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diff --git a/old/68708-0.txt b/old/68708-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 67caff6..0000000 --- a/old/68708-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14512 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A naturalist in Madagascar, by James -Sibree - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A naturalist in Madagascar - -Author: James Sibree - -Release Date: August 8, 2022 [eBook #68708] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Peter Becker, John Campbell and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A NATURALIST IN -MADAGASCAR *** - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been - placed at the end of each chapter. - - The tables in this book are best viewed using a monospace font. - - A superscript is denoted by ^x or ^{xx}, for example madagas^{sis}. - - Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. - - - - -[Illustration: OLD VILLAGE GATEWAY WITH CIRCULAR STONE - -The stone is levered into position closing the opening. A deep fosse -or ditch surrounding the village completes its fortification. The -man in front is carrying two packages secured to a pole in the usual -manner of the country] - - - - - A NATURALIST - IN MADAGASCAR - - _A Record of Observation Experiences and - Impressions made during a period of over Fifty Years’ - Intimate Association with the Natives and Study of the - Animal & Vegetable Life of the Island_ - - - BY - - JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. - - _Membre de l’Academie Malgache_ - - AUTHOR OF “THE GREAT AFRICAN ISLAND,” “MADAGASCAR ORNITHOLOGY,” - &c., &c., &c. - - - WITH 52 ILLUSTRATIONS & 3 MAPS - - - PHILADELPHIA - - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - - LONDON: SEELEY, SERVICE & CO. LTD. - - 1915 - - - - - Dedicated - - WITH MUCH AFFECTION TO - - MY DEAR WIFE - - MY CONSTANT COMPANION IN MADAGASCAR - AND FAITHFUL HELPER IN ALL - MY WORK FOR FORTY-FOUR - YEARS - - - - -PREFACE - - -The title of this book may perhaps be considered by some as too -ambitious, and may provoke comparison with others somewhat similar in -name, but with whose distinguished authors I have no claim at all to -compete. - -I have no tales to tell of hair-breadth escapes from savage beasts, -no shooting of “big game,” no stalking of elephant or rhinoceros, -of “hippo” or giraffe. We have indeed no big game in Madagascar. -The most dangerous sport in its woods is hunting the wild boar; the -largest carnivore to be met with is the fierce little _fòsa_, and the -crocodile is the most dangerous reptile. - -But I ask the courteous reader to wander with me into the wonderful -and mysterious forests, and to observe the gentle lemurs in their -home, as they leap from tree to tree, or take refuge in the thickets -of bamboo; to come out in the dusk and watch the aye-aye as he -stealthily glides along the branches, obtaining his insect food under -the bark of the trees; to listen to the song of numerous birds, -and to note their habits and curious ways; to hear the legends and -folk-tales in which the Malagasy have preserved the wisdom of their -ancestors with regard to the feathered denizens of the woods and -plains, and to admire the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and -the trees and plants, the ferns and flowers, and even the grasses, -which are to be found in every part of the island. - -I invite those who may read these pages to look with me at the little -rodents and insect-eaters which abound in and near the woods; to mark -the changing chameleons which are found here in such variety; to -watch the insects which gambol in the sunshine, or hide in the long -grass, or sport on the streams. If such unexciting pleasures as these -can interest my readers, I can promise that there is in Madagascar -enough and to spare to delight the eye and to charm the imagination. - -I confess that I am one of those who take much more delight in -silently watching the birds and their pretty ways in some quiet nook -in the woods, than in shooting them to add a specimen to a museum; -and that I feel somewhat of a pang in catching even a butterfly, and -would much rather observe its lovely colours in life, as it unfolds -them to the sunshine, than study it impaled on a pin in a cabinet. No -doubt collections are necessary, but I have never cared to make them -myself. - -Nothing is here recorded but facts which have come under my own -observation or as related by friends and others whose authority is -unquestionable. And while my main object is to convey a vivid and -true impression of the animal and vegetable life of Madagascar, I -have also given many sketches of what is curious and interesting in -the habits and customs of the Malagasy people, among whom I have -travelled repeatedly, and with whom I have lived for many years. I -have no pretensions to be a scientific naturalist or botanist, I have -only been a careful observer of the beautiful and wonderful things -that I have seen and I have constantly noted down what many others -have observed, and have here included information which they have -given in the following pages. - -I have long wished that someone far more competent than myself would -write a popular book upon the natural history and botany of this -great island; but as I have not yet heard of any such, I venture with -some diffidence to add this book to the large amount of literature -already existing about Madagascar, but none of it exactly filling -this place. For many years I edited, together with my late friend -and colleague, the Rev. R. Baron, the numbers of _The Antanànarìvo -Annual_, a publication which was “a record of information on the -topography and natural productions of Madagascar, and the customs, -traditions, language and religious beliefs of its people,” and for -which I was always on the look-out for facts of all kinds bearing -on the above-mentioned subjects. But as this magazine was not known -to the general public, and was confined to a very limited circle -of readers, I have not hesitated to draw freely on the contents of -its twenty-four numbers, as I am confident that a great deal of the -information there contained is worthy of a much wider circulation -than it had in the pages of the _Annual_. - -Finally, as preachers say, although this book is written by a -missionary, it is not “a missionary book”; not, certainly, because -I undervalue missionary work, in which, after nearly fifty years’ -acquaintance with it, and taking an active part in it, I believe with -all my heart and soul, but because that aspect of Madagascar has -already been so fully treated. Books written by the Revs. W. Ellis, -Dr Mullens, Mr Prout, Dr Matthews, Mr Houlder, myself and others, -give all that is necessary to understand the wonderful history of -Christianity in this island. Despite what globe-trotting critics may -say, as well as colonists who seem to consider that all coloured -peoples may be exploited for their own benefit, mission work, apart -from its simply obeying the last commands of our Lord, is _the_ great -civilising, educational and benevolent influence in the world, deny -it who can! But in this book I want to show that Madagascar is full -of interest in other directions, and that the wonderful things that -live and grow here are hardly less worthy of study than those events -which have attracted the attention of Christian and benevolent people -for nearly a hundred years past. - -The author thanks very sincerely his friends, Mr John Parrett, -Monsieur Henri Noyer, and Razaka, for their freely accorded -permission to reproduce many photographs taken by them and used to -illustrate this book. And his grateful thanks are also due to his old -friend, the Rev. J. Peill, for the care he has taken in going through -the proof sheets, especially in seeing that all Madagascar words are -correctly given. - -Two or three chapters of this book cover, to some extent, the same -ground as those treated of in another book on Madagascar by the -author, published some years ago by Mr Fisher Unwin. The author here -acknowledges, with many thanks, Mr Fisher Unwin’s kindness in giving -full permission to produce these, which are, however, rewritten and -largely added to. - - J. S. - - - _NOTE._—Throughout this book Malagasy words are accented on the - syllables which should be emphasised, and if it is borne in mind - that the vowels _a_, _e_ and _i_ have as nearly as possible the - same sound as in French or Italian, and that _o_ is exactly like - our English _o_ in _do_, _to_ and _move_, and that the consonants - do not differ much in sound from those in English, except that _g_ - is always hard, _s_ always a sibilant and not like _z_, and _j_ is - like _dj_ there will be no difficulty in pronouncing Malagasy words - with a fair amount of accuracy. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - PAGE - INTRODUCTORY 17 - - Natural History of the Island—Still Little Known—Roads and - Railway—We travel by Old-Fashioned Modes—Great Size and - Extent of Madagascar - - - CHAPTER II - - TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE COUNTRY 20 - - “The Bullocker”—Landing at Tamatave—Meet with New - Friends—Landing our Luggage—Bullocks and Bullock Ships—Native - Houses—Strange Articles of Food—A Bed on a Counter—First - Ride in a _Filanjàna_—At the Fort—The Governor and his - “Get-Up”—A Rough-and-Ready Canteen - - - CHAPTER III - - FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALONG THE SEASHORE 27 - - Travelling in Madagascar—Absence of Roads—“General - Forest and General Fever”—Pleasures and Penalties of Travel—Start - for the Interior—My Private Carriage—Night at Hivòndrona—Native - Canoes—Gigantic Arums—Crows and Egrets—Malagasy - Cattle—Curious Crabs—Shells of the Shore—Coast - Lagoons—Lovely Scenery—Pandanus and Tangèna Trees—Pumice - from Krakatoa—Sea and River Fishes—Prawns and - Sharks—Hospitable Natives—Trees, Fruits and Flowers—“The - Churchyard of Foreigners”—Unpleasant Style of Cemetery—“The - Hole of Serpents”—Killing a Boa-constrictor—The - White-fronted Lemur—Andòvorànto—How the Aye-Aye was - caught—What he is like—And where he lives—A Damp - Journey - - - CHAPTER IV - - FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ANDÒVORÀNTO TO MID-FOREST 48 - - A Canoe Voyage—Crocodiles and their Ways—River Scenery—Traveller’s - Tree—Which is also “The Builder’s Tree”—Maròmby—Coffee - Plantation—Orange Grove—We stick in the - Mud—Difficulties of Road—Rànomafàna and its Hot Springs—Lace-leaf - Plant—Native Granaries—Endurance of Bearers—Native - Traders—Appearance of the People—Native Music and - Instruments—Bamboos—Ampàsimbé—Cloth Weaving—Native - Looms—_Rofìa_-palms—“A Night with the Rats”—Hard Travelling - —Béfòrona—The Two Forest Belts—The Highest Mountains—Forest - of Alamazaotra—Villages on Route—The Blow-Gun - - - CHAPTER V - - FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALAMAZAOTRA TO ANTANÀNARÌVO 63 - - “Weeping-place of Bullocks”—“Great Princess” Rock—Grandeur - of the Vegetation—Scarcity of Flowers—Orchids, - Bamboos, and Pendent Lichens—Apparent Paucity of Animal - Life—Remarkable Fauna of Madagascar—Geological Theories - thereon—Lemurs—The Ankay Plain—An Ancient Lake—Mòramànga—River - Mangòro—Grand Prospect from Ifòdy—The - Tàkatra and Its Nest—Hova Houses—Insect Life—Angàvo - Rock—Upper Forest—Treeless Aspect of Imèrina—Granite - Rocks—Ambàtomànga—And its big House—Grass Burning—First - View of Capital—Its Size and Situation—Hova Villages—A - Cloud of Locusts—Reach Antanànarìvo - - - CHAPTER VI - - THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND - LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR 75 - - The Seasons in Madagascar—Their Significant Names—Prospect - from Summit of Antanànarìvo—Great Rice-plain—An - Inundation of the Same—Springtime: September and October - —Rice-planting and Rice-fields—Trees and Foliage—Common - Fruits—“Burning the Downs”—Birds—Hawks and Kestrels—Summer: - November to February—Thunderstorms and Tropical - Rains—Lightning and its Freaks—Effects of Rain on Roads—Rainfall - —Hail—Magnificent Lightning Effects—Malagasy New Year - - - CHAPTER VII - - SPRING AND SUMMER 90 - - Native Calendar—Conspicuous Flowers—Aloes and Agaves—Uniformity - of Length of Days—Native Words and Phrases for Divisions of - Time—And for Natural Phenomena—Hova Houses—Wooden and Clay—Their - Arrangement—And Furniture—“The Sacred Corner”—Solitary Wasps - —Their Victims—The Cell-builders—The Burrowers—Wild Flowers - - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND - LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR 103 - - Autumn: March and April—Rice Harvest—The Cardinal-Bird—The - Egret and the Crow—Harvest Thanksgiving Services—Rice, - the Malagasy Staff of Life—Queer “Relishes to Rice”—Fish - —Water-beetles—A Dangerous Adventure with One—Dragonflies—Useful - Sedges and Rushes—Mist Effects on Winter Mornings—Spiders’ - Webs—The “Fosse-Crosser” Spider—Silk from it—Silk-worm Moths—And - Other Moths—The “King” Butterfly—Grasshoppers and Insect Life on - the Grass—The Dog-Locust—Gigantic Earthworms—Winter: May to - August—Winter the Dry Season - - - CHAPTER IX - - AUTUMN AND WINTER 116 - - Old Towns—Ancient and Modern Tombs—Memorial Stones—Great - Markets—Imèrina Villages—Their Elaborate Defences—Native - Houses—Houses of Nobles—Hova Children—Their Dress and - Games—Village Churches—And Schools—A School Examination—Aspects - of Nightly Sky Epidemics in Cold Season—Vegetation - - - CHAPTER X - - AT THE FOREST SANATORIUM 127 - - A Holiday at Ankèramadìnika—The Upper Forest Belt—The Flora of - Madagascar—Troubles and Joys of a Collector—A Silken Bag—Ants - and their Nests—In Trees and Burrows—Caterpillars and Winter - Sleep—Butterflies’ Eggs—Snakes, Lizards and Chameleons—An - Arboreal Lizard—Effects of Terror—Some Extraordinary - Chameleons—The River-Hog—Sun-birds - - - CHAPTER XI - - FOREST SCENES 140 - - Forest Scenes and Sounds—The Goat-sucker—Owls—Flowers and - Berries—Palms and other Trees—The Bamboo-palm—Climbing - Plants—Mosses, Lichens and Fungi—Their Beautiful Colours - —Honey—The Madagascar Bee—Its Habits and its Enemies—Forest - People—The Bétròsy Tribe—A Wild-Man-of-the-Woods—A Cyclone - in the Forest—A Night of Peril - - - CHAPTER XII - - RAMBLES IN THE UPPER FOREST 150 - - Forest Parts—Lost in the Woods—Native Proverbs and Dread - of the Forest—Waterfalls—A Brilliant Frog—Frogs and their - Croaking—A Nest-building Frog—Protective Resemblances and - Mimicry—Beetles—Brilliant Bugs—Memorial Mounds—Iron - Smelting—Feather Bellows—Depths of the Ravines—Forest - Leeches—Ferns—Dyes, Gums and Resins—Candle-nut Tree—Medicinal - Trees and Plants—Useful Timber Trees—Superstitions about - the Forest—Marvellous Creatures—The Ball Insect—Millipedes - and Centipedes—Scorpions - - - CHAPTER XIII - - FAUNA 162 - - The Red-spot Spider—Various and Curious Spiders—Protective - Resemblances among them—Trap-door Spiders—The Centetidæ - —Malagasy Hedgehogs—The Lemurs—The Propitheques—The Red - Lemur—Pensile Weaver-bird—The Bee-eater—The Coua Cuckoos - —The Glory and Mystery of the Forests—A Night in the Forest - - - CHAPTER XIV - - ROUND ANTSIHÀNAKA 173 - - Object of the Journey—My Companions—The Antsihànaka - Province—Origin of the People—Anjozòrobé—“Travellers’ - Bungalow”—A Sunday there—“Our Black Chaplain”—The - “Stone Gateway”—Ankay Plain—Ants and Serpents—Hair-dressing - and Ornaments—_Tòaka_ Drinking—Rice Culture—Fragrant - Grasses—The Glory of the Grass—Their Height—Capital of the - Province—We interview the Governor—Flowers of Oratory—The - Market—Fruits and Fertility—A Circuit of the Province—Burial - Memorials—Herds of Oxen—Horns as Symbols—Malagasy Use of - Oxen—A Sihànaka House—Mats and Mat-making—Water-fowl—Their - Immense Numbers—Teal and Ducks—The Fen Country—Physical - Features of Antsihànaka—The Great Plain—Ampàrafàravòla - —Hymn-singing—Sihànaka Bearers—“Wild-Hog’s Spear” Grass—Dinner - with the Lieutenant-Governor—“How is the Gun?”—Volcanic - Action—Awkward Bridges—Fighting an Ox—Occupations of the - People—Cattle-tending—Rice Culture—Fishing—Buds - - - CHAPTER XV - - LAKE SCENERY 193 - - The Alaotra Lake—Lake Scenery—A Damp Resting-place—Shortened - Oratory—We cross the Lake—An Ancient and Immense Lake—The - Crocodile—Mythical Water-creatures—A Pleasant Meeting - —“Manypoles” Village—A Sihànaka Funeral—Treatment of - Widows—A Village in the Swamp—Unlucky Days and Taboos - —Madagascar Grasses—We turn Homewards - - - CHAPTER XVI - - LAKE ITÀSY 208 - - Old Volcanoes—Lake Itàsy—Distant Views of it—Legends as - to its Formation—Flamingoes—Water-hens—Jacanas—Other - Birds—Antsìrabé—Hot Springs—Extinct Hippopotami—Gigantic - Birds—Enormous Eggs - - - CHAPTER XVII - - VOLCANIC DISTRICT 215 - - Crater Lake of Andraikìba—Crater Lake of Trìtrìva—Colour of - Water—Remarkable Appearance of Lake—Legends about it—Its - Depth—View from Crater Walls—Ankàratra Mountain—Lava - Outflows—An Underground River—Extinct Lemuroid Animals - —Graveyard of an Ancient Fauna—The Palæontology—And - Geology of Madagascar—Volcanic Phenomena—The Madagascar - Volcanic Belt—Earthquakes—A Glimpse of the Past Animal - Life of the Island - - - CHAPTER XVIII - - SOUTHWARDS TO BÉTSILÉO AND THE SOUTH-EAST COAST 228 - - Why I went South—How to secure your Bearers—The Old Style - of Travelling—Route to Fianàrantsòa—Scenery—Elaborate Rice - Culture—Bétsiléo Ornament and Art—Burial Memorials—We leave - for the Unknown—A Bridal Obligation—Mountains and Rocks - —Parakeets and Parrots—A Dangerous Bridge—Ant-hills—The - Malagasy Hades—Brotherhood by Blood—Bétsiléo Houses—“The - Travelling Foreigners in their Tent”—A Tanàla Forest - —Waterfalls—A Tanàla House—Female Adornment - - - CHAPTER XIX - - IVÒHITRÒSA 246 - - Ivòhitròsa—Native Dress—a Grand Waterfall—Wild Raspberries—The - Ring-tailed Lemur—The Mouse-Lemur—A Heathen Congregation - —Unlucky Days—Month Names—The _Zàhitra_ Raft—A Village Belle - and her “Get-up”—The Cardamom Plant—Beads, Charms and - Arms—Bamboos and Pandanus—A Forest Altar—Rafts and Canoes - —Crocodiles—Their Bird Friends—Ordeal by Crocodile—Elegant - Coiffure—A Curious Congregation—Ambòhipèno Fort—We reach the - Sea—Gigantic Arums—Sea-shells—Pulpit Decoration—Butterflies - —Protective Structure in a Certain Species—An Arab Colony—Arabic - Manuscripts—Frigate-birds and Tropic-birds—Other Sea-birds - - - CHAPTER XX - - AMONG THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES 257 - - Hova Conquest of and Cruelties to the Coast Tribes—The - Traveller’s Tree and its Fruits—A Hova Fort—Ball Head-dressing - —Rice-fields—Volcanic Phenomena—Vòavòntaka Fruit—A - Well-dunged Village—Water from the Traveller’s Tree—We - are stopped on our Way—A Native Distillery—Taisàka Mat - Clothing—Bark Cloth—Native Houses and their Arrangement - —Secondary Rocks—Ankàrana Fort—A Hospitable Reception—A - Noisy Feast—“A Fine Old _Malagasy_ Gentleman”—A Hearty - “Set-Off”—Primitive Spoons and Dishes—Burial Memorials - - - CHAPTER XXI - - THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES 270 - - A Built Boat—In the Bush—A Canoe Voyage—Canoe Songs—The - _Angræcum_ Orchids—Pandanus and Atàfa Trees—Coast - Lagoons—A Native Dance—A Wheeled Vehicle—Lost in the - Woods—A Fatiguing Sunday—Dolphins and Whales—Forest - Scenery—A Tanàla Funeral—Silence of the Woods—The Sound - of the Cicada—Mammalian Life—Hedgehogs and Rats—Why - are Birds comparatively so few?—Insect Life in the Forest—A - Stick-Insect—Protective Resemblances—The Curious Broad-bill - Bird—Minute Animal Life in a River Plant—Ambòhimànga - in the Forest—A Tanàla Chieftainess—River-fording and Craft—We - reach the Interior Highland—Bétsiléo Tombs—Return to - Antanànarìvo - - - CHAPTER XXII - - TO SÀKALÀVA LAND AND THE NORTH-WEST 285 - - North-West Route to the Coast—River Embankments—Mission - Stations—A Lady Bricklayer—In a Fosse with the Cattle—An Airy - Church on a Stormy Night—A Strange Chameleon—The “Short” - Mosquitoes—Ant-hills and Serpents—A Sacred Tree—Andrìba Hill - and Fort—An Evening Bath and a Hasty Breakfast—Parakeets, - Hoopoes, and Bee-eaters—The Ikòpa Valley—Granite Boulders - —Mèvatanàna: a Birdcage Town—We form an Exhibition for the - Natives—Our Canoes—Crocodiles—Shrikes and Fly-catchers - —Tamarind-trees—Camping Out—The “Agy” Stinging Creeper—River - Scenery—Fan-palms—Scaly Reptiles and Beautiful Birds - —Fruit-eating and Other Bats—Secondary Rocks—Sparse - Population—The Sàkalàva Tribes—A Vile-smelling Tree - - - CHAPTER XXIII - - TO THE NORTH-WEST COAST 301 - - Tortoises—Gigantic Tortoises of Aldabra Island—Park-like - Scenery—The Fierce Little Fòsa—Small Carnivora—Beautiful - Woods—“Many Crocodiles” Town—A Curious Pulpit—A Hot - Night—A Voyage in a Dhow—Close Quarters on its Deck—An - Arab Dhow and its Rig—Bèmbatòka Bay—Mojangà—An Arab - and Indian Town—An Ancient Arab Colony—Baobab-trees—Valuable - Timber Trees—The Fishing Eagle—Turtles and Turtle-catching - —Herons—The North-West Coast—A Fishing Fish—Oysters and - Octopus—Nòsibé and Old Volcanoes—Our Last Glimpses of - Madagascar - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Old Village Gateway with Circular Stone _Frontispiece_ - FACING PAGE - - On the Coast Lagoons 28 - - A Forest Road 32 - - Low-class Girl fetching Water 50 - - A Sihànaka Woman playing the Vahiha 50 - - Bétsimisàraka Women 58 - - Hova Women weaving 58 - - Family Tomb of the late Prime Minister, Antanànarìvo 66 - - Royal Tombs, Antanànarìvo 66 - - Earthenware Pottery 76 - - Digging up Rice-fields 76 - - Pounding and winnowing Rice 78 - - Hova Middle-class Family at a Meal 78 - - Rocks near Ambàtovòry 92 - - Typical Hova House in the Ancient Style 96 - - On the Coast Lagoons 106 - - Transplanting Rice 112 - - Hova Tombs 118 - - Friday Market at Antanànarìvo 120 - - Ancient Village Gateway 124 - - A Forest Village 134 - - Chameleons 136 - - Anàlamazàotra 146 - - Memorial Carved Posts and Ox Horns 156 - - Blacksmith at Work 156 - - On the Coast Lagoons 166 - - Some Curious Madagascar Spiders 168 - - Sihànaka Men 176 - - Forest Village 176 - - A Wayside Market 180 - - Water-carriers 218 - - Hide-bearers resting by the Roadside 230 - - Bétsiléo Tombs 230 - - Memorial Stone 234 - - Types of Carved Ornamentation in Houses 236 - - ” ” ” 238 - - Group of Tanàla Girls in Full Dress 242 - - Tanàla Girls singing and clapping Hands 242 - - Tanàla Spearmen 248 - - Coiffures 250 - - A Forest River 252 - - Tree Ferns 260 - - Traveller’s Trees 260 - - A Malagasy Orchid 272 - - Malagasy Men dancing 274 - - Woman of the Antànkàrana Tribe 278 - - Woman of the Antanòsy Tribe 278 - - The Fòsa 302 - - Malagasy Oxen 302 - - -MAPS - - Physical Sketch Map of Madagascar 16 - - Ethnographical Sketch Maps of Madagascar 17 - - General Map of Madagascar 314 - - - - -[Illustration: PHYSICAL SKETCH-MAP OF MADAGASCAR - -_showing lines of Forest, and limits of high land of Interior -exceeding 2500 feet above Sea-level_] - - -[Illustration: ETHNOGRAPHICAL _SKETCH-MAP_ OF MADAGASCAR] - - - - -A NATURALIST IN MADAGASCAR - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTORY - - -The great African island of Madagascar has become well known to -Europeans during the last half-century, and especially since the year -1895, when it was made a colony of France. During that fifty years -many books—the majority of these in the French language—have been -written about the island and its people; what was formerly an almost -unknown country has been traversed by Europeans in all directions; -its physical geography is now clearly understood; since the French -occupation it has been scientifically surveyed, and a considerable -part of the interior has been laid down with almost as much detail -as an English ordnance map. But although very much information has -been collected with regard to the country, the people, the geology, -and the animal and vegetable productions of Madagascar, there has -hitherto been no attempt, at least in the English language, to -collect these many scattered notices of the Malagasy fauna and flora, -and to present them to the public in a readable form. - -In several volumes of a monumental work that has been in progress for -many years past, written and edited by M. Alfred Grandidier,[1] the -natural history and the botany of the island are being exhaustively -described in scientific fashion; but these great quartos are in the -French language, while their costly character renders them unknown -books to the general reader. It is the object of the following pages -to describe, in as familiar and popular a fashion as may be, many of -the most interesting facts connected with the exceptional animal life -of Madagascar, and with its forestal and other vegetable productions. -During nearly fifty years’ connection with this country the writer -has travelled over it in many directions, and while his chief time -and energies have of course been given to missionary effort, he has -always taken a deep interest in the living creatures which inhabit -the island, as well as in its luxuriant flora, and has always been -collecting information about them. The facts thus obtained are -embodied in the following pages. - -[Sidenote: ROADS AND TRAVELLING] - -It is probably well known to most readers of this book that a railway -now connects Tamatave, the chief port of the east coast, with -Antanànarìvo, the capital, which is about a third of the way across -the island. So that the journey from the coast to the interior, -which, up to the year 1899, used to take from eight to ten days, can -now be accomplished in one day. Besides this, good roads now traverse -the country in several directions, so that wheeled vehicles can be -used; and on some of these a service of motor cars keeps up regular -communication with many of the chief towns and the capital. - -But we shall not, in these pages, have much to do with these modern -innovations, for a railway in Madagascar is very much like a railway -in Europe. Our journeys will mostly be taken by the old-fashioned -native conveyance, the _filanjàna_ or light palanquin, carried by -four stout and trusty native bearers. We shall thus not be whirled -through the most interesting portion of our route, catching only a -momentary glimpse of many a beautiful scene. We can get down and -walk, whenever we like, to observe bird or beast or insect, to -gather flower or fern or lichen or moss, or to take a rock specimen, -things utterly impracticable either by railway or motor car, and not -very easy to do in any wheeled conveyance. Our object will be, not -to get through the journey as fast as possible, but to observe all -that is worth notice during the journey. We shall therefore, in this -style of travel, not stay in modern hotels, but in native houses, -notwithstanding their drawbacks and discomforts; and thus we shall -see the Malagasy as they are, and as their ancestors have been for -generations gone by, almost untouched by European influence, and so -be able to observe their manners and customs, and learn something of -their ideas, their superstitions, their folk-lore, and the many other -ways in which they differ from ourselves. - -[Sidenote: EXTENT OF THE ISLAND] - -Let us, however, first try to get a clear notion about this great -island, and to realise how large a country it is. Take a fair-sized -map of Madagascar, and we see that it rises like some huge -sea-monster from the waters of the Indian Ocean; or, to use another -comparison, how its outline is very like the sole—the left-hand -one—of a human foot. As we usually look at the island in connection -with a map of Africa, it appears as a mere appendage to the great -“Dark Continent”; and it is difficult to believe that it is really a -thousand miles long, and more than three hundred miles broad, with an -area of two hundred and thirty thousand square miles, thus exceeding -that of France, Belgium and Holland all put together.[2] Before the -year 1871 all maps of Madagascar, as regards its interior, were pure -guesswork. A great backbone of mountains was shown, with branches on -either side, like a huge centipede. But it is now clear that, instead -of these fancy pictures, there is an extensive elevated region -occupying about two-thirds of the island to the east and north, -leaving a wide stretch of low country to the west and south; and as -the watershed is much nearer the east than the west of the island, -almost all the chief rivers flow, not into the Indian Ocean, but into -the Mozambique Channel. When we add that a belt of dense forest runs -all along the east side of Madagascar, and is continued, with many -breaks, along the western side, and that scores of extinct volcanoes -are found in several districts of the interior, we shall have said -all that is necessary at present as to the physical geography. Many -more details of this, as well as of the geology, will come under our -notice as we travel through the country in various directions. - - -[1] _Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar_, -publiée par Alfred Grandidier, Paris, à l’Imprimerie Nationale; in -fifty-two volumes, quarto. - -[2] I have often been astonished and amused by the notions some -English people have about Madagascar. One gentleman asked me if it -was not somewhere in Russia!—and a very intelligent lady once said to -me: “I suppose it is about as large as the Isle of Wight!” - - - - -CHAPTER II - -TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE COUNTRY - - -It was on a bright morning in September, 1863, that I first came in -sight of Madagascar. In those days there was no service of steamers, -either of the “Castle” or the “Messageries Maritimes” lines, touching -at any Madagascar port, and the passage from Mauritius had to be made -in what were termed “bullockers.” These vessels were small brigs or -schooners which had been condemned for ordinary traffic, but were -still considered good enough to convey from two to three hundred oxen -from Tamatave to Port Louis or Réunion. It need hardly be said that -the accommodation on board these ships was of the roughest, and the -food was of the least appetising kind. A diet of cabbage, beans and -pumpkin led one of my friends to describe the menu of the bullocker -as “the green, the brown, and the yellow.” Happily, the voyage to -Madagascar was usually not very long, and in my case we had a quick -and pleasant passage of three days only; but I hardly hoped that -daylight on Wednesday morning would reveal the country on which my -thoughts had been centred for several weeks past; so it was with a -strange feeling of excitement that soon after daybreak I heard the -captain calling to me down the hatchway: “We are in sight of land!” -Not many minutes elapsed before I was on deck and looking with eager -eyes upon the island in which eventually most of my life was to be -spent. We were about five miles from the shore, running under easy -sail to the northward, until the breeze from the sea should set in -and enable us to enter the harbour of Tamatave. - -[Sidenote: TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS] - -There was no very striking feature in the scene—no towering volcanic -peaks, as at Mauritius and Aden, yet it was not without beauty. A -long line of blue mountains in the distance, covered with clouds; a -comparatively level plain extending from the hills to the sea, green -and fertile with cotton and sugar and rice plantations; while the -shore was fringed with the tall trunks and feathery crowns of the -cocoanut-palms which rose among the low houses of the village of -Tamatave. These, together with the coral reefs forming the harbour, -over which the great waves thundered and foamed—all formed a picture -thoroughly tropical, reminding me of views of islands in the South -Pacific. - -The harbour of Tamatave is protected by a coral reef, which has -openings to the sea both north and south, the latter being the -principal entrance; it is somewhat difficult of access, and the ribs -and framework of wrecked vessels are (or perhaps rather _were_) very -frequently seen on the reef. The captain had told me that sometimes -many hours and even days were spent in attempting to enter, and that -it would probably be noon before we should anchor. I therefore went -below to prepare for landing, but in less than an hour was startled -to hear by the thunder of the waves on the reef and the shouts of the -seamen reducing sail that we were already entering the harbour. The -wind had proved unexpectedly favourable, and in a few more minutes -the cable was rattling through the hawsehole, the anchor was dropped, -and we swung round at our moorings. - -There were several vessels in the harbour. Close to us was H.M.’s -steamer _Gorgon_, and, farther away, two or three French men-of-war, -among them the _Hermione_ frigate, bearing the flag of Commodore -Dupré, their naval commandant in the Indian Ocean, as well as -plenipotentiary for the French Government in the disputes then -pending concerning the Lambert Treaty. I was relieved to find that -everything seemed peaceful and quiet at Tamatave, and that the -long white flag bearing the name of Queen Ràsohèrina, in scarlet -letters, still floated from the fort at the southern end of the town. -I had been told at Port Louis that things were very unsettled in -Madagascar, and that I should probably find Tamatave being bombarded -by the French; but it is unnecessary to refer further to what is now -ancient history, or to touch upon political matters, which lie quite -outside the main purpose of this book. - -Tamatave, as a village, has not a very inviting appearance from the -sea, and man’s handiwork had certainly not added much to the beauty -of the landscape. Had it not been for the luxuriant vegetation of the -pandanus, palms, and other tropical productions, nothing could have -been less interesting than the native town, which possessed at that -time few European residences and no buildings erected for religious -worship.[3] Canoes, formed out of the trunk of a single tree, soon -came off to our ship, but I was glad to dispense with the services -of these unsafe-looking craft, and to accept a seat in the captain’s -boat. Half-an-hour after anchoring we were rowing towards the beach, -and in a few minutes I leaped upon the sand, with a thankful heart -that I had been permitted to tread the shores of Madagascar. - -Proceeding up the main street—a sandy road bordered by enclosures -containing the stores of a few European traders—we came to the house -of the British Vice-Consul. Here I found Mr Samuel Procter, who was -subsequently the head for many years of one of the chief trading -houses in the island, and also Mr F. Plant, a gentleman employed by -the authorities of the British Museum to collect specimens of natural -history in the then almost unknown country. From them I learned that -a missionary party which had preceded me from Mauritius had left only -two days previously for the capital, and that Mr Plant had kindly -undertaken to accompany me on the journey for the greater part of -the distance to Antanànarìvo. At first we thought of setting off on -that same evening, so as to overtake our friends, but finding that -this would involve much fatigue, we finally decided to wait for two -or three days and take more time to prepare for the novel experiences -of a Madagascar journey. In a little while I was domiciled at Mr -Procter’s store, where I was hospitably entertained during my stay in -Tamatave. - -The afternoon of my first day on shore was occupied in seeing after -the landing of my baggage. This was no easy or pleasant task; the -long rolling swell from the ocean made the transfer of large wooden -cases from the vessel to the canoes a matter requiring considerable -dexterity. More than once I expected to be swamped, and that through -the rolling of the ship the packages would be deposited at the bottom -of the harbour. It was therefore with great satisfaction that I saw -all my property landed safely on the beach. - -[Sidenote: THE BULLOCKER] - -Although Tamatave has always been the chief port on the east coast -of Madagascar, there were, for many years after my arrival there, no -facilities for landing or shipping goods. The bullocks, which formed -the staple export, were swum off to the ships, tied by their horns to -the sides of large canoes, and then slung on board by tackles from -the yard-arm. From the shouting and cries of the native drovers, the -struggles of the oxen, and their starting back from the water, it was -often a very exciting scene. A number of these bullockers were always -passing between the eastern ports of Madagascar and the islands of -Mauritius and Réunion, and kept the markets of these places supplied -with beef at moderate rates. The vessels generally ceased running for -about four months in the early part of the year, when hurricanes are -prevalent in the Indian Ocean; and it may easily be supposed that the -passenger accommodation on board these ships was not of the first -order. However, compared with the discomforts and, often, the danger -and long delays endured by some, I had not much to complain of in my -first voyage to Madagascar. It had, at least, the negative merit of -not lasting long, and I had not then the presence of nearly three -hundred oxen as fellow-passengers for about a fortnight, as on my -voyage homewards, when I had also a severe attack of malarial fever. - -The native houses of Tamatave, like those of the other coast -villages, were of very slight construction, being formed of a -framework of wood and bamboo, filled in with leaves of the pandanus -and the traveller’s tree. In a few of these some attempts at neatness -were observable, the walls being lined with coarse cloth made of the -fibre of _rofìa_-palm leaves, and the floor covered with well-made -mats of papyrus. But the general aspect of the native quarter of the -town was filthy and repulsive; heaps of putrefying refuse exhaled -odours which warned one to get away as soon as possible. In almost -every other house a large rum-barrel, ready tapped, showed what an -unrestricted trade was doing to demoralise the people. - -I could not help noticing the strange articles of food exposed -for sale in the little market of the Bétsimisàraka quarter. Great -heaps of brown locusts seemed anything but inviting, nor were -the numbers of minute fresh-water shrimps much more tempting in -appearance. With these, however, were plentiful supplies of manioc -root, rice of several kinds, potatoes and many other vegetables, the -brilliant scarlet pods of different spices, and many varieties of -fruit—pine-apples, bananas, melons, peaches, citrons and oranges. -Beef was cheap as well as good, and there was a lean kind of mutton, -but it was much like goat-flesh. Great quantities of poultry are -reared in the interior and are brought down to the coast for sale to -the ships trading at the ports. - -[Sidenote: NATIVE HOUSES] - -The houses of the Malagasy officials and the principal foreign -traders were substantially built of wooden framework, with walls -and floors of planking and thatched with the large leaves of the -traveller’s tree. No stone can be procured near Tamatave, nor can -bricks be made there, as the soil is almost entirely sand; the town -itself is indeed built on a peninsula, a sand-bank thrown up by the -sea, under the shelter of the coral reefs which form the harbour. -The house where I was staying consisted of a single long room, with -the roof open to the ridge; a small sleeping apartment was formed -at one corner by a partition of _rofìa_ cloth. There was no window, -but light and air were admitted by large doors, which were always -open during the day. A few folds of Manchester cottons, to serve as -mattress, and a roll of the same for a pillow, laid on Mr Procter’s -counter, formed a luxurious bed after the discomforts of a bullock -vessel. All around us, in the native houses, singing and rude music, -with drumming and clapping of hands, were kept up far into the night; -and these sounds, as well as the regular beating of the waves all -round the harbour, and the excitement of the new and strange scenes -of the past day, kept me from sleep until the small hours of the -morning. - -The following day I went to make a visit to the Governor of Tamatave, -as a new arrival in the country. My host accompanied me, as I was -of course quite unable to talk Malagasy. As this was a visit of -ceremony, it was not considered proper to walk, so we went by the -usual conveyance of the country, the _filanjàna_. This word means -anything by which articles or persons are carried on the shoulder, -and is usually translated “palanquin,” but the _filanjàna_ is a very -different thing from the little portable room which is used in India. -In our case it was a large easy-chair, attached to two poles, and -carried by four stout men, or _màromìta_, as they are called. They -carried us at a quick trot; but this novel experience struck me—I -can hardly now understand why—as irresistibly ludicrous, and I could -not restrain my laughter at the comical figure—as it then seemed to -me—that we presented, especially when I thought of the sensation we -should make in the streets of an English town. - -The motion was not unpleasant, as the men keep step together. Every -few minutes they change the poles from one shoulder to the other, -lifting them over their heads without any slackening of speed. - -[Sidenote: THE GOVERNOR] - -A few minutes brought us to the fort, at the southern end of the -town; this was a circular structure of stone, with walls about twenty -feet high, which were pierced with openings for about a dozen cannon. -We had to wait for a few minutes until the Governor was informed -of our arrival, and thus had time to think of the scene this fort -presented not twenty years before that time, when the heads of many -English and French sailors were fixed on poles around the fort. These -ghastly objects were relics of those who were killed in an attack -made upon Tamatave in 1845, by a combined English and French force, -to redress some grievances of the foreign traders. But we need not be -too hard on the Malagasy when we remember that, not a hundred years -before that time, we in England followed the same delectable custom, -and adorned Temple Bar and other places with the heads of traitors. - -Presently we were informed that the Governor was ready to receive us. -Passing through the low covered way cut through the wall, we came -into the open interior space of the fort. The Governor’s house, a -long low wooden structure, was opposite to us; while, on the right, -he was seated under the shade of a large tree, with a number of -his officers and attendants squatting around him. They were mostly -dressed in a mixture of European and native costume—viz. a shirt and -trousers, over which were thrown the folds of the native _làmba_, an -oblong piece of calico or print, wrapped round the body, with one end -thrown over the left shoulder. Neat straw hats of native manufacture -completed their costume. The Governor, whose name was Andrìamandròso, -was dressed in English fashion, with black silk “top hat” and -worked-wool slippers. He had a very European-looking face, dark olive -complexion, and was an _andrìana_—that is, one of a clan or tribe -of the native nobility. He did not speak English, but through Mr -Procter we exchanged a few compliments and inquiries. I assured him -of the interest the people of England took in Madagascar, and their -wish to see the country advancing. Presently wine was brought, and -after drinking to the Governor’s health we took our leave. The Hova -government maintained, until the French conquest, a garrison of from -two to three hundred men at Tamatave. These troops had their quarters -close to the fort, in a number of houses placed in rows and enclosed -in a large square or _ròva_, formed of strong wooden palisades, with -gateways. - -[Sidenote: A ROUGH AND READY CANTEEN] - -The following day was occupied in making preparations for the -journey, purchasing a few of the most necessary articles of crockery, -etc., and unpacking my canteen. This latter was a handsome teak box, -and fitted up most neatly with plates, dishes, knives and forks, etc. -But Mr Plant said that both the box and most of its contents were -far too good to be exposed to the rough usage they would undergo on -the journey; so I took out some of the things and repacked the box -in its wooden case. Subsequent experience showed the wisdom of this -advice, and that it was a mistake to use too expensive articles for -such travelling as that in Madagascar, or to have to spend much time -in getting out and putting in again everything in its proper corner. -Upon reaching the halting-place after a fatiguing journey of several -hours, it is a great convenience to get at one’s belongings with the -least possible amount of exertion; and when starting before sunrise -in the mornings, it is not less pleasant to be able to dispense with -an elaborate fitting of things into a canteen. By my friend’s advice, -I therefore bought a three-legged iron pot for cooking fowls, some -common plates, and a tin coffee-pot, which also served as a teapot -when divested of its percolator. These things were stowed away in a -mat bag, which proved the most convenient form of canteen possible -for such a journey The contents were quickly put in, and as readily -got out when wanted; and, thus provided, we felt prepared to explore -Madagascar from north to south, quite independent of inns and -innkeepers, chambermaids and waiters, had such members of society -existed in this primitive country. - - -[3] It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that for some years past -Tamatave has been a very different place from what is described -above. Many handsome buildings—offices, banks, shops, hotels and -government offices—have been erected; the town is lighted at night by -electricity; piers have been constructed; and in the suburbs shady -walks and roads are bordered by comfortable villa residences and -their luxuriant gardens. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALONG THE SEASHORE - - -Travelling in Madagascar fifty years ago, and indeed for many -years after that date, differed considerably from what we have any -experience of in Europe. It was not until the year 1901 that a -railway was commenced from the east coast to the interior, and it -is only a few months ago that direct communication by rail has been -completed between Tamatave and Antanànarìvo. But until the French -occupation, in 1895, a road, in our sense of the word, did not -exist in the island; and all kinds of merchandise brought from the -coast to the interior, or taken between other places, were carried -for great distances on men’s shoulders. There were but three modes -of conveyance—viz. one’s own legs, the _làkana_ or canoe, and the -_filanjàna_ or palanquin. We intended to make use of all these means -of getting over the ground (and water); but by far the greater part -of the journey of two hundred and twenty miles would be performed in -the _filanjàna_, carried on the sinewy shoulders of our bearers or -_màromìta_. This was _the_ conveyance of the country (and it is still -used a good deal); for during the first thirty years and more of my -residence in Madagascar there was not a single wheeled vehicle of -any kind to be seen in the interior, nor did even a wheelbarrow come -under my observation during that time. - -This want of our European means of conveyance arose from the fact -that no wheeled vehicles could have been used owing to the condition -of the tracks then leading from one part of the country to another. -The lightest carriage or the strongest waggon would have been equally -impracticable in parts of the forest where the path was almost lost -in the dense undergrowth, and where the trees barely left room for -a palanquin to pass. Nor could any team take a vehicle up and down -some of the tremendous gorges, by tracks which sometimes wind like -a corkscrew amidst rocks and twisted roots of trees, sometimes -climb broad surfaces of slippery basalt, where a false step would -send bearers and palanquin together into steep ravines far below, -and again are lost in sloughs of adhesive clay, in which the bearers -at times sink to the waist, and when the traveller has to leap -from the back of one man to another to reach firm standing-ground. -Shaky bridges of primitive construction, often consisting of but a -single tree trunk, were frequently the only means of crossing the -streams; while more often they had to be forded, one of the men going -cautiously in advance to test the depth of the water. It occasionally -happened that this pioneer suddenly disappeared, affording us and -his companions a good deal of merriment at his expense. At times I -have had to cross rivers when the water came up to the necks of the -bearers, the shorter men having to jump up to get breath, while they -had to hold the palanquin high up at arm’s-length to keep me out of -the water. - -[Sidenote: GENERAL FOREST AND GENERAL FEVER] - -It was often asked: Why do not the native government improve the -roads? The neglect to do so was intentional on their part, for it -was evident to everyone who travelled along the route from Tamatave -to the capital that the track might have been very much improved at -a comparatively small expense. The Malagasy shrewdly considered that -the difficulty of the route to the interior would be a formidable -obstacle to an invasion by a European power, and so they deliberately -allowed the path to remain as rugged as it is by nature. The first -Radàma is reported to have said, when told of the military genius of -foreign soldiers, that he had two officers in his service, “General -Hàzo,” and “General Tàzo” (that is, “Forest and Fever”), whom he -would match against any European commander. Subsequent events so -far justified his opinion that the French invasion of the interior -in 1895 did not follow the east forest road, but the far easier -route from the north-west coast. The old road through the double -belt of forests would have presented formidable obstacles to the -passage of disciplined troops, and at many points it might have -been successfully contested by a small body of good marksmen, well -acquainted with the localities. - -[Illustration: ON THE COAST LAGOONS - -Large dug-out canoes, propelled by paddles on each side, one man to -each paddle] - -[Sidenote: PLEASURES AND DISCOMFORTS] - -It may be gathered from what has been already said that travelling -in Madagascar in the old times had not a little of adventure -and novelty connected with it. Provided the weather was moderately -fine, there was enough of freshness and often of amusing incident to -render the journey not unenjoyable, especially if travelling in a -party; and even to a solitary traveller there is such a variety of -scenery, and so many and beautiful forms of vegetation, to arrest -the attention, that it was by no means monotonous. Of course there -must be a capacity for “roughing it,” and for turning the very -discomforts into sources of amusement. We must not be too much -disturbed at a superabundance of fleas or mosquitoes in the houses, -nor be frightened out of sleep by the scampering of rats around -and occasionally even upon us. It sometimes happens, too, that a -centipede or a scorpion has to be dislodged from under the mats upon -which we are about to lay our mattresses, but, after all, a moderate -amount of caution will prevent us taking much harm. - -It must be confessed, however, that if the weather prove unfavourable -the discomforts are great, and it requires a resolute effort to look -at the bright side of things. To travel for several hours in the -rain, with the bearers slipping about in the stiff adhesive clay—now -sinking to the knees in a slough in the hollows, and then painfully -toiling up the rugged ascents—with a chance of being benighted in the -middle of the forest, were not enjoyable incidents in the journey. -Added to this, occasionally the bearers of baggage and bedding and -food would be far behind, and sometimes would not turn up at all, -leaving us to go supperless, not to bed, but to do as well as we -could on a dirty mat. But, after all said and done, I can look back -on many journeys with great pleasure; and my wife and I have even -said to each other at the end, “It has been like a prolonged picnic.” -And by travelling at the proper time of the year—for we never used, -if possible, to take long journeys in the rainy season—and with -ordinary care in arranging the different stages, there was often no -more discomfort than that inseparable from the unavoidable fatigue. - -Soon after breakfast on the morning of the 3rd October the yard of -Mr Procter’s house was filled with the bearers waiting to take their -packages, and, as more came than were actually required, there was -a good deal of noise and confusion until all the loads had been -apportioned. Most of my _màromìta_ were strong and active young -men, spare and lithe of limb, and proved to possess great powers of -endurance. The loads they carried were not very heavy, but it was -astonishing to see with what steady patience they bore them hour -after hour under a burning sun, and up and down paths in the forest, -where their progress was often but a scrambling from one foothold -to another. Two men would take a load of between eighty and ninety -pounds, slung on a bamboo, between them; and this was the most -economical way of taking goods, for, on account of the difficulty of -the paths, four men found it more fatiguing to carry in one package a -weight which, divided into two, could easily be borne by two sets of -bearers. - -[Sidenote: MY PALANQUIN] - -Eight of the strongest and most active young men, accustomed to -work together, were selected to carry my palanquin, and took it in -two sets of four each, carrying alternately. Most of the articles -of my baggage were carried by two men; but my two large flat wooden -cases, containing drawing boards, paper and instruments, required -four men each. All baggage was carried by the same men throughout -the journey, without any relay or change, except shifting the pole -from one shoulder to the other; but my palanquin, as already said, -had a double set. The personal bearers, therefore, naturally travel -quicker than those carrying the baggage, and we generally arrived at -the halting-places an hour or more before the others came up. The -hollow of the bamboos to which boxes and cases were slung served -for carrying salt, spoons, and various little properties of the -bearers, and sometimes small articles of European make for selling -at the capital. The men were, and still are, very expert in packing -and securing goods committed to their charge. Prints, calicoes and -similar materials were often covered with pandanus leaves and so made -impervious to the wet; and even sugar and salt were carried in the -same way without damage. - -As the conveyance of myself and my baggage required more than thirty -men, and Mr Plant took a dozen in addition, it was some time before -everything was arranged, and there was a good deal of contention as -to getting the lightest and most convenient packages to carry. We had -hoped to start early in the forenoon, but it was after one o’clock -when we sent off the last cases and I stepped into my _filanjàna_ -to commence the novel experience of a journey in Madagascar. We -formed quite a large party as we set off from Tamatave and turned -southwards into the open country. The rear was brought up by a bearer -of some intelligence and experience, who only carried a spear, and -was to act as captain over the rest and look out accommodation for -us in the villages, etc. He had also to see after the whole of the -luggage, and take care that everyone had his proper load and came up -to time. - -[Sidenote: THE FILANJÀNA] - -My _filanjàna_ was a different kind of thing from the chair in which -I had gone to visit the Governor. It was of the same description as -that commonly used by Malagasy ladies—made of an oblong framework -of light wood, filled in with a plaited material formed of strips -of sheepskin, and carried on poles, which were the midrib of the -enormous leaves of the _rofìa_-palm. In this I sat, legs stretched -out at full length, a piece of board fixed as a rest for the back, -and the whole made fairly comfortable by means of cushions and -rugs. There was plenty of space for extra wraps, waterproof coat, -telescope, books, etc. When ladies travel any distance in this -kind of _filanjàna_ a hood of _rofìa_ cloth is fixed so as to draw -over the head and to protect them from the sun and rain. In my -case, a stout umbrella served instead, and a piece of waterproof -cloth protected me fairly well from the little rain that fell on -the journey. (I may add here that this was the first, and the -last, journey I ever took in this kind of _filanjàna_.) The late -Dr Mullens, who also travelled up in a similar way in 1873, said -it reminded him of a picture in _Punch_, of a heavy swell driving -himself in a very small basket carriage, and being remarked on by -a street arab to his companion thus: “Hallo, Bill, here’s a cove -a-driving hisself home from the wash.” My companion’s _filanjàna_ was -a much simpler contrivance than mine, and consisted merely of two -light poles held together by iron bars, and with a piece of untanned -hide nailed to them for a seat. It was much more conveniently -carried in the forest than my larger and more cumbrous conveyance. -It may be added that certainly one was sometimes danced about “like -a pea in a frying-pan” in this rude machine; and it was not long -before a much more comfortable style of _filanjàna_ was adopted, -with leather-covered back and arms, padded as well as the seat, and -with foot-rest, and leather or cloth bags strapped to the side for -carrying books and other small articles. - -It was a fine warm day when we set off, the temperature not being -higher than that of ordinary summer weather in England. Our course -lay due south, at no great distance from the sea, the roar of whose -waves we could hear distinctly all through the first stage of the -journey. In proceeding from Tamatave to Antanànarìvo the road did not -(and still does not, by railway) lead immediately into the interior, -but follows the coast for about fifty miles southward. Upon reaching -Andòvorànto, we had to leave the sea and strike westward into the -heart of the island, ascending the river Ihàroka for nearly twenty -miles before climbing the line of mountains which form the edge of -the interior highland, and crossing the great forest. - -[Sidenote: VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE] - -We soon left Tamatave behind us and got out into the open country, a -portion of the plain which extends for about thirty miles between the -foothills and the sea. Our men took us this first day’s journey of -nine or ten miles at a quick walk or trot for the whole way, without -any apparent fatigue. The road—which was a mere footpath, or rather -several footpaths, over a grassy undulating plain—was bounded on one -side by trees, and on the other by low bushes and shrubs. Besides -the cocoanut-palms and the broad-leaved bananas, which were not here -very numerous, the most striking trees to a foreigner were the agave, -with long spear-shaped prickly leaves, on a high trunk, and another -very similar in form, but without any stem, both of which might be -counted by thousands. Nearer the sea was an almost unbroken line of -pandanus, which is one of the most characteristic features of the -coast vegetation. I also noticed numbers of orchids on the trees, of -two or three species of _Angræcum_, but just past the flowering; a -smaller orchid, also with pure white flowers, was very abundant. - -[Illustration: A FOREST ROAD - -Two bearers carrying an empty palanquin, and one with luggage. There -is the usual forest vegetation] - -[Sidenote: A NATIVE HOME] - -I had enough to engage my attention with these new forms of -vegetation, as well as in noticing the birds, and the many -butterflies and other insects which crossed our path every moment, -until we arrived at Hivòndrona, a large straggling village on -a broad river of the same name, which here unites with other -streams and flows into the sea. Among the many birds to be seen -were flocks of small green and white paroquets, green pigeons, -scarlet cardinal-birds, and occasionally beautiful little sun-birds -(_Nectarinidæ_) with metallic colours of green, brown and yellow. -We had intended to go farther, but finding that, owing to our late -starting, we should not reach another village before dark, we -decided to stay of Hivòndrona for the night. A house at most of the -villages on the road to the capital was provided for travellers, -who took possession at once, without paying anything for its use. -The house here, which was somewhat better than at most of the other -places, consisted, like all the dwellings in this part of the -country, of a framework of poles, thatched with the leaves of the -traveller’s tree, and the walls filled in with a kind of lathing -made of the stalks of the same leaves. The walls and floor were -both covered with matting, made from the fibre of leaves of the -_rofìa_ palm. In one corner was the fireplace, merely a yard and a -half square of sand and earth, with half-a-dozen large stones for -supporting the cooking utensils. As in most native houses, the smoke -made its way out through the thatch. - -Our men soon came up with the baggage and proceeded to get out -kitchen apparatus, make a fire, and put on pots and pans; and in a -short time beef, fowls and soup were being prepared. Meanwhile Mr -Plant and I walked down to the seashore and then into the village, to -call upon a creole trader, who was the only European resident in the -place. We brought him back with us, and found dinner all ready on our -return to the house. My largest case of drawing boards formed, when -turned upside down and laid on other boxes, an excellent table; we -sat round on other packages, and found that one of our bearers, who -officiated as cook, was capable of preparing a very fair meal; and -although the surroundings were decidedly primitive, we enjoyed it all -the more from its novelty. After our visitor had left us we prepared -to sleep; three or four boxes, with a rug and my clothes-bag, formed -a comfortable bed for myself, while Mr Plant lay on the floor, but -found certain minute occupants of the house so very active that his -sleep was considerably disturbed. - -[Sidenote: GIGANTIC ARUMS] - -Next morning we were up long before daybreak, and after a cup of -coffee started a little before six o’clock. We walked down to the -river, which had to be crossed and descended for some distance, and -embarked with our baggage in seven canoes. These canoes, like those -at Tamatave, are somewhat rude contrivances, and are hollowed out of -a single tree. They are of various lengths, from ten to thirty or -forty feet, the largest being about four feet in breadth and depth. -There is no keel, so that they are rather apt to capsize unless -carefully handled and loaded. At each end is a kind of projecting -beak, pierced with a hole for attaching a mooring-rope. From the -smoothness of the sides, and the great length compared with the beam, -they can be propelled at considerable speed with far less exertion -than is required to move a boat of European build. Instead of oars, -paddles shaped like a wooden shovel are employed, and these are dug -into the water, the rower squatting in the canoe and facing the -bows; the paddle is held vertically, a reverse motion being given to -the handle. We went a couple of miles down the stream, which here -unites with others, so that several islands are formed, all the banks -being covered with luxuriant vegetation. Conspicuous amongst this, -and growing in the shallow water close to the banks, were great -numbers of a gigantic arum endemic in Madagascar (_Typhonodorum -lindleyanum_), and growing to the height sometimes of twelve or -fifteen feet, and possessing a large white spathe of more than a foot -in length, enclosing a golden-yellow pistil, or what looks like one. -The leaves are most handsome and are about a yard long. After about -twenty minutes’ paddling we landed, and, when all our little fleet -had arrived, mounted our palanquins, and set off through a narrow -path in the woods. The morning air, even on this tropical coast, was -quite keen, making an overcoat necessary before the sun got up. - -Our road for some miles lay along cleared forest, with stumps of -trees and charred trunks, white and black, in every direction. It is -believed that the white ants are responsible for this destruction -of the trees. We saw numbers of a large crow (_Corvus scapulatus_), -not entirely black, like our English species, but with a broad white -ring round the neck and a pure white breast, giving them quite a -clerical air. This bird, called _goàika_ by the Malagasy—evidently -an imitation of his harsh croak—is larger than a magpie, and his -dark plumage is glossy bluish-black. He is very common everywhere -in the island, being often seen in large numbers, especially near -the markets, where he picks up a living from the refuse and the -scattered rice. He is a bold and rather impudent bird, and will often -attack the smaller hawks. There were also numbers of the white egret -(_Ardea bubulcus_) or _vòrom-pòtsy_ (_i.e._ “white bird”), also -called _vòron-tìan-òmby_ (_i.e._ “bird liked by cattle”), from their -following the herds to feed upon the ticks which torment them. One -may often see these egrets perched on the back of the oxen and thus -clearing them from their enemies. Wherever the animals were feeding, -these birds might be seen in numbers proportionate to those of the -cattle. This egret has the purest white plumage, with a pale yellow -plume or crest, and is a most elegant and graceful bird. - -The oxen of Madagascar have very long horns, and a large hump between -the shoulders. In other respects their appearance does not differ -from the European kinds, and the quality and flavour of the flesh -is not much inferior to English beef. The hump, which consists of a -marrow-like fat, is considered a great delicacy by the Malagasy, and -when salted and eaten cold is a very acceptable dish. When the animal -is in poor condition the hump is much diminished in size, being, like -that of the camel in similar circumstances, apparently absorbed into -the system. It then droops partly over the shoulders. These Malagasy -oxen have doubtless been brought at a rather remote period from -Africa; their native name, _òmby_, is practically the same as the -Swahili _ngombe_. - -[Sidenote: CURIOUS CRABS] - -We reached Trànomàro (“many houses”) at half-past nine, and -there breakfasted. My bearers proved to be a set of most merry, -good-tempered, willing fellows. As soon as they got near the -halting-places they would set off at a quick run, and with shouts -and cries carry me into the village in grand style, making quite -a commotion in the place. Leaving again at noon, in a few minutes -we came down to the sea, the path being close to the waves which -were rolling in from the broad expanse of the Indian Ocean. I was -amused by the hundreds of little red crabs, about three inches long, -taking their morning bath or watching at the mouth of their holes, -down which they dived instantaneously at our approach. One or more -species of the Madagascar crabs has one of its pincers enormously -enlarged, so that it is about the same size as the carapace, while -the other claw is quite rudimentary. This great arm the little -creature carries held up in a ludicrous, threatening manner, as if -defying all enemies. I was disappointed in not seeing shells of any -size or beauty on the sands. The only ones I then observed which -differed from those found on our own shores were a small bivalve -of a bluish-purple hue, and an almost transparent whorled shell, -resembling the volute of an Ionic capital, but so fragile that it -was difficult to find a perfect specimen. - -[Sidenote: SEA SHELLS] - -But although that portion of the shore did not yield much of -conchological interest, there are many parts of the coasts of -Madagascar which produce some of the most beautifully marked species -of the genus _Conus_ (_Conus tessellatus_ and _C. nobilis_, if I am -not mistaken, are Madagascar species), while large handsome species -of the _Triton_ (_T. variegatum_) are also found. These latter are -often employed instead of church bells to call the congregations -together, as well as to summon the people to hear Government orders. -A hole is pierced on the side of the shell, and it requires some -dexterity to blow it; but the sound is deep and sonorous and can -be heard at a considerable distance. The circular tops of the cone -shells are ground down to a thin plate and extensively used by -the Sàkalàva and other tribes as a face ornament, being fixed by -a cord on the forehead or the temples. They are called _félana_. -I have also picked up specimens, farther south, of _Cypræa_ (_C. -madagascariensis_), a well-known handsome shell, as well as of -_Oliva_, _Mitra_, _Cassis_, and others (_C. madagascariensis_). The -finest examples are, however, I believe, only to be got by dredging -near the shore. - -After some time we left the shore and proceeded through the woods, -skirting one of those lagoons which run parallel with the coast -nearly all the way from Tamatave to Andòvorànto. A good recent map -of Madagascar will show that on this coast, for about three hundred -miles south of Hivòndrona, there is a nearly continuous line of -lakes and lagoons. They vary in distance from the sea from a hundred -yards to a couple of miles; and in many places they look like a -very straight river or a broad canal, while frequently they extend -inland, spreading out into extensive sheets of water, two or three -miles across. This peculiar formation is probably owing, in part at -least, to slight changes of level in the land, so that the inner -banks of the lagoons were possibly an old shore-line. But this chain -of lagoons and lakes is no doubt chiefly due to east coast rivers -being continually blocked up at their outlets by bars of sand, -driven up by the prevailing south-east trade-wind and the southerly -currents. So that the river waters are forced back into the lagoons -until the pressure is so great that a breach is made, and the fresh -water rushes through into the sea. On account of these sand-bars, -hardly any east coast river can be entered by ships. The rivers, in -fact, flow for the most of the time, not into the sea, but into the -lagoons. These are not perfectly continuous, although out of that -three hundred miles there are only about thirty miles where there are -breaks in their continuity and where canoes have to be hauled for a -few hundred yards, or for a mile or two, on the dry land separating -them. - -It will at once occur to anyone travelling along this coast, as we -did, that an uninterrupted waterway might be formed by cutting a few -short canals to connect the separate lagoons, and so bring the coast -towns into communication with Tamatave. That enlightened monarch, -Radàma I. (1810-1828), did see this, and several thousand men were -at one time employed in connecting the lagoons nearest Tamatave; -but this work was interrupted by his death and never resumed by his -successors. But soon after the French conquest the work was again -taken in hand; canals were excavated, connecting all the lakes and -lagoons between Tamatave and Andòvorànto; and for about twelve -years a service of small steamers took passengers and goods between -Hivòndrona and Brickaville, where, until quite recently, the railway -commenced. Since the line of rails has now