near the -south-east coast in South Latitude 28°, and in various -parts of the centre of the island up to the north-west -and extreme north, a distance of six hundred and eighty -miles; and probably a more complete survey would reveal -other links connecting more closely what is, as at present -known, only a series of isolated groups of extinct craters. -In the central provinces of Madagascar there are two large -clusters of old volcanic cones and vents: one of them in -about the same latitude as the capital (19° South), but -from fifty to seventy miles away to the west of it, in -the neighbourhood of Lake Itàsy; the other in the district -called Vàkinankàratra, situated about eighty miles to the -south-south-west of Antanànarìvo, and south-west of the great -central mountain mass of Ankàratra.</p> - -<p>This second volcanic region stretches from twenty to thirty -miles from Antsìrabé away west to Bétàfo and beyond it, and -contains numerous and prominent extinct craters, some of -which have been described by the graphic pen of the late Dr -Mullens in his “Twelve Months in Madagascar” (pp. 214-219). -The doctor says that he counted in this southern group about -sixty cones and craters.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A MAGNIFICENT VIEW</div> - -<p>The Itàsy just referred to is a lake situated about fifty-five<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -miles west of Antanànarìvo, and is about five miles long from -east to west, and three miles from north to south. It is irregularly -square in outline, several small headlands breaking up its -shores into little bays; while to the north, where the river -Lilìa takes its overflow to the sea, is a long extension or arm -of the lake, curving round a mountain, which proves to be an -old volcano. Seen from the east, as I approached it from the -capital, it appeared as if in a depression of the general surface, -and its waters were of a lovely blue. A still finer view of it is -obtained from a mountain called Ambòhimiangàra, which is -about three miles distant from it to the north-east. This is by -far the highest point for a long distance around the lake; and -as we proceeded towards it during our two days’ journey from -Antanànarìvo, its great rounded mass gradually rose and -dominated the whole landscape.</p> - -<p>A late friend of mine, who resided long in the district, wrote -of Ambòhimiangàra as “a kingly hill, higher by head and -shoulders than any other near it, its crown of white stones -rising some eighteen hundred feet above the lake lying blue at its -feet. The view from the summit was magnificent, the centre -of the whole being the lovely Itàsy embosomed in its bright -green hills, a pearl encircled with emeralds, with mountains -upon mountains in every direction as far as eye could reach. -Fierce thunderstorms were being marshalled hither and thither, -and could be counted by the half-dozen wherever the eye turned. -The whole mountain is a mass of quartz; where the rocks -protrude it is toned down to silver-grey by lichens, but where -the rain has washed it away, it appears as coarse sand and -pebbles of the purest white, with an occasional speck of pink.... We -had a good ride, after our descent, along the north-western -arm of the lake. This end of Itàsy, forming, as it were, -a little lake by itself, and reflecting the deep blue and white of -the sky above it, lay calm in the bright sunshine, encircled by -the green hills, while clusters of houses, embowered in peach and -other trees, grouped themselves around its shores. Here and -there a canoe’s dark line among the sedges showed where the -fisher was at work with hook and line; and across the meadow -to the right, a herd of cattle was slowly wending its way to fresh -pastures. Altogether, it formed a most inviting subject for a -picture.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span></p> - -<p>Some way down the river flowing from the north-western arm -of the lake is a very beautiful waterfall. The river, broken into -three streams, falls in foaming white masses over a ledge of -black lava, some fifty feet deep. The whole bed of the river for -a mile above is of the same black character, the lava broken into -innumerable blocks and setting off the vivid colour of the -verdure on the river banks. The people say that Itàsy was -once only a huge swamp, and its becoming a clear lake is within -the memory, or perhaps the traditions, of the inhabitants. -Other legends relate that the lake was formed by a Vazìmba -chieftain, named Rapèto, damming up the river flowing from -the swamp; and so the rice-fields of a neighbouring chief, with -whom he was at variance, were flooded and have ever since -remained under water. There is doubtless an element of truth -in this latter account; but the chieftain, also supposed to be a -giant, was not a human being, but a volcano, which broke out -at the north-western corner and dammed up the river for a long -period, as shown by the lava in its bed, as just described. The -river has now cut its way several feet through the barrier which -was thus thrown across its course.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FLAMINGOES</div> - -<p>I spent several hours one day in a canoe on the lake with a -friend, shooting wild duck (my first and my last exploit in this -line). We found birds very abundant on the water, and in the -swamps and rank vegetation along the shores. Flamingoes, -with their white plumage and pink tinge pervading the whole -under part of the wings, are fairly common here, and are said to -be extremely good eating. The native name for this bird, -<em>Sàmaka</em>, is appropriate and descriptive, as it means “disjointed,” -“split,” referring to its immensely long legs. It is also called -<em>Amjòmbona</em>, from its trumpeting cry, this being also the native -name for a large species of triton shell used as a trumpet. An -adult male bird stands more than four feet high; and when on -the defensive these birds make quite a loud noise by sharply -opening and closing their beaks, which are long and powerful. -When on the wing, they fly exceedingly high.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RAIL</div> - -<p>Among the many birds frequenting this lake and the neighbourhood -are the purple water-hens, of which three species are -found in Madagascar. They are of a rich bluish-purple colour, -and have a very powerful beak, with which they easily root up -the Hèrana sedge, when growing on the edge of the lake in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> -shallow water. They do this for the sake of the tender rootlets, -and perhaps also for insects. Of the jacanas, two species are -found here; with their extremely long toes they walk easily -upon the large leaves of aquatic plants, seeking for the water-insects -which form their food. They dive with great ease and -are therefore very difficult to shoot. Six or seven species of -rail have been observed in the island; the most common one -(<i>Rallus gularis</i>) is regarded with great respect, as it is believed -to bring rain in dry weather. Its loud whistling and tremulous -cry is heard chiefly towards evening. These birds are said to be -so careful of their eggs and young that they may easily be taken -by the hand from the nest. M. Pollen says: “I once saw a -hen-bird who would not quit the space near her nest, but kept -walking around it, ruffling her feathers, and dragging her wings -on the ground, in the same way as our domestic hen does when -defending her young. Other birds common to the marshy -districts are crested coots, curlews, snipe and plovers. Two -species of birds peculiar to Madagascar, for whom a special -family had to be formed, can only be spoken of by their scientific -name of <i>Mesites</i>; they are very curious and specialised birds, -taking their place between the rails and the herons.” According -to the native accounts, when the nests of these mesites, -which are mostly placed on a low situation, are flooded, the -parent birds drag them to where they will be free from injury -by the water. If anyone takes their young, they follow them -into the village; and on account of this love for their offspring -they are considered sacred (<em>fàdy</em>), because, say the natives, -they are in this like human beings.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HOT MINERAL WATERS</div> - -<p>Not very far to the east of the second group of old volcanoes -mentioned above is the large village of Antsìrabé (“much -salt”), which is about seventy-five miles south-west of Antanànarìvo, -and is now on the automobile road to the Bétsiléo -province. At this place one of the chief springs is largely -charged with lime, which has formed an extensive deposit all -over a small level valley sunk some twenty feet below the -general level of the plain around the village. For a long time -this place furnished almost all the lime used for building in the -capital and in the central province of Imèrina. Besides the -deposit over the floor of the valley, there was also a compact -ridge-shaped mass of lime accretion, seventy feet long by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span> -eighteen to twenty feet wide, and about fifteen or sixteen feet -high. This had all been deposited by the spring, which kept -open a passage through the lime to the top. Some years ago, -however, the spring was tapped by a shaft, of no great depth, a -few yards to the north, over which a large and commodious -bath-house was erected by the Norwegian Lutheran Mission; -and here many visitors came to bathe in the hot mineral water, -which has been found very beneficial in rheumatic and other -complaints.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> A little distance to the south-west is another -spring, not, however, hot, but only milk-warm, the water of -which is drunk by those who bathe in the other spring. This -water has been shown to be, in chemical constituents, almost -identical with the famous Vichy water of France. All over the -valley the water oozes up in various places; and about half-a-mile -farther north are several other springs, somewhat hotter -than that just described, to which the natives largely resort -for curative bathing.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXTINCT HIPPOPOTAMI</div> - -<p>During the excavations for the foundations of the bath-house, -the skeletons of several examples of an extinct species of -hippopotamus were discovered, the crania and tusks being in -very perfect preservation. Some of these are now in the -museum at Berlin; the finest specimen was sent to the museum -of the University of Christiania in Norway. This Madagascar -hippopotamus was a smaller species than that now living in -Africa, and is probably nearly allied to, if not identical with, -another hippopotamus (<i>H. Lemerlei</i>), of which remains were -found in 1868 by M. Grandidier, in the plains of the south-west -coast. I was informed by the people that, wherever in these -valleys the black mud is dug into for a depth of three or four feet, -bones are sure to be met with. From the internal structure -of the teeth and bones of the hippopotami discovered at Antsìrabé, -traces of the gelatine being still visible, it is evident that -the animals had been living at a comparatively recent period. -There have been occasional vague reports of the existence of -some large animal in the southern parts of the island; and -perhaps the half-mythical stories of the <em>Sòngòmby</em>, <em>Tòkandìa</em>, -<em>Làlomèna</em>, and other strange creatures current among the -Malagasy, are traditions of the period when these pachyderms -were still to be seen in the lakes and streams and marshes of -Madagascar.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span></p> - -<p>Besides the remains of hippopotami, Mr Rosaas, for many -years a missionary of the Norwegian Society, and stationed at -Antsìrabé, obtained considerable quantities of the bones of -extinct gigantic birds. It is about eighty years ago (<em>circa</em> -1834 and 1835) since it became known to naturalists, through -the discovery of portions of massive leg-bones and fragments of -enormous eggs, that there was evidence of the former existence -in Madagascar of large birds. For a quarter-century after that -date, the dislike of the heathen queen to all foreign influence -prevented fuller investigations of a scientific character. But -since the year 1861 further researches, and excavations made -in widely separated localities, have shown that several species -of these great birds existed until a comparatively recent period -in many parts of the island. It was evident that they were -flightless, and were allied to the ostrich, and still more closely -to the recently extinct <i>Dinornis</i> of New Zealand. The generic -name of <i>Æpyornis</i> was given to these birds, of which several -species were discovered, ranging in size from that of a bustard -to a bird exceeding an ostrich in height and also in the massive -character of the skeleton. The largest species was accordingly -named <i>Æpyornis maximus</i>. Subsequently, the remains of still -larger birds were discovered and these were called <i>Æ. titan</i> and -<i>Æ. ingens</i>, the largest of them being about ten feet in height. -More recent and exact examination has shown that the <em>twelve</em> -species which had been formed must be reduced to a smaller -number, as some of the lesser kinds have been proved to be -young and immature forms of the larger species. From the -collection of hundreds of bones, and, in a very few cases, complete -skeletons, it is now clear that several species of these great -birds once roamed over the marshes and valleys of Madagascar, -as the ostrich does still in Africa, and the cassowary in Australia -and some East Indian islands.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXTINCT ANIMALS</div> - -<p>The egg of one of the species, probably of the largest one, is -the largest of all known eggs, its longer axis being twelve and -a quarter inches, and the shorter one nine and three-eighths -inches; it thus had a capacity equal to six ostrich eggs, and to -one hundred and forty-eight of those of the domestic fowl.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> -From the marks of cutting with a sharp instrument seen on -some of the bones, it seems highly probable that these great -birds, as well as the hippopotamus, gigantic tortoises, and other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -animals, were living when the first human inhabitants of the -island appeared upon the scene; and doubtless this was also -the reason of the disappearance of both birds and beasts, as -they were hunted and used for food.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Since the French occupation this bath-house has been -removed, and the mass of lime accretion has been broken up -for use.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> The following appeared in <cite>Punch</cite>, 22nd July 1893:—</p> - -<p>“<em>Good Egg-sample!</em>—One egg was sold the other day for -£160, 18s., <em>vide</em> <cite>Times</cite> of Wednesday last. The egg was a perfect -specimen of that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rara avis in terris</i>, the gigantic <i>Æpyornis -maximus</i> of Madagascar. What did Mr Stevens do with it? -Did he have it made into several omelettes for a breakfast party -of a dozen? Of course it was a perfectly fresh egg, and the -only thing at all high about it was the price.”</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">VOLCANIC DISTRICT</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">WITHIN a few miles of Antsìrabé are two crater lakes. -The nearer and larger of these is called Andraikìba, -which lies distant about four miles due west. This -is a beautiful sheet of water, blue as the heavens in colour, in -shape an irregular square, but curving round to the north-west, -where it shallows into a marsh, which is finally absorbed in rice-fields. -The lake is said to be of profound depth, but the hills -surrounding it are not very lofty, rising only about two hundred -feet above the surface of the water, from which they ascend -steeply. Fish and water-fowl, and crocodiles also, are very -abundant in and on its waters.</p> - -<p>But the most interesting natural curiosity to be seen in the -neighbourhood of Antsìrabé is the crater-lake of Trìtrìva. -This is situated about ten miles to the south-west, a pleasant -ride of two hours by palanquin. Travelling at first in a westerly -direction, the road then turns more to the south-west, and skirts -the southern foot of the old volcano of Vòhitra. Passing about -a mile or two south of the high ground round the southern -shores of the Andraikìba lake, the road gradually ascends to a -higher level of country, so that in about an hour and a half’s -time we are nearly as high as the top of Vòhitra—probably -about five hundred feet. Reaching a ridge between two -prominent hills, we catch our first sight of Trìtrìva, now from -two to three miles distant in front of us. From this point it -shows very distinctly as an oval-shaped hill, its longest axis -lying north and south, and with a great depression in its centre, -the north-eastern edge of the crater wall being the lowest part -of it, from which point it rises gradually southwards and westwards, -the western edge being at the centre from two to three -times the height of the eastern side. To the north are two -much smaller cup-like hills, looking as if the volcanic forces, after -the main crater had been formed, had become weaker and so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -been unable to discharge any longer by the old vent, and had -therefore formed two newer outlets at a lower level.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN OLD VOLCANO</div> - -<p>Descending a little from the ridge just mentioned, we cross a -valley with a good many scattered hamlets, and in less than -half-an-hour reach the foot of the hill. A few minutes’ pull up -a tolerably easy slope, perhaps two hundred feet in height, -brings up to the top, at the lowest part of the crater edge; and -on reaching the ridge the crater of the old volcano and its lake -is before us, or, rather, below us. It is certainly an extraordinary -scene. The inner sides of the crater dip down very -steeply on all sides to a deep gulf, and here, sharply defined by -perpendicular cliffs all round it, except just at the southern -point, is a rather weird-looking dark green lake far below us, -the water surface being probably from two hundred to three -hundred feet lower than the point we are standing upon, and -consequently below the level of the surrounding country. The -lake, exactly shut in by the cliffs of the crater surrounding it, is -not blue in colour, like Andraikìba, although under a bright and -cloudless sky, but a deep and somewhat blackish-green. It -must look, one would suppose, like ink under a stormy sky or in -the shadows of evening.</p> - -<p>We sit down to rest and try to take in all the details of this -novel picture. It is undoubtedly an old volcano we are now -looking down into; the spot on which we rest is only a few feet -in breadth, and we can see that this narrow knife-edge is the -same all round the crater. Outside of it the slope is pretty easy, -but inside it descends steeply, here and there precipitously, to -the edge of the cliffs which so sharply define the actual vent -and, as distinctly, the lake which they enclose. Looking -southwards, the crater edge gradually ascends, winding round -the southern side, and still ascending as the eye follows it to the -western, the opposite side, where the crater wall towers steeply -up from two hundred to three hundred feet higher than it does -on the east, where we are standing. The lake we judge to be -about eight hundred to nine hundred feet long and two hundred -to two hundred and fifty feet wide, forming a long oval, with -pointed ends. The cliffs which enclose it appear to be from -forty to fifty feet in height, whitish in colour, but with black -streaks, where the rain, charged with carbonic acid, has poured -more plentifully down their faces. These cliffs are vertical and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -in some places overhang the water, and from their apparently -horizontal stratification are no doubt of gneiss rock. In coming -up the hill I noticed a few small lumps of gneiss among the -basaltic lava pebbles. The strongest feature of Trìtrìva is the -sharply defined vertical opening of the vent, looking as if the -rocks had been cut <em>clean through</em> with an enormous chisel, and -as if they must dip down—as is the case—to profound depths -below the dusky green waters. At the northern end of the lake -is a deep gorge or cleft, partly filled with bushes and other -vegetation. Southward of this, on the eastern side, the cliffs -are still lofty and overhang the water, but at about a third of -the lake’s length they gradually decrease in height, and at the -southern point they dip down to the level of the lake, so that at -that part only can the water be approached. On the western -side the cliffs keep a pretty uniform height all along the whole -length.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE CRATER</div> - -<p>So steep is the inward slope of the crater walls that we all -experienced a somewhat “eerie” feeling in walking along the -footpath at its edge; for at a very few feet from this a false step -would set one rolling downwards, with nothing to break the -descent to the edge of the cliffs, and then to the dark waters -below. Yet there was a strange fascination in the scene, and -the variety and contrast and depth of the colours would make -the Trìtrìva lake and slopes a striking subject for a painting -from many different points along its crater wall. When we -arrived, the sun, yet wanting an hour and a half of noon, was -still lighting up the grey-white stone of the western cliffs, but -the shadows were every minute growing more intense as the sun -became more nearly vertical. Far below us was the deep green -oval lake; above it, the stratified gneiss cliffs with their black -streaks, diversified here and there by patches of bright green -bush. Then again from their edges sweep steeply upwards -the grey-green sides of the crater, culminating in the lofty -western ridge opposite to us. And over all was the blue sky -flecked with cirrus clouds; altogether a scene such as I -have seen nowhere else in Madagascar, or indeed in any other -country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A ROMANCE</div> - -<p>After fixing in our minds the view from the north-east, we -proceeded southwards along the crater edge to the higher part -at the south-east, where the view is equally striking, and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> -depth of the great chasm seems still more profound. Here -we waited some time, while most of our men went down to one -of the hamlets in the plain to the east to get their meal, in which -quest, however, they had only poor success. On expressing a -wish to taste the Trìtrìva water, one of our bearers took a glass, -and descending by a breakneck path, went to fetch some water -from the lake. He was so long away that we were beginning to -feel uneasy, but after a quarter of an hour he reappeared with -the water, which tasted perfectly sweet and good. He also -entertained us with some of the legends which were certain -to have grown up about so weird-looking a place as Trìtrìva. -Pointing to two or three small trees or bushes growing on the -face of the cliffs near the northern point of the lake, he told us -these were really a young lad and lass who had become attached -to each other; but the hard-hearted parents of the girl disapproving -of the match, the youth took his loin-cloth, and -binding it round his sweetheart and his own body, precipitated -her with himself into the dark waters. They became, so it is -said, two trees growing side by side, and they now have offspring, -for a young tree is growing near them; and in proof -of the truth of this story, he said that if you pinch or break -the branches of these trees, it is not sap which exudes, but -blood. He appeared to believe firmly in the truth of this -story.</p> - -<p>He also told us that the people of a clan called Zànatsàra, -who live in the neighbourhood, claim some special rights in the -Trìtrìva lake; and when any one of their number is ill they -send to see if the usually clear dark green of the water is becoming -brown and turbid. If this is the case they believe it to be a -presage of death to the sick person.</p> - -<p>Another legend makes the lake the former home of one of the -mythical monsters of Malagasy folk-lore, the <em>Fanànim-pìto-lòha</em> -or “seven-headed serpent.” But for some reason or other he -grew tired of his residence, and shifted his quarters to the more -spacious and brighter lodgings for seven-headed creatures -afforded by the other volcanic lake of Andraikìba.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2181_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2181_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Water-Carriers</span><br /> - -The woman with a baby on her back has a full pitcher simply balanced on her head</div> -</div> - -<p>This same bearer assured us that in the rainy season—contrary -to what one would have supposed—the water of the lake -diminishes, but increases again in the dry season. He told us -that there is an outlet to the water, which forms a spring to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> -north of the mountain. I noticed a white line a foot or two -above the surface of the water all round the foot of the cliffs, -showing a probably higher level than at the time of our visit. -It was popularly supposed to be unfathomable, but some years -after my visit the Rev. Johannes Johnson, of the Norwegian -Mission, sounded the lake in three places. The deepest portion -was found to be at the northern end, where it proved to be -four hundred and seventy-four feet in depth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A MAGNIFICENT VIEW</div> - -<p>Walking round to the southern end of the crater edge, the -lake, here foreshortened, has a somewhat close resemblance in -outline to that of the lake of Galilee, as seen on maps; but -I must confess that the first sight of it in its deep chasm made -me think much more of the other lake of Palestine, the Dead -Sea, in its profound gorge between the Judean hills and the -highlands of Moab. After making a slight pencil sketch or two, -I proceeded up the far higher saddle-back ridge on the western -side. Here the lake seems much diminished in size and lying -far down at an awful depth. But a magnificent and extensive -view is gained of the surrounding country: the long flat-topped -lines of hill to the east running many miles north and -south, and surmounted directly east by the two perfect cones -of old volcanoes; the peaked and jagged range of Vòlombòrona -to the south-east; the enormous mass of Ibity to the -south, and then west, a flat region broken by abrupt hills. -To the north-west are the thickly populated valleys towards -Bétàfo, with many a cup-shaped hill and mountain marking -old volcanic vents; and beyond this a high mass of country -with serrated outline against the sky, showing the district of -Vàvavàto; and finally, coming to due north, is the varied -grouping of the hills, which form the southern termination of -the central mountain mass of Ankàratra. Between us and -these again is the extensive plain of Antsìrabé, with the white -walls and gables of the church and the mission buildings plainly -visible in the bright sunhsine, although ten or twelve miles -distant—altogether, a panorama long to be remembered. -From this point also the significance and appropriateness of the -name given to the old volcano is clearly seen; for Trìtrìva is -apparently a combination of the words <em>trìtry</em>, a word used to -describe the ridge on the back of a chameleon or a fish, and -<em>ìva</em>, low, deep; so that the name very happily describes the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> -long steep western ridge or crater wall, and the deep chasm -sweeping down from it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE VOLCANIC DISCHARGE</div> - -<p>It may just be said further, that the slopes of the crater both -inside and out are covered with turf, which grows on a dark -brown volcanic soil, mingled with rounded pebbles of greenish -or purple lava, very compact and close in structure, and containing -minute crystals scattered sparingly through it. Occasional -blocks of this are found round the edge of the crater -wall, and the same rock crops out at many places on the steep -inner slopes. I did not notice any vesicular lava or scoria; -and at a little homestead not far from the north-eastern foot of -Trìtrìva, I was surprised to find the <em>hàdy</em> or fosse dug to twelve -or fourteen feet deep almost entirely through the red clay or -earth found all through the central regions of the island. The -dark brown volcanic soil, here seen in section, appeared to be -only eighteen inches deep, with layers of small pebbles. So -that the discharge of the volcanic dust and ash appears to have -extended only a short distance from the mountain; at least it -does not appear to have been very deep, unless, indeed, there -has been much denudation. It must be remembered, however, -that this point is to the windward side of the hill; probably -the volcanic soil is deeper to the west of it. The much -greater height of the western wall of the crater is no doubt -due to the prevailing easterly winds carrying the bulk of the -ejected matter to the west, and piling it up to two or three -times the height of the eastern side. After seeing the amount -of gneiss rock which must have been blown out of the vent, I -expected to have found much greater quantities of it, and in -larger blocks, than the very few and small fragments actually -seen on the outer slopes. The greater portion, however, is -probably covered up under the quantities of volcanic dust and -<em>lapilli</em> which were subsequently ejected.</p> - -<p>Trìtrìva, it will be evident from this slight sketch, will -greatly interest those who have a taste for geology and physical -geography; while its peculiar and somewhat awe-striking -beauty makes it equally worthy of a visit from the artist and -the lover of the picturesque. Certainly it became photographed -upon our memory with a distinctness which rendered it a vivid -mental picture for many a day afterwards.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VOLCANO OF ANKÀRATRA</div> - -<p>Returning northward from Antsìrabé towards the neighbourhood<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> -of Itàsy, we have to pass to the westward of the great -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">massif</i> of Ankàratra; and the summits of this mountain mass -being the highest points in the centre of the island, a short -space must be devoted to a brief description of it. From the -capital, Ankàratra is the most prominent object in the landscape -to the south-west, rising by easy gradients to about twice -the elevation of the general level of Imèrina, and three or four -points showing distinctly against the sky, although they are -from forty to forty-five miles distant. The highest point is -called Tsiàfajàvona (“that which the mists cannot climb”), -and is eighty-six hundred and thirty-five feet above sea-level. -There is no doubt that the whole mountain is an -ancient volcano, for the rock which has been poured out as -lava from it is a black olivine basalt. One peak, to the east, -consists of mica-trachyte; and at its northern foot there is an -exposure of augite-andesite rock. “Seen from Antanànarìvo, -the mountain of Ankàratra seems to be one almost uniform -mass, but when actually there, it resolves itself into deep -ravines, enormous spurs, conspicuous peaks, and isolated or -continuous mountain masses. The spurs, which run out like -so many fingers in all directions, and to great lengths from -the main body of the mountain, do not represent so many -lava flows, but have been formed by the numerous streams -which have excavated the deep and wide valleys between -them.”</p> - -<p>The amount of lava that has issued from Ankàratra, says -Mr Baron, is truly astounding, reaching in places to a depth -of twelve hundred to fourteen hundred feet, and occasionally -to as much as two thousand feet. Occasionally the basalt -assumes a columnar form; but everywhere the surface of the -lava is decomposed into soil. This, and the apparent absence of -all craters on and around the mountain, seems to point to a -long period having elapsed since the volcano was active, probably -several centuries. When on the highest point of the mountain, -there appear to be two ranges of summits; which lie in -the form of a cross, the intersection being marked by a small -cone. On the south-western slopes are considerable remains -of forest, which probably in former times covered a large proportion -of the present bare highland of the interior of Madagascar. -It is by no means easy to get natives to go with one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> -to these lofty points. They are afraid of the vengeance of the -spirits of the mountains, who will punish all who dare invade -their territories.</p> - -<p>In one of the valleys to the west of the Ankàratra <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">massif</i> -there is a river called Antsèsika, which is quite lost to sight -and sound for about a mile and a quarter. It disappears under -a mass of enormous gneiss boulders, which have filled up the -valley of the river, so that the stream runs for a considerable -distance at an immense depth below the general level. In the -upper part of its course, this river passes over a series of grand -falls before diving deep into the earth, as just described. Its -name of Antsèsika is very appropriate, as it means “that -which is thrust in.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXTINCT LEMUROID ANIMALS</div> - -<p>Some members of the extinct fauna of Madagascar (Æpyornis, -hippopotamus and crocodile) have been already noticed, -but we must here mention other discoveries made within the -last few years. About twenty years ago a skull, in a sub-fossil -condition, was discovered on the south-west of the island, and -proved to be that of a gigantic form of lemuroid animal. This -skull is very much larger and longer than those of any existing -lemurs (which are fairly globular in shape), and belonged to a -creature more like a gorilla in size and strength. More recently, -at a place called Ampàsambazìmba, which is five miles north of -Itàsy, the remains of a number of species (fourteen or fifteen) -of extinct lemuroid animals have been discovered; in fact -this spot seems like the burial-ground of a whole fauna now -entirely passed away, and probably quite recently; for Dr -Standing, who conducted the excavations, thinks that not -more than five centuries have elapsed since some at least of -these animals were living. Several new species of apparently -quite distinct genera have been disinterred; they are mostly -larger than any existing lemuroid; and some of them form -links between the true monkeys and the lemurs—families of -primates now very distinct from each other. Some of these -newly discovered creatures seem, from the position of the -nostrils, eyes and ears (like those of the hippopotamus), to have -been adapted to a partially aquatic life. There is abundant -evidence of the former existence of extensive lakes in the surrounding -country, where now there is only marsh or dry land. -Others of these extinct animals were arboreal; and from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> -remains of leaves and branches, together with bones, not to -mention other evidence, there is no doubt that much of what -is now open down and bare hill was formerly covered with -forest. There was therefore appropriate habitat for them all; -and their needs, whether in water or on the trees, would be -met by the former conditions of the country. It seems highly -probable that the physical changes of the interior have been the -chief cause of the extinction of so many living creatures, although -the advent of man upon the scene may have hastened -the process.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">PHYSICAL CHANGES</div> - -<p>As this chapter necessarily touches less on popular and more -on scientific matters than the rest of this book, a few more -words may be added on the palæontology and geology of -Madagascar. Besides those extinct creatures already spoken -of, remains of gigantic tortoises have been discovered; also -species of swine and river-hog; an ox differing from the existing -cattle of the country, and a large rail and a goose exceeding in -size any living species. All these belonged to the Quaternary -and Recent geological epochs. But far back in the period -of the Secondary rocks a species of sloth lived in the forests, -old forms of crocodile lived in the rivers; and there were three -at least of those gigantic lizards which were the largest of all -known land animals, and were the master existences of the -Jurassic period.</p> - -<p>To sum up in a sentence or two the salient features of Madagascar -geology, it may be said that the whole eastern part of the -island from north to south, comprising probably about three-fifths -of the entire area, is composed of crystalline rocks—gneiss, -granite, mica-schist, etc. But the western two-fifths of its -surface consists chiefly of Secondary strata, including chalk -and sandstones and limestones of the Jurassic and Cretaceous, -periods, as well as a smaller area of rocks of the Eocene and -Oligocene eras. A fringe of Quaternary deposits is also found -along a great part of the west coast. It is evident, therefore, -that the western side of the island has been repeatedly under -the sea during the geological periods just mentioned, leaving the -upper highland of ancient rocks as an island not half the extent -of the present Madagascar. It has quite recently been found -that a narrow edging of chalk rock extends for about one hundred -and twenty miles on the central part of the east coast.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> -Plutonic rocks are found in several places in both the great -geological divisions of the island, and also many outflows of -volcanic rocks, of a much more recent date.</p> - -<p>We have already spoken of the two principal groups of -extinct craters which exist in the central portion of Madagascar. -In the more southerly of these groups, Dr Mullens speaks of an -ascent of Ivòko, one of the finest old volcanoes, which is eleven -hundred and thirty feet high. This, he says, “was a vast -crater, a quarter of a mile across; the encircling wall was -complete except at the south, where the opening was fifty feet -wide. Beneath us, half-a-mile to the east, was another crater, -Iatsìfitra, second only to Ivòko, with its opening to the north. -On the north-west shoulder of Ivòko were two other large -craters, overhanging the village of Bétàfo, two more were -close by to the north-east, and others were conspicuous ten -miles to the north. On the south again were several others, -the horseshoe shape being very marked in them all. Descending -to the crater of Iatsìfitra, we observed that the lava rocks -which had issued from it were black, sharp and fresh, as if they -had been broken yesterday. On the plain I counted thirty -greater piles of lava, like ruined fortresses, and numberless -smaller ones. It was clear that like the Phlegræan fields in -Italy, the entire plain had at some time been on fire; and that -a hundred jets of flame and molten lava had spurted from its -surface, hurling their blazing rockets into the sky. Altogether, -in our journey to the west and south-west of the capital, we -counted a hundred extinct craters, extending over an arc of -ninety miles.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A VOLCANIC BELT</div> - -<p>Madagascar appears, therefore, to be the extinct central -portion of a volcanic belt which extends from Great Comoro -to the north-west, through the other islands of the group, -Nòsibé and northern and central Madagascar, to Réunion to -the east, a distance of thirteen hundred and sixty miles. And -it is noteworthy that at each extremity of this belt there is a -still active volcano—viz. Piton de Fournaise, in Réunion, and -one eighty-five hundred feet high in Great Comoro.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EARTHQUAKES</div> - -<p>As a country showing numerous traces of volcanic disturbance, -Madagascar is almost every year visited by shocks of -earthquake. Happily these are not of a severe character, -and little damage is usually done; although often a strange<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> -subterranean roar accompanies them and a tremor of several -seconds’ duration. The Malagasy still remember a rather severe -earthquake which happened many years ago and detached a -large mass of rock from the cliffs on the precipitous west side -of the ridge on which Antanànarìvo is built. In September -1879 a severe shock, felt most in the Vònizòngo district, was -experienced, and lasted for at least thirty seconds; this was -accompanied by a loud rumbling sound, as of violent thunder, -and in places the ground was split up by the shaking. In the -year 1897, again, slight shocks were very numerous, and on -some days and nights the earth appeared to have been in a -constant state of tremor. These earth movements were felt -more especially in the region of old volcanic disturbance about -Lake Itàsy, where hundreds of slight shocks were experienced -during seven or eight months. On the night of 2nd November -four or five sharp movements occurred, one of which was more -violent than anything remembered by the Malagasy, and -wakened the whole population of the capital and around it in -alarm. Chimney-stacks were thrown down, walls were cracked -and ceilings damaged. This earthquake appears to have been -felt over a very wide extent of country, from Tamatave and -the east coast to Mèvatanàna away north-west, and as far as -the Bétsiléo province in the south. It had the effect of stopping -temporarily the mineral spring at Antsìrabé, which is so exactly -like Vichy water; although, curiously enough, the hot-water -springs, within a few yards of the other, were not affected. In -the Ifànja marsh, a few miles from Itàsy, a small mud geyser -is said to have appeared.</p> - -<p>I will conclude this chapter, in which much has been said of -extinct forms of existence, by a glimpse at the ancient animal -life of the island. Let us try to sum up these in a few sentences.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GLIMPSES OF THE PAST</div> - -<p>It seems probable that Madagascar, when the first representatives -of mankind occupied it, was a country much more fully -covered by lakes and marshes, and also by forest, than it is at -present. In these waters, amid vast cane-brakes and swamps of -papyrus and sedge, wallowed and snorted herds of hippopotami; -huge tortoises crawled over the low lands on their margins; -tall ostrich-like birds, some over ten feet high, and others no -larger than bustards, stalked over the marshy valleys; great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span> -rails hooted and croaked among the reeds, and clouds of large -geese and other water-fowl flew screaming over the lakes; -on the sand-banks crocodiles lay by scores basking in the sun; -great ape-like lemurs climbed the trees and caught the birds; -troops of river-hogs swam the streams and dug up roots among -the woods; and herds of slender-legged zebu-oxen grazed -on the open downs. These were the animals which the first -wild men hunted with their palm-bark spears, and shot with -their arrows tipped with burnt clay or stone.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<p>And as we look further back through long-past geological -ages, when the clays and sandstones of the oolite, and the -white masses of the chalk were being deposited in the coral-studded -tropic seas and archipelagoes of Europe and other -parts of the world, and when Madagascar was probably no -island, but a peninsula of Eastern Africa, the mist opens for a -moment, and we see vast reptile forms dimly through the haze; -great slender-snouted gavials in the streams and lakes, sloths -moving slowly along the branches of the trees, and huge -dinosaurs, sixty to eighty feet long, crawling over the -wooded plains, and tearing down whole trees with their -powerful arms.</p> - -<p>Such are some glimpses of the Madagascar of the past which -the study of its rocks and fossils already opens to the mental -eye. We may confidently look for further light upon the dim -and distant bygone ages as we learn more of the geology of the -country. The thick curtain which at present shrouds the old-world -times will be yet more fully lifted, and we shall probably, -ere many more years have passed, be able to draw many more -mental pictures of the extinct animal life of the great African -island.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> See “Recherches sur les Lémuriens disparus et en particulier -sur ceux qui vivaient à Madagascar.” Par G. Grandidier. -<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</cite>, 4e série, tome vii., 144 pp. 1905. -Also “On Recently Discovered Subfossil Primates from Madagascar.” -By Herbert F. Standing, D.Sc. <cite>Trans. Zool. Soc.</cite>, -vol. xviii., pt. ii., pp. 59-217. May 1908.</p> - -<p>These extinct lemuroids have been classed in the following -genera:—<i>Megaladapis</i> (3 sp.), <i>Lemur</i> (2 sp.), <i>Palæopropithecus</i> -(4 sp.), <i>Archæolemur</i> (2 sp.), <i>Poradylemur</i> (1 sp.), <i>Hadropithecus</i> -(1 sp.), <i>Mesopropithecus</i> (1 sp.), and <i>Archæoindris</i> (1 sp.).</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> No rocks of the Primary formations have been discovered -in Madagascar, nor does it seem probable that any exist.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<div class="sidenote">THE VAZÌMBA</div> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The Vazìmba, the supposed earliest inhabitants of the -interior, are said to have not known the use of iron, but to have -had spears made of the hard, wiry bark of the Anìvona palm, -and to have employed arrow-heads made of burnt clay. No -flint weapons have yet been discovered in Madagascar.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">SOUTHWARDS TO BÉTSILÉO AND THE SOUTH-EAST COAST</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">A FEW years ago I was invited by the Friends’ Foreign -Missionary Association to accompany one of their -missionaries, Mr Louis Street, on a journey to some -of the southern portions of Madagascar. The object of this -journey was twofold: firstly, to visit the scattered Christian -congregations connected with the London Missionary Society, -and to preach to and teach the people; and secondly, to gain -some more accurate information as to the geography and -physical features of the south-eastern provinces, and the -dialects and customs of the different tribes inhabiting those -parts of the great island. At that period (in the seventies) -Madagascar was still unmapped and only very partially -explored. A very large proportion of the country was still -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra incognita</i>; so that missionary journeys away from the -neighbourhood of the capital had all the charm of novelty -and exploration. Its physical geography, its geology, and its -botany and natural history were all practically unknown; so -I looked forward with intense interest to seeing new provinces -and new people; nor was I disappointed in this expectation.</p> - -<p>Like all journeys in Madagascar until about twelve years ago, -this one was made by the native conveyance, the <em>filanjàna</em> or -light palanquin (see <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapters II.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a>), and also, as will be -seen, by frequent voyages in canoes. And although <em>filanjàna</em> -travelling, like all sublunary things, had its drawbacks, I -always enjoyed that mode of getting over the ground. But in -setting off on a journey which was to last for several weeks, it -was not always easy to get started. You might engage your -men for two or three weeks beforehand; you might advance -money to keep a hold on them; you might even induce them -to deposit a small sum with you as security; but one was -never quite sure that every man had arrived, and was going -along with you, until one had got clear away at least half-a-day’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -journey. All sorts of excuses would be made, or no -reason at all be given, especially if the journey was to be -through a part of the island not often traversed. The bearers -were easily hired, but not so easily <em>secured</em>. One man not turning -up, another would go to seek for him, and he, in turn, -would have to be hunted for by his companions.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TRAVELLING IN MADAGASCAR</div> - -<p>Travelling in Madagascar, at least by the main lines of road, -is fast losing its former characteristics. Along the easy gradients, -the bridged streams, and the embankment-crossed swamps -traversed now by good highroads, one is apt to forget how our -bearers used to climb up steep and rugged ascents, ford rivers, -sometimes up to their necks in rushing waters, and flounder -through morasses. In fact, the bearers are becoming somewhat -demoralised by these easy and smooth roads, and we now need -to take a ride “across country” to realise what our early experiences -here were.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Mr Street and I, however, managed to -get a number of men, about fifty in all, to start with us; and -as we were not at all sure of finding native huts to stay in all -through our route, we took a tent with us, as well as provisions -and clothes, and books to give away to the people who could -read them. Towards the end of May we left the capital for -our southern journey.</p> - -<p>One more word of preface to this chapter. Like the tour -around the Antsihànaka province, already described, this -journey was, first of all, a missionary one; and although I shall -not trouble my readers with details of this kind, it must be -understood that my companions and I took every opportunity -we had of speaking, not only to congregations, but also to any -small gathering of people we came across, of the great and glad -truths of the Gospel, of which we were the messengers.</p> - -<p>I shall not describe here the route between Antanànarìvo and -Fianàrantsòa: the elevated tract of bare table-land, more than -six thousand feet above the sea; the cultivated valleys of the -three or four chief rivers; the green pleasant basins <ins class="corr" id="tn-229" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'of Ambòsita'"> -of Ambòsitra</ins> and Ambòhinàmboàrina; the enormous rocks of Angàvo, -and the belt of grey-lichened forest above Nàndihìzana. There -were, however, three points which struck me in the Bétsiléo province -as being very different from what we see in Imèrina. First, -was the much bolder and grander scenery; the mountains are -higher in the south, and the gneiss and granite rocks rise up in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> -stupendous masses of stone, such as we do not often see in the -northern province.</p> - -<p>Then there was the elaborate system of rice cultivation, far -surpassing anything that can be seen in Imèrina. This was -noticeable after four days’ journey, but it appeared to be carried -to the highest point of perfection in the wide valley south of -Ambòsitra. Not only are the valleys and hollows terraced, as -in Imèrina—the <em>concave</em> portions of the low hills and lower -slopes of the high hills—but the <em>convex</em> portions also are stepped -up like a gigantic staircase for a great height. It was a pleasant -sight to see, speaking of industry and skill and practical knowledge -of hydrostatics; for how water could be brought to some -of the lower elevations surrounded by lower ground was more -than we could discover. Many of these were terraced up to -their highest point, the narrow lines of rice-plot running round -them in concentric circles, so that there was not a square yard -of ground left unproductive.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ORNAMENTAL TOMBS</div> - -<p>The third particular in which the Bétsiléo country differs—although -the <em>past</em> tense would be now more appropriate—from -Imèrina is in the variety and ornamental character of the tombs -and other memorials of the dead. Leaving out of consideration -the modern stone tombs erected in the vicinity of the capital, it -is a remarkable fact that there is no native Hova style of carving -or ornamentation. Neither in their dwellings nor their tombs, -neither in their household utensils nor their weapons, does there -ever seem to have existed among the natives of Imèrina anything -like indigenous art. But in Bétsiléo there is carving both in the -houses and the tombs; the central posts of the former are -elaborately ornamented, and also portions of the exterior woodwork; -and the curious massive timber posts, with framework -for holding the skulls and horns of bullocks killed at funerals, -have a variety of decoration which is well worthy of study.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2301_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2301_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hide-bearers Resting by the Roadside</span><br /> - -Ambàtovòry rock and wood are in the distance</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2301_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2301_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bétsiléo Tombs with the Horns of Oxen Killed at the Funeral</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The first thing that attracted my attention in travelling south, -after four or five days’ journey, was that the upright stones -placed near graves were not the rough undressed slabs common -in Imèrina, but were finely dressed and squared and ornamented -with carving. Coming after that to Ambòsitra, I first met with -one of the memorial posts just mentioned. This was a piece of -timber, seven or eight inches square and about ten feet high, -with pieces of wood projecting from a little below the top, so as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> -to form a kind of stage. Each face of the post was elaborately -carved with different patterns arranged in squares. Some of -these were concentric circles, a large one in the centre, with -smaller ones filling up the angles; others had a circle with a -number of little bosses on them; others had a kind of leaf -ornament, and in others parallel lines were arranged in different -directions. The narrow spaces dividing these squares from each -other had in some cases an ornament like the Norman cheiron, -and in others, something similar to the Greek wave-like scroll. -The whole erection with its ornamentation bore a strong -resemblance to the old runic stones, or the manorial crosses of -Ireland and the Scottish highlands.</p> - -<p>A day or two’s journey farther south brought us to a tract -of country where there was a profusion of carved memorials -scattered along the roadside, and in all directions visible on -either hand. And on reaching a rounded green hill west of the -road, the old and deserted village of Ikangàra, we saw that there -was a large number of tombs and memorial posts close together, -so we went to inspect them more minutely. Within a short -distance were some forty or fifty tombs, and on further examination -there appeared to be at least half-a-dozen different kinds:</p> - -<p>(1) The largest tombs—there were two of them—were of -small flat stones, built in a square of some twenty to twenty-five -feet, and about five feet high. But all around them was a railing -of posts and rails, all elaborately carved with the patterns just -described.</p> - -<p>(2) Another kind of tomb was formed by a square stone -structure, about twelve feet each way and four or five feet high, -but on the top was an enclosure of carved posts and lintels about -eight feet high, with a single carved post in the centre.</p> - -<p>(3) A third kind of monument was a massive block of granite -about ten feet high, with carved posts at the corners and touching -them, and connected by cross-pieces; on these the skulls -and horns of the bullocks killed at the funeral of the person -commemorated were fixed.</p> - -<p>(4) Another kind of memorial was a massive square post of -wood, about twenty feet high and fifteen inches square, carved -on all four sides from top to bottom. There were four or five -of these enormous posts here; and in one case there was a pair -of them, as if to form a kind of gateway.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span></p> - -<p>(5) Still another kind was a great block of dressed granite, -with iron hooping round the top, in which were fixed a dozen or -more pairs of slender <em>iron</em> horns.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ELABORATE CARVING</div> - -<p>All the way along the road to Ambòhinàmboàrina we came -across different combinations of memorial posts, and of dressed -fine white granite in upright blocks, in many cases arranged in -couples, so that they were very conspicuous all over the -surrounding country. Before leaving the subject of ornamentation -among the Bétsiléo, I may notice that the window shutters -of their houses, the wooden fixed bedstead—looking more like -a cupboard than a sleeping-place—and other portions of the -interior, are (or were) elaborately carved with the patterns -already mentioned and other designs.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p>In the early part of June we left the Bétsiléo capital for the -south, intending if possible to make our way through the forest -to the south-east coast, and thence travel to Fort Dauphine, the -southernmost Hova military station. The route south from -Fianàrantsòa is for many miles through a valley between lofty -hills; and there one gradually ascends to a point where the -valley ends, and at a place called Ivàtoàvo (“high rock”) one -gets a most extensive prospect, of a comparatively level plain -stretching away for many miles, and dotted all over with the -green ring-shaped <em>vàla</em> or homesteads of the Bétsiléo. This -plain is surrounded with the grandest and boldest mountains, -many of them rising sheer from the level in many hundred feet -of bare gneiss rock, and in the most picturesque outlines. To -the north-west one lofty spire of rock has a flat-topped head, -much resembling the Pieter Botha mountain in Mauritius. I -was afterwards told that it was formerly obligatory on a young -man wishing to marry a girl from the district that he should -carry his bride on his back to the summit of this rock, and bring -her down again. It appeared as if one might almost as well -attempt to scale a church spire; but probably there are crevices -and hollows which would make such a feat not altogether -impossible.</p> - -<p>Our Sunday at a village on the plain was employed in our -usual way, preaching there, and visiting other places. After -speaking at a short service myself, I left my companion at midday -to go to Iàritsèna, a village about five hundred feet above -the level; but it really looked insignificant compared with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> -towering rocks beyond it. The grand and varied forms of the -mountains all around this plain filled me with an exultant kind -of delight. To the south were a crowd of mountain-tops, peak -beyond peak, with the greatest variety of outline: one had -the appearance of a colossal truncated spire; another had a -jagged saw-like ridge, another was like a pyramid with huge -steps, and another was like an enormous dome; but the -varieties were endless, and, as I passed along, the combinations -of the giant masses of bare rock changed every minute. Their -summits were never long free from clouds, and the changing -effects of sunlight and cloud shadow could only have been -caught by the rapid use of a camera. The summits of many of -the peaks must be at least three thousand feet above the plain. -These “everlasting hills,” these “strong foundations of the -earth,” recalled passages in the Psalms and the Prophets, -speaking of Him whose “righteousness is like the great mountains.”</p> - -<p>At my little village congregation this afternoon, many of the -girls and women wore a circular ornament suspended from their -necks; this was formed of the end of a <em>conus</em> shell ground down -and generally with a red bead in the centre. This kind of -decoration, called <em>félana</em>, is also worn by men among the -Sàkalàva, but on the side of their temples, and by the Bàra -people on the crown of their heads.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PARAKEETS</div> - -<p>Until taking this journey I had not seen in any number the -pretty little parakeet of which Madagascar possesses a peculiar -species (<i>Psittacula madagascariensis</i>). But we noticed a large -flock of these birds one day; and their light green plumage, -with whitish breasts and greyish-white heads, render them -rather conspicuous. They go in large flocks, often as many as -a hundred together, and sometimes do considerable damage to -the rice crops. The two sexes of this parakeet show great -affection for each other, the pair sitting close together on their -perch, from which habit they are often called love-birds.</p> - -<p>Two species of parrot are among the denizens of the Malagasy -woods almost all over the country. These parrots are both of -sober plumage, one being dark grey in colour, and the other -slaty-black. But they are both intelligent birds, and can easily -be taught to speak a few words and to whistle a tune. Their -long whistling cry, as if going up the gamut, may be frequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span> -heard in the outskirts of the woods. The grey species (<i>Coracopsis -obscura</i>), which is the larger of the two, is <em>fàdy</em> or sacred -with the chiefs of the Vèzo Sàkalàva, as they say that one of -their ancestors was saved from death by hearing the shrill -piercing cries of a flock of these birds. The black species -(<i>Coracopsis nigra</i>) is about a third less in size. Both kinds are -more terrestrial and less arboreal in their habits than most -parrots, nor do they make much use of their claws to convey -food to the mouth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN AWKWARD CROSSING</div> - -<p>The following day, passing over a river close by Ambòhimandròso, -we had a most awkward bridge to cross. The native -engineer had made it in two spans, not, however, in a straight -line, but forming almost a right angle with each other. There -were two or three massive balks of timber; but as these were -not on a level, and some had slipped down three or four feet, -the passage over was neither easy nor pleasant. Many of our -bearers hesitated a good deal, as the bridge was sixteen to -eighteen feet above the water, which roared like a mill-race -between the rough pier and the river banks.</p> - -<p>All about this neighbourhood we noticed great numbers of -ant-hills, of a much larger size than any we had seen elsewhere. -They are conical mounds of a yard or so high, and are made by -a white or yellowish ant, the one spoken of in a well-known Malagasy -nursery tale. Breaking off a piece of one of the mounds, -the ants could be seen in a state of great excitement, running -in and out of the circular galleries which traverse their city. -There are vast numbers of these ants in one ant-hill; they have -a queen, who is nearly an inch long, while her subjects are not -half that size. A serpent is said to live in many of these ant-nests, -and the people maintain that it is eventually eaten by the -inhabitants.</p> - -<p>Between the point we had now reached and the sea is a great -wooded and rounded mountain which we could see about -twenty miles away, and which we found was the celebrated -Ambòndrombé, the Malagasy Hades, in which they believed -that the souls of their ancestors had their abode. There are -said to be large caves in the mountain, and it is regarded with -much superstitious fear by the people. The mountain looked -dark and gloomy, and has a very regularly curved outline from -north to south, looking like the segment of an immense circle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p2341_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2341_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Memorial Stone, Bétsiléo Province</span><br /> - -The iron horns at the top are in place of bullocks’ horns usually placed on -such memorials</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">“BOUND BY BLOOD”</div> - -<p>About twenty miles to the east of our route, although perfectly -hidden by the intervening rugged country and lines of -forest-covered hills, is a very strongly defended Tanàla town -called Ikòngo, a place which maintained its independence of -Hova domination until the French conquest. With considerable -difficulty and some personal risk, my friend, Mr G. A. -Shaw, managed to gain permission to visit this stronghold and -introduce Christian teaching. The native chief, who became -very friendly, wished to become closely allied to him by the -custom of <em>fàto-drà</em>, or <em>fàti-drà</em>. This is a curious ceremony, in -use among many Malagasy peoples, by which persons of different -tribes or nationalities become bound to one another in the -closest possible fashion. The name for it of <em>fàto-drà</em>—<em>i.e.</em> -“bound by blood”—denotes that its object is to make those -entering into the covenant to become as brothers, devoted to -each other’s welfare, and ready to make any sacrifice for the -other, since they thus become of one blood.</p> - -<p>The ceremony consists in taking a small quantity of blood -from the breast or side of each contracting party; this is mixed -with other ingredients, stirred up with a spear-point, and then -a little of the strange mixture is swallowed by each of them. -Imprecations are uttered against those who shall be guilty of -violating the solemn engagement thus entered into. A few -Europeans, who have overcome their natural disgust to the -ceremonial, and to whom it has been a matter of great importance -to keep on good terms with some powerful chief, have -occasionally consented to make this covenant. Thus the -celebrated French scientist, M. Alfred Grandidier, became a -brother by blood with Zomèna, a chief of the south-western -Tanòsy, in order to gain his good will and help in proceeding -farther into the interior. But in his case the blood was not -taken from the contracting parties, but from an ox sacrificed -for the purpose; the ceremony is then called <em>famaké</em>. In this -case, a pinch of salt, a little soot, a leaden ball, and a gold bead -were put into the blood, which was mixed with water. Sometimes -pulverised flint, earth and gunpowder are added to the -mixture. In the case of Count Benyowski, who in 1770 was -made king of a large tribe on the eastern coast, he and the -principal chiefs sucked a little blood from each others’ breasts. -The Hova formerly followed a similar custom, but with some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> -variations; and so lately as 1897 a high French official made -a somewhat similar covenant, with a principal chief in the -extreme south of the island. The <em>fàto-drà</em> has doubtless been -observed by the various tribes in all parts of Madagascar, but -there appears to have been a good deal of difference in the -details of the ceremonial attending it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BÉTSILÉO HOUSES</div> - -<p>We spent a day at Imàhazòny, the last Hova military post -in this direction, before plunging into the unknown route -across the forest to the coast. The people from the little <em>vàla</em> -(homesteads) came running out to see us as we went by, most -of them having never seen a white face before. We noticed -how different the Bétsiléo dialect is from the Hova form of -Malagasy; the <em>n</em> in the latter is always nasal (<em>ng</em>) in the former; -while numerous words are shorter than their equivalents as -spoken in Imèrina; and the consonantal changes are numerous. -Besides this, the vocabulary is very different for many things -and actions. About two hours’ ride on the following morning -brought us to the large village of Ivàlokiànja. We went into -a house, the best in the village, for our lunch; it was the largest -there, but was not so large as our tent (eleven feet square), and -the walls were not six feet high. The door was a small square -aperture, one foot ten inches wide by two feet four inches -high, and its threshold two feet nine inches from the ground; -so that getting into most Bétsiléo houses is quite a gymnastic -feat, and it is difficult to understand how people could put -themselves to so much needless inconvenience. Close to it, at -the end of the house, was another door, or window (it was -difficult to say which, as they are all pretty much the same -size!), and opposite were two small openings about a foot and -a half square. The hearth was opposite the door, and the fixed -bedstead was in what is the window corner (north-west) in -Hova houses. In this house was the first example I had -seen of decorative carving in Malagasy houses; the external -faces of the main posts being carved with a simple but effective -ornament of squares and diagonals. There was also other -ornamentation, much resembling the English Union Jack. The -gables were filled in with a neat plaited work of split bamboo. -The majority of the houses in this and most of the Bétsiléo -villages are only about ten or twelve feet long by eight or nine -feet wide, and the walls from three to five feet high. Hereabouts,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span> -the doors seem generally to face the north or north-west, -and the house runs nearly east and west. Hova houses of the -old style, on the contrary, are always placed with their length -running north and south, and their single door and window -facing the west—that is, on the lee-side of the house.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p2361_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2361_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Types of carved ornamentation used by the Bétsiléo Malagasy -in their burial memorials and their houses.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p2362_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2362_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Types of carved ornamentation used by the Bétsiléo Malagasy -in their burial memorials and their houses.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">AN UNPLEASANT RIDE</div> - -<p>As Ambinàny, the Tanàla<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> chief, whose village we were -bound for, did not make his appearance, we went off in the -afternoon to another village, Iòlomàka, about three or four -miles away to the south-east. It was a cold unpleasant ride -in the drizzling rain. We reached the village, which is situated -on a bare hill, in an hour and a quarter, and with some difficulty -found a tolerably level place on which to pitch the tent, but -everything was wet. The rain came down faster than ever, -and began to come through the canvas in some places. During -the afternoon we in our tent formed for the villagers a free, -and evidently popular, exhibition, which might have been entitled, -“The Travelling Foreigners in their Tent.” We and -our belongings, and our most trivial actions, were the subject -of intensest interest to the people. They came peeping in and, -uninvited, took their seats to gaze. I suspect they thought -we travelled in a style of Oriental magnificence, for my companion’s -gorgeous striped rug evidently struck them as being -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne plus ultra</i> of earthly grandeur. But <em>we</em> did not look -upon ourselves this evening quite in that light; for the slightly -higher ground on two sides of the tent led the water <em>into</em> the -structure, and there was soon a respectable-sized pool on my -friend’s side of the tent, above which the boxes had to be raised -by stones and tent-hammers; while the drip upon our beds -raised the probability that we might be able to take our -baths in the morning before getting up. It was our dampest -experience hitherto of tent life.</p> - -<p>The following evening found us at Ivòhitròsa, after one of the -most difficult and fatiguing journeys we had ever taken in -Madagascar. It was quite dark when we arrived here, wet, -weary, muddy and hungry, having eaten no food since the -morning.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">INTERESTED PUBLIC</div> - -<p>But to begin at the beginning. Bed was so much the most -comfortable place, with a wet tent, a small pond at one end of -it, and a mass of mud at the other, that we did not turn out -so early or so willingly as usual, especially as there was a thick<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> -mist and heavy drizzle, as there had been all night. The general -public outside, however, evidently thought it high time the -exhibition opened for a morning performance; and so, without -our intending it, there <em>was</em> a performance, which, if there -had been a daily paper at Iòlomàka, might have been described -as consisting of five acts or scenes, as follows:—<em>Scene first</em>: -Distinguished foreigners are seen lying in bed, so comfortably -tucked up that they feel most unwilling to get out on to the -wet and muddy floor. Curtains only half drawn (by an eager -public) during this act. <em>Scene second</em>: Somewhat of a misnomer, -as D. F. were, by the exercise of some ingenuity, <em>not</em> -seen during the operations of bathing and washing. <em>Scene -third</em>: D. F. seen by admiring public—who again admitted -themselves—in the act of brushing their hair and performing -their toilet. <em>Scene fourth</em>: D. F. seen at their breakfast; the -variety of their food, dishes, plates, etc., a subject of mute -amazement. <em>Scene fifth and last</em>: D. F. seen rapidly packing -up all their property for their approaching departure. <em>N.B.</em>—Probably -their last appearance on this stage. We packed up -in the heavy drizzle, and fortunately, just as we were about -to start, three or four Tanàla came up and agreed to be our -guides. We had to wait until they had their rice, but at last -we got away, soon after ten o’clock, rather too late as it turned -out.</p> - -<p>Our way for more than two hours was through the outskirts -of the forest: a succession of low hills partially covered with -wood, and divided from each other by swampy valleys. In -these we had two or three times to cross deepish streams by -bridges of a single round pole, a foot or two <em>under</em> water, a -ticklish proceeding, which all our luggage bearers did not accomplish -successfully. After crossing a stream by the primitive -bridge of a tree which had fallen half over the water, we -entered the real forest, our general direction being to the -south-east.</p> - -<p>And now for an hour and a half we had to pass through dense -forest by a narrow footpath, where no <em>filanjàna</em> (palanquin) -could be carried (at least with its owner seated on it). Up and -down, down and up, stooping under fallen trees, or climbing -over them, soon getting wet through with the dripping leaves on -either hand, and the mud and water underfoot—we had little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> -time to observe anything around us, lest a tree root or a slippery -place should trip us up. At two-fifteen we came to an open -clearing, and thought our difficulties were over, but presently -we plunged into denser forest than ever, and up and down -rougher paths. Notwithstanding the danger of looking about, -it was impossible to avoid admiring the luxuriance of the -vegetation. Many of the trees were enormously high, and so -buttressed round their trunks that they were of great girth at -the ground. The tree-ferns seemed especially large, with an -unusual number of fronds; and the creeper bamboo festooned -the large trees with its delicate pinnate leaves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A DEEP GORGE</div> - -<p>It soon became evident that we were descending, and that -pretty rapidly. For a considerable distance we had a stream -on our left hand, which roared and foamed over a succession -of rapids, going to the south-east; and every now and then we -caught glimpses of the opening in the woods made by the -stream, presenting lovely bits of forest scenery in real tropical -luxuriance. The sun shone out for a few minutes, but presently -it clouded over, and heavy rain came on. The increasing -roar of waters told of an unusually large fall, and in a few -minutes we came down an opening where we could see the greater -part of it, a large body of water rushing down a smooth slope -of rock about a hundred feet deep, and at an angle of forty-five -degrees. Three or four times we had to cross the stream, on -rocks in and out of the water, with a powerful current sweeping -around and over them. We found after a while that we had -come down to the side of a deep gorge in the hills which rose -hundreds of feet on each side of it, and down which the stream -descended rapidly by a series of grand cascades to the lower -and more open country which we could see at intervals through -openings in the woods.</p> - -<p>At half-past four we emerged from the forest and came down -by a steep slippery path through bush and jungle. And now -there opened before us one of the grandest scenes that can be -imagined. The valley, down which we had come, opened out -into a tremendous hollow or bay, three or four miles across, and -more than twice as long, running into the higher level of the -country from which we had descended. The hills, or, rather, -edges of the upper plateau, rise steeply all round this great -bay, covered with wood to their summits, which are from two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> -thousand to three thousand feet above the lower country. Between -these bold headlands we could count four or five waterfalls, -two of them falling in a long riband of foam several -hundred feet down perpendicular faces of rock. Between the -opening points of this great valley, three or four miles apart, -could be seen a comparatively level undulating country, with -patches of wood and the windings of the river Màtitànana. On -a green hill to the north side of the valley was a group of houses, -which we were glad to hear was Ivòhitròsa, our destination. -This hill we found was seven hundred feet above the stream at -its foot, but it looked small compared with the towering heights -around it. At last we reached the bottom of the valley, crossed -the stream, and presently commenced the steep ascent to the -village. It was quite dark before we reached it, muddy, wet -and tired out; we had been eight hours on the way, and five -and a half on foot over extremely rough and fatiguing paths. -The native chief and his people had overtaken us in the forest -and went on first to prepare a house for us.