been completed direct to -Tamatave, this waterway will not be of the same use, at least for -passenger traffic. - -[Sidenote: COAST SCENERY] - -The scenery of this coast is of a very varied and beautiful nature, -and the combinations of wood and water present a series of pictures -which constantly recalled some of the loveliest landscapes that -English river and lake scenery can present. Our route ran for most of -the way between the lagoons and the sea, among the woods. On the one -hand we had frequent glimpses through the trees of sheets of smooth -water fringed by tropical vegetation, and on the other hand were the -tumbling and foaming waves of the ever-restless sea. In many places -islands studded the surface of the lakes, and I noticed thousands of -a species of pandanus, with large aerial roots, spreading out as if -to anchor it firmly against floods and violent currents. In the woods -were the gum-copal tree and many kinds of palms with slender graceful -stems and crowns of feathery leaves. The climbing plants were -abundant, forming ropes of various thicknesses, crossing from tree to -tree and binding all together in inextricable confusion, creeping on -the ground, mounting to the tree-tops and sometimes hanging in coils -like huge serpents. Great masses of hart’s-tongue fern occurred in -the forks of the branches, and wherever a tree trunk crossed over our -path it was covered with orchids. - -[Sidenote: A POISON TREE] - -Among other trees I recognised the celebrated tangèna, from which -was obtained the poison used in Madagascar from a remote period as -an ordeal. The tangèna is about the size of an ordinary apple-tree, -and, could it be naturalised in England, would make a beautiful -addition to our ornamental plantations. The leaves are peculiarly -grouped together in clusters and are somewhat like those of the -horse-chestnut. The poison was procured from the kernel of the fruit, -and until the reign of Radàma II. (1861) was used with fatal effect -for the trial of accused persons, and caused the death of thousands -of people, mostly innocent, every year during the reign of the cruel -Rànavàlona I. - -We arrived at Andrànokòditra, a small village with a dozen houses, -early in the afternoon. From our house there was a lovely view of the -broad lake with its woods and islands, while the sea was only two -or three hundred yards’ distance in the rear. Wild ducks and geese -of several kinds were here very plentiful, but my friend was not -very successful with his gun, as a canoe was necessary to reach the -islands where they chiefly make their haunts. After our evening meal -Mr Plant slung his hammock to the framework of our hut, and happily -did not come to grief, as occasionally happened. I was somewhat -disturbed by the cockroaches, which persisted in dropping from the -roof upon and around me. There was no remedy, however, except to -forget the annoyance in sleep. - -I may here notice that when travelling along this coast a few years -later (in August 1883) the sands were everywhere almost covered with -pieces of pumice, varying from lumps as big as one’s head to pieces -as small as a walnut. They were rounded by the action of the waves, -and on some of the larger pieces oysters, serpulæ and corals had -begun to form. This pumice had no doubt been brought by the ocean -currents, as well as by the winds, both setting to the west, from -the Straits of Sunda, where they were ejected by the tremendous -eruption of Krakatoa, off the west coast of Java, during the previous -May. This fact supplies not only an interesting illustration of -the distances to which volcanic products may be carried by ocean -currents, but also throws light upon the way in which the ancestors -of the Malagasy came across the three thousand miles of sea which -separate Madagascar from Malaysia. It is easy to understand how, in -prehistoric times, single _prahus_, or even a small fleet of them, -were occasionally driven westward by a hurricane, and that the -westerly current aided in this, until at length these vessels were -stranded or gained shelter on the coast of Madagascar, stretching -north and south, as it does, for a thousand miles. From what I have -been told, the pumice was found, if not everywhere on the east coast, -at any rate over a considerable extent of it. - -[Sidenote: VARIETY OF FISH] - -We were up soon after four o’clock on the following morning, and -started while it was still twilight. After going a short distance -through the woods we came again to the seashore, and proceeded -for some miles close to the waves, which broke repeatedly over -our bearers’ feet as they tramped on the firm wet sand. For a -considerable distance there was only a low bank of sand between -the salt water of the ocean and the fresh water of the lake. In -many places the opposite shore showed good sections of the strata, -apparently a red sandstone, with a good deal of quartz rock. We left -the sea again and went on through the woods, a sharp shower coming on -as we entered them. We did not notice any fish in the lagoons, but -I was afterwards informed by a correspondent, Mr J. G. Connorton, -who lived for several years at Mànanjàra, and paid much attention to -natural history, that there is a great variety of fish, crustaceans -and mulluscs in the lagoons and rivers, as well as in the sea. He -kindly sent me a list of about one hundred and twenty of these, -together with many interesting particulars as to their habits and -appearance, etc. From this account I will give a few extracts: - -[Sidenote: ZÒMPONA] - -“_Ambàtovàzana_, a sea-fish which comes also into the entrance of -the rivers; it has silvery scales and yellow fins. In both upper -and lower jaws are four rows of teeth very like pebbles; these are -for crushing crabs, its usual food. Its name is derived from its -peculiarly shaped teeth (_vàto_, stone; _vàzana_, molar teeth). -_Botàla_, a small sea and river fish; it is covered all over with -rough prickles. These fish inflate their bodies by filling their -stomachs with air as soon as they are taken out of the water; if -replaced in the water suddenly, out goes the air, and they are -off like a flash. It is probably _Tetrodon fàhaka_. _Hìntana_, a -river-fish, with purple colouring and darker purple stripes from -back to belly. It is generally found among weeds, and has four long -spines, one on the dorsal fin, two just behind the gills, and one -close under the tail. These spines are very poisonous, and anyone -pricked by them suffers great pain for several hours, the parts -near the wound swelling enormously. I have not, however, heard of -the wound ever proving fatal. _Horìta_, a small species of octopus -found clinging to the rocks. The Malagasy esteem them highly, but I -found them gluey and sticky in the mouth, as well as rank in flavour. -_Tòfoka_, a sea and river fish, probably _Mugil borbonicus_. It has a -habit of jumping out of the water, and if chased by a shark it swims -at the surface with great rapidity, making enormous leaps into the -air every now and then and often doubling upon the enemy. Perhaps the -best of the many edible fish is the _Zòmpona_, a kind of mullet, only -feeding on soft substances such as weeds. It is silvery in colour, -with large scales, and is probably the best-known fish on the east -coast. When fresh from the sea, its tail and fins have a yellowish -tinge, and it is then splendid eating; but if this tinging is lost -it shows that the fish has been for some time in fresh water, and -the flesh has a muddy flavour. It varies in size from nine to thirty -inches long. The coast people are very fond of zòmpona; and when a -person is dying and is so far gone that the case is a hopeless one, -some outsider is almost sure to say, ‘He (or she) won’t get zòmpona -again.’” - -I can confirm my correspondent’s statements as to the excellence of -the last-named fish, having frequently eaten it when on the coast. -He also mentions several kinds of prawns and shrimps; some of these -are large and make an excellent curry. One species of prawn, called -_Oronkosìa_, is long and slender, with immense antennæ, often a -foot in length. One species of shrimp has one large claw, like the -crab already mentioned, the other being hardly at all developed. -Several species of shark are seen off this coast, among them that -extraordinary-looking fish, the hammer-headed shark (_Zygæna -malleus_), which I have never seen in Madagascar waters, but have -noticed with great interest in South African harbours. “The saw-fish -(_Pristis sp._), called by the natives _Vavàno_, sometimes comes -into the rivers in search of food. One was caught in the river -Mànanjàra which measured fourteen feet from tip of saw to end of -tail; the saw alone was three feet six inches in length, seven inches -broad at base, and four inches at tip. The flesh is coarse eating, -but the liver is very palatable.” - -I may remark here that we seldom stopped, either at midday or in -the evening, at any village without a visit from the headman of the -place and his family, who always carried some present. Fowls, rice, -potatoes, eggs and honey were constantly brought to us, preceded by -a speech in which the names and honours of the Queen were recited, -and compliments to us on our visiting their village. The Malagasy are -a most hospitable people, always courteous and polite to strangers; -and my first experience of them on this journey was confirmed in -numberless instances in travelling in other parts of the country. - -[Sidenote: DELIGHTFUL SCENERY] - -Leaving Vavòny, where we had our morning repast, between eleven and -twelve o’clock, we went on again through the woods along the shores -of the lake, which here spreads out into broad sheets of water, two -or three miles wide. The scenery was delightful, both shores being -thickly wooded, reminding me in some places of the Wye, in others of -the lake at Longleat, and in narrow parts of Studley Park. Our road -for miles resembled a footpath through a nobleman’s park in England: -clumps of trees, shrubberies, and short smooth turf, all united to -complete the resemblance. These all seemed more like the work of some -expert landscape gardener than merely the natural growth. In some -parts, where the more distinctly tropical vegetation—pandanus, cacti -and palms—were not seen, the illusion was complete. In many places we -saw many sago palms (_Cycas thouarsii_), a tree much less in height -than the majority of the palms and not exceeding twelve or fourteen -feet, but with the same long pinnate leaves characteristic of so many -of the Palmaceæ. - -One of the most conspicuous trees on this coast, especially as seen -from the sea, is the _Filào_ (_Casuarina equisetifolia_), a tall -larch or fir-like tree, often called, from the colour of its wood, -“the beefwood tree.” Like the firs, its leaves are fine filaments, -and the wind passing through these produces a peculiar gentle sighing -noise. Very plentiful, too, is a much smaller tree bearing a -perfectly globular-shaped fruit as large as a good-sized orange, but -having a hard shell which requires a smart blow to crack. It contains -a greyish pulp, and a number of large black seeds; and although by no -means equal to an orange in taste, its acid flavour was refreshing -enough where one was thirsty and heated with the midday sun. A friend -of mine remarks: “As they are rather more difficult to eat in a -cleanly and dainty fashion than ripe mangoes, we smeared ourselves -pretty considerably in the process.” While the pulp is edible, the -seeds are poisonous, and we need not wonder at that when we find that -the tree is closely allied to the _Strychnos nux-vomica_. Its native -name is _Vòavòntaka_ (_Brehmia spinosa_); _vòa_ is the general word -for “fruit,” and enters into the composition of more than two hundred -Malagasy names of trees, plants and fruits. A species of _Hibiscus_ -is widely spread along the coast, and yields a valuable fibre. The -natives say that its flowers are yellow in the morning and red in -the evening. Other noticeable flowering shrubs here are a species -of _Stephanotis_, with lovely large white flowers, and an _Ipomæa_, -which straggles far and wide on the sand of the seashore. Along the -sides of the lagoons and marshes in scattered places may be found -the curious pitcher-plant (_Nepenthes madagascariensis_); this is -a shrub about four feet high, whose jug-shaped pitchers, four to -five inches in length, contain abundant water and numerous insects. -Gum-copal is obtained from a tree (_Trachylobium verrucosa_) growing -on this coast; and india-rubber from several plants (_Landolphia -madagascariensis_ and _L. gummifera_), creepers as well as trees. - -[Sidenote: MOSQUITOES] - -Notwithstanding the beauty of this part of the country, it is -very unhealthy for foreigners. The rivers, as we have seen, all -communicate with the lagoons, and during the rainy season great -quantities of decaying matter are brought down from the forests. The -large extent of marsh and stagnant water in the lakes breed millions -of mosquitoes, and so give rise to the dreaded malarial fever. The -earlier accounts of the French and Portuguese settlements on the -coast of Madagascar represent this as a frightful scourge, sweeping -off a large proportion of the soldiers and settlers at their forts. -From this, the Isle Ste Marie was called the “Grave of the French,” -and “the Churchyard” and “Dead Island” of the Dutch. But the use of -quinine and modern precautions against mosquito bites have done much -to mitigate the attacks of fever, and since the draining of the -marshes near Tamatave the town is said to be fairly healthy. - -The Bétsimisàraka inhabitants of this coast are accustomed to place -their dead in rude coffins hollowed out of the trunk of a tree and -covered with a roof-shaped lid. But these are not buried, but are -placed on the ground in little groups, in a sheltered grove of -trees. In the case of wealthy people, the coffins are put on a kind -of trestle, and sometimes are protected from the rain by having a -shed fixed over them. This custom, it may be imagined, is not, for -the living, a pleasant mode of disposing of the departed, and the -presence of these little cemeteries may often be deduced from the -effluvium, even if they are not seen. During the dry season one -constantly meets with groups of people carrying up the remains of -their relatives, Hova who have died on the coast, in order that they -may be buried in their ancestral tombs. Sometimes we have had our -midday meal, or have stopped for the night, in houses against whose -outer walls these wrapped-up corpses, fastened to long poles for -carriage, have been leaning. At one place where we stayed the people -were making cakes for the funeral feast, and in pounding the rice for -these the women made a special rhythmical beat of their pestles on -the top of the rice mortar, as well as on the meal in the hollow of -the mortar. - -[Sidenote: SNAKES] - -But to return to our journey. At about two o’clock we had to cross -the lake, but as there was only one small canoe, it took more -than two hours to get all our baggage and men over. We therefore -strolled into the woods, finding plenty to interest us in examining -the orchids, ferns, and other plants, most of them new to me. We -captured a new and splendid spider, new to my companion, who had -made entomology his special study. We were amused by the little -land-crabs, with their curious stalked eyes, folding down into a -case, when not raised to look about them. There were also many -beautifully marked lizards, as well as other interesting living -creatures in these tropical woods. The ferry was close to a village -bearing the name of Andàvaka-mènaràna—that is, “hole of serpents.” -Notwithstanding this ominous appellation, we were not startled from -our path by even a solitary reptile, although a cave not far distant -is said to be a lurking-place for numbers of these creatures. But on -a subsequent journey along this coast I saw a large and handsome -brown serpent on the grass close to the path. I got down, not to kill -it, but to examine its beautiful markings and graceful movements; -but on getting near it, which was not easy to do, as its movements -were so rapid, it turned and faced me in a menacing fashion. Happily, -although there are many species of serpents in Madagascar, not one is -a venomous kind—that is, their bite is not fatal. At the same time -there are some kinds which will bite severely if attacked. Later on, -I saw another much smaller snake, of a bright green colour, on the -trunk of a tree; doubtless its tints were protective. The larger one -I saw is called _Màndotra_, and was from three to four feet long; -another species found on the coast is called _Màntangòra_, and is a -foot or more longer. - -[Sidenote: A BOA] - -While on the subject of serpents, I will add here some particulars -my friend, Mr Houlder, gives of yet another of these reptiles seen -on this east coast, but farther north. This kind is called _Akòma_ -(_Pelophilus madagascariensis_), and appears to be a species of -boa, killing fowls, rats and other creatures first by crushing -them, and then covering them with saliva before swallowing. At a -village he stayed in, my friend found the people much excited about -a large serpent seen in their neighbourhood. Sending out his men -to find it, “at last the creature was seen. Yes, there he was, a -villainous-looking monster, apparently asleep, coiled up among the -bushes with his great flat head in the middle of the circle. The gun -was loaded with several pistol bullets. Luckily it was, perhaps, -for the duck-shot sent into him at the next discharge only just -penetrated his thick scaly skin. Advancing to within a couple of -yards or so, I raised the gun. Bang! Away went the onlookers for -their lives. Peering through the smoke which was slowly moving away, -I could just see the head coming towards me. Enough, I bolted too. -This caused a second stampede. But it was a groundless alarm. I -looked back, and saw that the poor creature was incapable of doing -serious injury. His back was hopelessly broken. No other shot was -necessary.” Mr Houlder did not get the serpent to his house without -difficulty, owing to the terror of the bearers even when it was dead. -“It was a medium-sized specimen, about nine feet long and as thick -round the middle as the calf of a man’s leg. On each side of its body -was a long yellow, black, and reddish chain-like marking on a brown -ground; and near the extremity of its tail were two abortive claws. -Muscular motion did not cease until long after it was dead.” - -[Sidenote: LEMURS] - -Although we did not see any lemurs in the coast woods, one species -at least is, or, at least, was, sometimes met with—viz. the -white-fronted lemur (_Lemur mongos_, _var. albifrons_). Several -specimens of this kind have been brought to England from time to -time, and have been kept in the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens from -as long ago as 1830; so that their appearance and habits are as well -known to English people as to the Malagasy themselves. Their habits -are simple enough. They often exhibit great vivacity, and are much -given to leaping from one object to another, in which they are aided -by the pad-like structure of the soles of their four hands. They are -very good-natured and tame and full of fun while still young, but -become cross and vicious when old. We shall, however, see and hear -more of the lemurs when we come into the denser forests. - -A little before dusk we arrived at Andòvorànto, a large village -situated at the mouth of the river Ihàroka, and formerly the capital -of the Bétsimisàraka tribe, before they were reduced to subjection -by the Hova. This place would be the natural port of the capital, -but for the bar of sand at the entrance of the river. Were it not -for this obstruction, ships and steamers could come up into the -interior for many miles. The house in which we stayed here was quite -a large one, divided into three rooms, the walls covered with _rofìa_ -matting, and actually possessing _windows_ (but, of course, without -glass) and doors. All the places where we had stayed previously had -no windows, and a mat hung over the entrance supplied the place of a -door. - -While our dinner was being prepared we walked down to the sea and -along the river banks, hoping to find some natural history specimens. -During our walk Mr Plant related to me his success in obtaining a -specimen of that remarkable creature, the aye-aye, an animal peculiar -to Madagascar, and of which, at that time, only one or two specimens -had reached Europe. The example he secured was sent to England in -spirits, and from it, I believe, Sir Richard Owen prepared his -monograph, giving full details and drawings, life size, showing its -remarkable structure. The animal, although apparently not scarce, is -difficult to obtain, as it comes out from its retreat only at night; -besides which, the forest people have a superstitious fear of it, -so that even a large reward is often insufficient to induce them to -attempt its capture. - -[Sidenote: THE AYE-AYE] - -The aye-aye is included among the four-handed animals, but it is -very unlike the monkeys, having a smaller brain and much less -intelligence; and from its powerful teeth it was at first thought -to be a link between them and the rodentia, or gnawing animals. -Its structure presents some of the most interesting illustrations -of typical forms, being modified to serve special ends that any -animal organisation can exemplify. The food of the aye-aye consists -of a wood-boring larvæ, which tunnels into the wood of certain -trees. To obtain these, the animal is furnished with most powerful -chisel-shaped incisor teeth, with which it cuts away the outer bark. -As, however, the grub retreats to the end of its hole, one of the -fingers of the aye-aye’s hands is slightly lengthened, but much -diminished in thickness, and is finished with a hook-like claw. Thus -provided, the finger is used as a probe, inserted in the tunnel, and -the dainty morsel drawn forth from its hiding-place. There are also -other modifications, all tending to the more perfect accomplishment -of the purposes of its creation: the eyes being very large to see in -the night, the ears widely expanded to catch the faint sound of the -grub at work, and the thumbs of the feet largely developed so as to -enable the animal to take a firm hold of the tree while using its -teeth. - -Since then, living specimens of the aye-aye have been sent to Europe, -and careful observations were made for several months on the habits -of one in the Regent’s Park Gardens; and other information has -been obtained as to the animal as observed in its native forests -by intelligent natives. The creature somewhat resembles a large -cat in size, being about three feet in total length, of which its -large bushy tail forms quite half. Its colour is dark brown, the -throat being yellowish-grey; a somewhat silvery look is given to the -fur in certain lights by many whitish hairs on the back. The probe -finger is used as a scoop when the aye-aye drinks; it is carried -so rapidly from the water to the mouth that the liquid seems to -pass in a continual stream. A remarkable fact has been pointed out -in the structure of the lower jaw—namely, that the two sides are -only joined together by a strong ligament, and do not, as in other -animals, form one connected circle of bone. This accounts for the -prodigious power of gnawing that the aye-aye possesses. It was seen -to cut through a strip of tin-plate nailed to the door of its cage. - -The aye-aye constructs true nests, about two and a half feet in -diameter, which are found on trees in the dense parts of the -forest. Near the coast these are composed of rolled-up leaves of -the traveller’s tree, and are lined with twigs and dry leaves. The -opening of the nest is at the side, and a small white insect called -_andaitra_, probably the larva of some beetle, forms the animal’s -chief food. It is said to be very savage, and strikes rapidly with -its hands. The coast people believe it to be an embodiment of their -forefathers, and so will not touch it, much less do it an injury; and -if they attempted to entrap it, they think they would surely die in -consequence; and their superstition extends even to its nest. - -The aye-aye is one of the many instances which the animal life of -Madagascar presents of isolation from other forms. It remains the -only species of its genus, and, like many of the peculiar birds of -the island, is one of the many proofs that Madagascar has for long -ages been separated from Africa; so that while allied forms have -become extinct on the continent, here, protected from the competition -of stronger animals, many birds, mammals and insects have been -preserved, and so this island is a kind of museum of ancient and -elsewhere unknown forms of life. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ANDÒVORÀNTO TO MID-FOREST - - -It rained heavily during the night of Tuesday and nearly until -daybreak, so it was half-past six o’clock before we were able to -leave Andòvorànto. Hitherto we had followed the seashore southwards; -now we were to start westwards into the interior. After an immense -deal of shouting and some quarrelling on the part of our bearers, who -seemed to think it necessary for everyone to give his opinion at the -same moment, we pushed off in six large canoes and paddled away up -the river Ihàroka. For several miles the stream is upwards of a mile -in width. It was a fine calm morning after a stormy night, and as we -glided rapidly over the broad smooth expanse of water, and turned our -canoe’s prow towards the interior mountains, I began really to feel -that I was on my way to the capital. - -After half-an-hour we came to a point where the river is a junction -of three streams, the one we took being about half the width of the -main current. We passed many canoes and overtook others; some of -these were filled with rice and other produce, and had but a single -rower; he sat generally at the stern and gave a few strokes with the -paddle on each side of the canoe alternately, so as to keep the craft -in a fairly straight course through the water. Other canoes were -filled with what was evidently a family party, going together to some -market held in one of the neighbouring villages. Our men seemed to -enjoy the exercise of paddling, which was a change from bearing our -palanquins and baggage on their shoulders, and they took us up the -stream at a great speed. More than once, indeed, I wished they had -been less vigorous, for they commenced racing with the other crews, -making me not a little apprehensive of being upset. It would not -have mattered much to them, as they swam fearlessly and had nothing -to lose; but it would have been unpleasant and dangerous for us, -even apart from the risk of crocodiles, which abound in most of the -rivers of Madagascar. - -[Sidenote: CROCODILES] - -These reptiles are so numerous in many parts as to be a great pest; -they often carry off sheep and cattle, and not unfrequently women -and children who incautiously go into or even near the water. The -Malagasy, however, have a superstitious dread of these monsters, -which prevents them from attempting to kill them. They rather try -to propitiate the creature by prayers and offerings thrown into the -water, and by acknowledging its supremacy in its own element. At -Itàsy, a lake fifty miles west of the capital, the people believe -that if a crocodile be killed a human life will, within a very short -time, be exacted by the animal’s brother reptiles, as an atonement -for his death. Two or three French travellers once shot a crocodile -in this lake, and such was the people’s consternation and dread of -the consequences that their visitors found it expedient to quit the -neighbourhood as quickly as possible. The eggs of the crocodile -are collected and sold for food in the markets, and are said to be -perfectly good, but I confess I never brought myself to test their -merits. - -We kept near the banks of the river, and so were able to examine -and admire the luxuriant vegetation with which they were covered. -In many places the bamboo is conspicuous, with its long-jointed, -tapering stem, and its whorls of minute leaves, of a light delicate -green; but it is small here compared with what we afterwards saw in -the main forest. Plantations of sugar-cane and manioc were mingled -with banana-trees, palms, pandanus and other trees, many not unlike -English forms. Numbers of great water-lilies with blue flowers were -growing in the shallow water, and convolvuli, as well as numerous -other flowers of new kinds and colours, everywhere met the eye. The -shores were flat at first, but became more hilly, and the scenery -more varied, as we proceeded. - -[Sidenote: THE TRAVELLER’S TREE] - -As we sailed up the river the traveller’s tree (_Ravenala -madagascariensis_) became very plentiful, and soon gave quite a -peculiar character to the landscape. This remarkable and beautiful -tree belongs to the order which includes the plantains and bananas, -although in some points its structure resembles the palm rather than -the plantain. It is immediately recognised by its graceful crown of -broad green leaves, which grow at the top of its trunk in the form -of an immense fan. The leaves are from twenty to thirty in number, -and are from eight to ten feet long by a foot and a half broad. -They very closely resemble those of the banana, and when unbroken -by the wind have a very striking and beautiful appearance. The name -of “traveller’s tree” is given on account of its affording at all -times a supply of cool pure water upon piercing the base of the -leaf-stalk with a spear or pointed stick. This supply is owing to -the broad surface of the leaves, which condenses the moisture of the -atmosphere, and from which the water trickles down into the hollow, -where the leaf-stalks join the stem. Each of these forms a little -reservoir, in which water may always be found. The leaves, as are -also those of the banana, are used to beat the thatched roofs in case -of fire, on account of the amount of water which they contain. - -The name of “builder’s tree” might be given to it with equal or -greater propriety, for it is as useful to the coast people as the -cocoanut-palm is to the South Sea islanders. The leaves are used -for thatching, and the long leaf-stems fastened together form the -filling-in of the framework for the walls and partitions; the bark -is beaten out flat and forms the flooring; while the trunk supplies -timber for the framing. Quantities of the fresh leaves are used every -day and take the place of plates and dishes; and at the New Year’s -festival the _jàka_, or meat eaten at that time, was always served -up, together with rice, upon pieces of the leaves of this tree or of -the banana; and a kind of spoon or ladle was, and is still, formed, -made by twisting up part of a leaf and tying it with the tendrils of -some climbing plant. The tree ranges from the sea-coast to the height -of about fifteen hundred feet, after which it begins rapidly to -disappear. At an elevation of about a thousand feet it is extremely -abundant, much more so, in fact, than any other tree, and is the one -striking and peculiar feature in the vegetation. It is not found so -much in the forests as on the hillsides in the open country; it has -some half-dozen or more different names among the various tribes on -the eastern side of the island. - -[Illustration: LOW-CLASS GIRL FETCHING WATER - -On her head is the _sìny_, in her hand the _zìnga_] - -[Illustration: A SIHÀNAKA WOMAN PLAYING THE VALÌHA - -The strings are cut out of the bamboo, with calabash bridges] - -Our canoe voyage was nearly twenty miles in length, the last two or -three up a narrow creek not above twenty or thirty feet in width. -In one of the narrowest parts of the stream we were stopped by a -tree which had fallen across the creek, just above the surface of the -water. With some trouble and difficulty the canoes were each hoisted -over the obstruction, the luggage being shifted from one to another. -Some friends who came up about five months afterwards told me that -the tree was still there. Probably it had caused a stoppage hundreds -of times, yet no one dreamed of taking the little extra trouble -necessary to remove it altogether from the passage. It was just the -same in the forest: when a tree fell across the path, there it lay -for months until it rotted away. Palanquins had to be hoisted over -it, or with difficulty pushed beneath it, but it was never removed -until nature helped in the work. It was no one’s business to cut it -up, or to take it out of the way; there were no “turnpike trusts,” -and the native government never gave themselves any concern about the -matter. - -[Sidenote: COFFEE AND ORANGES] - -We were glad to land at Maròmby at ten o’clock, for rain came on, and -before we were well housed it poured down heavily for some time. Here -we got as dessert, after breakfast, a quantity of wild raspberries, -which, while not equal in flavour to the English kind, are very sweet -and refreshing. Close to the house where we stayed for our meal was -a coffee plantation; the shrubs grow to a height of seven or eight -feet, and have dark glossy leaves, with a handsome white flower. The -small scarlet fruit, in which the seed—what we term the “berry”—is -enclosed, contains a sweetish juice. The coffee plant thrives in -most parts of the island, and its produce probably will become an -important part of its exports. - -Near the house were also a number of orange-trees, and here I had -the gratification of seeing an orange grove with the trees laden -with thousands of the golden-hued fruit. We were allowed to take as -many as we liked, and as the day was hot and sultry we were not slow -to avail ourselves of the permission. Perhaps there are few more -beautiful sights than an orange grove when the fruit is ripe on the -trees. The “golden apples” of the Hesperides must surely have been -the produce of an orange plantation. - -The rain ceased after a time, but we did not get off until past two -o’clock, for our men became rather obstinate, and evidently wanted -to stay at Maròmby for the rest of the day. This we were not at all -disposed to allow. At last we started, and in a few minutes had -a specimen of the adventures that were in store for us in passing -through the forest. In attempting to ford a stream, one of my men -suddenly sank nearly to his waist in a thick yellow mud. It was by -the barest chance that I was not turned over into the water; however, -after some scrambling from one man’s shoulder to another, I managed -to reach dry land. There was a shaky, rickety bridge a little higher -up the stream, and by this I contrived to get across. - -[Sidenote: DIFFICULT TRAVELLING] - -We now struck right into the hills, up and down, down and up, for -nearly four hours. The road was a mere footpath, and sometimes not -even that, but the bed of a torrent made by the heavy rains. It -wound sometimes round the hills and sometimes straight up them, -and then down into the valleys at inclinations difficult enough to -get along without anything to carry but oneself, but, with heavy -loads, requiring immense exertion. My palanquin described all -kinds of angles; sometimes I was resting nearly on my head, and -presently almost on my feet. When winding round the hills we were -continually in places where a false step of my bearers might have -sent us tumbling down sixty or seventy, and sometimes a hundred, feet -into the valley below. A dozen times or so we had to cross streams -foaming over rocks and stones, to scramble down to which, and out -again, were feats requiring no ordinary dexterity. Again and again -I expected to be tumbled over into the water or down the rocks, the -path being often steeper than the roof of a house. Several times I -got out and walked up and down the hills in order to relieve the men; -but I afterwards found that I need not have troubled myself, as they -easily carried me up much steeper ascents. Some of these scenes were -exceedingly beautiful and, with the rushing, foaming waters, overhung -with palms, ferns, plantains and bamboos, made scores of scenes in -which a landscape artist would have delighted. - -In passing along I was struck with the peculiar outline of the hills; -they are mostly rounded cones or _mamelle_-shaped, not connected -together in chains, but detached, so it appeared that road-making -would be very difficult and would have to be very circuitous. In -almost every sheltered hollow were clumps of the traveller’s tree, -together with palms and bamboos. The hills increased in height as -we advanced, while beyond them all in the far distance we could see -the line of the mountains forming the edge of the central highland, -and covered with dense forest in every part. The scene, but for the -tropical trees, resembled the Lancashire and West Riding scenery, -along the Todmorden valley. As far as I could make out, the hills -appeared to be mostly of bright clay, interspersed with quartz. Great -black masses of gneiss rock crop out on the sides of many of them in -most curious, fantastic shapes. - -[Sidenote: HOT STREAMS] - -On the east coast and for some way westward there is no distinct -rainy season, as in the interior of Madagascar; it rains more or less -all through the year. The temperature did not exceed that of warm -summer days in England, with cool mornings and evenings. We reached -Rànomafàna as it was getting dusk, my lads bringing me in, as usual, -at a smart trot, after doing fifteen or sixteen miles in less than -four hours. The name of this village means “hot waters,” and is -derived from some hot springs which bubble up in a small stream not -far from the houses. The water close to this spot is too hot to touch -with the hand or foot; but as it mingles with the cold river water it -soon becomes tepid, and I found that in wading in the stream I could -have any degree of heat or cold as I chose. Many people come to bathe -in these hot waters, and find benefit in certain complaints. - -At this place I procured specimens of that remarkable vegetable -production, the lace-leaf plant, or water yam (_Ouvirandra -fenestralis_). The existence of this plant had long been known to -botanists, but it was introduced into Europe by the Rev. W. Ellis -after his first visit to Madagascar (1853-1854); and from plants -brought by him to England it was propagated, and specimens were -sent to many of the chief botanical collections, as well as to -Kew, Chiswick and the Crystal Palace. I knew of this plant being -abundant in some of the streams on the east side of the island, and -I therefore described it as well as I could to one of my bearers. -A little time after our arrival at the village he brought me three -or four plants, together with the roots, and in one case with the -flower also attached. The leaves were from six to eight inches long -and an inch and a half wide; but I afterwards found at Mauritius -that they grew to more than double this size in the Royal Gardens at -Pamplemousses. - -[Sidenote: THE LACE PLANT] - -As the name implies, the leaf is like a piece of lace-work, or, -more strictly speaking, like a skeleton leaf, the spaces between -the veining being open. The veining is something like that of a -lily leaf, the longitudinal fibre running through the whole length, -and crossed at very regular intervals by the transverse veins, -which are of thread-like fineness. The specific name, _fenestralis_ -(“windowed”), conveys this idea of a regular arrangement of -structure. The leaf-stalk varies in length with the depth of the -water, always keeping a little below the surface. Each plant has ten -or a dozen leaves branching from the root, which in the specimens -brought to me resembled a small potato. It can be eaten, as its taste -is like the farinaceous yam, common to most tropical countries; and -from this likeness the generic name, _ouvirandra_, is derived—_ouvy_ -or _òvy_ being the native word for yam. The plant grows in running -water and thrives best in warm situations. The flower grows on a long -stalk and rises a little above the surface of the water; it is of a -pinkish colour, dividing into two curved hairy tufts. Few objects -can be imagined more beautiful or interesting for cultivating in an -aquarium than this lace-leaf plant, which Sir W. J. Hooker termed -“one of the most curious of nature’s vegetable productions.” It is -an endogenous plant, included in the order _Juncaginaceæ_, to which -the arrow-grasses and the rushes belong; it is found not only in the -eastern region, but occurs in streams near the upper belt of forest -in the interior. It is said to be very tenacious of life, retaining -its vitality even if the stream where it grows is dried up; the -leaves in their various stages of growth pass through a gradation of -colour, from a pale yellow to a dark olive-green. When full grown, -its dark green leaves form the limit of a circle two or three feet in -diameter. - -Taking a walk round the village before it was dark, I noticed several -houses raised on posts five or six feet above the ground. At the top -of each post, just under the floor, was a projecting circle of wood a -foot or more in diameter and polished very smooth. I found that these -buildings were granaries, and were raised in this way to protect the -rice from rats, which are a great annoyance in most parts of the -country. The smooth ring of wood effectually prevented them from -getting any farther than the top of the upright posts. The ladder for -getting up to these granaries is a very primitive contrivance; it -consists merely of a round pole with notches cut in the upper side to -prevent the foot from slipping. On a subsequent visit to Madagascar -my wife and I had to use one of these _tràno àmbo_ (“raised houses”), -as they are called, as a bedroom, and very clean and comfortable we -found it, free from all insect plagues; the floor was of plaited -bamboo, springy to walk on, although the getting up to it or down -from it was a somewhat difficult feat. - -[Sidenote: OUR BEARERS] - -We were astir early on the Wednesday morning and left our quarters at -six o’clock. It was a beautiful morning as we commenced our journey -and began to mount hills and descend valleys and cross streams -as before—with this difference, that the hills became higher and -steeper, and the paths more difficult. How our men managed to carry -themselves up and down, to say nothing of the heavy loads on their -shoulders, puzzled me, but they did their work apparently without -much fatigue. I noticed that many of those who carried heavy loads -had the flesh and muscles on the shoulders thickened into a sort of -pad, caused, I suppose, from the constant weight and friction of -their burdens. When carrying they wore but little clothing, merely -the _salàka_ or loin-cloth, and sometimes a sleeveless jacket of -hempen cloth or other coarse material. In the cool mornings they -generally wore over the shoulders the _làmba_[4] of _rofìa_, or of -hemp cloth; but during the rest of the day this was bound tightly -round the waist, or thrown upon the palanquin. The two sets of four -bearers used to take the work in “spells” of a quarter of an hour -or twenty minutes at a time; when the others relieved them they did -not stop, but those taking the poles of the palanquin would stoop -under and take it on their shoulders with hardly any jerk, even when -running at full speed. Occasionally one set would take the duty for -an hour or more, while if going fast, or on very difficult ground, -they relieved each other very frequently. Every three or four minutes -they changed the load from one shoulder to another, the leaders -lifting the pole over their heads. - -In proceeding on our journey we met great numbers of men bringing -poultry, manioc, potatoes, rice, and other produce from the interior -to the coast. These articles are mostly brought to Tamatave and -other ports, so that the ships trading to these places are supplied -with abundance of provisions at a very moderate rate. The poultry -were enclosed in large open panniers or baskets made of strips of -bamboo plaited together and slung at each end of a bamboo or a pole -of light wood. We also overtook many men taking European goods up to -the capital—quantities of cheap and gaudily painted crockery, iron -cooking-pots, and a variety of other articles. Many also carried -salt, and others the same open wicker baskets in which fowls are -brought down, but now containing quantities of the fibre of the -_rofìa_ palm. This is taken up into the interior to be manufactured -into cloth. Sometimes these men were met singly, or two or three -together, but more often they travelled in companies of ten, twenty -or thirty. Occasionally we met a Hova officer in a palanquin borne by -his slaves, and often with his wife and other members of his family, -also in palanquins, with female slaves attending them and running at -a good pace to keep up with the men. - -In one day we often saw a great variety of face and colour, and met -representatives of several of the different tribes which people -the island; and these differ considerably in colour and features. -Among the faces we saw, although there were few that could be called -handsome, judging by a European standard, there was yet a large -proportion of good heads, with high, well-formed foreheads, and a -general look of quickness and intelligence. The impression given -was certainly not that of a race low in mental organisation or -capabilities. - -[Sidenote: NATIVE MUSIC] - -At Ambàtoharànana, where we breakfasted, we were favoured with a -little native music while our meal was being prepared. The instrument -consisted of a piece of bamboo about four feet long, with parts -of the strong outer fibre detached and strained over small pieces -of pumpkin shell like the bridge of a violin. With this simple -contrivance the performer produced a soft plaintive kind of music, -not unlike the tones of a guitar. This instrument is called a -_valìha_, and is played by the fingers. A simpler and ruder musical -effect is obtained by a kind of bow of wood, with two or three -strings, and to which, at one end, the half of a large gourd is fixed -to give resonance; this is called _lokàngam-bòatàvo_ (_vòatàvo_, -pumpkin), but its sound is poor and monotonous. - -Although the paths we traversed were most difficult, the scenery -was singularly delightful. There are few more beautiful forms -in tropical vegetation than the bamboo, which unites the most -perfect symmetry and bright colour, and in some places a particular -species[5] gave quite a special character to the scenery. The long -elastic stems, thirty or forty feet in length, three inches or more -in diameter at the base, and tapering to a fine point, were curving -over the path in every direction, and with their feathery whorls of -leaves, yellowish-green in colour, growing from every joint, were a -constant delight to the eye. Sometimes a whole valley seemed filled -with bamboos; while in others the _rofìa_ palm and the tree-ferns -were the prevailing forms. - -[Sidenote: RICHES OF THE COUNTRY] - -Our midday journey this day was a continual ascent, until we were -evidently at a considerable elevation above the sea. From one ridge -we had a most extensive prospect and could see the Indian Ocean fifty -or sixty miles behind us, while before us was a yet higher chain of -hills, dark with dense woods of the main line of forest. As we rode -along, I could not but observe the capabilities of the country and -its vast powers of production, were it brought extensively under -cultivation. The country is rich also in mineral wealth—iron, gold, -copper, and other metals, as well as graphite and probably also -petroleum. - -We came this day into a belt of tree-ferns, some of large size, -with their great graceful fronds arranged horizontally in a circle -round the top of the trunk. There were also numbers of pine-apples -growing wild, with the magnificent scarlet flowers just developing -into fruit. We descended to, crossed, and for some time went along a -beautiful river, resembling in many parts the Dove at Dovedale, and -in others the Wharfe at Bolton. The view from the top of an immense -hill of the river winding far below was most charming. The paths by -which we ascended and descended would have astonished us in England, -but by this time a moderately level and smooth path had become an -object of surprise. In some places there was only a narrow passage -between rocks overhung with vegetation, most picturesque, but most -difficult to travel by. - -[Sidenote: WEAVING] - -We got in early in the afternoon to Ampàsimbé, a rather large -village. While waiting for dinner we watched the women at the -opposite house preparing the material from which they make the -_rofìa_ cloths, called _rabannas_ in Mauritius. It is the inner fibre -of the long glass-like leaves of the _rofìa_-palm.[6] The cuticle -on each side is peeled off, leaving a thin straw-coloured fibrous -substance, which is divided by a sort of comb into different widths, -according to the fineness or otherwise of the material to be made. -The fibre is very strong and is the common substitute for string in -Madagascar. In other villages we saw the women weaving the cloth with -most rude and primitive looms, consisting merely of four pieces of -wood fixed in the mud floor of the house, and a framework of two or -three pieces of bamboo. The material they make, however, is a good, -strong-looking article, with stripes of various colours and patterns -woven into the stuff, and is extensively used by the poorer classes. -With the same simple loom the Hova women make many kinds of woven -stuffs; of hemp, cotton, _rofìa_ fibre, and of this last, mingled -with silk or cotton, very pretty and useful cloth of a straw colour, -being made in this way. Of the strong native silk they also weave -very handsome _làmbas_ of bright and varied colours and patterns, -such as used to be worn on all festive occasions by the higher -classes, as well as the more sombre dark red _làmbas_ which are used -by all classes for wrapping the dead. - -[Illustration: BÉTSIMISÀRAKA WOMEN - -They are standing on a native mat outside a wooden house] - -[Illustration: HOVA WOMAN WEAVING - -The article is a silk làmba on a native loom] - -We had now reached a part of the country where the _rofìa_ palm -was the most prominent object in the vegetation, not on the hills, -however, like the traveller’s tree, but chiefly in the valleys, where -there is plenty of moisture. This palm grows very abundantly and -can easily be distinguished from the other trees of its order. The -trunk has a rough and rugged surface, and this reaches the height of -twenty to thirty feet; but the leaves are its most striking feature; -they are magnificent plumes, of enormous length, quite as long as -the trunk itself. The midrib of these leaves has a very strong but -light structure, some four to five inches wide at the base, and on -this account it is largely used for ladders, for palanquin poles, -for roofing, and indeed for anything needing lightness as well as -strength. On these midribs are set a great number of grass-like -pinnate fronds, from which, as already noticed, string and fibre are -prepared for weaving. Great clusters of seeds (or fruits?), which are -enclosed in a shiny brown skin, hang down from the top of the trunk. -These are used for boxes to enclose small articles, as jewellery, -etc. At one part of our journey the only road was through an -extensive sheet of water, through which rose hundreds of _rofìas_, -like the interior of some great temple, a most peculiar and beautiful -sight, the great fronds above us quite shutting out the sunshine and -making a green twilight below them. - -[Sidenote: A PLAGUE OF RATS] - -If we had been disposed to copy the titles of some popular evening -entertainments, the nights preceding this Wednesday’s one might -have been termed: “A Night with the Fleas,” and “A Night with the -Mosquitoes,” but this was emphatically “A Night with the Rats.” We -saw and heard them racing round the eaves of the house before we lay -down, but as soon as the light was put out they descended and began -to rattle about our pots and pans in search of food. We got up and -fired a pistol among them, and this appeared for a time to scare them -away; but later on their attentions became so personal that we were -obliged to light a candle and keep it burning on the floor all night. -After this we had comparative quiet, but before lighting the candle -they had been scampering over my companion in his hammock and over -myself as I lay on the floor. - -Thursday’s journey, although shorter than that of most days, was -perhaps the most difficult of all, especially the morning division of -it—hills steeper than ever, and, if possible, rougher footpaths, so -that we were often obliged to get down and walk, making the journey -very fatiguing. For nearly three hours we were passing through dense -forest, and in some places the path was really frightful. I do not -wonder that a small company of soldiers brought up in the early years -of the century by Captain Le Sage laid themselves down in despair at -the difficulties of the roads they had to traverse. I found along the -roadside several varieties of those beautiful-leaved plants, veined -with scarlet and buff, which were so much cultivated in England about -that time. Ferns of all kinds were very abundant, from the minutest -species to the great tree-fern. - -Our afternoon’s journey took us for some distance along a beautiful -river which foamed and roared over the rocks in its course, and -which we forded repeatedly. The path was most picturesque, but very -fatiguing; in many places the track could hardly be distinguished at -all from the dense rank growth of plants and long grass. We arrived -at Béfòrona at one o’clock and fully intended to have proceeded -another stage, as it was so early in the afternoon, but we found our -men so exhausted that we were obliged to stay there for the rest of -the day. - -[Sidenote: FOREST REGIONS] - -Here it may be noted that we had now entered some way into the -lower and wider of the two belts of dense forest which extend for -several hundred miles along the eastern side of Madagascar, and -cover the mountains which form the great ramparts of the highland of -the interior. There is continuous forest from nearly the north of -the island to almost the southern extremity; its greatest width is -about fifty miles, north of Antongil Bay; but to the south of the -Antsihànaka province it divides into two. Of these two belts, the -upper one, which clothes the edge of the highland, is the narrowest, -being not much above ten or twelve miles across, but the lower belt -is from twice to three times that breadth. On the western side of -Madagascar there is no such continuous line of forest; there are, -it is true, many extensive portions covered with wood, but in many -places the vegetation consists more of scattered clumps of trees; -while in the south-west, which is the driest part of the island, -the prevailing trees and shrubs are euphorbia, and are spiny in -character. Mr Baron reckoned that an area of nearly thirty thousand -square miles of the whole surface is forest-covered country. We -shall have other opportunities of examining these extensive forest -regions, so all we need say further at present about them is, that -no one with any eye for the beautiful and wonderful can pass through -them without astonishment and delight. The variety and luxuriance of -the foliage, the great height of many of the trees, the countless -creeping and climbing plants that cover their trunks and branches, -the multitude of lianas that bind everything together in a maze of -cordage and ropes, the flowers which sometimes cover whole trees with -a mass of colour, crimson, or golden, or purple—all these make a -journey through these Madagascar forests a new pleasure and lead one -to exclaim: “O Lord, how manifold are Thy works!” - -We were now also ascending towards the central highland of the -interior, which lies at an elevation of from five to six thousand -feet above the sea-level. Above this general elevation, which, -however, is broken up by lesser hills and mountains in all -directions, so that there is no level country except what have been -the beds of ancient lakes, now dried up, the highest mountains do not -rise to great altitudes. The _massif_ of Ankàratra, which forms the -south-western boundary of Imèrina, the home of the Hova tribe, does -not quite reach nine thousand feet in height above the sea. Until -quite recently the summits of Ankàratra were always supposed to be -the highest points of the island, but it has lately been discovered -that there is a mountain called Ambòro, about eighty miles from -the northernmost point, which is still higher, being nine thousand -four hundred feet above sea-level. On my return to the coast in -1867 I found how much less difficult the journey from Antanànarìvo -to Andòvorànto was than that in the opposite direction, owing, of -course, to our descending nearly five thousand feet instead of -ascending the same. - -[Sidenote: BÉFÒRONA] - -Béfòrona is situated in an almost circular valley, with a river -running through it and surrounded by forest-covered hills. The -village, like most in this part of the country, has the houses -arranged in a square. Their floors are generally raised a foot or -two above the surface of the ground, and are formed of bark, beaten -out flat and laid on bamboos. The framing and roof are made of poles -or bamboo, filled in with the stalks of the traveller’s tree, and -thatched with leaves of the same tree. In the centre of these village -squares was a flagstaff, and in others a pole with the skulls and -horns of bullocks fixed to it. These are mostly memorials of the -festivities connected with the last observance of the circumcision -ceremonies, which are very important events with all the Malagasy -tribes. We had a visit from the wife of the chief of the village, who -brought us a present of fowls and rice. - -[Sidenote: A BLOW-GUN] - -After resting a while we strolled along one of the streams with our -guns, to try to obtain specimens of some of the birds peculiar to -the neighbourhood. On our way back we observed some boys using an -instrument called _tsìrika_, with which they were able to kill small -birds. It consists of a long and straight palm stem, taken from a -small and beautiful palm with a stem resembling a bamboo. A small -arrow, tipped with an iron point, is inserted and is discharged by -blowing at the larger end. About three inches of the end has wool -to fill up the aperture and prevent any windage. They use this -blow-gun with great precision and can strike a mark at a considerable -distance. A very similar weapon, but with poisoned arrows, is used -by the Indians of South America in the countries bordering the Amazon -and its tributaries. - - -[4] _Làmba_ is the Malagasy word for cloth generally, but it has also -a specific use as applied to the chief article of native dress. - -[5] _Raphia ruffia._ - -[6] This _rofìa_ fibre has of late years been largely used in England -for tying up plants; but dealers in it persist in calling it “_rofìa_ -grass,” which is certainly not a correct name. - - -[Illustration: Lace Plant] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALAMAZAOTRA TO ANTANÀNARÌVO - - -On the Friday morning we left Béfòrona soon after five o’clock and -for nearly four hours were passing through the forest, here known as -that of Alamazaotra, over the highest hills and the most difficult -paths we had yet seen. Certainly this day’s journey was the most -fatiguing of any on the whole route, so that when we reached our -halting-place I was thoroughly exhausted and glad to throw myself -on the floor and sleep for an hour or more. At one part of the -road there is a long slope of clay, known as “Fitomanìanòmby,” or -“weeping-place of the bullocks,” so called from the labour and -difficulty with which the poor animals mount the steep ascent on -their way down to the coast. In coming down this and similar places -the utmost care was necessary on the part of the bearers; but they -were very surefooted and patient and took every precaution to carry -their burden safely. In ascending we often required the help of all -eight men to drag the palanquin up to the top. The villages in the -heart of these vast woods are few and far between. Our halting-place -for breakfast consisted merely of three or four woodcutters’ huts in -a few square yards of cleared ground. - -Our afternoon’s work was much the same as that of the morning. In -many places the rain had made a perfect slough of thick mud, and our -men had hard work to get through. I could not cease to wonder how my -heavy luggage was brought along. For a considerable distance our way -lay along a most romantic-looking stream, whose course was broken -by great masses and shelves of rock, reminding me of Welsh river -scenery. Often in the higher parts of the road, where the rivers down -in the gorges were hidden by the dense masses of wood, we could hear -the roar of waters in the otherwise profound stillness of the forest. -At the chief pass in this chain of hills we passed a tremendous cliff -of rock, which rises sheer out of the valley to a height (so it has -been ascertained) of nearly two thousand feet, certainly one of the -grandest natural objects I had ever seen. This stupendous mass is -called Andrìambàvibé, “Great Princess”; the large trees on the summit -looked like mere bushes seen from below. - -[Sidenote: LUXURIANT FOLIAGE] - -Notwithstanding the fatigue of the journey, it was impossible not -to be struck with admiration and delight at the grandeur of the -vegetation. The profusion and luxuriance of vegetable life were very -extraordinary. There appeared to be few trees of great girth of -trunk, but their height was considerable, especially in the valleys. -High over all the other trees shot up the tall trunks of many -varieties of palms, with their graceful crowns of feathery leaves. -A dense undergrowth of shrubs, tree-ferns, and dwarf palms made in -many places quite a green twilight; while overhead the branches were -interlaced and bound together by countless creeping and climbing -plants, whose rope-like tendrils crossed in all directions and made -a labyrinth which it was impossible to pass through. Occasionally we -came across large trees in flower, giving a glorious mass of colour. -With these exceptions, however, flowers were comparatively few; and -during subsequent journeys I have found that it is true in Madagascar -what Dr Alfred R. Wallace has pointed out as characteristic of all -tropical countries—viz. that in the tropics are not to be found great -masses of floral colour. For these one must go to the temperate -zones; foliage, overpowering in its luxuriance and endless variety, -is indeed to be found in the tropics, but not the large extent of -colour given by heather, buttercups, primroses, or a field of poppies -in England. - -The orchids, however, were very abundant. Wherever a fallen tree hung -across the path, there they found a lodging-place, and beautified -the decaying trunks with their exquisite waxy flowers of pink and -white. Although what has just been said of wild flowers is true -on the whole, there were a considerable number to be seen, if -carefully looked for. My bearers soon perceived how interested I -was in observing their novel and curious forms, and brought to me -all the different varieties they could find, so that in the evening -my palanquin contained a collection of flowers and plants gathered -during the day. I managed to dry a few, but the greater part had to -be thrown away, as I had no means of preserving them to take up to -the capital. - -In some parts of the woods the different species of bamboo give quite -a distinct character to the vistas. Some of them shoot up in one long -slender jointed stem, with fringes of delicate leaves, and hang over -the paths like enormous whips. Another kind, a climbing species, with -stems no thicker than a quill, clothes the lower trees with a dense -mantle of pale green drapery. As we got into the higher and cooler -parts of the forest, numbers of the trees had long pendent masses -of feathery grey lichen, a species of _Usnea_, giving them quite -a venerable appearance, and reminding me of the opening lines of -Longfellow’s “Evangeline”: - - “This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, - Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, - Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic, - Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.” - -[Sidenote: ANIMAL LIFE IN THE FOREST] - -Although the vegetation was most luxuriant, I was surprised and -somewhat disappointed by the stillness of the forest, and the few -signs of animal life and the rarity of the song of birds. It is true -that at certain seasons the notes of many songsters may be heard, -and that in certain places the cries of different species of lemur -resound through the woods. Still, on the whole, I had imagined that a -tropical forest would be much more visibly full of life. Subsequent -experience and research showed me that there _is_ a considerable -variety and number of living creatures in these forests, but they -have to be looked for, and when found they are full of interest, as -we shall see. It may be noticed, too, that both bird and insect life -are more evident in the outskirts of the woods and in the occasional -openings among the trees than in the densest forest, all living -things delighting in sunlight. - -From what has been already said it will be seen that the flora -of Madagascar presents many new and striking forms of vegetable -life; but its fauna is still more noteworthy, for it presents one -of the strangest anomalies in the geographical distribution of -animals. This zoological peculiarity consists as much, or more, in -what is wanting, as in what is present. Separated from Africa by a -channel not three hundred miles broad at one point, we should have -supposed that Madagascar would partake to a great extent of the -same characteristics, as regards animal life, as the neighbouring -continent. But it is really remarkably different. There is a strange -absence of the larger species of mammalia, and this statement applies -not only to the forests but to all parts of the island, the bare -highlands of the interior and the extensive lower plains of the west -and the south. - -[Sidenote: ABSENCE OF LARGE ANIMALS] - -First of all, the large carnivora are all wanting; there are no -lions, leopards, tigers, panthers, or hyenas. The large thick-skinned -animals, so plentiful in the rivers and forests of Africa, have no -representatives in Madagascar; no elephant browses in the woods, no -rhinoceros or hippopotamus lazily gambols in the streams, although -there was a small species of the last-named pachyderm which was -living during the latest quaternary epoch. The numerous species of -fleet-footed animals—antelope, gazelle, deer, and giraffe, zebra -and quagga—which scour the African plains are entirely absent; and -the ox, the sheep, the goat, the horse and the ass have all been -introduced, the three former from Africa and the others from Europe. -The order of mammalia most developed here is the quadrumana, but -this, again, is represented by but a single division, the lemurs -and their allies, which are the most characteristic animals of the -island. There are no true monkeys, baboons, or apes, nor do the -gorilla or chimpanzee put in an appearance. The lemurs are very -distinct from all these and are pretty creatures, bearing little -resemblance to the half-human, grotesque appearance of many of the -quadrumanous animals, or to the savage character of the larger apes -and baboons. They vary in size from that of a large monkey to species -not larger than a rat. They are mostly gentle in disposition, and -some kinds are tame enough to be kept about the house as pets. - -[Illustration: FAMILY TOMB OF THE LATE PRIME MINISTER, ANTANÀNARÌVO - -The tomb is under the upper open arcade] - -[Illustration: ROYAL TOMBS IN THE COURTYARD OF THE PALACE, -ANTANÀNARÌVO - -On the right is that of Radàma I, on the left that of Ràsohèriva] - -[Sidenote: MADAGASCAR AND AFRICA] - -It is probable that the mammalia of Madagascar are now fairly well -known, although a few of the smallest species may still await -discovery; and the following summary may be here given of their -divisions and numbers—excluding the bats, of which there are -seventeen species, ninety species of terrestrial mammals have been -classified and described, and of the following orders:—Lemuroida, -thirty-nine species; Carnivora, almost all being civets and quite -small animals, ten species; Insectivora, including shrews and small -creatures resembling hedgehogs, twenty-four species; Rodentia, rats -and mice, sixteen species; and Ungulata, one or two species of -river-hog. It will be seen that about two-fifths of the mammalian -fauna belong to the lemurs, and that with very few exceptions, all -the others are small and inconspicuous animals; many, however, are -of exceptional interest, as we shall see. From a consideration of -the facts regarding the mammals, as well as those of the other forms -of animal life found here—birds, reptiles and insects—the following -conclusions may be drawn: First, Madagascar was anciently joined to -Africa, receiving its fauna from the continent, whose animal life was -then much like that of Madagascar at the present time; but it had -also certain connections at an early geological epoch with Asia and -even with South America, as there are undoubted affinities between -its fauna and those of these distant regions. Secondly, this African -connection of Madagascar existed before the abundant animal life -of the continent entered it from the north, and when Africa was a -great continental island—that is, its central and southern portions, -and separated from Europe and Asia by a shallow sea, now the Sahara -Desert. The upheaval of that sea-bottom was probably to some extent -contemporaneous with the subsidence of the land which is now the -Mozambique Channel. Thirdly, Madagascar must have remained for a long -period separated from every other part of the globe; and while the -western and southern portions have been repeatedly submerged, the -highland interior, of palæozoic rocks, is very ancient land, and much -of its fauna is also antique in its character. - -But to leave this zoological dissertation and return to our journey. -I have not mentioned that more than once we saw small companies of -lemurs high over our heads, leaping with wonderful agility from -branch to branch, and uttering their peculiar cry. These cries could -often be heard when the animals were not seen, and sounded almost -like the cry of children; and to myself there was always something -pleasant in it, as that of living creatures rejoicing in their -freedom in these boundless forests. - -[Sidenote: THE BED OF A GREAT LAKE] - -On Saturday morning I wished Mr Plant good-bye and set off, leaving -him at the village, which he was to make his head-quarters for some -time while collecting natural history specimens in the forest. The -road was not nearly so difficult as on the previous day, so that I -had no need to alight from the palanquin all the way to Ampàsimpòtsy, -where I stayed to breakfast. The hills were much more moderate in -height, with a good deal of open clearing, although the forest still -continued on either hand, but not in those dense masses of