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A STRIKING PICTURE</div> - -<p>We found that the best dwelling in the village was ready, and -a bright fire blazing on the hearth. It was with some difficulty -that we got all our baggage arranged inside, for, although the -largest house available, it was rather smaller than our tent, -and nearly a quarter of it was occupied by the hearth and the -space around it. At one side of the fire were sitting four young -women, the daughters of the chief. A glance at these young -ladies showed us that we had come into the territory of a tribe -different from any we had yet seen. They were lightly clothed -in a fine mat wrapped round their waists, but were highly ornamented -on their heads, necks, and arms. A fillet of small white -beads, an inch or so wide, was round their heads, fastened by a -circular metal plate on their foreheads. From their necks hung -several necklaces of long oval white beads and smaller red ones. -On their wrists they had silver rings, and a sort of broad -bracelet of small black, white, and red beads; and on every -finger and on each thumb were rings of brass wire. In the -glancing firelight they certainly made a striking picture of -barbaric ornamentations; and notwithstanding their dark -skins and numerous odd little tails of hair, some of them were -comely enough. We had soon to ask them to retire in order to -stow away our packages and get some tea ready. The house<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> -was raised a foot or so from the ground, the inside lined with -mats, and so was a pleasant change from our damp lodgings of -the previous evening.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RICE-HOUSES</div> - -<p>Next morning, on opening our window, we had before us, two -or <ins class="corr" id="tn-241" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'tree miles across'"> -three miles across</ins> the great basin or valley, three waterfalls, -one descending in a long white line and almost lost in spray -before it reaches the bottom. The sunlight revealed all the -beauties of the scene around us, and made us long for the power -to transfer to canvas or paper its chief outlines. Were such a -neighbourhood as this in an accessible part of any European -country, it would rapidly become famous for its scenery. We -found the village of Ivòhitròsa to consist of twelve houses only, -enclosed within a <em>ròva</em> of pointed stakes; but besides these are -several rice-houses or <em>tràno àmbo</em> (“high houses”) mounted on -posts five or six feet above the ground, each post having a -circular wooden ring just under the flooring rafters, and projecting -eight or nine inches, so as to prevent the rats ascending -and helping themselves to rice. I sincerely wished last night -that the dwelling-houses had a similar arrangement, for the rats -had a most jovial night of it in our lodgings, being doubtless -astonished at the number and variety of the packages just -arrived. The house we are in, as well as others in the village, -has carved horns at the gables, not the crossed straight timbers -so called in Hova houses, but curved like bullocks’ horns. The -people appear to have no slaves here, for the daughters of the -chief, in all their ornaments, are pounding rice, four at one -mortar.</p> - -<p>At this part of the island the high interior plateau seems to -descend by <em>one</em> great step to the coast plains, and not by <em>two</em>, -as it does farther north; for our aneroid told us that we came -down twenty-five hundred feet yesterday, and that the stream -at the foot of this hill is only five hundred or six hundred -feet above sea-level. And the two lines of forest one crosses -farther on are here united into one.</p> - -<p>The men and many of the women wear a rather high round -skull-cap made of fine plait; the women wear little except a -mat sewn together at the ends, so as to form a kind of sack, -and fastened by a cord round the waist, and only occasionally -pulled up high enough to cover the bosom. Those who are -nursing infants have also a small figured mat about eighteen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span> -inches square on their backs and suspended by a cord from the -neck; this is called <em>lòndo</em>, and is used to protect the child from -the sun or rain, as it lies in a fold of the mat above the girdle. -Some of the men wear a mat as a <em>làmba</em>, and only a few have -<em>làmbas</em> of coarse <em>rofìa</em> or hemp cloth. The people here blacken -their teeth with a root, which gives them an unpleasant appearance -as they open their mouths; not all the teeth, however, -are thus disfigured, but chiefly those at the back, leaving -the front ones white; in some cases the lower teeth are alternately -black and white.</p> - -<p>The morning of one of our four days at Ivòhitròsa was employed -in trying to get a good view of the largest of the waterfalls -which pour down into the large valley already mentioned. -Mounting a spur of the main hills, we had a good view of this -chief fall up a deep gorge to the south, and so opening into the -main valley as not to be visible from the village. This is -certainly a most magnificent fall of water. The valley ends in -a semicircular wall of rock crowned by forest, and over this -pours at one leap the river Màtitànana. Knowing the heights -of some of the neighbouring hills, we judged that the fall could -not be less than from five hundred to six hundred feet in depth, -and from the foot rises a continual cloud of spray, like smoke, -with a roar which reverberates up the rocky sides of the valley; -even from two or three miles’ distance, which was as near as we -could get, it was a very grand sight.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MALAGASY RASPBERRIES</div> - -<p>While on this little excursion we had a feast of another kind. -On our way home we came across a large cluster of bushes full -of wild raspberries. This fruit is common on the borders of -the forest, but we never before saw it in such quantities, or -of so large a size, or of so sweet a taste. The Malagasy raspberry -is a beautiful scarlet fruit, larger than the European -kind; and while perhaps not quite equal in flavour to those -grown in England, is by no means to be despised; and we were -able on that day to enjoy it to our heart’s content.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p2421_ill1" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2421_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Group of Tanàla Girls in Full Dress</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2421_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2421_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tanàla Girls Singing and Clapping Hands</span></div> -</div> - -<p>During our stay at Ivòhitròsa we were surprised and delighted -with the brightness and intelligence of many of the native boys. -Although the dialectic differences of the Tanàla speech are -many as compared with the Hova form of Malagasy, we obtained -a large vocabulary from them as well as names of the -forest birds and animals, and also those of trees and fruits.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span> -And as these forests and their vicinity are the home of several -of the lemurs which have not yet been noticed in these pages, -I will here give some particulars of four or five species.</p> - -<p>The ring-tailed lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>) is perhaps the best known -of all the lemuridæ, from its handsomely marked tail, which -is ringed with black and white bands, thus clearly distinguishing -it from all the other species of the sub-order. And while -almost every other lemur is arboreal, this species lives among -the rocks, over which they can easily travel, but can be only -followed with great difficulty. The palms of their hands are -long, smooth and leather-like, and so enable these animals to -find a firm footing on the slippery wet rocks. The thumbs on -the hinder hands are very much smaller than those of the forest-inhabiting -lemurs, as they do not need them for grasping -the branches of trees. Their winter food is chiefly the fruit -of the prickly pear; while in summer they subsist chiefly on -wild figs and bananas. This species bears a sea voyage fairly -well, so that they are often seen in Mauritius and Réunion, -and even more distant places.</p> - -<p>Another species of lemur, which inhabits the south-eastern -forests, is the broad-nosed gentle lemur (<i>Hapalemur simus</i>). -This animal is found among the bamboos, and it appears to -subsist in a great measure on the young shoots of that plant. -For biting and mincing up the stalks its teeth seem admirably -adapted, as they are nearly all serrated cutting teeth, and are -arranged so as mutually to intersect. It eats almost all the -day long, and has a curious dislike of fruit. It is furnished with -a remarkably broad pad on each of the hinder thumbs, so that -it is able to grasp firmly even the smallest surfaces.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MOUSE-LEMURS</div> - -<p>Perhaps the most beautiful and interesting—as well as the -smallest—lemuriæ animals inhabiting Madagascar belong to -the group called Cheirogale, or mouse-lemurs, of which there -are seven species. As their name implies, they are very small, -the dwarf species (<i>Cheirogaleus minor</i>) being only four inches -long, with a tail of six inches. This pretty little animal is -remarkable also for its large and very resplendent eyes, for -the eye admits so much light at dusk that quite an unusual -brilliancy is produced. The brown mouse-lemur (<i><ins class="corr" id="tn-243" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Cheirgaleus major'"> -Cheirogaleus major</ins></i>) is larger than the last-named species, being seven or -eight inches long. Most, if not all, of the species live in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> -highest trees, and make a globular nest of twigs and leaves; -they all appear to be nocturnal animals, as one might suppose -from the structure of their eyes. The smallest, or dwarf, -species, is said to be very shy and wild, very quarrelsome and -fights very fiercely. Some of these little animals, if not all of -them, have a time of summer sleep; and the tail, which is -grossly fat at the beginning of that period, becomes excessively -thin at its close, its fat being slowly absorbed to maintain -vitality. The two (or three) species of mouse-lemur here noticed -inhabit the south-eastern forest region; others appear to be -confined to the north-western woods.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> A writer in a defunct newspaper, <cite>The Madagascar Times</cite>, of -10th August 1889, describes in so true and graphic a fashion -the old style of Malagasy <em>filanjàna</em> bearers, in the following -rhymes, that I think they are well worth preserving in these -pages:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="verse indent0">Bearing their burdens cheerily, laughing the livelong day,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Pacing o’er dale and mountain, wending their toilsome way;</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Puffing and panting, up hills steeply slanting,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Skilfully bearing the <em>filanjàna</em> canting,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Grumbling not at the sun’s scorching ray.</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Wading through swamp and brooklet, splashing their course along,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Bounding through plain and forest, thinking the track not long.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Chattering and pattering, with tongue ever clattering,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Joyous if of it the Vazàha has a smattering;</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Growling not at the rain’s stinging thong.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Pacing with even footsteps, never losing time,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Changing places racing, like the measured beat of rhyme.</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Lifting and shifting, but never desisting,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Always each other with pleasure assisting;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Happy through all the toiling daytime.</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Tramping with wondrous vigour, moving with easy grace,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Pausing not in their journey, dashing as in a race;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Smiling and wiling, for a present beguiling,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ever joke-cracking, if the Vazàha is not riling—</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Such is the life of our native <em>mpilànja</em>,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">This is the marvellous way that they keep up the pace!</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><em>Note.</em>—“Vazàha” is the native word for Europeans; -<em>mpilànja</em> means a <em>filanjàna</em> bearer.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<div class="sidenote">ORNAMENTAL PATTERNS</div> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> My friend, Mr G. A. Shaw, who was connected for several -years with the Bétsiléo Mission, made a number of “rubbings” -of this peculiar ornamentation. On exhibiting many of these -at the Folk-lore Society, when I read a paper on this subject, -one of the members expressed a strong opinion that these -patterns must have had originally some religious signification; -and another member remarked that the patterns closely resembled -those on articles from the Nicobar Islands.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> The word “Tanàla,” which simply means “forest dwellers” -(<em>àla</em> = forest), is a name loosely given to a number of tribes of -the south-east, who inhabit the wooded regions and the adjacent -country. All, however, have their proper tribal names and -divisions.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">IVÒHITRÒSA</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">OUR Sunday at Ivòhitròsa was such a novel and interesting -one that I shall depart for once from my rule -of omitting in these chapters mention of our religious -work. It was a wet morning, so that it was after eleven o’clock -before the rain ceased and we could call the people together. -A good many had come up from the country round on the previous -day to see us, and we collected them on a long and pretty -level piece of rock which forms one side of the little square -around which the houses are built. When all had assembled, -there must have been nearly three hundred present, including -our own men, who grouped themselves near us. It was certainly -the strangest congregation we had ever addressed, for -the men had their weapons, while the women looked very -heathenish. Some few had put some slight covering over the -upper part of their bodies, but most were just as they ordinarily -appeared, some with hair and necks dripping with castor oil, and -with their conspicuous bead ornaments on head, neck, and arms. -One could not but feel deeply moved to see these poor ignorant -folks, the great majority of them joining for the first time in -Christian worship, and hearing for the first time the news of -salvation. And remembering our own ignorance of much of -their language, the utter strangeness of the message we -brought, and the darkness of their minds, we could not but -feel how little we could in one brief service do to quicken -their apprehension of things spiritual and eternal. We had -some of our most hearty lively hymns and tunes, our men -assisting us well in the singing; after Mr Street had spoken -to the people from a part of the Sermon on the Mount, I -also addressed them, trying in as simple a manner as was -possible to tell them what we had come for, what that “glad -tidings” was which we taught them. On account of the -rain, work in the afternoon had to be confined to what could<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span> -be done in our tent, which was crammed full, and in our -house.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -<p>That there was great need for enlightenment may be seen -from what we heard from the people themselves—viz. that -there are (or were) eight unlucky days in every month, and -that children born on those days were killed by their being -held with their faces immersed in water in the winnowing-fan. -So that on an average, more than a quarter of the children -born were destroyed! The Tanàla names for the months are -all different from those used in Imèrina; they have no names -for the weekdays, and indeed no division of time by sevens, -but the days throughout each month (lunar) are known by -twelve names, some applied to two days and others to three days -consecutively, and these day names are nearly all identical -with the Hova names for the months. Each of the days -throughout the month has its <em>fàdy</em>, or food which must not -be eaten when travelling on that day.</p> - -<p>After our four days’ stay at Ivòhitròsa, we managed to get -on our way towards the coast, not, however, without having -considerable difficulty with our bearers, who were afraid of -any new and hitherto untried route, for we were the first -Europeans to travel in this direction. By tact and firmness -we managed to secure our point; and on the Thursday afternoon -we came down to the river Màtitànana, which is at this -point a very fine broad stream, with a rapid and deep current. -It flows here through a nearly straight valley for four or five -miles in a southerly direction, with low bamboo-covered hills -on either side, and its channel much broken by rocky islands. -To cross this stream, about a hundred yards wide at this place, -no canoes were available, but there was a bamboo raft called a -<em>zàhitra</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE ZÀHITRA</div> - -<p>Of all the rude, primitive and ramshackle contrivances ever -invented for water carriage, commend me to a <em>zàhitra</em>. This -one consisted of about thirty or forty pieces of bamboo, from -ten to twelve feet long, lashed together by bands of some tough -creeper or <em>vàhy</em>, which said bamboos were constantly slipping -out of their places and needed trimming at every trip, and the -fastenings had to be refixed. The <em>zàhitra</em> would take only two -boxes and one man at a trip, besides the captain of the raft, -and when loaded was from a third to a half of it under water.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span> -The civilisation of the people about here seemed to have not -yet produced a paddle; a split bamboo supplied (very imperfectly) -the place of one. Owing to the strong current and -the feeble navigating appliances available, not more than about -four trips over and back again could be made in an hour. And -so there on the bank we sat from a little after two o’clock until -nearly six, watching the ferrying over of our baggage, and then -of our bearers. At sunset a good number of our men were -still on the wrong side of the water, and so, as there was no -possibility of getting them all over that day, and neither Mr -S. nor I relished the prospect of a voyage on a <em>zàhitra</em> in the dark, -we crossed at a little after sunset. We made a safe passage, -but got considerably wet during its progress; Mr S. took an -involuntary foot-bath, and I a sitz-bath. The rest of our men -returned to a village overlooking the river, while we went a -little way up the woods and, finding a level spot, pitched the -tent there, our bearers who had crossed occupying two or three -woodcutters’ huts which were fortunately close at hand.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A VILLAGE BELLE</div> - -<p>During the three or four hours’ waiting on the river bank we -had a good opportunity of observing the people from the -village just above, who came down to watch our passage over -the water. Amongst them was a girl whose appearance was so -striking that I must attempt a description of her. She was a -comely lassie, although a dark-skinned one, and was so ornamented -as to be conspicuous among her companions even at -some distance. Round her head she had the same fillet of white -beads with a metal plate in the front which we had observed at -Ivòhitròsa, but from it depended a row of small beads like drops. -On each side of her temples hung a long ornament of hair and -beads reaching below her chin, several beads hung from her -ears, and a number of white and oblong beads were worked into -her hair at the back. Round her neck she had six strings of -large beads, and another passing over one shoulder and under -the arm. On each wrist were three or four silver bracelets, -while on every finger and thumb were several coils of brass wire. -Her clothing was a piece of bark cloth fastened just above the -hips, over a skirt of fine mat, and on each toe was a brass ring. -Thus “from top to toe” she was got up regardless of expense; -she was probably the daughter of the chief; anyhow, she was -evidently the village belle, and seemed well aware of the fact.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p2481_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2481_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tanàla Spearmen</span><br /> - -Note the wooden shields covered with bullock’s hide, and the charm on a man’s -breast. They are very expert spearmen</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span></p> - -<p>Our route towards the sea was now over a comparatively -level country, but not without many steep ascents and descents, -and generally following the valley of the Màtitànana. As I -took with me a good theodolite, I was able to make a running -survey of a large portion of our journey, and to map, for the -first time, that river valley. The path was often hidden by -long grass which was much higher than our heads, the bearers’ -feet being frequently hurt by the sharp prickly grass called -<em>tsèvoka</em>. We had beautiful views of the river, and the foliage -became most luxuriant; the valleys were full of the elegant -traveller’s tree, while in front of us whole hills were covered -with the lovely light green of the bamboo, with its graceful -curving head and fine pinnate leaves at every joint.</p> - -<p>A very prominent feature in the vegetation of many places -we passed through was the <em>longòzy</em>, a plant which seemed -frequently to prevent anything else from growing (<i>Amomum -angustifolium</i>). It has a rod-like stem, rising sometimes from -twelve to fourteen feet high, with leaves a foot or more long, -growing alternately on each side the stem. At the base grow -the fruits in a bright, smooth, scarlet husk, two or three inches -long, enclosing a white silky-looking pulp containing a number -of purplish-black seeds, the cardamom of commerce. The pulp -has a pleasant acid taste, but if one of the seeds is broken a -pungent burning sensation is experienced at the back of the -mouth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TANÀLA HOUSES</div> - -<p>The better kind of houses in these Tanàla villages have the -walls made of bamboo flattened and plaited together, while the -poorer ones are of the leaves of the traveller’s tree. Every -house is roofed with the latter material; in many of them the -gable projects at the ridge twice as much as at the eaves, so -as to make a kind of pent at each end. The gable timbers are -frequently cut into a very exact resemblance to ox horns. In -most of the villages money seems of little use to the people; -they value beads or calico much more. Every woman and girl, -and many of the men and boys, are decorated with beads, and -these seem an important part of their property. Their religion -seems to consist chiefly of charms; charms against guns, -fever, crocodiles, etc. We purchased for a little cloth a charm -against gun-shot; this consisted of three hollow tin receptacles -resembling crocodiles’ teeth, joined together and filled with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span> -what looks like coarsely cut tobacco. The former owner tells -us that this charm has such virtue that a musket ball is turned -aside from the fortunate wearer. Many of the people carry -shields, which are made of a circular piece of tough wood, about -eighteen inches in diameter and covered with undressed -bullocks’ hide. A handle is cut out of the solid wood at the -back. The women in this Màtitànana valley carry a broad -knife or chopper stuck in their girdles, and resembling in shape -a butcher’s cleaver, with a short round handle; this is used for -cutting up manioc and other roots.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A JUNGLE OF BAMBOO</div> - -<p>At one point on our route we passed through a dense jungle -of bamboo, requiring a bright look-out on the part of the -bearers—and the borne as well—to avoid damage from the -sharp-edged stumps underfoot, and the stems and tendrils overhead. -But the effect of the numberless thickly set, smooth, -jointed stems, like slender columns below, and the feathery -canopy of delicate green above, was both curious and beautiful. -At one little stream we passed some fine specimens of the <em>hòfa</em>, -a screw-pine or pandanus, with the aerial roots in a cone-shaped -mass, rising five or six feet above the ground. A very common -tree about here is one with clusters of large leaves like those of -a horse-chestnut, and with a hard mottled green fruit as big as -a lemon, from which gum is made.</p> - -<p>In a small open space among the trees we passed by almost the -only sign we had yet seen of anything like religious observances -in the Tanàla country. This was an upright stake in the -ground with a number of bamboos arranged round it, forming -a cone-shaped erection; in front of this several stones were -fixed. At this rude altar the heads of cattle, fowls, etc., are -thrown as expiatory offerings; and here also the people come -to pray for blessings which they desire, especially for children. -We also passed on another day a long flat stone supported by -several smaller ones, forming a sort of altar, and used for the -same kind of offerings as those just described.</p> - -<p>Following in the main the course of the river Màtitànana, -we had frequently to cross its tributaries, and found we were -advancing in civilisation as we proceeded. First, we had a -single <em>zàhitra</em> to ferry us over; then two <em>zàhitra</em> and a small -canoe; then we got good-sized canoes. A little after leaving -the ferry we passed through a large clump of immense banana-trees.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> -They were at least forty feet high, and with their smooth -green stems—almost trunks—and grand broad leaves, and -great clusters of fruit, presented a magnificent appearance. -The fruit is called <em>òntsy</em>; these are about a foot long and -a couple of inches thick, and so a single one makes a fair -meal.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CROCODILES</div> - -<p>For several miles the river makes a great bend to the north, -and on following its banks again we saw crocodiles for the first -time on this journey. These were basking in the sunshine, -perfectly motionless, on a group of rocks just showing above -the water. At the distance we were I should not have noticed -them but for my men pointing them out; but with the glass -every scale could be seen, and very unpleasant-looking creatures -they are in their slimy length, with serrated back and tail, and -rather small heads. Near them were several large wading-birds, -some white and others dark brown, and called <em>àrondòvy</em> -(<em>i.e.</em> “protector of the enemy”). These birds are constant -attendants on the crocodiles, performing some service for them; -and where the birds are seen, the reptiles are never far distant. -We afterwards noticed that near all the villages on the river banks -a small space in the water was enclosed with stakes, so -that the women and children coming to draw water could do so -without fear of being seized by a crocodile, or swept off into the -stream by his tail.</p> - -<p>From a remote period the Malagasy have been accustomed -to resort to ordeals for the detection of crime, and the ordeal by -the <em>tangèna</em> poison has already been referred to in these pages -(see <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III.</a>). But among the Tanàla tribes an ordeal -of another kind was commonly employed to find out a guilty -person; for anyone suspected of wrong-doing was taken to the -bank of the Màtitànana, or one of its tributaries, where crocodiles -abound. The people having assembled, a man stood near the -accused, and striking the water thrice, addressed a long speech -to the reptiles, adjuring them to punish the guilty, but to spare -the innocent. The accused was then made to swim across the -river and back again; and if he successfully accomplished this, -and was not hurt by the crocodiles, he was considered innocent, -and his accuser was fined four oxen. If, on the contrary, he was -seized and killed, he was supposed to have justly merited his -fate. This ordeal was termed <em>tangèm-voày</em> (<em>voày</em> = crocodile).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2501_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2501_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coiffures</span><br /> - -Various styles of hairdressing among the Hova Malagasy women. The upper figure on the right is in mourning -with her hair dishevelled</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">HAIRDRESSING</div> - -<p>As we proceeded nearer the coast, we found by the style of -hairdressing among the women that we had come into the -territory of a different tribe to that amongst whom we had been -travelling. Many of the young women had a singular but somewhat -elegant style of coiffure. It was done thus: the hair was -plaited in very fine braids, and then twisted into thin flat -circular coils of from two to two and a half inches in diameter; -these were symmetrically arranged, one overlapping the other, -in two rows, the upper one completely encircling the head from -the forehead to the back of the neck, and the other ending -below the ears. These young girls really looked well, for they -had the appearance of being well dressed. The women here -were more fully clothed than those of the Tanàla; the skirt of -fine mat is worn here, but there is more of it, and hemp cloth -seems in more common use.</p> - -<p>The country became flatter, undulating, but with no prominent -rising grounds. The vegetation also was quite different from -what we had become accustomed to during the last four days. -There were no more bamboos, hardly any traveller’s trees, but -large numbers of single trees or small clumps of them. These -were chiefly the <em>adàbo</em>, a species of <em>Ficus</em>, a tree with massive -smooth trunk and light brown bark; they have a much more -rounded and shapely outline than the forest trees, and give the -scenery quite an English appearance. But the presence of an -occasional fan-palm or cocoanut-palm lifting their tall plumes -aloft soon dispelled the illusion. The villages, too, became -numerous, and many of them are built five or six together—that -is, in lines of as many, only a short distance between them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2521_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2521_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Forest River</span><br /> - -Immense arums (vìha) are in the foreground, and reflections of Travellers’ trees are seen in the water</div> -</div> - -<p>We had a curious congregation on the Sunday at one of the -two villages where we spoke to the people, of whom a good many -collected together. But as heavy showers came on, most of our -auditors were standing under the elevated rice-houses (<em>tràno àmbo</em>), -as we also were. Still we were able to speak a few -earnest words to them. Almost in the midst of our speaking, -the old chief of the village came up to give us—a bottle of rum! -and a fowl. The former of these presents, as well as others of the -same kind, were, as soon as darkness set in, carried outside, and -poured on the ground as the best way of disposing of their -contents. We were glad to find that the Taimòro, among whom -we had now come, did not, like the Tanàla, kill children born on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> -unlucky days, but by some ceremonies and offerings avert the -evils supposed to be connected with them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GREAT ARUMS</div> - -<p>A week’s journey from Ivòhitròsa brought us to a Hova -military post again—viz. to the town of Ambòhipèno, which is -only a few miles from the mouth of the Màtitànana river, and -is the central one of a line of three villages. Here we had a -hospitable reception from the governor and his officers, as well -as from the congregation and its pastor. Although the sea was -still some miles distant, we could distinctly hear the roar of the -surf some time before reaching Ambòhipèno. On a voyage to -the seaside, which we made the day after our arrival, we had a -fine large canoe which had more sharply pointed stem and stern -than in those seen in Imèrina. We were struck by the great -arums (<em>vìha</em>) growing in thick masses along the banks in the -water. These were from twelve to fifteen feet high, with thick -fleshy stems and leaf-stalks, lily-like leaves, between two and -three feet long, and magnificent white flowers, with a scarlet -pistil. The fruit is occasionally used by the natives as an article -of food. We picked up some good shells (<i>Turritellæ</i>, <i>Cypræa</i>, -etc.) on the seashore, as well as corals, seaweed and sponges. -Like almost every river on the east coast, the mouth is closed by -a sand bar, until the rains of the wet season fill the river so full -that the bar is broken for a few weeks, and then the south-east -winds and currents close it up again.</p> - -<p>The greater part of two days were spent at Ambòhipèno in -services and school examinations, which latter were especially -interesting and satisfactory. We were amused by the decoration -of the pulpit in the native church, which was rather extraordinary. -It was a high box-like affair, part of the front being -occupied by a picture of a European ship, the other part by a -church with a tall tower and spire; while over these was a text -(in Malagasy), “Says the owner of this house, Fear”; although -it would be difficult to find the passage in this exact form. -These objects, together with birds perched on trees, made a -curious mixture of subjects for pulpit decoration.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BUTTERFLIES</div> - -<p>In the narrow lanes near the village we passed great numbers -and many varieties of butterflies in a few minutes’ ride. Judging -from what we saw, an entomologist would find a rich harvest -in the Taimòro country. Dr Vinson, a French naturalist who -came up to the capital in 1862, says: “The habits of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> -lepidoptera are much affected in Madagascar by atmospheric -changes. In the misty mornings everything sleeps or hides -itself under the damp foliage, but as soon as the sun shines out, -the forest, the footpath, the beds of the torrents, are peopled -with bright-coloured and light-flying butterflies. They give -themselves up to all kinds of frolic with a wanton joy; they -court, they pursue, they fly, interlacing and eddying in their -flight in the air like the brilliant flakes of a coloured snow.” In -travelling up through this eastern forest a few years later, but -in the hotter season of the year, I was struck by the number and -variety of the butterflies which crossed our path. There was -the rather common one of greyish-green with dark markings, -the blackish-brown one with two large blue spots, the widely -distributed warm brown one with black-edged wings, the pure -white one, the white with orange edges, the white with black -edges, the white with small black spots near the edge of the -wings, the small yellow species, the small buff one, the white -with crimped edges, the minute brown and blue, and many -others. In damp places, a cloud of the smaller yellow and buff -kinds may be often seen sipping the moisture.</p> - -<p>While staying near the forest I was several times struck by -the curious formation of the wings of one of the smaller species -of butterfly. The insect in question is of plain inconspicuous -colouring, chiefly shades of brown, and when at rest sits with -the wings erect. The noticeable point is that there are several -strongly marked and dark-tinted processes from the hinder part -of the wings, which resemble the head, eyes and antennæ of a -butterfly, so that when at rest it is very difficult to say which -is the head and which is the tail of the insect. The tail markings -and points are so much more strongly emphasised than the -actual head and antennæ, that it is only when the wings -slightly open that one is undeceived. Mimicry of one insect -by another, and mimicry of leaves, grass, etc., by insects, are of -course well-known facts, but I do not remember to have seen any -similar instances noticed of resemblance between the different -parts of the same insect; but may not the reason of this -mimicry of the head by the tail be of some service in directing -the attention of birds and other enemies to the less vital part -of the butterfly’s structure? It is evident that the hinder -portion of the wings might be snapped at and broken off, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span> -yet no serious injury be done to the vital parts of the insect. -However this may be, the point appears to me to be worth -noting down as a curious fact.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ARAB INFLUENCE</div> - -<p>Talking with the people in the evening, we found we were in -one of the districts where the Arab influence must have been -very strong in former times. They are called Zafin Ibrahim -(descendants of Abraham), and told us they were connected -with the Jews. There is no doubt, however, that the Arabs had -anciently an important settlement here, and to some extent -taught the use of Arabic letters and literature; but being -isolated from their fellow-countrymen and co-religionists, they -gradually became absorbed in the native population. It is -probable that many of the chiefs of the south-east tribes are of -Arab descent, and so are often lighter in colour than the mass -of the people. An intelligent young man gave me a paper -containing all the Arabic characters and many of the syllabic -sounds, with their equivalents in Malagasy. He had, about -six years previously, copied out for M. A. Grandidier, who was -then exploring the coasts of Madagascar, a number of extracts -from native Arabic books of prayers, genealogies, and sorcery. -This young man’s father, then dead, was one of the <em>ombiàsy</em> or -diviners, and his books of charms and incantations, being -supposed to be connected with idolatry, were destroyed at the -time of the burning of the idols in 1869. A few years after our -journey, two of the Bétsiléo missionaries, when making an -evangelistic tour among the south-east tribes, obtained some -pages of manuscript from this neighbourhood. These were -apparently written in Arabic; and on being submitted to an -expert in that language, were pronounced to be extracts from -the Koran, evidently copied by someone who did not know -Arabic, and so were full of errors; these quotations were no -doubt used as charms and invocations. (I may here notice -that, very recently, copies of the Malagasy scriptures have been -boiled by the native diviners, and the water sold as a very -powerful charm!)</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SEA-BIRDS</div> - -<p>Being near the sea, we had opportunities of seeing many birds -which are oceanic in their distribution, among which are the -frigate-birds (one species), and the tropic-birds (two species). -The former are true pirates, living almost in dependence upon -other fishing birds, whom they force, when these are weaker<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span> -than themselves, to give up the fish they have taken. But -they do also fish for themselves, darting down upon the surface -of the water. The white tropic-bird is also an expert fisher, -plunging sometimes to a great depth after its prey. They -remain all night on their nest, leaving it at sunrise to fish in the -open sea. After heavy storms the frigate-bird is occasionally -seen quite in the interior, being apparently driven inwards by -the violence of the wind.</p> - -<p>Of the sea-birds proper, there are about a score kinds frequenting -the coasts of Madagascar, including those widely -spread and powerful-winged species belonging to the terns, the -noddies, the gulls, and the petrels. Very little, however, has -been noted here as to their habits, and they probably differ -little, if anything, from their fellows which are found all over -the world. One of the terns comes up into the interior, and -has been shot in Imèrina, and so also has one of the gulls; -another is common on the Alaotra lake in Antsihànaka.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> I am glad to say that our visit was a means of calling attention -to the needs of the forest tribes; and that evangelists have -been stationed for many years past among these people, who -are becoming enlightened and Christianised.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">AMONG THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">FROM the Hova military post at Ambòhipèno, my -companion and I made our way southwards, or rather -first to the south-west, intending to visit the congregations -at the three or four other important places in this district, -as well as some of those in their vicinity. This part of Madagascar -is a comparatively level or undulating country, extending -for many miles between the forest-covered mountains and -highlands to the west, and the ocean to the east, and only about -three hundred to four hundred feet above sea-level. The native -inhabitants were conquered—often with much cruelty and -treachery—by the Hova, about fifty years previous to the date -of our visit, but the cruelties of the wars carried on by the armies -of Radàma I. and Rànavàlona I. were not forgotten. Over -large districts, all the male population whose heads were above -the armpits of the soldiers were ruthlessly shot down or speared, -and the women and children taken as slaves, so that a large -proportion of the slave population of Imèrina were descended -from the tribes in these south-eastern districts. Since then, -the people quietly submitted to the superior power; but these -military posts were still maintained with governors, officers, -and a small force of soldiers; and at most of them there was -a considerable display of military authority, the gates being -guarded, and the drum beaten at regular times every morning -and evening. With one notable exception, we were everywhere -received with the greatest kindness and respect. Abundant -presents of food for us and our men were brought wherever we -stopped; every facility was given us to speak to the people, -and we were helped in every way to prosecute our journey.</p> - -<p>The country between Ambòhipèno and Màhamànina was -varied by low hills in all directions, and patches of wood, the -traveller’s tree appearing in great numbers. The fruit of this -beautiful tree was seen very conspicuously, forming three or four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span> -clusters of sheaths, about a dozen in each, much resembling -the horns of a short-horned ox. These project from between -the leaf-stalks, two in full bloom, and the other two generally -dying off, or shedding the seeds, or rather the seed-pods. These -are oval in shape, about two inches long, and yellow in colour, -something like very large dates. These, when ripe, open and -show each pod dividing into three parts, each of which is double, -thus containing six rows of seeds about the size of a small bean. -But what seems very curious is, that each seed is wrapped in a -covering exactly like a small piece of blue silk with scalloped -edges. I could not get these, however, without some difficulty -from the ants, which swarmed all over trunk, leaf-stalks, and -leaves, and resented vigorously any intrusion into their domains.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A LARGE GOVERNMENT HOUSE</div> - -<p>At Màhamànina we found old friends in the governor and -his wife. The <em>làpa</em> or government house was the largest and -finest house I had ever seen in Madagascar, except the chief -palace in the capital. It was three storeys high, entirely of -timber, with stout verandah posts and very high-pitched roof; -and everything here, gateways, guard-houses and stockades, -was of the most substantial character, and made of fine massive -timbers. After two days’ stay we proceeded farther south, and -at the village where we encamped for the night we noticed a new -style of coiffure among the women. Some of them had their -hair done in two rows of little balls, while behind the head there -was a piece of hollow wood ornamented with brass-headed nails -and fastened into the hair. In this they kept their needles and -other small property. Beads also were a good deal worn, and -they had the <em>lòndo</em> or square mat on the back. At one village -the young women wear round the breast a broad band of neatly -woven straw, ornamented with a variety of patterns in different -colours. It was rather difficult to understand the talk of the -people; the nasal <em>n</em>, the peculiar intonation, and the pronouns -and adverbs being all different from the Hova forms, made their -conversation a puzzle to us. Some, if not all the people here, -are a Sàkalàva colony from the west of the island.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EVIDENCE OF VOLCANIC ACTION</div> - -<p>We came the next day to a very boggy and difficult rice-valley. -Hereabouts the people make their <em>vàlam-parìhy</em>, or low -earthen banks between the rice-fields, with a foundation of -small stakes stuck in the ground, apparently to hold the earth -together, as it seems less tenacious and binding than that in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span> -Imèrina. When a good deal of the earth has been washed -away, it may easily be imagined that it is not a pleasant thing -walking along these banks. During the afternoon we passed for -some time over a slightly hollow tract thickly covered with -rounded lumps of dark brown rock resembling slag or scoria, -and full of holes like those produced by air-bubbles when the -mass was in a state of fusion. These were of all sizes, from a -yard or two to an inch in diameter, while the ground was -covered with rounded pebbles of the same material, of the size -of small beans. This must surely have been the bed of some -ancient stream, long since diverted into other channels by -subsequent elevation of the surface. But whence was this -volcanic substance derived? For many miles westward there -seems no broken or rugged surface, nor anything to indicate -subterranean disturbance. Probably the great isolated mountain -of Ivòhibé, which we have seen for several days far away -to the west, is an extinct volcano, like so many hills farther -north; and the ancient stream has at some remote period cut -through a dyke of lava and brought the rolled and rounded -fragments down its bed.</p> - -<p>Walking about in the brilliant moonlight after our evening -meal, in a short time there was quite a crowd gathered together -to watch the extraordinary spectacle of two foreigners walking -backwards and forwards for no discoverable earthly purpose. -After a little while we stopped and began to talk to them, telling -them of the old, but to them perfectly new, story of the glad -tidings, and of that “faithful saying” which was worthy of -their, and of all men’s, “acceptation.”</p> - -<p>Travelling again towards the shore, we passed for some time -through country which was like a beautiful shrubbery, with low -trees, amongst which the <em>vòavòntaka</em>, with its perfectly globular -green or yellow fruit, the size of a large orange, was very plentiful -and conspicuous. There was also a tree, the <em>karàbo</em>, having -enormous pods with seeds like beans, but from two to three -inches in diameter. We passed fresh evidence of volcanic -action in ancient streams of lava, with sand and dust from some -long extinct crater. Stopping at sunset at a village called -Màhavèlona, we found it, notwithstanding its promising name -(“causing to live”), the filthiest spot we had seen in all our -journey, quite worthy of the name given by a friend to a place<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span> -he stopped at, of “the well-dunged village.” We could find -no space where the tent could be pitched, and so began to look -for a house. There was one in the centre of the village that -looked of fair size, but the difficulty was, how to get to it, for it -was surrounded for a considerable distance by a slough of mud -and cow-dung that took our men nearly up to their knees. -Happily there were a few stout planks lying near, and with -these we made a causeway over the bog.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TRAVELLER’S TREE</div> - -<p>The following day, while waiting in the belt of wood bordering -the shore, we had an opportunity of testing the accuracy of -accounts given of the water procurable from the traveller’s tree, -about which, although backed by the authority of Mr Ellis, -and an illustration in his “Three Visits to Madagascar,” I had -always felt rather sceptical, as somewhat of “a traveller’s tale.” -In fact I had never before seen the tree where plenty of good -water was not to be had; but here there was none for several -miles except the stagnant, brackish and offensive water of the -lagoon. (Even my friend, Baron, says that the tree is always -found where good water is procurable.) But we found that on -piercing with a spear or a pointed stick the lower part of one of -the leaf-stalks, where they all clasp one over the other, a small -stream of water spurted out, from which one could drink to the -full of good, cool, and sweet water. If one of the outer leaf-stalks -was forcibly pulled down, a quantity of water gushed out, -so that we afterwards filled a vessel with as much as we needed. -On examining a section of one of the stalks, a hollow channel -about half-an-inch in diameter is seen running all down the inner -side of the stalk from the base of the leaf. The large cool -surface of the leaves appears to collect the water condensed from -the atmosphere, and this is conducted by the little channel -downward to the base. The leaf-stalks are all full of cells and of -water, like those of the banana. After three hours’ walking -along the shore in the heavy sand, with a hot sun overhead, we -were grateful to be able to draw from these numberless vegetable -springs, and we thanked God for the traveller’s tree; we felt -that its name was no misnomer. We afterwards found in a -village not far away that small water-pots were placed in a -hollow cut at the base of the leaves, so as to collect water for -drinking and household use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p2601_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2601_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tree Ferns in the Forest</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2601_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2601_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Travellers’ Trees</span><br /> - -In some places they are quite a feature of the landscape</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">AN UNEXPECTED PROHIBITION</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span></p> - -<p>After five days’ journey from Màhamànina we reached a -village near Vangàindràno, another of the large Hova posts, -and about three hours’ ride from the sea. But here we met -with a new and unexpected experience, for we were prevented -by the governor from going farther, and in fact, all our men -made prisoners and detained in the fort for a couple of days, -until we had agreed that we would not attempt to travel farther -southwards. He alleged that he was acting under orders from -the native government to allow no travelling south of the -Mànanàra river. Whether this was the truth or not, we never -clearly ascertained, nor any reason for such prohibition; but -his whole action was in such striking contrast to the courtesy -with which we were received everywhere else that it was -difficult to believe he was not exceeding his instructions, -certainly in the harsh way in which they were carried out. We -had been repeatedly assured that there were no difficulties in -travelling along the coast and that the country was perfectly -tranquil, and that we could easily reach Fort Dauphine in a -week. However, there was no help for it; we had to abandon -our hope of seeing the congregations and people, as well as the -country, to the south, and on 11th July we turned northwards, -“homeward bound.” On one of the nights when we were thus -stopped on our way, we saw what is not at all a common sight—namely, -a very well-defined and distinct lunar rainbow. It -looked pale and watery, however, quite a ghost of the rainbow -produced by sunlight. During many years’ residence in -Madagascar, I have only seen one on two other occasions.</p> - -<p>On the sides of the lagoons and marshes may be found the -curious pitcher-plant (<i>Nepenthes</i>). It is a shrub, about four -feet high, and its jug-shaped pitchers, four or five inches in -length, contain abundant water and numerous insects. The -pitcher with its cover are most remarkable modifications of the -petiole or leaf-stalk; and this plant, with a number of others, -reverses the usual order of nature, and instead of forming food -for animals, secures animal life, in the shape of insects, for its -own nourishment. A French writer has, not inaptly, compared -the pitcher of <i>Nepenthes</i> to the bowl of a German meerschaum -pipe; and Mr Scott Elliott says: “I found the pitchers to be -usually from a third to half full of the decomposing remains of -insects. In almost every pitcher there were live worms, -apparently living on the remains. Among the insects I found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span> -thirteen species of beetle, ten species of butterfly or moth, seven -species of hemiptera (aphides, water-beetles, etc.); four species -of hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants, etc.), of which one was a -sand-wasp, nearly an inch long; twelve species of diptera -(mosquitoes, flies, etc.), two grasshoppers, two dragonflies, and -one spider.” The water contained in the pitchers apparently -contains some acid or other solvent, by which the insects are -slowly digested by the plant; and from the above account it -will be seen what a great variety of insect life is entrapped, -including even the largest and strongest insects.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A SUGAR-CANE PRESS</div> - -<p>On one of the afternoons when we were detained near Vangàindràno, -hearing a sugar-cane press at work at one end of -the village, we went to look at it in operation. Like many others -we saw on this coast, it consisted of a long hollowed-out trough, -one end being left solid for a foot or two, thus forming a slightly -convex surface, with a channel cut on either side for the expressed -juice to run into the trough. Over this and across it -was a rounded tree trunk, seven or eight feet long, with three -short handles fixed into it; this is turned backwards and -forwards over small pieces of cane placed on the convex surface, -the juice being expressed by the mere weight of the round -trunk. The freshly expressed juice makes a pleasant drink; -after a day or two it begins to ferment, and is then much like -fresh cider; but it rapidly becomes too heady and intoxicating. -A good deal of <em>tòaka</em> (rum) is made, and is a cause of much evil -among the coast tribes; but the people here appear not to -understand the manufacture of sugar. Their still is as rude a -contrivance as their press; an earthen pot to boil the juice, and -a piece of iron piping fixed through a vessel of cold water so as -to condense the steam which forms the spirit.</p> - -<p>The people in this part of the country, who are called Taisàka, -all wear mats, as do the Tanàla and the Taimòro. To fasten -the mat sack about their waists, they use a girdle of bark cloth. -Some of this cloth (called <em>fànto</em>) is made by stripping off the -bark of certain trees, so that the whole comes off in one piece, -forming a kind of long bag, but open at each end. Another -kind is made in a sheet of about six feet long by four wide. It is -prepared by being hammered for a considerable time with a -wooden mallet, the face of which is cut in cross lines. This is -chiefly women’s work. Very few of the people had any garment<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> -made of woven cloth, indeed they seem to have little, if any, -knowledge of spinning or weaving. On the other hand, they -are clever in straw-work and in manufacturing mats and -baskets.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TAISÀKA HOUSES</div> - -<p>Their houses are very small, made of a slight framework and -filled in with the midrib of the leaves of the traveller’s tree -in the same way that the <em>zozòro</em> (papyrus) is used in Imèrina, -and looking almost exactly like <em>zozòro</em>. These leaf-stalks, -which are called <em>falàfa</em>, are fixed together on long fine twigs so -as to make a kind of stiff mat, the triangular stems easily fitting -in alternately. These mats are the ordinary mattress, and are -used in various other ways. One of them forms the door on -either side of the house, being shifted to one side or another as -required, and is kept from falling by sliding within a pole hung -from the framework. The flooring, which is always raised above -the ground, is made of the bark of the traveller’s tree, pressed -flat so as to form a rough kind of boarding; while the thatch of -every house is the leaves of the same tree, which forms a neat -and fairly durable covering. Here also, as among the other -coast tribes which we have seen, the traveller’s tree might be -called with equal or greater propriety, “the builder’s tree.” -The hearth is at one end of the house, in the centre, with a -strong square framework above it, having two or three rows of -shelves. The <em>tràno àmbo</em>, or elevated house for storing rice, -seems common to every tribe we have visited since leaving the -Bétsiléo province. The villages here are arranged in groups of -from two to half-a-dozen in a line, and with only a small space -between each group.</p> - -<p>The rice-fields in this flat swampy district have a very -different appearance to those in Imèrina or Bétsiléo; they are -like immense pits, in some places dug out to some depth in the -sides of the low elevations. The people do not transplant their -rice, as do those of the central provinces, but reap it where it -has been sown. We continually came across traces of volcanic -action; ancient streams of lava, conical-shaped hills and, on -the coast, reefs of basalt rock, gradually being broken up by -the action of the waves. All this showed that the great groups -of extinct volcanoes in the central provinces had their counterpart -in these southern regions of the island. Another interesting -fact was, that we found unmistakable signs also of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span> -Secondary rocks here on the coast, in stratified sandstone tilted -up at a very high angle.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A MILITARY ESCORT</div> - -<p>A day and a half’s journey from Vangàindràno brought us to -another Hova military post, a town called Ankàrana, which is -situated on a ridge about four hundred feet above the general -level of the surrounding country, forming a striking feature -in the landscape. Ascending a slippery and steep road in the -red clay, I found myself at one o’clock on the top of the ridge -and close to the stockaded <em>ròva</em>, or Hova fort, a much larger -place than I had expected to see, as hardly anything of the town -could be seen from below. Mr Street, being ill with fever, had -gone on before, while I brought up the rear. Coming to the -gate of the stockade, my men were about to take me in at once, -but the people near requested me to stop, as the officers were -coming out to escort me in. This I rather unwillingly did, as a -very heavy shower came on just then. Presently the rolling of -drums announced their approach. First came a file of soldiers, -then a number of officers, then the lieutenant-governor in palanquin, -and then the governor in ditto, a little active old man in -regimental red coat and cocked hat. They all came forward and -shook hands, and evidently it was intended that the queen -should be saluted and polite speeches made; but the rain -pelted down so furiously just then that they thought better of -it, and we made our way through the double stockade into the -Hova town with its lines of houses, and then into an inner -stockade enclosing the government house and flagstaff and -several large houses. We took shelter under the raised verandah -of one of these, while a dozen unfortunate individuals, soldiers -and petty officers, had to stand out in the pouring rain and -“present arms,” “support arms,” etc., and then, of course, -came inquiries after the queen and the great people at their -capital.</p> - -<p>The governor then led me into the temporary <em>làpa</em>, a large -rough-looking room, where was a table spread with dishes, -plates, etc. He apologised for there being no meal ready for -us, as our coming was unexpected, but wine and biscuits were -brought and we drank the queen’s health, and they drank ours, -a flourish of music and drums following each toast. This -extreme politeness, so soon after the marked discourtesy shown -us at Vangàindràno, astonished and amused me not a little. I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span> -was gravely consulted as to whether the royal flag might not be -hauled down, as the day was so wet; I accordingly graciously -signified my approval of their doing so. As soon as possible, I -intimated that I would like to go and see my friend and companion. -The governor leading the way, I was taken to a house -at the far end of the enclosure, where I found Mr Street in bed -and very unwell. But the house was large and dry, a fire was -burning on the hearth, and we were glad to get our wet things -dried. Several of our men were also ill with fever, so I had my -hands pretty full with dispensing medicine and nursing. Besides -this, numerous callers had to be talked with and presents -received.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A NOISY DINNER</div> - -<p>A good part of the following day was occupied in conversation -with the native pastors, examining the school, teaching, -singing, etc. But soon after four o’clock in the afternoon -the sound of music and drumming in the courtyard told us that -the time was approaching for the feast they were going to give -us, and presently the governor and all his people came to fetch -us. My companion was unable to go, but I was led by the -hand and had to receive all the honours. In the open central -space all the military force of the town, about five and twenty -soldiers, was drawn up, and the royal flag was flying. On one -side the ladies, the wives and daughters of the officers, were -arranged, dressed in their best; on the other side were row after -row of pots with fires under them, where the feast was being -cooked. There was a terrible din of drumming and music -going on. After a prayer, salutes, speech-making, including a -long flourish of our honour, and presentation of another immense -heap of provisions, I was again taken by the hand, and led -into the government house for the repast. I should add that -the governor also gave us ten dollars for <em>vàtsy</em> (food by the way), -counting them into my hand in English numbers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A LONG MENU</div> - -<p>The dinner was, I think, the longest, and certainly <em>was</em> the -noisiest, entertainment at which I have ever assisted. About -a score of the officers were at the table, and seven of the ladies. -After a long grace from the pastor, dinner was brought in, and -consisted of the following courses:—1st, curry; 2nd, goose; -3rd, roast pork; 4th, pigeons and water-fowls; 5th, chicken -cutlets and poached eggs; 6th, beef sausages; 7th, boiled -tongue; 8th, sardines; 9th, pigs’ trotters; 10th, fried bananas;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span> -11th, pancakes; 12th, manioc; 13th, dried bananas; and -last, when I thought everything must have been served, came -hunches of roast beef! All this was finished up with coffee. -By taking a constantly diminishing quantity of each dish I -managed to appear to do justice to them all. Claret went about -very freely, and at length some much stronger liquor; and the -healths of the Queen, “Our friends the two Foreigners,” then -those of the Prime Minister, Chief Secretary, and Chief Judge, -were all drunk twice over, the Governor’s coming last; all followed -by musical (and drum) honours. As already remarked, -it was the noisiest affair of the kind at which I have ever been -present. There was a big drum just outside in the verandah, -as well as two small ones, besides clarionets and fiddles, and -these were in full play almost all the time. Then the room was -filled by a crowd of servants and aides-de-camp, and the shouting -of everybody to everybody, from the governor downwards, -was deafening. The old gentleman directed everything and -everyone, filled up everybody’s glass, and, in fact, filled up his -own more often than was quite good for him, so that he became -a little incoherent in the last toasts he proposed; so that I was -glad when the finishing one arrived, and I could take my leave -after nearly two hours’ sitting. But I was not to leave quietly; -again I was taken by the hand, the big drum being hammered -at in front of us all the way, and, followed by a posse of officers -and ladies, was escorted home by the governor. My invalid -friend could well have dispensed with the big drum; however, -being a little better, he and I managed to say a few earnest -words to them about “the praying”; after which they took -their leave. I had afterwards to pay quite a round of visits -to our men who were poorly, some with fever, others lame, with -feet hurt with thorns, stumbling, etc.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A MELANCHOLY PARTING</div> - -<p>It was fine on the following morning, and as my companion’s -fever had left him, although he was still very weak, we determined -to get off; but first, there were more visits to be paid, -and more presents to be received. Mr Street left first at half-past -nine, but I waited until all the baggage was off, and then -went to wish our old friend the governor good-bye. But I was -not to get away so easily; I was again taken into the chief -house, the claret was brought out, and the Queen’s health and -our own drunk with military honours. Then I turned to say<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span> -<em>Velòma</em>; but no, the vigorous old gentleman was going to -escort me out of town, and his wives were to accompany us. -But some time elapsed in seeking bearers for them, during -which I had to go to the lieutenant-governor’s and drink coffee. -On returning to the courtyard I found the governor putting a -couple of bottles of claret and another of rum into his palanquin, -as well as glasses and cups. Sufficient bearers could not be -procured for the ladies, so we wished them good-bye, and set -off in the following order:—Soldiers, musicians, with drums, -clarionet, and violin; “<em>ny havantsika ny Vazàha</em>” (our foreign -friend); the lieutenant-governor; the governor; aides-de-camp, -soldiers. And so escorted, with the drums, etc., in full play, we -marched out of the town. I had supposed that as soon as we -were fairly at the foot of the hill the governor would take his -leave, but he went on and on for an hour until we came to a -rapid stream, the Mànantsìmba. Here we halted; the claret -was poured out for more health-drinking, with musical honours; -and then the whole of the governor’s men were ordered to take -me safely across the river, which they did. From the opposite -bank I bowed and shouted my last adieux, and so parted -from one of the jolliest old gentlemen I have ever met with -in my travels. It struck me as irresistibly comic that, as -soon as we had fairly started on our way from the river -bank, the musicians struck up a most melancholy strain. -As my men said, the governor appeared to be low-spirited -at parting with us.</p> - -<p>I must add a word or two more about this “fine old <em>Malagasy</em> -gentleman, all of the olden time.” It appeared that he had -been governor at Ankàrana for more than twenty years, and -before then was lieutenant-governor at Mànanjàra. We were -somewhat shocked to find that each of the three buxom ladies -who accompanied him about was his wife, and further, that he -had another as well, whom we did not see. The pastor told -us that he had been admonished as to the impropriety of his -conduct in this respect, but he had been unable as yet to make -up his mind which of them to put away, and which to keep, -out of the four. He seemed quite a little king in the district -he commanded, and our servants told us that he was a most -courageous old fellow, delighted to hear of there being any -enemies to be met with anywhere, and going off to fight them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span> -with the greatest alacrity. Yesterday, when the feast was -being cooked, he sat in the courtyard, gun in hand, shooting -first a fowl, then a pigeon, and then a pig, all of which, in -addition to what was already preparing, he ordered to be instantly -cooked with the rest. They also say that he is very -rich, owning five hundred cattle and two hundred slaves, and -that he is always most hospitable to all strangers. Certainly -we found him to be so. Besides the abundant kindness he -showed us at Ankàrana, he sent with us an escort and guides, -twelve soldiers, two officers, and a drummer, besides as many -baggage bearers as we required to replace the men who were -ill.</p> - -<p>We were interested to find that many of our bearers met with -relatives in these coast provinces. The mothers of several of -them were brought up from these parts as slaves, when children, -in Radàma’s cruel wars. The most remarkable circumstance -was that our cook discovered that one of the governor’s wives -at Ankàrana was his mother’s sister. And at the same place -another of our men found that the chief people of the Taisàka -village were his mother’s brothers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PRIMITIVE DISHES AND SPOONS</div> - -<p>Our lodging on the evening of the day we left Ankàrana was -in another sample of the “well-dunged village,” although we -procured a tolerably good house in it. While taking lunch in -one of the other villages, we noticed the primitive dishes and -spoons used by the people. The former consist of the strong -tough leaf of the pandanus-tree, which is doubled over at one -end so as to retain rice or liquid. The spoons are pieces of the -leaf of the traveller’s tree, folded up so as easily to carry food -to the mouth. This pandanus has a fruit, yellow in colour, and -something in shape and size like a pineapple without its tuft -of leaves. When dry it is brown in colour, and each hexagonal -division when separated from the rest is like a tough wooden -peg, and utterly uneatable.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A FUNERAL MEMORIAL</div> - -<p>Outside a village called Iàboràno I noticed the first appearance -of anything like a funeral memorial we have seen since leaving -Bétsiléo. This consisted of four poles placed in a line, the two -outer ones higher than the others, and the inner ones pointed -in a peculiar fashion. These serve the same purpose as the -upright stones called <em>tsàngam-bàto</em> in Imèrina. All through -the Tanàla country and along this south-eastern coast we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span> -have seen no graves or memorials of the dead. I was told -that each village has a large pit in, or on the borders of, -the forest, where the dead are thrown and are not covered -with earth. The corpses are wrapped in coarse matting -made of rush.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">ON the Saturday afternoon we reached Ambàhy, a large -village not far from the sea, with a <em>ladoàna</em> or custom-house. -Here a detachment of military awaited our -arrival—viz. <em>four</em> officers and <em>two</em> soldiers, but outside and inside -the stockade rather more than the usual amount of tedious -ceremony was gone through, which was, however, amusing as -well, from the absurd costume of many of the performers.</p> - -<p>On the Sunday, as my companion was still unwell, I took the -services entirely. The church was in the village on the other -side of the water, and in going over to service I had a sail for the -first time in a native-made <em>built boat</em>. These boats are here -called <em>sàry</em>, and are about thirty feet long by eight feet beam, -and easily carry fifty people. I examined with interest the construction -of the craft, for the planks, about eight inches broad, -were <em>tied</em>, not nailed together, by twisted cord of <em>anìvona</em> palm -fibre, one of the toughest known vegetable substances, the holes -being plugged with hard wood. The seat boards came right -through the sides, so as to stiffen the whole, for there were no -ribs or framework. The seams were caulked with strips of -bamboo, loops of which also formed the rowlocks for large oars -of European shape. The ends of the boat curved upwards considerably, -and from its appearance it seemed likely to stand -a heavy sea with perfect safety. These boats are made for -going out to the shipping, for no dug-out canoe could live in -the great waves constantly rolling along these shores.</p> - -<p>From Ambàhy northwards there stretches a coral reef at a -mile or two’s distance from the beach, a white line of surf -constantly breaking over it. Along this part of the coast the -vegetation of pandanus is varied by a number of the tall graceful -<em>filào</em>-trees (casuarina), so common south of Tamatave. It -was dusk before all the baggage and our men were ferried -over a small river, and as I was the last I had a most unpleasant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> -hour and a half in the dark, floundering about in rice-fields and -water, for our guides lost their way, so that I thought we should -have to take shelter under some bush for the night. But at -last we reached a good-sized village; two of our men, however, -got hopelessly astray and had to lie out all night in the open. -In the dark we several times thought we saw a lantern coming -to our aid, but it was only the beautiful little fireflies dancing -up and down in the bushes, a “will-o’-the-wisp” which deceived -us again and again. These flies do not give a continuous -light, but one which—like some lighthouses—is quenched every -second or two, the interval of darkness being longer than the -time when the light is visible.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">CANOE CHANTS</div> - -<p>We were delayed on our journey one day by having to return -and search for a man who had been missing for a day or more. -Leaving our stopping-place before six in the morning, I took -sixteen men, who were divided into three parties to go in different -directions. We did not find him, but discovered where he was, -and left him in charge of some Hova officers to be sent on after -us. I had two voyages over the Màtitànana that day; the -morning’s sail was delightful, the water smooth as a mirror, -and with a very large canoe and eight or ten paddles we moved -rapidly over the glassy surface. My men began and sustained -for some time several of their musical and often amusing canoe -chants, in which one man keeps up a recitative, usually an -improvised strain, often bringing in circumstances recently -happening, while the rest chime in with a chorus at regular -intervals, a favourite one being, “<em>E, misy và?</em>” (“Oh, is -there any?”). This question refers to various good things they -hope to get at the end of the day’s journey, such as plenty of -rice, beef, sweet potatoes, etc., these articles of food being -mentioned one after another by the leader of the song. A little -delicate flattery of their employer, the Englishman they are -rowing, is often introduced, and praises of his hoped-for generosity -in providing these luxuries for them, something in this -style:</p> - -<table class="autotable fs90"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">E, misy và?</td> -<td class="tdl">Oh, is there any?</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad2">E, misy rè!</td> -<td class="tdl pad2">Oh yes, there’s some!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">E, ny vorontsiloza, zalàhy, è!</td> -<td class="tdl">Oh, the turkeys, lads, oh!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad2">E, misy rè!</td> -<td class="tdl pad2">Oh yes, there’s some!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">E, ny gisy matavy, zalàhy, è!</td> -<td class="tdl">Oh, the plump-looking geese, lads, oh!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad2">E, misy ré! <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span></td> -<td class="tdl pad2">Oh yes, there’s some!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">E, ny akoho manatody, zalàhy, é!</td> -<td class="tdl">Oh, the egg-laying fowls, lads, oh!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad2">E, misy ré!</td> -<td class="tdl pad2">Oh yes, there’s some!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">E, ny vazaha be vola, zalàhy, é</td> -<td class="tdl">Oh, the very rich foreigner, lads, oh!</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad2">E, misy ré!</td> -<td class="tdl pad2">Oh yes, here he is!</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="noindent">and so on, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad libitum</i>.</p> - -<p>In another song sung by men on this voyage, the chorus was, -<em>Mandàny vàtsy, Toamasina malaza é!</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “Consumes provisions -for the way, famous Tamatave O!”—while the recitative -brought in all the different villages on the journey from Tamatave -to the capital, ending with Avàra-dròva, the northern -entrance to the palace yard. Our return voyage was a rough -one; there was a considerable swell, for the sea breeze had set -in very strongly, as is generally the case in the afternoon along -the east coast; and had I not had an unusually large and good -canoe, I dared not have ventured across the broad expanse of -water near the mouth of the river.