wood -through which we had passed the last three or four days. Leaving our -halting-place at noon, we gradually got clear of the woods, and early -in the afternoon ascended a very high hill, from which we could see a -great distance both westward and eastward. Behind us were the hills -and valleys covered with forest through which we had travelled, while -in front stretched a great undulating plain, bare and almost without -a tree, except in a few places, where there were large circular -patches of wood. This was the plain of Ankay, which separates the -two belts of forest, and is the home of the Bezànozàno tribe. Beyond -this again, ten or twelve miles away, was the upper forest, clothing -the slopes and summits of the edge of the interior highland. Careful -examination of this region has shown that it was formerly the bed -of a great lake, from two to three hundred miles long, extending -from the present Lake Alaotra, farther north, and is its gradually -diminishing remnant. Subsequent action of water has, however, so cut -up its former level that it now presents a very uneven surface. - -It was dull travelling alone after the pleasant companionship of a -fellow-traveller; and in making arrangements for meals, etc., I felt -how perfectly helpless a man is when he cannot speak so as to be -understood. I was a barbarian to my men, and they were barbarians to -me; for my stock of Malagasy words was very limited, and probably -almost unintelligible as to pronunciation, so that I was at a -complete standstill for nearly everything I wanted to say. We reached -Mòramànga, a rather large village, at the commencement of the plain, -soon after three in the afternoon and there halted for the rest of -the day. This place was a military post of the Hova government, and -on passing through passports were examined by the officer in charge. - -Next morning we were stirring early and left Mòramànga while it was -yet dusk. There was a thick mist, and my men were shivering with the -cold, for we were now two thousand nine hundred feet above the sea, -and their scanty clothing was but a poor protection. For an hour or -two we saw little except for a few yards around us; but as the sun -rose the fog rolled up like a vast curtain, revealing the line of the -Ifòdy and Angàvo hills straight before us; the slopes were partly -covered with trees, but a good deal of their surface was brown and -bare. In the deepest of the many valleys which cut the surface of the -Ankay plain runs a beautiful and rapid river, the Mangòro, about one -hundred and fifty feet wide where we crossed it in canoes. This is -the longest river of the east coast, and would make a fine means of -access to the interior, were its course not interrupted by rapids and -cataracts at many points. - -Soon after crossing the river we commenced the ascent of Ifòdy, a -very steep and difficult path, for an hour or more; but as we mounted -higher and higher a glorious prospect gradually revealed itself. -Looking back after we had reached the summit, there was the Mòramànga -plain, bounded by the distant forest stretching away north and south, -until lost in the dim distance, while below us the Mangòro could be -seen in a wavy blue line in the Ankay plain. Before us, to the left, -was a lovely valley, fertile and green with rice-fields, watered by -the Valàla river and shut in by the Angàvo range of mountains, while -on the right was a confused mass of hills, looking like a mighty sea -which had suddenly been hardened and fixed in its tossings. - -[Sidenote: AN EXTRAORDINARY NEST] - -There was much more evidence of cultivation as we proceeded, the -valleys being occupied by rice-fields, which were kept covered with a -few inches of water by careful irrigation. Among the bird population -of Madagascar there are some eighteen species of herons and storks -which are seen in the marshes and rice-fields. One of the most -noticeable of these is the _Tàkatra_ or tufted umber, a long-legged -stork with a large plume or crest. It builds an extraordinarily large -nest, which is visible at a considerable distance and might be taken -at first sight for half-a-load of hay. It is usually placed on the -fork of a large tree, and is composed of sticks and grass, plastered -inside with a thick lining of mud. It is from four and a half to -six feet in diameter, dome-shaped, with a lateral entrance, and is -divided into three chambers, in one of which its two large eggs are -laid. The entrance is by a narrow tunnel and is always placed so -as to be difficult of access, though the nest itself may be quite -easy to approach. From this conspicuous nest, and the sedate way in -which the tàkatra marches about seeking for its food, many native -superstitions have gathered about the bird, one of which is that -those who destroy its nest will become lepers. If the sovereign’s -path was crossed by a tàkatra, it was considered unlucky to proceed, -and the royal procession had to retrace its steps. Many native -proverbs also refer to this bird. There are also two other species -of stork, one of which is always found together with other shore -birds; it lives in companies of from six to twelve individuals at -river-mouths, feeding on crustacea and mulluscs, from which habit -comes its name of _Famàkiakòra_ or “shell-breaker.” - -[Sidenote: THE HOVAS] - -We were now nearing the country of the Hovas, and could see an -evident difference in the appearance of the inhabitants. They were -lighter in colour and had longer and straighter hair than the coast -tribes. But owing to the fashion, at that time, of both sexes wearing -their hair done up in a number of knots, and from the apparent -absence of whisker or beard, I was sometimes puzzled to know at first -sight whether the people we passed were men or women; and there was -little difference in dress, the _làmba_ being worn by both. Not only -were the people different in appearance to those we had mostly seen, -but the dwellings also had a much more civilised look. Several of the -houses at Ambòdinangàvo were of the true Hova type, with high-pitched -roofs, made of strong timber framing and filled in, for the walls, -with thick upright planking, instead of the slight bamboos and leaves -of the coast and forest houses. Some had boarded floors and had a -room in the roof; and the crossed rafters at the gables were carried -up for two or three feet above the ridge. The house in which I stayed -had a much more comfortable appearance than any I had been in before, -having two rooms on the ground floor, the walls covered with matting, -and there were actually chairs! a luxury I had not experienced since -leaving Tamatave. I felt that I was getting near civilisation again. - -While dinner was preparing I strolled out into a ravine near the -house and was struck with the beauty and variety of the insects, -as indeed I had been in many parts of the journey. There were -butterflies of gorgeous hues, dragonflies, crimson, blue and dull -gold in colour, grasshoppers with scarlet wings, and the very spiders -with gold and silver markings. Some species of these latter were of -great size; we saw hundreds of them in their large geometric webs -stretching over the paths as we came along. - -[Sidenote: A COMBINATION OF BEAUTY] - -On Monday morning, 12th October, we left the village before sunrise -and immediately began the ascent of Angàvo, which rises from fifteen -hundred to sixteen hundred feet above the valley. It is an enormous -mass of granite, capped with clay, the summit being scarped and -fortified with earthworks; it is, however, not a detached mountain -rising from a plain on every side, but rather a vast natural bastion -or outwork of a higher level of country. There was a gorgeous -sunrise, which covered the greater part of the sky with a crimson -light, unlike anything I had ever seen before. Then for another hour -or two we were passing through the upper belt of forest, here very -narrow, being only ten or twelve miles across, but as dense and as -beautiful as the lower and wider belt. And it was just as difficult -to travel through as the other forest, descending into the gorge of -the Mandràka river and then scaling the steep ascents. One place -especially, where we crossed the stream, was a perfect combination -of beauty—rushing waters, luxuriant foliage of fern and palm and -bamboo—and hundreds of large blue and black papilio butterflies -hovering over the river. - -At eight o’clock we reached Ankèramadìnika, a village close to the -last ascent of the forest, and waited for a few minutes while my -bearers bought manioc root at the little market. The people crowded -round me, bringing various articles of food for sale—sweet potatoes, -honeycomb, and wild raspberries. We had now left behind us the forest -region and were on the bare open uplands of Imèrina, the air being -clear and keen. The hills were less steep and more rounded, reminding -me of some parts of the English chalk downs, and there was hardly -a tree to be seen. In several places the granite or gneiss takes -a dome-like form; and in others the same rock formed the highest -points. For many miles I could see them rising high over every other -hill; one of these, on the southern side of a huge mountain called -Angàvokèly, was like a titanic castle; another, which is divided into -three and called Tèlomiràhavàvy (“Three Sisters”), was like a vast -church. - -[Sidenote: AMBÀTOMÀNGA] - -There were signs of approaching the capital in the number of villages -which came in sight. The country also was much more cultivated, -chiefly, however, in the valleys, where the bright green patches of -the newly sown rice gave a refreshing contrast to the bare and brown -appearance of the hills and downs, now parched and dry after five or -six months without rain. In many places great black patches showed -where the dry grass had been set on fire. This is done shortly before -the rains come on, and the rank hay-like grass is succeeded by a crop -of fine short herbage suitable for pasture. About noon we caught -sight of the large village of Ambàtomànga, then two or three miles -distant. This place had an important and picturesque appearance, -being considerably larger than any town on the road. Over a number of -smaller dwellings one large house rose conspicuous, with its lofty -high-pitched roof and double verandah. Close to the village is a -lofty mass of blue gneiss rock, about a couple of hundred feet in -height, and crowned by a stone tomb and other buildings, giving it -the air of a fortification. Passing through a large weekly market, -where hundreds of people were buying and selling, we at length -entered the last station on the road to Antanànarìvo. - -Ambàtomànga had quite the appearance of a fortified town, having -walls of clay surrounding it, and deep fosses outside them. I stopped -at the large house which I had noticed at first, and found it a -well-finished timber structure, with venetian shutters and framed -doors, quite a contrast to the mere sheds in which I had slept for -ten nights past. It was divided into three rooms on the ground floor, -with walls, floor and ceiling all well planed and finished. The -owner, a fine-looking man and a native noble, gave me a welcome in -a little broken English; but his knowledge of European tongues was -apparently confined to half-a-dozen short phrases, for he repeatedly -said, “Thank you, sir,” giving me a hearty shake of the hand at -the same time, as if he thought that was the proper formula to be -observed. A little before dusk I walked out with him to the fort-like -tomb on the top of the rock. In the light of the setting sun the red -clay hills gave back the warm rays with an intensity of colour that -was remarkable. The tomb at the top is a large stone structure, well -worked, with an open balustrade and bold mouldings. Walking round -the house after dusk, I saw a lurid glare in the sky on all sides, -and then found it was produced by the grass burning on the hills and -downs, which showed in lines of fire for many miles in all directions. - -[Sidenote: FIRST VIEW OF THE CAPITAL] - -Early on Tuesday morning, with a glad heart I took my seat in my -palanquin, rejoiced to think that this was the last stage in my long -journey. About three-quarters of an hour after leaving Ambàtomànga -we caught our first sight of the capital, still twelve or fourteen -miles distant, and I could not but be struck by its size and fine -situation, a much larger city than I had expected, built on the -summit and slopes of a lofty rocky hill some two miles long from -north to south, which was covered with dark-looking houses. In the -centre stood conspicuous the great bulk of the chief palace and -its smaller neighbour, their arched verandahs and steep roofs, all -painted white, and shining in the morning sun, towering over every -other object. It was a memorable moment to me, as I thought of what -had happened in Antanànarìvo within the last quarter-century, and -that my work was to raise lasting memorials to the brave Malagasy who -had suffered and died for their faith. - -On we went over the long rolling moor-like hills, losing sight of the -city every now and then, and presently coming in view of it again -as we mounted the ridges; and every half-hour brought out more of -the details of the place and revealed its masses of dark houses, -clustered on the slopes of the rocky hill. Several streams we crossed -by means of stone arched bridges, and I was struck by the number of -villages to be seen in every direction, many of them enclosed in -high walls made of red clay, laid with care in regular courses and -apparently hard and durable. The houses were all built of the same -material, and many of them were enclosed in circular and others in -square courtyards with gateways. Many of the villages were surrounded -with deep fosses, sometimes two and even three yards deep, now -generally filled with bananas, peach and other fruit trees, and some -with walls and stone gateways, giving one the impression that there -must have formerly been much internal warfare to need such elaborate -defences. This indeed was the case before Imèrina was governed by one -sovereign, about a hundred years ago. - -[Sidenote: LOCUSTS] - -Within a mile or two of the city we passed for a quarter of an -hour through a perfect cloud of locusts, which covered the ground -and filled the air. At a distance these insects appeared like a -low-lying cloud of dust; and when near to one, and seen in certain -directions, the sun shining on their wings gave them almost the -appearance of a snow shower. I began to realise one of the plagues -of Egypt. Many varieties of locust are common in Madagascar, and -occasionally they do great damage to the crops. The Malagasy, -however, make use of them for food, and when a cloud of them appears, -men, women and children are all out catching them; and for a few days -afterwards great brown heaps of them are to be seen at all the little -wayside shops. They are said to taste something like shrimps, without -any insides; but I must confess I never brought myself to taste them, -for they are anything but inviting in appearance. - -At length I was carried into a compound near the foot of the city -hill, and after some delay was met by one of the L.M.S. missionaries -and conducted by a most difficult and breakneck path up into the -triangular central space called Andohàlo. At the north-eastern corner -of this space was the dispensary and dwelling of our good medical -missionary, Dr Davidson, from whom and Mrs Davidson I received -a hearty welcome, and in a short time also from the rest of the -missionary brethren. With a glad and thankful heart I found myself in -the capital of Madagascar, with cheerful anticipations of being able -to do something in the service of Him who had protected me thus far, -and of helping in various ways the Malagasy people. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND LIVING -CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR - - -My object in these chapters is to describe, as vividly as I am able, -the varied aspects of the different months throughout the year -in this central province of Imèrina, as they present themselves -to anyone who lives in the capital city of Antanànarìvo, and is -frequently travelling in the country around it. I want to show the -variety of nature during the changing seasons, as the result of the -heat or cold, and of the moisture or drought of the climate. And it -must be remembered that although this central province of Madagascar -is by several degrees well within the tropics, our climate for some -months of the year is by no means the “tropical” one supposed in our -ordinary English use of that word. On these interior highlands, from -three to five thousand feet above the sea-level, the south-easterly -winds blow from June to August with a keenness and force which it -needs thick clothing to withstand, and makes a wood fire during the -long evenings a very pleasant addition to the comforts of home life. - -The seasons in the central regions of the island are practically -only two: the hot and rainy period, from the beginning of November -to the end of April; and the cool and dry period, during the other -months, from May to October. The Malagasy are, however, accustomed -to speak of four seasons of their year—viz. the _Lòhataona_—_i.e._ -“head of the year”—during September and October, when the planting -of the early rice is going on, and a few showers give promise of the -coming rains; the _Fàhavàratra_—_i.e._ “thunder-time”—when severe -storms of thunder and lightning are frequent, with heavy downpours -of rain, from the early part of November to the end of February or -into March; the _Fàraràno_—_i.e._ “last rains”—from the beginning of -March and through April; and lastly, the _Rinìnina_—_i.e._ “time -of bareness”—when the grass becomes dry and withered, from June to -August. - -Taking therefore the seasons in order, from the beginning, not of -January, which gives no natural division of the year, but from the -early part of September, when the blossoms of the trees speak of -the “good time coming” of renewed verdure, I shall note down, in -their succession, the varying aspects of the country, in climate, -vegetation, and culture of the soil, as well as the animal life, -throughout the changing year. - -[Sidenote: “THE HEART OF IMÈRINA”] - -Before, however, proceeding to do this, it may give greater -distinctness to the mental picture I want to draw for those who have -never been in Madagascar, if I try to describe in a few words the -appearance of this central province of the island, especially of that -portion of it which is in the neighbourhood of the capital. From the -usually pure and clear air of this elevated region, which is not -defiled by the smoke of chimneys, nor often thickened by the mists of -the lowlands, one can see for extraordinary distances, and hills and -rocks twenty or thirty miles away stand out more sharp and distinct -than they would usually do in England at only four or five miles’ -distance. - -Let us go up to the highest point of the long rocky ridge on -and around which Antanànarìvo is built, from which we can “view -the landscape o’er,” and try and gain a clear notion of this -“heart of Imèrina,” as it is often called by the Malagasy. The -city hill reaches the greatest elevation at a point called -Ambòhimitsímbina—_i.e._ “Hill of regarding”—which is seven hundred -feet above the general level of the rice-plains around it. From this -“coign of vantage” there is of course a very extensive view in every -direction, and we see at once that the surrounding country is very -mountainous. East and south there is little but hills of all shapes -and sizes to be seen, except along the valleys of the river Ikòpa -and its tributaries, which come from the edge of the upper forest, -thirty miles or so away to the east. To the north the country is -more undulating, but at ten or twelve miles away high hills and -moors close in the view, some of the hills rising into mountains. -The country is everywhere in these directions, except in the river -valleys, covered with red soil of various shades of colour, through -which the granite and gneiss foundations protrude at almost every -elevated point in huge boulder-like rocks, and form the summits of -every hill and mountain, often in dome-shaped or boss-like masses, -and in some like titanic castles and towers. - -[Illustration: EARTHENWARE POTTERY - -Making cooking utensils and pitchers (_Sìny_)] - -[Illustration: DIGGING UP RICE-FIELDS - -Notice the long-handled and long-bladed native spade, the handle -serving as a lever to turn over the clods] - -There is little foliage to be seen except on the top of some of the -hills where the ancient towns and villages are built, and in such -places a circle of old _àviàvy_ trees and an occasional _amòntana_ -tree give a pleasant relief to the prevailing red and ochre tints of -the soil, and, in the cold and dry season, to the russet and grey -hues of the dry grass on the bare hills and downs. The largest mass -of green is at the old capital, Ambòhimànga, eleven miles away to -the north, where the steep sides of the hill are still covered with -a remnant of the original forest, which formerly was doubtless much -more extensive in this part of the central province. In the deep -fosses which surround old villages there is also often a considerable -amount of foliage, as well as in the hollows and along the streams. -But it must be confessed that a large extent of Imèrina, in common -with the rest of the interior, consists of bare rounded down-like -hills, very uninteresting in character; although towards sunset, in -the slanting rays, these hills have a softness of outline in their -curves which has a decided element of beauty not to be ignored. - -[Sidenote: THE GRANARY OF ANTANÀNARÌVO] - -To the west, from north to south, the prospect is very extensive. -To the south-west there rises by very gradual slopes, at some -thirty-five miles’ distance, the mass of Ankàratra, its three or four -highest peaks reaching an elevation of nearly nine thousand feet -above the sea, and about half that height above the general level of -the country. But even at such a distance the summits usually stand -out sharp and clear against the sky. Due west and north-west is a -considerable extent of comparatively level country, beyond which -mountains fifty miles away are distinctly seen on the horizon. In -the foreground, stretching away many miles, is the great rice-plain -of Bétsimitàtatra, from which numbers of low red hills, most of them -with villages, rise like islands out of a green sea where the rice -is growing. Along the plain the river Ikòpa can be seen, winding its -way northwards to join the Bétsibòka; the united streams, with many -tributaries, flowing into the sea through the Bay of Bèmbatòka. This -great plain, “the granary of Antanànarìvo,” was formerly an immense -marsh, and earlier still an extensive lake with numerous bays among -the surrounding hills; but since the embanking of the river by some -of the early kings of Imèrina, it has become the finest rice-plain of -the island and, with its connected valleys, furnishes the bulk of the -food of the people of the central province. - -[Sidenote: DAMAGE BY STORMS] - -The embankments require, of course, constant attention during the -rainy season, when the river is swollen by the heavy rains; and -during the time of the native regime, an unusually wet season would -cause them to give way, so that the rice-fields were flooded. At such -times the whole population would be called out to help in stopping -the breaches, and I remember one occasion, a Sunday, when we had no -afternoon service, and with others of my brother missionaries I spent -several hours in carrying sods and stones, together with our people. -Another such calamity occurred in January 1893; for on the night of -Saturday, the 28th, and the following day, there was an unusually -heavy storm, doing immense damage, destroying hundreds of houses and -village churches, and breaking the river banks, so that in a day -or two hundreds of thousands of acres of the great rice-plain were -under water, three or four feet deep. In some parts it was difficult -to trace the river banks; it was “water, water everywhere,” and -scores of low hills were again turned into islands, cut off from -all communication, except by canoe, with the world around them. If -one could have forgotten the terrible loss to the people of their -crops of rice just ready to be cut, it was a most beautiful scene, -and reminded one that in ancient times this great plain was always -a lake, when many now extinct animals, reptiles and gigantic birds -found a home in it and on its shores. For centuries the heavy -rains—probably far heavier then than now, from the greater extent -of forest—went on filling up the valleys with the rich black and -blue loam; gradually the lake became less and less deep; slowly the -river cut out its bed; and then man came on the scene, and the old -native kings aided nature by embanking the river; the marshes became -rice-fields and supplied with food the present large population which -lives all around it. - -From this elevated point at least a hundred small towns and villages -can be recognised, many of them marked by the tiled roof, and often -the tower, of the village church, which shines out distinctly amid -the brown thatched roofs of most of the houses. This view from -the summit of the capital is certainly an unrivalled one, in -Madagascar at least, for its variety and extent, as well as for -the human interest of its different parts, as shown by the large -population, the great area of cultivated land, the embanked rivers, -and the streams and water-channels for irrigation seen in every -direction. - -[Illustration: POUNDING AND WINNOWING RICE - -A palanquin bearer is in the doorway] - -[Illustration: A HOVA MIDDLE-CLASS FAMILY AT A MEAL - -Rice is the staple food, with a meat or vegetable relish] - -SPRINGTIME: SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER.—With the early days of September -we may usually say that springtime in Imèrina fairly sets in, and -that the year in its natural aspects properly commences. By a true -instinct, arising doubtless from long observation of the change of -the seasons, the Malagasy call this time _Lòhataona_—_i.e._ “the -head, or beginning, of the year”—when nature seems to awake from the -comparative deadness of the cold and dry winter months, during which -the country has looked bare and uninviting, but now begins again -to give promise of fertility and verdure. The keen cold winds and -drizzly showers of the past few weeks give place to warmer air and -clearer skies, and although usually there is but little rain during -September, the deciduous trees begin to put forth their leaves, and -flower-buds appear as heralds of the fuller display of vegetable life -which will be seen after the rains have fallen. - -[Sidenote: RICE-FIELDS] - -The great rice-plain to the west of Antanànarìvo still looks, during -the early days of the _Lòhataona_, bare and brown; but, if we examine -the prospect more closely, we shall see that in various places, where -the plain borders the low rising grounds on which the villages are -built, there are bright patches of vivid green. These are the _kètsa_ -grounds or smaller rice-fields, where the rice is first sown thick -and broadcast, and where it grows for a month or two before being -planted out in the larger fields, which are divided from each other -by a low bank of earth, a few inches broad and only a foot or two in -height. - -As the season advances, the people everywhere begin to be busy -digging up their rice-fields, both large and small, the clods being -piled up in heaps and rows in order to give the soil the benefit of -exposure to the sun and air. All this work is done by the native -long-handled and long and narrow bladed spade, driven into the -ground by the weight of the handle, as the Malagasy wear no shoes -and so could not drive down the spade by the foot, in European -fashion, while the plough is still an unknown implement to them. The -water-courses, by which water is brought to every rice-plot, are -now being repaired in all directions. The chief supply of water is -from the springs found at the head of almost every valley, which is -carefully led by channels cut and embanked round the curves of the -hillsides, being often taken thus for a considerable distance from -its source. Eventually this little canal resolves itself into a small -stream traversing the valley, from which smaller channels convey the -water to every field, so as to moisten the clods after they have been -dug over. - -[Sidenote: THE WATER-SUPPLY] - -The water-supply for the great Bétsimitàtatra plain is derived -from the Ikòpa river and its many tributaries. Canals tap these -rivers at various points, in order to irrigate the fields at lower -levels farther down their course. A large quantity of water is thus -diverted from the rivers during September and October, so that the -smaller streams are almost dry, and even the Ikòpa and its affluents, -good-sized rivers at other times of the year, then become shallow and -easily fordable. - -Before the end of October a large extent of the great plain, -especially to the north and north-west, is completely planted with -rice; and a green level, looking like one vast lawn, stretches away -for many miles in this direction, without any break or visible -divisions. This green is the _vàry alòha_, or “former rice,” the -first crop, which will become ripe in the month of January, or -early in February. Smaller expanses of bright green appear in other -directions also, especially along the courses of the rivers, but a -considerable extent of the plain directly to the west of the capital -is still russet-brown in colour, and will not be planted until a -month or two later. From this will come the later rice-crop, the -(_vàry_) _vàky ambiàty_, which is planted in November or December and -becomes fit for cutting about April. This latter crop is so called -because the flowering of the _ambiàty_ (_Vernonia appendiculata_) -shrub, about November, gives notice to the people that planting-time -has come. This shrub is very conspicuous about this time of the year -from its masses of white—slightly tinged with purple—flowers. - -The _kètsa_ grounds are covered before sowing with a layer of wood -and straw ashes, so that they have quite a black appearance. Before -this, however, the clods have been broken up and worked by the spade -into a soft mud, with an inch or two of water over all, and on this -the grain is sown broadcast, springing up in two or three weeks’ -time and looking like a brilliant emerald carpet. - -There are usually a few heavy showers about the end of September -or the early part of October, which are called _rànonòrana -màmpisàra-taona_—_i.e._ “rain dividing the year”; but occasionally -no rain falls until the rainy season regularly commences, so it -is dry and dusty everywhere, the ground cracks, and everything -seems thirsting for moisture. The heat increases as the sun gets -more vertical, although the nights are pleasantly cool. Yet -notwithstanding the dry soil the trees begin to blossom. Most -conspicuous among them is the Cape lilac (_Melia azederach_), a tree -introduced from South Africa about eighty or ninety years ago by the -first L.M.S. missionaries, and now thoroughly naturalised in the -interior of Madagascar. It grows to be a good-sized tree, and many -hundreds of them are to be seen in and around Antanànarìvo, making -the place gay with their profusion of pale greyish-lilac flowers, and -fragrant with their strong perfume. - -[Sidenote: ORCHARDS] - -There are many large orchards in Imèrina, planted chiefly with -mango-trees and presenting a refreshing mass of evergreen all the -year round. But at this time, when looking from a little distance, -the green of the leaves is largely mingled with a tinting of -reddish-brown, caused by masses of flowers, in spikes, chiefly in -the upper part of the trees. Later on the purplish tint of the new -leaves gives another shade of colour. The produce of these trees is -an excellent fruit; and there are three or four varieties of it, -one kind, “the stone mango,” being more globular in shape; another, -“the satin-mango,” being smaller, like a large plum, with a delicate -flavour and scent. Another most widely grown fruit is the peach, -which is more used cooked than eaten raw; and others are the _bìbàsy_ -or loquat, the quince, the rose-apple, the orange, and the _ròtra_, a -good-sized tree with a profusion of small black pear-shaped fruits, -somewhat astringent when eaten raw, but excellent for cooking and -for preserves. The vine also is largely cultivated, chiefly a black -variety; while bananas and plantains and pine-apples are to be had -all the year through. - -The low banks of earth which form the boundary walls of plantations -are largely planted with a species of _Euphorbia_, of which there are -two varieties, one with brilliant scarlet bracts and the other of -pale yellow tint, the leaves appearing on the prickly stems later on. - -As the season advances the people burn the grass over the hillsides -and open moors, as we saw at Ambàtomànga when coming up the country. -There can be no doubt that to this practice is largely attributable -the bare and treeless appearance of the central provinces. The young -trees which would spring up, especially in the hollows and sheltered -places, have no chance against the yearly fires which sweep over -the country, and the little vegetation which has held its own is -constantly liable to be lessened as time goes on. Sometimes a dozen -fires, long curving lines of flame, may be seen at once in different -directions, and these give a strangely picturesque appearance to the -nights of springtime in Imèrina. - -[Sidenote: BIRDS] - -The weather often becomes very hot and sultry before the rains come -on, and the usually bright clear skies and pure atmosphere of other -months are exchanged for thick oppressive days, when the distant -hills disappear altogether, and the nearer ones seem quite distant -in the dense haze. This is probably due, to a great extent, to the -grass-burning just described, and also to the frequent burning of -the forest away to the east. As the weather gets warmer a few birds -come up from the wooded regions of the country, and wherever there -is a small patch of wood the oft-repeated cry of the _Kankàfotra_, -the Madagascar cuckoo, may be heard, much resembling the syllables -“_kow-kow, kow-kow-koo_.” - -And here we must notice more fully the birds to be seen in Imèrina. -They are few compared with those in the warmer and forest regions, -and are mostly of powerful flight, principally birds of prey, -swifts, swallows and water-birds. The two coast regions—east and -west—are, on the contrary, well peopled with birds of all sorts, and -while the greater part of these inhabit indifferently one or the -other region, there are a certain number which have their habitat -almost exclusively in one region only, and give it its special -characteristics. There are also some which keep to a still more -limited area, not going beyond a very restricted range. As far as -is at present known, two hundred and ten species of birds have been -found in Madagascar; and the very special character of its avi-fauna -may be seen from the fact that it includes forty-one genera and a -hundred and twenty-four species, which are all peculiar to the island. - -[Sidenote: RAPACIOUS BIRDS] - -The rapacious birds of the country comprise twenty-two species, the -majority being hawks, kites and buzzards, with several owls and -two eagles. The most common bird of this order is the _Papàngo_ or -Egyptian kite, a large hawk found all over the island. It may be seen -every day flying gracefully along in search of lizards and snakes, -and the mice, rats and small birds which form its chief food, and -continually swooping down upon its prey. When the long dry grass -is being burned on the downs the papàngo may be noticed sweeping -backwards and forwards close to the edge of the blazing grass, so -as to pick up the smaller creatures escaping the advancing flames, -or those which have been overtaken by them and killed. I have -occasionally observed hundreds of these birds in the neighbourhood -of Ambòhimànga, describing great circles, at an immense height, and -have wondered how such large numbers could obtain food. This kite -is the dread of the country-dwelling Malagasy, for it swoops down -on their chickens and is only scared away by their loud cries and -execrations. From these habits comes one of its provincial names, -_Tsimalàho_—_i.e._ “the one who does not ask,” but takes without -saying “by your leave.” It is constantly seen in company with -the white-necked crows, and, like them, feeds near the villages, -especially near where the oxen are killed. - -Another very widely spread rapacious bird is the little lively and -noisy _Hìtsikìtsika_ or kestrel, which is found in or about every -village, often perched on the gable “horns” of the houses, or even -on the extreme point of the lightning conductors. It is by no means -shy, and one can sometimes approach it quite closely and see its -bright fearless eyes, before it darts away. It is fond of the same -resting-place and, after a noisy chatter with its mate, takes a -sweeping flight for a few hundred yards and returns to its former -condition. Several native proverbs refer to the kestrel’s quick -restless flight and its frequent habit of hovering aloft, poised -almost motionless, or with an occasional quivering of the wings, -which, in Malagasy idiom, is called “dancing,” for the native dances -consist as much in a graceful motion of the hands as in that of the -feet. Among some tribes, or families, the kestrel is a tabooed bird -and it is crime to kill it. - -[Sidenote: HAWKS] - -Another hawk worth noticing, although much less common than the -two previously mentioned ones, is the lesser falcon, a small but -very courageous bird, which has long attracted the attention of -the Malagasy for its swiftness. The native name, _Vòromahèry_, or -“Powerful bird,” is also that of the tribe of Hova Malagasy who -inhabit the capital and its near neighbourhood, and this falcon also -was adopted as a crest or emblem by the native government, and its -figure was engraved on their official seals. Its flight is extremely -rapid, more like that of an arrow than that of a bird. - -Many of the Malagasy hawks are beautiful birds, with horizontal bars -of alternate light and dark colour on breast and tail; but perhaps -the most handsome of them all is the Rayed Gymnogene, which is of -a pearly-grey colour, barred with black, while on the tail and -quill feathers are broad bands of pure white and intensely glossy -black. This bird stands high, having very long legs, with a crest of -feathers on the crown and neck. - -As the end of October draws near the people are busily at work, not -only in the rice-fields, but also repairing their houses, mending -their grass or rush roofs, and hurrying on their sun-dried brick or -clay building before the heavy rains fall. The majority of native -houses are of those materials, and everything must be finished, or -at least well protected from the weather, before the rainy season -comes on. The water-courses, too, need attention, and the river banks -must be repaired, lest a succession of heavy rains should swell the -streams, break through the embankments and flood the rice-plains. - -SUMMER: NOVEMBER, DECEMBER, JANUARY AND FEBRUARY.—Summer in central -Madagascar is not only the hot season, but it is also the rainy -season, very little rain falling at any other time of the year. -It is accordingly called by the Malagasy _Fàhavàratra_—_i.e._ -“thunder-time”—since almost all heavy rain is accompanied by a -thunderstorm; and taking the average of a good many years, this -season may be said to commence at the beginning of November. - -[Sidenote: A TROPICAL STORM] - -As the sun gets every day more nearly vertical at noon, on his -passage towards the southern tropic, the heat increases, and the -electric tension of the air becomes more oppressive. For a week or -more previous to the actual commencement of the rains, the clouds -gather towards evening, and the heavens are lighted up at night by -constant flashes of lightning. But at length, after a few days of -this sultry weather, towards midday the huge cumuli gather thickly -over the sky and gradually unite into a dense mass, purple-black in -colour, and soon the thunder is heard. It rapidly approaches nearer -and nearer, the clouds touching the lower hills, then down darts the -forked lightning, followed by the roar of the thunder, and presently -a wild rush of wind, as if it came from all quarters at once, tells -us that the storm is upon us, and then comes the rain, in big heavy -drops for a few seconds and soon in torrents, as if the sluice-gates -of the clouds were opened. The lightning is almost incessant; now and -then, in one of the nearer crashes, it is as if the whole artillery -of heaven were playing upon the doomed earth; and for half-an-hour -or so there is often hardly any interval between the crashing and -reverberations of the thunder peals, the hills around the capital -echoing back the roar from the clouds. Certainly a heavy thunderstorm -in Madagascar is an awfully grand and glorious spectacle and is not -without a considerable element of danger too, especially for anyone -caught in the storm in the open, or in a house unprotected by a -lightning-conductor. Every house of any pretensions in the central -provinces has this safeguard, for every year many people are killed -by lightning, some while walking on the road, and others in houses -unprotected by a conductor. One often hears of strange freaks, so -to speak, played by the lightning; for instance, one of our college -students, travelling with wife and children to the Bétsiléo, was -killed instantaneously, as well as a slave near him, when sitting in -a native house, while a child he was nursing at the time escaped with -a few burns only. A missionary of the Norwegian Society was struck by -lightning, which melted the watch in his pocket, drove the nails out -of his shoes, and yet he escaped with no other harm than some burns, -which eventually healed. - -A large quantity of rain sometimes falls during such storms in a -very short time. On one occasion three and a quarter inches fell in -less than half-an-hour; and as the streets and paths through the -capital were formerly all very steep, and there was no underground -drainage, it may be imagined what a roar of water there was all over -the city after such a storm. The three or four chief thoroughfares -were transformed into the beds of rushing torrents and a series of -cascades; from every compound spouted out a jet of water to join the -main stream, and it used to be no easy matter to get about at all in -the rush and the roar. It was no wonder that most of the highways of -the capital got deeper and deeper every year. Even where there was -an attempt at a rough paving, a single storm would often tear it up -and pile the stones together in a big hole, with no more order than -obtains in the bed of a cataract. After the rains were over, the -red soil was dug away from the sides to fill up the channel cut by -the torrent, and so the road gradually sank below the walls of the -compounds on either side of it.[7] - -[Sidenote: RAINFALL] - -The annual rainfall of Antanànarìvo is about fifty inches, December -and January being the wettest months, with an average fall of ten to -twelve inches each. It is very unusual for thunderstorms to occur -in the morning, they mostly come on in the afternoon; and after the -first heavy downpour a steady rain will often continue for three or -four hours, and occasionally far into the night. It is generally -bright and fine in the early morning; all vegetation is refreshed by -the plentiful moisture; and the people are busy in their plantations -on the sloping hillsides, digging up the softened earth for planting -manioc, sweet potatoes, the edible arum, and many other vegetables. - -Hail also very frequently falls during these thunderstorms; and -should it be late in the season, when the rice is in ear, great -damage is often done to the growing crop. A large extent of -rice-field will sometimes be stripped of every grain, the stalks -standing up like bare sticks. Charms against hail had therefore in -the old heathen times a prominent place in the popular beliefs and, -there can be little doubt, are still trusted in and used by many -of the more ignorant people. Occasionally the hailstones are of -very large size and kill sheep and small animals, if they are left -unsheltered. I remember a storm of this kind, when the hailstones -were as large as good-sized nuts, while some were cushion-shaped -and hexagonal, with a hollow in the centre, and nearly one and a -half inches in diameter. In other cases they have been seen as -jagged lumps of ice; and it may be easily imagined that it is very -unpleasant and somewhat dangerous to be exposed to such a fusillade. - -[Sidenote: LIGHTNING] - -Besides the thunderstorms like those just described, which come so -close and are often so awful in their results, there is another kind -of storm we frequently see in the rainy season which is an unmixed -source of delight. This is when, for two or three hours together in -the evening, a large portion of the sky is lighted up by an almost -incessant shimmer of lightning, now revealing glimpses of a glory as -if heaven itself were opening, and anon showing many different tiers -and strata of clouds lying one behind the other, and alternately -lighted up, making clear the outlines of the nearer masses of cumulus -upon the brilliant background. How wonderful are the different -colours of this lightning! intense white, like glowing metal, now -red, and now violet; and not less wonderful are its forms! now it is -a zigzag, which plunges downwards, now it branches out horizontally, -and again it darts upwards into the clouds; and then, for a few -moments, there is nothing but an incessant quiver and shimmer, which -lights up first one quarter of the heavens, and then another, and -then the whole. All the time no thunder is heard from this celestial -display, but it is most fascinating to watch the infinitely varied -effects of light and darkness, till we sometimes feel as if a “door -was opened in heaven,” and we could catch a glimpse of “the excellent -glory” within. - -[Sidenote: OLD STYLE DIVISION OF TIME] - -Something may be said here about the native division of time. -Although the European months and year have become generally known and -used, the old style of months are still recognised to some extent -by the Malagasy. Their months were lunar ones, and therefore their -year was eleven days shorter than ours, their New Year’s Day coming -consequently at different times, from the first to the twelfth month, -until the cycle was complete after thirty-three years. When I first -came to Madagascar the Malagasy New Year began in the month of March; -and this style of reckoning time was kept up until the accession -of the last native sovereign, Queen Rànavàlona III., in 1883. The -Malagasy appear never to have made any attempt, by the insertion of -intercalary days or any other contrivance, to fill up their shorter -year to the true time occupied in the earth’s annual revolution -round the sun; for of course they must have noticed that their New -Year came at quite different periods after a few years. The names of -the Malagasy months are all Arabic in origin, as indeed are also -the days of the week (Alahàdy (Sunday), Alàtsinainy (Monday), Talàta -(Tuesday), Alarobìa (Wednesday), etc.); but it is curious that the -month names are not the Arabic names of the months, but are those of -the constellations of the Zodiac. Thus, Alàhamàdy is the Ram, Adaoro -is the Bull (_daoro_ = _taurus_), Adizaoza is the Twins, and so on. -This appears to have arisen from the connection between astrology and -the divination (_sikìdy_) introduced by the Arabs several centuries -ago. - -The New Year was _the_ great festival of the Malagasy and was -observed on the first day of the first month, Alàhamàdy. It was -called the _Fandròana_ or “Bathing,” and was kept up until the French -conquest in 1895, but since then has been superseded by the Fête of -the French Republic on 14th July every year. The ancient customs -were, however, very interesting, and were chiefly the following:—(1) -The lighting of little bundles of dried grass at dusk on the evenings -of the last day of the old year and the first of the new one. -These fires, possibly a relic of the old fire-worship, were called -_harèndrina_, and formed one of the most pleasing features of the -festival in the gathering darkness of the evening. (2) The ceremonial -Royal Bathing at the great palace, when all the principal people -of the kingdom were present, as well as representative foreigners, -was the most prominent of all the ceremonies, giving, as it did, -the name to the whole festival. At a fixed time in the evening the -queen retired behind curtains fixed at the north-east (the sacred -corner) of the great hall and bathed in a silver bath; after which -she emerged, robed and crowned, and, carrying a horn of water in her -hands, went down the assembly to the door, sprinkling the people as -she passed. (She would playfully give some of us an extra splash as -she went along.) (3) On the following day came the killing of oxen, -doubtless the most important of all the observances in the estimation -of the people generally, at any rate of the poorer classes, who -then got, for once a year at least, a plentiful supply of beef. -Presents of the newly killed meat were sent about in all directions -to relatives and friends, and feasting and merry-making prevailed -for several days among all classes. (4) For some time previous to -the actual festival it was customary for the Malagasy to visit their -elders and superiors in rank, bringing presents of money, fowls, -fruit, etc., using certain complimentary formulæ and expressions of -good wishes. - -[Sidenote: WILD FLOWERS] - -The rains which usually fall in November soon make the hills and -downs, which have got so brown and dry during the cold season, become -green again. Especially does the fresh grass brighten those portions -of the hillsides where the withered grass and fern had been burnt -two or three months before; and although, as already noticed, wild -flowers are not so plentiful or prominent in Madagascar as they are -in European countries, there are several kinds which now make their -appearance and give some beauty to the scene. Among these are the -_vònènina_ (_Vinca rosea_), with large pink flowers; the _avòko_ -(_Vigna angivensis_), bright crimson; the _nìfinakànga_ (_Commelyna -madagascarica_), deep blue; several small vetch-like plants with -yellow flowers; many others with minute yellow compound flowers, and -some few other kinds. A beautiful scarlet gladiolus is seen sparingly -on the downs, as well as a conspicuous and handsome white flower, -with a long tubular calyx, very like a petunia. - - -[7] It will be understood that all this refers to Antanànarìvo -under native rule. Since the French occupation the city has been -wonderfully improved; well paved and drained streets have been -engineered all over the place, with electric lighting and abundant -water-supply. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -SPRING AND SUMMER - - -Besides flowers growing on the ground, there are many shrubs and -small trees now in blossom, although some are by no means confined -in floral display to the warm and rainy season. Along the hedges in -some localities is a small bush, with clusters of purple leguminous -flowers, called _famàmo_ (_Mundulea suberosa_); branches of these -shrubs are sometimes placed in a pool or stream, so as to stupefy, -and thus easily obtain, any fish present in the water. Very -conspicuous are the bright yellow flowers of the _tainakòho_ (_Cassia -lævigata_), and the _tsiàfakòmby_ (_Cæsalpinia sepiaria_), and the -orange-yellow spikes of the _sèva_ (_Buddleia madagascariensis_). -More showy and handsome still perhaps are the abundant large yellow -flowers of the prickly pear, which is so largely used for hedges -and for the defences of the old towns and villages. The strong and -sharp spines, from an inch to an inch and a half long, are the usual -native substitute for pins. A species of _Hibiscus_ (_Hibiscus -diversifolius_) is not uncommon, with yellow flowers, which have deep -red in the centre; yellow seems indeed the most common colour in the -flora of Imèrina. At this time of the year also three or four species -of aloe come into flower. The larger of these, called _vàhona_ -(_Aloe macroclada_) by the Malagasy, is much used for planting as a -hedge, from its fleshy leaves being armed with sharp prickles; its -tall flower spike shoots up very rapidly to a height of four or six -feet. Another and smaller one, called _sahòndra_ (_Aloe capitata_), -has its flowers branching at the top of the stalk something like a -candelabra. The numerous flowers attract, as they expand, swarms of -bees. Another plant, like an aloe in appearance, called _tarètra_ -(_Fourcroya gigantea_) by the natives, has long leaves, with a sharp -spine at the ends only; and its flower-stalk shoots up like a small -mast to a height of twenty feet, with widely spreading branchlets -and an immense number of light coloured flowers. Strong fibre used -as thread is obtained from the leaves, the name of the plant being -indeed that used for “thread.” The tall flower-stalks of these aloes -and agaves form quite a noticeable feature in the Imèrina landscape -in the early summer. In the orchards, soon after the mango has -finished flowering, we may see the curious whitish flowers of the -rose-apple, a sort of ball of long stamens, showing conspicuously -among the foliage. - -[Sidenote: WATER-PRODUCING INSECTS] - -It is well known by those who live in Madagascar that there are, -at certain seasons of the year, a number of insects found on trees -which produce a constant dropping of water. Happening one day to -be standing under a peach-tree in our garden from which water was -dropping, I found that there were clusters of insects on some of -the smaller branches. In each cluster there were about twenty to -thirty insects, and these were partly covered with froth, from which -the water came. The insects producing this appeared at first sight -to be small beetles, about half-an-inch long, black in colour, -with golden-yellow markings on the head and thorax, while on the -wing-cases there was a chequer of minute spots of yellow on the -black ground. After observing a single insect for a few seconds, I -noticed that the tail was quite flexible and moved sideways, and was -constantly protruded and then withdrawn a little, and it was evident -that these little creatures were the larval form of a species of -beetle. The sap of the tree is extracted in such quantities as to -maintain their bodies in a state of saturated humidity. The activity -of the larvæ seems to increase as the heat of the day progresses, -and to diminish again towards evening. But the object of this -abstraction of fluid from the tree, and the purpose it serves, is -still a subject needing investigation. I have observed these insects -on other trees—mangoes, acacia, _zàhana_, and others; they appear -indeed to be very common, and the ground underneath the branches -where they cluster is covered with small patches soaked with water. -A French naturalist, M. Goudot, described an insect apparently of -the same kind as that found in Imèrina as the larva of a species of -_Cercopis_, and nearly related to the cicada of Europe. The quantity -of water produced from a tree at Tamatave seems to have been much -greater than that observed in the interior, and resembling a small -rain-shower; probably this was due to the greater heat of the coast. -M. Goudot says that the perfect insect attains a length of an inch -and a half, and that these also emit small drops of clear and limpid -water. - -Towards the beginning of December the earlier crop of rice comes -into ear; and should the rains fall as usual during November, the -remaining portions of the great rice-plain will be all planted out -with the later crop, the whole of the level and its branching valleys -presenting an unbroken expanse of green. Of this, the early rice -shows distinctly as a darker shade of colour, although it will soon -begin to turn yellow, as the grain ripens under the steady heat and -the plentiful rainfall. Perhaps this is the time when Bétsimitàtatra -is seen in its most attractive and beautiful aspect, for every part -of it is covered with rice in some stage or other of growth and -cultivation. - -[Sidenote: DAYS AND NIGHTS] - -To anyone coming for the first time into a tropical country from -England, the comparative uniformity in the length of the days and -nights throughout the year seems very strange. In Imèrina there -is only about two hours’ difference in the length of the longest -day, about Christmas, and the shortest day, early in July. It is -dark at about seven o’clock on the first of January, and at about -six o’clock on the first of July. Thus we have no long evenings, -which are such a delight in the summer months in England; but, on -the other hand, we escape the long nights and the short gloomy -days of the English winter. We lose also the long twilights of the -temperate zone, although I have never seen the almost instantaneous -darkness following sunset which one sometimes reads about. There is -a twilight of from fifteen to twenty minutes’ duration in this part -of Madagascar. While, therefore, we miss the much greater variety of -the seasons in England, we have many compensations, especially in the -very much larger proportion of bright sunny days, the clear skies, -and the pure atmosphere of our Imèrina climate. Very seldom have -we a wet morning in any part of the year; and the heat is not more -oppressive than it is in hot summers in England, while in the cold -season the sharp keen air is bracing and health-giving. We never see -snow in Madagascar, but a thin film of ice is very occasionally seen -on the slopes of the Ankàratra mountains in July and August. - -[Illustration: ROCKS NEAR AMBÀTOVÒRY - -This shows the remains of the original forest. Cattle are grazing -with a boy in charge] - -[Sidenote: THE HOURS] - -It may be interesting to notice at this point the numerous words used -by the Malagasy to indicate the different times of the day, from -morning to evening. Clocks and watches are comparatively a recent -introduction into Madagascar, nor do the people ever seem to have -contrived any kind of sun-dial, although, as will be seen, they did -use something else as a kind of substitute for such a time-keeper. -It should be remembered that the hours given (counting in European -fashion) as equivalents for these native divisions of the night and -the day are only approximations, and must be taken as the _mean_ of -the year, or, in other words, at about the time of equal day and -night, towards the end of March or of September. They are as follows:— - - {_Mamaton’ alina_, Centre of night } - { or or } About 12.0 midnight - {_Misasaka alina_, Halving of night } - _Maenno sahona_, Frog croaking, About 2.0 A.M. - _Maneno akaho_, Cock-crowing, ” 3.0 ” - _Maraina alina koa_, Morning also night, ” 4.0 ” - _Maneno goaika_, Crow croaking, ” 5.0 ” - {_Manga vodilanitra_, Bright horizon } - {_Mangoan’ atsinanana_, Reddish east } ” 5.15 ” - {_Mangiran-dratsy_, Glimmer of day } - _Ahitan-tsoratr’ omby_, Colours of cattle can be seen, ” 5.30 ” - _Mazava ratsy_, Dusk, ” ” ” - _Mifoha lo-maozoto_, Diligent people awake, ” ” ” - _Maraina koa_, Early morning, ” ” ” - {_Vaky masoandro_, Sunrise } - {_Vaky andro_, Daybreak } ” 6.0 ” - {_Piakandro_, ” } - _Antoandro be nanahary_, Broad daylight } ” ” ” - _Efa bana ny andro_, ” ” } ” ” ” - _Mihintsana ando_, Dew-falls, ” 6.15 ” - _Mivoaka omby_, Cattle go out (to pasture), ” ” ” - _Maim-bohon-dravina_, Leaves are dry (from dew), ” 6.30 ” - _Afa-dranom-panala_, Hoar-frost disappears }* ” 6.45 ” - _Manara vava nya ndro_, The day chills the mouth } ” ” ” - _Misandratra andro_, Advance of the day, ” 8.0 ” - _Mitatao haratra_, Over (at a right angle with) - the purlin, ” 9.0 ” - _Mitatao vovonana_, Over the ridge of the roof, ” 12.0 noon - _Mandray tokonana ny Day taking hold of the - andro_, threshold, ” 12.30 P.M. - {_Mitsidika andro_, Peeping-in of the day } - {_Latsaka iray dia ny } - { andro_, Day less one step (= hour?) } ” 1.0 P.M. - {_Solafak’ andro_, Slipping of the day } ” 1.30 ” - - {_Tafalatsaka ny andro_, Decline of the day = } to - {_Mihilana ny andro_, afternoon } ” 2.0 ” - - _Am-pitotoam-bary_, At the rice-pounding place, ” ” ” - - {_Mby amin’ ny andry ny - { andro_, At the house post, ” ” ” - {_Am-pamatoran-janak’ At the place of tying the - omby,_ calf, ” 3.0 ” - - _Mby am-pisoko ny andro_, At the sheep or poultry - pen, ” 4.0 ” - - _Mody omby tera-bao,_ The cow newly calved comes - home, ” 4.30 ” - - _Tafapaka ny andro_, Sun touching (_i.e._ the - eastern wall), ” 5.0 ” - - _Mody omby,_ Cattle come home, ” 5.30 ” - - _Mena masoandro,_ Sunset flush, ” 5.45 ” - - _Maty masoandro,_ Sunset (_lit._ “Sun dead”), ” 6.0 ” - - _Miditra akoho,_ Fowls come in, ” 6.15 ” - - _Somambisamby,_ Dusk, twilight, ” 6.30 ” - - _Maizim-bava-vilany,_ Edge of rice-cooking pan - obscure, ” 6.45 ” - - _Manokom-bary olona,_ People begin to cook rice, ” 7.0 ” - - _Homan-bary olona,_ People eat rice, ” 8.0 ” - - _Tapi-mihinana,_ Finished eating, ” 8.30 ” - - _Mandry olona,_ People go to sleep, ” 9.0 ” - - _Tapi-mandry olona,_ Everyone in bed, ” 9.30 ” - - _Mipoa-tafondro,_ Gun-fire, ” 10.0 ” - - _Mamaton’ alina,_ Midnight, ” 12.0 ” - - * These refer only to the two or three winter months. - -This list is, I think, a very interesting one, and shows the -primitive pastoral and agricultural habits of the Hova Malagasy -before they were influenced by European civilisation. Previous to -their knowledge of clocks and watches (which are still unknown to the -majority of people away from the capital), the native houses thus -served as a rude kind of dial. As, until recent times, these were -always built with their length running north and south, and with -the single door and window facing the west, the sunlight coming in -after midday at the open door gave, by its gradual progress along the -floor, a fairly accurate measure of time to people amongst whom time -was not of very much account. In the forenoon, the position of the -sun, nearly square with the eastern purlin of the roof, marked about -nine o’clock; and as noon approached, its vertical position, about -the ridge-pole, or at least its reaching the meridian, clearly showed -twelve o’clock. Then, as the sunlight gradually passed westward and -began to peer in at the door, at about one o’clock, it announced “the -peeping-in of the day” (_mitsìdika àndro_); and then, as successive -points on the floor were reached by the advancing rays, several of -the hours of the afternoon were sufficiently clearly marked off: -“the place of rice-pounding” (_am-pitotòam-bàry_), as the light fell -on the rice mortar, further into the house; “the calf-fastening -place” (_am-pamatòran-jànak òmby_), as the rays reached one of the -three central posts supporting the ridge, and where the calf was -fastened for the night; and then, “touching” (_tàfapàka_), when the -declining sunshine reached the eastern wall, at about half-past four -in the afternoon. Other words and notes of time, it will be seen, -are derived from various natural phenomena. Some other words for the -division of time used by the Malagasy may be here noted. Thus “a -rice-cooking” (_indray màhamàsa-bàry_) is frequently used to denote -about half-an-hour; while “the frying of a locust” (_indray mitòna -valàla_) is a phrase employed to describe a moment. - -Many words exist in the Malagasy language to denote different -appearances of nature which are somewhat poetical and seem to -show some imaginative power. Thus the light fleecy clouds in -the upper regions of the atmosphere are called “sky gossamer” -(_faròran-dànitra_); the sun is the “day’s-eye” (_masoandro_); the -galaxy is the “dividing of the year” (_èfi-taona_); the rainbow is -“God’s great knife” (_àntsibèn’ Andrìamànitra_); and a waterspout is -the “tail of the sky” (_ràmbon-dànitra_). - -We saw just now that in Imèrina the native houses, with the sun -touching different parts of them, form a kind of primitive sun-dial; -so it may be well here to say something about the structure and -arrangement of a native house in this part of Madagascar. - -[Sidenote: THE HOVA HOUSE] - -A Hova house of the old style is always built with its length running -north and south; it is an oblong, the length being about half as -much again as the breadth, and the door and window always on the -west side, so as to be sheltered from the prevailing south-east -winds; for, as there is no glass, there would be much inconvenience -in facing the windward side. There is frequently another window at -the north end of the house, and often one also in the north gable. -The material used always to be the hard red clay found all over the -central provinces; and this is still largely used, although sun-dried -bricks are supplanting the old style of building. This clay, after -being mixed with water, is kneaded by being trampled over thoroughly, -and is then laid in courses of about a foot to eighteen inches in -height, and about the same in thickness. Each layer is allowed to -become hard and firm before the next one is set, and it is well -beaten on both sides as it dries. If properly laid and of good -material, the cracks are not very large when the clay is dry, and -are filled up; and it makes a very substantial and durable walling, -quite as much, and more so, as the majority of cheap brick houses in -England. The boundary walls of the compounds are also made of the -same hard clay; and it is remarkable how many years such material -will last without much damage, although exposed almost daily, for -four or five months every year, to the heavy rains of the wet season. -(I know walls which had been built for several years before I saw -them first forty-three years ago, and yet they seem little altered -since that time.) - -The houses of the upper classes and richer people used to be built -of timber framework, the walls being of thick upright planks, which -are grooved at the edge, a tenon of the tough _anìvona_ palm bark -being inserted so as to hold them together. Two or three lengths -of the same fibrous substance were also passed through each plank -longitudinally at different heights from the ground, so as to bind -them all firmly together round the house. The accompanying drawing -will show more clearly than any verbal description the details of -the structure of a Hova _tràno-kòtona_, as this style of wooden -house is called (no such houses are built nowadays; and very few of -them remain; the use of brick, sun-dried and burnt, has entirely -superseded them). The roof in both clay and timber houses does not -depend for its stability on the walls only, but is mainly supported -by three tall posts, which are let into the ground for some depth and -carry the ridge-piece. One of these posts is in the centre, and one -is at each end, close to the walls inside the house. This is a wise -provision, as the roofs are generally of high pitch, and in violent -winds would need much more support than could be given by the -walls. The gables were always thatched with the same materials as the -roof, either of long grass or the _hèrana_ sedge. At each gable the -outer timbers cross the apex, and project upwards for about a foot or -two, the extremities being notched, and often having a small wooden -figure of a bird. In the houses of people of rank, the _tàndro-tràno_ -or “house-horns” were three or four feet long, while in some of the -royal houses they projected ten or twelve feet, the length being -apparently some indication of the rank of the owner. In some tribes -these gable ornaments, which have become only conventional horns -among the Hovas, are carved in exact resemblance of those adorning -the head of a bullock. - -[Illustration: A MALAGASY HOUSE. - -Showing elevation, plan, internal arrangement, and month names. - -_See page 96_] - -[Sidenote: THE INTERIOR] - -The interior arrangements of a Hova house are very simple and are (or -perhaps it would be more correct to say _were_) almost always the -same. - -Let us, following Malagasy politeness, call out before we enter, -“_Haody, haody?