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p2721_ill" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2721_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Malagasy Orchid</span> (Angræcum Superbum)<br /> - -The blooms are pure white, waxlike flowers</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">MAGNIFICENT ORCHIDS</div> - -<p>While waiting for the canoe that afternoon I was delighted -to see the profusion of orchids along the shore. I had, of course, -often admired these on the trunks and branches of trees on the -coast; but, here, the magnificent <i><ins class="corr" id="tn-272" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Agræcum superbum'"> -Angræcum superbum</ins></i> was -growing by hundreds on the ground, on good-sized bushes, -which occurred in scores, the large waxy-white flowers all in -full bloom. It was worth a fatiguing journey to see such a -wealth of floral beauty. Here I may notice that another fine -orchid, the <i>Angræcum sesquipedale</i>, is also to be seen in flower -in the months of June and July on this eastern coast. It is -not so numerous in blooms as the other species, but its large -pure white flowers shine out like stars against the dark trunks -of the trees on which it grows. As its specific name signifies, -its remarkable spur or nectary is nearly a foot and a half long, -pointing to an insect with a very long sucking tube in order to -reach the honey stored there. There are several other species -of <i>Angræcum</i> found in Madagascar, but with smaller flowers -than the two just named. As Mr Baron remarks, “Whatever -else may escape the notice of the traveller, the <i>A. -superbum</i> forms far too striking an ornament to be passed by -unheeded.” And I think the same might almost be said of -the <i>sesquipedale</i>; of this latter Mr Baron says that it generally -chooses trees which overhang the rivers or lagoons as its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span> -habitat. I have, however, noticed it at some distance from -water.</p> - -<p>Farther north along this coast there is a large proportion of -trees of considerable size, in addition to the pandanus and more -shrubby vegetation seen farther south. The latter also attain -a much greater height in the struggle to get up to the light -amongst the crowd of other trees. In one spot for some distance -there was no undergrowth, but “a pillared shade” of the -slender trunks of the pandanus, while high overhead their -graceful crowns of long saw-edged leaves made a canopy -impervious to the sun. Among the larger trees one called <em>atàfa</em> -(<i>Terminalia catappa</i>) is prominent; in these the branches strike -directly at right angles from the trunk and then spread away -horizontally for a considerable distance. The leaves are -spatula-shaped and from eight to ten inches long, and a large -proportion of them are always a ruddy brown or scarlet, giving -a blaze of colour. The tree is called also the “Indian almond,” -and the kernel of the fruit is edible. While waiting for a canoe, -we walked two or three hundred yards towards the outlet of a -small river, and were startled by a crocodile only a few feet -in front of us, rousing himself from his nap in the setting sunshine, -and waddling off into the river.</p> - -<p>About seventy miles north of the Màtitànana river we came -to an extensive lagoon stretching northward for several miles. -This appeared to be the first—from the south—of that remarkable -series bordering the shore and extending with but few -breaks nearly to Tamatave, a distance of two hundred and -sixty miles (see <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III.</a>). Along the northern side of -this lagoon are masses of lava rock, some of it in enormous -blocks.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TAIMÒRO TRIBE</div> - -<p>We found here that we had reached another centre of population, -an important settlement of the Taimòro tribe; the -principal chief, a very fine tall man, came to see us, and was extremely -polite and kind. We were amused to see his daughters, -two nice little girls, attended by all the other children of the -village, who were going through the peculiar monotonous -native singing with clapping of hands; while these two girls -moved together slowly backwards and forwards, and with a -slow movement of their feet, and a graceful movement of the -hands, performed a native dance. They were strikingly different<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> -from the other children in their dress, having scarlet caps, with -a long veil behind of coloured print, jackets of figured stuff -and a skirt of scarlet or a broad girdle of the same colour. -Afterwards they were mounted on the shoulders of two stout -girls, who went through the same performance with their feet, -while the little girls moved their hands and arms.</p> - -<p>At a village where we stayed it was the custom that no bird -or animal could be killed for food except by someone belonging -to the family of the native king. This agrees with what is -stated by Drury and other early writers on Madagascar as to -the customs of many tribes in the south-west of the island.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN OBJECT OF WONDER</div> - -<p>On 22nd and 23rd July, Saturday and Sunday, we had two -long and very fatiguing journeys, the more so as our maps were -of the vaguest description, and we could get no accurate information -as to distances or villages; rice for our bearers was -not at all easy to procure, and when crossing rivers, a single -canoe for fifty men and a quantity of baggage often delayed -us very seriously. On the Saturday morning we met a wheeled -vehicle, the first I had ever seen in Madagascar—viz. a cart -drawn by yoked oxen; this excited much wonder among our -men. We had to cross rivers or wide lagoons five times that -day, so that late in the afternoon we still saw no stopping-place. -But as we understood <ins class="corr" id="tn-274" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'that that was a'"> -that there was a</ins> small village two -or three hours farther on, and that the road was along the -shore, we thought we could not miss it even if it was late. So -we went along the sands; the sun set, and it grew dark, but -there was no sign of any village; then the path turned inland -among the bush, where we went on feeling our way for some -time. But at last we got hopelessly adrift in the dense vegetation -and total darkness. There was no help for it but to retrace -our steps to the shore, which we did, not without great -difficulty. It seemed highly probable that we should have to -spend the night under the trees, without food, fire, or light, -as our baggage had gone on ahead. Continually we mistook -the light of the fireflies for a lantern coming to our assistance; -but still going on we saw at last a light ahead, steadier and -redder than that of the fireflies. Then we lost it, but going on -again we at length came up to the embers of a fire lighted on the -sand. Opposite was a path leading up to four little huts, where -most of our men had arrived, and where we got better accommodation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span> -than the woods would have afforded, although the -huts were mere rough sheds of traveller’s tree leaves. It was -fortunate for us that we reached them, for heavy rain came -directly and continued all night. There was no rice to be -bought; so our men had to go supperless to bed, and we had -very little to eat ourselves. Some dozen or more of the men -slept with us in our hut, as thick as they could lie, and the other -places were as full.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p2741_ill" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2741_ill.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Malagasy Men Dancing</span><br /> - -This consists of graceful movements of hands, body, and feet. Men and women never dance together</div> -</div> - -<p>The following day, Sunday, was a disappointing one, for we -quite thought in the morning that we were only two or three -hours’ journey, at most, from Màsindràno, where we hoped to -meet with a good congregation. But we had to travel for hour -after hour, delayed in crossing the lagoons in a vain search for -food, and in other ways, so that it was sunset before we crossed -the Mànanjàra river, and after dark before we at last reached -the town. However, here we met with the kindest welcome, -had good houses put at our disposal, and there was abundance -of food for us all.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WHALES</div> - -<p>On the following day we left the seashore, along which, first -going southwards and afterwards northwards, we had travelled -for so many days. And here I may remark that dolphins are -often seen in the Madagascar seas, especially the small species -called <i>Delphinus pas</i>, which is frequently seen leaping, plunging -and swimming with astonishing swiftness and in large shoals. -These animals love to pursue the flying-fish, and in this chase -they display extraordinary dexterity. Two species of whale -also frequent the seas round Madagascar, but they are chiefly -seen on the western side of the island. The huge form of the -cachelot or sperm-whale, with its remarkably square head, -looking as if it had been cut off right across, especially when it -turns to dive, as I have seen it, seems to have impressed the -imagination of the Malagasy, because when an earthquake -occurs they say, <em>Mivàdika ny tròzona</em>—<em>i.e.</em> “The whales are -turning over.”</p> - -<p>After leaving the east coast we sailed up the broad river -Mànanjàra, stopping a night at another Hova military post, a -large village called Itsìatòsika. Here again we had great kindness -shown to us by the most polite and gentlemanly set of Hova -officers we had ever met. For the first day and a half our route -lay chiefly up the valley of the river, over undulating country; but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span> -during the next two and half days we had to travel to the north-west, -through the belt of dense forest covering the lines of -mountain which are the successive steps into the bare interior -highland. Through this rugged country, travelling was very -difficult, and the steep ascents very fatiguing. As we got up a -thousand feet, there was line after line of hill and mountain, -all covered with forest, as far as the eye could reach, to the -north and south and west. Besides the ordinary forest trees, -there were great numbers of the graceful palm called <em>Anìvona</em>, -which, in the struggle for light and heat, here grows to a -great height. As we have seen in speaking of the old style -of timber houses, this palm was made much use of in -their construction. There were magnificent and extensive -views from the higher ground; and conspicuous for a whole -day’s journey was a lofty perpendicular cliff of bright red -rock, rising sheer up many hundreds of feet from the valley -below.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A HEATHENISH FUNERAL</div> - -<p>A little before reaching the summit of one ridge we heard a -good deal of noise and shouting ahead of us, and supposed that -the Tanàla were dragging an unusually large piece of timber. -On getting nearer, we found fifty or sixty people, men and -women, and a number of men carrying something, which, -coming closer to them, we found was a child’s coffin, made of -a piece of the trunk of a tree hollowed out, and with a rough -cover of wood fastened on with bands of a strong creeper. This -was being carried with a barbarous kind of chant, but without -the slightest sign of mourning on the part of anyone. It was -the most heathenish kind of funeral we had ever seen. Among -these forest people funerals are called <em>fàndrorìtam-pàty</em> (<em>lit.</em> -“stretching out of the corpse”), and it seems that the coffin -is pulled about first in one direction and then in another -by the different parties of those following it; and it is finally -thrown into some hollow in the woods. It was a saddening -sight.</p> - -<p>We found that we had come again among our old friends, the -Tanàla, for in their mats and undressed appearance, and their -use of bark cloth, the women in the villages were just like those -we had seen from Ivòhitròsa downwards.</p> - -<p>Our second day in the forest brought us to a height of -fourteen hundred and fifty feet above the sea; and, notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span> -our fatigue from having to walk continually for -several hours, we were charmed again with the luxuriance of -the vegetation. The anìvona-palms shot up their slender -columns, banded with lines of white on dark green to heights -of eighty to a hundred feet, and the traveller’s trees were as -lofty, in the fierce competition for life. The tree-ferns spread -out their graceful fronds over the streams; and the <i>Vaquois -pandanus</i> carried its large clusters of serrated leaves high overhead -to get up to the light. In some places the woods were -very dense, and there was a green twilight as we passed along -the narrow path amongst the crowd of tall trunks. We were -struck by the intense silence of the forest; there was no sound -of animal life, and no voice of bird, or beast, or insect broke -the oppressive stillness. For six hours and a half we hardly -saw a house except isolated woodcutters’ huts; and we were -glad at last to see the sparkling waters of the Mànanjàra -in front of us, and to find a village of twenty houses on its -banks.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE CICADA</div> - -<p>Although in the cold season, which was the time of our -journey, the woods were very silent, they are not so at all times -of the year, and among the sounds of the forest we must not -omit one which, once heard, can never be forgotten—viz. the -extremely shrill piercing note of the <em>Jorèry</em>, a cicada, which -makes the woods ring again with its stridulous reverberations. -If it should happen that two or three of these little creatures -are giving out their sound together, the jarring, ringing noise -becomes almost painful to the ear; and it is difficult to believe -that such a loud noise can be produced from the friction of the -wing-cases of such a comparatively small insect, for it does not -exceed an inch and a half in length.</p> - -<p>On rainy nights a stridulous sound, but far less loud than -that produced by the jorèry, is heard in and near the forest, and -is produced by a large species of earthworm called <em>Kànkandoròka</em>. -It somewhat resembles the noise of a rattle, and is far -from unpleasant to the ear.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE SILENCE OF THE WOOD</div> - -<p>Yet it would be a mistake to suppose that these comparatively -silent woods are destitute of animal life, and the stillness -is largely attributable to the peculiar character of the Madagascar -fauna. Many of the lemurs are nocturnal animals and -are therefore not seen or heard in the daytime. Then again,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span> -the twenty-four species of centetidæ are burrowing animals, and -so do not often appear in the open. And it is much the same -with the sixteen species of rats and mice, which live in the woods -and on their borders. In confirmation of the above remarks as -to the animal life of the forest, it may be stated that in the -latter part of the year 1894, and the beginning of 1895, Dr -Forsyth Major, the eminent naturalist and palæontologist, lived -for several months collecting in the woods not very far from the -route we followed about eighteen years previously; and his -specimens of recent mammals amounted to no fewer than sixteen -hundred specimens, which added <em>twenty species</em> to those -previously known. These were chiefly in the tenrecs and the -rats, but also included a new species of lemur. Some of these -forms were exceptionally interesting, one being aquatic and -web-footed; and others showed transitions from a hairy to a -spiny condition in closely allied animals, suggesting that the -prickly state had been gradually attained for purposes of defence. -Several of the centetidæ, of the genus <i>Oryzorictes</i>, feed largely -on rice, as their generic name denotes, and do much damage to -the crops. This is equally true of the indigenous rats and mice. -We have seen how the forest and coast Malagasy protect their -rice stores by elevated houses, with special precautions against -these little marauders.</p> - -<p>It should be added that Dr Major’s unprecedentedly large -collections would probably have been larger still but for the -disturbed state of the country at that time. It was during the -early months of the French invasion and subsequent conquest -of Madagascar, when the feeling against all Europeans was very -strong; so that again and again Dr Major was in considerable -danger of his life. Besides adding so largely to our knowledge -of the living fauna of the island, he made large collections of -the sub-fossil fauna, in collections of the remains of the extinct -æpyornis, hippopotami, tortoises, crocodiles, and other animals, -finding bones of several of the smaller mammals which he afterwards -discovered to be still living.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p2781_ill1" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2781_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Woman of the Antànkàrana Tribe -N.W. Madagascar</span><br /> - -She is in full gala costume</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="p2781_ill2" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p2781_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Woman of Antanòsy Tribe, S.E. Madagascar</span><br /> - -She is got up in all her finery</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">BIRD LIFE IN MADAGASCAR</div> - -<p>With regard to the silence of the wood just spoken of, and -the apparent dearth of animal life, it must be remembered that, -in addition to the character of the mammalian fauna above-mentioned, -our journey was made in the cold season, when all -life is much less in evidence. As we have seen in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">chapters VIII.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a>, speaking of the forest, it is by no means destitute -of bird life during the warm months of the year. And yet I -have never been able satisfactorily to account for the <em>comparative</em> -fewness of birds in Madagascar, notwithstanding the number -of species. It can hardly be from want of appropriate food, for -the great variety of trees and shrubs must surely supply sufficient -in the way of fruits and berries and seeds, to say nothing -of caterpillars, and insects in various stages of development. -My friend, Mr Cory, an enthusiastic naturalist and sportsman, -wrote to me: “I think the want of bird life in Madagascar is -very marked when compared with England, and I was much -struck with this on my first arrival. I have been in the forest -at all times of the year; and although there <em>are</em> a good many -birds in summer, yet if you try bird’s-nesting here, you will soon -find out how few and far between the nests are.” I have sometimes -thought that these facts may be partly explained by the -rather large proportion of rapacious birds in Madagascar to the -general air-fauna—twenty-two, as compared with two hundred -and ten species known to inhabit the island; for, leaving out -the twenty-eight species of oceanic birds, we have nearly a -seventh of the birds belonging to rapacious kinds, a proportion -which would be still greater if we reckon, as we might well do, -several of the eight species of shrikes as rapacious. As we shall -see in the <a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">next chapter</a>, there appear to be a far larger number -of birds on the western side of the island than are found in the -eastern forests.</p> - -<p>With regard to the paucity of insect life in the forest, I think -it has been clearly shown by eminent naturalists like Dr Wallace -and the late Mr Bates, that <em>dense</em> wood is not favourable to such -life; but that in open spaces in the forest, where sunshine can -penetrate, and where there is also water, there is where you -may hope to find butterflies, moths, and various handsome -flies, bees and wasps; while patches of cleared forest and felled -trees are the most favourable hunting-grounds for the numerous -species of beetle and also of ants. In travelling from the east -coast to Imèrina seventeen years later than this journey, on a -route about eighty miles north of that described in this chapter, -we found numerous butterflies, a dozen species at least, in some -localities; and the voice of birds was heard all along the road, -the noisy call of the <em>Kankàfotra</em> cuckoo, <em>kow-kow, kow-kow</em>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> -constantly repeated; the mellow flute-like call of another -cuckoo, the <em>Tolòho</em>, whose notes we heard all the way from -Màhanòro; the chirp and whistle of the <em>Railòvy</em>, or king-crow, -as well as the incessant twitter of many smaller birds. Then -came frequently the wailing notes of the lemurs high up among -the trees. This, however, was in November, when the hot -season was advancing.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PROTECTIVE COLOURING</div> - -<p>In our walks in the forest from the Ankèramadìnika Sanatorium -(Chapters VIII. and IX.), we saw, it will be remembered, -many cases of protective colouring. As we are again in the -eastern forests, the following instances may also be noted. -There is found in these woods a curious walking-stick mantis, -about eight inches long and a quarter of an inch thick. It is -exactly the colour of a dried branchlet or twig, with joints -distinctly articulated like the nodes of many plants. The tail -(if the end of the creature may be thus called) is rather more -than an inch long, and is a hollow, canoe-shaped trough, somewhat -resembling part of the bark torn off a twig. The legs are -alate and spiny. At about two inches from the head are the -wings and wing-sheaths, the latter being somewhat like obovate -stipules about half-an-inch long, and the former marked with -black and yellow and about an inch and a half long. When the -wings are closed, it would take a very keen eye to discover the -creature, as the part of the wing when closed is of the same -colour as the rest of the body. The legs can be brought together -lengthwise in front, and so appear to form a continuous -part of the twig, especially as the femurs are hollowed out to -form a socket for the head.</p> - -<p>Another singular creature, a kind of springtail, known as -<em>Tsikòndry</em>, is found on the branches of certain trees. The tail, -which is about half-an-inch long—a little longer than the body -of the insect—is a remarkable and curious appendage. This -tail consists of a tuft of white threads, somewhat divided and -fluffy at the tip, and which, at the pleasure of the insect, can be -raised or lowered or spread out, the threads radiating in a circle -from the root. This tail is so exactly like a lichen in appearance -as thoroughly to deceive the eye. Unless a branch on which -a number of these tsikòndry are seated is accidentally shaken, -causing them to spring off, they would be passed by as lichens. -The leap or spring is effected by a jerk of the tail.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">PREVOST’S BROADBILL</div> - -<p>I have already pointed out somewhere in this book that -Madagascar is a kind of museum of several forms of animal life -found nowhere else in the world; for among mammals there -are some of the lemuridæ, especially the aye-aye; also some -of the centetidæ; among the insects, the uranid butterfly; -while there are several birds, which are isolated, having no near -relation, so that new genera, and even new families, have had to -be formed for their classification. Among these latter, and -inhabiting the eastern forests, is Prevost’s broadbill (<i>Euryceros -prevosti</i>). The zoological affinities of this remarkable bird were -for long a puzzle to ornithologists; but it is so different from -the wood-swallows, starlings and shrikes, which groups are -nearest to it, that the French naturalists have formed a special -family (<i>Eurycerotidæ</i>) for this solitary genus and species. This -bird is remarkable for a beak formed like a very capacious -helmet, strongly compressed and swelled towards the base, -which advances to just as far as the eyes; and its very convex -edge is terminated by a sharp hook. This extraordinary form -of the beak is seen best in the skeleton, in which the beak is seen -to be considerably larger than the skull. The bird is as large as -a starling, velvety black in colour, with a saddle-shaped patch -of light brown on the back. The large beak is steely-blue in -colour, and pearly, like the inside of an oyster shell. Such -specialised birds—as well as the other peculiar forms of life—speak -of high antiquity and of the long isolation of their habitat -from continental influences.</p> - -<p>Four or five days of hard travelling brought us to Ambòhimànga, -<em>an-àla</em>, so called to distinguish it from the old Hova -capital of the same name, north of Antanànarìvo. As on many -previous occasions, we had long delays in crossing rivers, from -the fewness and smallness of the canoes available. We were -detained for three hours crossing the Mànanjàra, which, -although so far from the sea, was still a wide river, with a -powerful current and full of rapids and rocks. We had time to -notice and examine carefully a graceful plant which covered -the stones in the water; this looked like a fern—but is not one—from -one to two feet long and with very thick and fleshy stem -and fronds. On examining one of these, I found it to be the -home of a variety of minute animals; some of them caterpillars, -which were burrowing into the stalk; others, small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span> -green creatures like caddis-worms, but with a transparent shell; -others, minute leeches; others like the fresh-water hydra; -with several other kinds, all finding house and provision on one -frond in the rushing waters.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A TANÀLA CHIEFTAINESS</div> - -<p>This “forest Ambòhimànga” was the home of Ihòvana, -the Tanàla chieftainess of the tribe of the surrounding district, -who, with her husband, was most kind and friendly, and I -believe a sincere Christian. She was a remarkably stout old -lady, getting grey, and a woman of considerable ability and -force of character. On special occasions, when the Malagasy -nobles and tributary chiefs were summoned up to the capital, -Ihòvana would appear in the public assembly, and with <em>làmba</em> -girded round her and spear in hand, would give assurances of -loyalty and obedience to Queen Rànavàlona, and say “she was -not a woman, but a man,” and would fight, if need be, at the -head of her people in defence of their sovereign.</p> - -<p>The situation of this place is exceedingly pleasant, on a hill -about two hundred feet above the river flowing to the east and -north. Around it are hills covered with bamboo, while to the -lines of hill, the edges of the upper plateau are dark with forest. -Here we and our bearers were glad to rest for a couple of -days, including a Sunday, during which we were glad to find -that these northern Tanàla, through Christian teaching and -Ihòvana’s influence, had made wonderful advances compared -with those farther south. There was a congregation of about -three hundred, a school of about as many children, and nine -village congregations connected with the central church -here.</p> - -<p>On the Monday morning, on leaving Ambòhimànga, we had to -cross the river at the foot of the hill, and this made the <em>thirtieth</em> -time we had to be ferried across a river with all our men and -property, and glad we were that it was the last. A description -of our water conveyances would include bamboo rafts, canoes -great and small, especially the latter, canoes with one end -rotted away or broken off, and stuffed with clay, and craft so -small that they seemed rather fitted for children’s playthings -than for business. The forest became thinner as we travelled -to the north-west, and this was due to the custom of the Tanàla, -who cut down the woods and sow the rice in the ashes of the -trees which have been burnt; for the people do not plant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span> -much in one place, but remove their village to another spot -after getting a crop or two. This morning we lost the traveller’s -tree, which does not grow at heights much above two -thousand feet above the sea; and in the afternoon we also lost -sight of the graceful bamboo.</p> - -<p>The following morning brought us to steep ascents of nine -hundred and fifty feet, of four hundred and twenty, and then -of six hundred feet successively, the last bringing us to Ivòhitràmbo -(lofty town), well named, for it has a most elevated -situation and higher than a good deal of the interior table-land -to the west. I had noticed all the previous afternoon that on -the very summit of the highest ground to the north was a lofty -cone of rock. Perched upon this like an eagle’s nest was part -of the village, the rest of the houses being a hundred and -forty feet lower. The summit was forty-seven hundred and -fifty feet above the sea; we were now on the high land of -the interior and had come up twenty-four hundred and fifty -feet since we breakfasted. As may be supposed, the view was -most extensive; the plains of North Bétsiléo were not far -distant, and soon we came to the long bare rolling downs of -the central provinces. Uninteresting as these generally appear -after four or five months without rain, they looked home-like, and -the keen air seemed bracing and invigorating. We began to see -rice-fields again and the scattered round <em>vàla</em> of the Bétsiléo. -We had got into the country of a different tribe of people, with -different houses, speech and customs. At the village where -we stopped for the night was a good timber house, with elaborately -carved central pillars, and we began to see again the -carved memorial posts, which had so much interested us on -our journey south.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PECULIAR TOMBS</div> - -<p>We noticed again the peculiar tombs of the Bétsiléo; these, -which consist of a large square of stones, are not, as in Imèrina, -the real burial-places; for the actual tomb is often twenty feet -below the ground, a stone chamber, to which access is gained by -a long inclined passage opening out at a distance of eighty or a -hundred feet from the tomb.</p> - -<p>And now, as we reached the oft-trodden route between -Antanànarìvo and Fianàrantsòa, this record may come to a -close. We arrived safely at the capital on 5th August, having -been away nearly eleven weeks, and having travelled by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span> -palanquin, on foot, and in canoes, more than nine hundred -miles.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<div class="sidenote">FIREFLIES</div> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> These fireflies are not seen in the interior except in two or -three localities, where portions of the original forest still cover -the mountains on which old towns were built. I have seen -them at Vòhilèna, a hill about fifteen hundred feet high, near -the valley of the Mànanàra river, in North Imèrina.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">TO SÀKALÀVA LAND AND THE NORTH-WEST</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">AS the contents of former chapters in this book show, I -was able on various occasions during the first few years -of residence in Madagascar to make journeys in different -directions: from the east coast to the interior; from Imèrina -to Antsihànaka; from Imèrina again to Bétsiléo and from -thence to the south-east, visiting the Tanàla, the Taimòro, and -other tribes in that part of the island, not to mention shorter -journeys in the central province itself, to Itàsy and other places. -But the north-west of the country and the districts occupied -by the Sàkalàva people were still unknown to me, so I was -glad when in 1877 there came the opportunity of traversing -this portion of the great island.</p> - -<p>For a long time past Tamatave had been—as it still is—the -most frequented port of Madagascar, but the western ports, -from their proximity to South Africa, were sure to increase in -importance. Not very long before the above-mentioned date, -the British India Steam Navigation Company had begun a -service of steamers from Aden to Mozambique, touching at -Mojangà, on the north-west coast, both on the outward and the -return journeys. This appeared to give Europeans living here a -good opportunity of reaching England, avoiding the unpleasant -experience of the “bullocker” (see <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II.</a>), between -Tamatave and Port Louis, and taking a mail steamer direct -from Madagascar. As we were leaving this country for Europe -in September 1877, we determined to take this new route, -which, although a little longer than that by Tamatave, was far -less difficult, besides being partly by canoes, and the last day or -two by a dhow, thus giving a pleasant variety to the journey. -Our party consisted of seven, including my wife and self and -three children—Willie, aged six; May, aged three, and a baby -girl of ten months—Frank Briggs, about the same age as our -boy, whom we were taking home (his father joined us a day or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span> -two later), and my former fellow-traveller, Mr Louis Street. I -ought also to include a Mozambique nurse, one of those African -slaves recently set free, in accordance with an agreement made -between the English and the Malagasy governments.</p> - -<p>We left Antanànarìvo on Thursday afternoon, 13th September, -a large number of our missionary friends accompanying us for -a distance out of the city, in fact as far as the banks of the -Ikòpa, along which our route lay for several miles. Here one -could not but be again impressed with the importance of these -river banks in preserving the rice-fields from being flooded, and -by the good work done by the old kings of Imèrina in embanking -the river and thus turning marsh and bog into fruitful fields. -Stopping at the L.M.S. mission station of Ambòhidratrìmo for -the first night of our journey, we reached the station of Fihàonana -in Vònizòngo on the second day, putting up at the manse, -although the minister (Rev. T. T. Matthews) and his family were -away from home. A short half-day’s ride brought us to a third -mission station, that at Fierènana, where we had a Sunday’s -rest before setting out on the unknown and principal portion of -our journey. We stayed in the house which, a year or two -before then, I had marked out for our friends, and recalled how -I had taught Mrs Stribling to lay bricks, to bond together the -corners of the walls, to manage the chimney breasts, etc., so -that she became quite proficient and was able to teach the -native workmen bricklaying, which was then to them an -unknown art.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ATTRACTIONS OF A MARKET</div> - -<p>On Monday morning we fairly started on our journey away -from mission stations and Europeans. Two hours’ ride brought -us to a large market where hundreds of people were assembled. -We were set down and, before we knew what our men were -about, were left almost without a bearer, it being too great a -temptation for our fellows not to go into the thick of a market; -and it was some little time before we could get hold of them to -carry us into the village near the place. All this day’s journey -was up a long wide valley enclosed by lines of hills, which -gradually approached as we proceeded; and our evening halt -was in a village covered with a layer of finely powdered cow-dung, -although the village chapel, our usual inn on such journeys, -provided a fairly comfortable resting-place for the night.</p> - -<p>Outside this village the following morning we passed a shoe—or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span> -rather sandal—market, with scores of pairs of rough bullock-hide -sandals for sale. I noticed also that everyone we passed -carried a pair fastened to his or her burdens. Although we had -to go up and, of course, down again, a long ascent, the route -was less difficult and fatiguing than are those we often traversed -in Imèrina, and far less so than the roads to the eastern coast -through the forest. The increasing temperature told us that -we were getting to a lower level; indeed all the western side of -Madagascar is hotter than the eastern side, as it is deprived of -the cool south-east trade-wind from the Indian Ocean. At the -village where we stopped for the night, all the dwelling-houses -were made of the gigantic bamboo-like grass called <em>bàraràta</em>, -although the school church which served us for a lodging was of -clay. The place had a double entrance gateway, one of them -being a low narrow tunnel; and like most of these villages had -a great quantity of cattle brought into it, for security every -evening. In consequence, the whole place was covered with -a foot or two of manure; and it was here that our friend, Mr -Grainge, stopping for the night the previous year, had an -experience which I will give in his own words.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN UNSAVOURY CAMPING PLACE</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“On entering,” he says, “we raised a considerable amount of -dust and general astonishment; for wishing to pitch our tent -inside the village, we set a few of our men to sweep away the -filth from the cleanest spot we could select. You may guess -the result. I first tried to get to the windward of the horrible -cloud, but not being able to find that desirable quarter, as there -happened to be no wind at the time, I sent a man to fetch -water and then ran away until the atmosphere cleared. I had -better have stopped, for, running through the first hole in the -entrenchment of the village, I heard a cry of ‘<em>Omby ó!</em>’ (‘The -cattle!’), and saw the head of an ox, closely followed by his -tail, coming through the gap. As the people evidently expected -to see me run, I stood my ground with true British -pig-headedness and waited in the narrow ditch for the big -beast to pass; but this one was closely followed by another, -and that by a third—the whole of the herds were coming in -for the night, and the fosse was soon as full of oxen as of -dust. There was no escape; grunting, puffing, blowing, -and bellowing, in they came, and with nothing but bare<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> -hands to smack them, I was hustled and jostled, bumped and -butted, pushed and driven about, until, after three-quarters -of an hour, I came out in company with the last calf, choked -with dust, streaming with perspiration, and inwardly vowing -that the very next time I heard the cry of ‘<em>Omby ó!</em>’ I would -run for it, however undignified it might appear.”</p> -</div> - -<p>As we were walking about just before sunset, they brought -us a chameleon, here called <em>taròndro</em> (<i>Dicranosaura bifurca</i>), -about nine inches long and as much more in length of tail; it -was dark brownish-grey in colour, with a white line along the -sides, and the head and back serrated like a saw. The nose of -the male has two compressed long horns covered with large -scales. As we have already seen, Madagascar contains a considerable -number of these reptiles, especially of species with -remarkable processes on the head.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN UNCOMFORTABLE NIGHT</div> - -<p>After arranging for the night, we congratulated ourselves on -our comfortable lodgings, but there was a drawback in the -number of openings to the outer air, two doorways and three -windows, but all destitute of doors or shutters. Mats, rugs, -waterproof sheeting and pillows were, however, fixed up; but -soon after the wind rose until it blew quite a gale; it was like -being in a ship at sea, and it blew so violently as to tear away -the coverings from the nails. For an hour or two paterfamilias’ -chief occupation was to go round the place and fix nail after nail, -until I think at least a hundred long tin tacks, as well as a -number of two-inch nails, had been driven in, besides propping -up palanquins against the openings. Often it came in such -tremendous gusts that I feared everything would be torn -away, and lay for some time apprehensive of what might -happen next. However, it moderated towards morning, and, -happily, there were no mosquitoes.</p> - -<p>We had not got far on our way the following day before -making acquaintance with the <em>mòkafòhy</em>, an insect about half -the size of a housefly, but with wings less divergent. They -have a large proboscis and give a distinct prick, sometimes -drawing blood, and with after-irritating effects like mosquito -bites. They are more sluggish than mosquitoes and so can be -more easily killed, and with a small whisk of leaves it is not -very difficult to ward them off. The road was still along a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span> -valley with precipitous hills on our left, and perpendicular faces -of rock. All along were clumps of adàbo-trees, making the -scenery much like an English park. We noticed a large number -of earthen mounds, often two and a half feet high; these were -the nests of a large ant, which, like those we met on the eastern -side of the island, is said to kill a serpent which makes its home -in the lower part of the ant-hill. The native travellers often -use these mounds as a fireplace for cooking their rice, by knocking -off the top, scooping out the centre, and making a hole near -the bottom for draught.</p> - -<p>The route continued to be very easy travelling, with gentle -ascents and one long one, following generally river valleys; and -in the afternoon along a river bank for some distance, with -pretty scenery of pandanus, adàbo, dracæna and other trees -growing in clumps. This last-named tree, called <em>hàsina</em> by the -Malagasy, is believed to be a favourite with the Vazìmba, the -supposed aboriginal inhabitants of the island, and was consequently -planted where their graves are and where their spirits -are thought to dwell in order to secure their good will. The -leaves, which are sword-shaped, grow in large clusters, so that -the tree makes a beautiful variety amongst other foliage.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A DESERT</div> - -<p>We stopped on Wednesday night at a large village called -Màngasoàvina, and the next morning passed along the eastern -base of Andrìba, a lofty and very peculiarly shaped mountain, -which had been prominent before us during the preceding day. -It appeared to have a large flat top, and in outline resembled -the stump of an immense tree left in the earth, its northern face -being a stupendous perpendicular mass of rock. (Here I may -remark, in parenthesis, that this Andrìba was expected, in the -French war of 1895, to have presented the most formidable -obstacle to the advance of an invading force and, in the hands -of European troops, would certainly have done so.) In the -afternoon we entered on the part called in Malagasy, <em>èfitra</em>, or -desert, but which simply means an uninhabited region, and -seemed to promise to be the most pleasant part of the whole -route. A long deep gorge which we entered was beautiful with -luxuriant vegetation, and in one of the lateral valleys I soon -perceived the traveller’s tree, a sure sign that we were now from -two thousand to three thousand feet lower than Imèrina. -Every hollow was filled with trees; the hills became lower, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span> -the vegetation more distinctly tropical, with graceful palms -and other trees common on the eastern coast; as well as species -of ficus, ròtra (<i>Eugenia sp.</i>), hibiscus, tamarind and <em>rofìa</em> -palms; and the mango, escaped from cultivation, often attains -the dimensions of a very large tree.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PICTURESQUE SCENE</div> - -<p>Early on Thursday afternoon we came down to a river, called -Màrokalòy, where our bearers wished us to encamp, but we -feared both mosquitoes and consequent malaria in such a -situation, and ascended a low hill about a hundred and fifty feet -above the river. Here we pitched our tents, and after arranging -for the night sat down to our evening meal round a mat in the -bright moonlight. It was a very picturesque scene: the -brilliant moon and the four chief planets shining resplendently; -our group of men near the tents lighted up by the ruddy glare -of the cooking fires; while down below, the greater body of our -men had encamped and had a score or two of fires blazing under -the dark shade of fine large trees. The night was so warm -that there was no inconvenience sitting out of doors, while in -the tents it soon grew so hot that we were glad to keep out of -them as long as possible. But what surprised us most was the -almost entire absence of mosquitoes; for there was no garden -in Imèrina where one could sit for five minutes at such an hour -without being soon informed of the presence of these tiny pests. -It must, however, be added that for an hour or two before sunset, -and for a little after it also, the <em>mòkafòhy</em> were extremely -numerous and annoying. They persecuted us incessantly while -encamping, but happily, unlike their namesakes,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> they retire -at dark. By a merciful dispensation of providence they do -not bite at night. After our <em>al fresco</em> meal, Mr Street and I -descended to the river and enjoyed a delicious bathe.</p> - -<p>The following morning we were up early, but the <em>mòkafòhy</em> -were up before us and made it a misery to do anything -immediately we emerged from the tent. Getting breakfast was -therefore disposed of in a very short space of time, for mouth, -nostrils, and eyes got full of these detestable little flies; one -could not eat, and we hurried the children into their palanquins -and got off as fast as was possible. The name of this pretty -valley (Màrokalòy = “Many <em>alòy</em>”) ought to have warned us, -as <em>alòy</em> is the proper name of the insect, and this place seems to -be their head-quarters. The scenery and the route continued to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span> -be as pleasant and as easy as before; every hollow was filled -with vegetation of a tropical character, and streams of bright -water crossed our path every few hundred yards.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ABUNDANT BIRD LIFE</div> - -<p>Bird life seems much more abundant on this western side of -the island than on the east. Black parrots exist in great -numbers and may be heard screeching all the day long. But -perhaps the birds which are more numerous still are the small -green and white parakeet (<em>Sàrivàzo</em>), which fly about from -tree to tree in large flocks, all ceaselessly chirping during their -rapid flight. My friend, Mr Baron, says: “A flock of them -settling on a bare tree gives it the appearance of being covered -with foliage. On one or two occasions what we thought were -the leaves of trees suddenly disappeared, leaving the branches -entirely bare. The ‘leaves’ turned out to be parakeets.” -Guinea-fowl, in flocks of six to a dozen, are also abundant. The -handsome long-tailed green <em>Tsìkirìoka</em> (the Madagascar bee-eater) -is found here, and builds its nest in holes in sand-banks; -some of these run in a horizontal direction for above a yard. A -very pretty hoopoe (<em>Tàkodàra</em>) may occasionally be seen, a bird -which is extremely active and graceful in its movements. It -gives forth five or six very weird notes, as it sits on a tree during -the night. A species of sand-grouse, called <em>Gàdragàdraka</em>, a -bird of a beautiful fawn-colour, much like a pigeon in general -appearance, may often be heard. Like many other native bird -names, this name is very expressive of its chuckling. Many of -the birds found in the central parts of the island exist also here, -while there are also others peculiar to this western region.</p> - -<p>Part of our fifth and the whole of our sixth and last day’s -land journey was taken at no great distance from the Ikòpa -river; and I began to wonder where the western forest-belt -was; for, as we have seen, we had passed through no such -masses of dense forest as must be crossed anywhere on the -eastern side of the island when one comes up to the interior of -Madagascar. The fact seems to be that there is no such continuous -wooded region on the western side. There is, in many -places, a considerable amount of country covered with forest, -but these are not connected, and a great deal of the surface has -scattered clumps of trees. In the same way also, there are -nothing like the difficult ascents and deep gorges to be crossed -on this route such as are described in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapters IV.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a> The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span> -descent to the level western plains is gradual; so that a railway -to the north-west ports, along the valleys of the Ikòpa and -Bétsibòka rivers, would, although longer, present very much -less engineering difficulty than that from Tamatave to the -capital.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A DIFFICULT PROBLEM</div> - -<p>On Saturday morning we came to the bank of the Ikòpa, -which river is at some points half-a-mile or more wide, but then -at its lowest level, being apparently very shallow, but so interrupted -everywhere with shelves of rock that it would be -difficult for even a small canoe to make its way far. There -were numerous islands, covered with bamboo, bàraràta, <em>rofìa</em>-palms -and other vegetation. From a low hill we had a view -over an immense expanse of flat country on the western side -of the river. Only here and there was the level broken by a -line of hills of small elevation. After leaving the Ikòpa we -found ourselves in a very different kind of country from any -we had yet passed through, a succession of low hills or mamelons -of dry sandy gravel, with hardly any vegetation, and looking -as if no rain had fallen upon it for years. In the afternoon I -noticed that a large number of granite boulders were strewn -over the country, and could hardly doubt that these, from their -rounded forms, but especially from the absence, as far as I -could see, of any such rock <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in situ</i>, must by some means or -other have been transported from the granitic region of the -interior far to the eastward. Must this not have been glacier -or iceberg action? Although it is difficult to understand such -agency in the tropics.</p> - -<p>Ten years after making the journey, my friend, Mr Baron, in -travelling across the island towards the north-west coast, but -about a hundred and twenty miles farther north, came across -isolated rocks, which were quite different in composition from -anything near them. Of these he said: “I could think of no -agent to account for their occurrence but that of glacial action. -They seemed to me to be perched blocks, as there was no hill -near from which they could have fallen, nor any rock of the kind -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in situ</i>.” I was interested to find that an expert in Madagascar -geology like Mr Baron had come to the same conclusion as -myself with regard to these granite boulders.</p> - -<p>Early in the afternoon we arrived at Mèvatanàna, the most -important place in this part of the country, with about a hundred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span> -houses; it had, however, been quite recently burnt down, -but was in process of rebuilding. The houses seemed rather -larger than those in Imèrina, made of round-pole framework, -filled in with <em>bàraràta</em> stems, the roofs of <em>rofìa</em>-palm leaf-stalks -and thatched with grass. We secured a new house, not quite -finished; and as this was very like a large birdcage, besides -having no doors in the three doorways, we put up the tent on -one side, piled up our heavy luggage against another of the -doorways, and hung a rug over the third, so as to make -ourselves less of a public spectacle.</p> - -<p>We were glad of the Sunday’s rest after our week of continuous -travelling, and that we had <em>not</em> “to shift our moving tent” -that morning, but could let beds and baggage, boxes and bottles, -and pots and pans rest in peace. We had large and attentive -congregations in the native church morning and afternoon, -Mr Briggs and I taking the services. Our dwelling, although -perfect as regards ventilation, was certainly not cool, and we all -were suffering somewhat from the mosquito bites on the -journey. We were as much stared at by the “natives” as -if we had been a kind of wild animal, a wondering, if not admiring, -crowd unpleasantly blocking up the one doorway left open—in -fact, we formed an apparently popular exhibition, open, -Sundays not excepted, for a limited period only.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OUR CANOES</div> - -<p>We were astir very early on the Monday morning, for there -was a large amount of work to be got through before we could -start on our canoe voyage. We got away from the town before -seven, and half-an-hour’s ride brought us down to the river, -where we found six large canoes, four of which were being -loaded with our luggage. When everything had been arranged, -we had to pay all our men, only about ten going through with -us to Mojangà; and a few others had to be engaged in addition -to row the canoes and help in various ways. About nine -o’clock we got away and began our four days’ voyage down -the Ikòpa. It was a pleasant change from the jolting of the -palanquin to the smooth gliding of the canoe. These vessels -were about forty feet long; and the one in which we went was -three feet six inches beam, and two feet six inches deep, and -had three paddlers, besides one at the stern to steer; as we -were going down with the current, more men were not necessary. -Two of the palanquins with their hoods were placed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span> -in our canoe, for wife, nurse and little girls, while the little -boys, in their palanquin, went in another one with Mr Street -and Mr Briggs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CROCODILES</div> - -<p>The shores of the river are exceedingly pretty, although there -was nothing grand or striking. They are flat, but beautifully -wooded, the great <em>bàraràta</em> grass, with its light grey feathery -head of flowers, giving quite a character to the scenery. Islands -are numerous, some being mere sand-banks, but many covered -with trees and bush. We soon made acquaintance with the -crocodiles, for there was one basking in the sunshine on a sand-bank -just opposite our starting-place. We saw a good many -of them during the day, although not as many as other travellers -have observed, perhaps from twenty to thirty, and some of -them quite near enough to be seen very distinctly. Most of -them were light grey in colour, but others slaty, and others -again spotted with black; they varied in length from seven -or eight to fourteen or fifteen feet. The head is small, and the -back and tail serrated like a great pit-saw. They were generally -lying with the jaws wide open, and sometimes were near -enough to be splashed by the paddles as we passed them. The -heat on the river was much less than when travelling on the -land, or at Mèvatanàna; a delightful breeze blew against us all -day, and we enjoyed the change immensely.</p> - -<p>The banks of the river, which was from half to three-quarters -of a mile wide, were only a few feet above the water, and from -them flew numbers of birds. Among these were many with -which we were familiar in the interior—the pure white -lesser egret, varieties of heron, purple kingfishers, wild ducks -and wild geese, and many others. The <em>Railòvy</em> or fork-tailed -shrike is one of the most widely distributed birds of the island, -and is very active and an excellent singer. Perched on a dead -branch, it keeps up a constant noise, its strong voice giving -forth several notes, which very much resemble that of an organ. -In the spots frequented by a large number of these shrikes, -each one reserves to itself a hunting-ground, in which according -to M. Pollen, he tolerates the presence of no other birds, even -of his own kind, not excepting those stronger than himself. -It is dark bluish-green in colour, with a long tail, forked at the -extremity. These western woods are fairly full of singing -birds, especially in the hot season, which was coming on at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span> -time of our journey. Among these are three species of fly-catcher, -one of which is called the “changeable,” from the -remarkable changes of colour it undergoes according to its age -and sex. The female bird is entirely of reddish-brown, except -the cap and nape, which are dark green. The young male has -during the first month the same livery as the female, but its -plumage soon changes to a beautiful maroon red; then very -soon the two middle tail feathers become greatly lengthened, -the quills being black with a white fringe; the wing coverts -become partly black and partly white; and the feathers of the -head change to dark green, with brilliant metallic reflections. -At the breeding-time the back and throat take the same tints -as the head, and the belly and breast become white.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TAMARIND-TREES</div> - -<p>We stopped for lunch at a low rising ground, a few feet above -the water, at a grove of <em>Madìro</em> or tamarind-trees, and under -one of these we spread our meal. It was a magnificent tree, -shapely and rounded in outline like a great oak or chestnut, -the branches spreading over a circle of a hundred feet in diameter -and touching the ground. The foliage was then rather -thin, the leaves being minute, like those of a mimosa, and the -ground was strewed with them, as well as with the pods of the -fruit. Most of these were dry and worthless, but we got many -fresh enough to eat, and their acid dark red pulp was very -refreshing. Mr Baron believes the tamarind-tree to be truly -indigenous to Madagascar, but only in the western region, -which he thinks forms its original home. The seeds were, and -probably still are, employed in the <em>sikìdy</em>, or divination; and a -decoction from the leaves as a medicine.</p> - -<p>About an hour after leaving our stopping-place we came to the -junction with the Bétsibòka, the latter being strongly coloured -with red clay from North Imèrina. What impressed us most -this afternoon was the total absence of population on the banks -of this large river, and it appeared strange that immense tracts -of such apparently fertile country should be uninhabited; it -was different from the crowded villages along the Màtitànana -and Mànanàra and other rivers in South-east Madagascar. -In the afternoon the beautiful fan-palm became very plentiful, -growing in extensive groves and mingled with the other -trees. Stopping for the night by a sand-bank, we made -the canoe fast to a stake and proceeded to put up the tents.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span> -Although dry and pleasant for a floor, the sand had the disadvantage -of giving bad holding-ground for the tent-pegs, and, -had not the fresh breeze died away at sunset, a very slight -gust would have brought down the whole concern over our -heads.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE AGY-TREE</div> - -<p>We might congratulate ourselves in not coming across, in -short rambles among the trees, a tree which caused no small -discomfort to some of our missionary friends in this very -locality. Mr Montgomery thus describes his experiences. He -says:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Walking under some trees and pushing aside the reeds and -grass, I was startled, in a moment, by a sudden tingling and -pricking sensation over the back of my hands and fingers, for -never had come the like to me, in Madagascar or elsewhere. I -stopped in sudden surprise, for the pain was severe, and I had -touched nothing except the grass. But in another moment -the pain increased, the tingling burning sensation seemed extending -rapidly up my wrists, and I could see nothing to cause -it. But as I lowered my head to look, pain, scalding pain, shot -into my ears and neck, growing worse, too, every instant. -Dazed and bewildered, I stood a few seconds in helplessness, for -I could neither see nor guess at the cause of the terrible distress. -Then I got back to my company with agony writ plain enough -on every line of my face.</p> - -<p>“The men started up when they saw me, some of them crying -out, ‘You have been stung by the agy.’ Some of them led me -to a seat, others rushed for water from the river, and two or -three brought sand heaped up in their hands. Then they -chafed me with the sand and water to take out the stinging -hairs, which they knew caused the mischief. As they rubbed -me, I felt the pain abate, and after about a quarter of an hour’s -continuance of the operation I was comparatively free from -pain. While the men were rubbing me, I was able to discern to -some extent the cause of my distress. Countless hairs, like tiny -arrows, almost transparent, pointed at either end, and from a -third to a fourth of an inch long, had dropped down on me in an -invisible shower from the agy-tree, as I passed and stood under -it. Ere I came away that afternoon, very cautiously I ventured -to examine the tree at a little distance, and found that these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span> -tiny hairs grew outside a thickish pod or shell, not quite so -large as a small banana. These pods were fully ripe (unluckily -for me) just at that very time, and the light wind was scattering -their covering.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Mr Baron says that the agy is <i>Mucuna axillaris</i>; it is not, -however, “a tree,” but a climbing plant, and had grown over -the tree under which Mr Montgomery happened to pass. He -had himself a similar experience on his way to Mojangà, and -the sensation “reminded him of the sting of a nettle, but was -ten times more virulent.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PERPETUAL DELIGHT</div> - -<p>Our second day’s canoe voyage brought us into a part of the -river, with many windings among park-like glades of trees. -Then the lovely fan-palms became very numerous; at times -we passed closer to the banks, a tangled mass of <em>bàraràta</em> bending -down into the river, and the tall grey columns of the palms -standing up sometimes from the very edge of the water, with -their graceful crown of green fans sharply defined against the -blue of the sky. Everything seemed to be steeped in light and -heat. Surely of all the millions of beautiful things in this -beautiful world, palms are among the most lovely, and the fan-palm -not least among this glorious family of trees. It was a -perpetual delight to the eye to watch them as we swept rapidly -by the banks with the strong current, as one by one they passed -by as in a panorama. But for mosquitoes, certainly parts of the -tropics are earthly Edens. These palms are called <em>Sàtranabé</em>, -and are much used by the western peoples in building their huts. -A smaller species, called <em>Sàtramira</em>, is also employed in manufacturing -mats and baskets. Both are species of <i>Hyphæne</i>.</p> - -<p>But beautiful objects were not the only ones prominent in -this journey, and the presence of the scaly reptiles we saw every -few minutes was not altogether in harmony with the graceful -palms. They seemed, indeed, to be somewhat out of place, -“survivals,” as indeed they are, of an earlier age of the world -when gigantic saurians—creeping, walking, swimming and -flying—were the ruling existences, in a world of slime and mud -and ooze, and not in accord with these beautiful trees, which -seem as if they should rather be associated with bright-coloured -birds and insects than with these crawling saw-backed monsters. -Beautiful birds were not wanting, however, in the scene, for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span> -we came across a flight of lovely little sun-birds, with bright -metallic plumage, which glittered in the sunshine.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FRUIT-BATS</div> - -<p>Birds are not the only flying creatures to be seen in this -western region; although I was not so fortunate as to see them, -Mr Grainge, in travelling down this river in the preceding year -speaks of seeing great numbers of fruit-bats (<i>Pteropus edwardsii</i>). -Their flight is slow, and broken at each moment by strokes of the -wings; and those he saw flew so straight and steadily that he -took them at first, in the doubtful evening light, for benighted -crows. He also remarks that they were always flying in a -direct line <em>from</em> the setting sun. One that he shot measured -more than four feet across the wings. M. Pollen says that they -may be seen sometimes in broad daylight, flying from one -forest to another, when one might take them for crows. He -also remarks: “I have observed these animals fly like swallows -over a lake, just skimming the surface of the water with their -wings. They choose isolated places, especially the little -wooded islands at some distance from the coast.”</p> - -<p>Madagascar is the home of one or two other species of fruit-bat, -two species of the horseshoe-bats (<i>Rhinolo-phidæ</i>), seven species -of the <i>Vespertilionidæ</i> or true bats, and three species of the -<i>Emballonuridæ</i> or thick-legged bats; no doubt there are still -many species undescribed, and until much more minute investigation -is made of the fauna of the island, the crepuscular and -nocturnal habits of these animals will always make it difficult -to learn much about their peculiarities.</p> - -<p>The morning’s voyage brought us in several places along low -sections of stratified sandstone rock, looking like ruined walls, -some courses being deeply honeycombed by the action of the -water, while others, of harder material, were smooth, like newly -laid masonry. It was clear that we had left behind us, in the -upper highland, the crystalline rocks, the granites and gneisses -and the like, and were in a region of Secondary strata, like the -oolites of our own country. Subsequent examination by many -observers has confirmed this fact, and shown that an extensive -series of Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks occupies a great portion -of the western low land, from north to south of the island. -These plains must have formerly been a portion of a wider -Mozambique Channel than now exists to separate Madagascar -from Africa.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span></p> - -<p>In certain shales which occur among the Secondary strata of -the western plains, Belemnites are so numerous that the Sàkalàva -used them as rifle balls; while many species of ammonites -are formed, some being a foot in diameter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE SÀKALÀVA</div> - -<p>As we proceeded, the country became more hilly and with -more extensive woods; but as for population, not a soul did we -see, except two women at one spot, and again we asked, where -are the people? And here a few words may be said about the -inhabitants of this part of the country. Along about two-thirds -of the western side of Madagascar, the people are loosely -called Sàkalàva; but every district has its people with its own -tribal name, for “Sàkalàva” was originally the name of one -particular tribe, which, through European or Arab admixture -and the possession of fire-arms, conquered the other tribes and -founded two kingdoms, Ibòina to the north, and Mènabé to the -south. These Sàkalàva kingdoms were the dominant ones in -the island until the beginning of the nineteenth century, when -the Hovas gradually obtained the leadership. Physically, -these people are taller and stronger than the Hovas, are darker -in colour, less civilised, and have an African strain in them, -from their proximity to the continent. Still, they are not of -African stock, but are no doubt, Melanesian in origin. Their -language presents a good deal of difference from the Hova form -of Malagasy, both in vocabulary and in pronunciation, yet the -groundwork and the grammar is essentially the same. They -are more nomadic in habit than the Hovas, breaking up their -villages at the death of any of its inhabitants, and not cultivating -rice like most Malagasy tribes, but subsisting largely on manioc -root, bananas, fish and vegetables.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN OFFENSIVE TREE</div> - -<p>We stopped to lunch under a fine adàbo-tree; all along the -main branches of this tree, the small fig-like fruits were clustered -by hundreds, most of them being ripe and scarlet in colour. -During an afternoon’s voyage the river became narrower, but -with a deep and strong current. We lost the fan-palms, but -passed for some miles along a beautifully wooded portion of -country, with fine large trees, like those in an English park, and -growing close to the water’s edge. One of these beautiful trees, -however, has a very vile odour when cut up for timber, so that -although the wood is good for carpentry, when new it is in the -highest degree offensive. It is called <em>Komàngo</em>, and the people<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span> -say that its smell, as a tree, is so strong that birds settling on its -branches die immediately. A high price is given for chips or -twigs of the tree, to be used as charms, for few are daring -enough to cut it down.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> <em>Mòka</em> is the native word for “mosquito”; <em>Mòkafòhy</em> is, -literally, “short mosquito”; but the insect is not a gnat, but -a fly, and its name is, more correctly, <em>Alòy</em>.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span><br /></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">TO THE NORTH-WEST COAST</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-capy">CROCODILES are not the only reptiles to be seen in -the river, for we also saw many large tortoises. They -were chiefly of the genus <i>Pyxis</i>, the Geometric or -Box tortoise, having the carapace divided into large hexagons -beautifully marked, and were basking in the sun on small spits -of sand rising just above the surface of the water. A carapace -which I afterwards procured on the coast was about eighteen -inches long. Two other species are also found in Madagascar, -named respectively, <i>Testudo geometria</i> and <i>Testudo radiata</i>.</p> - -<p>In former times the lakes and marshes of the island were inhabited -by an immense species of tortoise, whose remains have -been found together with those of the gigantic birds (Æpyornis), -the hippopotamus and the great extinct lemurs, all of which -were no doubt contemporaneous, lasting until the arrival of man -on the scene. But although extinct on the mainland of Madagascar, -they seem to have survived on the Mascarene group of -Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez until a very recent date, -and they are still living in the little island of Aldabra, which is -about two hundred and sixty miles north-west of Cape Ambro. -There are two living examples of these huge creatures in the -Regent’s Park Gardens. The male tortoise, which is much the -larger of the two, is five feet five inches in length, and five feet -nine inches in breadth, broader, in fact, than it is long. It -weighs about eight hundred pounds, and is believed to be able -to carry a ton weight on its back. It is now at least a hundred -and fifty years old, but is still young and is likely to grow to a -much greater size. From the geometric-shaped plates of its -carapace, it seems to be allied to the geometric tortoise, still -plentiful in Madagascar, as we have just seen. Until lately, it -was supposed that these great tortoises were becoming extinct -on Aldabra, but by the most recent accounts of the island, it -appears that this is not likely to be the case, the dense jungle of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span> -pandanus giving them ample protection, as it is at night when -they leave this shelter, and go in search of food.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>Although we saw no villages during this day’s voyage, there -was evidence of some population, in people fishing along the -river bank, canoes moored by the shore, and women drawing -water, carefully avoiding going into the stream, and filling -their vessels with a small gourd fastened to a long bamboo. -The scenery also was more varied, there being lines of low hills, -partly covered with wood, and the banks of the river lined with -large trees.</p> - -<p>Our third day’s voyage took us again along a very beautiful -extent of park-like scenery. All yesterday afternoon we were -gradually approaching a long line of blue hills running north-north-west -and south-south-east, and this morning we got -nearer to them. They appeared to be about a thousand feet -high, and almost covered with dense forest, with patches of -rock and red clay showing here and there. Landing at noon -for lunch among magnificent trees, I noticed that these were -swarming with ants, which covered the trunks and devoured -every fruit as soon as it became ripe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p3021_ill1" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p3021_ill1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Fòsa</span><br /> - -It is the largest Madagascar carnivore, and is like a small jaguar</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="p3021_ill2" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/p3021_ill2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Malagasy Oxen</span><br /> - -Note their large humps and horns</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">A FIERCE ANIMAL</div> - -<p>During this journey to the north-west, we saw no mammals -except herds of oxen; but as there <em>are</em> a few others, it will be -fitting here to say something about the largest carnivorous -animal found in the island, especially as this district is its -special habitat. This creature is called by the people, <em>Fòsa</em> -(<i>Cryptoprocta ferox</i>), and although small is very ferocious, as its -specific name denotes. The fòsa differs from most of the -felidæ by the greater elongation of the body, including the -head, and it is plantigrade, like the bears, and not digitigrade, -like the majority of the cats. In its structure it resembles the -jaguar, and in its colouring the puma, indeed it is very like a -small jaguar, as it has thick glossy fur of a tawny-brown, which -becomes somewhat darker under the body. Its total length -is four feet eight inches, but of this the tail occupies two feet -two inches, and it stands about one foot three inches high. For -its size, the animal is powerful, but it is not dangerous to man, -except when it is wounded, or at the breeding season. It is -destructive to poultry and small animals, and it is able to emit -a very fetid odour from an anal pouch, with which fowls are -said to be killed. Examples of the fòsa have been seen in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span> -outskirts of the upper belt of forest on the east side of the island; -and of somewhat larger size than the dimensions already given. -A specimen I once saw was of a beautiful black colour, but I -believe this was only a variety, and not a distinct species from -the brown animal. The fòsa is much dreaded by the Malagasy, -and, from its mode of attack, appears to be like an immense -weasel, attacking large animals, such as the wild boar and even -oxen. Like the aye-aye among the quadrumana, and many -of the native birds, the fòsa has no near relative, and therefore -a new family had to be formed for it, of which it is the only genus -and species.</p> - -<p>The other carnivora of Madagascar are all small animals, and -are rarely seen except when trapped. They all belong to the -viverridæ or civets, two to the civets proper, five (or six) being -mungooses, and one, an ichneumon. The mungooses, known -to the Malagasy under the name of <em>Vontsìra</em>, somewhat resemble -the weasels and ferrets of Europe, except that they are not -exclusively flesh feeders. They feed upon poultry, rats and -mice, and also fruits. The ichneumon, or <em>Fanàloka</em>, is about -twenty inches long, with a bushy tail of about a third that -length, and is covered with thick warm brown fur. Its claws -are long and are used to dig up the eggs of the crocodile, on -which it is said to feed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COLOURED FISH</div> - -<p>Although we saw an occasional angler on the banks of the -river, we were not fortunate enough to see any of the fish. -According to M. Pollen, the rivers of the north-west contain a -number of fish, many of which are coloured in a most striking -manner; the plates of his valuable work on the fauna of the -island show these as banded and barred with the most vivid -colours—blue, scarlet, black and yellow—in fact, very much -like those strikingly coloured and curiously marked fishes which -inhabit the sea round coral reefs and feed upon the brightly -tinted polyps.</p> - -<p>Wednesday afternoon’s voyage was, as regards scenery, the -most beautiful of the whole journey. Instead of the country -becoming flatter as we approach the sea, it increases in boldness -and picturesqueness. Lines of hills covered with wood lie in all -directions, and amongst these the river winds, making sudden -turns almost at right angles, so that we proceeded towards -almost every point of the compass except due south. A few<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> -scattered hamlets, of three to six huts each, began to appear. -The crocodiles were numerous, from the old patriarch to the -infant of a foot or so long. We must have seen a hundred of -them that afternoon. We had some difficulty in landing and -pitching our tents, and on account of the heat and the mosquitoes -passed the most uncomfortable night of the entire -journey. Hardly anyone was able to sleep, and I was glad to -get up at four o’clock and dress in the bright moonlight and -rouse up the others.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OUTRIGGER CANOES</div> - -<p>Our fourth (and last) day of canoe voyaging was begun soon -after six o’clock. Outrigger canoes made their appearance, a -style of craft the Hovas seem never to have invented, nor are -such in use on the east coast. The scenery increased in boldness, -with precipitous hillsides rising from the side of the river, which -here was about the size of the Thames at Kew. About an hour -after leaving, we found the current running up the stream; it -was feeling the influence of the tide from the ocean, still many -miles distant. The foliage was most dense and luxuriant, from -the summit of the hills down to the water’s edge, in some parts -the long lianas forming immense festoons and making a perfect -wall of exquisite green, while the ever-present <em>bàraràta</em> shoots -up its feathery head. After some time we turned from the -main stream into a branch river, much narrower, but running -for many miles in a straight line. As the day advanced, the -intense sunlight made everything glow with light and heat, -lighting up the dense vegetation most brilliantly. Groups of -pandanus were frequent here among the more European-like -trees; these are of two species, one rising into a lofty cone, almost -like a low poplar, and the other one more spreading and -brandishing, with the aerial roots rising high above the ground. -After an hour or two we came again into the main stream, here -more than a mile wide, the banks being still thickly wooded. -It was intensely hot, and we were not sorry to see Màrovoày -(“Many crocodiles”) a few miles ahead of us on a detached -hill to the east of the river.