_” equivalent to, “May we come in?” And while we -wait a minute or two, during which the mistress of the house is -reaching down a clean mat for us to sit down on, we notice that -the threshold is raised a foot or more above the ground on either -side, sometimes more, so that a stone is placed as a step inside -and out. Entering the house in response to the hospitable welcome, -“_Màndrosòa, Tòmpoko é_,” “Walk forward, sir” (or madam), we step -over the raised threshold. In some parts of Imèrina a kind of closet, -looking more like a large oven than anything else, is made of clay -at the south-east corner, opposite the door, and here, as in an -Irish cabin, the pig finds a place at night, and above it the fowls -roost. Near the door the large wooden mortar or _laona_ for pounding -rice generally stands, and near it are the _fanòto_ or pestle, a -long round piece of wood, and the _sahàfa_ or large shallow wooden -dish in which the rice is winnowed from husk removed by pounding. At -about the middle of the eastern side of the house are placed two or -three globular _sìny_ or water-pots, the mouths covered with a small -basket to keep out the dust. Farther on, but near the west side, is -the _fàtana_ or hearth, a small enclosure about three feet square. -In this are fixed five stones, on which the rice-cooking pots are -arranged over the fire. And over this is sometimes fixed a light -framework upon which the cooking-pots are placed when not in use. -There is no chimney, the smoke finding its way out through windows -or door or slowly through the rush or grass thatch, and so the house -is generally black and sooty above, long strings of cobweb and soot -hanging down from the roof. Such appendages were considered as marks -of long residence and honour, and so the phrase, _mainty molàly_, -_lit._ “black from soot,” is a very honourable appellation, and is -applied to things ancient, such as the first Christian hymns; and -missionaries who have been a long time resident in the island are -given this name as a mark of respect. - -The north-east corner of the house is the sacred portion of it, and -is called _zòro firaràzana_—_i.e._ the corner where the _ràry_ or -war-chant was sung and where any religious act connected with the -former idolatry was performed, and in which the _sàmpy_ or household -charm was kept in a basket suspended from the wall. In this corner -also is the fixed bedstead, which, especially in royal houses, was -often raised up some height above the ground and reached by a notched -post serving as a ladder, and sometimes screened with mats or coarse -cloth. West of this, close to the north roof-post, is the place of -honour, _avàra-pàtana_, “north of the hearth,” where guests are -invited to sit down, a clean mat being spread as a seat, just as a -chair is handed in European houses. - -[Sidenote: FURNITURE] - -There is little furniture in a purely native house; a few rolls of -mats, half-a-dozen spoons in a small but long basket fixed to the -wall, some large round baskets with covers, and perhaps a tin box -containing _làmbas_ for Sunday and special occasions; a few common -dishes of native pottery, and perhaps two or three of European make; -a horn or a tin _zìnga_, for drinking water; a spade or two—these -with the rice mortar and pounder and winnower already mentioned—the -water-pots, and the implements for spinning and weaving, constitute -about the whole household goods in the dwellings of the poorer -classes. The earthen floor is covered with coarse mats, and sometimes -the walls are lined with finer mats; in the roof an attic is often -formed for a part of or the whole length of the house and is reached -by a rude ladder. The floor of this upper chamber is frequently -covered over with a layer of earth and is used as a cooking-place, -with much advantage to the lower part of the house, which is thus -kept comparatively free from smoke and soot. - -It must be understood the foregoing description applies to the -original style of native house, as unaffected by modern innovations. -In the capital and the more important places, as well as in many -villages, numbers of brick houses, with upper storeys and three or -four or more rooms, have been built of late years; and hundreds of -six-roomed houses, with verandahs carried on brick pillars, have also -been erected, following a model introduced about the year 1870 by the -late Rev. J. Pearse. This struck the fancy of the well-to-do people, -and similar ones have been built all over the central provinces. - -[Sidenote: NEST OF BLACK WASP] - -Few people who have lived in Madagascar can have failed to notice a -small longish lump of light coloured clay stuck under the eaves of -the house, or on the side of a window, or, in fact, in any sheltered -place; and if we take the trouble to break off a piece, we find -that this lump of clay contains a number of cells, all filled with -caterpillars or spiders in a numbed and semi-lifeless condition. The -maker of these cells is a black wasp about an inch long, with russet -wings, and as one sits in the verandah of one’s house one may often -hear a shrill buzz somewhere up in the rafters, and there the little -worker is busy bringing in pellets of clay with which she builds up -the walls of the cell. (When I lived at Ambòhimànga, one of these -wasps made a nest with several cells in my study, as the window was -generally open to the air.) Presently she is off again for another -load to the banks of a little stream where she has her brick-field. -Kneading the red earth with her mandibles, she quickly forms it into -a pellet of clay, about the size of a pea, which she dexterously -picks up and flies away back to the verandah. This pellet is placed -on the layer already laid, carefully smoothed and “bonded in” with -the previous structure, until a cell is completed. Observations -made by a careful student of animal and insect life show that about -twenty-six journeys finish one cell, and that on a fine day it takes -about forty-five minutes to complete it. This is only one out of many -cells, however, placed on the top of each other. - -With regard to the storing of these cells with food for the grubs of -the wasp, Mr Cory[8] found that the number of spiders enclosed in -eleven cells varied from eight to nineteen. These are caught by the -wasp, stung so as to be insensible, but not killed, and then the -egg is laid in their bodies, so that on being hatched the grub finds -itself in the midst of food. - -[Sidenote: BUILDING AND BURROWING WASPS] - -Another species of these solitary wasps is a much larger insect, -about two inches in length, and she makes nests, which are extremely -hard, and are like half-buried native water-pots, with the mouths -facing the observer, and arranged regularly one above the other. When -finished they are plastered over with rough gravel. Unlike the wasp -previously mentioned, this one does not fetch the clay for building -purposes from the banks of a stream, but carries the water to the -dry earth, which it then damps and kneads into balls. The cells are -stocked with caterpillars, which are stung and numbed in the same way -as the spiders are treated by the first-named wasp. There are usually -three caterpillars placed in each cell. - -Another wasp, also very common, does not build cells, but digs a -burrow in the ground, even in pretty hard places, like a well-trodden -road. Some of these use caterpillars for stocking their burrows, some -large spiders, and some crickets, but all drag or carry their prey -on foot, even the largest of them. One small wasp, when carrying a -spider, first amputates all its legs and then slings the body beneath -her. The burrows of the larger wasp are deep in comparison with the -size of the insect, being frequently a foot or more in depth. Mr Cory -gives a graphic description of a battle between one of these wasps -and a large spider, in which, however, the former managed to sting -its prey and capture it. - -There is one very small wasp that makes no cell or burrow, but -chooses a long hole in a piece of wood, or a small bamboo, etc., for -the rearing of its larvæ. “Each kind of wasp seems to have its own -peculiar way of hunting; some run down on foot by scent for long -distances; some dash down violently into the web of a spider, and -catch him as he drops from out of it; while others again seize their -prey upon the wing, especially the social wasps. The males of all are -lazy and do no work.”[9] - -January is usually the wettest month of the year in Imèrina; and in -some years there occurs what the Hova call the _hafitòana_, or “seven -days”—that is, of almost continuous rain, although it more usually -lasts only three or four days. Such a time is most disastrous for -houses, compounds and boundary walls, for the continuous rain soaks -into them and brings them down in every direction. From the steep -situation of the capital, almost every house compound is built up on -one side with a retaining wall, and on the other is cut away so as to -form a level space. - -[Sidenote: LUXURIANT GROWTH] - -The prolonged moisture, combined with the heat of this time of the -year, naturally makes everything grow luxuriantly. The hillsides -again become green and pleasant to the eye; our gardens are gay with -flowers, and in many places the open downs display a considerable -amount of floral beauty. I have never seen elsewhere such a profusion -of wild flowers as that which met our view when travelling from the -south-west to Antanànarìvo in December 1887. Leaving Antsìrabé and -proceeding northwards, the level country was gay with flowers, which -literally covered the downs, and in many places gave a distinct and -bright colour to the surface of the ground. Among these the most -prominent was a pale pink flower on stems from a foot to eighteen -inches high, called by the people _kòtosày_ (_Sopubia triphylla_), -and also the lovely deep blue flower called _nìfinakànga_, which -latter covered the paths and also occurred very abundantly among -the grass. In many places, especially near villages, whether -deserted or still inhabited, a plant with small pale blue flowers -(various species of _Cynoglossum_), almost exactly like our English -“forget-me-not,” grew in dense masses, showing a blue-tinted surface -even at a considerable distance. The _vonènina_, with a pale pink -flower, was very frequent, as well as several species of bright -yellow flowers, one with a head of minute florets, looking like -a small yellow brush; others were star-shaped, the whole forming -in many places a brilliant mass of gold. Three or four species of -white-flowered plants, one of them a clematis (_Clematis bojeri_), -were very frequent; and a few late examples of terrestrial orchids -were seen. Five or six weeks previously these were among the most -abundant flowers met with, and their clusters of waxy-white flowers -were very conspicuous. Other species of orchid, of rich crimson and -also of purple, were even more beautiful. - -We reckoned that there were from twenty to thirty different species -of wild flowers then in bloom on these downs of Vàkinankàratra, -gladdening our eyes by their varied beauty and abundance on that -glorious morning. The flowers, however, grew much scarcer as we -travelled over higher ground; but six weeks previously these upper -_tanèty_ had also been gay with great masses of the brilliant crimson -flowers of a leguminous plant, which grew in clusters of many scores -of spikes growing close together. Our ride that day obliged us to -modify the opinions previously held as to the poverty of Madagascar -in wild flowers. - - -[8] The Rev. C. P. Cory, B.A., formerly of the Anglican Mission in -Madagascar. - -[9] I am indebted for the information here given about wasps to an -interesting paper contributed by Mr Cory to the fourteenth number of -_The Antanànarìvo Annual_ for 1890. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND LIVING -CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR - - -AUTUMN: MARCH AND APRIL.—It will be understood from what has been -previously stated as to the divisions of the seasons in the Imèrina -province that, as with the seasons in England, there is some variety -in different years in the times when they commence and finish. -Generally, both crops of rice—the earlier and the later—are all cut -by the end of April, although in the northern parts of the province -it is usually five or six weeks after that date. But if the rains are -late, and should happen to be scanty in February and March, harvest -work is still going on at the end of May. In fact, owing to there -being these two crops of rice, with no very exactly marked division -between the two, autumn, in the sense of rice harvest, is going on -for about four months, and sometimes longer, as just mentioned, and -extends over the later months of summer as well as the two months of -autumn or _Fàraràno_ (March and April). In January those portions -of the great rice-plain which lie north-west of the capital, as -well as many of the lesser plains and valleys, become golden-yellow -in hue, very much indeed like the colour of an English wheat-field -in harvest-time; and after a few days patches of water-covered -field may be noticed in different places, showing where the crop -has been cut, and the few inches of water in which it was growing -show conspicuously in the prospect. As the weeks advance, this -water-covered area extends over larger portions of the rice-plain, -until the whole of the early crop has been gathered in, so that in -many directions there appear to be extensive sheets of water. I -well remember, when once at Ambòhimanàrina, a large village to the -north-west of Antanànarìvo, how strange it appeared to see people -setting out to cross what seemed a considerable lake. But of course -there was no danger, as the water was only a few inches deep. - -[Sidenote: THE RICE CROP] - -As there are channels to conduct water to every rice-field, small -canoes are largely used to bring the rice, both before and after it -has been threshed, to the margin of the higher grounds and nearer -to the roads. At the village just mentioned, which is like a large -island surrounded by a sea of rice-plain, there is one point where -a number of these channels meet and form quite a port; and a very -animated scene it presents at harvest-time, as canoe after canoe, -piled up with heaps of rice in the husk, or with sheaves of it still -unthreshed, comes up to the landing-place to discharge its cargo. - -In a very few weeks’ time the watery covering of the plain is -hidden by another green crop, but not of so bright and vivid a tint -as the fresh-planted and growing rice. This is the _kòlikòly_, or -after-crop, which sprouts from the roots of the old plants. This is -much shorter in stalk and smaller in ear than the first crop, and is -often worth very little; but if the rains are late, so that there is -plenty of moisture, it sometimes yields a fair quantity, but it is -said to be rather bitter in taste. - -In cutting the rice the Malagasy use a straight-bladed knife; and, as -the work proceeds, the stalks are laid in long curving narrow lines -along the field, the heads of one sheaf being covered over by the cut -ends of the stalks of the next sheaf. This is done to prevent the -ears drying too quickly and the grain falling out before it reaches -the threshing-floor. This last-named accessory to rice-culture is -simply a square or circle of the hard red earth, kept clear from -grass and weeds, sometimes plastered with mud, and generally on the -sloping side of the rising ground close to the rice-field. Here the -sheaves are piled round the threshing-floor like a low breastwork. -(Occasionally the rice is threshed in a space in the centre of the -rice-field, mats being spread over the stubble to prevent loss of the -grain.) No flail is used, but handfuls of the rice-stalks are beaten -on a stone fixed in the ground, until all the grain is separated -from the straw. The unhusked rice is then carried in baskets to the -owner’s compound and is usually stored in large round pits with a -circular opening dug in the hard red soil. These are lined with -straw, and the mouth is covered with a flat stone, which is again -covered over with earth; and in these receptacles it is generally -kept dry and uninjured for a considerable time. - -[Sidenote: BEAUTIFUL BIRDS] - -In most years the end of April and the beginning of May are very -busy times with the Malagasy; almost all other work must give way to -the getting in of the harvest; the fields are everywhere dotted over -with people reaping; most of the poorer people we meet are carrying -loads of freshly cut grain on their heads, or baskets filled with -the unhusked rice, and large quantities are spilt along the roads -and paths. Some of the chief embankments swarm with rats and mice, -which must pick up a very good living at this time of the year. Other -creatures also take toll from the harvest, especially the _Fòdy_, or -cardinal-bird, the bright scarlet plumage of the cock-bird making a -very noticeable feature of the avi-fauna during the warmer months. -This colour is not seen on the wings, which are sober brown, but -is brilliant on head, breast and back; it fades away in the winter -months, returning again as the breeding-time comes round. The white -egret, which we saw on the coast, is equally in evidence in Imèrina, -and sometimes flocks of two or three hundred of them may be seen in -the rice-fields and marshes. When living at Ambòhimànga we used to -notice that in the winter months a large number of the _Vòrompòtsy_ -were accustomed to assemble on the open down towards sunset; and on -a signal apparently given by one of them the whole flock rose and -flew slowly away to roost in the large trees to the north-west of the -town. The white-necked crow is also plentiful, and is perhaps the -most commonly seen bird in Imèrina. On one occasion when walking with -a friend near Ambòhimànga, he had his gun and shot one of a small -flock of crows near us. For a few seconds there was a dead silence, -and then all the others filled the air with hoarse cries and came -dashing round us so closely that I feared they would injure our eyes, -so angry did they seem with those who had killed their companion. -One of the most beautiful birds to be seen is the _Vintsy_, or -kingfisher, of lovely purplish-blue, with yellow and buff breast and -belly. With short blunt tail and long beak, it may be seen perched on -the rushes or other aquatic plants, or darting over the streams and -marshes, flying in a curious jerking manner, like a flash of purple -light, pursuing the insects which form its food. - -From what has been already said about rice-culture it may be easily -understood that it occupies a large amount of the time and attention -of the Malagasy. The digging and preparation of the ground; the -sowing in the _kètsa_ plots; the uprooting of the young plants; -the planting, by the women, of these again in the soft mud of the -rice-fields; the bringing of water, often from a long distance, to -the fields, and the repairing of the water-courses; the weeding -of the rice-fields; and, finally, the cutting, the threshing, the -bringing home, and the drying and storing of the rice—all this bulks -largely in their daily life through a good deal of the year. Rice -is the staff of life to the Malagasy, and they cannot understand -how Europeans can make a proper meal without it. _Mihìnam-bàry_, -“to eat rice,” is the native equivalent for the Eastern phrase, “to -eat bread”; they eat other things of course—manioc root, a little -meat or fish, and various vegetables, but these are only _laoka_ or -accompaniments to the staple food. - -The Malagasy have a saying, when speaking of things which are -inseparable, that they are “like rice and water.” And when we -remember that rice is sown on water, that it is transplanted in -water, that it grows still in water, that it is reaped in water, -that it is usually carried by water, in canoes, that it is boiled in -water, and that water is generally the only beverage with which it is -eaten, it will be seen that there is much force in the comparison. - -[Sidenote: ARTICLES OF FOOD] - -Besides the above-mentioned additions to rice, the people eat as -a relish with it other things, many of them very repulsive to our -European notions—for instance, snails, locusts, certain kinds of -caterpillars, moths, and even, so it is said, some species of -spiders! But I never realised so distinctly what queer things -they will eat as when taking a ride one afternoon to the north of -Ambòhimànga. Passing along one of the long rice-valleys, we saw some -girls dredging for fish in the shallow water; and thinking we might -perhaps buy some to take home, we called to them to bring the basket -for us to see. They immediately complied, but, on inspecting the -contents, we found no fish, but a heap of brown, crawling, wriggling, -slimy creatures, really very disgusting in appearance, considered -as possible articles of food. This mass of creeping animal life -consisted of shrimps, water-beetles, tadpoles, and the larvæ of many -kind of insects. It is needless to say that we did _not_ make a -purchase of these tempting delicacies; but I believe they would all -go into the pot in some Malagasy house that evening and give a relish -to the rice of some of our native friends. - -[Illustration: ON THE COAST LAGOONS - -Fish traps. The way is blocked for fish with occasional openings for -traps] - -The rivers of the interior are singularly deficient in fish of any -size; but in the shallow water of the rice-fields numbers of minute -shrimps are caught, as well as small fish of the kinds called _Tòho_ -and _Tròndro_, but they are very bony and poor in flavour: somewhat -larger kinds, called _Màrakèly_ and _Tòhovòkoka_, are, however, very -good eating, but are not plentiful. Very large and fine eels are -caught in the rivers, as well as crayfish, of a kind peculiar to -Madagascar. On the water of the streams many kinds of water-beetles -and water-boatmen may be seen darting about in mazy circles; one of -these, called _Tsingàla_, causes death if swallowed by cattle or -human beings, oxen dying in less than twenty-four hours, unless a -remedy is promptly given. The Rev. H. T. Johnson wrote thus about -this insect: - -[Sidenote: THE TSINGÀLA] - - “I was travelling one day to Ambòhimandròso; the day had been - very hot, and passing by a dirty pool, one of my bearers stooped - down and drank with his hands and then hastily followed to carry - the palanquin. I saw the man drink and presently, hearing sounds - behind, I turned and discovered that the very man, who only a few - minutes before had drunk the water, was now in agonies of pain. - He stood stretching out both his arms and throwing back his head - in a frantic manner, at the same time shrieking most hideously. - My first thoughts were speedily seconded by the words of his - companions, who said, ‘He has swallowed a _tsingàla_.’ Of course, I - immediately got down and went back to the poor fellow. He was now - lying on the ground and writhing in agony, and I felt that unless - something could be done, and that speedily, the man must die. My - other bearers, seeing the extreme urgency of the case, called to - the passers-by, but none could render any assistance. Presently - a Bétsiléo was appealed to, and he said that he knew what would - cure him, but wanted to know how much money we would give. I said - immediately that it was no time for bargaining, but that I would - give him sixpence if he relieved the poor man from his sufferings. - Off he ran to procure some leaves, with which he returned in about - ten minutes; he soaked them in water from a stream close by, and - then gave the sufferer the infusion to drink. With almost the - quickness of a flash of lightning the poor fellow showed signs of - relief, and after drinking this infusion several times more he - said that he was free from pain, but felt very weak and faint. It - was some weeks before the man got thoroughly strong again.” - -No one can pass along the little narrow banks and paths which -divide the rice-fields without noticing the large dragonflies -which dart over the water. Their colours are very various. A rich -crimson, steely-blue and old gold are some of these. They are -voracious creatures, as their name implies, and I saw one, one day, -deliberately, and audibly, crunching up a smaller one. At another -time, however, I noticed a fair-sized one being devoured by a spider, -which was barred with lines like a zebra. - -[Sidenote: MARSHES] - -The marshes in Imèrina are not useless to the people, for a variety -of useful plants grow there and are also planted in them. Among -these are the _Hèrana_, a sedge which grows to three or four feet in -height, and is extensively used for thatching native houses. If the -roof is a proper pitch this sedge is very durable, and when cut and -trimmed has a very neat appearance. Then there is the _Zozòro_, a -much taller sedge, closely allied to the papyrus, with a triangular -stem, and a feathery head of flowers. The strong tough peel is used -to make the excellent mats employed for flooring, and also all -sorts and sizes of baskets; the pith is used for stuffing pillows -and mattresses; and the stems firmly fixed together are used for -temporary doors and window shutters, and for beds. A rush, called -_Hàzondràno_, is employed for making baskets and mats. - -As the colder weather advances, the mornings are often foggy, at -least a thick white mist covers the plains and valleys soon after the -sun rises and remains for an hour or two until his increasing power -disperses it. Seen from the higher grounds and from the most elevated -parts of the capital, this mist often presents a very beautiful -appearance; a billowy sea of vapour is brilliantly lit up by the -sunlight, and out of this sea the hill-tops rise up like islands. But -these misty mornings also reveal many things which cannot be seen, -or can only be seen by very close observation, in clear sunshine, -especially the webs of various species of spider. There they are all -the time, but we are not aware of their presence except on a misty -autumn or winter morning, when a very delicate thread and filmy net -is marked out by minute drops of moisture which reveal all their -wonderful beauty of structure. Many kinds of bush are seen to be -almost covered by geometrical webs: one species seems to choose -the extremities of the branches of the _sòngosòngo Euphorbia_, but -the most common is a web averaging five or six inches in diameter -which is spread horizontally on tufts of grass, and may be seen -by thousands, half-a-dozen or so in a square yard. This web has a -funnel-shaped hole near the centre, with a little shaft leading down -to the ground. Near this, the maker and tenant of the structure—a -little greyish-brown spider about half-an-inch long—may often be -found, if carefully searched for. As the sun gains power, these -numerous webs become almost invisible, but before the moisture is all -dried from them, they present a beautiful appearance in the sunshine, -for they are exactly like the most delicate gauze, studded with -numberless small diamonds, flashing with all the prismatic colours as -we pass by and catch the light at varying angles. - -[Sidenote: SPIDERS] - -The most conspicuous of the many species of spider seen in Madagascar -is a large _Nephila_, a creature about an inch and a half long, with -a spread of legs six or seven inches in diameter. It is handsomely -marked with red and yellow, and may be noticed by scores in the -centre of its geometric web stretching across the branches of -trees. From the considerable distances spanned by the main guys and -supports of its great net, this spider is called by the Malagasy -_Mampìta-hàdy_, or “fosse-crosser”; and these main lines are strong -enough to entangle small birds, for at the mission station at -Ambàtoharànana a cardinal-bird and a kingfisher were both caught in -these nets. The male spider is only about a quarter the size of the -female as just described, and, sad to say, he frequently is caught -and devoured by his affectionate spouse, after mating. Attempts have -been made, and with some success, to employ the silk made by this -spider in the manufacture of a woven fabric; but it is very doubtful -whether such silk could be procured in such quantities as to be of -commercial value. - -[Sidenote: BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS] - -Silk from the silkworm moth is produced to a considerable extent, -and, as we have seen in speaking of native weaving, is employed in -manufacturing a variety of handsome _làmbas_. The moth is a large -and beautiful insect, with shades of buff and brown and yellow, and -with a large eye-like spot on the hind wings. The caterpillars are -fed on the leaves of the mulberry-trees and also on those of the -_tapia_ (_Chrysopia sp._) shrub. Another moth, somewhat like the -silk-producing one in colouring, has an extraordinary development of -the hind wings, which have long delicate tail-like appendages; these -have extremely narrow shafts and are enlarged at the ends. Their -points have two spiral twists or folds, very graceful in appearance. -There are four distinct eye-like spots near the centre of each -wing, which are light buff in colour, with lemon-yellow. The insect -measures eight and a half inches from shoulder to point of tail, and -eight inches across the upper wings. It is allied to _Tropæa leto_. -Some species of moth, very dark brown in colour, and yet beautifully -marked, often fly into our houses at night, the female being much -larger than the male. The Malagasy are afraid of seeing these almost -black-looking insects, which they call _lòlom-pàty_ (“death-moths”), -in their houses, as they think them presages of evil and death. -Another moth, with death’s-head marking on its thorax, is also often -seen. But the most beautiful of the Malagasy lepidoptera is a diurnal -moth, which one would always call a butterfly—viz. the _Urania -riphæa_, a large and lovely insect, with golden-green, crimson and -black markings, and edged all round its wings and tails with delicate -pure white. It is a curious fact that the nearest ally to this -Madagascar species is a native of Hayti and Cuba (_U. sloana_), a -remarkable instance of discontinuity of habitat. This fact, however, -has a parallel in the family of small insectivorous animals called -Centetidæ, which are also confined to Madagascar and some of the West -India islands. During 1899 this butterfly was unusually abundant, -while in some seasons it is seldom seen. At Isoàvina I noticed a -great many flying around the tall blue-gum trees in the dusk of the -evening. Great numbers also were seen at Ambòhimànga in the garden -there. They appeared to be intoxicated with the strong flavour of -the nectar from the loquat-trees, then in flower, so that almost -any quantity of them could have been captured in the early morning, -while still under the influence of the flowers, which have a powerful -scent of prussic acid. The Malagasy call it _Andrìandòlo_—_i.e._ -“king-butterfly.” - -In these bare upper highlands of Madagascar butterflies are not found -in as great variety as in the warmer regions of the island. Still -there are a few species which are common enough, the most plentiful -being one which is satiny-blue above and spotted with brown and -grey underneath. This is to be seen all the year round, especially -hovering over the euphorbia hedges which divide plantations from -the roads. Another, also tolerably common, is a large reddish-brown -butterfly, the wings edged with black and white. More rare is an -insect with four large round white spots on dark chocolate-brown -wings; and another, dark brown in colour, with eye-like spots of -blue and red. Several small species, yellow, white, or brown, or -silvery-grey and blue, are found hovering over, or settling on, damp -places; and there are two or three white species, with black spots -or lines on the edges of the wings. In the warmer season a handsome -large _Papilio_ is rather common in our gardens, with dark green and -sulphur-yellow spots and markings. The eggs of some of these are -beautiful objects in the microscope, being fluted and sculptured -like a Greek vase. My friend, M. Ch. Matthey, who has made large -collections of Madagascar insects, tells me that there are a few -cases of mimicry and dimorphism, especially the latter, among the -butterflies of the interior. - -[Sidenote: GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND LOCUSTS] - -On the open downs, and when the sun is shining, the air is filled -with the hum of chirping insect life from the many species of -grasshoppers, crickets and small locusts which cover the ground. -Every step among the long dry grass disturbs a score of these -insects, which leap in all directions from one’s path as we proceed, -sometimes dashing on one’s face with a smart blow. The majority of -these are of various shades of brown and green, and some of the -larger species of grasshopper are remarkable for their protective -colouring. Here is one whose legs and wings are exactly like dry -grass; the body is like a broad blade of some green plant, the -antennæ are two little tufts, like yellow grass, and the eyes -are just like two small brown seeds. But, curiously enough, when -it flies, a pair of bright scarlet wings make its flight very -conspicuous. You pursue it, to catch such a brightly coloured -insect, when it settles, and lo! it has vanished, only something -resembling green or dry grass remains, which it requires sharp eyes -to distinguish from the surrounding herbage. Other grasshoppers -are entirely like green grass blades and stalks, and others again -resemble, equally closely, dried grass; and unless the insects -move under one’s eyes it is almost impossible to detect them. One -is puzzled to guess where the vital organs can be placed in such -dry-looking little sticks. There is one species of mantis also, -which, in the shape and colour of its wings, legs, antennæ and -body, presents as close a resemblance to its environment as do the -grasshoppers. Their curious heads, however, which turn round and look -at one in quite an uncanny manner, and their formidably serrated fore -legs or arms, put up in mock pious fashion, give them a distinctly -different appearance from the other insects. In the dry and cooler -season on almost every square foot of ground is a large brown -caterpillar, often many of them close together, feeding on the young -blades of grass. - -[Sidenote: PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE] - -But the most handsome insect one sees on the downs is the -_Valàlanambòa_ or dog-locust. This is large and is gorgeously -coloured, the body being barred with stripes of yellow and black, -while the head and thorax are green and blue and gold, with shades of -crimson, and the wings are bright scarlet. It seems a most desirable -insect for a cabinet, but it is impossible to keep one, for it has -a most abominable smell, and this appears to be its protection, as -well as its probable possession of a nauseous taste, so that no -bird or other creature feeds upon it. This insect seems therefore -a good example of “warning colours”; it has no need of “protective -resemblance” lest it should be devoured by enemies; it can flaunt -its gay livery without fear, indeed this seems exaggerated in order -to say to outsiders, “Hands off!” “_Nemo me impune lacessit._” The -Malagasy have a proverb which runs thus: “_Valàlanambòa: ny tompony -aza tsy tia azy_”—_i.e._ “The dog-locust, even its owner dislikes it.” - -On the Imèrina downs, and on the outskirts of the forest, there are -occasionally seen some enormous earthworms. These are about four -times the size, both in length and thickness, of those we see in -England; and when I first saw a small group of them they seemed more -like small serpents than worms. Darwin’s researches on the part -played by earthworms in the renewal of the soil have shown us what -a valuable work these humble creatures do for our benefit; and on a -morning after a little rain has fallen the grass here in Imèrina is -sometimes almost covered by the innumerable little mounds of fresh -earth brought up by worms, thus confirming what he has told us about -them. - -[Illustration: TRANSPLANTING RICE - -The women always do this. The men, on the left, are digging up and -working the clods into soft mud with long-handled spades] - -The aspect of vegetation, except in the rice-fields, can hardly be -said to change much during the autumn months. A plant with pale -yellow flowers may be noticed by thousands in marshy grounds, giving -quite a mass of colour in many places. A significant name given to -autumn is _Ménàhitra_—_i.e._ “the grass is red”—that is, turning -brown. - -WINTER: MAY, JUNE, JULY AND AUGUST.—As already mentioned in the -introductory sentences of the previous chapter, winter in central -Madagascar is very different from winter in England. We have no snow, -nor is there any native word for it, for even the highest peaks of -Ankàratra are too low for snow to fall on them; we never see ice -(although adventurous foreigners have once or twice seen a thin film -of it on pools on the highest hillsides); hoar-frost, however, is not -uncommon, and occasionally the leaves of some species of vegetables, -as well as those of the banana, turn black with the keen night air. -And since there is no rain during our Imèrina winter, the paths are -dry, and it is the best time for making long journeys, especially -as there is little to be feared from fever when going about at this -season of the year. Winter is therefore a pleasant time; the skies -are generally clear, the air is fresh and invigorating, and to the -cool and bracing temperature of the winter months is doubtless -largely due the health and strength which many Europeans enjoy for -years together in the central provinces of Madagascar. - -The long period without rain at this season naturally dries up -the grass, and the hills and downs become parched and brown. -_Maìntàny_—_i.e._ “the earth is dry”—is one of the native names for -this season, and it is very appropriate to the condition of things -in general. The rice-fields lie fallow, affording a scanty supply of -grass for the cattle; and many short cuts can be made across them in -various directions, for the beaten track over embankments, great and -small, may be safely left for the dry and level plain. - -[Sidenote: ANCIENT TOWNS] - -In travelling about Imèrina, and indeed in the southern central -provinces as well, one cannot help noticing the evidences of ancient -towns and villages on the summits of a large number of the high -hills. These are not picturesque ruins, or remains of buildings, but -are the deep fosses cut in the hard red soil, often three or four, -one within the other, by which these old villages were defended. -These show very conspicuously from a great distance, and are from ten -to twenty feet deep; and as they are often of considerable extent -they must have required an immense amount of labour to excavate. -These elaborate fortifications are memorials of the “feudal period” -in central Madagascar, when almost every village had its petty chief -or _mpanjàka_, and when guns and gunpowder were still unknown. These -old places are now mostly abandoned for more convenient positions in -the plains or on the low rising grounds; and the fosses or _hàdy_ are -often capital hunting-grounds for ferns and other wild plants. - -[Sidenote: HOVA TOMBS] - -Perhaps more noticeable even than the old towns are the old tombs, as -well as more modern ones, which meet one’s eye in the neighbourhood -of every village. The Hova tombs are mostly constructed of rough -stonework, undressed and laid without mortar; they are square in -shape, from ten to twenty feet or more each way, and generally of -two or three stages of three to four feet high, diminishing in -size from the lowest. This superstructure surrounds and surmounts -a chamber formed of massive slabs of bluish-grey granitic rock, -partly sunk in the ground, and partly above it. In this chamber -are stone shelves, on which the corpses, wrapped in a number of -silk cloths or _làmba_, are laid. The tombs of wealthy people, as -well as those of high rank, are often costly structures of dressed -stonework, with cornices and carving; some are surmounted with an -open arcade, and have stone shafts to carry lightning conductors. -Within the last few years some large tombs have been made of burnt -brick (externally), although no change is made in the ancient style -of interior construction, with single stones for walls, roof, door -and shelves. Near some villages are a large number of these great -family tombs; and at one place, on the highroad from the present to -the old capital, a long row of such tombs, from thirty to forty in -all, may be seen. In many places a shapeless heap of stones, often -overshadowed by a _Fàno_ tree, resembling an acacia, marks a grave -of the Vazìmba, the earlier inhabitants of the country. These are -still regarded with superstitious dread and veneration by the people, -and offerings of rice, sugar-cane and other food are often placed on -them. The winter months are a favourite time for the native custom -of _famadìhana_—that is, of wrapping the corpses of their deceased -relatives in fresh silk cloths, as well as removing some of them -to a new tomb as soon as this is finished. These are quite holiday -occasions and times of feasting and, not infrequently, of much that -is evil in the way of drinking and licentiousness. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -AUTUMN AND WINTER - - -Other noticeable objects when travelling about the central provinces -are tall stones of rough undressed granite, from eight to twelve -feet high, called _Vàtolàhy_ (_i.e._ “Male stones”), which have been -erected in memory of some bygone worthy, or of some notable event, -now forgotten, and which often crown the top of prominent hills. They -are also sometimes memorials of those who went away to the wars of -olden times, and who never returned to their homes. In these cases a -square of small stones—at least three sides of one—is formed as part -of the memorial, as a kind of pseudo-tomb. These little enclosures -are from eight to ten feet square. A wonderful variety of lichens -is often to be seen on these tall stones—red, yellow, grey of many -shades, black, and pure white embroidering the rough stone. Some have -supposed, from the name of these memorials, that we have here a relic -of phallic worship. - -[Sidenote: MARKETS] - -A very prominent feature of the social life of the Malagasy is -the system of holding large open-air markets all over the central -province on the various days of the week. The largest of these -is naturally that held in the capital every Friday (Zomà), at -which probably from twenty thousand to thirty thousand people are -densely crowded together, and where almost everything grown or -manufactured in the province can be purchased. But two or three of -the other markets held within five or six miles of Antanànarìvo do -not fall far short of the Zomà market in size, especially those at -Asabòtsy (Saturday) to the north, and at Alàtsinainy (Monday) to the -north-east. To a stranger these great markets present a very novel -and interesting scene, and a good idea may be obtained as to what -can be purchased here by taking a stroll through them and noticing -their different sections. In one part are oxen and sheep, many of -which are killed in the morning, while the meat is cut up and sold -during the day; here are turkeys, geese, ducks and fowls by the -hundred; here are great heaps of rice, both in the husk, and either -partially cleaned, as “red rice,” or perfectly so, as “white rice”; -here are piles of brown locusts, heaps of minute red shrimps, and -baskets of snails, all used as “relishes” for the rice; here is -_màngahàzo_, or manioc root, both cooked and raw, as well as sweet -potatoes, earth-nuts, arum roots (_saonjo_) and many kinds of green -vegetables, and also capsicums, chillies and ginger. In another -quarter are the stalls for cottons and prints, sheetings and calicoes -from Europe, as well as native-made cloths of hemp, _rofìa_ fibre, -cotton and silk; and not far away are basketfuls and piles of snowy -or golden-coloured cocoons of native silk for weaving. Here is the -ironmongery section, where good native-made nails, rough hinges, and -locks and bolts, knives and scissors can be bought; and formerly -were the sellers of the neat little scales of brass or iron, with -their weights for weighing the “cut money,” which formed the small -change of the Malagasy before foreign occupation. (The five-franc -pieces were cut up in pieces of all shapes and sizes, so that buying -and selling were very tedious matters.) Then we come to the vendors -of the strong and cheap mats and baskets, made from the tough peel -of the _zozòro_ papyrus, and from various kinds of grass, often -with graceful interwoven patterns. Yonder a small forest of upright -pieces of wood points out the timber market, where beams and rafters, -joists and boarding can be purchased, as well as bedsteads, chairs -and doors. Not far distant from this is the place where large bundles -of _hèrana_ sedge, arranged in sheets or “leaves,” as the Malagasy -call them, for roofing, can be bought; and near these again are the -globular water-pots or _sìny_ for fetching and for storing water. -But it would occupy too much space to enumerate all the articles for -sale in an Imèrina market. Before the French occupation it was not -uncommon to see slaves exposed for sale, but happily that and slavery -are now things of the past. - -[Sidenote: A NATIONAL ASSEMBLY] - -In the old times of Malagasy independence there were few more -interesting scenes than that presented by a great national assembly -or _Kabàry_. These were summoned when new laws were made, or a new -government policy was announced, and also when war was imminent -with France, both in 1882 and again in 1895. On such occasions the -large triangular central space near the summit of the capital, -called Andohàlo, was filled with many thousands of people from early -morning. Lines of native troops kept open lanes for the advance of -the queen’s representative, generally the Prime Minister, who was -always attended by a number of officers in a variety of gorgeous -uniforms. At the eastern or highest portion of Andohàlo a place was -kept open for the royal messengers, whose approach was announced by -the firing of cannon. Taking his stand so as to be seen by the vast -assembly, the Prime Minister would draw his sword and commence the -proceedings by turning towards the palace and giving the word of -command for a royal salute, all the troops presenting arms, and all -the cannon round the upper portion of the city being fired. The next -officer in rank then took the word, and the troops all saluted the -Prime Minister, who stood bareheaded, acknowledging the respect due -to his high position. He then proceeded to give the royal message, -or read the new laws, often with a great deal of eloquence, for -the Malagasy are ready and clever speakers. At passages where the -national pride or patriotism was touched, much enthusiastic response -was often aroused, especially as each paragraph of the speech was -followed by a question: “_Fa tsy izày, va, ry ambànilànitra?_” -(“For is it not so, ye ‘under-the-heaven’?”) These questions -were replied to with shouts of “_Izày!_” (“It is so!”) from the -assembled multitude. But the greatest pitch of loyal enthusiasm was -generally evoked by the chiefs of the different tribes, as they, one -after another, replied to the queen’s message and gave assurances -of obedience and loyalty. Surrounded by a small group of their -fellow-clansmen, they would wind their _làmba_ round their waists, -brandish a spear, and at the conclusion of each part of their speech -they also demanded: “_Fa tsy izày va?_” And sometimes the whole -of the people would leap to their feet, the officers waving their -swords, the soldiers tossing up their rifles, and the people dancing -about in a perfect frenzy of excitement. - -[Illustration: HOVA TOMBS CLOSED WITH HUGE STONE DOORS - -The bare, rocky hills are characteristic of the interior of -Madagascar] - -[Sidenote: STONE GATEWAYS] - -We noticed just now the signs of the ancient villages and towns in -the central province; but something may be added here as to the -existing villages we see as we travel through it. The ancient towns -were, as we have seen, all built for safety on the top of hills, and -many of those now inhabited by the people are still so situated, -although in several districts the French authorities have obliged -them to leave the old sites and build their houses, with plenty of -space round each, on the sides of the newly made roads. But a good -number of the old style of village still remain, and it is these I -want to describe. They mostly have deep fosses, cut in the hard red -soil, surrounding them, about twenty to thirty feet across, and as -many feet deep, sometimes still deeper; and before guns and cannons -were brought into the country they must have formed very effective -defences against an enemy, especially as there is often a double or -even treble series of them. The gateways, sometimes three deep, are -formed of stone, often in large slabs, and instead of a gate a great -circular stone, eight or ten feet in diameter, was rolled across the -opening and was fitted into rough grooves on either side, and wedged -up with other stones inside the gate. I have slept in villages where -it was necessary to call several men before one could leave in the -morning, until they had answered our inquiry: “Who shall roll us -away the stone?” In these fosses, which are of course always damp, -with good soil, ferns and wild plants grow luxuriantly; and the -bottom forms a plantation in which peach, banana, guava and other -fruit trees are cultivated, as well as coffee, arums and a variety -of vegetables. Tall trees often grow there, so that these _hàdy_ or -fosses are often the prettiest feature of the village. It must be -added that the paths between and leading to the gateways are often -winding, and formed by a thick mass of prickly plants. - -In some parts of the central provinces the villages have no deep -trenches round them, but they are protected by a dense and wide -plantation of prickly pear. The thick, fleshy, twisted stems, the -gaily tinted flowers, and even the fruits, are all armed with spines -and stinging hairs; and it is no easy matter to get rid of the minute -little needles, if they once get into one’s skin. So one sees that -a thick hedge of prickly pear was a very effectual defence against -enemies, especially since the people wore no shoes or any protection -for legs and feet. In many places, instead of prickly pear, the fence -round the village is made of _tsiàfakòmby_ (“impassable by cattle”), -a shrub with bright yellow flowers and full of hook-like prickles. In -some cases, instead of a door at the gateway, a number of short poles -are hung from a cross-piece at the top, which passes through a hole -in each of them; and one has to hold up two or three poles in order -to pass through. - -Here, however, we are at last inside the village, and we see at once -that it is a very different place from an English village, with the -turnpike road passing through it, its trim houses and cottages, with -neat gardens and flower-beds, its grey old church, and its churchyard -with elms and yews overshadowing the graves. - -[Sidenote: A MALAGASY VILLAGE] - -There is nothing at all like this in our Malagasy village. There are -no streets intersecting it, and the houses are built without much -order, except in one point—namely, that they are almost all built -north and south, and that they have their single door and window -always on the west side, so as to be protected from the cold and -keen south-east winds which blow over Imèrina during a great part -of the year. The houses are mostly made of the hard red earth, laid -in courses of a foot or so high. They are chiefly of one storey and -of one room, but they generally have a floor in the roof, which is -used for cooking; and, if of good size, they are sometimes divided -into two rooms by rush and mat partitions. On the east of Imèrina, -near the forest, the houses are made of rough wooden framing, filled -up with bamboo or rush, and often plastered with cow-dung. In the -neighbourhood of the capital, and indeed in most places, the houses -are now often made of sun-dried bricks, in two storeys, with several -rooms, and often with tiled roofs. - -[Illustration: FRIDAY MARKET AT ANTANÀNARÌVO - -This was before the French Conquest. Note the different types of -houses, tiled and thatched] - -Here and there throughout the province one comes across a village -which was formerly the capital of a petty kingdom, where we find -several strong and well-built timber houses. Such a place was -Ambòhitritankàdy (I say “was,” because it now no longer exists), -one of the villages in my mission district. It was on a high hill, -and in the centre of the village were ten large houses of massive -timber framing and with very high-pitched roofs, with long “horns” -at the gables, and these were arranged five on each side of a long -oblong space sunk a couple of feet below the ground. Here, in former -times, bull-fights took place, and various games and amusements were -carried on. One of the houses, where the chief himself resided, was -much larger than the rest, and the corner posts, as well as the -great central posts supporting the ridge, were very massive pieces -of timber. It was all in one great room, without any partitions, the -whole being well floored with wood, and the walls covered with -fine mats. Similar houses might be seen at most of the chief towns -of Imèrina; but the house I have just described was the largest and -finest of any, not excepting those in the capital and at Ambòhimànga. -Sad to say, except at these two places, where two ancient timber -houses at the first one, and one at the other, are still preserved -as a kind of curiosity, almost all these fine structures have been -demolished in order to get well-seasoned timber for furniture and -buildings. They have been superseded by much less picturesque, but -perhaps more comfortable as well as cheaper, houses of sun-dried or -burnt brick. - -There is no privacy or retirement about the houses in the village, -no back-yard or outbuildings, although occasionally low walls make -a kind of enclosure around some of them. Here and there among the -houses are square pits, four or five feet deep, and eight or ten feet -square, called fàhitra. These are pens for the oxen, which are kept -in them to be fattened, formerly especially for the national festival -of the New Year. As may be supposed, these are very dirty places, -and in the wet season are often just pools of black mud; indeed the -village, as a whole, is anything but neat and clean. All sorts of -rubbish and filth accumulate; there are no sanitary arrangements; -frequently the cattle used to be penned for the night in a part of -the village, and the cow-dung made it very muddy in wet weather, -and raised clouds of stifling dust when it was dry. Frequently the -cow-dung is collected and made into circular cakes of six or eight -inches diameter, which are then stuck on the walls of the houses to -dry. This is used as fuel for burning; and splitting off large slabs -of gneiss rock, which are employed by the people in making their -tombs. - -In the centre of the village may often be seen the large family tomb -of the chief man of the place, the owner of much of the land and many -of the neighbouring rice-fields. If he is an andrìana, or of noble -birth, the stonework is surmounted by a small wooden house, with -thatched or shingled roof, and a door, but no window. This is called -_tràno màsina_, “sacred house,” or _tràno manàra_, “cold house,” -because it has no hearth or fire. - -Seen from a distance, these Malagasy villages often look very pretty -and picturesque, for “distance lends enchantment to the view.” Round -some of them tall trees, called _àviàvy_, a species of _ficus_, grow, -which are something like an English elm in appearance. In others one -or two great _amòntana_ trees may be seen; these are also a species -of fig-tree, and have large and glossy leaves. The _amòntana_ is -evergreen, while the _àviàvy_ is deciduous. A beautiful tree, called -_zàhana_, is also common, with hundreds of pink flowers and sweetish -fruit like a pea-pod. In the fosses is often seen the _amìana_, a -tall tree-nettle, with large deeply cut and velvety leaves with -stinging hairs. Many kinds of shrubs often make the place gay with -flowers, especially in the hot season. - -[Sidenote: HOVA CHILDREN] - -But what are the Hova children like? How are they dressed? And what -do they play at? They are brown-skinned, some very light olive in -colour, and some much darker. As a rule they have little clothing; -perhaps some of the boys may have a straw hat, but no shoes or -stockings, and they are often dirty and little cared for. On Sundays -and on special occasions the girls are often dressed in print frocks, -and the boys in jackets of similar material, and with a clean white -calico _làmba_ overall; but on weekdays a small _làmba_ of soiled -and coarse hemp cloth often forms almost their only clothing. Of -course the children of well-to-do people are sometimes very nicely -dressed, although they too often go about in a rather dirty fashion. -I am here, however, speaking of the majority of the children one -sees, those of the poorer children of a village.[10] One day some of -us went for a ride to a village about two miles from Ambòhimànga. -A number of children followed us about as we collected ferns in a -_hàdy_, and, as a group of seven or eight of them sat near us, we -calculated that the value of all they had on would not amount to one -shilling! - -Poor children! they have little advantages compared with English boys -and girls, and they have few amusements. They sometimes play at a -game which is very like our “fox and geese”; the boys spin peg-tops -and play at marbles; the little children make figures of oxen and -birds, etc., out of clay; the boys are fond of a game resembling -the lassoing of wild oxen, by trying to catch their companions -by throwing a noose over them; and the big boys have a rough and -violent game called _mamèly dìa mànga_, in which they try to throw -an opponent down by kicking backward at each other, with the sole of -the foot, which is darted out almost as high as their heads. Ribs -are sometimes broken by a violent kick. Perhaps the most favourite -amusement of Malagasy children is to sit in parties out of doors on -fine moonlight nights and sing away for hours some of the monotonous -native chants, accompanying them with regular clapping of hands. - -In about a fourth of these villages, where there are churches, a -mission day school is still carried on, and here may be seen, if we -look in, a number of bright-looking children repeating their _a_, -_b_, _d_ (not _c_), reading and writing, doing sums, learning a -little grammar and geography, and being taught their catechism, and -something about the chief facts and truths of the Bible. And perhaps -there is no more pleasant sight in Madagascar than one of the larger -chapels on the annual examination day, filled with children from the -neighbouring villages, all dressed in their best, eager to show their -knowledge, and pleased to get the Bible or Testament or hymn-book or -other prize given to those who have done well. - -[Sidenote: GLORIOUS SUNSETS] - -A few words may be said here about the aspect of the heavens in -Imèrina, especially at evening and night. We are highly favoured -in having sunsets of wonderful beauty; the western sky burns with -molten gold, orange and crimson; and as the sun nears the horizon, -the ruddy landscape to the east is lighted up more and more intensely -every moment with glowing colour, the natural hue of the soil being -heightened by the horizontal rays; the distant lines of hill, range -after range, are bathed in every shade of purple light, and the long -lines of red clay walls glow like vermilion in the setting sunshine. -How often have we watched this glorious display of light and colour, -and thanked God for this beautiful world! - -But the nights, especially near the time of full moon, are also very -enjoyable. The moon appears more brilliant and her light more intense -than in England; it is a delight to be out of doors and to walk in -the fresh bracing air, and to have the rough paths illuminated for us -by the silvery radiance, which gives a picturesque beauty to the most -commonplace objects and scenes. - -Perhaps the starlit skies of the evenings of the summer months are -the most beautiful of all the year. At this season some of the -finest of the northern constellations are seen at the same time as -several of the southerly ones. The Great Bear stretches over the -northern sky; higher up is the Northern Crown; the Pleiades,[11] and -Orion with his many brilliant neighbours, are overhead; the Southern -Cross, with its conspicuous “pointers” in the Centaur, is high in the -southern heavens; and the Magellan Clouds are clearly seen nearer -the horizon; and all across the firmament is the Galaxy, or, as the -Malagasy call it, the _èfi-taona_, “the division,” or “separation -of the year.” And then, as the circling year revolves, the great -serpentine curve of Scorpio appears, and Sirius, Capella, Canopus, -and many another glorious lamp of heaven light up the midnight sky -with their flashing radiance. - -[Sidenote: TEMPERATURE] - -The month of August, the closing one in this review of the year, -is often the coldest month of all, cold, that is, for a country -within the tropics. All through August the keen south-eastern trades -generally blow strong, and although in sheltered places the afternoon -sun may be quite warm, the mornings and evenings are very cold, and -during the night the mercury will often descend to very near the -freezing-point. The mornings are frequently misty; on some days -there are constant showers of _èrika_ or drizzly rain, alternating -with bright sunny days and clear skies; these latter seem the very -perfection of weather, bracing and health-giving. But this cold -weather often brings disease to the Malagasy, especially a kind of -malarial fever, which sometimes attacks great numbers of them, and -also brings affections of the throat and chest, to which many fall -victims. At such times their thin cotton clothing seems ill adapted -for protection against the climate. This circumstance has often -struck me as showing how difficult it is to change the habits of a -people; for centuries past the Hova have lived in this cool highland -region, yet, until very lately, few comparatively have made much -change in their dress, which was well enough adapted for the purely -tropical region from which they originally came, but very unfitted -for the cool air of the winter months of a country about five -thousand feet above sea-level. - -[Illustration: AN ANCIENT VILLAGE GATEWAY - -A tall palanquin bearer is in front, showing by comparison the height -of the gateway. A native wooden house with high-pitched _hèrana_ -thatched roof is shown, and a group of natives] - -The great rice-plain to the west of the capital and all the broader -valleys still lie fallow, although in various places extensive sheets -of water show that irrigation is commencing. In the lesser valleys -and at the edge of the larger rice-plains the landscape is enlivened -by the bright green of the _kètsa_ grounds, where, as already -described, the rice is sown broadcast before transplanting into the -larger fields. - -[Sidenote: TREES] - -There are not many deciduous trees in Imèrina, so the numerous -orchards, chiefly of mango-trees, look fresh and green throughout the -year. But the Cape lilac, which does cast its leaves, is beginning -to put out its bright green fronds; the peach-trees are a mass of -pink blossom, unrelieved as yet by any leaves, and the _sòngosòngo_ -(_Euphorbia splendens_), in the hedges is just beginning to show -its brilliant scarlet or pale yellow bracts. Wild flowers are still -scarce, but the lilac flowers of the _sèvabé_ (_Solanum auriculatum_) -bloom all through the year. The golden-orange panicles of the _sèva_ -(_Buddleia madagascariensis_), which has a sweetish scent, now -appear. Nature is arousing from the inaction of the cold season, and -the few trees now flowering give promise of the coming spring. And -so, from year to year, every month brings some fresh interest in tree -and flower, in bird and insect, in the employments of the people, and -in the changing aspects of the sky by day and in the starry heavens -by night. - -NOTE.—I may add here that of late years, through foreign influence -preceding and following the French occupation, many new trees have -been introduced into Madagascar, which have materially altered the -look of the country in some provinces, especially in the Bétsiléo -district. Millions of trees, chiefly species of eucalyptus, have been -planted, especially along the roadsides, as well as mimosa, blackwood -and _filào_. The beautiful purple bracts of the bougainvillea, and -the large brilliant scarlet ones of the poinsettia, now give a much -brighter appearance to gardens and public places, since they have -been extensively planted in the capital and other large towns, as -well as zinnias, crotons and cannas. - - -[10] Of late years, since numbers of children attend Government -schools as well as those of the various missions, a considerable -improvement has taken place in children’s clothing. Knickerbockers -and jackets are now the dress of hundreds of boys; but the native -_làmba_ is still largely used, and is almost always part of girls’ -dress. - -[Sidenote: STARS] - -[11] Curiously enough, the Malagasy appear to have given names -only to these two prominent clusters of stars. The Pleiades they -call “_Kòtokèli-miàdi-laona_”—_i.e._ “Little boys fighting over -the rice mortar”; while the three stars of Orion’s belt they call -“_Tèlo-no-ho-réfy_”—_i.e._ “Three make a fathom.” They have no name -for the first-magnitude stars, or for the planets, except for Venus, -as a morning star—viz. “_Fitàrikàndro_”—_i.e._ “Leader of the day.” - - - - -CHAPTER X - -AT THE FOREST SANATORIUM - - -By the kind concern of two of the missionary societies working in -Madagascar for the comfort and health of their representatives, -who live in Imèrina, two sanatoriums have been provided for them -away from the capital. One of these is at Ambàtovòry, about fifteen -miles distant to the east, and close to a patch of old forest still -left among the surrounding somewhat bare country; the other is at -Ankèramadìnika, at about double that distance, and is built close to -the edge of the upper belt of forest, that long line of woods which, -as already mentioned, stretches for several hundred miles along the -eastern side of Madagascar. Here, after a year’s strenuous work in -college, or school, or church, or in literary labour, or in something -of them all, it is a pleasant and healthful change to come for two -or three weeks to the quiet and restful influences of the beautiful -woods, with their wealth of vegetable life, and with much to interest -in the animal life of bird and insect. - -I ask my readers to accompany me then in a visit to Ankèramadìnika, -and to wander with me in the forest and observe the many curious -and interesting things which we shall find in our walks. The forest -is here about seven or eight miles across, and from the verandah we -can see over the woods to the lower plain of Ankay, and beyond this -to the long line of blue mountains covered by the lower and broader -forest belt. A wonderful sight this plain presents on a winter -morning, when it is filled with a white sea of mist, out of which the -forest and the hills rise like islands, and the feathery masses of -cloud against their sides have exactly the effect of waves breaking -against a shore. - -It will be fitting here to say a few words about the flora of -Madagascar, and here I may quote what my late friend, the Rev. -R. Baron, remarked in a paper read before the Linnæan Society in -1888.[12] He says: - - “It may now be said that the vegetable productions of the island - have been very extensively explored, and that the majority of the - plants inhabiting it are known to science. The country has been - traversed by botanists in many different directions, its highest - mountains have been ascended, its lakes and marshes crossed, its - forests penetrated, and large collections of plants have been made. - About four thousand one hundred species of plants have now been - named and described, and I think it may be said with certainty - that the great bulk of Madagascarian plants have already been - gathered, so that we have now sufficient data to enable us to draw - a few general conclusions as to the character and distribution of - this very interesting and remarkable flora. Of the four thousand - one hundred indigenous plants at present known in Madagascar, - about three thousand (or three-fourths of the total flora) are, - remarkable to say, only found here. Even of the grasses and rushes, - about two-fifths of each order are peculiar to the island. There - is one natural order confined to Madagascar, the Chlænaceæ; of - ferns more than a third are endemic, and of orchids as much as - five-sixths, facts which are sufficient to give a very marked - individuality to the character of the flora.” - -Mr Baron gives the following graphic account of his experiences as a -collector of plants:— - -[Sidenote: BOTANISING IN MADAGASCAR] - - “Botanising in Madagascar, as those who have travelled in wild - and uncivilised regions in other parts of the world will easily - believe, is a totally different experience from botanising in - England. Your collecting materials are carried by a native, who - may be honest, or not, in which latter case the drying paper will - begin gradually and mysteriously to disappear, and the leather - straps with which the presses are tightened will, one by one, be - quietly appropriated. For a Malagasy bearer has a special weakness - for leather straps, they being largely used for belts, so that - both for the sake of your own comfort and the honesty of the men, - the sooner you dispense with them the better. As for the dried - plants themselves, they are secure from all pilfering; for of - what possible use or value they can be, it puzzles the natives to - conceive. You might leave your collection in a village for a whole - month, and you would find on your return it was still intact. - If, after a day’s journey, you sit down in a hut to change the - sheets of paper containing the specimens, the villagers will be - sure to come and, standing round in a circle, gaze at you in mute - astonishment turning over the plants so well known to them. After a - few minutes’ silent gaze, there will perhaps be a sudden outburst - of amused laughter, or it may be a little whispering, which, if it - were audible, would be something to this effect: ‘Whatever in the - world is the man doing?’ or, ‘What strange creatures these white - men are!’ - - “Some of the people doubtless think that you are a kind of - sorcerer. For these dried plants—whatever can you do with them? - You cannot eat them. You cannot make them into broth. You cannot - plant them, for they are dead. You cannot form them in bouquets - or wreaths, for they are brown and withered. Is it surprising, - then, if some of the natives think that you are dabbling in the - black art, and that your plants, in the shape of some strange - and mysterious decoction, are to supply, it may be, a potent - rain-medicine, or a love-philtre, or a disease-preventing physic? - For among the natives themselves there are many herbal quacks, - who, for a consideration, are able, not only to prescribe for the - cure, and even prevention, of disease, but also to furnish charms - against fire and tempest, locusts or lightning, leprosy or lunacy, - ghosts, crocodiles, or witches. The explanation which I have most - frequently heard given, however, by the more intelligent of the - natives as to the use of the dried plants is that the leaves are - intended to be employed for patterns in weaving. - - “It is not, then, the natives that you have to fear in regard to - your collections of plants; it is the weather, it is those heavy - showers that, unless protected with extreme care by waterproof - coverings, succeed in soaking your specimens and your drying paper, - so that you have occasionally to spend half the night in some dirty - hovel in doing what you can, by the aid of a large fire, to save - your collection from destruction. Still all the difficulties and - discomforts are far more than outweighed by the pleasure you gain - in the exercise, a pleasure which is enhanced by the consciousness - that you are probably the first that has ever plucked the flowers - from Nature’s bosom in that particular locality, and that a large - number of the specimens will probably prove to be new to science.” - -[Sidenote: NESTS OF INSECTS] - -Although to anyone merely travelling through it, this upper forest -seems, especially in the cold season, to be singularly deficient in -animal life, yet to those who will carefully observe, as they ramble -through these woods, there are numerous small living creatures well -worth careful study. One cannot pass many yards along a forest path -without noticing here and there a long white bag hanging on the trees -and bushes. These vary in length from about six inches to a foot, -or even eighteen inches, and are a long oval in shape; the upper -part shines with a silky lustre, and the whole would do so, but for -its being filled at the lower part with a mass of dark brown earthy -substance, which soils its purity. On cutting open the upper portion -of the bag, which is tough and strong, it is found to be filled with -a mass of brown caterpillars, about an inch and a half long, all -wriggling about when thus disturbed in their comfortable home. The -dark substance is evidently the droppings of these caterpillars; and -the opening at the lower end, sometimes small holes around it, give -exit and entrance, for generally two or three of the insects are seen -crawling on the outside. It would appear, therefore, that this silken -bag is the nest or home spun by the caterpillars, a common habitation -in which they undergo the next change before becoming perfect -insects. One always sees that the branches near that on which the bag -is suspended are stripped of the leaves, no doubt by its inmates. I -noticed that, a day or two after I had cut open one of these bags, -a thin film of web had been spun over the opening, so as to close -up the entrance I had unceremoniously made into the privacy of the -little community. - -[Sidenote: ANTS] - -No one can pass through the upper or lower forests without noticing -the much more prominent nests made in the trees by another insect, -a small species of black ant. These nests are often as large as -a football, and are apparently made of cow-dung, or earthy and -vegetable matter, forming a coarse papery substance; they are peopled -by large numbers of ants, and are dark brown in colour. If one is -procured—not an easy matter, for the little inhabitants rush out and -attack the intruder, and dig their jaws into one’s flesh in a way to -make one jump—it will be seen, on cutting open the nest vertically, -that there is a series of thin floors about half-an-inch apart and -supported by pillars. The ants run about frantically, their chief -care being to carry the white eggs and pupæ to a place of safety. -But it will be observed that in the nest there are to be seen a -number of very small but handsome beetles, perhaps in the proportion -of one to a hundred of the ants. What purpose do these entirely -different insects serve in the economy of ant life? It appears that -this is a fact observed in the nests of many other kinds of ants, for -the Rev. J. G. Wood, in his charming book, “Homes without Hands,” -says that above thirty species of beetle are known as inhabiting -ants’ nests. But he can throw no light upon the purpose served by -the presence of the beetles. Besides these large and conspicuous -nests, containing probably thousands of ants, other nests, of all -sizes, from about that of a nut to an orange and upwards, may be -seen: the hamlets, villages, and small towns of the ant world, while -the large nests are the great cities of their commonwealth. The ants -inhabiting these dwellings appear to be all of one species, and -about three-sixteenths of an inch in length. What can these little -creatures live upon?