</p> - -<p>At one o’clock we stopped when opposite the town, the water -approach to it being by a small tidal stream which flows into -the main river some miles farther down. Our men were just -enough to carry the wife and baby and little girl in their palanquin -across the mile or two, while the native nurse and I walked;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span> -the others, who were some way behind, had to go farther down -the river in the canoes, and consequently had three or four -hours’ paddling in the glowing afternoon sun, which we who -took the land journey avoided.</p> - -<p>Màrovoày is situated on the north-east bank of a small river, -which we had to cross by a canoe. Nearly a dozen dhows were -either anchored in the stream or aground on mud-banks, giving -the place the aspect of a small fishing town. The lower town, -with perhaps two hundred houses, was chiefly occupied by Arab -and Indian traders, their stores and warehouses lining the main -street through which we passed. The Hova town and government -compound (<em>ròva</em>) was on a low hill, rising abruptly from -the level to the height of eighty or a hundred feet. Coming up -to the gate of the <em>ròva</em>, we stopped to rest and sent word of our -arrival to the governor. While we were waiting, one of our -men thoughtfully got us a coffee-pot full of <em>rànom-pàry</em> (sugar-cane -juice), and never did nectar taste more delicious than that -as we took repeated “pulls” at it after our walk across the rice-fields -in the glowing sunshine.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A WELCOME REST</div> - -<p>Presently we were invited to enter, the governor coming out -to meet us, and brought us into his house, a rather smartly -furnished place of one large room, but with a wide gallery all -round it. Here we were glad to rest after our hot voyage and -walk, and enjoyed an excellent cup of coffee, which they kindly -made for us, as well as some of Huntley & Palmer’s “best -mixed biscuits.” We felt as if we were getting back into a -civilised land again! After a little while we moved into the -chapel, which was also within the <em>ròva</em>; this was a large building, -and looked quite gay, from being completely papered with good -wall-paper, but badly laid on, for the native workman evidently -thought that the white edging to each piece was a part of the -pattern, and so had carefully left it visible in every case! The -wooden posts of the roof were all papered too. The pulpit was a -curious example of its kind, being made of lattice-work, gaily -painted, with a number of small looking-glasses let into its -front, and backed by wall-paper. It had a flat canopy or sounding -board and a large door, so it was like a little room of itself. -With its numerous doors and windows there was a beautiful -breeze through the building, and we anticipated a comfortable -night, but, alas! our hopes were not realised, for the heat was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span> -intense, and the mosquitoes persecuted us by hundreds. This -town is probably one of the hottest in the island, and we were -told that later on, in the rainy season, the place is almost -unbearable from the clouds of these insects.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FROM CANOE TO DHOW</div> - -<p>Our day at Màrovoày was occupied chiefly in arranging for -leaving for Mojangà the same evening, and in transferring all -our baggage to one of the dhows lying in the river. There is an -extensive view from the upper part of the town, as the country -is very flat for many miles round. In the evening we dined -with the governor and his wife in the <em>làpa</em>, and went down to the -river at about nine o’clock. With some difficulty, in the darkness, -we transferred ourselves and palanquins, etc., from shore -to canoe, and from canoe to dhow, and at last were crowded -together as thick as we could sit and lie on the little deck. -The ship we embarked in was about thirty-five feet long, by -fourteen or fifteen feet beam; the middle portion open to the -keel, but with a little deck forward and another aft. This -small quarter-deck was about ten to twelve feet square, and -when the two large palanquins for the children to sleep in had -been placed on either side, there was not much space left for five -adults to pack together, in fact we had about as much room as -would be found on a good-sized dining-table.</p> - -<p>Soon after ten o’clock we got under way, the tide having -begun to ebb for the previous hour or two. There was no wind, -so six men rowed us down the stream, accompanying their -work with the most curious weird-sounding songs, in Arabic, I -suppose (or perhaps Suahili), some of them sounding very comic. -We swept down rapidly with the tide, the trees looking dark -and gloomy in the uncertain light, and presently the moon rose. -After an hour or two we got into the main river, and in a little -time had to cast anchor, as the tide had turned. It was a -strange night, and we did not get much sleep, as we had not -room to turn, so we waited impatiently for the dawn. Dawn, -however, brought with it a cloud of mosquitoes from the low -swampy ground bordering the river, which was thick with -mangroves and rank vegetation. Just at twilight they surrounded -us by thousands; but as soon as the sun rose, they -disappeared, a gentle breeze sprang up, and we set sail. The -river widened as we proceeded, until it became a large estuary, -and gradually opened into the Bay of Bèmbatòka. The breeze<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span> -freshened as the day advanced, and we sailed at a considerable -speed.</p> - -<p>These dhows are first-rate sailers; they carry one large sail, -in shape like a triangle with one corner cut off. But what -struck us as very curious was that when tacking, they did not -run into the wind’s eye as a European ship does, but they turned -the dhow right round before the wind, while shifting the long -boom to the other side of the mast. But they sail very close to -the wind, and seem excellent sea boats. This form of ship is -probably a very ancient one, for vessels very similar in shape -and rig are figured on the Egyptian monuments, and most -likely the “ships of Tarshish” were only rather large dhows. -The largest of these vessels have two masts, the one at the stern -being much smaller than the other, and both have a <em>rake</em> forward, -instead of aft, as in European ships.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MOJANGÀ</div> - -<p>Our spirits rose with the wind, for there had been many -prophecies at Màrovoày that we might be a long time on the -way, and, in fact, some friends who preceded us by a month or -two were actually three nights on the voyage. But we bounded -over the waves and soon felt a considerable swell. Bèmbatòka -Bay is so wide for a considerable distance that the north-western -shore is only faintly visible, but it narrows again -towards the mouth, and a line of hills running out to the western -point defines its outline very clearly; opposite Mojangà it is -about five miles across. Towards noon they pointed out to us -a projecting headland, some way ahead to the right, and told -us that after rounding that we should see Mojangà. The wind -continued strong, but as it got more and more ahead, we had to -tack repeatedly. At about half-past three o’clock we reached -our destination, casting anchor a quarter of a mile or so from -the beach.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CAMELS</div> - -<p>Mojangà was a decidedly pretty and picturesque-looking -place from the sea, and a much more civilised-looking town -than any I had previously seen in Madagascar. Instead of rush -and bamboo houses, there was a long line of white flat-topped -buildings of two and three storeys, some having castellated -battlements. A score or two of dhows were at anchor in the -roads, but there was no European vessel in the harbour. Behind -the Arab and Indian town the ground rises gently for two -hundred or three hundred feet, and at the top of this higher<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span> -ground is the <em>ròva</em> and Hova town. Between the two, and to -the north, is a beautiful park-like expanse, thickly studded -with magnificent trees, chiefly mangoes, which here grow to a -great size, as well as baobabs, and clumps of cocoanut-palms -and a few fan-palms. A fort crowns the crest of the hill to -the north; and altogether, we were agreeably surprised with -Mojangà. Just as we had cast anchor, we were surprised to -see several camels brought down to the sea for a bath. They -were imported from Aden some time ago by a French firm, but -had not proved a success, commercially, for Madagascar has -too damp a climate for animals accustomed to the sand and -gravel of the Arabian desert. We had not landed many minutes -before our brother missionary, Mr Pickersgill, then stationed at -Mojangà, came down and gave us a hearty welcome and every -assistance with our baggage, etc. Our little family party -found quarters in the verandah of the house of a Madame Beker, -very near the shore, while the others went to stay with Mr -Pickersgill near the <em>ròva</em>. This house was of coral rock, plastered, -but was so hot that we preferred the verandah, which was -roofed with fan-palm leaves and surrounded with the same -slight materials. We were glad of the quiet and rest we had -there for a week after our two or three weeks’ travelling by -land and river.</p> - -<p>The following morning, Sunday, the mail steamer, <i>Packumba</i>, -came in about midday, but left again for Mozambique in the -afternoon. On going on board to see the ship we were to sail -in, we found that her main deck was arranged so as to take a -great number of passengers, the iron plating at the sides all -turning up on hinges to allow a free passage of air. I was glad -to be able to preach to a large congregation in the native church -during the afternoon.</p> - -<p>The week at Mojangà passed away rapidly, for we had plenty -to do in rearranging and labelling luggage, disposing of our -palanquins, bedding, and other no longer needful property, and -preparing for our voyage. At this town we found ourselves -in quite a different place and surroundings from what we had -seen everywhere else in Madagascar. We were in the midst of -an Indian and Mohammedan population, the traders here being -mostly Banians and a large proportion of them British subjects. -Hindoo speech, dress, ornament, and customs met us at every<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span> -turn, and also those of the Arabs. The houses are chiefly -built of coral rock, plastered with lime, and roofed with fan-palm -leaves. The door and window openings are made with -flat-pointed and zigzagged arches; and when the rooms are -wide, a line of piers and arches runs down its length, giving a -cool depth of shade quite Eastern in its effect. The doorways -have elaborately carved lintels and posts; these are all done at -Bombay and brought here ready for fitting. There is a little -stone carving also here and there, and Arabic sentences are -carved over the doors in some cases. The men are in Indian -dress, and the women with nose-jewels, silver armlets and -anklets, and the long muslin robe thrown over the head and -wound round the body.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ARABIC DRESS AND CUSTOMS</div> - -<p>Arabic dress and customs were not less prominent in -Mojangà. Close to our lodging was a small mosque, and from -the flat roof we could hear the <em>muezzin</em> calling the faithful to -prayers five times a day in a long sonorous musical cry—before -sunrise, in the forenoon, at noon, at three o’clock, and at -sunset, and could see his form silhouetted against the sky, -making a number of prostrations when the call was finished. -Our stay here was in the month Ramazan, the great fasting-time -of the Mohammedans, when they eat and drink nothing -all day, at least the strictly orthodox do not. They make up -for it, however, at night; and feasting and jollity seemed to be -the general employment. Our house adjoining the main street, -it was extremely noisy until long after midnight. There is no -doubt that the Arabs, and also the Indians, have been settled -at Mojangà, as well as at other places on the north-west coast, -for centuries. As we have seen in <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Chapter XII.</a>, there was an -Arab colony at some remote period on the south-east coast, but -this was gradually absorbed and lost in the native population -and no longer maintains a separate existence. The north-western -colony, however, being in constant communication -with Suahili land and the Arab element there, has maintained -its individuality, and kept its dress, customs, language, and -religion quite distinct from the Malagasy around it.</p> - -<p>Amongst the magnificent mango-trees in the park are many -specimens of the baobab-tree (<i>Adansonia madagascariensis</i>); -one of these must be from seventy to eighty feet in girth. The -trunks of these trees are of enormous size compared with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span> -small expanse of the branches; and their glossy dark brown -bark, their rapid tapering upwards, and their bareness of -foliage for the greater part of the year, mark them very distinctly -from all others. They are curious in appearance, but -not at all beautiful. The bark is used to make rope, and the -sap is said to be potable and tasteless; the wood, however, is -so soft that it can be pulled away by the fingers.</p> - -<p>Many trees affording beautiful and valuable timber are found -in these western woods; among these is one yielding the kind -called by cabinet-makers “zebra-wood,” while ebony is obtained -from one or more of the twenty-two species of <i>Diospyros</i> known -in the island. We have seen the mangrove (<i>Rhizophora mucronata</i>) -on the shores of Bèmbatòka Bay, and this tree is found -at the mouths of almost all the rivers and inlets on the north-western -coast, where it is the most prominent feature in the -extensive swamps, probably also helping to extend the land.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FISHING EAGLES</div> - -<p>We had no opportunity of seeing the largest of the Madagascar -birds, the <em>Ankoày</em>, or fishing eagle (<i>Haliaetus vociferoides</i>), -although it is found all along the western coast. It is a large -and handsome bird, and is said to keep watch on a tree or cliff -at the edge of the water, swooping down like lightning into the -sea after its finny prey, and being able to arrest instantaneously -its downward flight. M. Grandidier says that a single pair of -these eagles is found in very many of the innumerable small -bays of the north-western coast, and of this they take exclusive -possession, allowing no other eagle to encroach on their own -preserves. They feed principally on fish, catching adroitly -those which appear near the surface. The name of <em>Ankoày</em> -applied to this bird appears to be an imitative one derived from -its cry of <em>hoai, hoai</em>.</p> - -<p>It is doubtful whether there is another eagle really indigenous -to Madagascar, although a harrier-eagle (<i>Eutriorchis</i>) was once -shot in the Mangòro valley; if this was not a chance immigrant, -it must be extremely rare. This one example was remarkable -for the extreme shortness of its wings, and immoderate length -of tail.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TURTLES</div> - -<p>One of the most important occupations of the coast Sàkalàva -is the catching of turtles (<em>fàno</em>). Some of these creatures are -oval in form and very fat and plump, others are much thinner -and flat; of these latter, some are said to attain a length of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span> -eight or nine feet. In catching them the natives go out to sea -in the early morning, when the turtles come to the surface to -enjoy their morning nap, and at which time the sea is usually -very smooth. A kind of harpoon, about twelve feet long, shod -with a piece of barbed iron is used, and to this a strong rope, a -couple of hundred yards in length, is attached. Great care and -caution has to be used in approaching the sleeping animal, for, -if struck, it dives down immediately, and the fisherman will not -leave go of the rope, but dives down with it, if the water is deep. -The natives seem to be able to stop an extraordinary time under -water. As soon as the turtle is secured, the captors make for -the shore, and all the people gather together to share in the -feast. Nobody must bring anything from a house to the spot, -for the animal must be wrenched open and cut in pieces with -knives belonging to the canoe, it must be cooked in sea-water -in the shell of the turtle itself, and served in scoops or other -vessels from the canoe, or in pieces of turtle-shell. None of the -flesh is allowed to be brought into a house to be cooked or eaten -there. All these and several other precautions are ancestral -customs and must be religiously observed, or the turtles would -disappear.</p> - -<p>A curious account is given by the natives of the north-west -coast of a fish which they call <em>Hàmby</em>, whose length is said to be -about that of a man’s arm, and its girth about that of his thigh. -Its dorsal fin, they say, is just like a brush, and it has a liquid -about it, sticky like glue, and when it fastens on to another fish -from below, with this brush on its head, the fish cannot get -away, but is held fast. On account of this peculiarity, the -people use the hàmby to fish with. When they catch one, they -confine it in a light cage, which they fasten in the sea, feeding -it daily with cooked rice or small fish; and when they want to -use it, they tie a long cord round its tail and let it go, following -it in a canoe. When it fastens on a fish they pull it in and -secure the spoil. I wonder whether this fish has any connection -with one found on the east coast, which is called <em>Làdintavìa</em>, and -is said by Mr Connorton to be covered with a kind of slime, so -that when many of them are together, it looks as if they are -floating in a thick lather of soap.</p> - -<p>Two or more kinds of oysters are found on this north-west -coast; one of these is called by the people <em>Sàja</em>, which may be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span> -seen covering the rocks in great abundance on the seashore at -low water. It is a small oyster, but excellent in quality. -Another kind, called <em>Téfaka</em>, is only found at some depth below -water. It is a much larger oyster than the sàja, with the -interior of the shell beautifully pearly. It is said to be delicious -in flavour. Quite recently an English company was projected -to exploit these oyster beds for pearls and for the pearly shells -themselves.</p> - -<p>Another sea-living creature in Madagascar waters is a species -of octopus called <em>Horìta</em>, which, notwithstanding its repulsive -appearance, is reckoned a delicacy by the coast people, although -Europeans who have tried it pronounce it as tough and gluey -and uneatable, although cooked for a long time.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HERONS</div> - -<p>The north-west coasts, from the numerous estuaries surrounded -with trees, are particularly favourable for such birds -as the herons, some species of which are regarded as sacred by -the natives, and are consequently less shy than these birds are -in Europe, while others are very wary and most difficult to -approach. In habits and feeding these Madagascar herons are -much like the European and African species, mostly living on -fish, molluscs and crustacea, the larger ones devouring reptiles -and small birds and mammals, while the smaller kinds are -insectivorous. They are often found in companies, including -several different species, settled on the trees overhanging or -near water, and remaining perfectly motionless for a long time. -Some of the herons appear to be very common, as the ashy, the -black-necked, the purple, the white-winged, the garzetta, and -some others, and especially the small white egret, which we -have noticed more than once in these chapters. Fifteen species -of heron are found in Madagascar, three storks, a spoonbill, five -ibises and a flamingo.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ISLAND OF NÒSIBÉ</div> - -<p>It was a pleasure to us during our week’s stay at Mojangà to -meet with several old acquaintances among the Hova officers -stationed there; anyone coming from their loved Imèrina -always received a warm welcome. On the Saturday of the -week after our arrival there, the <i>Packumba</i> returned from -Africa, and on the following morning we left in her for Aden -and Europe. Steaming northwards, we kept in sight of the -mainland of Madagascar during the next day, and this appeared -bold and mountainous, and very different from the greater<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span> -portion of the eastern coast of the island. There were many -islands rising precipitously out of the sea, while ahead of -us the lofty mountains of the island of Nòsibé soon appeared. -These looked exactly like portions of the interior of Madagascar -set down in the midst of the sea; the same red clay soil and -the same markings of valley and ravine as seen all through the -interior plateaux. Two or three very regular volcanic cones, -truncated and showing the craters, were very prominent; -these are parts of that chain of extinct vents of which we have -seen numerous examples in our travelling through other parts -of the country. Besides the main island of Nòsibé, there are -many outlying portions of it, looking like detached islets -dropped into the sea. Some of these are densely wooded from -base to summit. Altogether, as may be seen from a brief -glance at the map, the north-western side of Madagascar is -totally different, with its numerous deep bays and inlets, from -the eastern side, where there is almost a straight line for many -hundreds of miles. The geology of the two sides is very -different, and this has powerfully affected their physical geography.</p> - -<p>We stayed several hours at Nòsibé, discharging and receiving -cargo, and it was nearly sunset when we steamed away to the -north-west for Mayotta. For several hours we could still -see the island and the mainland by the glare of the burning -grass on the hillsides; and these, for more than five years -subsequently, were the last glimpses we had of Madagascar.</p> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> See “The South-West Indian Ocean”; by J. C. F. Fryer; -<cite>The Geographical Journal</cite>, September 1910; pp. 249-271.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="p314_map" style="max-width: 75em;"> -<p class="pfs80">MAP FOR “A NATURALIST IN MADAGASCAR.”</p> - <img class="w100" src="images/p3141_map.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">SEELEY, SERVICE & CO., LIMITED, 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C.</div> - <a rel="nofollow" href="images/p3141_map-large.jpg"> - <span class="screenonly fs60 center">click here for larger image.</span></a> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst smcap">Ambòdinangàvo, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Adàbo-tree, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Æpyornis</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agave, the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Agy</i>, a stinging plant, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alamazaotra, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alaotra, Lake, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alàtsinainy, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Algæ, species of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Aloe macroclada</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aloes and agaves, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambàhy, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambàtoharànana, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambàtomànga, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambàtondrazàka, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambàtovòry, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambinàny, chief, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòdinònoka, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhidèhilàhy, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhijànahàry, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhimanàrina, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhimànga, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhimiangàra, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Ambòhimitsímbina,” <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhinàmboàrina, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhipèno, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhitròmby, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhitritankàdy, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhitsàra, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhitsitàkatra Mountains, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòhitsòa, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòndrombé Mountain, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòro Mountain, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambòsitra, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Amìana</i>, or tree-nettle, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ampàrafàravòla, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ampàsimbé, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ampàsimpòtsy, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anàlamazàotra Mountains, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ancient towns and villages, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andohàlo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andòvorànto, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andraikìba, Lake, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andrànokòbaka, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andrànokòditra, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andrìambàvibé, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Andrìana</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andrìba Mountain, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Andropogon contortus</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Angàvo Mountains, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Angàvokèly Mountain, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Angræcum</i>, orchid, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Animal life, ancient, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Animal life, peculiarity of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anìvona-palm, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anjozòrobé, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ankàrana, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ankàratra Mountain, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ankay, plain of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ankèramadìnika, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ankìtsika, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ànoròro, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antanànarìvo, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ant-hills, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ants, destruction by, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ants’ nests, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antsèsika river, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antsihànaka Province, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antsìrabé, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antsìrabé plain, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Apenthes madagascariensis</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aquatic fowl, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arabic influence, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ardea bubulcus</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Àrondòvy</i>, the, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arums, Gigantic, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asabòtsy, market at, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Astacoides madagasc.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Avara-patana</i>, or place of honour, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Aviavy</i>, a species of <i>ficus</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aye-aye, the, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Ball-insect, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bamboo, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Banana-trees, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baobab-trees, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bàra people, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baron, Mr, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bats, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bearers, our, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bee-eater, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Beefwood tree,” <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bees, the enemies of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bees, wild, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beetles, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Béfòrona, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Béhòsy, the, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belemnites, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bèmbatòka, Bay of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benyowski, Count, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bétàfo, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bétsibòka, River, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bétsiléo province, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bétsimitàtatra, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span>Bétsimisàraka people, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bezànozàno tribe, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bird life, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bird life, scant, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Birds, extinct gigantic, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Birds: parakeets, green pigeons, cardinal-birds, sun-birds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">crows, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">egret, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ducks and geese, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">storks, herons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rapacious, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">egret, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">crow, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">kingfisher, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">song, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sun-birds, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rollers, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shrike, parrot, warbler, cuckoo, wood-pigeon, hawks, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">goat-sucker, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">owls, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">weaver-bird, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bee-eater, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">birds on Lake Itàsy, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">parrots, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Prevost’s broadbill, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">black parrots, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bee-eater, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fork-tailed shrike, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fly-catcher, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blow-pipe, native, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boa, a, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Botanising in Madagascar, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Bound-by-blood” ceremony, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Brehmia spinosa</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bridges, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Buddleia madagasc.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buildings, modern, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bull-baiting, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Bullockers,” <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burial customs, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Butterflies, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Cærostris stygiana</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cæsalpinia sepiaria</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Camels, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canals, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Candle-nut-tree,” the, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canoe chants, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canoes, native, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Lilac, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cardinal-birds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carnivora, species of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carving in Bétsiléo, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cassia lævigata</i>, the, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cassis</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casuarina, the, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caterpillars, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caterpillars, a bag of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cattle rearing, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>, or tail-less tenrec, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Centetidæ, the, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Centipedes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cercopis</i> species, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chameleons, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chameleonidæ, species of the, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charms, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cheirogaleus minor</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Children, Hova, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cicada, the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clay in building, use of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Clematis bojeri</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Climate, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Climbing plants, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clothing of the Malagasy, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coast-line, the, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coffee, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cold month, the, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commelyna Madagasc., <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Constellations, Malagasy names for, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Conus</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Convolvuli, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Coraciadæ</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Coracopsis obscura</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Corvus scapulatus</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cory, Mr, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cosmaria</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Couas, the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crabs, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crater lakes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Craters, extinct, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crayfish, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodiles, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodiles of Lake Alaotra, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodiles, superstitious dread of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodiles, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crows, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cryptogamic vegetation, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Custom, a curious, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Customs at the New Year, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Customs of the Sihànaka, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cycas thouarsii</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyclones, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cynoglossum</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cypræa</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Dauphine, Fort, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Davidson, Dr, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Day, divisions of the, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Days, uniformity in the length of the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Death-moths,” <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Death’s-head moth, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Deciduous trees, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Delphinus pas</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dhows, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dialects, Hova and Malagasy, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dinner with the Governor, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dishes and spoons, primitive, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dolphins, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doorways, Bétsiléo, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dracæna, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dragonflies, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dress, children’s, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dress, Sihànaka, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drury, Robert, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dry season, the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dye from trees, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Earthquake, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span>Earthworms, enormous, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ebony, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eels, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Èfitra</i>, or desert, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eggs of the <i>Æpyornis</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egret, white, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egyptian kite, the, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eleocarpus sericeus</i>, leaves of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Embankments, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eucalyptus, cultivation of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Euphorbia, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Euryceros prevosti</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Fàhitra</i>, or pens for oxen, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Famòa</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fànataovana</i>, or lucky heaps, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Feather-bellows, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Félana, or decoration, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ferns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fianàrantsòa, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fibres, for rope, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Filanjàna</i>, the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fire, method of producing, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fireflies, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Firing the grass, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fish, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">octopus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mullet, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">prawns and shrimps, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shark, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">saw-fish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dolphins, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fishing, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fishing eagle, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Fitomanìanòmby,” <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flamingoes, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flora: orchids, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">arums, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">palms, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">climbing plants, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ferns, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tangèna, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sago palms, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Filào</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Brehmia spinosa</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Hibiscus</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Stephanotis</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Ipomæa</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pitcher-plant, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gum-copal, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">india-rubber, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bamboo, sugar-cane, manioc, banana, palms, pandanus, water-lilies,</li> -<li class="isub4">palms, convolvuli, traveller’s tree, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">raspberries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coffee, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lace-leaf plant, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bamboo, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tree-ferns, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pine-apples, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>rofìa</i>-palm, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ferns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">euphorbias, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">orchids, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bamboo, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rice, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Cape lilac, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">vine, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">euphorbia, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">orchids, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">indigenous plants, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ferns, orchids, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grasses and ferns, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">palms, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">climbing plants, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cryptogamic vegetation, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mosses and lichens, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fungi, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spiny plants, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stinging plants, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ferns, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">valuable trees, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Tamarind-trees, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flowers, comparative scarcity of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fly-catchers, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Food, curious articles of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Food, articles of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forest, stillness of the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fòsa, the, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fosses, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fossils, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foundry, native, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fragrance of wild plants, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French invasion, the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frigate-birds, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frogs, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fruit-bats, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Funeral, a heathenish, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Funeral memorial, a, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Funerals, expensive, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fungi, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Games, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gates of stone, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Geese, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“General Hàzo” and “General Tàzo,” <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Geological formations, quartz, red sandstone, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goat-sucker, the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goudot, M., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grainge, Mr, and the cattle, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Granaries, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grandidier, Alfred, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grasses and rushes, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grass, firing the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Grave of the French,” <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guinea-fowl, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gum-copal tree, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gums and resins, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Hail, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hair-dressing, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hàmby</i>, the, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hapalemur simus</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hawks, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hàzondràno</i>, or rush, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hearth, the, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hèrana</i>, the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hibiscus</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hibiscus diversifolius</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hills, outline of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hippopotamus, extinct, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hippopotamus Lemerlei, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hivòndrona, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hoar-frost, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hooker, Sir W. J., <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horned memorial poles, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hospitality of the Malagasy, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hot springs, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Houlder, Mr, and the boa, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Houses, native, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span>“House-horns,” <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hovas, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Humped duck, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Iàboràno, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iàritsèna, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iatsìfitra volcano, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ice, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ifànja marsh, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ifòdy Hills, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ihàroka river, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ihòvana, chieftainess, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ikòngo, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ikòpa river, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Imàhazòny, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Imèrina, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">India-rubber, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indigenous plants, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insect life, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insectivora, species of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insects: ants, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cockroaches, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a new spider, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">beauty of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spiders, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water-producing, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">black wasp, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">silkworm moth, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">butterflies, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grasshoppers, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mantis, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dog-locust, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">nests, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ants, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">beetles, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caterpillars, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spiders, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mantis religiosa, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grasshoppers, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">beetles, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ball-insect, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">millipedes, centipedes, scorpions, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">venomous spiders, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">protective resemblance, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mòkafòhy, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Intelligence of the people, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inundations, damage by, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iòlomàka, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ipomæa, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Irrigation, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Isoàvina, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Itàsy, Lake, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Itsìatòsika, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivàlokiànja, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivàtoàvo, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivòhibé Mountain, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivòhitràmbo, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivòhitròsa, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivòko volcano, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Jacanas, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Jàka</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jigger, the, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Jìro</i>, or memorial poles, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Johnson, Rev. H. T., <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Jorèry</i> or cicada, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Kabàry</i> or National Assembly, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kankàfotra</i>, or cuckoo, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kànkandoròka</i>, a species of worm, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Karàbo</i>, the, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kestrel, the, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kètsa</i> grounds, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“King-butterfly,” <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kingfisher, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kinòly</i>, the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kiròmbo roller, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kòlikòly</i>, or after-crop, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Komàngo-tree, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Lace-leaf plant, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ladders, primitive, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lagoons, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lake-dwellers, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lakes and marshes, anciently a country of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Làmba</i>, the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Land-shells, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Landolphia Madagas.</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Làpa</i>, or Government House, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Le Sage, Captain, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leeches, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lemur Catta</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lemur mongos</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lemuroid animals, extinct, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lemuroida, species of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lemurs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lichens, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lightning, freaks played by, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lilìa, river, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lime deposit, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lizards, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lizards, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Locusts, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Longòzy</i> plant, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Looms, primitive, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Madagascar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its ancient connection with Africa, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Madagascar bee, the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màhamànina, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màhavèlona, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Major, Dr Forsyth, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Malarial fever, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mammalia, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mammals, species of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mampìta-hàdy</i>, or fosse-crosser, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manàkambahìny, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mànanàra river, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mànanjàra river, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mandànivàtsy, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mandràka river, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mandràka Valley, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màngasoàvina, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mango-trees, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mangòro river, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màningòry river, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manioc, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mantidactylus</i> genus of frogs, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mantis, a curious, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mantis religiosa</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Market day, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span>Markets, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màrokalòy, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maròmby, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Maromita</i>, or porters, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màrosalàzana, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màrovoày, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marshes, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màsindràno, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Màtitànana river, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Matthey, M. C., <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mats, Sihànaka, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mead, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medicinal waters, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medicine from trees, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melia azederach</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Memorial poles, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Merops superciliosus</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mesites</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mèvatanàna, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Millipedes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mimicry amongst plants, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mineral wealth of the country, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mitra</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mojangà, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mòkafòhy</i>, insect, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Money, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Months, origin of names of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moraféno, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mòramànga, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mòraràno, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mortar and pestle, the, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mosses, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moths, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mouse-lemurs, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mozambique Channel, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mugil borbonicus</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mullens, Dr, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mullet, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mundulea suberosa</i>, the, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mungooses, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Musical instruments, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mysore thorn, the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mythical creatures of Lake Alaotra, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Nàndihìzana, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Native houses, structure of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nectarinidæ</i> or sun-birds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Neodrepanis coruscans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nephila</i> spider, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nest of the aye-aye, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nests of insects, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nests of wasps, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New Year, Malagasy, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nòsibé, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Obstructions in rivers and paths, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ocean currents, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Octopus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Oliva</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Opuntia ferox</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oranges, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orchards, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orchids: angræcum, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">terrestrial, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ordeals, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ornamentation, female, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Outrigger canoes, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ouvirandra fenestralis</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Owen, Sir R., <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Owls, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ox, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxen, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oysters, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Paddles, native, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Palms, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pandanus, the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Papàngo</i>, or Egyptian kite, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parakeets, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parrots, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paths, forest, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pearse, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pelophilus madagasc.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pigeons, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pillans, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pine-apples, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pitcher-plant, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plant, Mr, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ploceus pensilis</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poison ordeal, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poison tree, a, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poisonous fish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pollen, M., <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Potamochærus larvatus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prawns and shrimps, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prevost’s broadbill, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prickly pear, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pristis sp.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proctor, S., <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Protective mimicry, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Psittacula Madagasc., <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pulpit, a decorated, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pumice from Krakatoa, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Quadrumana, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quadrupeds, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Radàma I., <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Radàma II., <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rail, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Railòvy</i>, or fork-tailed shrike, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Railways, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rain, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rallus gularis</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rànavàlona I., <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rànavàlona, Queen, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rànomafàna, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rapacious birds, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rapèto, chief, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Raphia ruffia, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ràry</i>, or war-chant, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span>Raspberries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rats, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ravenala madagasc.</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rayed Gymnogene, the, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Religious observances, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reptiles: snakes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lizards, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chameleons, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ancient, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rest-houses, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rice cultivation, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rice cultivation in Bétsiléo, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rice-houses, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ring-tailed lemur, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">River-hog, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rivers, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roads and pathways, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rocks, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rofìa</i>-palm, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rofìa</i> cloth, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ròva</i>, or square, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rollers (<i>Coraciadæ</i>), <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rose-apple, the, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rum drinking, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Sago palms, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ste Marie, Isle, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sàkalàva, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Salàka</i>, or loin-cloth, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sàmpy</i>, or household charm, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sanatoria, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sand-bars, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sand-grouse, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sandalwood, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sawfish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scenery, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scenery of the coast, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scorpions, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screw-pine, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sea-birds, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seasons, the, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Serpents, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shark, the hammer-headed, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shaw, Mr G. A., <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shells, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Conus</i>, <i>Triton</i>, <i>Cypræa</i>, <i>Oliva</i>, <i>Mitra</i>, <i>Cassis</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shrimps, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sihànaka, the, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silk, spiders’, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sìmpona</i>, species of lemur, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Siòna</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sloth, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smelting stations, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snakes, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snare for birds, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snow, absence of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Solanum auriculatum</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solitary wasps, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sòngosòngo</i>, the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sopubia triphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spade, the native, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sphærotheria, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spiders, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spiny and prickly plants, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Springtime, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stephanotis, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stinging plants, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Storks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Street, Mr Louis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stribling, Rev. E. H., <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Striped tenrec, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sugar-cane, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sugar-cane press, a, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Summer, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sun-birds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sunsets, beautiful, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Swine, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Taimòro tribe, the, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Taisàka, the, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tàkatra, or stork, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tamarind-trees, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tamatave, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">governor of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">garrison, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tanàla, the, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tangèna, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tanòsy country, a village in the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tèlomiràhavàvy, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Terminalia catappa</i>, or “Indian almond,” <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Terraced hills, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Threshing rice, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thunderstorms, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timber, valuable, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Time, division of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tin cans on memorial poles, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tins, old jam, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tsìrika</i> or blow-pipe, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tòkan-tòngotra</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tombs in Bétsiléo, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tombs, Hova, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tortoises, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tortoises, extinct, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Trachylobium verrucosa</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tràndraka</i> or hedgehog, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trànomàro, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trap-door spiders, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Traveller’s tree, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Travelling in Madagascar, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tree-duck, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tree-ferns, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tree-frogs, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trees, introduction of new, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Triton</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trìtrìva, Lake, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tropic-birds, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tsikòndry</i>, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tsingàla</i>, the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Twilight, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Typhonodorum lindleyanum</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Vàkinankàratra, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valàla river, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span>Valàlanambòa, or dog-locust, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Valìha</i>, the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vangàindràno, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Variety of face and colour, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vàtolàhy</i>, or “male stones,” <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vàvavàto district, the, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vavòny, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vazìmba</i>, the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vegetation, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vehicles, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Véro</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vérontsànjy</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vernonia appendiculata</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Village squares, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Villages, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Villages, old style, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vine, the, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vinca angivensis</i>, the, <a href="#Page_89">89-90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vinca rosea</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vinson, Dr, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Visit of ceremony, a, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vòhilèna, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vòhitra volcano, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volcanic belt, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volcanoes, extinct, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vòlombòrona Mountain, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vòromahèry or hawk, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Ungulata, species of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unhealthiness of the coast, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unlucky days, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Uranid butterfly, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Usnea</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Walking-stick mantis, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wallace, Dr A. R., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wasp, black, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water conveyances, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-courses, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waterfalls, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-hens, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-lilies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-plants, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-pots, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-producing insects, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-snakes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water yam or lace-leaf plant, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weapons, ancient, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weaver-bird, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Webs, spiders’, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whales, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wheeled vehicles, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whistling teal, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White-backed duck, the, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White lemur, a, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wild boar or river-hog, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wild duck on Lake Itàsy, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wild fowl, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wild man, a, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Windows, absence of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Winds, prevailing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Winter, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Words denoting different appearances of nature, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst smcap">Yams, wild, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Zàhitra</i>, or raft, a, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zànatsàra clan, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zomèna, Chief, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zozòro</i>, the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zygæna malleus</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p6 pfs60">THE RIVERSIDE PRESS LIMITED, EDINBURGH</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="p4 transnote"> -<a id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Obvious typographical, punctuation and accenting errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, -when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> -<br /> -<p> -<a href="#tn-16">Pg 16</a> List of Maps: the ‘Physical’ map was moved in front of -the ‘Ethnographical’ map, with page numbers of 16 and 17 -respectively.<br /> -<a href="#tn-38">Pg 38</a>: ‘hartstongue fern’ replaced by ‘hart’s-tongue fern’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-53">Pg 53</a>: ‘at Pamplemouses’ replaced by ‘at Pamplemousses’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-94">Pg 94</a>: ‘1.3 (P.M.)’ replaced by ‘1.30 (P.M.)’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-98">Pg 98</a>: ‘and wearing’ replaced by ‘and weaving’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-110">Pg 110</a>: ‘called Centelidæ’ replaced by ‘called Centetidæ’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-149">Pg 149</a> Footnote [13]: ‘indebted to the the’ replaced by -‘indebted to the’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-191">Pg 191</a>: ‘as the _lòpa_’ replaced by ‘as the _làpa_’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-229">Pg 229</a>: ‘of Ambòsita’ replaced by ‘of Ambòsitra’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-241">Pg 241</a>: ‘tree miles across’ replaced by ‘three miles across’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-243">Pg 243</a>: ‘Cheirgaleus major’ replaced by ‘Cheirogaleus major’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-272">Pg 272</a>: ‘Agræcum superbum’ replaced by ‘Angræcum superbum’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-274">Pg 274</a>: ‘that that was a’ replaced by ‘that there was a’.<br /> -<br /> -<a href="#INDEX">Index</a>: the spelling of some entries has been changed to match the -spelling in the main text. Many accents have been added to match -the accenting in the main text.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A NATURALIST IN MADAGASCAR ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin-top:1em; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> |