—for they can hardly descend for it to the -ground, from heights of twenty, thirty, and even fifty or sixty, feet. - -A very different kind of ants’ nest is seen in the more open and -sunny forest paths (and also in the bare interior country). These -have the form of a low circular mound, from eighteen inches or -more in diameter, and perhaps eight to ten inches high, and have a -large opening at the top—a miniature “crater.” This mound consists -of the fine grains of earth and sand brought up and thrown out by -the little workers in excavating their subterraneous dwelling. -These ants are larger insects than the arboreal species; they are -about three-eighths of an inch long, and seem to exist in great -numbers in their homes, the entrance being like a crowded street, -with passengers going to and fro. They may be met with all round -their nests, often at a considerable distance from them, frequently -tugging along pieces of chewed sugar-cane, or portions of dead -insects, enormous in size compared with themselves. The ants are the -scavengers of the country; no beetle, or worm, or grub, or animal -matter of any kind, can be many minutes on the ground before it is -detected by some ant, which communicates the fact forthwith to its -fellows, and they immediately fall on the spoil, cut it in pieces and -convey it to their stronghold. It is astonishing to see the heavy -loads that two or three ants will stagger along with for the common -weal. Truly, although they are a small folk, they are “exceeding -wise.” - -Another species of ant, which does not appear to construct a nest, -but inhabits the crevices and under the bark of trees, is rather -conspicuous from a large tuft or cushion of pale brown velvet-like -hairs on the upper side of the abdomen, and a smaller one on the -thorax. Its eggs and pupæ are carefully hidden away under pieces of -the bark which have become partly detached. - -On the top of the Ambàtovòry rock I found another and smaller species -of ant, about an eighth of an inch long. This ant inhabits the dried -flower-stalk of the _vàhona_, a small aloe growing plentifully on -the shallow soil close to rocks. On breaking in two one of these -stalks, the ants and a number of pupæ fell out, long white cases, in -which the dark body of the immature insect could be seen. The little -creatures seemed greatly relieved to be able to gather up these -precious pupæ, and they soon collected them all, and brought them -again into their home. On examining the stalk I could see no entrance -except a minute hole, like a pinprick, at the top, just below where -the head of flowers had blossomed. It seems probable that the ants -find food in the pithy interior of these leaf-stalks. - -In passing through the bush or the secondary forest, one frequently -sees the leaves of certain bushes withered and folded up together. -On opening one of such nests, it proves to be the home of a species -of beetle, a very handsome insect, about an inch long, with a long -slender thorax, and of a beautiful metallic-purple colour. Enclosed -in portions of the leaf are small green caterpillars, and in others -are chrysalides. A much smaller beetle is also found in many of -these nests. The edges of the leaves appear as if sewn together at -different places with fine silk. - -Although butterflies are scarce in these woods in the cold season, -caterpillars are numerous. Those making a large silken bag have -already been noticed; but there are others which appear to be -just now (in August) in a state of torpor. Here, for instance, is -a cluster of a dozen or so of brown caterpillars, all clinging -closely together around one another on the top of a small twig. -They seem perfectly motionless. Are they hibernating? Here again -is a collection of beautiful little caterpillars, about an inch -long, of lovely pale green and bluish-green colour, with markings of -orange dots along the sides, and four tufts of yellow hairs on head -and tail. These are lying side by side, half-a-dozen together on a -leaf, and also appear perfectly torpid, for they do not move for -several days together. Here again, on a leaf, are about thirty small -caterpillars, about five-eighths of an inch long. These are seen to -be striped with dark lines, like black velvet, with delicate markings -and spots of bright yellow. These insects, like those just mentioned, -are motionless and crowded together, as if for warmth. - -[Sidenote: WALKS FULL OF INTEREST] - -Walking slowly along, one notices a peculiar marking on a twig; this -on close inspection is seen to be an assemblage of the eggs of some -butterfly or moth, about a hundred of them, arranged in four or five -regular rows, pretty minute globes, light greyish-brown in colour, -with a minute black spot on the top, and hardly one-sixteenth of -an inch in diameter. In bushes and small trees, somewhat unsightly -little bundles of leaves are sometimes very conspicuous. These are -bound together with an irregular mass of web; and cutting one of -them open, it is found to be full of the elytra of small beetles and -the chitinous portions of other insects, as well as leaves, forming -a closely compacted ball. This appears to be the work of a small -spider, which is generally found in some portion of the nest. - -There are many pleasant walks in different directions through the -woods, some of them merely woodcutters’ paths, and others broader, -where a palanquin can be taken. One cannot go far, however, without -having to go down steep descents and again having a stiff climb; but -the variety of leafage, the frequent occurrence of some beautiful -flower or bright-coloured berry or fruit, or gay insect makes a walk -full of interest; and when we reach a high point there are extensive -views over the undulating masses of green foliage of very varied -tints around one, and the bare Ankay plain, with the distant lower -forest, twenty or thirty miles away, and fading into the distance -north and south. - -Reptiles are not very conspicuous in these woods; one seldom sees -a snake, although probably the dense undergrowth affords them -sufficient concealment. In the outskirts of the forest, however, -and indeed all over Imèrina, a pretty snake, from eighteen inches -to two feet long, is frequently seen, dark brown in colour, with -fine white lines along its slender length. The under side is white. -Notwithstanding the innocuous character of these little snakes, it -is amusing to see the dread the people have of them; our bearers, -for instance, will leap away from them as if they were treading on -the sharpest thorns. Some superstitious notions may partly account -for this fear, as one of the former chief idols of the Hova, called -Ramàhavàly (“the Avenger”), was supposed to be the patron and lord of -serpents. One sometimes sees a water-snake swimming over the surface -of a pond in a most graceful fashion. - -[Sidenote: LIZARDS] - -Lizards are now and then seen; one is a large unpleasant-looking -creature, nearly two feet long, of which the tail is about one foot. -But a much smaller and prettier one is not uncommon, with delicate -markings. Other species, in the south-west region, vary in length -from six to nine inches. And here, on the fleshy leaves of an aloe, -we may see, basking in the hot sunshine, a beautiful little bright -green lizard, or darting over the surface with such a rapid movement -that it is difficult to observe it closely. Its colour is so exactly -like its habitat that it is doubtless a “protective resemblance.” -While staying at the sanatorium in November 1899 a very curious -arboreal lizard was brought to us by some boys. This creature was -clinging to a stick, and at first sight, and until closely examined, -I could not distinguish it from the branch to which it clung. It was -about six inches long, the body was somewhat flattened, as well as -the head, and the eyes were large and bright. The feet were somewhat -webbed, the toes ending in small disks like those of the geckoes. -The tail was broad and flat, lying close to the branch, and shaped -something like that of a beaver. But the most interesting point about -this lizard was the wonderful resemblance of its colouring to that of -the bark of a tree. The minute scales of the skin were mottled with -brown, grey, green and white, so as exactly to resemble tree bark, -with the usual clothing of lichens precisely the same in colour, -together with small irregularities of surface; so that until examined -minutely, one could hardly believe that the small patches of colour -on the animal’s skin were not also due to vegetable growths. It -was difficult at a few inches’ distance to see where the lizard -began and the wood ended; and in the forest it would be impossible -to distinguish it from the branch to which it clings. It proved, on -being sent to England, to form a new genus. - -[Illustration: A FOREST VILLAGE - -A native lady being carried in her palanquin. Notice the thatched -huts and small verandahs. The village is built in a clearing of the -forest on the route from the coast to the interior] - -[Sidenote: CHAMELEONS] - -Chameleons are very frequently met with, not only in the woods but -also in the open country of Imèrina; and in our gardens at the -capital we often see them on the bushes or the paths, from the -little baby one of an inch long to the full-grown one of six to -eight inches. In the paths near the sanatorium one may see them -digging holes and depositing their eggs, which are about the size -of a small bean. Their colouring is often very beautiful, with its -shades of green and yellow and black, brown and red markings, and -there are certainly very rapid changes of colour according to the -different surroundings. The bright tints they exhibit in sunshine and -on leaves become dull dark brown in the shade, or on dark coloured -resting-places. Sometimes they lose all colour, for I one day saw, -on the path near the woods, a chameleon in the coils of a small -snake, which had wound itself three times round the body and was -apparently preparing to swallow it, beginning at the head, although -it seemed almost impossible that the bulky body of the chameleon -could pass through so small an opening. And this was a curious fact: -the chameleon was perfectly _white_. From a sentimental pity for the -little creature, I unwound the snake from it and placed it on a bush. -It was apparently uninjured and soon began to resume its ordinary -colouring, of which its terror had temporarily deprived it. - -It is a noteworthy fact that Madagascar is one of the head-quarters -of the Chameleonidæ, for out of fifty known species twenty-one at -least are found in this island; and of the twenty-five kinds which -have been enumerated as having horns and other remarkable processes -on the head, no less than seventeen are peculiar to this country. -One species has a nose dilated and toothed on each side; another has -the top of the head conically produced; while four species have two -flat diverging nasal prominences covered with large scutes; and in -yet another species, the single long conical appendage to the nose is -flexible. The largest Madagascar chameleon known is about a foot long -and is called Ramìlahèloka, which may perhaps be (freely) translated, -“Naughty old boy,” probably from its uncanny appearance and earthy -colour; it is apparently always found on the ground. Of this creature -the natives assert that anyone stepping on it, accidentally or -otherwise, or seizing it, becomes ill. From the slow, deliberate -pace of the chameleon, the Malagasy proverb advises foresight and -retrospect: “_Ataovy toy ny dìan-tàna_: _jerèo ny alòha, todìho ny -aorìana_”—_i.e._ “Act like the stepping of a chameleon: look where -you are going, look back the way you have come.” Naughty little -native boys are fond of making the male chameleons fight together, -and it is curious to see how widely the red mouth is opened at such -times. - -[Sidenote: LAND-SHELLS] - -While staying near the forest I occasionally saw and had brought to -me specimens of some of the land-shells which are often found in damp -places in the woods. Many years ago more than two hundred of these -were known, and this number has probably been considerably added -to since, and will still be increased as the country becomes more -perfectly explored. Of non-operculate species about eighty were then -described, of operculate species about fifty, and about fifty forms -had been recorded from the lakes and rivers. The largest of these -shells is a species of _Helix_ (_bicingulata_), warm brown in colour, -with diaper-like markings, flattish in shape, and three inches in -its longest diameter. There are several other smaller _helices_; -also examples of _Cyclostoma_, the opening of which, as the name -implies, is almost a perfect circle; species of _Ampullaria_, which -have a very large opening; _Stenogyra_, a long oval and spiral shell; -dark green _Melanatria_, a large spiral shell like _Turritella_, -three inches long, which I have gathered in forest streams; while -the most delicately marked shells are species of _Neritina_, with -black lines, like fine etchings, on a pale yellow ground. Species -of _Bultimus_, also a beautifully marked shell, and of _Limnea_, -_Physa_, _Phanorbis_, and many others are among the fluviatile and -terrestrial mollusca of Madagascar. - -[Illustration: CHAMELEON MINOR. - -Madagascar is one of the head-quarters of the Chameleonidæ, for out -of fifty known species twenty-one at least are found in this island.] - -In walking through the woods one constantly comes across traces -of the wild boar, or, more properly, the river-hog (_Potamochærus -larvatus_), although the animal itself is rarely seen. It is a -somewhat ugly creature, with high withers, long back and little hair. -It has an enormous tubercle, supported by a bony protuberance in the -jaw, which renders the face of the animal extremely disagreeable. It -must exist in large numbers, for it digs up the ground in search -of roots and often does much damage to plantations. The hunting of -the wild boar is a favourite sport with the Malagasy of certain -districts, and Europeans who have joined in the hunt have found it -an exciting sport, with a distinct element of danger, for the beast, -when infuriated, is a formidable animal from its long and powerful -tusks. Some naturalists are of opinion that there are two distinct -species of this river-hog, one found in the upper forest, and the -other on the coast and the lower forest region; of these, the latter -is the larger animal. - -[Sidenote: SUN-BIRDS] - -Turning now from boars to birds. Many of the Madagascar birds are -by no means deficient in the power of producing sweet sounds of a -very pleasing character and in considerable variety of note; and -there are some few whose song has even been considered to resemble -that of our European nightingale. Although in the cold season there -are comparatively few birds seen or heard, yet it is not so in the -warmer months, or in the lower forest all through the year. Staying -near the upper forest in the month of December 1884, we sat down on -the margin of a stream, enjoying greatly the beauty of the woods and -especially the singing of the birds. Never before had I heard in a -Madagascar forest so many different notes, or so constant a sound -of bird life. Besides this, there was the low undertone of water -over the rapids some little distance away and the hum of insects. -It was a great enjoyment just to sit and listen, and see the birds -as they flew around us. Among these were the _Sòikèly_, a species -of sun-bird, a very little fellow, who sat on the topmost point -of a bare branch. There are three species of Nectarinidæ found in -the island, one of which, the glittering sickle-billed sun-bird -(_Neodrepanis coruscans_) belongs to a genus peculiar to Madagascar. -Many of the birds of this family rival, in the Old World, the -gem-like and metallic tints of the hummingbirds of the New World, and -this is true of those found here. M. Pollen observes of them that -they live in flocks, and all day long one sees them darting about the -flowering shrubs, sucking with their long tongue the nectar which -forms their principal food. Their song is long, very agreeable, but -little varied, and they have the habit of suspending themselves by -their claws from the small branches. The male bird of one species has -metallic tints of purple, green, red and yellow. The other species -is black underneath, with green and purple metallic reflections on -head, back and wings. - -[Sidenote: ROLLERS] - -Among the most beautiful birds in Madagascar are several species of -the rollers (_Coraciadæ_), so called from their peculiar habit of -flight. The five species found here live mostly on the ground and -come out chiefly at dusk. The _Vòrondrèo_, or Kiròmbo roller, plays -a great part in the chants and religious recitations and folk-tales -of the Malagasy. These birds live chiefly on grasshoppers, but they -also devour chameleons and lizards. When they cry they puff out the -throat, so that this portion of the body has the appearance of a -pendent bag. The colouring of this species is perhaps the “quietest” -of the five, having a good deal of slaty-grey on head and breast. But -both it and its companions have shades of “shot” colour, purple and -green, or red and green, as looked at in different lights. The others -exhibit larger masses of bright colour; the violet roller having, as -its name denotes, a good deal of violet or purple tinting. Four of -them are rather large birds, but the scaly ground roller is small, -with a curious collar of black and white feathers, reminding one of -the strange neck and throat appendages of some of the paradise birds. - -Other birds we saw and heard that day were the _Railòvy_, a species -of shrike, with long forked tail; the _Bolòky_, or grey parrot, with -a long repeated whistle, as if going up the gamut; the _Vòrondrèo_, -one of the rollers, with its prolonged whistle ending in a sudden -drop; the _Parètika_, one of the warblers, with a creaky little short -note, something like a child’s rattle; together with these sounds was -the _kow-kow_ of the _Kankàfotra_ cuckoo, the varied mellow notes of -the _Tolòho_ cuckoo, the cooing sound of the _Fòny_, or wood-pigeon, -and also the call of one of the hawks. - - -[Sidenote: MR BARON] - -[12] Mr Baron was for thirty-five years a missionary of the L.M.S. A -good writer, an eloquent speaker, and an earnest missionary, he was -also a very able botanist and an accomplished geologist, and at the -time of his lamented death, in 1907, he probably knew more about both -these sciences, as regards Madagascar, than any other European. On -account of his researches, and the large collections he made, he was -elected a Fellow of both the Linnæan and the Geological Societies, -honours never conferred except for substantial scientific work. He -also received a specially fitted microscope from the Royal Society -for petrological study, in which he became very proficient. During -his residence in Madagascar he sent home many hundreds of plants, -a great proportion of which were new to science, and also a large -number of rock sections for microscopical and polariscope study. -Twice he was offered valuable positions under the French Government -in this island, but he was too true a missionary to give up Christian -work. - -[Illustration: Chamæleons - -CHAMÆLEON LONGICAUDA _⅔ full size_ - -_Heads, from above_ - -CHAMÆLEON WILLSII] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -FOREST SCENES - - -Anyone who has stayed near the upper forest during December or -January, and has quietly watched for a short time among the trees, -will not complain of scarcity of bird life to admire and study. The -beautiful creatures will come and alight all around us, if we only -remain perfectly still, seeking their food as they hop on the ground, -or flutter from branch to branch. We may watch their nests and see -their eggs, and then the newly fledged birds, noting from day to day -how they develop; until one morning the nest is empty, for its little -inmates have found out their power of wing, and have left it to set -up for themselves and add another little company to the tenants -of the forests. It may be truly said that the note of one bird or -another is never silent at this time of the year all day long, while -some are heard also at night. I remember especially watching one of -the two species of goat-sucker, which are found here: for although it -is called _Matòriàndro_, or “day-sleeper,” from its nocturnal habits, -it may be seen in shady places at midday; its beautifully mottled -shades of brown and grey giving it, no doubt, protection, from their -resemblance to its surroundings. They have the habit of rising from -a slight elevation straight into the air; then they let themselves -suddenly fall, to resume their ordinary mode of flight. It will also -fly along the paths, permitting one to approach it again and again, -and when flying it reveals the black and white colouring under the -wings. They feed exclusively on nocturnal insects, chiefly moths and -beetles. - -[Sidenote: OWLS] - -While speaking of the birds of the interior, one must not forget the -owls, of which six or seven species are known in Madagascar; two -of these, the scops owl and the barn owl, are tolerably plentiful. -The last-mentioned appears to be exactly identical with the almost -world-wide and well-known bird of that name. As among most other -peoples, the owl is regarded by the Malagasy as a bird of ill-omen; -they call it _Vòrondòlo_—_i.e._ “spirit-bird”—thinking it an -embodiment of the spirits of the wicked; and when its startling -screeching cry is heard in the night they believe it to be a presage -of misfortune. There are numerous fables and stories about the owl, -illustrating the popular dread of the bird. But like the owls in all -other parts of the world, the Madagascar species are really public -benefactors, by keeping down the number of rats and mice and other -vermin; and yet their nocturnal habits, their large staring eyes, the -“uncanny” ear-like feathers of some, and especially their unearthly -screech, have all combined to make them objects of dread. One species -of owl is really a beautifully coloured bird, its plumage being pale -brown, spotted with silvery markings. - -The bush and woods of small trees which are found surrounding the -upper belt of forest do not show many flowers during the cold -season of the year. Yet even during these cooler months—May to -August—innumerable objects of interest present themselves to those -who will use their eyes as they walk along the woodland paths. -Among the few flowers that are to be seen, besides the ever-present -orange spikes of the _Sèva_ (_Buddleia madagascariensis_), and the -purple flowers of the _Sèvabé_ (_Solanum auriculatum_) are the -bell-like reddish flowers of a species of _Kitchingia_, which are -rather plentiful; and towards the end of August a number of small -trees and bushes are showing clusters of handsome crimson flowers; -while a purple trumpet-shaped flower is to be seen here and there. -Not uncommon is a shrub with small red flowers, like honeysuckle, -growing at the axils of the leaves and all along the stems. More rare -is a good-sized bush, with large light green and glossy leaves, and -with clusters of yellow fruits, much like large white currants. This -shrub would be a handsome addition to a garden. Berries of various -hues—black, red, orange and yellow—are fairly plentiful; and in many -bushes and trees the lack of flowers is almost made up for by the -brilliant scarlet, or crimson, or orange colours of the new leaves, -and in others again by the bright orange or red of the fading leaves. - -[Sidenote: PALMS] - -There are few trees of any size left in the woods in the immediate -vicinity of the sanatorium, or near the paths through them; they -have all been cut down for the timber market in the capital, or for -house-building in the nearer villages. But in the deep valleys -not a mile distant there is still much virgin forest, and many -trees of considerable height; and on the roadside in the Mandràka -valley, along which the automobile road and then the railway have -been constructed within the last ten or twelve years, both cut -through dense forest, there are many lofty and isolated trees still -left standing, as well as numbers of them in the adjoining woods. -Like most tropical trees, these show the generally vertical habit -of the branches; in the crowd of competitors there is no room for -lateral expansion by wide-spreading branches; every tree presses -upwards to get the light and heat of the sun. In many parts of the -forest, the small palm, commonly called the “bamboo-palm” (_Mal. -Fàri-hàzo_—_i.e._ “woody sugar-cane”), is very plentiful, giving a -thoroughly tropical appearance to the vegetation. Few trees are more -beautiful than this palm, with its ringed stem, three to four inches -in diameter, and its graceful crown of light green pinnate leaves, -through which the sunlight shines. Its usual height is twelve or -fourteen feet, but it occasionally attains double that height, or -more, in certain situations. A much larger, but far less common, palm -is the _anìvona_, but this is because of its being cut down for the -sake of its tough wiry bark, of which the people make the flooring of -their houses, and also use in the construction of the old-fashioned -timber-framed Hova dwellings. The bamboo-palm seems of much less -practical use, and is therefore much more plentiful. Here and there a -still smaller species of palm may be found, with a stem not exceeding -an inch in diameter. - -[Sidenote: CLIMBERS] - -A very noticeable feature of these woods, as indeed of all tropical -forests, is the profusion of climbing plants. Even the smaller -trees and bushes have their twining and creeping parasites, tightly -wound round their stems. And from the tallest trees there hang and -intertwine all manner of lianas, some as big as a ship’s cable, and -others of all intermediate sizes—ropes of every dimension, down to -the finest cord, and often forming an almost impassable barrier, an -inextricable tangle of dense vegetation. Frequently these climbing -plants seem to strangle and squeeze out the life of their unfortunate -hosts; and it is often difficult to distinguish the foliage of -the original tree, and that of the parvenu, which has used its -more robust neighbour to climb up to the light and heat above the -surrounding mass of leafage. Some of these climbers have prominent -and beautiful flowers, which mark their presence very distinctly; -one of these, first sent home by a lady, proved to be a new species. -This liana is about as thick as a one-inch rope, and its spikes of -creamy-yellow flowers are set from one to two feet apart on the -main stem. These spikes are from ten to sixteen inches in length, -each containing from forty to sixty large flowers growing closely -together, so that they are very conspicuous in the forest, forming -immense festoons of flowers, mounting to the tops of lofty trees, -crossing from one tree to another, and shining almost golden in -colour in the brilliant sunshine. These lianas are very plentiful and -may be recognised at a considerable distance, so that they form in -November one of the noticeable features of the upper line of forest. -In the cold season, during which many of these observations were -made, of course this liana is indistinguishable from the tangled mass -of vegetation. - -Although during the winter months flowers, as already mentioned, are -scarce in the upper forest, there is very much to interest one in the -cryptogamic vegetation which is so abundant everywhere around us. The -mosses are seen in great profusion, and of many species. Frequently -they occur in dense masses, carpeting the ground and the bases of the -trees with a thick cushion-like covering. And of what beautiful and -varied colours are these humble plants! light green and all shades of -darker green, star-like mosses of pale pink, browns and greys, some -bright crimson in colour, and some with waxy-looking fructification -stalks; and of all kinds of growth; hair-like filaments, delicate -branching forms, some thick like grass, others like seaweeds, others -silvery-white on one side and chocolate-brown on the other; but words -fail to give any adequate idea of their variety and beauty. During a -short ramble a score of well-marked species may soon be gathered. - -And the lichens are hardly less numerous or beautiful than the -mosses: indeed it is sometimes difficult to tell to which order of -plants some of these organisms belong. In many drier places the -ground is covered with masses of a pale grey species, delicately -branched. And almost everywhere the bushes and trees are festooned -with the hanging filaments of another pale greyish-white lichen -(_Usnea sp._), which give them quite a venerable appearance. Another -common species is a branching coral-like one, pale green above, with -beautiful shades of brown underneath. The rocks seen all over Imèrina -are sometimes perfectly white with minute forms of lichen, but more -frequently present a mosaic of differently coloured species: black, -white, orange, russet and red. - -[Sidenote: FUNGI] - -And the fungi again are quite as noticeable as the other cryptogams, -and their colours make them even more conspicuous. On decaying -timber, their circular and collar-like forms and bright tints -constantly strike one’s attention. From one inch to three or four -inches in diameter these plants present a great variety of colour; -pure white, pale buff edged with brown, brilliant scarlet, orange, -yellow, dark brown, etc.; all these are very common. Some fungi are -hard and woody in substance; others are leathery and flexible, others -soft and gelatinous; and occasionally one sees specimens a foot in -diameter, with delicate shades of browns and greys on their upper -surface. - -It may be easily imagined that with this wealth and variety of -cryptogamic forms many of the tree trunks are a perfect flora of -the humbler kinds of vegetable growths; for we have not mentioned -the delicate hymenophyllum ferns which also cover them in damp -situations; or the great hart’s-tongue ferns, which often occupy the -forks of the branches; or the innumerable small bulbs of the orchids, -which cling, by their long aerial roots, to the trunks and boughs of -the trees. - -In walking through the woods one sometimes becomes conscious of a -sickly sweet smell somewhere near us. This proceeds from a hive -of bees not very far away, generally in the hollow of a tree. The -honey, which is usually excellent, is generally brought for sale to -us in the comb by some of the woodmen. Occasionally, however, it is -somewhat bitter, through being obtained from the flowers of certain -trees or plants. The Madagascar bee, known to entomologists as _Apis -unicolor_, differs but little in appearance from the English species, -although it is somewhat smaller, darker, and less hardy. It chooses, -if left to nature, the same kind of situation for its hive, and -multiplies in the same way. The drones also are idle and are killed -off at certain seasons. The Madagascar insect is much more gentle -when handled than the English one, but there is great difficulty -in hiving the swarms. These bees continue to store honey during the -winter months, although that is the dry season, with few flowers; and -they work in all weathers, even during a heavy thunderstorm. - -[Sidenote: DEATH’S-HEAD MOTH] - -The enemies of the Madagascar bee are, in the first place, rats, -then ants and the wax-moth; but the greatest enemy of all is the -death’s-head moth (_Sphinxatropos_), which is very common. He enters -the hive fearlessly, for although the bees crowd round him they -have no power to stop him, as their stings cannot pierce that downy -body, with its tough skin, but merely slip along it harmlessly. As -soon as he is within he keeps his wings vibrating with a low humming -noise and leisurely sucks his fill—a very long fill. The damage he -does is immense, and hives have been known to be sucked dry, and not -a drop of honey to be found in them, so that the bees quite give -up resisting. Other enemies of the bee are a parasitical solitary -wasp, which lays its eggs in the hive; and another wasp which seizes -the bees when returning to the hive for the sake of their laden -honey-bag, and it also kills them with wonderful celerity. - -The Malagasy have a good general idea of the economy of the hive, -and of the habits of the bees. They usually find the wild nests by -watching the flight of the laden bees, and then by listening during -the hot part of the day, when the bees are “playing.” At most places -the people know of a number of wild nests, over which they keep -supervision. In many villages they make large quantities of mead, -more especially when the rite of circumcision is being observed. For -bees’-wax there is always a ready sale.[13] - -Madagascar, like most tropical countries, is not without a fair -share of spiny and prickly plants. Perhaps most in evidence in the -interior is the prickly pear (_Opuntia ferox_), which was universally -used in old times as a thick hedge for the defence of the ancient -towns and villages. With its large needle-like spines, an inch to an -inch and a half long, studding its broad fleshy leaves, and capable -of inflicting a wound difficult to heal, and with smaller spines -covering the flowers and the fruit, it is easy to see that to a -barefooted and lightly clothed people such a hedge presented a very -formidable, not to say impassable, barrier. The flowers are large and -handsome, yellow and red in colour, and growing at the edge of the -leaves—if indeed they can be called such; the fruit, which is about -as large as a pear, turns yellow when ripe and is not unpalatable, -being something like an unripe gooseberry; but it is exceedingly -difficult to get it peeled without being hurt by its hair-like -needles. The large spines are the ordinary Malagasy pins, and are -very useful for this purpose. - -Another very noticeable plant is the _Sòngosòngo_, a species of -_Euphorbia_, with spiny stems and brilliant scarlet flowers. This is -planted on the top of the low earthen banks which form the boundaries -between private properties and the roads; but it is not nearly such a -formidable defence as the prickly pear. A very common variety of this -plant has pale yellow flowers. - -Another prickly plant is the Mysore thorn, or _Tsiàfakòmby_ (_lit._ -“impassable by cattle”), which is largely used for fences and -stockades. From its numerous hook-like thorns, it also is not a plant -which can be easily passed through, when growing thickly. It has a -large spike of yellow flowers. - -[Sidenote: STINGING PLANTS] - -Another plant or shrub, which grows to the size of a tree, is not -prickly, but stinging. This is the _Amìana_ (_Urera radula_). The -large velvety leaves sting like those of a nettle; they are, however, -of beautiful and complicated outline, and I have pressed specimens -taken from young plants which are as much as two feet across, and -which would be admirable patterns for ornamentation. The wood is -very soft and, when on fire, smoulders for a long time. The trunk, -which is tall and straight, in some specimens is nearly two feet in -diameter. Some five different species have been described. - -Another stinging plant, the _Agy_, with fine needle-like hairs, which -fall in showers and produce fearful irritation, is described in a -subsequent chapter. Many trees in the forest are armed with blunt -prickles, which injure the hand if they are touched when making one’s -way through the dense vegetation. In the extreme south of the island -there are trees or shrubs called _Fàntsi-òlotra_ (“nail-edged”?), -probably a species of _Didierea_, whose thorny stems, always turned -towards the south, are said to resemble a barricade of elephants’ -trunks; the stem, which is as big as a man’s thigh, is entirely -covered with large thorns, between which grow the small round leaves. -On one of these thorny trees, however, M. Lemaire found a white lemur -(_Propithecus verrauxii_) clinging, which, when dislodged, went -leaping across the country on its hind legs, after the fashion of a -kangaroo. - -[Illustration: ANÀLAMAZÀOTRA A VILLAGE IN THE GREAT FOREST - -Cattle pens and characteristic forest trees are shown] - -[Sidenote: FOREST DWELLERS] - -Someone may perhaps ask: Where are the people of these woods? In the -upper belt of forest there are few inhabitants except woodcutters, -and in small hamlets on the side of the main tracks passing through -it; but farther south, where the two lines unite, we shall find, as -we travel past the Bétsiléo province and east of it, a considerable -number of people, who are loosely called “Tanàla,” which simply means -“forest-dwellers,” and of these there are many subdivisions. There -are vague and uncertain accounts given by the Malagasy of a tribe of -people whom they call Béhòsy, and who are said to live in a wooded -country in the west of the island. Their food is honey, eels and -lemurs, which latter are caught in traps and fattened. They are very -dark in colour and are much like the Sàkalàva in appearance, and -are said to jump from tree to tree like monkeys, and cannot easily -be followed, as the country is rocky. They make network of cords, -hence their name (_hòsy_, string, twine). They are extremely timid, -and, if captured, die of fright. These Béhòsy seem to resemble in -some of their habits the “monkey-men” of Dourga Strait, New Guinea; -but it is much to be wished that more definite information could be -obtained about them, for, if what we hear of them is correct, they -are probably of a different stock to the rest of the inhabitants of -Madagascar. - -An apparently well-authenticated account was given by a Mauritius -trader of a wild man of the woods having been caught by some Malagasy -in the year 1879. He was asleep on the branch of a tree, and when -taken resisted violently, biting his captors severely; after a -few days’ confinement, however, he ceased to be aggressive. He -was described as a powerfully built man, his face and body being -thickly covered with long black hair. His mode of walking was very -peculiar, as he travelled very fast, occasionally going on all-fours, -his eyes being invariably fixed on the ground. When caught he was -perfectly nude, but wore clothes when provided with them. He could -never be induced to eat flesh, but lived entirely on manioc and -other roots; nor would he sleep in a recumbent position. After some -months he learned a few words, and by means of these and signs it -was understood that he had a father and two brothers in the forest. -These were found, and surrounded by a search-party one night, but -easily eluded their pursuers, jumping from tree to tree and running -on all-fours. The captured man died five months after being taken -(see _Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc._, May 1889). - -[Sidenote: CYCLONES] - -The central part of the Indian Ocean is well known as the region of -cyclones, and these dreaded storms often include in their revolving -course the islands of Mauritius and Réunion, and occasionally touch -the eastern shores of Madagascar. A notable example of this was the -cyclone of November 1912, which stranded the S.S. _Salazie_, and -wrecked Diego-Suarez and many villages in the north of the island. -It is very seldom, however, that these storms reach the interior; -but in the month of February 1876 a cyclone did ascend to the upper -region of the island and did considerable damage. With my wife and -children I was staying for a holiday at that time at Andràngalòaka, a -small village on the edge of the upper forest, but five or six miles -south of Ankèramadìnika, where our good friend, Dr A. Davidson, had -a country house, which he often placed at the disposal of ourselves -and other friends; and never shall we forget the experiences of that -night of peril. - -It was a Sunday evening and the sun set with a radiance which covered -the whole sky with a crimson glow, in a very remarkable manner. We -settled down after our evening meal for a little reading aloud, but -the wind rose rapidly, and after a time the roar was so great that -we could not go on. We found that its violence increased, and at -length we perceived that it was slowly changing in its direction. We -went to bed, but not to sleep, for the rain poured in from the roof, -and the howl of the wind made sleep impossible. We lay trembling on -our beds, fearing every now and then, as a more violent burst shook -the house, that it would be blown down over us, and we buried in its -ruins. Such would have been the case, I believe, had not the gables -been built of burnt brick and strengthened by the chimney-stacks. -During the night the metal roofing of the verandah was torn off with -a fearful clatter, and soon after dawn—and how long that dawn seemed -in coming!—the outer roof of the house, which was of grass, fixed -over the tiled roof, was bodily seized by the wind and carried off -altogether with its timbers, with a great crash, and then we thought -the house itself was all going. But towards nine A.M. the wind -gradually subsided, after having blown from about three-quarters of -the circle of the compass. - -Scores of country chapels as well as houses were unroofed and greatly -damaged by this storm. A day or two after it we tried to take one -of our usual walks through the woods, but the paths were almost -obliterated by fallen trees and branches. In the valleys scores -of great trees had been torn up by the roots, with masses of soil -clinging to them; in other places they had been broken off short, -snapped as if they had been mere twigs; and in the prostrate branches -were numbers of arboreal creatures—chameleons, lizards, serpents and -tree-frogs—dashed down from their homes. It was all striking evidence -of the force with which the fierce wind had roared, especially up the -valleys, and had laid low everything in its path. - - -[13] For most of the information here given about the Madagascar bee, -I am again indebted to the Rev. C. P. Cory, formerly of the Anglican -Mission in Madagascar. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -RAMBLES IN THE UPPER FOREST - - -There are a number of paths in the forest which may be followed -from the sanatorium, north, east and south, and with a considerable -variety of scene. But it is easy to get lost in them, for I remember -one day when a party of us set out for a morning’s walk, but could -not find our way back, although we often caught sight of the house; -and it was late in the afternoon before we at length got home, very -tired and very hungry. Two of our friends, who were well acquainted -with the neighbourhood, were lost in paths not very far from the -sanatorium, and had to spend the night in the woods, making as -comfortable a resting-place as they could with leaves and bracken, -but getting no sleep from the multitude of mosquitoes. And a curious -circumstance was, that the Malagasy from the house, who came out -to seek for them, were afraid either to shout out loud to them, or -to show the lights they carried, for fear of offending the _lòlo_, -or spirits, which they think haunt the woods. Had they done either -of these things, our friends would probably have escaped being -benighted. Happily, the time of this adventure was in the dry season, -or it might have had serious consequences. - -From what has been said in Chapters IV. and V. about the difficult -paths through the chief forest, it is not strange that the Malagasy -have considerable dread of it and do not share in our admiration of -its beauties. So one of their proverbs says: “_Roa lahy miditra ala: -ka izy tokiko, ary izaho tokiny_”—that is, “Two men entering the -forest: it’s ‘He’s my confidence, and I am his’”; the fact is that -both are afraid. It is to them the “dark forest,” full of mystery -and fear, and it may easily be imagined that before any practicable -roads were made through it, it had much to inspire dread. One of the -native hymns, often sung when the natives have friends going away to -a distance, prays for protection for them in the forest and also in -crossing the rivers, on account of the many things in both which may -injure the traveller.[14] - -[Sidenote: A MADAGASCAR FOREST] - -It would probably be a very serious matter for a European to be lost -for long in a Madagascar forest, for he would be entirely at a loss -for food, and would most likely be unable to produce fire to cook -anything he could find. To a Malagasy, however, especially one living -in the neighbourhood of the woods, it would not matter so much, as -there are several species of yam, which he would easily find. These -_Ovinàla_ are climbing plants common in the forest, belonging to the -genus _Dioscorea_, and have very large edible tubers, which are much -sought after by the people; their taste is similar to other yams -which are so largely used as food in other parts of the world. In -Drury’s “Adventures,” he speaks frequently of procuring these yams in -the south-western forests; for, living many years, as he did, like a -native in that part of the island, he became well versed in woodcraft -and could live as the people lived. - -A European would be equally puzzled as to obtaining fire to cook his -yams, were he so fortunate as to find any; but a forest-dwelling -Malagasy could easily produce fire by friction. Choosing two pieces -of a particular kind of wood, he would cut one to the shape of a -round stick with a pointed end; the other he would make into a -flatter piece, in which a slight groove is cut. Taking hold of -the pointed stick, the operator twirls it first one way and then -another, until the friction produces smoke and then fire, which is -communicated to a little tinder placed close to the point. Gently -blowing upon the spark which is produced, the tinder bursts into -flame, the whole operation occupying only a few minutes. There are -special words for this mode of obtaining fire: _mamòsitra_, which is -also used for the boring of a hole by an insect, or a chameleon, to -deposit its eggs; and _miraingy_, the pieces of wood being called -_raingy_. But it may be feared that the universal use of Swedish -matches will soon render this means of producing fire one of the lost -arts. - -To tend a fire is, in Malagasy, to _misòrona àfo_; and since -_misòrona_ also means “to exercise a priestly function,” it looks as -if this word or phrase was a relic of ancient reverence for fire as a -sacred thing, a feeling which is found in the customs and speech of -many peoples. - -[Sidenote: WATERFALLS] - -In several directions there are beautiful waterfalls, to which -a pleasant picnic excursion may be made. One of these is called -“Tsi-màharé-rìtsoka,” which means, “Where a whisper cannot be heard,” -for indeed, when near it, you must bawl as loud as you can to be -heard at all; this fall is a succession of cascades, coming down -from a considerable height. At another place a large body of water -pours at one sweep over a great ledge of rock, perhaps thirty feet -deep. And along the automobile road, only a few yards from it up a -little valley leading into the main valley of the river Mandràka, -we were fortunate one day to discover a most lovely waterfall of -considerable height in the midst of dense wood, with a large pool of -water at its foot, where a delightful bathe might be taken; an ideal -place for a summer day. But the largest and grandest waterfall, and -within a little over an hour’s walk from the sanatorium, is really an -artificial one; for in making the automobile road to Tamatave along -the Mandràka valley, the river was diverted from a circuitous course -over a number of rapids, and brought by a short-cutting over a nearly -sheer fall of about a hundred and fifty feet, where it pours down a -magnificent body of water, with a roar and clouds of spray that wet -everything for a long way round. The sides of the cutting are being -rapidly covered with vegetation from the constant moisture, so that -in a short time it will have all the effect of a natural fall. The -noise is tremendous, and the fall can be seen from several points on -the main road. - -[Sidenote: FROGS] - -At the foot of the second of the waterfalls just mentioned I was -fortunate enough to see a rather rare frog, which is peculiar to -Madagascar. This little creature is only an inch long, as regards -the body, but on that and its long hind legs there are semicircular -patches of bright red on a black ground, so that it is very -conspicuous (_Mantella baroni_) (see illustration). There is also -a much larger frog, three inches in length, with hind legs quite -six inches long (_Rhacophoras albilabris_); this species appears to -be, in part at least, arboreal as well as aquatic, as its toes are -furnished with little disks instead of claws (see illustration). He -is, however, a giant compared with the majority of the frogs found in -the island, which are not very different in colouring or size from -the common English species. These creatures are very plentiful in the -rice-fields, and as one walks along the _vàlamparìa_, or little banks -separating the fields, the frogs jump off and “plop” into the water -at every step one takes. In the early morning, after a rainy night, -the noise of their croaking is very loud, almost deafening, as they -apparently find the increased depth of water much to their liking. - -From some small structural peculiarities, many of the Madagascar -frogs have been arranged in a distinct genus, called _Mantidactylus_, -and of this genus at least sixteen species have been described. Of -the widely distributed genus _Rana_, one species, _R. fasciata_, -is said by a careful observer to build a kind of nest. These frogs -construct regular passages under the grass during the dry season; -their paths are made as regularly as those of a mole, by the little -creatures pressing down the short grass near the earth, and drawing -together the longer blades, thus rendering them invisible. The -nests are from eight to ten inches in diameter by four in height, -and made ingeniously by weaving the layers of grass together. When -frightened, these frogs throw out a limpid stream of water, which has -been stored up in time of need, as in very dry weather, and which is -distributed over the body, so as to keep the whole of it moist. The -tree-frogs are very pretty little creatures, their light green colour -exactly matching that of the leaves on which they live, so that it -is difficult to detect their presence, except by close inspection. -Their toes end in small disks, so as to adhere closely to the smooth -surface of the leaves. - -We have already seen that many of the living creatures of Madagascar -gain great protection from enemies from the assimilation of their -colour to that of their surroundings. This is the case also with -many species of grasshopper and of mantis. You see an insect with -bright scarlet wings flit by you and settle on a bush; wanting to -observe it more closely, you try to find it, but it has disappeared, -and not a vestige of bright colour is to be seen. Still, if you are -patient and search carefully, you may presently see a mantis moving -its head about in an uncanny fashion, and its fore legs held up in a -mock devotional attitude, from which its specific name of _Religiosa_ -has been given it. But the scarlet wings are folded under its green -wing-cases so as to be perfectly unseen, and these coverings are just -like a leaf, the rest of its body being exactly the colour of its -resting-place. In some of the grasshoppers, this mimicry of vegetable -forms is still more wonderful. Here is one which resembles _green_ -grass, and its body, legs, wing-sheaths and antennæ are all as like -grass as they can possibly be. But here again is another kind, whose -body is equally imitative of _dry_ grass, and so all parts of it are -just like the stalks or the blades of yellowish-brown grass, dried -up during the cold season. Even the eyes are imitative, and exactly -resemble a small brown seed, such as many grasses bear. - -[Sidenote: BEETLES] - -There are many species of beetles to be seen, although none of them -are very handsome or conspicuous. The most common kind is a broad -flat insect, about an inch long and dull dark brown in colour, which -crosses one’s path at every step. Another is seen chiefly on the -bushes, a smaller insect, but bright shining jet-black. Another, -which appears as if it mimicked a wasp in its habit of flight, is -shot with brown and green, with very long legs, and is constantly -taking short flights or running rapidly. Another one, but much more -rare, has golden-green and metallic tints on its wing-cases. But the -insect which has puzzled us most is one that I have seen on a large -bush of _Ròimémy_, a plant with acacia-like leaves, with prickles -along the leaf-stalks. This beetle is about five-eighths of an inch -long, and almost hemispherical in shape. It is warm reddish-brown in -colour, with a line of black and then of yellow next the head, and is -perfectly flat below. These insects cluster closely, as thick as they -can lie, in groups of from a dozen to more than a hundred together, -all round the thicker stems, so that they look at a little distance -like strings of large brown beads; and in some of the topmost -branches they form a continuous mass for two or three feet. Amongst -these shining brown insects are a few others of quite a different -colour and shape, perfectly flat, like a minute tortoise, and of a -uniform grey, exactly resembling the lichen on the bark of the tree, -and the edges of the carapace scalloped. These grey insects are in -the proportion of about one to forty or fifty of the darker coloured -ones. There are also a few individuals of the same shape as the brown -one, but yellowish-green in colour. What these grey insects can be, -and what relation they bear to the much more numerous brown ones, I -cannot make out. - -Other insects, at first sight resembling beetles, are gaudily -coloured. Yonder is a bush which is conspicuous from some little -distance, from the quantity of insects clustered on it; they are -about half-an-inch long, but are most brilliant with scarlet, blue -and green. Be careful, however, how you handle them, for their scent -is anything but agreeable; and, notwithstanding their gay colours, -they are, after all, a species of bug. A beetle which I have often -noticed in the woods is an insect an inch and a half long, but with a -very long slender proboscis, with which it appears to pierce the bark -of the stems on which it rests; I think it feeds on the juices of the -bush or tree, and is probably a species of weevil (_Eupholus sp?_). - -[Sidenote: MIMICRY] - -Mimicry, however, is not confined to Madagascar animals, but also -occurs among plants. Mr Baron says: “In some marshy ground on the -top of Ankàratra mountain, I found a small whitish orchid, a few -specimens of which I gathered. After getting about half-a-dozen, I -discovered, to my great surprise, that some of them were labiate -plants. I was utterly deceived, thinking it was the same plant I was -gathering all the time, so exactly alike were the two species in -almost all outward appearances. I felt at once convinced that this -was a case of mimicry. At the east foot of the mountain I discovered -a similar phenomenon, in a large labiate plant (_Salvia_), strikingly -similar to another orchid. No doubt the labiate in each case mimics -the orchid, not vice versa, in order to ensure fertilisation.” - -In one of our rambles near the large patch of old forest which -still remains near the L.M.S. sanatorium at Ambàtovòry I came one -day across a cluster of very large earthworms; at first sight these -looked more like a number of small snakes than worms, as they were -at least three times the size of any English worms, having about as -large a diameter as a good-sized man’s finger. They are not, however, -very common, as I have only seen them on that one occasion; so they -probably do not play the same important part in the renewal of the -soil here as Mr Darwin has shown is done by earthworms in Europe. - -Anyone who walks through the forest will notice at points where the -paths branch off a pile of bracken, branches of trees, moss, etc. -These heaps, as well as those of stones in similar positions in the -open country, are known as _fànataovana_. These have been formed -by passers-by throwing a stick or stone on the heap, for luck, -expressing the hope that, if on a journey, they may have a safe -return, as well as success in their undertakings. A similar custom -prevails in the eastern parts of Africa, and also in Sumatra and -Timor, and probably in other countries as well. - -[Sidenote: NATIVE FOUNDRIES] - -A walk along the upper edge of the forest, although at some distance -from Ankèramadìnika, will bring us to one of the native smelting -and forging stations, where iron is obtained and made into pigs for -the use of blacksmiths, as well as into various implements. Iron -is very abundant in the interior of Madagascar, indeed the whole -soil over an immense extent of it is reddened by iron oxide, and in -some places there is so much magnetite that a compass is seriously -deflected and is quite unreliable. At such a foundry one may see in -use the “feather-bellows,” which the Malagasy brought with them from -their far-off Malayan home, and which I believe is nowhere to be -found but in Madagascar and Malaysia. This consists of two cylinders, -about five feet long and six inches to eight inches wide, made -from the trunks of trees hollowed out. These are made air-tight at -the lower end and fixed in the earth in a vertical position, about -eighteen inches to two feet apart. In each cylinder a hole is made -a few inches from the ground, and in these a bamboo cane or an old -musket-barrel is inserted, the other end being fixed into the stone -or clay wall of the furnace. A piston with feather valves is fitted -into each cylinder, and the shafts or piston-rods are worked up -and down alternately by a boy or man seated on a board uniting the -cylinders. In this way a continuous blast is produced in the furnace. -(Such bellows are also used by blacksmiths.) - -These foundries are always situated near a running stream of water, -so that the ore may be washed and cleared as much as possible from -earth and sand. The furnace itself is a hole about six feet in -diameter and one or two feet deep; its walls are of rough stonework, -built up three or four feet, and thickly plastered outside with -clay. Charcoal is used in smelting and, notwithstanding these rude -appliances and methods, the iron produced has been pronounced by -competent judges to be of excellent quality. Spade-blades, knives, -nails, bolts and many other articles are produced by the native -smiths; and in the construction of the Memorial Churches, more than -forty years ago, I had ornamental hinges, railings, finial crosses, -and other requisite ironwork all excellently made and finished by -Malagasy blacksmiths. - -[Illustration: MEMORIAL CARVED POSTS AND OX HORNS, BÉTSILÉO PROVINCE - -Generally the horns are of oxen killed at the funeral] - -[Illustration: BLACKSMITH AT WORK - -Note the feather-piston bellows, and the man playing a -single-stringed gourd guitar] - -Several of the paths in the forest lead down into ravines of -considerable depth and also of great beauty; the combinations of -luxuriant foliage, rushing water and lichen-embroidered rocks, -ferns and mosses are very varied, and one valley especially reminds -one of the celebrated “Fairy Glen” in North Wales. But there are -occasionally certain drawbacks even in this natural loveliness, -for if you are not very careful you may find yourself attacked by -the small leeches which lie in wait on the grass and bushes, and -transfer themselves to you as you brush by them. Before you feel -any annoyance, you may find yourself streaming with blood from the -punctures made by these little pests, which have got under your -clothing and are feeding at your expense. Happily, they do not -cause any pain worth speaking of, nor are there any unpleasant -after-effects, the only discomfort is the blood you lose and having -it outside instead of inside your skin. - -[Sidenote: CRAYFISH] - -While staying near the upper forest we had frequently brought to us -for sale a basketful of crayfish, which seems fairly plentiful in -the streams. This species (_Astacoides madagascariensis_), with its -genus, is endemic in Madagascar, and in the interior is of small -size, averaging about three inches in length; the flavour, however, -is excellent, and it makes a very good curry. In the south-east -provinces, and probably in other coast districts as well, it attains -larger dimensions than the above, being about six inches long. It is -a curious fact that crustaceans are entirely absent in the African -continent, and that the Madagascar species is much like the kind -found in Australia, except that the latter is about twice the size of -_Astacoides_. - -There is a great variety of ferns to be found in every damp place in -the valleys, from the minute hymenophyllums on the tree trunks to the -larger species of Asplenium, Osmunda, Nephrodium and many others, up -to the tree-ferns, of which there are about twenty different kinds, -and which give a special charm to the vegetation in many places. On -the eastern side of Madagascar the ferns occupy a prominent place -in the flora, there being above two hundred species already known, -and comprising no less than above thirteen per cent. of the whole -flora of that region. Among the Filici are the beautiful gold ferns -and silver ferns, the seed-vessels on the under side of the fronds -having quite the effect of the two precious metals. The young leaves -of a tree found in the forest (_Eleocarpus sericeus_), when dried and -pressed, form the beautiful objects known as “gold leaves.” - -[Sidenote: VALUABLE TREES] - -A large number of the forest trees yield substances of commercial -value. Two species of climbing plants afford india-rubber, one of -the most valuable exports of the island. A tree called Nàto supplies -a bark which is largely employed by the natives in dyeing the deep -red used for their silk _làmbas_, especially those used to wrap -the bodies of the dead. Other trees yield various gums and resins, -one of these being the valuable gum-copal, of which quantities are -exported. From several other trees tough fibres are obtained for -the manufacture of cord and rope; while from a palm called Vònitra -the “bass fibre” or piassava is taken, which is used for making -brooms, brushes, etc. A shrub, a species of castor-oil plant, -supplies seeds which are so full of oil or fat that they are strung -on a reed like beads and are used to give light, so that it is -called “the candle-nut tree.” When one end is lit, the seeds burn -steadily, giving a light about equal to that of two good candles -and leaving no ash. A very considerable number of trees and plants -are employed in various ways by the Malagasy as medicine, both for -internal and external use; and although the virtue of some of these -may be imaginative only, there can be little doubt that in numbers -of instances these native remedies are of value. Probably a careful -examination of them would give some valuable additions to the -pharmacopœia. - -Among the forest trees is a considerable number which yield valuable -timber, most of them hard and beautifully grained woods, which are -employed for cabinet-work as well as in house carpentry. In the -great palace at Antanànarìvo, the three central columns supporting -the ridge of the roof are said to be each formed of the trunk of a -single tree; the roof is a hundred and twenty feet high, and these -pillars are sunk some way in the earth. One of these timber trees, -called _Vòambòana_, is extensively used for making furniture—tables, -sideboards, wardrobes, writing-desks, bookshelves, etc.—and resembles -mahogany. Another tree called _Hàrahàra_ has extremely hard wood, -and is employed for the long spade handles, and formerly for spear -shafts. One species of pine known as _Hètatra_, the only example -of that order in the island, gives a hard white wood used for -flooring; while ebony is procured from one or two endemic species -of _Diospyros_; sandalwood is also reported to be found in certain -localities. - -[Sidenote: SUPERSTITIONS] - -It will easily be believed that the mysteriousness of the forest has -produced many superstitious notions among the Malagasy, and they have -curious stories of marvellous creatures and monsters inhabiting these -dense woods. One of these is called _Kinòly_, and is said to be human -in origin, for although it has no intestines or stomach, yet in all -its other parts it is like a living person. Its eyes are red, and its -nails long; and, with others of its kind, it is said to be constantly -thieving, so that when anyone leaves out cooked rice or other food, -it takes it. It is difficult, however, to reconcile such accounts -with that of their bowelless condition; it is thought to be a great -misfortune to meet a kinòly. Another strange creature is called -_Tòkan-tòngotra_, or “Single foot,” because it is said to have only -one fore and one hind leg! It is so exceedingly swift that no other -creature has a chance of escaping it; it eats men and goes about at -night. Still another strange beast is called _Siòna_, which has also, -like the kinòly, something human about it. It is said to live away -from men, and when anyone goes through the woods and leaves his rice, -or his axe, these are taken by the siòna and conveyed to its abode. -When the woodmen go to sleep and leave a fire still burning (for -their custom is to leave a big log on the hearth, so that they may be -kept warm), then this creature comes and warms itself. Possibly the -habits of some of the larger lemurs have given rise to such stories, -aided by a good deal of imagination; and the tòkan-tòngotra story -probably comes from the herons or flamingoes, which have the habit of -standing on one leg when asleep. - -In passing along the forest paths we frequently come across examples -of the curious ball-insect (_Spherotherium sp._), of which there are -several species, at least six, in Madagascar. These insects, which -are wingless and many-footed, and are called, not very elegantly, by -the Malagasy _Tainkìntana_, or “Star-droppings,” have the power of -instantaneously rolling themselves into an almost perfect sphere, -which form they retain as long as any danger threatens them, and -no force short of pulling them to pieces can make them unroll. The -animal is formed of nine or ten segments, each with a pair of legs -and covered with a plate of armour; while the head and tail are -defended by larger plates, each of which fits into the other and -makes a more perfectly fitting suit of armour than was ever worn -by medieval knight. There are several species of these pretty and -curious creatures. The most common kind here is one which forms a -ball barely an inch in diameter and shining black in colour. Another, -more rarely seen in the interior open country, but common enough in -the upper belt of forest, is of a beautiful brown colour like russia -leather, and is quite double the size of the first-mentioned one. In -passing through the main forest in 1892, we came suddenly one day -to a part of the road which was so thickly covered by such a great -number of these creatures that our bearers could not avoid trampling -on them. These were of a bronze-green tint and belong to a third -species, and were quite three inches in length. Other species of -these Sphærotheria are found in Africa, Asia, Australia and some of -the neighbouring islands. - -Another many-footed and wingless creature is common enough in the -upper forest, for we often found it on the upper verandah of the -house at Andràngalòaka; this is a shining black millipede, about a -foot in length, and half to three-quarters of an inch in thickness. -It is called by the natives _Kòdikòdy_, and its numerous reddish -legs, not far short of a thousand in number, have a curious effect -of successive waves as it moves along. Although not very inviting in -appearance, it is quite harmless and is a vegetable feeder. There is -another species, which is marked longitudinally with black and red -stripes. - -[Sidenote: CENTIPEDES] - -[Sidenote: SCORPIONS] - -More unpleasant by far is another many-legged creature, the -centipede, whose sting is said to be exceedingly painful, resembling -the puncture of a hot iron, and which is not uncommon in the interior -as well as in the forest. The mere touch of its minute claws, if it -happens to crawl over one, is said to produce pain and inflammation. -I have turned small centipedes out of the hole in a window-sill where -the bolt would fall; and I remember one morning, before getting out -of bed, seeing a pretty large one marching across our bedroom floor. -Happily these, which are among the few noxious creatures we have in -Madagascar, are not very common. Another unpleasant visitor is the -scorpion, which is rather apt to get into a house which has much -stonework in the basement; we frequently killed small ones about an -inch long at Antanànarìvo. Examples twice that size are found in the -Vàvavàto district; while on the shores of Bèmbatòka Bay (N.W.Co.) -scorpions five inches long occur, and Captain Owen says that they may -be found, one or more, under almost every stone. He states a curious -fact, if indeed it is one—viz. that the most destructive enemy to the -scorpion is the common mouse.[15] - - -[14] - - “_Ao ny àndro mamanala, - Sakambino ao an-àla; - Raha mandeha mita rano, - Mba hazòny sy tantano_”; - etc. - - “There are the chilly days, - Sustain them in the forest; - When they ford the rivers, - O uphold and guide them,” - etc. - -_Ala_, at the end of the first two lines, is the native word for -“forest,” and the native word translated here “chilly” is from the -damp and cold woods. - -[15] Here I may notice that, in addition to the above-named -unpleasant inhabitants of Madagascar, we have had, within the last -eighteen years, a most unwelcome accession to the insect pests, by -the introduction of the chigoe, or “jigger,” which was brought by -the Senegalese black troops employed in the French conquest of 1895. -This minute flea does not jump, but runs over one’s body, and burrows -under the skin, chiefly in the feet, but also sometimes in the hands, -where it causes intolerable itching, and, if not speedily removed -with a needle, becomes in four or five days full of eggs, and causes -sores and inflammation. It is a great pest to the Malagasy, the great -majority of whom go barefoot. But those who have boots and shoes on -get no exemption from the attacks of the jiggers. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -FAUNA - - -While on the subject of noxious creatures, we remember that one, if -not more, of the spiders of Madagascar must be included in the list. -This is a small arachnid, about the size and shape of a marble, -shining glossy black in colour, except for a small red spot on the -fundament. It is greatly dreaded by the natives, who believe its -bite to be fatal, and it is probably so if cauterisation and other -remedies are not immediately applied. Dr Vinson, a French naturalist, -ascertained that this spider, called _Mènavòdy_ by the people, is -closely allied to the malignant _Latrodectus_ of Elba and Corsica, -whose bite is believed to be fatal, and also to another spider found -in Martinique, which is equally dangerous. People bitten by this -Madagascar spider scream out with pain at intervals of a minute -or two, as if it came on in paroxysms. I remember that one of our -servants when bringing one of these spiders to look at took care to -hold it at a very respectful distance from himself, at the end of a -long stick. - -[Sidenote: SPIDERS] - -As we push through the bushes we break through many spiders’ webs, -and are struck by the extraordinary shape of some of those whose -snares we unwittingly destroy by our passing along. Here is one, -small and reddish in colour, but much broader than it is long, each -side projecting into a long sharp spike—indeed it is spiky in several -directions, and is utterly unlike any other spider we know of. -This is, I believe, a species of _Cærostris_ (_C. stygiana?_), and -belongs to a genus of which several species have names denoting their -demoniacal shape and colouring—_e.g._ _avernalis_, _stygiana_, etc. - -As we stop to observe his geometric web, and his bizarre shape, we -see on the tree to which several of his main “guys” are fixed a very -different spider’s house and a very different spider from our angular -friend just mentioned. This creature is a much larger species than -the other, with jet-black legs and satiny dark grey abdomen as large -as a good-sized nut. He apparently hunts his prey, for he has no net, -but hides himself in an inverted cup-shaped house of strong web. As I -tap the top of this retreat he shams dead and tumbles down into the -grass, from which he will presently ascend as soon as the enemy is -clear off the ground. - -Close by this hunting spider’s home we see the large web of a third -species, quite different from the other two. At first sight this -appears to be the same insect as the large _Nephila_, which is so -plentiful in Imèrina, in orchards and outside houses. A closer -inspection, however, shows that it is a different species from that -common large spider, for this one has a long filbert-shaped abdomen, -striped with brown lines, very different from the golden and silvery -markings of the more abundant species. It appears to be strictly a -forest spider and seems rather rare. - -In rambling along the edge of one of the pretty rice-valleys north -of Ambòhimànga, I came across a species I had not met with before. -This was of medium size, but was striped in transverse lines of -white and black across the abdomen, so as to give it a zebra-like -appearance. The under side was almost white; altogether it is a -handsome species, and is probably still undescribed scientifically. -It makes a geometrical web, and, like several other Madagascar -spiders, puts the web into rapid vibration if it is disturbed. Some -species draw up their legs close to the body when lying in wait in -the centre of their web, so that they too resemble a small lump of -earth or a stone. Is not this also done as a disguise? It seems to me -highly probable. Other species have the habit of stretching out their -legs in couples, so as to seem almost as if they had only four or six -legs instead of eight, and thus appear to mimic insects. Is this also -intended to hide their predaceous character? - -A traveller through the Tanòsy country, south-east coast, speaks of -the uncanny aspect of one of the villages in which he stayed; and -he says that what increased his impression of it, as like a town of -wicked enchanters, was that all the houses were festooned and closely -linked together overhead by tangled masses of gigantic spiders’ -webs, amongst which lay in wait monstrous black spiders. Some of the -coast villages, he says, were almost completely roofed in by these -great webs. Spaces of quite thirty feet have been observed spanned -by the lines of the nephila mentioned in a former chapter; and I -have noticed that the angles and outer spaces of its great web are -frequently filled up by the minute geometric webs of smaller species. -These lesser fry appear to be tolerated, if not encouraged, by their -giant neighbour, as they probably catch what would be insignificant -to her, and very likely clear her web of what she rejects; and so -they all live together in harmony in a small colony. - -[Sidenote: PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE] - -Looking about in the undergrowth for wild flowers and fruit, and -happening to rub against the stem of one of the bushes, a small -rough roundish ball falls off on to the ground; this appears exactly -like a bit of round wrinkled bark, but on watching for a minute or -two, it develops four pairs of legs, and runs nimbly away under -cover, revealing itself as a spider, with a marvellous protective -resemblance to its surroundings. Unless the creature actually moves, -it is impossible to detect it, it is so exactly like a knobby bit of -the brown bark. - -Protective resemblance in quite a different style appears in a small -spider, perfectly white in colour—thorax, legs and abdomen—which -scuttles out of the coralla of certain white flowers when these are -examined or shaken. This also, unless it moves, is all but invisible; -and there can be no doubt that it is thus enabled to catch the many -small flies which are attracted by the honey and fragrance of the -flowers. A larger and green spider, a handsome species, with a long -oval abdomen striped with red, probably also a hunter, thanks to its -close resemblance to green leaves and the pale reddish veining seen -on many leaves, by which it is thus protected from observation until -it can pounce upon its prey. This is one species of the many spiders -which are caught by some of the solitary wasps, as described in -Chapter VII. - -As we notice these curious disguises in spiders, as well as in -numbers of other living creatures, we are reminded of the old nursery -tales and fables of the gift of invisibility supposed to be conferred -by certain plants, or by certain charms or ceremonies. With these -spiders, as well as in many other creatures, some lower, and others -much higher, than them in organisation, this power of becoming at -will unseen, even under the closest observation, is no fable, but -a veritable fact. There is a curious habit which I have observed in -several species of Malagasy spiders which is apparently also used for -protection. If they are disturbed, or if their web is shaken, they -immediately throw themselves into a state of violent vibration, so -that the eye cannot follow them; and this rapid motion is continued -for two or three minutes, until the supposed danger has passed away. -It would seem as if this must be done to confuse a possible enemy -intending to attack them. - -[Sidenote: VENOMOUS SPIDERS] - -Besides the red-spot spider, there is another kind called by the -natives _Fòka_; this is rather common in gardens and is extremely -like a small crab, with a lozenge-shaped abdomen; it is covered with -tubercles, and its legs are roughened, like those of a crustacean. -Its bite is followed by swelling, which spreads from the wounded -part through the whole body. This dangerous spider’s bite is said -to be often fatal. There is another spider, apparently a species of -_Mygale_, called by the people _Tàrabìby_, found fifty to sixty miles -west of the capital, whose bite is also said to be dangerous, if not -actually fatal. It appears to be a trap-door species. Besides this -one, another species of trap-door spider is also said to be found in -Imèrina, but I have not seen a specimen myself; it is said to leave -the door of its dwelling open. - -The illustration given herewith will give a better idea than any mere -description can of the strange shapes of many Madagascar spiders. -The largest figure shows an _Epeira_ of extraordinary shape; it -will be seen that the abdomen is like a set of three cones, fixed -into one another and terminated by a sharpish point. A still more -bizarre figure is presented by _Epeira mitralis_, as it crouches, -fixed close to a branch or twig; whether viewed from the back or -front or side, it is equally “uncanny” in its appearance. Then, -again, the two _Gastera-canthæ_, with their bodies much broader than -they are long, are very unlike our ordinary idea of a spider, while -the formidable spikes with which they are armed would appear a very -efficient protection from any insect-eating bird or beast. The rather -diabolical-looking _Thomisus foka_, with its crab-like pincers, is -much dreaded by the Malagasy, as giving a fatal bite, if speedy -remedies are not applied. Happily, it is not very common. - -[Sidenote: DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SPIDERS] - -There is a considerable variety in the webs of Malagasy spiders. -Here is one which may be seen by hundreds, filling up the space -between the sharp-pointed leaves of the aloes. At first sight it -appears only a tangled mass of web, but on closer examination we see -that the groundwork is a geometrical web in the centre, but as it is -stretched horizontally, and not vertically, it is cup-shaped. But -from it, above and below, stretches a labyrinth of lines, like the -crossing and recrossing of the lianas in the forest. In the centre of -this maze of lines the owner of the structure lies in wait, a small -spider, handsomely marked with black and white. Not far off a grey -silken bag is hung, which contains the eggs, from which a swarm of -little spiders will eventually proceed, not bigger than small ants. - -A word or two may be added about a very common house spider which -is abundant in Imèrina. This is a rather large species, light brown -in colour, but its peculiarity is that it is extremely thin and -flat—a case almost of extension without thickness, as it is hardly -thicker than a piece of stout paper; and so it is enabled to wait -for its prey hidden in narrow and almost imperceptible cracks. It is -emphatically a hunting spider and makes apparently no nest or web, -and it is amusing to see the adroit way in which it will cautiously -approach the edge of a crack in a board and sweep off an unwary fly. - -One more curious spider may be noticed here; this has a very small -body, hardly larger than a big pin’s head, but it has extraordinarily -long thread-like legs, covering a very wide area when compared with -its minute body. - -There must be still a large number of these Arachnidæ yet unknown to -science, for they are very numerous in species in some localities. I -remember spending an afternoon, many years ago, on a hill a few miles -south of the capital, together with two or three friends, hunting -spiders. We caught at least thirty different species among the bushes -on the hill-top and slopes. Doubtless some of these are described -and figured in one of the volumes of M. Grandidier’s great work on -Madagascar, still in progress. But there are probably a much larger -number of these creatures still awaiting the careful observations of -anyone who will note their interesting habits and homes, and their -very varied appearance and structure. - -[Illustration: ON THE COAST LAGOONS - -Pandanus (hòfa) trees] - -I fancy my readers will now say, you have told us a good deal about -the insects, and something about the reptiles and birds of the -forest, but are there no four-footed animals in the Madagascar woods -except the wild boar? Yes, there certainly are many such, for there -are at least fifty species of quadrupeds already known in addition -to the lemurs; but as they are, most of them, small—sixteen are -species of rats and mice, and twenty-three are a kind of hedgehog, -and therefore are burrowing animals—they are not at all conspicuous -and must be sought for if we want to observe their habits; and the -ten species of carnivora are also mostly small in size. Leaving for -the present the carnivora and the rodentia, let me say here what -can be said of interest about a group of small animals which are -in habit and appearance much like the European hedgehogs, being of -the same order (the insect-eaters), but belonging to a distinct -family, the Centetidæ, which, except for one genus, are peculiar to -Madagascar. Some of these animals have a covering of strong spines, -while in other species this consists rather of firm prickly hairs, -which, however, do not cover the whole of the body. The larger kinds, -called _Tràndraka_ by the Malagasy, are used by them for food, and -have very much the taste of pork. (I have eaten them once or twice, -but they are rather rich and greasy.) They are found in the woods, -but especially in the scattered brushwood in the vicinity of the -forests; and we occasionally met with two or three varieties of these -harmless creatures while rambling in the outskirts of the woods. Our -dog often chased and attempted to worry them, but she usually came -back with her mouth and nose stuck full of prickles and looking like -a pincushion, and apparently very uncomfortable. - -[Sidenote: THE TAIL-LESS TENREC] - -The tail-less tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_) is the largest and -best known of its family. Its manner of life is remarkable, for -it passes half the year, the cold season, in a profound sleep, in -a burrow which it excavates about May or June. The female is very -prolific, bringing forth from twelve to twenty-two young ones, -which are bravely defended by the mother against every enemy. Their -food consists chiefly of earthworms, and also of roots, fruits and -insects. They sleep almost constantly during the day, while they are -very active during the night; and what has been here said of the -_Tràndraka_ as to habits, food, etc., may be taken as representing -what might be said of most of the Centetidæ. The striped tenrec is -about the size of a mole, and is streaked with black and yellow, as -are indeed the young of other species. The spiny tenrec is much like -our European hedgehog, as it is covered with strong spines, and can -roll itself up into a ball when attacked. Another species, called -_Sòra_ by the natives, is about five inches long. A female of this -kind was one day brought to us for sale, together with eight or nine -tiny young ones only a few days old. These were prettily banded with -yellow and brown stripes, their hair being still soft. They were -about the size of a large egg, and a most curious little family of -creatures they looked. The rice tenrec inhabits the plains between -the two lines of forest, and does immense injury to the rice crops -by burrowing into the earth and rooting up the young plants. Another -species (and genus) is strikingly modified for aquatic life, having -webbed toes, and a thick and powerful tail. The smallest species -known is only two inches long, with a tail of three inches. Small as -the animals of this family are, they are remarkable from the fact -that in no equally confined area are they represented by so many -peculiar types as in Madagascar. But it is still more remarkable that -the only other known genus of Centetidæ is found in the West India -Islands; two portions of the same family being separated from each -other by an extensive continent as well as by a deep ocean. - -[Illustration: SOME CURIOUS MADAGASCAR SPIDERS. - -Epeira Coquerelii - -Gasteracantha madagas^{sis} - -Epeira mitralis _back_ _side_ _front_ - -Gasteracantha formosa - -Thomisus foka] - -[Sidenote: LEMURS] - -These sketches of the forest would be very incomplete without -saying something about what are the most characteristic animals of -Madagascar—viz. the lemurs; for though there are a few allied forms -found in Africa on the one side, and in Southern Asia on the other, -this island is _the_ home of Lemuroid animals. It was indeed proposed -to call a supposed former continent in the Indian Ocean by the name -of “Lemuria.” It must be said, however, that there are few of them to -be seen in the neighbourhood of the sanatorium, although the cries of -some may be heard, a strange long-drawn-out wailing sound, as if of -people in distress, or children crying. Yet it was always a pleasant -sound to me, as a sign of life, and probably of enjoyment, in these -active and harmless denizens of the woods. There are no fewer than -thirty-nine different species of these animals living in Madagascar, -of which twenty-nine are the true lemurs, while the other ten are -closely allied to them and are lemur-like (Lemuroida). The eastern -and north-eastern forests contain about a third of the larger -number; and M. Grandidier has pointed out that while some species -have a wide range, others have a very distinctly defined habitat, -which is frequently limited by two rivers, one to the north and the -other to the south of their district. - -Three species of the Propitheques (Lemuroida) are known by the -Malagasy under the common name of _Sìmpona_. They live in companies -of from six to eight, and are diurnal animals; one may see them -morning and evening, when the heat is not too great, leaping in -the woods from tree to tree in search of food. Often they may be -surprised at sunrise, says M. Grandidier, squatting on the fork of -a tree, their long legs bent under them, touching the chin, their -hands resting on their knees, stretching out their arms and legs -so as not to lose a single ray of the newly risen sun. The food of -these animals is entirely vegetable; and they are formed for purely -arboreal life, for there is a membrane along the arms and legs which -acts, to a certain extent, as a parachute, so that they make leaps -of from twenty-five to thirty feet without apparent effort, and they -seem to fly through the air. On the rare occasions when they leave -the woods they advance by leaps, as if their feet were tied together, -and have a most comical appearance as they go across a bit of open -ground. One of these sìmpona is silvery-grey in colour, with black -head and neck; another is entirely white, except for its dark brown -face; and a third species is black or dark brown in colour. Of the -true lemurs, I had the good fortune once to see a pair of the kind -called red lemur (_Lemur varius_, var. _ruber_) cross a path near -the house; these were large and handsome animals, warm reddish-brown -in colour, and took astonishing leaps in a most graceful manner; but -they were out of sight in an instant, and I can easily believe what -is said by collectors, that it is easier to shoot a flying bird than -a lemur in motion. - -In the small streams which occur at the bottom of many of the -ravines, we may often come across the curious nests of the pensile -weaver-bird (_Ploceus pensilis_), which are beautifully and -ingeniously constructed, shaped like an inverted chemical retort, -and are suspended from the extremities of the branches of the trees -and usually over running water. These nests are about a foot or -fourteen inches long, the bulb giving ample room for the eggs or -nestlings, and the tube, forming the entrance from below, being -three to four inches in diameter. The native name for this species, -_Fòdifètsy_—_i.e._ the “Crafty Fòdy”—recognises this skill of the -bird in protecting its young. The nests of another species are large -and simply globular in shape, and, from thirty to forty in number, -may be seen hanging from a single tree. The Madagascar bee-eater is -one of the most beautiful birds to be seen in the forest, both from -its elegance of form and its bright colouring of various shades of -green (_Merops superciliosus_). It has a very long curved beak, and -an extremely long tail, with two long feathers extending beyond the -others. Its nests are excavated about a foot deep on a sand-bank -bordering streams. - -[Sidenote: COUAS] - -Another group of birds, also conspicuous from their size and -colouring, must be noticed here—viz. the couas, a genus of cuckoos -peculiar to Madagascar, and of which twelve species are known. They -are large and handsomely coloured, and are, says M. Grandidier, -strictly local in their habitat, most of them being confined to one -district, out of which they are never found. Five species of coua -inhabit the forests or wooded regions, while the other seven live -on the plains. The blue coua (_Coua cerulea_), the only species I -have seen in the upper forest, is fairly common, and is conspicuous -from its colouring; while the crested coua is found all over -the wooded regions. One of the twelve species goes from rock to -rock, seeking the large land-shells which form its principal food -(_Coua delalandei_). These molluscs it breaks by striking their -shells against a stone, from which habit comes its native name of -_Famàki-sìfotra_, or “snail-breaker.” - -But several chapters would be required to say all that might be said -of interest about the birds inhabiting the upper belt of woods, and -I will not weary my readers by further descriptions, in this place -at least. I will conclude this chapter by quoting a few sentences -written about the wonder and mystery of the Madagascar forests by -my late friend, Mr Baron; for no one knew better than he did how to -explore and how to describe them. - -After speaking of the fatigue of travelling in the forest, Mr Baron -says: - - “But the true lover of Nature almost loses any sense of fatigue - in the excitement and pleasure afforded by the infinitely varied - and beautiful forms of vegetable and animal life that are around - him. The tall trees of innumerable species, in fierce competition - with their neighbours, rearing their great trunks heavenwards that - they may spread out their foliage, and open their blossoms in the - light above, the fantastic foldings and twistings of the snake-like - lianas, the countless shapes and tints of the leaves, the bright - colours of some brilliant beetle, the delicately traced wing design - of some happy butterfly, the merry chirping of some gaily adorned - bird, the hurried steps of the busy little ants, the languid - movements of a chameleon, with its strange skin and stranger eyes, - the patient watching for prey of a red three-cornered spider, the - tiny mosses and delicate ferns nestling snugly among their big - brothers under the rocks—all these and a thousand other objects of - interest and beauty help one to forget the exertion and the toil - caused by the difficulties of the road, and make one feel that - it is with a lavish and artistic hand that their great Maker has - formed and bedecked them all. Moreover, there is in travelling in - the forest a strange and fascinating illusion, a vague feeling of - expectancy, which persistently recurs, in spite of disappointment, - that somewhere on in front something of exceptional interest will - be found.” - -[Sidenote: A NIGHT IN THE FOREST] - -I have of course, during many journeys in Madagascar, spent many a -night in small villages surrounded by forest, but I have not had -quite the experiences described by Mr Baron in another passage which -I shall venture to quote. Mr Baron says: - -[Sidenote: NOCTURNAL NOISES] - - “To spend a night in the forest is an experience worth having. - Bivouacked in some open glade, through which a small stream - creeps lazily along, with a warm cheering fire to keep off the - dew and chill of the night, one gains a quite different knowledge - of the forest from that which one gets in the daytime, for all - nature is not asleep even in the midnight hour. Just as darkness - is setting in the fireflies with their tiny lanterns flit about - among the bushes; and the cicada, of various species, perched on - the trunks of trees, commence their strange song. They are small - in size, but certainly they make a big din. Well may the Malagasy - proverb say: ‘Don’t be like the cicada, whose voice fills the - whole valley, though the creature itself is but a mouthful.’ The - sound it makes is not a buzz-z exactly, and it is not a hum-m-m. - It is a deafening, unceasing, rasping, irritating monotone. As - the darkness increases, various nocturnal creatures come forth - from their hiding-places, and every now and then pounce on their - unconscious prey. Keep awake a while and listen to the strange and, - for the most part, mysterious sounds. Suddenly there is a terrific - scream. Some bird or beastie finds itself all at once in the jaws - of death. And what is that ceaseless creaking throughout the night? - Fancy or fear pictures some strange hobgoblin; it is, however, - nothing but the leaves of a screw-pine twisted and strained by the - breeze. And what is that remarkable string of sounds for all the - world like water bubbling out a bottle? It is the _Tolòho_, a kind - of cuckoo, disturbed in its night’s repose. And then, at regular - intervals, ‘_kow-kow-koo, kow-kow-koo_’; what is that? Another - cuckoo, the _Kankàfotra_, which never seems to go to sleep. From - the stream or marsh close by there rises the unmusical croak of - the frogs. After an interval of silence, you first of all hear a - single croak, then another, and another, until gradually there - arises a perfect chorus, which is kept up throughout the night. The - tree-frogs also, perched on the leaves, not a whit behind their - cousins in the marsh, pass the night in croaking. Numerous other - strange and weird noises are to be heard during the night in the - forest, but from what throats they proceed it is beyond me to say.” - -[Illustration: Epeira Madagascariensis] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -ROUND ANTSIHÀNAKA - - -Some years ago I was asked to accompany two gentlemen on a journey to -one of the then least-known provinces of Madagascar, that occupied -by the Sihànaka or lake-dwellers. Two of our party took surveying -instruments with them, and we were thus able to prepare the first -accurate map of the Antsihànaka province. - -My companions on this journey were the late Rev. Dr Mullens, then -Foreign Secretary of the London Missionary Society, and the late Rev. -John Pillans, one of the directors of the same society, and most -pleasant and genial companions they were. Dr Mullens was very fond -of a joke and enjoyed recalling humorous passages from Dickens or -from _Punch_; he was also a born geographer and had a wonderful eye -for the beautiful and the picturesque in scenery. Mr Pillans was a -graver man, but one of solid worth and good judgment; and in the tent -which we carried with us we three had many a happy evening together. -Like all journeys made in those days, this one was performed in the -_filanjàna_ or light palanquin; and not only did Dr Mullens, with -an azimuth compass, take angles and bearings for the map, but he -also took a number of photographs all along our route. I had with me -a good theodolite, so that we were able to compare and check each -other’s observations. - -A few words may be said here about the position of the Antsihànaka -province. Repeated reference has been already made in this book to -the double belt of forest which runs for several hundred miles along -the eastern side of Madagascar. A glance at a physical map of the -island will show that, at about the seventeenth parallel of south -latitude, this double line unites into one broader belt, becoming -very wide west of Antongil Bay. It is the open country south of the -junction of the two forests that forms the home of the Sihànaka -tribe. This valley or plain, for it is enclosed on each side by -forest-covered ranges of hills, is about thirty miles across; it is -perfectly level, and the greater portion of it is marsh; and at the -north-eastern corner of the marsh is a fine lake called Alaotra, -which communicates with the sea by the river Màningòry. It seems -probable that the people came up from the coast by the valley of -this river, and then settled on the edges of the plain, as their -villages are most numerous around the north-eastern bay of the lake; -while there is a large tract of fertile country to the south of -them which is almost entirely without inhabitants. The name of the -people is no doubt derived from the character of the country they -inhabit, for the verb _mihànaka_ means to spread out as a liquid, -as ink on blotting-paper, for instance. _Hànaka_ is also used as -a synonym for the words meaning lake, pool, etc. Until about the -commencement of the past century the Sihànaka were independent of any -external authority, but at that period they were conquered by the -Hova, although not without a severe struggle. After that they quietly -submitted to the central government, and until the French conquest -(1895) their two chief towns were garrisoned by Hova officers and -soldiers, as at the time of our visit. No European missionary had -then lived in Antsihànaka, and the congregations and schools we saw, -wherever we went, were largely the result of the work of a Hova -evangelist, who lived among the people for two or three years.[16] - -[Sidenote: THE SIHÀNAKA] - -After two days’ journey over high moory country, and then over a -range of mountains called Ambòhitsitàkatra, from which we took a -number of compass bearings, we arrived on a Friday afternoon at the -village of Anjozòrobé (“At much papyrus”), a place containing about -seventy houses pretty closely packed together within a circular -fence of prickly pear and other spiny shrubs. It was built on rising -ground overlooking a level plain to the north-west, evidently a -former lake-bottom, through which the river Mànanàra flows in a very -serpentine course to join the Bétsibòka. We crossed the river, here -about thirty yards wide, with a strong body of water, by a bridge -of two massive balks of timber supported by a rough pier of stones -in the centre, and then ascended by a very steep path to the neat -chapel, which stood in a compound a little way from the village. We -took up our quarters in this clean whitewashed building; and here I -may remark that in former times the rude village chapels generally -formed the missionary’s “Travellers’ Bungalow.” They were usually -not encumbered with pews or seats, or, indeed, much furniture or -fittings of any kind; they were more roomy than the native houses and -generally much cleaner, at least they had no soot hanging in festoons -from the roof; so that they formed very convenient resting-places for -a missionary traveller, and a favourable place for meeting the people -and prescribing for their ailments. - -We had intended to proceed northwards on the following day, but as we -had to pass through the inner belt of forest and enter on entirely -unknown ground, as to which we could get no definite information -with regard to villages or congregations, we eventually determined -to stay at Anjozòrobé over the Sunday. Saturday morning was occupied -in ascending a mountain, four or five miles distant to the north -(Ambòhimiàrimbé—_i.e._ “The High Uplifting One”), to take bearings, -etc., and the afternoon in taking photographs of the village and -river valley. - -[Sidenote: AN EXTENSIVE VIEW] - -On Monday morning we resumed our journey northward, and towards -midday entered the belt of forest which covers that western line of -hills of which I have already spoken. We had been approaching it -obliquely in a north-north-east direction for the last two days. -An ascent of about five hundred feet brought us to the summit, -for the road passes along the narrow knife-edge-like ridge of the -very highest point, a hill called Ambàravàrambàto (“At the Stone -Gateway”), having two heads of almost equal height, with a depression -between them. These points, from their peculiar outline, gave us a -useful landmark to connect our journey northwards with the ground we -had already traversed. Soon after noon we stopped for a few minutes -at the top, and had an extensive view all around us. North and south, -the line of forest-covered hills dividing Imèrina from the lower -plateau of Ankay stretched away on either hand into the far distance. -Behind us were the bare hills and downs of Imèrina, before us the -Ankay plain, many of the low hills covered, and almost every valley -filled, with bright green woods. Beyond this were lines of hills -increasing in height until they met the mountains of Béfòrona and -Anàlamazàotra, clothed with the broader of the two belts of forest -which run down the eastern side of Madagascar. Far to the north -in the dim distance we could just see the southern portion of the -Antsihànaka plain. A very steep descent, first down an exceedingly -rugged kind of stone staircase, and then through dense wood, hardly -allowing passage for the palanquin in several places, brought us down -to a charming valley between two great spurs of the hills. After -about an hour more we came to a little village, where we were glad -to get some rest and food after six or seven hours’ hard travelling. -The aneroid informed us that we had descended more than one thousand -two hundred feet from the summit of the hill, and about seven hundred -feet from the upper plateau of Imèrina. We had to pitch the tent in -the open plain that night, for a village of which we had heard, and -had expected to be a good-sized place, proved to be only a collection -of eight or nine miserable huts, scattered about in twos and threes. - -[Sidenote: ANT-HILLS] - -The following day our journey northward was over a pleasant -undulating country, but almost entirely uninhabited; here and there -were solitary houses far apart from each other, but no villages. -On the bare downs we frequently came across ant-hills, about two -feet high and formed of the greyish soil. It is said by the people -all over the island that a serpent called _Rènivìtsika_ (_i.e._ -“mother of ants”) is enticed by these ants into its nest, and is -then fattened, killed and eaten by them. The Hova in the centre of -the island, the Bétsiléo in the south, the Sàkalàva in the west, and -Sihànaka in the north-east, all affirm that this is a fact; and it -seems difficult to doubt their united testimony. After a long ride of -six hours we at last came to a group of six or seven houses called -Andrànokòbaka, where we rested for a time and had tiffin. This place -appeared to be the first of the Sihànaka villages from the south. -There was an evident difference in the appearance of the people; the -women reminded me of the Bétsimisàraka on the east coast, and both -men and women had their hair plaited in a great number of little -ropes ending in a knot, and hanging loosely all round the head. The -women and children, even those who had no kind of clothing, all had -some kind of ornament: necklaces of red beads or silver chains, and -armlets of silver, a striking contrast to the lower class of Hovas, -who only put on ornaments on extraordinary occasions. The village -smelt strongly of _tòaka_, the native rum, and the quantities of -chopped sugar-cane, from which the spirit is made, lying about the -place, all told of the liking of the people for strong drink. - -[Illustration: SIHÀNAKA MEN WITH MEAT BASKETS - -Note how the làmba is worn] - -[Illustration: A FOREST VILLAGE - -Note the baskets for carrying fowls against the doorway of the house] - -[Sidenote: THE DRINK EVIL] - -This indeed is one of the flagrant evils common among the Sihànaka, -as it is also of many of the outlying tribes. My friend, Mr -Stribling, who lived among these people for several years, gives the -following incident illustrating the power which rum has over them:— - - “Calling at a village one day for shelter from a sudden storm, we - were most graciously received by a native, who was decidedly ‘the - worse’ for drink. Wishing to be sociable, however, I said to my - host, ‘Well, my friend, how many horns of rum can you drink before - becoming drunk?’ (The Sihànaka use the horns of oxen instead of - glasses, for drinking.) In a most friendly manner the man replied, - ‘Well, I can drink three hornfuls at least’ (about one and a half - quarts). ‘How much water would you mix with it?’ ‘Water! why, - we never put water into the rum, that would make it insipid.’ - Thereupon, turning to a little girl about six years old, the man - said, ‘This is my daughter, a scholar in your mission school at - Ambàndrika.’ ‘And does she also drink rum?’ ‘Of course, why not?’ - He then told me that the baby, a year old, who was also present, - was a son of his. ‘And does he also drink rum?’ ‘O dear, no! he is - still only a fool.’ ‘Then he will drink it when he becomes wise?’ - ‘Of course he will; we all drink it when we come to understand what - is good.’” - -We encamped again in the open grassy plain, near two or three houses -and a cattle-fold; and the following morning proceeded on our journey -to the north-north-east. An hour and a half’s ride brought us to two -considerable villages near an extensive rice-valley. Here we were -surprised to see the fields dotted over with round stacks of rice -with conical heads, much like those in an English farmyard. And we -also found that here and all through Antsihànaka the rice is not -transplanted, as in Imèrina, but after the ground has been trampled -over by oxen the seed is sown broadcast, and the rice grows there -until it is fit for cutting. After leaving these villages we began to -mount a line of hills which forms the eastern boundary of the more -level portion of the Ankay valley; and on reaching its summit we saw -before us the vast green plain of Antsihànaka stretching away to the -northward, level as a lake, with long lines of promontory jutting out -into it from the north-west and south-east, and a few low rounded -hills rising out of it like islands from a sea. In the far north-east -the waters of the lake Alaotra gleamed in the sunshine. To the south -and east of the plain we could see several large villages, but the -chief town, Ambàtondrazàka, was hidden from view by an intervening -line of hill. We crossed ridge after ridge and valley after valley, -hoping each would prove the last. The path over one of these valleys, -a mile and a half wide, was especially difficult; a narrow winding -track amongst swamp, prickly bamboo, enormous papyrus and rushes, -with here and there deep running streams, whose only bridge was a -slippery round pole partly under water; so that we afterwards spoke -of it as “the great dismal swamp!” But we met with others equally -bad, if not worse, on our subsequent journeys round the plain, and -the passage seemed not nearly so formidable on our return. - -[Sidenote: GRASSES] - -I was struck here, as well as in many other parts of the district, by -the remarkable and varied fragrance of the wild plants growing among -the grass. The scents appeared to me as equally a convincing proof -as the sights and sounds that one was really in a tropical country. -And here, as we have been travelling for several days over country -that is chiefly bare moor (except the narrow belt of forest at the -“Stone Gateway”), I may appropriately say something about the grasses -of Madagascar, which must attract the attention of every observant -traveller. They are of great variety and beauty, and prominent among -them are different species of _Véro_. Of these the one called simply -_Véro_ rises to a height of eight or ten feet, and has a head of -flowers somewhat like oats, but much longer. This tall grass presents -a varied appearance at different stages of its growth. When in full -flower, the heads contain a large number of oat-like seeds with -long awns, but later on the seeds fall off, and at the head of each -little branchlet there appears a minute tuft of feathery plumes, like -little stars, giving the grass quite a different aspect from its -first one. Another species, called _Vérontsànjy_, has a still more -beautiful floral crown, and is as tall as the first-named one, but -not so common. These two grasses, when seen in a mass, give a warm -brown tint to the spots where they grow. In some parts, however, a -much shorter grass, of a pale buff colour, is the prevailing growth. -In other places, another very tall grass called _Famòa_ flourishes; -this is a light graceful grass, with fine branchlets from its head, -and the seeds showing prominently; and the whole is of a delicate -pea-green colour. Then there are other grasses, which are richly -marked with shades of dark red or purple, displaying masses of these -tints when seen from a little distance. The shorter grasses are not -less beautiful than the taller species just mentioned; but without -coloured drawings it is impossible to give any adequate idea of their -charm and variety. - -[Sidenote: THEIR HEIGHT] - -There is one thing especially which strikes a European newly come -into the country with regard to the Madagascar grasses, and that is, -the height to which they grow, if left undisturbed. In sheltered -valleys and other places not reached by the fires which sweep over -the downs in the dry season, the grass grows considerably above -one’s head, so that I have felt how soon one might be lost in -certain conditions. After the year of rebellion against French rule -in 1896, I found the véro and other grasses grown as high as I was -when sitting in my palanquin—about eight feet above the ground. -For several months large tracts of country had been desolate and -left uncultivated, and were returning to a state of nature. And in -many places, at every few yards, we disturbed coveys of partridges -or quails or other wild birds, which had greatly multiplied in the -depopulated country. - -Soon after four o’clock we mounted the last low ridge, and -Ambàtondrazàka lay before us, about a mile and a half distant. The -town, which consisted of about four hundred houses, is situated on a -low peninsula projecting from the hills on the southern side of the -plain. It had a pleasant, civilised appearance after the wretched -huts we had seen for the last two or three days. A broad road running -down from the hill seemed to divide the town into two pretty nearly -equal parts. West of this road a large substantial chapel showed out -conspicuously, and on the opposite side was the square palisaded -enclosure called the _ròva_, filled with the houses of the Hova -officers and soldiers who formed the garrison of the place. At the -north-east corner of the enclosure the _làpa_, or government house, -a two-storeyed building surrounded by verandahs, stood out prominent -above the rows of smaller houses. We soon established ourselves -inside the chapel, which was well built of clay walls with brick -gables, ninety feet long by thirty-six broad, with good doors and -windows, all well finished. The walls were smoothly plastered and -whitened, and the floor was covered with fine mats, all sewn together. - -[Sidenote: A VISIT TO THE GOVERNOR] - -Sending in our letters of introduction to the Governor, we were in -a few minutes invited to go over and see him. Passing through the -double lines of palisading and the rows of Hova houses, we came to -the _làpa_, inside an inner enclosure of its own. Entering the large -room on the ground floor, we found the Governor waiting to receive -us. His chief officers and the civil authorities were seated round -two sides of the room, and a number of the lower class squatted on -the floor on the third side, while on the fourth side three chairs -were placed for us. As soon as we were seated, the Governor, a tall -elderly man, receiving us most cordially, addressed us with a formal -speech, after the custom of the Malagasy officials to anyone who -came from the capital; and as this may serve as an example of the -way in which we were received in all the principal places, I will -give it pretty fully; it was in the following form:—“Since you, -gentlemen, have come from the capital, we ask of you, How is Queen -Rànavàlona, sovereign of the land? How is Rainibaiàrivòny, Prime -Minister, protector of the kingdom? How is our father, Rainingòry -(the oldest officer in the army, nearly a hundred years old)? How is -Rainimàharàvo, Chief Secretary of State, chief of the officers of the -palace? How is Rabé (son of the preceding)? How is the kingdom of -Ambòhimànga and Antanànarìvo (the ancient and modern capitals)? How -are ‘the-under-the-heaven’ (the people, the subjects)? How are you, -our friends? And how is your fatigue after your journey?” etc. To -these inquiries I, as interpreter to the expedition, gravely replied -_seriatim_, saying that her Majesty was well, that the Prime Minister -was well, etc., etc., and then inquired how the Governor and his -officers, and the people of the town and neighbourhood were. We then -had more general and less formal conversation, in which I explained -the objects of our visit to Antsihànaka, and our proposed route round -the district. - -[Illustration: A WAYSIDE MARKET - -The umbrellas are to protect the vendors and goods from the sun. -Beef, soap, candles, cooked rice, manioc, etc., are exposed for sale] - -The Governor then courteously led us by the hand back to the chapel, -where he joined us in our dinner; and as soon as that was finished -asked us to come outside. Here we found a quantity of provisions -brought for us and our bearers; baskets of rice, geese, fowls, yams, -and a large fat pig (a most unwilling offering _he_ was, and loudly -protested against the whole business). In a formal speech, as soon -as silence could be obtained, the Governor offered these things to -us, saying that the provisions presented were not theirs, but the -Queen’s, the Prime Minister’s, etc., etc., while _they_ only took -charge of it all (a polite and loyal fiction, by the way, meaning -nothing). We found a comfortable (if somewhat airy) bedroom in the -spacious chapel, which formed a pleasant contrast to the confinement -of our little tent of eleven feet square. - -[Sidenote: MARKET DAY] - -The next day, Thursday, was market day, and a number of people -from the country were collected together buying and selling on an -open piece of rising ground to the south of the town. The morning -we devoted to inspecting the place, ascertaining the number of -houses, and taking bearings, observations and photographs from a -point half-a-mile to the east of the market. Our proceedings caused -intense interest, as the camera, theodolite, etc., were carried past; -business came to a standstill for some time, and a glance at the -crowd through the field-glass showed rows of dark faces all turned -in our direction, intently watching our mysterious proceedings. We -afterwards walked through the market, hoping to find some articles of -food or manufacture new to us; but there was not much that differed -from what may be seen every day in Imèrina. In fruit I fancied I -had found something new—viz. what appeared like a kind of small -banana with black skin; but more minute inspection showed that the -supposed fruits were small fish from the lake, smoke-dried, strung -on a strong reed. Some large wooden spoons with tin ornaments on the -handles reminded me of those made by the Bétsiléo. Bananas, very -large and fine, seemed the most plentiful fruit; sugar-cane grows to -a great size, ten to twelve feet high; and from what we saw all round -Antsihànaka it appeared a most fertile district, with rich alluvial -soil; were the whole marsh drained and brought under cultivation, -as the marshy plain to the west and north-west of the capital has -been, it would support a population many times greater than that -which inhabits Imèrina. All round Ambàtondrazàka many hundred acres -of the level are occupied by rice-fields, and it is the same in the -neighbourhood of all the villages bordering the plain; although a -large proportion of the area is still covered with marsh, reeds, -rushes and papyrus. From the rising ground we could count numerous -herds of fine cattle, generally from seventy to eighty in each herd, -and wherever we went we found cattle in great abundance feeding on -the rich pasture. Large numbers of these cattle belonged to rich -people in Imèrina. One noble was said to have nearly ten thousand; -others had five thousand; many people had a thousand, and the -majority of the Sihànaka had at least a hundred each. - -[Sidenote: PAPYRUS] - -After our usual employments of school examination, conversation -with the pastor and others, and renewed presents of food, on Friday -morning we set off on our circuit round the plain to visit as many of -the congregations, and see as much of the country and the position of -the Sihànaka villages, as was possible in six days, as our time was -limited to that period. Proceeding first westward, and skirting the -edge of the level ground, we passed for some distance through swamp, -with dense thickets of _hèrana_ and _zozòro_, the first being, as -already seen in Imèrina, a strong sedge extensively used for roofing, -and the other, a species of papyrus, employed for a variety of -purposes. This latter grows here to a great size, some ten or twelve -feet high, with a triangular and exceedingly tough stem, about two -and a half inches each way, nearly double the size it attains in the -cooler Imèrina province. - -We had to cross numerous little streams by rickety bridges of plank. -From the level of the rice-fields the plain stretched northward like -an immense green lake; the rotundity of the earth was as clearly seen -from the perfect level as it is from the surface of the sea, for -the distant low hills appeared like detached islands with nothing -to connect their bases. Our course lay west by north-west, cutting -diagonally across several of those promontories formed by the -parallel lines of hills which run down each side of the Ankay valley. -Every village of the Sihànaka has near its entrance a group of two or -three tall straight trunks of trees fixed in the ground, varying from -thirty to fifty feet in height; the top of these has the appearance -of an enormous pair of horns, for the fork of a tree is fixed to the -pole, and each branch is sharpened to a fine point. Besides these, -there are generally half-a-dozen lower poles, on which are fixed a -number of the skulls and horns of bullocks killed at the funeral of -the people of whom these poles are the memorial. One thing struck -us as curious: several of the higher poles had small tin trunks, -generally painted oak colour, impaled on one point of the fork; and -in several instances baskets and mats were also placed on a railing -of wood close to the poles supporting the bullock horns. These -various articles were the property of the deceased, and put near his -grave with the hope of their being of some benefit to his spirit; -or perhaps from the idea, common to most of the Malagasy tribes, of -there being pollution attached to anything connected with the dead. -In several cases, on the very highest point of the lofty poles, -there was a small tin fixed, having a strong resemblance to those -we import containing jam or preserved provisions.[17] As among many -Eastern peoples, so in Madagascar, the horn is a symbol of power and -protection; the native army was termed _tàndroky ny fanjakàna_—“horns -of the kingdom.” - -[Sidenote: CATTLE] - -Some of the cattle we saw were magnificent animals, and it is not -strange that the bull was used frequently in public speeches, as an -emblem of strength, as it is the largest of all the animals known -to the Malagasy. It frequently occurs in this sense in the formulæ -and the songs connected with the circumcision ceremonial; for the -observance of this native custom was a time of very great importance -in the old native regime. Bull-fighting was a favourite amusement -with the Malagasy sovereigns; and in digging the foundations for a -new gateway to the palace yard at Antanànarìvo, the remains of a bull -were discovered, wrapped up in a red silk _làmba_, the same style of -burial as that employed for rich people. This was the honour paid -to a famous fighting bull belonging to Queen Rànavàlona I. It seems -pretty certain that anciently the killing of an ox was regarded as -a semi-religious or sacrificial observance, and only the chief of -a tribe was allowed to do this, as priest of his people. Robert -Drury, an English lad who, with others, was wrecked on the south-west -coast of Madagascar in 1702, and remained in the country as a slave -for fifteen years, gives many particulars about this custom of the -southern Sàkalàva people. - -[Sidenote: THE OX] - -An old Malagasy saying thus describes the various uses of the -different portions of an ox when killed: “The ox is the chief of the -animals kept by the people, and they are very beautiful in this -country. Our forefathers here knew well how it should be used, and -they said thus, when they invoked a blessing (at the circumcision): -The ox’s horns go to the spoon-maker; its molar teeth to the -mat-maker (for smoothing out the _zozòro_ peel); its ears are for -making medicine for nettle-rash; its hump for making ointment; its -rump to the sovereign; its feet to the oil-maker; its spleen to the -old man; its liver to the old woman; its lungs to the son-in-law; -its intestines to those who brought the ropes; its neck to him who -brought the axe; its haunch to the crier; its tail to the weaver; -its suet to the soap-maker; its skin to the drummer; its head to -the speech-maker; its eyes to be made into beads (used in the -divination), and its hoofs to the gun-maker.” - -Our next morning’s ride brought us to Ambòhidèhilàhy, a large village -of a hundred and twenty or a hundred and thirty houses, occupying the -northern end of one of the promontories. - -For the first time since we had left Ambòhimànga we had a meal in -an ordinary house, and could notice the arrangement of a Sihànaka -dwelling. I immediately observed that instead of there being _one_ -post at each end and at the centre of the house to support the ridge, -as in the Imèrina houses, this had _three_ at each gable, just as -the Bétsimisàraka have; another confirmation, by the way, of my -belief, that the Sihànaka are connected with the coast tribes, and -have come up from the sea and settled on the margin of the fertile -plain. Instead of the one door and window on the west side, as in -the Hova houses, the Sihànaka make two doors on that side, with high -thresholds, dividing it into three equal parts, and a low door on the -eastern side, coming where the fixed bedstead is placed in Imèrina. -Here the bedstead was at the south-east instead of the north-east -corner; and the hearth, with its framework above for supporting -property of various kinds, at the south-east instead of the mid-west -side of the house. - -After dinner we set off over level ground for Manàkambahìny, a -village nearly south from us, which we could see on a low hill -forming the extremity of the high ridge bounding the Mangòro valley -to the west. We found that the small rivers between the parallel -ranges of hills spread out into many shallow streams over a wide -surface, forming a swamp with luxuriant rushes and vegetation. The -wild birds seemed plentiful here. In several places was a kind -of snare for taking them on the wing, consisting of several stout -bamboos fixed in the ground a few feet apart, with cords stretched -between them, and loops of string suspended from these cords. We -were only able to stay a short time at the village, and then pushed -on, crossing the level ground at the southern extremity of the -Antsihànaka plain and coming at sunset to Ambòdinònoka, a good-sized -village on its western edge. Here we had reached our farthest south -in our journey round the province. - -[Sidenote: SIHÀNAKA MATS] - -We have just seen the interior of a Sihànaka house, and we ought to -have noticed the fine and strong mats with which they are furnished. -From the immense extent of marsh, the material for making these is -very abundant, and all women can make them; so no Sihànaka _buys_ a -mat, for they think that a disgrace. Of the _zozòro_ outer peel, or -skin, the very long mats called the Queen’s are made, which are from -eighteen feet to twenty-four feet long. The houses of many people -here are clean and neat from the abundance of such mats. The largest -kind of _zozòro_, called _tèry_, is as strong as wood, and the firm -triangular stems are used for the walls of the houses. - -We were off early on Saturday morning, for, as we wished to get to -the second town in size, Ampàrafàravòla, for Sunday, we had a long -day’s journey northward of nine or ten hours before us. We were now -skirting the western edge of the great level, now and then crossing -patches of swamp, and then following the windings of a small river, -which we had at last to cross by canoes. The whole country appeared -to abound with wild birds of different kinds—herons, black and white -storks, wild geese, wild ducks, partridges and many others. The -fen country of the eastern midland counties of England, before the -great drainage works were carried out and the waters led off to the -sea, must have been very much like this Antsihànaka plain, which is -certainly a paradise for sportsmen. There are said to be no fewer -than thirty-four species of aquatic birds found on the Alaotra lake -and in the surrounding marshy country. In the little museum at the -L.M.S. College at Antanànarìvo we have, among other Malagasy birds’ -eggs, a number from Antsihànaka, chiefly of water-fowl; most of these -are white, showing probably that they are well protected and so have -no need of imitative colouring. - -[Sidenote: WATER-BIRDS] - -Of these numerous ducks and geese, perhaps the whistling teal is the -most common, not only in this province, but also in other marshy -regions. In the western part of Imèrina the _Tsirìry_, as it is -called, may be seen in flocks of five hundred together, so that a -certain district probably gets its name of “Bé (many) tsiriry” from -their numbers. At evening this bird and a tree duck (_Tahìa_) settle -down in such numbers along the shore of the lake that one cannot walk -by the waterside, for the ground is black with them. The tsiriry -builds its nest on hillocks among the grass, and the young birds are -taken to the water as soon as hatched. Another bird, the humped duck -(_Aròsy_), lays its eggs in the crevices of rocks. Many of the native -names of these wild fowl are imitative of their screaming cry; others -are descriptive, as “white-wings,” “handsome-bird,” “white-eyes,” -“many-shields,” etc. Besides the above-mentioned birds, there are -also coots, water-hens, herons, ibises, grebes, snipes and curlews in -the lake and the marshes. Of the white-backed duck (_Tafiòtra_) the -natives say that the female bird experiences some difficulty in the -laying of her eggs, which are very large in proportion to the size of -her body; this is said to make her faint and become unconscious, so -that she may be taken off her nest with the hand. On account this of -peculiarity, the duck is _fàdy_, or tabooed, by the native women, who -think that they would experience a similar difficulty in child-birth -were they to eat the bird. - -From the abundance of water-birds in this province, the keeping of -ducks and geese is an important occupation of the Sihànaka. Geese -are greatly esteemed, and alive or killed are always presented as a -mark of respect to strangers. On account of their abundance, goose -quills for pens, as well as chillies and fine long mats, formed the -tribute formerly paid by the people to the queen at Antanànarìvo. -Guinea-fowls are also plentiful and are found in flocks of from -twenty to thirty together, but chiefly in unfrequented places. - -[Sidenote: AMBÒHITRÒMBY] - -After about two hours and a half’s journey we arrived at -Ambòhitròmby, a large village of nearly a hundred houses, situated -on a rounded hill which rose like an island from the plain. We were -formally received by an old man in a red _làmba_, the chief of the -village, in the presence of a large number of people, and the -accustomed speech-making had to be gone through. We then went into -the chapel, a long, narrow and low rush building, where the scholars -and most of the women were assembled. On going out of the chapel we -were asked to meet the chief people again to receive beef, rice, etc. -This was done with a formality and respect exceeding that shown on -any previous occasion. A mat was spread on an open space, on this -three chairs were placed for us, and in front of this, on another -mat, were arranged the provisions. Speech-making, compliments and -replies then followed as usual. - -After tiffin, and taking some compass observations, we left -Ambòhitròmby soon after twelve o’clock, keeping still along the -western shore of the plain, and several times crossing bays which run -westward between the hills. Here we had much floundering about in the -bog, and crossing of cranky wooden bridges of the primitive single -round-pole construction. We passed Mòraràno and Moraféno, good-sized -villages, but were unable to stop at either place, as they were both -a little way out of the direct road, and we were pressed for time. -The population appeared considerable about this part of the plain, -for there were many other villages at no great distance, and a very -large extent of its margin was cultivated, the stacks of rice dotting -over the level surface for two or three miles to the eastward, and -for a long way north and south. After three or four hours’ walking -and riding we turned to the north-east, crossing a great bay formed -by one of the long promontories which stretch into the level from the -north-west as well as from the south-east shores of the plain. These -have evidently in an earlier (geological) period formed continuous -lines of hills, for they do not run in the same direction as the -main valley or depression of the country, but cut it at an angle of -about forty-five degrees—that is to say, while the general direction -of the Antsihànaka valley is north-north-east and south-south-west, -the lines of hills on either side have a bearing of north-north-west -and south-south-east. This is seen very distinctly in the map of the -district made on my return home: for many of the ridges seem to be -broken off more or less abruptly by the level ground, and then to -be continued on the other side of the plain. It seemed impossible -to avoid the conclusion that by some great convulsion in long-past -geologic ages a vast rent and depression had been made across the -lines of hills in a diagonal direction; while the water-worn and -wasted remains of some few of these towards the south, forming a line -of low detached hills, suggested that probably the action of water, -either as an arm of the sea running up the Ankay valley, or a great -river, had completed what was commenced by more violent agencies. The -unmistakable evidence of former volcanic action, in the presence of -extinct craters and lava streams to the west, north and north-east of -the plain, seems to show what was the agency which caused this great -depression of the surface. - -[Sidenote: A NATURAL EMBANKMENT] - -Half-an-hour brought us to the end of the promontory, which was -like an enormous dyke or sea-wall, one face having a steep slope, -and the other a long gentle rise. It was a pleasant and smooth -level road along the top of this great natural embankment to the -north-west. From it we had a delightful view, for the great flat -surface of the plain looked like an immense green lake, from which -the distant eastern line of hills seemed to rise like shores out of -a green expanse of water. The high mountains beyond these were lit -up by afternoon sunlight, and the western side or a still larger and -higher promontory to the east of us, broken up by lateral buttresses, -produced charming effects of light and shadow, and variety of colour. -At the head of the bay formed by these two long points we could see -the high rounded hill which rises above Ampàrafàravòla, and after a -time the little town itself began to show above the plain. - -At a little before five o’clock we came to a hollow at the end of -the promontory, with a long piece of water dividing it from a steep -abrupt hill, on which the large village of Ambòhipèno is situated. -This place had a clay wall surrounding it, and contained about ninety -houses. The “road” to it is the water just mentioned, about four feet -wide, where the papyrus had been cut away; this being past, the path -was up a steep clay slope. As we got near the village, we could see -a number of people assembled to meet us, and on arriving at the top -had a most pleasing reception. As we cleared the water and began to -ascend, the singers struck up a hymn; they were all seated on one -side of the road, the school-children on the other, while a little -farther on were a crowd of people headed by the elderly men of the -place. One of these, the judge of the district, a pleasant old man, -then received us with the usual speeches, to which I had of course -to reply. After a few minutes’ delay, and promising to come and -preach to them on the following afternoon, we pushed on, for it was -near sunset, and we had still three or four miles to traverse before -reaching our destination. - -[Sidenote: A HOSPITABLE RECEPTION] - -It was about an hour after sundown before we reached Ampàrafàravòla, -but a bright moon near the full prevented any difficulty in -travelling. The town itself was almost entirely Hova, and consisted -of about ninety houses in a square stockade of palisading, a double -line of which ran all around it; but there were as many more Sihànaka -houses within half-a-mile of the _ròva_, and two or three small -villages at no great distance. On the west side of the town was a -large, well-built, clay chapel, not then finished. Our first look -at it, without any doors or windows, made us doubtful whether we -could use it as a lodging, especially as the evening breeze blew -sharply through the numerous openings; however, as we found there -were temporary doors and shutters of _zozòro_, which filled them -up to some extent, we decided that we had better stay in it. A few -minutes after our arrival, the lieutenant-governor of the district -and his attendants came out of the _ròva_ to meet us; and then, of -course, came loyal inquiries and polite speeches and, after a little -time, beef, rice and poultry, etc. We were glad at last to get some -tea, but we found the chapel very windy and letting in far too many -mosquitoes to be pleasant, so we pitched the tent at the far end of -the building as a sleeping apartment, and by dexterous management Mr -Pillans and I stole a march on our bloodthirsty little tormentors, -and managed to get a good night’s rest; while the doctor secured the -same under the protection of his mosquito net. - -On Sunday morning the people assembled early (rather too early for -us) outside the chapel; and as soon as we had breakfasted, stowed -away our packages, beds, etc., at the farther end, and covered -them over with our tent to make things tidy, we let the people in. -Mr Pillans’ gorgeous rug again did duty as covering for the rough -little table which served as a reading-desk, while the doctor’s -photographic chemical box made it a convenient height. The chapel -was soon well filled with people, about four hundred and fifty in -number; they came in following the governor and his officers, who -took their seats first. Then came the commander’s wife, a very stout, -pleasant-looking lady, who, with two or three others, were dressed -in European style, as also were the chief men of the congregation. -The ladies, however, did not patronise chairs, but had cushions laid -on the floor. About half the congregation seemed to be Sihànaka, the -rest were Hovas. As soon as service was over, the singers begged -that I would teach them a new tune; so, as at other places, the -large paper copy of one, which was then new and very popular at -the capital, was brought out, and we practised it until we had to -ask them to let our lunch be got ready. They then removed into the -schoolhouse and sang away until it was almost time for the afternoon -service; and then again in the evening until late at night. They also -learned another new tune and hymn; and not only on Sunday night, but -early next morning, they were still at these two tunes, and the last -thing heard as we left the place was, “There is a happy land,” etc., -over and over again. - -[Sidenote: ANNOYING AND PAINFUL GRASS] - -In the afternoon Mr Pillans and I set off to preach to the people -at Ambòhipèno, who had received us so pleasantly on the preceding -evening. We wanted to give our own men a perfect rest, and so -got some Sihànaka bearers. They jolted us not a little; carrying -logs of timber was much more in their line than carrying English -missionaries. However, we got there quickly and found the little -chapel filled with people waiting for us. On our way to and fro we -noticed a peculiar appearance in the grass, as if small handfuls of -it were tied together in a bundle, while still growing. On examining -a tuft of this, we found the unusual appearance was caused by a -small mass of fibres growing around, and the long awns intertwining, -involving the neighbouring grasses in their clasp; the end of each -is armed with a sharp and barbed point, fine and strong enough to -pierce the skin. This grass (_Andropogon contortus_) the natives -call _Léfon-dàmbo_ (“wild-hog’s spear”). In walking among this -grass the awns cling to one’s trousers by hundreds, and gradually -make their way through to the skin, causing a pricking like so many -pins. Almost as annoying, although not so painful, is a plant called -_Anantsinàhy_, which is found all over the central province, and of -which the small dry seeds, called _Tsipòlotra_, are furnished with -fine prickles, which make the seeds stick to your clothes by scores, -as you pass through any piece of waste ground. - -[Sidenote: A DINNER WITH THE GOVERNOR] - -On getting back to Ampàrafàravòla, we found that the Governor wished -us to dine with him and his officers in a small house which then -served as the _làpa_. In the courtyard was a little shed, much out -of repair, in which was a small cannon mounted on a very large -carriage, one of those made by M. Laborde for the old queen. At -some of the places we subsequently visited, after the usual loyal -inquiries for the queen, great officers, and for the governor and -lieutenant-governor of the Sihànaka, inquiry was also made as to the -welfare of this little two-pounder gun! We _might_ have replied, but -did not, that a cleaning now and then, and a little more thatch on -the roof of its shed, would probably tend to prolong its existence -and conduce to its general well-being. Our dinner was served in -thoroughly native style, being cooked in the same place where we ate -it, and with about a score of people helping to serve us guests, -three in number. They gave us rice and some excellently cooked beef -and turkey, and milk to drink. The chief cook would not allow us -to make any permanent impression on the heaped-up piles of rice on -our plates, for every few minutes they were replenished by fresh -supplies of rice and gravy, so we were obliged at last to relinquish -the unequal contest. Before dinner they came to ask us if the band -should play during the entertainment (as is customary when the great -people in Imèrina give feasts); but as I felt doubtful as to the -character of the tunes that the bandmaster might have available for -the occasion, I said that, being Sunday, it might be well to omit the -compliment; but I very readily agreed to their suggestion that the -singers should sing a hymn tune instead, which they did outside the -house. After doing justice to the fare, we returned to our chapel -lodgings, greatly pleased with much we had seen during the day. - - -[16] Subsequently, my friends, the late Rev. J. Pearse and his wife, -lived and did a great work, both medical and religious, among the -Sihànaka for several years; and after them, the late Rev. E. H. -Stribling and other missionaries continued that work until 1895. For -some years past Christian teaching has been carried on by Malagasy -sent by the native missionary society. - -[Sidenote: OLD TINS] - -[17] It may be remarked here how ubiquitous are the disused tins in -which various provisions made by English manufacturers are packed. -We were amused during our tour by the evidence of this in different -parts of Antsihànaka. It is usual in the Malagasy congregations for -a small tin box to be fixed near the door of the church to receive -money contributions and “the weekly offering.” We found that in some -villages old jam tins were employed for this purpose; in others again -sardine boxes were the favourite receptacle for the gifts of the -congregation; while in yet other districts a military feeling was -apparently the prominent one, for old powder flasks were suspended -from the wall for the Sunday contributions. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -LAKE SCENERY - - -We were up early on Monday morning, the doctor to prepare paper for -photographs, Mr Pillans and I to survey. He and I walked up a rounded -scarped hill, about a mile to the north-east of the town. This was -the only place we had seen in the neighbourhood which showed this -rude kind of fortress, so common on the hills of Imèrina and the -Bétsiléo country. It was a dull cloudy morning, and we could not -get any distant points, but took the bearings of a few neighbouring -villages. But we were greatly interested to find that the hill had -certainly been the centre of volcanic action, was, in fact, an -extinct crater, for large masses of lava were scattered all over -the hill, from the base to the summit. We afterwards found, as we -proceeded on our journey round its north-western slopes, that the -crater was on that side, and that from it a stream of molten rock -had poured down, spreading over a considerable surface of ground. -After bidding our good friends farewell, although they much wished -to keep us longer, we left at nine o’clock, still going northward. -We crossed over the head of the large bay of the plain formed by the -long promontory, passed a little cluster of villages called Mòraràno, -and then ascended the ridge of hills, coming out on some very high -ground which forms the western boundary or shore of this part of the -plain. From it we had an extensive view over the great level surface, -and could see the whole length of the Alaotra lake from north to -south. There was a fine variety of outline in the eastern line of -hills and mountains, and towards the north end of the plain there was -a great opening between the hills, showing the valley through which -the Màningòry river runs from the lake to the sea. We soon left the -high ground and came down to the plain, skirting its edge, generally -on low hills, and occasionally crossing great arms of it running -westward. Several of these were very boggy and difficult to cross, -with the most complicated and impracticable bridges we had yet -seen, even in Antsihànaka; some of them were in three stages, one a -steepish ascent, the middle span on the level, and another going down -again into _water_, not on to dry land, and none boasting more than a -slippery round pole as roadway. - -[Sidenote: A CURIOUS CUSTOM] - -Our journey of six hours and three-quarters to-day was only broken -by half-an-hour’s halt on a low hill to take observations; indeed -there was no village, nor even a house, where we could have stayed, -for we were travelling over a perfectly uninhabited country. After -we left Mòraràno, about an hour north of Ampàrafàravòla, we saw not -a single human habitation nor trace of cultivation, although there -were numerous fertile and spacious valleys, until we arrived at -Ambòhijànahàry. The only object we saw that gave any sign of man’s -presence was a large herd of fine cattle. I was afterwards told of -a curious custom formerly practised by the Sihànaka at the time of -the circumcision. They used to choose one of the largest oxen to be -found and sharpened his horns to a fine point; after two or three -days’ continuous drinking, when they had got perfectly maddened -with spirits and were ready for any foolhardy adventure, a party -would rush out to attack this ox, but without any weapons. As the -animal became infuriated, he of course defended himself by goring -his enemies, many of whom he generally seriously hurt, and some -occasionally killed outright, while the man who escaped without -injury was considered as born under a lucky star, and was resorted to -by numbers of people to give them charms to protect them from various -kinds of calamity. - -Soon after four o’clock we reached Ambòhijànahàry, a large village of -about a hundred houses, on rising ground, and approached by a long -narrow passage between dense thickets of prickly pear. It is a poor -dirty place, and the chapel the smallest one we had yet seen in the -district, being only twenty-two feet by sixteen wide. However, it was -clean and neatly matted, and after stopping up a door and a window on -the windward side we put up the tent as a canopy for sleeping under, -as the gables were exceedingly well ventilated. Then came speeches, -beef, etc., etc., and replies as usual, _my_ oratorical efforts -becoming very brief; my companions remarked that the flowery parts -of my speeches in reply were gradually curtailed as we proceeded -farther on our journey. To the north of the village is a lofty point, -called Ankìtsika; it has a double cone-shaped outline—that is, a -small cone upon a large truncated one—and is doubtless of volcanic -origin. The word Ankìtsika means “at a cave,” and there is said to -be a cave at the top, where, in former times, the people took refuge -when their enemies, the Sàkalàva, made a raid upon them. - -The village which we had now come to was “our farthest north,” -for from here we began to turn our faces homewards; and as we had -now seen the largest villages in the province, I may as well say -something here about the Sihànaka, and their occupations and means of -subsistence. - -Their occupations are, chiefly, tending cattle, growing rice, -fishing, and making _tòaka_ (rum). Almost every family keeps cattle, -save the very poorest, and there is nothing the people like better -than to follow their herds and camp out in the pastures with their -wives and children. The day of cutting the ears of the young animals -(so as to distinguish them from those of the queen) was always kept -as a day of rejoicing, killing oxen, and feasting. Yet very few milk -their cattle, for they prefer the broth made from fish to milk. - -[Sidenote: STORING RICE] - -As we went round the outside edge of the plain, we saw a large extent -of rice ground under cultivation; but the people do not dig the soil, -or transplant the rice, as is the custom in Imèrina, but cultivate -their fields in the following way. First of all they make a number -of low earthen banks, which are intended to hold the water. That -being done, oxen are driven over the ground to be planted, where the -water is a few inches deep, and when the soil has been well turned -over, then the rice is sown; and there it is left until it is reaped, -without transplanting or weeding. When the rice has been reaped, it -is heaped together in round stacks, which are of a considerable size. -When quite dry, the grain is threshed out with a stick, two men or -more striking in regular turn. The rice is not stored in pits, as -in Imèrina, but in an enormous kind of basket or round enclosure, -made of papyrus plaited together, and about eight feet high and from -twenty to thirty feet in diameter. These are in the fields, and are -roofed over; and rice being so cheap and plentiful with them, the -people do not measure the rice itself, but they reckon it by the -number of these _vòlovàry_, of which the richer Sihànaka have seven -or eight or more. - -[Sidenote: CATCHING FISH] - -Catching fish in the lake and in the numerous streams and pieces of -water is the business of both men and women. The men angle for eels, -the women dredge for small fish in the shallow water (using a kind of -basket like a large sieve), and the little children fish with bait. -All the children have a tiny canoe, in which they go fishing in the -early morning from six to nine o’clock, when they return home, for -their small canoes would be upset by the wind and waves as the day -advances. The women catch, by dredging, small fish called _tòho_ and -also shrimps. These they dry in the sun, sew up in baskets, and take -for sale to the markets, many people becoming wealthy by their sale. -Until a few years ago all sales were done by barter, for little money -was employed. And it is the custom for the men not to bring home what -they have caught, but to leave it by the waterside for the women to -fetch. - -There is abundance of _tòaka_ (rum) made in Antsihànaka, and its -manufacture is the work of poor old men and women and (formerly) of -slaves. In every house it is to be found, for they think it shows a -want of respect to visitors if they have not plenty of _tòaka_ to -give them. Whatever be the business in hand, whether funerals or -rejoicings, nothing can be done without drinking _tòaka_ (see an -earlier paragraph). - -We left Ambòhijànahàry on Tuesday morning and turned eastward. Our -road lay through low swampy ground, often wading through water and -floundering through bog. But there was also a large extent of land -covered with rice-fields, and we passed several villages. We left the -lines of hills, which come down and terminate abruptly at the edge of -the plain. Rain fell during the last half of the journey and a thick -mist shut out everything from view; there was water above and around, -and water and bog below, so it was the most uncomfortable of all our -journeys. The only objects to interest were the clouds of birds, -which flew over our heads in immense numbers in every direction. Soon -after ten o’clock we got to a village of seventy or eighty houses, -called very inappropriately, Ambòhitsàra (“good town”), for it was -quite in the swamp, raised only a few inches above the level, and -surrounded by water, most of it stagnant. Here the people of the -village, in their speech to us, spoke of our staying there that -night, and crossing the lake the following morning; but as it was -still early in the day, and the water was not an hour distant, we -felt most unwilling to stop, especially as we feared risk of fever by -staying the night in such a low and damp situation. We therefore told -them that we must, if possible, get across the lake that day, and -requested them to lose no time in getting sufficient canoes to take -us over. After tiffin, we determined to go and see for ourselves, and -with much difficulty got our men off. The path was better than in the -morning, a large extent of land here being fine pasture and covered -with cattle. - -[Sidenote: A PLEASANT PICTURE] - -Three-quarters of an hour brought us to the lake, a beautiful expanse -of water, but only one small canoe was visible, and a stiff breeze -from the east had raised waves of a size quite formidable to such -cranky craft as Malagasy canoes are. The shore opposite to us seemed -from three to four miles distant; to the northward the water extended -for several miles, with bays running up among the hills, and a large -arm turning eastward in the direction of the valley through which the -river draining the lake flows into the sea. Many of the villages on -the rising ground across the water were seen quite distinctly (for -it had turned out a lovely afternoon) and seemed large places. A -considerable portion of the population is indeed massed round this -north-east corner of the lake, and we regretted being obliged to -leave so many large villages unvisited, but our time would not allow -us to go round the head of the Alaotra. The picture was a pleasant -one from the shore; the expanse of blue water, with the waves dancing -and sparkling in the sunlight; the villages on the green hills across -the lake; and behind them grand masses of mountain, with a good deal -of dark forest capping them. To the north of the Màningòry valley was -distinctly visible an extinct volcanic crater, with a large portion -of one of its sides broken down and revealing the immense cup-shaped -hollow within. The aneroid showed that the surface of the lake was -twenty-six hundred feet above the sea, about nineteen hundred feet -below the height of the capital. - -We waited and waited on the shore, sweeping the opposite banks with -our telescopes for signs of approaching canoes, but looked in vain; -nothing like a canoe was to be seen, and the waves got higher and -higher; evidently it would not have been safe to cross so late -in the day, when the sea breeze, as is the case also on the coast -lagoons, makes a considerable swell, and crossing is practicable -only for the largest canoes. And while we are waiting, we may remark -that this Lake Alaotra is the largest one in Madagascar, and is -about twenty-five miles long, by four or five in average breadth. -But as the level marshy land to the west and south is only a few -inches above its surface, the lake is of much greater extent in the -wet season. It receives the drainage of the northern portion of the -Ankay plain, so that a considerable body of water must issue from its -north-eastern arm and flow towards the sea. According to the Rev. L. -Dahle, the name “Alaotra” is probably the Arabic _Al-lutat_, “the -dashing of the waves,” the sea. The Arabs of the Comoro Islands and -East Africa are known among the Malagasy as the “Taloatra”—_i.e._ -“those from beyond the ocean.”[18] - -[Sidenote: IRRITATING DELAY] - -The afternoon wore on; the doctor took photographs of the opposite -shore; Mr Pillans and I took bearings for the map, and collected -shells; and at last, after waiting two hours, we reluctantly came -to the conclusion that we must go back to the village in the swamp, -which we accordingly did. However, we were not so uncomfortable as we -had feared, nor did we take any harm from the damp conditions. The -head people came to present beef, etc., but I fear I answered them -rather curtly, for we saw plainly it was never intended to let us get -over the lake until the following day; but, with the usual native -unwillingness to speak out plainly, they would not say so to begin -with. In the book which Dr Mullens wrote on his return to England he -says of this afternoon’s experiences: “I am afraid that the general -depression seriously interfered with the reply of our friend, Mr -Sibree. The dignity and fulness with which he usually dwelt upon the -affairs of the kingdom and the health of the authorities, and the -flowery eloquence with which he would describe the purpose of our -visit, entirely failed him here. His reply was brief and guarded, and -the two-pounder gun he passed over in total silence.” - -[Sidenote: A DEEP LAKE] - -On Wednesday morning we left Ambòhitsàra at half-past six, so as to -cross the lake as soon after sunrise as possible, as this is always -the calmest time of the day in Madagascar waters. We found about a -dozen large canoes waiting for us; several of these were from thirty -to forty feet long, and three to four feet beam, hollowed out of -a single tree. We all embarked and got off soon after half-past -seven, but the wind had already risen somewhat, and there was quite -a swell on the water. But the sail across was most delightful. As -we proceeded, the northern shores opened up, showing two deep bays -stretching far away between the hills, and an island, where the -Sihànaka made their last stand in resisting Hova domination. From -that time it has not been allowed to be inhabited, but is only used -for planting vegetables. We had only two paddlers, one at the head, -and the other at the stern of the canoe, and so were an hour and -ten minutes in crossing. We made an attempt to ascertain the depth -of the lake with an old knife as a sinker, and a piece of string -as a line, while the doctor, in true scientific fashion, “hove the -lead.” I regret to say that no accurate information was obtained, -for the sounding line was again and again thrown with the report, -“no bottom.” But our short line was no doubt the reason of our -ill-success. The lake is probably deep at its northern end, and it -is certainly shallow at its southern extremity, gradually changing -into marsh. Some of my missionary friends, who subsequently lived in -Antsihànaka, have described voyages across the southern end of the -Alaotra, where, amongst the dense growth of papyrus, rush, and tall -grasses, the only practicable paths for a canoe are dark passages, -almost tunnel-like, among the rank vegetation; and where a stranger -might easily be lost in the watery and reedy wastes around him. - -There can be no doubt that the present lake is but a small remnant of -a much larger one; for, at a not very distant period, the water must -have covered the whole plain of Antsihànaka, thus forming a lake five -or six times the size of the present Alaotra. But at a yet earlier -period still, this lake extended for a hundred miles farther south, -down the Ankay plain, and for at least two hundred miles farther -north, forming an immense extent of water, not much unlike the -Tànganyika in Central Africa in size and outline, and of considerable -depth; for Mr Baron found numerous indications of old shore-lines at -elevations of eleven to twelve hundred feet above the present level. -Doubtless, the gradual lowering of the valleys of the Mangòro to the -south, and of the Màningòry to the north-east, drained off this great -lake, leaving only the present comparatively small sheet of water as -its representative. - -[Sidenote: BIRD LIFE] - -To an ordinary observer the Alaotra lake presents a good deal of -bird life, as well as the large reptiles which bask in the sun on -its shores. But to those who will examine more closely and will -use a good microscope, there are minute forms of life, both animal -and vegetable, which are wonderful for their beauty and their -variety. Among the latter are the Algæ, of which my late friend, Mr -Baron, made a collection, mostly from the neighbourhood of Alaotra, -including a hundred and eighty species, of which seventy proved to be -new to science. In a quarto pamphlet of fifty pages, with plates of -two hundred different figures, these fresh-water algæ were minutely -described, as belonging to thirteen different orders and thirty-one -genera.[19] Many new and interesting species were thus revealed, -and considerable additional knowledge of the distribution of known -forms attained. Without actual inspection of the plates it is -difficult to give any clear notion of the various remarkable, often -strange, and frequently beautiful forms of these lowly organised -plants as revealed by the microscope. The bi-lobed outlines of the -_Cosmaria_ are especially noticeable, and hardly less so are the -stellate, triangular and multangular forms of other species. It is -difficult to believe that some of these remarkable organisms are -plants at all; in many cases they are more like some beautiful shell, -delicately and elaborately sculptured; while in others they take the -form of a simple cell—round, oval or triangular—often as if about -to increase by fissure; while others again have curious processes, -more like those of some grotesque polyp than anything belonging to -the vegetable kingdom. These plants are additional illustrations of -the wonders that lie hidden from ordinary observation in the mud of -almost every pond and in the slime that gathers round almost every -water-plant. - -It is a rather interesting fact that the crocodile found in the -Alaotra is a different species to that inhabiting all the rivers of -Madagascar; but it is identical with the crocodile found fossil, -together with the remains of the extinct hippopotamus and the -gigantic birds and lemurs which inhabited the island probably until -the appearance of man upon the scene. These reptiles are very -numerous in the lake, for in the afternoons, on the small rocky -islets which rise only a little above the water, the crocodiles are -seen snapping at each other to get space to bask in the sun. In the -small streams flowing into Alaotra they are numerous at all times -of the day, so that if there are only a few canoes, people dare not -cross for fear of being upset. Tortoises are also plentiful on the -shores and islets of the lake. Two species of water-lily are found in -the water, one being identical with the lotus of the Nile; besides -these there are numerous other water-plants, one being a twining -plant, called _Tsihìtafòtotra_ (“the root not seen”), which twines -about other plants in all possible directions, clinging to them by -numerous little disks; and there are also two species of convolvulus -(_Ipomæa_), with large red flowers. Besides the masses of papyrus -(_zozòro_) and _hèrana_ sedge, growing in the marshes and shallow -parts of the lake, a gigantic and handsome grass, called _Bàraràta_, -growing from twelve to fifteen feet high, is very abundant. It would -be taken by ordinary people for a species of bamboo, for its size and -the thickness of its jointed stem; its sharp prickly leaf sheaths -near the root make it very unpleasant for the unshod feet of the -natives. In and about the marshes occur the _Jaboàdy_, a species of -wild cat, and also a kind of muskrat, both of strong scent. - -[Sidenote: MYTHICAL CREATURES] - -There are certain mythical creatures firmly believed by the -Sihànaka to exist in Lake Alaotra. One of these is a monster having -seven heads and known as _Fanànim-pìto-lòha_. It is said to be a -sort of serpent, and when it lifts itself out of the water, as -it does occasionally, its head touches the sky! There are also -_Andrìambàviràno_ (_lit._ “water-princesses”). These creatures, -though residing beneath the water, never get wet, as they live in -water-tight palaces. They are said to have hair reaching down to the -waist. Veritable water-nymphs these! - -[Sidenote: A GRATIFYING CHANGE] - -But to return to our journey, we landed at the foot of the hill -on which Ambòhitsòa, a village of about eighty houses, is built, -and mounted to the top by a steep pathway. Here a most extensive -and lovely view presented itself, I think _the_ most beautiful of -its kind I had ever seen in Madagascar. The lake lay before us, -stretching far away to the southward in a great rounded curve, and -with its indented bays and island fastness to the northward. The -changing shades of purple and blue of the water; the green of the -plain beyond; and the varied outline of hills and mountains in the -far background to west and north—all lit up by bright sunshine—made -as charming a picture as an artist could desire to transfer to -canvas. But we had little time to spare, and so after hastily taking -bearings we went to Màrosalàzana, the next village to the south, -which we could see on a high hill at three or four miles’ distance. -On entering the village, a place with about sixty houses, we found -a crowd of about four hundred people waiting to receive us. These -were not all inhabitants of the place, for many of them had come from -Ambòhitsòa to meet us. After a formal reception by the authorities -we found the school-children assembled on an open raised space in -the centre of the village, a group of nearly a hundred altogether, -dressed in their best. Many of the girls had a peculiar kind of -collar to their dress, consisting of seven or eight massive silver -chains of different patterns; they also wore armlets of silver. Many -of these children and young people had most intelligent and pleasant -faces. We heard them read, and then I was delighted to find they knew -the smaller catechism well. I talked to them a little about it, and -then addressed a few words to the numbers of people crowded round the -children, speaking to them of the great love of God in sending His -Son. It was an interesting scene, and one we did not soon forget: -the bright intelligent group of children in the centre; the crowd -of wondering Sihànaka on each side; the little knots of women in -their dark blue dresses and silver ornaments; and the lovely scene -around us—all made a picture attractive in its outward aspects, but -still more interesting when one thought of these people as seemingly -prepared to welcome a fuller teaching than they had yet received. - -The pleasant scene at this village, as well as what we had witnessed -at others, gave a cheering promise of what might be expected were -the people more thoroughly instructed. In a short report supplied -by Rabé, the native evangelist, he says that when he first went to -Antsihànaka, “only a person could be found here and there who washed -their clothes, for everyone’s dress was smeared with castor-oil, and -they thought it would spoil their clothes to wash them, as they would -soon be worn out; so that the clothing of the people was offensive to -the last degree. For that reason the dark blue cotton was generally -worn, as it was nearly black to begin with. But now there is hardly -anyone who does not wash his clothes, and has not white dress. Not -long ago, when it was evening, the young men in the villages used to -form into two parties, and had violent boxing-matches all through -the village, the women also often joining in the fray. But now no -one practises this rough sport. Not long ago rum was what the people -chiefly delighted in; and if any strangers who visited them were not -made thoroughly drunk, the owner of the house was looked upon as -inhospitable, although he gave them the best of everything to eat.” - -[Sidenote: EXPENSIVE FUNERALS] - -We left Màrosalàzana at one o’clock, and found outside the village -something which gives the explanation of its name, “many poles”—viz. -a group of more than twenty poles stuck in the ground close together, -and holding ox skulls and horns. This was the largest group we had -yet seen, and there also were many more lying mouldering on the -ground. Besides these, there were several very high poles with -forked tops, such as we had already seen at almost all the Sihànaka -villages. These lofty poles are called _jìro_, a word which in Hova -Malagasy signifies a “lamp.” We had already seen these on our journey -northwards, but here was a larger number than we had hitherto met -with. These _jìro_ are only raised in memory of a _male_ Sihànaka; -to eulogise a woman, the rush mats and baskets which she made and -possessed while living are arranged on poles by the wayside to meet -the public gaze. These people spend a large amount of money and -property on the funerals of their relatives. Mr Pearse gives the -following account of what was expended at that of a man dying at -a village called Màngalàza:—Thirty silk _làmbas_, to wrap up the -corpse, value two hundred and sixty-nine dollars; a hundred oxen, -value three hundred dollars; drink and food, principally the former, -thirty-nine dollars’ worth; showing an expenditure of more than six -hundred dollars on this particular funeral. (At that time a dollar -was worth as much or more to the Malagasy as a pound would be to us.) - -[Sidenote: A WIDOW] - -After returning home from Antsihànaka, I heard many other particulars -about the people and their habits, and among them the following -curious, and cruel, custom with regard to widows; and as this is -so utterly different from anything practised by any other Malagasy -tribe, as far as I am aware, it is well to put it on record. It -is much more like a Hindu custom than a Malagasy one, and is as -follows:—When the corpse of the deceased husband is about to be -buried, the widow is decorated profusely with all the ornaments she -possesses, wearing a scarlet _làmba_, with beads and silver chains -on her neck and wrists and ankles, long ear-rings depending from her -ears to her shoulders, and silver ornaments on her head. Then she -is placed in the house, so that it may be seen by everyone how her -husband adorned her while he was yet living; and when the people go -away to the funeral, she remains still in the house, and does not go -to the grave. When the relatives and friends have returned home and -seen the widow sitting in her grand clothing and ornaments, they rush -upon her, tearing her dress and violently pulling off her ornaments, -so as to hurt her, and say at the same time: “This is the cause of -our losing our relative”; for they believe that the _vìntana_—_i.e._ -fate or luck of the wife—is stronger than that of her husband and so -has caused his death. Then they give her a coarse _làmba_, a spoon -with a broken handle, and a round dish with the stand broken off; her -hair is dishevelled, and she is covered up with a coarse mat; and -under it she remains all day long, and can only leave it at night; -and whoever goes into the house, the widow may not speak to them. -She is not allowed to wash her face or her hands, but only the tips -of her fingers. She endures all this sometimes for a year, or at -least for eight months; and even then, her time of mourning is not -ended, but endures for a considerable time afterwards. And she is not -allowed to go home to her own relatives until she has been divorced -first by the husband’s family. - -The house in which people die is left by the survivors, and no -one occupies it again; they do not pull it down, but let it fall -to pieces of itself, but they do not leave the village as do the -Sàkalàva in similar circumstances. Such houses are called _tràno -fòlaka_ (“broken houses”); but I am informed that this last custom is -falling into disuse; and happily, the influence of Christian teaching -has caused the treatment of widows to be greatly altered, so that it -is now becoming a thing of the past. - -After leaving the “village of many poles,” our afternoon journey was -southward, first crossing several spurs of the higher hills with -their intermediate valleys; and then down a long level tract of -country between the lake and a bold wall-like line of hills, which -here forms the eastern boundary of the plain. We passed several large -villages, and stopped for the night at a place of forty or fifty -houses, called Ambòhimànga. - -[Sidenote: UNLUCKY DAYS] - -In one of the villages situated in the dense papyrus thickets which -cover the marshes to the south of the lake, a place called Ànoròro, -lives a strange tribe of people who seem quite isolated, not only -in their dwelling-place, but also in their barbarous habits, from -the other Sihànaka, and who speak a distinctly different dialect. In -the rainy season, when the water rises, it enters into the houses of -these people, and they then put together several layers of _zozòro_ -to form a kind of raft, so that as the water rises, this raft rises -with it. Upon these _zozòro_ they make their hearths and their beds; -and there they live, rising and falling with the water, until the -rainy season is over and they can live on the ground again. There -are some curious stories about the simplicity of these people and -their fathers, for they have no intercourse with anyone outside -their village except on a certain day, when they go out to sell the -fish they have caught. These people appear to have no fewer than -eight unlucky days in each month, so that during more than a quarter -of their time their superstition prevents them from going about or -engaging in any work. - -While speaking of unlucky days, it must be here noticed that all -over Antsihànaka, Thursday is considered as _fàdy_ (tabooed), and no -one will work their rice-fields on that day. To build brick or clay -houses is not permitted, death being the supposed penalty in case of -transgression. To use hemp also, either in the form of cloth, or for -smoking, is also universally tabooed. And besides the _fàdy_ common -to all Sihànaka, each family or clan has inherited a set of _fàdy_ of -its own, so that in addition to the universal abstinence from work on -Thursday, there will be another day of the week on which nothing may -be taken out of the house, the mats may not be swept, etc. Various -foods and actions, too numerous to particularise, are _fàdy_ to -certain villages; while considered quite harmless in some places, -they would bring all manner of evil in others. - -On Thursday morning we set off again, and after two hours’ journey -along the east edge of the plain, left it and made a straight -course over the rice-fields for Ambàtondrazàka, leaving the great -semicircular bay to the east of the town on our left. We got in at -ten o’clock, all very wet with the heavy drizzle, but we were soon -comfortably settled in the chapel, and got our things dried in the -sun. We were again most kindly received by the officers and the -congregation there, but we were obliged to leave soon, so as to get -back to Antanànarìvo for some important engagements. On consultation -with our bearers, we found that they were willing to make a long -journey for a day or two (encouraged also thereto by promises of an -extra day’s pay), so that we might get quickly over the uninhabited -country, and reach Anjozòrobé by Saturday afternoon. So we left -Ambàtondrazàka at midday and arrived at Màngantàny by sunset. - -[Sidenote: BEAUTY OF THE GRASS] - -Again were we charmed with the varied scenery of the route, and -especially by the grasses, about which I have already spoken in this -chapter, and which Dr Mullens graphically describes in a passage -which may well conclude this account of our Antsihànaka journey. He -says: - - “I received the impression, afterwards repeatedly confirmed, that - one of the most beautiful things to be found in Madagascar is its - grass. It is beautiful in the sheltered valleys, where the tender - blades, enriched by the dew and the rain, are refreshing to the - eye, and yield like velvet to the foot. But here the grass is - in its glory on the great hills. Burnt year after year by long - sweeping fires, it springs up again with a profusion which clasps - huge rocks within its soft embrace. Here it is short but strong; - there it rises in vast tufts, each of which contains many thousand - blades and covers many feet of ground; and yet again it spreads - over vast patches of country in thick, tall masses, which tower - above men’s heads, open their tinted blades to the warm sun, and - wave their myriads of golden feathers in the summer winds. And - it is when we contemplate this rich but simple provision of the - divine bounty, when we watch these masses of slender blades, - each tuft a forest in itself, clothing with beauty what man has - neglected, laying up store for man and beast, opening their golden - hair to the dews by night and the warm winds by day, and joyously - revelling in the life given them from above, that then we can, - with Mr Ruskin, appreciate and share the admiration and the praise - given by the Psalmist to Him ‘Who maketh the grass to grow upon the - mountains.’”[20] - -[Sidenote: “NO MAN’S LAND”] - -The following day we had a long journey over “no man’s land,” taking -provisions with us and stopping to dine by a stream half-way, and -reached Mandànivàtsy before nightfall. Saturday morning we crossed -the high ridge in the forest, entering Imèrina again, and got to -Anjozòrobé in good time in the afternoon. After the fatigues of the -week we had another pleasant Sabbath, the first of the month, with -the good people there. Monday evening brought us to Ambòhitrérana, -and a couple of hours’ ride on Tuesday morning took us home to -Ambòhimànga in time for breakfast; thus completing in little more -than nineteen days our very interesting journey and exploration. - - -[18] Among the Sàkalàva, _Alaotra_ means “ocean” or “sea,” so that -it is the sea-like sheet of water. _Cf._ the use of _Bahr_ among the -Arabs, in _Bahr-Tabariyeh_, Sea of Tiberias, and _Bahr-Lut_, Sea of -Lot—Dead Sea. - -[19] _Trans. Linn. Soc._, vol. v., pt. 2 (_Botany, 2nd Ser._). - -[20] It is a significant fact that the Malagasy word for “glory,” -“honour,” is _vòninàhitra_, which, literally translated, is “flower -of the grass.” Did this expression arise from the native admiration -of some of these beautiful grasses, similar to that which so excited -Dr Mullens’ delight when travelling in this country. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -LAKE ITÀSY - - -Madagascar is not at present one of those regions of the earth where -volcanic disturbances occur; but there is ample evidence, from the -numerous extinct craters found in various parts of the island, that -at a very recent period, geologically considered—possibly even within -the occupation of the country by its present inhabitants—it was the -theatre of very extensive outbursts of subterranean energy. The -whole island has not yet been examined with sufficient minuteness -to determine the exact extent of these old volcanoes, but they have -been observed from near the south-east coast in South Latitude 28°, -and in various parts of the centre of the island up to the north-west -and extreme north, a distance of six hundred and eighty miles; and -probably a more complete survey would reveal other links connecting -more closely what is, as at present known, only a series of isolated -groups of extinct craters. In the central provinces of Madagascar -there are two large clusters of old volcanic cones and vents: one of -them in about the same latitude as the capital (19° South), but from -fifty to seventy miles away to the west of it, in the neighbourhood -of Lake Itàsy; the other in the district called Vàkinankàratra, -situated about eighty miles to the south-south-west of Antanànarìvo, -and south-west of the great central mountain mass of Ankàratra. - -This second volcanic region stretches from twenty to thirty miles -from Antsìrabé away west to Bétàfo and beyond it, and contains -numerous and prominent extinct craters, some of which have been -described by the graphic pen of the late Dr Mullens in his “Twelve -Months in Madagascar” (pp. 214-219). The doctor says that he counted -in this southern group about sixty cones and craters. - -[Sidenote: A MAGNIFICENT VIEW] - -The Itàsy just referred to is a lake situated about fifty-five miles -west of Antanànarìvo, and is about five miles long from east to west, -and three miles from north to south. It is irregularly square in -outline, several small headlands breaking up its shores into little -bays; while to the north, where the river Lilìa takes its overflow -to the sea, is a long extension or arm of the lake, curving round a -mountain, which proves to be an old volcano. Seen from the east, as -I approached it from the capital, it appeared as if in a depression -of the general surface, and its waters were of a lovely blue. A still -finer view of it is obtained from a mountain called Ambòhimiangàra, -which is about three miles distant from it to the north-east. This -is by far the highest point for a long distance around the lake; -and as we proceeded towards it during our two days’ journey from -Antanànarìvo, its great rounded mass gradually rose and dominated the -whole landscape. - -A late friend of mine, who resided long in the district, wrote of -Ambòhimiangàra as “a kingly hill, higher by head and shoulders than -any other near it, its crown of white stones rising some eighteen -hundred feet above the lake lying blue at its feet. The view from -the summit was magnificent, the centre of the whole being the lovely -Itàsy embosomed in its bright green hills, a pearl encircled with -emeralds, with mountains upon mountains in every direction as far as -eye could reach. Fierce thunderstorms were being marshalled hither -and thither, and could be counted by the half-dozen wherever the -eye turned. The whole mountain is a mass of quartz; where the rocks -protrude it is toned down to silver-grey by lichens, but where the -rain has washed it away, it appears as coarse sand and pebbles of -the purest white, with an occasional speck of pink.... We had a good -ride, after our descent, along the north-western arm of the lake. -This end of Itàsy, forming, as it were, a little lake by itself, and -reflecting the deep blue and white of the sky above it, lay calm in -the bright sunshine, encircled by the green hills, while clusters of -houses, embowered in peach and other trees, grouped themselves around -its shores. Here and there a canoe’s dark line among the sedges -showed where the fisher was at work with hook and line; and across -the meadow to the right, a herd of cattle was slowly wending its way -to fresh pastures. Altogether, it formed a most inviting subject for -a picture.” - -Some way down the river flowing from the north-western arm of the -lake is a very beautiful waterfall. The river, broken into three -streams, falls in foaming white masses over a ledge of black lava, -some fifty feet deep. The whole bed of the river for a mile above -is of the same black character, the lava broken into innumerable -blocks and setting off the vivid colour of the verdure on the river -banks. The people say that Itàsy was once only a huge swamp, and -its becoming a clear lake is within the memory, or perhaps the -traditions, of the inhabitants. Other legends relate that the lake -was formed by a Vazìmba chieftain, named Rapèto, damming up the river -flowing from the swamp; and so the rice-fields of a neighbouring -chief, with whom he was at variance, were flooded and have ever -since remained under water. There is doubtless an element of truth -in this latter account; but the chieftain, also supposed to be a -giant, was not a human being, but a volcano, which broke out at the -north-western corner and dammed up the river for a long period, as -shown by the lava in its bed, as just described. The river has now -cut its way several feet through the barrier which was thus thrown -across its course. - -[Sidenote: FLAMINGOES] - -I spent several hours one day in a canoe on the lake with a friend, -shooting wild duck (my first and my last exploit in this line). We -found birds very abundant on the water, and in the swamps and rank -vegetation along the shores. Flamingoes, with their white plumage and -pink tinge pervading the whole under part of the wings, are fairly -common here, and are said to be extremely good eating. The native -name for this bird, _Sàmaka_, is appropriate and descriptive, as it -means “disjointed,” “split,” referring to its immensely long legs. -It is also called _Amjòmbona_, from its trumpeting cry, this being -also the native name for a large species of triton shell used as a -trumpet. An adult male bird stands more than four feet high; and -when on the defensive these birds make quite a loud noise by sharply -opening and closing their beaks, which are long and powerful. When on -the wing, they fly exceedingly high. - -[Sidenote: RAIL] - -Among the many birds frequenting this lake and the neighbourhood -are the purple water-hens, of which three species are found in -Madagascar. They are of a rich bluish-purple colour, and have a very -powerful beak, with which they easily root up the Hèrana sedge, when -growing on the edge of the lake in shallow water. They do this for -the sake of the tender rootlets, and perhaps also for insects. Of the -jacanas, two species are found here; with their extremely long toes -they walk easily upon the large leaves of aquatic plants, seeking for -the water-insects which form their food. They dive with great ease -and are therefore very difficult to shoot. Six or seven species of -rail have been observed in the island; the most common one (_Rallus -gularis_) is regarded with great respect, as it is believed to bring -rain in dry weather. Its loud whistling and tremulous cry is heard -chiefly towards evening. These birds are said to be so careful of -their eggs and young that they may easily be taken by the hand from -the nest. M. Pollen says: “I once saw a hen-bird who would not quit -the space near her nest, but kept walking around it, ruffling her -feathers, and dragging her wings on the ground, in the same way as -our domestic hen does when defending her young. Other birds common to -the marshy districts are crested coots, curlews, snipe and plovers. -Two species of birds peculiar to Madagascar, for whom a special -family had to be formed, can only be spoken of by their scientific -name of _Mesites_; they are very curious and specialised birds, -taking their place between the rails and the herons.” According to -the native accounts, when the nests of these mesites, which are -mostly placed on a low situation, are flooded, the parent birds drag -them to where they will be free from injury by the water. If anyone -takes their young, they follow them into the village; and on account -of this love for their offspring they are considered sacred (_fàdy_), -because, say the natives, they are in this like human beings. - -[Sidenote: HOT MINERAL WATERS] - -Not very far to the east of the second group of old volcanoes -mentioned above is the large village of Antsìrabé (“much salt”), -which is about seventy-five miles south-west of Antanànarìvo, and is -now on the automobile road to the Bétsiléo province. At this place -one of the chief springs is largely charged with lime, which has -formed an extensive deposit all over a small level valley sunk some -twenty feet below the general level of the plain around the village. -For a long time this place furnished almost all the lime used for -building in the capital and in the central province of Imèrina. -Besides the deposit over the floor of the valley, there was also a -compact ridge-shaped mass of lime accretion, seventy feet long by -eighteen to twenty feet wide, and about fifteen or sixteen feet high. -This had all been deposited by the spring, which kept open a passage -through the lime to the top. Some years ago, however, the spring was -tapped by a shaft, of no great depth, a few yards to the north, over -which a large and commodious bath-house was erected by the Norwegian -Lutheran Mission; and here many visitors came to bathe in the hot -mineral water, which has been found very beneficial in rheumatic and -other complaints.[21] A little distance to the south-west is another -spring, not, however, hot, but only milk-warm, the water of which is -drunk by those who bathe in the other spring. This water has been -shown to be, in chemical constituents, almost identical with the -famous Vichy water of France. All over the valley the water oozes up -in various places; and about half-a-mile farther north are several -other springs, somewhat hotter than that just described, to which the -natives largely resort for curative bathing. - -[Sidenote: EXTINCT HIPPOPOTAMI] - -During the excavations for the foundations of the bath-house, the -skeletons of several examples of an extinct species of hippopotamus -were discovered, the crania and tusks being in very perfect -preservation. Some of these are now in the museum at Berlin; -the finest specimen was sent to the museum of the University of -Christiania in Norway. This Madagascar hippopotamus was a smaller -species than that now living in Africa, and is probably nearly allied -to, if not identical with, another hippopotamus (_H. Lemerlei_), of -which remains were found in 1868 by M. Grandidier, in the plains of -the south-west coast. I was informed by the people that, wherever -in these valleys the black mud is dug into for a depth of three or -four feet, bones are sure to be met with. From the internal structure -of the teeth and bones of the hippopotami discovered at Antsìrabé, -traces of the gelatine being still visible, it is evident that the -animals had been living at a comparatively recent period. There have -been occasional vague reports of the existence of some large animal -in the southern parts of the island; and perhaps the half-mythical -stories of the _Sòngòmby_, _Tòkandìa_, _Làlomèna_, and other strange -creatures current among the Malagasy, are traditions of the period -when these pachyderms were still to be seen in the lakes and streams -and marshes of Madagascar. - -Besides the remains of hippopotami, Mr Rosaas, for many years a -missionary of the Norwegian Society, and stationed at Antsìrabé, -obtained considerable quantities of the bones of extinct gigantic -birds. It is about eighty years ago (_circa_ 1834 and 1835) since -it became known to naturalists, through the discovery of portions -of massive leg-bones and fragments of enormous eggs, that there -was evidence of the former existence in Madagascar of large birds. -For a quarter-century after that date, the dislike of the heathen -queen to all foreign influence prevented fuller investigations of a -scientific character. But since the year 1861 further researches, -and excavations made in widely separated localities, have shown that -several species of these great birds existed until a comparatively -recent period in many parts of the island. It was evident that they -were flightless, and were allied to the ostrich, and still more -closely to the recently extinct _Dinornis_ of New Zealand. The -generic name of _Æpyornis_ was given to these birds, of which several -species were discovered, ranging in size from that of a bustard -to a bird exceeding an ostrich in height and also in the massive -character of the skeleton. The largest species was accordingly named -_Æpyornis maximus_. Subsequently, the remains of still larger birds -were discovered and these were called _Æ. titan_ and _Æ. ingens_, the -largest of them being about ten feet in height. More recent and exact -examination has shown that the _twelve_ species which had been formed -must be reduced to a smaller number, as some of the lesser kinds have -been proved to be young and immature forms of the larger species. -From the collection of hundreds of bones, and, in a very few cases, -complete skeletons, it is now clear that several species of these -great birds once roamed over the marshes and valleys of Madagascar, -as the ostrich does still in Africa, and the cassowary in Australia -and some East Indian islands. - -[Sidenote: EXTINCT ANIMALS] - -The egg of one of the species, probably of the largest one, is the -largest of all known eggs, its longer axis being twelve and a quarter -inches, and the shorter one nine and three-eighths inches; it thus -had a capacity equal to six ostrich eggs, and to one hundred and -forty-eight of those of the domestic fowl.[22] From the marks of -cutting with a sharp instrument seen on some of the bones, it seems -highly probable that these great birds, as well as the hippopotamus, -gigantic tortoises, and other animals, were living when the first -human inhabitants of the island appeared upon the scene; and -doubtless this was also the reason of the disappearance of both birds -and beasts, as they were hunted and used for food. - - -[21] Since the French occupation this bath-house has been removed, -and the mass of lime accretion has been broken up for use. - -[22] The following appeared in _Punch_, 22nd July 1893:— - -“_Good Egg-sample!_—One egg was sold the other day for £160, 18s., -_vide_ _Times_ of Wednesday last. The egg was a perfect specimen -of that _rara avis in terris_, the gigantic _Æpyornis maximus_ of -Madagascar. What did Mr Stevens do with it? Did he have it made into -several omelettes for a breakfast party of a dozen? Of course it was -a perfectly fresh egg, and the only thing at all high about it was -the price.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -VOLCANIC DISTRICT - - -Within a few miles of Antsìrabé are two crater lakes. The nearer -and larger of these is called Andraikìba, which lies distant about -four miles due west. This is a beautiful sheet of water, blue as the -heavens in colour, in shape an irregular square, but curving round -to the north-west, where it shallows into a marsh, which is finally -absorbed in rice-fields. The lake is said to be of profound depth, -but the hills surrounding it are not very lofty, rising only about -two hundred feet above the surface of the water, from which they -ascend steeply. Fish and water-fowl, and crocodiles also, are very -abundant in and on its waters. - -But the most interesting natural curiosity to be seen in the -neighbourhood of Antsìrabé is the crater-lake of Trìtrìva. This is -situated about ten miles to the south-west, a pleasant ride of two -hours by palanquin. Travelling at first in a westerly direction, the -road then turns more to the south-west, and skirts the southern foot -of the old volcano of Vòhitra. Passing about a mile or two south of -the high ground round the southern shores of the Andraikìba lake, -the road gradually ascends to a higher level of country, so that -in about an hour and a half’s time we are nearly as high as the -top of Vòhitra—probably about five hundred feet. Reaching a ridge -between two prominent hills, we catch our first sight of Trìtrìva, -now from two to three miles distant in front of us. From this point -it shows very distinctly as an oval-shaped hill, its longest axis -lying north and south, and with a great depression in its centre, the -north-eastern edge of the crater wall being the lowest part of it, -from which point it rises gradually southwards and westwards, the -western edge being at the centre from two to three times the height -of the eastern side. To the north are two much smaller cup-like -hills, looking as if the volcanic forces, after the main crater had -been formed, had become weaker and so been unable to discharge any -longer by the old vent, and had therefore formed two newer outlets at -a lower level. - -[Sidenote: AN OLD VOLCANO] - -Descending a little from the ridge just mentioned, we cross a valley -with a good many scattered hamlets, and in less than half-an-hour -reach the foot of the hill. A few minutes’ pull up a tolerably easy -slope, perhaps two hundred feet in height, brings up to the top, at -the lowest part of the crater edge; and on reaching the ridge the -crater of the old volcano and its lake is before us, or, rather, -below us. It is certainly an extraordinary scene. The inner sides of -the crater dip down very steeply on all sides to a deep gulf, and -here, sharply defined by perpendicular cliffs all round it, except -just at the southern point, is a rather weird-looking dark green -lake far below us, the water surface being probably from two hundred -to three hundred feet lower than the point we are standing upon, -and consequently below the level of the surrounding country. The -lake, exactly shut in by the cliffs of the crater surrounding it, -is not blue in colour, like Andraikìba, although under a bright and -cloudless sky, but a deep and somewhat blackish-green. It must look, -one would suppose, like ink under a stormy sky or in the shadows of -evening. - -We sit down to rest and try to take in all the details of this novel -picture. It is undoubtedly an old volcano we are now looking down -into; the spot on which we rest is only a few feet in breadth, and we -can see that this narrow knife-edge is the same all round the crater. -Outside of it the slope is pretty easy, but inside it descends -steeply, here and there precipitously, to the edge of the cliffs -which so sharply define the actual vent and, as distinctly, the lake -which they enclose. Looking southwards, the crater edge gradually -ascends, winding round the southern side, and still ascending as the -eye follows it to the western, the opposite side, where the crater -wall towers steeply up from two hundred to three hundred feet higher -than it does on the east, where we are standing. The lake we judge to -be about eight hundred to nine hundred feet long and two hundred to -two hundred and fifty feet wide, forming a long oval, with pointed -ends. The cliffs which enclose it appear to be from forty to fifty -feet in height, whitish in colour, but with black streaks, where the -rain, charged with carbonic acid, has poured more plentifully down -their faces. These cliffs are vertical and in some places overhang -the water, and from their apparently horizontal stratification are -no doubt of gneiss rock. In coming up the hill I noticed a few small -lumps of gneiss among the basaltic lava pebbles. The strongest -feature of Trìtrìva is the sharply defined vertical opening of the -vent, looking as if the rocks had been cut _clean through_ with an -enormous chisel, and as if they must dip down—as is the case—to -profound depths below the dusky green waters. At the northern end -of the lake is a deep gorge or cleft, partly filled with bushes and -other vegetation. Southward of this, on the eastern side, the cliffs -are still lofty and overhang the water, but at about a third of the -lake’s length they gradually decrease in height, and at the southern -point they dip down to the level of the lake, so that at that part -only can the water be approached. On the western side the cliffs keep -a pretty uniform height all along the whole length. - -[Sidenote: THE CRATER] - -So steep is the inward slope of the crater walls that we all -experienced a somewhat “eerie” feeling in walking along the footpath -at its edge; for at a very few feet from this a false step would -set one rolling downwards, with nothing to break the descent to the -edge of the cliffs, and then to the dark waters below. Yet there was -a strange fascination in the scene, and the variety and contrast -and depth of the colours would make the Trìtrìva lake and slopes a -striking subject for a painting from many different points along its -crater wall. When we arrived, the sun, yet wanting an hour and a half -of noon, was still lighting up the grey-white stone of the western -cliffs, but the shadows were every minute growing more intense as -the sun became more nearly vertical. Far below us was the deep green -oval lake; above it, the stratified gneiss cliffs with their black -streaks, diversified here and there by patches of bright green bush. -Then again from their edges sweep steeply upwards the grey-green -sides of the crater, culminating in the lofty western ridge opposite -to us. And over all was the blue sky flecked with cirrus clouds; -altogether a scene such as I have seen nowhere else in Madagascar, or -indeed in any other country. - -[Sidenote: A ROMANCE] - -After fixing in our minds the view from the north-east, we proceeded -southwards along the crater edge to the higher part at the -south-east, where the view is equally striking, and the depth of -the great chasm seems still more profound. Here we waited some time, -while most of our men went down to one of the hamlets in the plain -to the east to get their meal, in which quest, however, they had -only poor success. On expressing a wish to taste the Trìtrìva water, -one of our bearers took a glass, and descending by a breakneck path, -went to fetch some water from the lake. He was so long away that we -were beginning to feel uneasy, but after a quarter of an hour he -reappeared with the water, which tasted perfectly sweet and good. He -also entertained us with some of the legends which were certain to -have grown up about so weird-looking a place as Trìtrìva. Pointing to -two or three small trees or bushes growing on the face of the cliffs -near the northern point of the lake, he told us these were really a -young lad and lass who had become attached to each other; but the -hard-hearted parents of the girl disapproving of the match, the youth -took his loin-cloth, and binding it round his sweetheart and his -own body, precipitated her with himself into the dark waters. They -became, so it is said, two trees growing side by side, and they now -have offspring, for a young tree is growing near them; and in proof -of the truth of this story, he said that if you pinch or break the -branches of these trees, it is not sap which exudes, but blood. He -appeared to believe firmly in the truth of this story. - -He also told us that the people of a clan called Zànatsàra, who live -in the neighbourhood, claim some special rights in the Trìtrìva lake; -and when any one of their number is ill they send to see if the -usually clear dark green of the water is becoming brown and turbid. -If this is the case they believe it to be a presage of death to the -sick person. - -Another legend makes the lake the former home of one of the -mythical monsters of Malagasy folk-lore, the _Fanànim-pìto-lòha_ or -“seven-headed serpent.” But for some reason or other he grew tired -of his residence, and shifted his quarters to the more spacious and -brighter lodgings for seven-headed creatures afforded by the other -volcanic lake of Andraikìba. - -[Illustration: WATER-CARRIERS - -The woman with a baby on her back has a full pitcher simply balanced -on her head] - -This same bearer assured us that in the rainy season—contrary to -what one would have supposed—the water of the lake diminishes, but -increases again in the dry season. He told us that there is an outlet -to the water, which forms a spring to the north of the mountain. I -noticed a white line a foot or two above the surface of the water all -round the foot of the cliffs, showing a probably higher level than at -the time of our visit. It was popularly supposed to be unfathomable, -but some years after my visit the Rev. Johannes Johnson, of the -Norwegian Mission, sounded the lake in three places. The deepest -portion was found to be at the northern end, where it proved to be -four hundred and seventy-four feet in depth. - -[Sidenote: A MAGNIFICENT VIEW] - -Walking round to the southern end of the crater edge, the lake, here -foreshortened, has a somewhat close resemblance in outline to that -of the lake of Galilee, as seen on maps; but I must confess that the -first sight of it in its deep chasm made me think much more of the -other lake of Palestine, the Dead Sea, in its profound gorge between -the Judean hills and the highlands of Moab. After making a slight -pencil sketch or two, I proceeded up the far higher saddle-back ridge -on the western side. Here the lake seems much diminished in size and -lying far down at an awful depth. But a magnificent and extensive -view is gained of the surrounding country: the long flat-topped -lines of hill to the east running many miles north and south, and -surmounted directly east by the two perfect cones of old volcanoes; -the peaked and jagged range of Vòlombòrona to the south-east; the -enormous mass of Ibity to the south, and then west, a flat region -broken by abrupt hills. To the north-west are the thickly populated -valleys towards Bétàfo, with many a cup-shaped hill and mountain -marking old volcanic vents; and beyond this a high mass of country -with serrated outline against the sky, showing the district of -Vàvavàto; and finally, coming to due north, is the varied grouping -of the hills, which form the southern termination of the central -mountain mass of Ankàratra. Between us and these again is the -extensive plain of Antsìrabé, with the white walls and gables of -the church and the mission buildings plainly visible in the bright -sunhsine, although ten or twelve miles distant—altogether, a panorama -long to be remembered. From this point also the significance and -appropriateness of the name given to the old volcano is clearly seen; -for Trìtrìva is apparently a combination of the words _trìtry_, a -word used to describe the ridge on the back of a chameleon or a fish, -and _ìva_, low, deep; so that the name very happily describes the -long steep western ridge or crater wall, and the deep chasm sweeping -down from it. - -[Sidenote: THE VOLCANIC DISCHARGE] - -It may just be said further, that the slopes of the crater both -inside and out are covered with turf, which grows on a dark brown -volcanic soil, mingled with rounded pebbles of greenish or purple -lava, very compact and close in structure, and containing minute -crystals scattered sparingly through it. Occasional blocks of this -are found round the edge of the crater wall, and the same rock crops -out at many places on the steep inner slopes. I did not notice any -vesicular lava or scoria; and at a little homestead not far from the -north-eastern foot of Trìtrìva, I was surprised to find the _hàdy_ -or fosse dug to twelve or fourteen feet deep almost entirely through -the red clay or earth found all through the central regions of the -island. The dark brown volcanic soil, here seen in section, appeared -to be only eighteen inches deep, with layers of small pebbles. So -that the discharge of the volcanic dust and ash appears to have -extended only a short distance from the mountain; at least it does -not appear to have been very deep, unless, indeed, there has been -much denudation. It must be remembered, however, that this point -is to the windward side of the hill; probably the volcanic soil is -deeper to the west of it. The much greater height of the western -wall of the crater is no doubt due to the prevailing easterly winds -carrying the bulk of the ejected matter to the west, and piling it up -to two or three times the height of the eastern side. After seeing -the amount of gneiss rock which must have been blown out of the -vent, I expected to have found much greater quantities of it, and in -larger blocks, than the very few and small fragments actually seen on -the outer slopes. The greater portion, however, is probably covered -up under the quantities of volcanic dust and _lapilli_ which were -subsequently ejected. - -Trìtrìva, it will be evident from this slight sketch, will greatly -interest those who have a taste for geology and physical geography; -while its peculiar and somewhat awe-striking beauty makes it equally -worthy of a visit from the artist and the lover of the picturesque. -Certainly it became photographed upon our memory with a distinctness -which rendered it a vivid mental picture for many a day afterwards. - -[Sidenote: VOLCANO OF ANKÀRATRA] - -Returning northward from Antsìrabé towards the neighbourhood of -Itàsy, we have to pass to the westward of the great _massif_ of -Ankàratra; and the summits of this mountain mass being the highest -points in the centre of the island, a short space must be devoted -to a brief description of it. From the capital, Ankàratra is the -most prominent object in the landscape to the south-west, rising by -easy gradients to about twice the elevation of the general level of -Imèrina, and three or four points showing distinctly against the sky, -although they are from forty to forty-five miles distant. The highest -point is called Tsiàfajàvona (“that which the mists cannot climb”), -and is eighty-six hundred and thirty-five feet above sea-level. There -is no doubt that the whole mountain is an ancient volcano, for the -rock which has been poured out as lava from it is a black olivine -basalt. One peak, to the east, consists of mica-trachyte; and at -its northern foot there is an exposure of augite-andesite rock. -“Seen from Antanànarìvo, the mountain of Ankàratra seems to be one -almost uniform mass, but when actually there, it resolves itself -into deep ravines, enormous spurs, conspicuous peaks, and isolated -or continuous mountain masses. The spurs, which run out like so many -fingers in all directions, and to great lengths from the main body -of the mountain, do not represent so many lava flows, but have been -formed by the numerous streams which have excavated the deep and wide -valleys between them.” - -The amount of lava that has issued from Ankàratra, says Mr Baron, is -truly astounding, reaching in places to a depth of twelve hundred -to fourteen hundred feet, and occasionally to as much as two -thousand feet. Occasionally the basalt assumes a columnar form; but -everywhere the surface of the lava is decomposed into soil. This, -and the apparent absence of all craters on and around the mountain, -seems to point to a long period having elapsed since the volcano was -active, probably several centuries. When on the highest point of the -mountain, there appear to be two ranges of summits; which lie in the -form of a cross, the intersection being marked by a small cone. On -the south-western slopes are considerable remains of forest, which -probably in former times covered a large proportion of the present -bare highland of the interior of Madagascar. It is by no means easy -to get natives to go with one to these lofty points. They are afraid -of the vengeance of the spirits of the mountains, who will punish all -who dare invade their territories. - -In one of the valleys to the west of the Ankàratra _massif_ there is -a river called Antsèsika, which is quite lost to sight and sound for -about a mile and a quarter. It disappears under a mass of enormous -gneiss boulders, which have filled up the valley of the river, so -that the stream runs for a considerable distance at an immense depth -below the general level. In the upper part of its course, this river -passes over a series of grand falls before diving deep into the -earth, as just described. Its name of Antsèsika is very appropriate, -as it means “that which is thrust in.” - -[Sidenote: EXTINCT LEMUROID ANIMALS] - -Some members of the extinct fauna of Madagascar (Æpyornis, -hippopotamus and crocodile) have been already noticed, but we must -here mention other discoveries made within the last few years. About -twenty years ago a skull, in a sub-fossil condition, was discovered -on the south-west of the island, and proved to be that of a gigantic -form of lemuroid animal. This skull is very much larger and longer -than those of any existing lemurs (which are fairly globular in -shape), and belonged to a creature more like a gorilla in size -and strength. More recently, at a place called Ampàsambazìmba, -which is five miles north of Itàsy, the remains of a number of -species (fourteen or fifteen) of extinct lemuroid animals have been -discovered; in fact this spot seems like the burial-ground of a whole -fauna now entirely passed away, and probably quite recently; for Dr -Standing, who conducted the excavations, thinks that not more than -five centuries have elapsed since some at least of these animals -were living. Several new species of apparently quite distinct genera -have been disinterred; they are mostly larger than any existing -lemuroid; and some of them form links between the true monkeys and -the lemurs—families of primates now very distinct from each other. -Some of these newly discovered creatures seem, from the position of -the nostrils, eyes and ears (like those of the hippopotamus), to have -been adapted to a partially aquatic life. There is abundant evidence -of the former existence of extensive lakes in the surrounding -country, where now there is only marsh or dry land. Others of these -extinct animals were arboreal; and from the remains of leaves and -branches, together with bones, not to mention other evidence, there -is no doubt that much of what is now open down and bare hill was -formerly covered with forest. There was therefore appropriate habitat -for them all; and their needs, whether in water or on the trees, -would be met by the former conditions of the country. It seems highly -probable that the physical changes of the interior have been the -chief cause of the extinction of so many living creatures, although -the advent of man upon the scene may have hastened the process.[23] - -[Sidenote: PHYSICAL CHANGES] - -As this chapter necessarily touches less on popular and more on -scientific matters than the rest of this book, a few more words may -be added on the palæontology and geology of Madagascar. Besides those -extinct creatures already spoken of, remains of gigantic tortoises -have been discovered; also species of swine and river-hog; an ox -differing from the existing cattle of the country, and a large rail -and a goose exceeding in size any living species. All these belonged -to the Quaternary and Recent geological epochs. But far back in -the period of the Secondary rocks a species of sloth lived in the -forests, old forms of crocodile lived in the rivers; and there were -three at least of those gigantic lizards which were the largest -of all known land animals, and were the master existences of the -Jurassic period. - -To sum up in a sentence or two the salient features of Madagascar -geology, it may be said that the whole eastern part of the island -from north to south, comprising probably about three-fifths of the -entire area, is composed of crystalline rocks—gneiss, granite, -mica-schist, etc. But the western two-fifths of its surface consists -chiefly of Secondary strata, including chalk and sandstones and -limestones of the Jurassic and Cretaceous, periods, as well as a -smaller area of rocks of the Eocene and Oligocene eras. A fringe of -Quaternary deposits is also found along a great part of the west -coast. It is evident, therefore, that the western side of the island -has been repeatedly under the sea during the geological periods -just mentioned, leaving the upper highland of ancient rocks as an -island not half the extent of the present Madagascar. It has quite -recently been found that a narrow edging of chalk rock extends for -about one hundred and twenty miles on the central part of the east -coast.[24] Plutonic rocks are found in several places in both the -great geological divisions of the island, and also many outflows of -volcanic rocks, of a much more recent date. - -We have already spoken of the two principal groups of extinct -craters which exist in the central portion of Madagascar. In the -more southerly of these groups, Dr Mullens speaks of an ascent of -Ivòko, one of the finest old volcanoes, which is eleven hundred and -thirty feet high. This, he says, “was a vast crater, a quarter of a -mile across; the encircling wall was complete except at the south, -where the opening was fifty feet wide. Beneath us, half-a-mile to the -east, was another crater, Iatsìfitra, second only to Ivòko, with its -opening to the north. On the north-west shoulder of Ivòko were two -other large craters, overhanging the village of Bétàfo, two more were -close by to the north-east, and others were conspicuous ten miles -to the north. On the south again were several others, the horseshoe -shape being very marked in them all. Descending to the crater of -Iatsìfitra, we observed that the lava rocks which had issued from it -were black, sharp and fresh, as if they had been broken yesterday. -On the plain I counted thirty greater piles of lava, like ruined -fortresses, and numberless smaller ones. It was clear that like -the Phlegræan fields in Italy, the entire plain had at some time -been on fire; and that a hundred jets of flame and molten lava had -spurted from its surface, hurling their blazing rockets into the sky. -Altogether, in our journey to the west and south-west of the capital, -we counted a hundred extinct craters, extending over an arc of ninety -miles.” - -[Sidenote: A VOLCANIC BELT] - -Madagascar appears, therefore, to be the extinct central portion of -a volcanic belt which extends from Great Comoro to the north-west, -through the other islands of the group, Nòsibé and northern and -central Madagascar, to Réunion to the east, a distance of thirteen -hundred and sixty miles. And it is noteworthy that at each extremity -of this belt there is a still active volcano—viz. Piton de Fournaise, -in Réunion, and one eighty-five hundred feet high in Great Comoro. - -[Sidenote: EARTHQUAKES] - -As a country showing numerous traces of volcanic disturbance, -Madagascar is almost every year visited by shocks of earthquake. -Happily these are not of a severe character, and little damage is -usually done; although often a strange subterranean roar accompanies -them and a tremor of several seconds’ duration. The Malagasy still -remember a rather severe earthquake which happened many years ago and -detached a large mass of rock from the cliffs on the precipitous west -side of the ridge on which Antanànarìvo is built. In September 1879 a -severe shock, felt most in the Vònizòngo district, was experienced, -and lasted for at least thirty seconds; this was accompanied by a -loud rumbling sound, as of violent thunder, and in places the ground -was split up by the shaking. In the year 1897, again, slight shocks -were very numerous, and on some days and nights the earth appeared -to have been in a constant state of tremor. These earth movements -were felt more especially in the region of old volcanic disturbance -about Lake Itàsy, where hundreds of slight shocks were experienced -during seven or eight months. On the night of 2nd November four or -five sharp movements occurred, one of which was more violent than -anything remembered by the Malagasy, and wakened the whole population -of the capital and around it in alarm. Chimney-stacks were thrown -down, walls were cracked and ceilings damaged. This earthquake -appears to have been felt over a very wide extent of country, from -Tamatave and the east coast to Mèvatanàna away north-west, and as far -as the Bétsiléo province in the south. It had the effect of stopping -temporarily the mineral spring at Antsìrabé, which is so exactly -like Vichy water; although, curiously enough, the hot-water springs, -within a few yards of the other, were not affected. In the Ifànja -marsh, a few miles from Itàsy, a small mud geyser is said to have -appeared. - -I will conclude this chapter, in which much has been said of extinct -forms of existence, by a glimpse at the ancient animal life of the -island. Let us try to sum up these in a few sentences. - -[Sidenote: GLIMPSES OF THE PAST] - -It seems probable that Madagascar, when the first representatives -of mankind occupied it, was a country much more fully covered by -lakes and marshes, and also by forest, than it is at present. In -these waters, amid vast cane-brakes and swamps of papyrus and sedge, -wallowed and snorted herds of hippopotami; huge tortoises crawled -over the low lands on their margins; tall ostrich-like birds, some -over ten feet high, and others no larger than bustards, stalked -over the marshy valleys; great rails hooted and croaked among the -reeds, and clouds of large geese and other water-fowl flew screaming -over the lakes; on the sand-banks crocodiles lay by scores basking -in the sun; great ape-like lemurs climbed the trees and caught the -birds; troops of river-hogs swam the streams and dug up roots among -the woods; and herds of slender-legged zebu-oxen grazed on the open -downs. These were the animals which the first wild men hunted with -their palm-bark spears, and shot with their arrows tipped with burnt -clay or stone.[25] - -And as we look further back through long-past geological ages, -when the clays and sandstones of the oolite, and the white masses -of the chalk were being deposited in the coral-studded tropic seas -and archipelagoes of Europe and other parts of the world, and when -Madagascar was probably no island, but a peninsula of Eastern Africa, -the mist opens for a moment, and we see vast reptile forms dimly -through the haze; great slender-snouted gavials in the streams and -lakes, sloths moving slowly along the branches of the trees, and -huge dinosaurs, sixty to eighty feet long, crawling over the wooded -plains, and tearing down whole trees with their powerful arms. - -Such are some glimpses of the Madagascar of the past which the study -of its rocks and fossils already opens to the mental eye. We may -confidently look for further light upon the dim and distant bygone -ages as we learn more of the geology of the country. The thick -curtain which at present shrouds the old-world times will be yet more -fully lifted, and we shall probably, ere many more years have passed, -be able to draw many more mental pictures of the extinct animal life -of the great African island. - - -[23] See “Recherches sur les Lémuriens disparus et en particulier -sur ceux qui vivaient à Madagascar.” Par G. Grandidier. _Nouv. -Arch. du Muséum_, 4e série, tome vii., 144 pp. 1905. Also “On -Recently Discovered Subfossil Primates from Madagascar.” By Herbert -F. Standing, D.Sc. _Trans. Zool. Soc._, vol. xviii., pt. ii., pp. -59-217. May 1908. - -These extinct lemuroids have been classed in the following -genera:—_Megaladapis_ (3 sp.), _Lemur_ (2 sp.), _Palæopropithecus_ (4 -sp.), _Archæolemur_ (2 sp.), _Poradylemur_ (1 sp.), _Hadropithecus_ -(1 sp.), _Mesopropithecus_ (1 sp.), and _Archæoindris_ (1 sp.). - -[24] No rocks of the Primary formations have been discovered in -Madagascar, nor does it seem probable that any exist. - -[Sidenote: THE VAZÌMBA] - -[25] The Vazìmba, the supposed earliest inhabitants of the interior, -are said to have not known the use of iron, but to have had spears -made of the hard, wiry bark of the Anìvona palm, and to have employed -arrow-heads made of burnt clay. No flint weapons have yet been -discovered in Madagascar. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -SOUTHWARDS TO BÉTSILÉO AND THE SOUTH-EAST COAST - - -A few years ago I was invited by the Friends’ Foreign Missionary -Association to accompany one of their missionaries, Mr Louis Street, -on a journey to some of the southern portions of Madagascar. The -object of this journey was twofold: firstly, to visit the scattered -Christian congregations connected with the London Missionary Society, -and to preach to and teach the people; and secondly, to gain some -more accurate information as to the geography and physical features -of the south-eastern provinces, and the dialects and customs of the -different tribes inhabiting those parts of the great island. At that -period (in the seventies) Madagascar was still unmapped and only -very partially explored. A very large proportion of the country was -still a _terra incognita_; so that missionary journeys away from -the neighbourhood of the capital had all the charm of novelty and -exploration. Its physical geography, its geology, and its botany and -natural history were all practically unknown; so I looked forward -with intense interest to seeing new provinces and new people; nor was -I disappointed in this expectation. - -Like all journeys in Madagascar until about twelve years ago, this -one was made by the native conveyance, the _filanjàna_ or light -palanquin (see Chapters II. and III.), and also, as will be seen, -by frequent voyages in canoes. And although _filanjàna_ travelling, -like all sublunary things, had its drawbacks, I always enjoyed that -mode of getting over the ground. But in setting off on a journey -which was to last for several weeks, it was not always easy to get -started. You might engage your men for two or three weeks beforehand; -you might advance money to keep a hold on them; you might even induce -them to deposit a small sum with you as security; but one was never -quite sure that every man had arrived, and was going along with -you, until one had got clear away at least half-a-day’s journey. -All sorts of excuses would be made, or no reason at all be given, -especially if the journey was to be through a part of the island not -often traversed. The bearers were easily hired, but not so easily -_secured_. One man not turning up, another would go to seek for him, -and he, in turn, would have to be hunted for by his companions. - -[Sidenote: TRAVELLING IN MADAGASCAR] - -Travelling in Madagascar, at least by the main lines of road, is fast -losing its former characteristics. Along the easy gradients, the -bridged streams, and the embankment-crossed swamps traversed now by -good highroads, one is apt to forget how our bearers used to climb up -steep and rugged ascents, ford rivers, sometimes up to their necks in -rushing waters, and flounder through morasses. In fact, the bearers -are becoming somewhat demoralised by these easy and smooth roads, and -we now need to take a ride “across country” to realise what our early -experiences here were.[26] Mr Street and I, however, managed to get a -number of men, about fifty in all, to start with us; and as we were -not at all sure of finding native huts to stay in all through our -route, we took a tent with us, as well as provisions and clothes, and -books to give away to the people who could read them. Towards the end -of May we left the capital for our southern journey. - -One more word of preface to this chapter. Like the tour around the -Antsihànaka province, already described, this journey was, first -of all, a missionary one; and although I shall not trouble my -readers with details of this kind, it must be understood that my -companions and I took every opportunity we had of speaking, not only -to congregations, but also to any small gathering of people we came -across, of the great and glad truths of the Gospel, of which we were -the messengers. - -I shall not describe here the route between Antanànarìvo and -Fianàrantsòa: the elevated tract of bare table-land, more than six -thousand feet above the sea; the cultivated valleys of the three -or four chief rivers; the green pleasant basins of Ambòsitra and -Ambòhinàmboàrina; the enormous rocks of Angàvo, and the belt of -grey-lichened forest above Nàndihìzana. There were, however, three -points which struck me in the Bétsiléo province as being very -different from what we see in Imèrina. First, was the much bolder -and grander scenery; the mountains are higher in the south, and the -gneiss and granite rocks rise up in stupendous masses of stone, such -as we do not often see in the northern province. - -Then there was the elaborate system of rice cultivation, far -surpassing anything that can be seen in Imèrina. This was noticeable -after four days’ journey, but it appeared to be carried to the -highest point of perfection in the wide valley south of Ambòsitra. -Not only are the valleys and hollows terraced, as in Imèrina—the -_concave_ portions of the low hills and lower slopes of the -high hills—but the _convex_ portions also are stepped up like a -gigantic staircase for a great height. It was a pleasant sight -to see, speaking of industry and skill and practical knowledge -of hydrostatics; for how water could be brought to some of the -lower elevations surrounded by lower ground was more than we could -discover. Many of these were terraced up to their highest point, the -narrow lines of rice-plot running round them in concentric circles, -so that there was not a square yard of ground left unproductive. - -[Sidenote: ORNAMENTAL TOMBS] - -The third particular in which the Bétsiléo country differs—although -the _past_ tense would be now more appropriate—from Imèrina is in the -variety and ornamental character of the tombs and other memorials of -the dead. Leaving out of consideration the modern stone tombs erected -in the vicinity of the capital, it is a remarkable fact that there is -no native Hova style of carving or ornamentation. Neither in their -dwellings nor their tombs, neither in their household utensils nor -their weapons, does there ever seem to have existed among the natives -of Imèrina anything like indigenous art. But in Bétsiléo there is -carving both in the houses and the tombs; the central posts of the -former are elaborately ornamented, and also portions of the exterior -woodwork; and the curious massive timber posts, with framework for -holding the skulls and horns of bullocks killed at funerals, have a -variety of decoration which is well worthy of study. - -[Illustration: HIDE-BEARERS RESTING BY THE ROADSIDE - -Ambàtovòry rock and wood are in the distance] - -[Illustration: BÉTSILÉO TOMBS WITH THE HORNS OF OXEN KILLED AT THE -FUNERAL] - -The first thing that attracted my attention in travelling south, -after four or five days’ journey, was that the upright stones placed -near graves were not the rough undressed slabs common in Imèrina, but -were finely dressed and squared and ornamented with carving. Coming -after that to Ambòsitra, I first met with one of the memorial posts -just mentioned. This was a piece of timber, seven or eight inches -square and about ten feet high, with pieces of wood projecting from -a little below the top, so as to form a kind of stage. Each face -of the post was elaborately carved with different patterns arranged -in squares. Some of these were concentric circles, a large one in the -centre, with smaller ones filling up the angles; others had a circle -with a number of little bosses on them; others had a kind of leaf -ornament, and in others parallel lines were arranged in different -directions. The narrow spaces dividing these squares from each other -had in some cases an ornament like the Norman cheiron, and in others, -something similar to the Greek wave-like scroll. The whole erection -with its ornamentation bore a strong resemblance to the old runic -stones, or the manorial crosses of Ireland and the Scottish highlands. - -A day or two’s journey farther south brought us to a tract of country -where there was a profusion of carved memorials scattered along -the roadside, and in all directions visible on either hand. And on -reaching a rounded green hill west of the road, the old and deserted -village of Ikangàra, we saw that there was a large number of tombs -and memorial posts close together, so we went to inspect them more -minutely. Within a short distance were some forty or fifty tombs, and -on further examination there appeared to be at least half-a-dozen -different kinds: - -(1) The largest tombs—there were two of them—were of small flat -stones, built in a square of some twenty to twenty-five feet, and -about five feet high. But all around them was a railing of posts and -rails, all elaborately carved with the patterns just described. - -(2) Another kind of tomb was formed by a square stone structure, -about twelve feet each way and four or five feet high, but on the top -was an enclosure of carved posts and lintels about eight feet high, -with a single carved post in the centre. - -(3) A third kind of monument was a massive block of granite about -ten feet high, with carved posts at the corners and touching them, -and connected by cross-pieces; on these the skulls and horns of the -bullocks killed at the funeral of the person commemorated were fixed. - -(4) Another kind of memorial was a massive square post of wood, about -twenty feet high and fifteen inches square, carved on all four sides -from top to bottom. There were four or five of these enormous posts -here; and in one case there was a pair of them, as if to form a kind -of gateway. - -(5) Still another kind was a great block of dressed granite, with -iron hooping round the top, in which were fixed a dozen or more pairs -of slender _iron_ horns. - -[Sidenote: ELABORATE CARVING] - -All the way along the road to Ambòhinàmboàrina we came across -different combinations of memorial posts, and of dressed fine white -granite in upright blocks, in many cases arranged in couples, so -that they were very conspicuous all over the surrounding country. -Before leaving the subject of ornamentation among the Bétsiléo, I may -notice that the window shutters of their houses, the wooden fixed -bedstead—looking more like a cupboard than a sleeping-place—and other -portions of the interior, are (or were) elaborately carved with the -patterns already mentioned and other designs.[27] - -In the early part of June we left the Bétsiléo capital for the -south, intending if possible to make our way through the forest -to the south-east coast, and thence travel to Fort Dauphine, the -southernmost Hova military station. The route south from Fianàrantsòa -is for many miles through a valley between lofty hills; and there one -gradually ascends to a point where the valley ends, and at a place -called Ivàtoàvo (“high rock”) one gets a most extensive prospect, -of a comparatively level plain stretching away for many miles, and -dotted all over with the green ring-shaped _vàla_ or homesteads of -the Bétsiléo. This plain is surrounded with the grandest and boldest -mountains, many of them rising sheer from the level in many hundred -feet of bare gneiss rock, and in the most picturesque outlines. To -the north-west one lofty spire of rock has a flat-topped head, much -resembling the Pieter Botha mountain in Mauritius. I was afterwards -told that it was formerly obligatory on a young man wishing to marry -a girl from the district that he should carry his bride on his back -to the summit of this rock, and bring her down again. It appeared -as if one might almost as well attempt to scale a church spire; but -probably there are crevices and hollows which would make such a feat -not altogether impossible. - -Our Sunday at a village on the plain was employed in our usual way, -preaching there, and visiting other places. After speaking at a short -service myself, I left my companion at midday to go to Iàritsèna, -a village about five hundred feet above the level; but it really -looked insignificant compared with the towering rocks beyond it. -The grand and varied forms of the mountains all around this plain -filled me with an exultant kind of delight. To the south were a -crowd of mountain-tops, peak beyond peak, with the greatest variety -of outline: one had the appearance of a colossal truncated spire; -another had a jagged saw-like ridge, another was like a pyramid with -huge steps, and another was like an enormous dome; but the varieties -were endless, and, as I passed along, the combinations of the giant -masses of bare rock changed every minute. Their summits were never -long free from clouds, and the changing effects of sunlight and cloud -shadow could only have been caught by the rapid use of a camera. The -summits of many of the peaks must be at least three thousand feet -above the plain. These “everlasting hills,” these “strong foundations -of the earth,” recalled passages in the Psalms and the Prophets, -speaking of Him whose “righteousness is like the great mountains.” - -At my little village congregation this afternoon, many of the girls -and women wore a circular ornament suspended from their necks; this -was formed of the end of a _conus_ shell ground down and generally -with a red bead in the centre. This kind of decoration, called -_félana_, is also worn by men among the Sàkalàva, but on the side of -their temples, and by the Bàra people on the crown of their heads. - -[Sidenote: PARAKEETS] - -Until taking this journey I had not seen in any number the pretty -little parakeet of which Madagascar possesses a peculiar species -(_Psittacula madagascariensis_). But we noticed a large flock of -these birds one day; and their light green plumage, with whitish -breasts and greyish-white heads, render them rather conspicuous. -They go in large flocks, often as many as a hundred together, and -sometimes do considerable damage to the rice crops. The two sexes of -this parakeet show great affection for each other, the pair sitting -close together on their perch, from which habit they are often called -love-birds. - -Two species of parrot are among the denizens of the Malagasy woods -almost all over the country. These parrots are both of sober plumage, -one being dark grey in colour, and the other slaty-black. But they -are both intelligent birds, and can easily be taught to speak a few -words and to whistle a tune. Their long whistling cry, as if going up -the gamut, may be frequently heard in the outskirts of the woods. -The grey species (_Coracopsis obscura_), which is the larger of the -two, is _fàdy_ or sacred with the chiefs of the Vèzo Sàkalàva, as -they say that one of their ancestors was saved from death by hearing -the shrill piercing cries of a flock of these birds. The black -species (_Coracopsis nigra_) is about a third less in size. Both -kinds are more terrestrial and less arboreal in their habits than -most parrots, nor do they make much use of their claws to convey food -to the mouth. - -[Sidenote: AN AWKWARD CROSSING] - -The following day, passing over a river close by Ambòhimandròso, we -had a most awkward bridge to cross. The native engineer had made it -in two spans, not, however, in a straight line, but forming almost a -right angle with each other. There were two or three massive balks of -timber; but as these were not on a level, and some had slipped down -three or four feet, the passage over was neither easy nor pleasant. -Many of our bearers hesitated a good deal, as the bridge was sixteen -to eighteen feet above the water, which roared like a mill-race -between the rough pier and the river banks. - -All about this neighbourhood we noticed great numbers of ant-hills, -of a much larger size than any we had seen elsewhere. They are -conical mounds of a yard or so high, and are made by a white or -yellowish ant, the one spoken of in a well-known Malagasy nursery -tale. Breaking off a piece of one of the mounds, the ants could -be seen in a state of great excitement, running in and out of the -circular galleries which traverse their city. There are vast numbers -of these ants in one ant-hill; they have a queen, who is nearly an -inch long, while her subjects are not half that size. A serpent is -said to live in many of these ant-nests, and the people maintain that -it is eventually eaten by the inhabitants. - -Between the point we had now reached and the sea is a great wooded -and rounded mountain which we could see about twenty miles away, and -which we found was the celebrated Ambòndrombé, the Malagasy Hades, -in which they believed that the souls of their ancestors had their -abode. There are said to be large caves in the mountain, and it is -regarded with much superstitious fear by the people. The mountain -looked dark and gloomy, and has a very regularly curved outline from -north to south, looking like the segment of an immense circle. - -[Illustration: MEMORIAL STONE, BÉTSILÉO PROVINCE - -The iron horns at the top are in place of bullocks’ horns usually -placed on such memorials] - -[Sidenote: “BOUND BY BLOOD”] - -About twenty miles to the east of our route, although perfectly -hidden by the intervening rugged country and lines of forest-covered -hills, is a very strongly defended Tanàla town called Ikòngo, a -place which maintained its independence of Hova domination until -the French conquest. With considerable difficulty and some personal -risk, my friend, Mr G. A. Shaw, managed to gain permission to visit -this stronghold and introduce Christian teaching. The native chief, -who became very friendly, wished to become closely allied to him by -the custom of _fàto-drà_, or _fàti-drà_. This is a curious ceremony, -in use among many Malagasy peoples, by which persons of different -tribes or nationalities become bound to one another in the closest -possible fashion. The name for it of _fàto-drà_—_i.e._ “bound by -blood”—denotes that its object is to make those entering into the -covenant to become as brothers, devoted to each other’s welfare, and -ready to make any sacrifice for the other, since they thus become of -one blood. - -The ceremony consists in taking a small quantity of blood from the -breast or side of each contracting party; this is mixed with other -ingredients, stirred up with a spear-point, and then a little of -the strange mixture is swallowed by each of them. Imprecations are -uttered against those who shall be guilty of violating the solemn -engagement thus entered into. A few Europeans, who have overcome -their natural disgust to the ceremonial, and to whom it has been a -matter of great importance to keep on good terms with some powerful -chief, have occasionally consented to make this covenant. Thus -the celebrated French scientist, M. Alfred Grandidier, became a -brother by blood with Zomèna, a chief of the south-western Tanòsy, -in order to gain his good will and help in proceeding farther into -the interior. But in his case the blood was not taken from the -contracting parties, but from an ox sacrificed for the purpose; the -ceremony is then called _famaké_. In this case, a pinch of salt, a -little soot, a leaden ball, and a gold bead were put into the blood, -which was mixed with water. Sometimes pulverised flint, earth and -gunpowder are added to the mixture. In the case of Count Benyowski, -who in 1770 was made king of a large tribe on the eastern coast, he -and the principal chiefs sucked a little blood from each others’ -breasts. The Hova formerly followed a similar custom, but with some -variations; and so lately as 1897 a high French official made a -somewhat similar covenant, with a principal chief in the extreme -south of the island. The _fàto-drà_ has doubtless been observed by -the various tribes in all parts of Madagascar, but there appears to -have been a good deal of difference in the details of the ceremonial -attending it. - -[Sidenote: BÉTSILÉO HOUSES] - -We spent a day at Imàhazòny, the last Hova military post in this -direction, before plunging into the unknown route across the forest -to the coast. The people from the little _vàla_ (homesteads) came -running out to see us as we went by, most of them having never seen -a white face before. We noticed how different the Bétsiléo dialect -is from the Hova form of Malagasy; the _n_ in the latter is always -nasal (_ng_) in the former; while numerous words are shorter than -their equivalents as spoken in Imèrina; and the consonantal changes -are numerous. Besides this, the vocabulary is very different for many -things and actions. About two hours’ ride on the following morning -brought us to the large village of Ivàlokiànja. We went into a house, -the best in the village, for our lunch; it was the largest there, but -was not so large as our tent (eleven feet square), and the walls were -not six feet high. The door was a small square aperture, one foot -ten inches wide by two feet four inches high, and its threshold two -feet nine inches from the ground; so that getting into most Bétsiléo -houses is quite a gymnastic feat, and it is difficult to understand -how people could put themselves to so much needless inconvenience. -Close to it, at the end of the house, was another door, or window -(it was difficult to say which, as they are all pretty much the same -size!), and opposite were two small openings about a foot and a half -square. The hearth was opposite the door, and the fixed bedstead -was in what is the window corner (north-west) in Hova houses. In -this house was the first example I had seen of decorative carving in -Malagasy houses; the external faces of the main posts being carved -with a simple but effective ornament of squares and diagonals. There -was also other ornamentation, much resembling the English Union Jack. -The gables were filled in with a neat plaited work of split bamboo. -The majority of the houses in this and most of the Bétsiléo villages -are only about ten or twelve feet long by eight or nine feet wide, -and the walls from three to five feet high. Hereabouts, the doors -seem generally to face the north or north-west, and the house runs -nearly east and west. Hova houses of the old style, on the contrary, -are always placed with their length running north and south, and -their single door and window facing the west—that is, on the lee-side -of the house. - -[Illustration: TYPES OF CARVED ORNAMENTATION USED BY THE BÉTSILÉO -MALAGASY IN THEIR BURIAL MEMORIALS AND THEIR HOUSES.] - -[Illustration: TYPES OF CARVED ORNAMENTATION USED BY THE BÉTSILÉO -MALAGASY IN THEIR BURIAL MEMORIALS AND THEIR HOUSES.] - -[Sidenote: AN UNPLEASANT RIDE] - -As Ambinàny, the Tanàla[28] chief, whose village we were bound for, -did not make his appearance, we went off in the afternoon to another -village, Iòlomàka, about three or four miles away to the south-east. -It was a cold unpleasant ride in the drizzling rain. We reached the -village, which is situated on a bare hill, in an hour and a quarter, -and with some difficulty found a tolerably level place on which to -pitch the tent, but everything was wet. The rain came down faster -than ever, and began to come through the canvas in some places. -During the afternoon we in our tent formed for the villagers a free, -and evidently popular, exhibition, which might have been entitled, -“The Travelling Foreigners in their Tent.” We and our belongings, -and our most trivial actions, were the subject of intensest interest -to the people. They came peeping in and, uninvited, took their seats -to gaze. I suspect they thought we travelled in a style of Oriental -magnificence, for my companion’s gorgeous striped rug evidently -struck them as being the _ne plus ultra_ of earthly grandeur. But -_we_ did not look upon ourselves this evening quite in that light; -for the slightly higher ground on two sides of the tent led the water -_into_ the structure, and there was soon a respectable-sized pool on -my friend’s side of the tent, above which the boxes had to be raised -by stones and tent-hammers; while the drip upon our beds raised the -probability that we might be able to take our baths in the morning -before getting up. It was our dampest experience hitherto of tent -life. - -The following evening found us at Ivòhitròsa, after one of the most -difficult and fatiguing journeys we had ever taken in Madagascar. It -was quite dark when we arrived here, wet, weary, muddy and hungry, -having eaten no food since the morning. - -[Sidenote: INTERESTED PUBLIC] - -But to begin at the beginning. Bed was so much the most comfortable -place, with a wet tent, a small pond at one end of it, and a mass -of mud at the other, that we did not turn out so early or so -willingly as usual, especially as there was a thick mist and heavy -drizzle, as there had been all night. The general public outside, -however, evidently thought it high time the exhibition opened for a -morning performance; and so, without our intending it, there _was_ -a performance, which, if there had been a daily paper at Iòlomàka, -might have been described as consisting of five acts or scenes, as -follows:—_Scene first_: Distinguished foreigners are seen lying in -bed, so comfortably tucked up that they feel most unwilling to get -out on to the wet and muddy floor. Curtains only half drawn (by -an eager public) during this act. _Scene second_: Somewhat of a -misnomer, as D. F. were, by the exercise of some ingenuity, _not_ -seen during the operations of bathing and washing. _Scene third_: D. -F. seen by admiring public—who again admitted themselves—in the act -of brushing their hair and performing their toilet. _Scene fourth_: -D. F. seen at their breakfast; the variety of their food, dishes, -plates, etc., a subject of mute amazement. _Scene fifth and last_: D. -F. seen rapidly packing up all their property for their approaching -departure. _N.B._—Probably their last appearance on this stage. We -packed up in the heavy drizzle, and fortunately, just as we were -about to start, three or four Tanàla came up and agreed to be our -guides. We had to wait until they had their rice, but at last we got -away, soon after ten o’clock, rather too late as it turned out. - -Our way for more than two hours was through the outskirts of the -forest: a succession of low hills partially covered with wood, and -divided from each other by swampy valleys. In these we had two or -three times to cross deepish streams by bridges of a single round -pole, a foot or two _under_ water, a ticklish proceeding, which all -our luggage bearers did not accomplish successfully. After crossing a -stream by the primitive bridge of a tree which had fallen half over -the water, we entered the real forest, our general direction being to -the south-east. - -And now for an hour and a half we had to pass through dense forest -by a narrow footpath, where no _filanjàna_ (palanquin) could be -carried (at least with its owner seated on it). Up and down, down -and up, stooping under fallen trees, or climbing over them, soon -getting wet through with the dripping leaves on either hand, and -the mud and water underfoot—we had little time to observe anything -around us, lest a tree root or a slippery place should trip us up. At -two-fifteen we came to an open clearing, and thought our difficulties -were over, but presently we plunged into denser forest than ever, -and up and down rougher paths. Notwithstanding the danger of looking -about, it was impossible to avoid admiring the luxuriance of the -vegetation. Many of the trees were enormously high, and so buttressed -round their trunks that they were of great girth at the ground. The -tree-ferns seemed especially large, with an unusual number of fronds; -and the creeper bamboo festooned the large trees with its delicate -pinnate leaves. - -[Sidenote: A DEEP GORGE] - -It soon became evident that we were descending, and that pretty -rapidly. For a considerable distance we had a stream on our left -hand, which roared and foamed over a succession of rapids, going to -the south-east; and every now and then we caught glimpses of the -opening in the woods made by the stream, presenting lovely bits of -forest scenery in real tropical luxuriance. The sun shone out for a -few minutes, but presently it clouded over, and heavy rain came on. -The increasing roar of waters told of an unusually large fall, and in -a few minutes we came down an opening where we could see the greater -part of it, a large body of water rushing down a smooth slope of rock -about a hundred feet deep, and at an angle of forty-five degrees. -Three or four times we had to cross the stream, on rocks in and out -of the water, with a powerful current sweeping around and over them. -We found after a while that we had come down to the side of a deep -gorge in the hills which rose hundreds of feet on each side of it, -and down which the stream descended rapidly by a series of grand -cascades to the lower and more open country which we could see at -intervals through openings in the woods. - -At half-past four we emerged from the forest and came down by a steep -slippery path through bush and jungle. And now there opened before -us one of the grandest scenes that can be imagined. The valley, down -which we had come, opened out into a tremendous hollow or bay, three -or four miles across, and more than twice as long, running into the -higher level of the country from which we had descended. The hills, -or, rather, edges of the upper plateau, rise steeply all round this -great bay, covered with wood to their summits, which are from two -thousand to three thousand feet above the lower country. Between -these bold headlands we could count four or five waterfalls, two -of them falling in a long riband of foam several hundred feet down -perpendicular faces of rock. Between the opening points of this great -valley, three or four miles apart, could be seen a comparatively -level undulating country, with patches of wood and the windings of -the river Màtitànana. On a green hill to the north side of the valley -was a group of houses, which we were glad to hear was Ivòhitròsa, -our destination. This hill we found was seven hundred feet above the -stream at its foot, but it looked small compared with the towering -heights around it. At last we reached the bottom of the valley, -crossed the stream, and presently commenced the steep ascent to the -village. It was quite dark before we reached it, muddy, wet and tired -out; we had been eight hours on the way, and five and a half on foot -over extremely rough and fatiguing paths. The native chief and his -people had overtaken us in the forest and went on first to prepare a -house for us. - -[Sidenote: A STRIKING PICTURE] - -We found that the best dwelling in the village was ready, and a -bright fire blazing on the hearth. It was with some difficulty that -we got all our baggage arranged inside, for, although the largest -house available, it was rather smaller than our tent, and nearly a -quarter of it was occupied by the hearth and the space around it. At -one side of the fire were sitting four young women, the daughters of -the chief. A glance at these young ladies showed us that we had come -into the territory of a tribe different from any we had yet seen. -They were lightly clothed in a fine mat wrapped round their waists, -but were highly ornamented on their heads, necks, and arms. A fillet -of small white beads, an inch or so wide, was round their heads, -fastened by a circular metal plate on their foreheads. From their -necks hung several necklaces of long oval white beads and smaller -red ones. On their wrists they had silver rings, and a sort of broad -bracelet of small black, white, and red beads; and on every finger -and on each thumb were rings of brass wire. In the glancing firelight -they certainly made a striking picture of barbaric ornamentations; -and notwithstanding their dark skins and numerous odd little tails -of hair, some of them were comely enough. We had soon to ask them to -retire in order to stow away our packages and get some tea ready. -The house was raised a foot or so from the ground, the inside lined -with mats, and so was a pleasant change from our damp lodgings of the -previous evening. - -[Sidenote: RICE-HOUSES] - -Next morning, on opening our window, we had before us, two or three -miles across the great basin or valley, three waterfalls, one -descending in a long white line and almost lost in spray before it -reaches the bottom. The sunlight revealed all the beauties of the -scene around us, and made us long for the power to transfer to canvas -or paper its chief outlines. Were such a neighbourhood as this in -an accessible part of any European country, it would rapidly become -famous for its scenery. We found the village of Ivòhitròsa to consist -of twelve houses only, enclosed within a _ròva_ of pointed stakes; -but besides these are several rice-houses or _tràno àmbo_ (“high -houses”) mounted on posts five or six feet above the ground, each -post having a circular wooden ring just under the flooring rafters, -and projecting eight or nine inches, so as to prevent the rats -ascending and helping themselves to rice. I sincerely wished last -night that the dwelling-houses had a similar arrangement, for the -rats had a most jovial night of it in our lodgings, being doubtless -astonished at the number and variety of the packages just arrived. -The house we are in, as well as others in the village, has carved -horns at the gables, not the crossed straight timbers so called in -Hova houses, but curved like bullocks’ horns. The people appear to -have no slaves here, for the daughters of the chief, in all their -ornaments, are pounding rice, four at one mortar. - -At this part of the island the high interior plateau seems to descend -by _one_ great step to the coast plains, and not by _two_, as it does -farther north; for our aneroid told us that we came down twenty-five -hundred feet yesterday, and that the stream at the foot of this hill -is only five hundred or six hundred feet above sea-level. And the two -lines of forest one crosses farther on are here united into one. - -The men and many of the women wear a rather high round skull-cap made -of fine plait; the women wear little except a mat sewn together at -the ends, so as to form a kind of sack, and fastened by a cord round -the waist, and only occasionally pulled up high enough to cover the -bosom. Those who are nursing infants have also a small figured mat -about eighteen inches square on their backs and suspended by a cord -from the neck; this is called _lòndo_, and is used to protect the -child from the sun or rain, as it lies in a fold of the mat above the -girdle. Some of the men wear a mat as a _làmba_, and only a few have -_làmbas_ of coarse _rofìa_ or hemp cloth. The people here blacken -their teeth with a root, which gives them an unpleasant appearance -as they open their mouths; not all the teeth, however, are thus -disfigured, but chiefly those at the back, leaving the front ones -white; in some cases the lower teeth are alternately black and white. - -The morning of one of our four days at Ivòhitròsa was employed in -trying to get a good view of the largest of the waterfalls which pour -down into the large valley already mentioned. Mounting a spur of the -main hills, we had a good view of this chief fall up a deep gorge to -the south, and so opening into the main valley as not to be visible -from the village. This is certainly a most magnificent fall of water. -The valley ends in a semicircular wall of rock crowned by forest, and -over this pours at one leap the river Màtitànana. Knowing the heights -of some of the neighbouring hills, we judged that the fall could not -be less than from five hundred to six hundred feet in depth, and from -the foot rises a continual cloud of spray, like smoke, with a roar -which reverberates up the rocky sides of the valley; even from two or -three miles’ distance, which was as near as we could get, it was a -very grand sight. - -[Sidenote: MALAGASY RASPBERRIES] - -While on this little excursion we had a feast of another kind. On -our way home we came across a large cluster of bushes full of wild -raspberries. This fruit is common on the borders of the forest, but -we never before saw it in such quantities, or of so large a size, or -of so sweet a taste. The Malagasy raspberry is a beautiful scarlet -fruit, larger than the European kind; and while perhaps not quite -equal in flavour to those grown in England, is by no means to be -despised; and we were able on that day to enjoy it to our heart’s -content. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF TANÀLA GIRLS IN FULL DRESS] - -[Illustration: TANÀLA GIRLS SINGING AND CLAPPING HANDS] - -During our stay at Ivòhitròsa we were surprised and delighted with -the brightness and intelligence of many of the native boys. Although -the dialectic differences of the Tanàla speech are many as compared -with the Hova form of Malagasy, we obtained a large vocabulary from -them as well as names of the forest birds and animals, and also those -of trees and fruits. And as these forests and their vicinity are -the home of several of the lemurs which have not yet been noticed -in these pages, I will here give some particulars of four or five -species. - -The ring-tailed lemur (_Lemur catta_) is perhaps the best known -of all the lemuridæ, from its handsomely marked tail, which is -ringed with black and white bands, thus clearly distinguishing -it from all the other species of the sub-order. And while almost -every other lemur is arboreal, this species lives among the rocks, -over which they can easily travel, but can be only followed with -great difficulty. The palms of their hands are long, smooth and -leather-like, and so enable these animals to find a firm footing on -the slippery wet rocks. The thumbs on the hinder hands are very much -smaller than those of the forest-inhabiting lemurs, as they do not -need them for grasping the branches of trees. Their winter food is -chiefly the fruit of the prickly pear; while in summer they subsist -chiefly on wild figs and bananas. This species bears a sea voyage -fairly well, so that they are often seen in Mauritius and Réunion, -and even more distant places. - -Another species of lemur, which inhabits the south-eastern forests, -is the broad-nosed gentle lemur (_Hapalemur simus_). This animal -is found among the bamboos, and it appears to subsist in a great -measure on the young shoots of that plant. For biting and mincing up -the stalks its teeth seem admirably adapted, as they are nearly all -serrated cutting teeth, and are arranged so as mutually to intersect. -It eats almost all the day long, and has a curious dislike of fruit. -It is furnished with a remarkably broad pad on each of the hinder -thumbs, so that it is able to grasp firmly even the smallest surfaces. - -[Sidenote: MOUSE-LEMURS] - -Perhaps the most beautiful and interesting—as well as the -smallest—lemuriæ animals inhabiting Madagascar belong to the group -called Cheirogale, or mouse-lemurs, of which there are seven species. -As their name implies, they are very small, the dwarf species -(_Cheirogaleus minor_) being only four inches long, with a tail of -six inches. This pretty little animal is remarkable also for its -large and very resplendent eyes, for the eye admits so much light -at dusk that quite an unusual brilliancy is produced. The brown -mouse-lemur (_Cheirogaleus major_) is larger than the last-named -species, being seven or eight inches long. Most, if not all, of the -species live in the highest trees, and make a globular nest of twigs -and leaves; they all appear to be nocturnal animals, as one might -suppose from the structure of their eyes. The smallest, or dwarf, -species, is said to be very shy and wild, very quarrelsome and fights -very fiercely. Some of these little animals, if not all of them, have -a time of summer sleep; and the tail, which is grossly fat at the -beginning of that period, becomes excessively thin at its close, its -fat being slowly absorbed to maintain vitality. The two (or three) -species of mouse-lemur here noticed inhabit the south-eastern forest -region; others appear to be confined to the north-western woods. - - -[26] A writer in a defunct newspaper, _The Madagascar Times_, of 10th -August 1889, describes in so true and graphic a fashion the old style -of Malagasy _filanjàna_ bearers, in the following rhymes, that I -think they are well worth preserving in these pages:— - - Bearing their burdens cheerily, laughing the livelong day, - Pacing o’er dale and mountain, wending their toilsome way; - Puffing and panting, up hills steeply slanting, - Skilfully bearing the _filanjàna_ canting, - Grumbling not at the sun’s scorching ray. - Wading through swamp and brooklet, splashing their course along, - Bounding through plain and forest, thinking the track not long. - Chattering and pattering, with tongue ever clattering, - Joyous if of it the Vazàha has a smattering; - Growling not at the rain’s stinging thong. - Pacing with even footsteps, never losing time, - Changing places racing, like the measured beat of rhyme. - Lifting and shifting, but never desisting, - Always each other with pleasure assisting; - Happy through all the toiling daytime. - Tramping with wondrous vigour, moving with easy grace, - Pausing not in their journey, dashing as in a race; - Smiling and wiling, for a present beguiling, - Ever joke-cracking, if the Vazàha is not riling— - Such is the life of our native _mpilànja_, - This is the marvellous way that they keep up the pace! - -_Note._—“Vazàha” is the native word for Europeans; _mpilànja_ means a -_filanjàna_ bearer. - -[Sidenote: ORNAMENTAL PATTERNS] - -[27] My friend, Mr G. A. Shaw, who was connected for several -years with the Bétsiléo Mission, made a number of “rubbings” of -this peculiar ornamentation. On exhibiting many of these at the -Folk-lore Society, when I read a paper on this subject, one of the -members expressed a strong opinion that these patterns must have had -originally some religious signification; and another member remarked -that the patterns closely resembled those on articles from the -Nicobar Islands. - -[28] The word “Tanàla,” which simply means “forest dwellers” (_àla_ -= forest), is a name loosely given to a number of tribes of the -south-east, who inhabit the wooded regions and the adjacent country. -All, however, have their proper tribal names and divisions. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -IVÒHITRÒSA - - -Our Sunday at Ivòhitròsa was such a novel and interesting one that -I shall depart for once from my rule of omitting in these chapters -mention of our religious work. It was a wet morning, so that it was -after eleven o’clock before the rain ceased and we could call the -people together. A good many had come up from the country round -on the previous day to see us, and we collected them on a long -and pretty level piece of rock which forms one side of the little -square around which the houses are built. When all had assembled, -there must have been nearly three hundred present, including our own -men, who grouped themselves near us. It was certainly the strangest -congregation we had ever addressed, for the men had their weapons, -while the women looked very heathenish. Some few had put some slight -covering over the upper part of their bodies, but most were just as -they ordinarily appeared, some with hair and necks dripping with -castor oil, and with their conspicuous bead ornaments on head, neck, -and arms. One could not but feel deeply moved to see these poor -ignorant folks, the great majority of them joining for the first -time in Christian worship, and hearing for the first time the news -of salvation. And remembering our own ignorance of much of their -language, the utter strangeness of the message we brought, and the -darkness of their minds, we could not but feel how little we could -in one brief service do to quicken their apprehension of things -spiritual and eternal. We had some of our most hearty lively hymns -and tunes, our men assisting us well in the singing; after Mr Street -had spoken to the people from a part of the Sermon on the Mount, I -also addressed them, trying in as simple a manner as was possible to -tell them what we had come for, what that “glad tidings” was which we -taught them. On account of the rain, work in the afternoon had to be -confined to what could be done in our tent, which was crammed full, -and in our house.[29] - -That there was great need for enlightenment may be seen from what we -heard from the people themselves—viz. that there are (or were) eight -unlucky days in every month, and that children born on those days -were killed by their being held with their faces immersed in water -in the winnowing-fan. So that on an average, more than a quarter of -the children born were destroyed! The Tanàla names for the months -are all different from those used in Imèrina; they have no names for -the weekdays, and indeed no division of time by sevens, but the days -throughout each month (lunar) are known by twelve names, some applied -to two days and others to three days consecutively, and these day -names are nearly all identical with the Hova names for the months. -Each of the days throughout the month has its _fàdy_, or food which -must not be eaten when travelling on that day. - -After our four days’ stay at Ivòhitròsa, we managed to get on our -way towards the coast, not, however, without having considerable -difficulty with our bearers, who were afraid of any new and hitherto -untried route, for we were the first Europeans to travel in this -direction. By tact and firmness we managed to secure our point; and -on the Thursday afternoon we came down to the river Màtitànana, which -is at this point a very fine broad stream, with a rapid and deep -current. It flows here through a nearly straight valley for four or -five miles in a southerly direction, with low bamboo-covered hills on -either side, and its channel much broken by rocky islands. To cross -this stream, about a hundred yards wide at this place, no canoes were -available, but there was a bamboo raft called a _zàhitra_. - -[Sidenote: THE ZÀHITRA] - -Of all the rude, primitive and ramshackle contrivances ever invented -for water carriage, commend me to a _zàhitra_. This one consisted -of about thirty or forty pieces of bamboo, from ten to twelve feet -long, lashed together by bands of some tough creeper or _vàhy_, which -said bamboos were constantly slipping out of their places and needed -trimming at every trip, and the fastenings had to be refixed. The -_zàhitra_ would take only two boxes and one man at a trip, besides -the captain of the raft, and when loaded was from a third to a half -of it under water. The civilisation of the people about here seemed -to have not yet produced a paddle; a split bamboo supplied (very -imperfectly) the place of one. Owing to the strong current and the -feeble navigating appliances available, not more than about four -trips over and back again could be made in an hour. And so there on -the bank we sat from a little after two o’clock until nearly six, -watching the ferrying over of our baggage, and then of our bearers. -At sunset a good number of our men were still on the wrong side of -the water, and so, as there was no possibility of getting them all -over that day, and neither Mr S. nor I relished the prospect of a -voyage on a _zàhitra_ in the dark, we crossed at a little after -sunset. We made a safe passage, but got considerably wet during its -progress; Mr S. took an involuntary foot-bath, and I a sitz-bath. The -rest of our men returned to a village overlooking the river, while -we went a little way up the woods and, finding a level spot, pitched -the tent there, our bearers who had crossed occupying two or three -woodcutters’ huts which were fortunately close at hand. - -[Sidenote: A VILLAGE BELLE] - -During the three or four hours’ waiting on the river bank we had a -good opportunity of observing the people from the village just above, -who came down to watch our passage over the water. Amongst them -was a girl whose appearance was so striking that I must attempt a -description of her. She was a comely lassie, although a dark-skinned -one, and was so ornamented as to be conspicuous among her companions -even at some distance. Round her head she had the same fillet of -white beads with a metal plate in the front which we had observed at -Ivòhitròsa, but from it depended a row of small beads like drops. -On each side of her temples hung a long ornament of hair and beads -reaching below her chin, several beads hung from her ears, and a -number of white and oblong beads were worked into her hair at the -back. Round her neck she had six strings of large beads, and another -passing over one shoulder and under the arm. On each wrist were -three or four silver bracelets, while on every finger and thumb -were several coils of brass wire. Her clothing was a piece of bark -cloth fastened just above the hips, over a skirt of fine mat, and -on each toe was a brass ring. Thus “from top to toe” she was got up -regardless of expense; she was probably the daughter of the chief; -anyhow, she was evidently the village belle, and seemed well aware of -the fact. - -[Illustration: TANÀLA SPEARMEN - -Note the wooden shields covered with bullock’s hide, and the charm on -a man’s breast. They are very expert spearmen] - -Our route towards the sea was now over a comparatively level country, -but not without many steep ascents and descents, and generally -following the valley of the Màtitànana. As I took with me a good -theodolite, I was able to make a running survey of a large portion of -our journey, and to map, for the first time, that river valley. The -path was often hidden by long grass which was much higher than our -heads, the bearers’ feet being frequently hurt by the sharp prickly -grass called _tsèvoka_. We had beautiful views of the river, and the -foliage became most luxuriant; the valleys were full of the elegant -traveller’s tree, while in front of us whole hills were covered with -the lovely light green of the bamboo, with its graceful curving head -and fine pinnate leaves at every joint. - -A very prominent feature in the vegetation of many places we passed -through was the _longòzy_, a plant which seemed frequently to -prevent anything else from growing (_Amomum angustifolium_). It has -a rod-like stem, rising sometimes from twelve to fourteen feet high, -with leaves a foot or more long, growing alternately on each side -the stem. At the base grow the fruits in a bright, smooth, scarlet -husk, two or three inches long, enclosing a white silky-looking -pulp containing a number of purplish-black seeds, the cardamom of -commerce. The pulp has a pleasant acid taste, but if one of the seeds -is broken a pungent burning sensation is experienced at the back of -the mouth. - -[Sidenote: TANÀLA HOUSES] - -The better kind of houses in these Tanàla villages have the walls -made of bamboo flattened and plaited together, while the poorer ones -are of the leaves of the traveller’s tree. Every house is roofed -with the latter material; in many of them the gable projects at -the ridge twice as much as at the eaves, so as to make a kind of -pent at each end. The gable timbers are frequently cut into a very -exact resemblance to ox horns. In most of the villages money seems -of little use to the people; they value beads or calico much more. -Every woman and girl, and many of the men and boys, are decorated -with beads, and these seem an important part of their property. Their -religion seems to consist chiefly of charms; charms against guns, -fever, crocodiles, etc. We purchased for a little cloth a charm -against gun-shot; this consisted of three hollow tin receptacles -resembling crocodiles’ teeth, joined together and filled with what -looks like coarsely cut tobacco. The former owner tells us that this -charm has such virtue that a musket ball is turned aside from the -fortunate wearer. Many of the people carry shields, which are made -of a circular piece of tough wood, about eighteen inches in diameter -and covered with undressed bullocks’ hide. A handle is cut out of the -solid wood at the back. The women in this Màtitànana valley carry -a broad knife or chopper stuck in their girdles, and resembling in -shape a butcher’s cleaver, with a short round handle; this is used -for cutting up manioc and other roots. - -[Sidenote: A JUNGLE OF BAMBOO] - -At one point on our route we passed through a dense jungle of bamboo, -requiring a bright look-out on the part of the bearers—and the borne -as well—to avoid damage from the sharp-edged stumps underfoot, and -the stems and tendrils overhead. But the effect of the numberless -thickly set, smooth, jointed stems, like slender columns below, and -the feathery canopy of delicate green above, was both curious and -beautiful. At one little stream we passed some fine specimens of -the _hòfa_, a screw-pine or pandanus, with the aerial roots in a -cone-shaped mass, rising five or six feet above the ground. A very -common tree about here is one with clusters of large leaves like -those of a horse-chestnut, and with a hard mottled green fruit as big -as a lemon, from which gum is made. - -In a small open space among the trees we passed by almost the only -sign we had yet seen of anything like religious observances in the -Tanàla country. This was an upright stake in the ground with a -number of bamboos arranged round it, forming a cone-shaped erection; -in front of this several stones were fixed. At this rude altar the -heads of cattle, fowls, etc., are thrown as expiatory offerings; and -here also the people come to pray for blessings which they desire, -especially for children. We also passed on another day a long flat -stone supported by several smaller ones, forming a sort of altar, and -used for the same kind of offerings as those just described. - -Following in the main the course of the river Màtitànana, we had -frequently to cross its tributaries, and found we were advancing in -civilisation as we proceeded. First, we had a single _zàhitra_ to -ferry us over; then two _zàhitra_ and a small canoe; then we got -good-sized canoes. A little after leaving the ferry we passed through -a large clump of immense banana-trees. They were at least forty -feet high, and with their smooth green stems—almost trunks—and grand -broad leaves, and great clusters of fruit, presented a magnificent -appearance. The fruit is called _òntsy_; these are about a foot long -and a couple of inches thick, and so a single one makes a fair meal. - -[Sidenote: CROCODILES] - -For several miles the river makes a great bend to the north, and -on following its banks again we saw crocodiles for the first time -on this journey. These were basking in the sunshine, perfectly -motionless, on a group of rocks just showing above the water. At -the distance we were I should not have noticed them but for my men -pointing them out; but with the glass every scale could be seen, and -very unpleasant-looking creatures they are in their slimy length, -with serrated back and tail, and rather small heads. Near them were -several large wading-birds, some white and others dark brown, and -called _àrondòvy_ (_i.e._ “protector of the enemy”). These birds -are constant attendants on the crocodiles, performing some service -for them; and where the birds are seen, the reptiles are never far -distant. We afterwards noticed that near all the villages on the -river banks a small space in the water was enclosed with stakes, so -that the women and children coming to draw water could do so without -fear of being seized by a crocodile, or swept off into the stream by -his tail. - -From a remote period the Malagasy have been accustomed to resort to -ordeals for the detection of crime, and the ordeal by the _tangèna_ -poison has already been referred to in these pages (see Chapter -III.). But among the Tanàla tribes an ordeal of another kind was -commonly employed to find out a guilty person; for anyone suspected -of wrong-doing was taken to the bank of the Màtitànana, or one of its -tributaries, where crocodiles abound. The people having assembled, a -man stood near the accused, and striking the water thrice, addressed -a long speech to the reptiles, adjuring them to punish the guilty, -but to spare the innocent. The accused was then made to swim across -the river and back again; and if he successfully accomplished this, -and was not hurt by the crocodiles, he was considered innocent, and -his accuser was fined four oxen. If, on the contrary, he was seized -and killed, he was supposed to have justly merited his fate. This -ordeal was termed _tangèm-voày_ (_voày_ = crocodile). - -[Illustration: COIFFURES - -Various styles of hairdressing among the Hova Malagasy women. The -upper figure on the right is in mourning with her hair dishevelled] - -[Sidenote: HAIRDRESSING] - -As we proceeded nearer the coast, we found by the style of -hairdressing among the women that we had come into the territory -of a different tribe to that amongst whom we had been travelling. -Many of the young women had a singular but somewhat elegant style of -coiffure. It was done thus: the hair was plaited in very fine braids, -and then twisted into thin flat circular coils of from two to two -and a half inches in diameter; these were symmetrically arranged, -one overlapping the other, in two rows, the upper one completely -encircling the head from the forehead to the back of the neck, and -the other ending below the ears. These young girls really looked -well, for they had the appearance of being well dressed. The women -here were more fully clothed than those of the Tanàla; the skirt of -fine mat is worn here, but there is more of it, and hemp cloth seems -in more common use. - -The country became flatter, undulating, but with no prominent rising -grounds. The vegetation also was quite different from what we had -become accustomed to during the last four days. There were no more -bamboos, hardly any traveller’s trees, but large numbers of single -trees or small clumps of them. These were chiefly the _adàbo_, a -species of _Ficus_, a tree with massive smooth trunk and light brown -bark; they have a much more rounded and shapely outline than the -forest trees, and give the scenery quite an English appearance. But -the presence of an occasional fan-palm or cocoanut-palm lifting their -tall plumes aloft soon dispelled the illusion. The villages, too, -became numerous, and many of them are built five or six together—that -is, in lines of as many, only a short distance between them. - -[Illustration: A FOREST RIVER - -Immense arums (vìha) are in the foreground, and reflections of -Travellers’ trees are seen in the water] - -We had a curious congregation on the Sunday at one of the two -villages where we spoke to the people, of whom a good many collected -together. But as heavy showers came on, most of our auditors were -standing under the elevated rice-houses (_tràno àmbo_), as we also -were. Still we were able to speak a few earnest words to them. Almost -in the midst of our speaking, the old chief of the village came up to -give us—a bottle of rum! and a fowl. The former of these presents, -as well as others of the same kind, were, as soon as darkness set -in, carried outside, and poured on the ground as the best way of -disposing of their contents. We were glad to find that the Taimòro, -among whom we had now come, did not, like the Tanàla, kill children -born on unlucky days, but by some ceremonies and offerings avert -the evils supposed to be connected with them. - -[Sidenote: GREAT ARUMS] - -A week’s journey from Ivòhitròsa brought us to a Hova military post -again—viz. to the town of Ambòhipèno, which is only a few miles -from the mouth of the Màtitànana river, and is the central one of -a line of three villages. Here we had a hospitable reception from -the governor and his officers, as well as from the congregation -and its pastor. Although the sea was still some miles distant, we -could distinctly hear the roar of the surf some time before reaching -Ambòhipèno. On a voyage to the seaside, which we made the day after -our arrival, we had a fine large canoe which had more sharply pointed -stem and stern than in those seen in Imèrina. We were struck by the -great arums (_vìha_) growing in thick masses along the banks in the -water. These were from twelve to fifteen feet high, with thick fleshy -stems and leaf-stalks, lily-like leaves, between two and three feet -long, and magnificent white flowers, with a scarlet pistil. The fruit -is occasionally used by the natives as an article of food. We picked -up some good shells (_Turritellæ_, _Cypræa_, etc.) on the seashore, -as well as corals, seaweed and sponges. Like almost every river on -the east coast, the mouth is closed by a sand bar, until the rains -of the wet season fill the river so full that the bar is broken for -a few weeks, and then the south-east winds and currents close it up -again. - -The greater part of two days were spent at Ambòhipèno in services and -school examinations, which latter were especially interesting and -satisfactory. We were amused by the decoration of the pulpit in the -native church, which was rather extraordinary. It was a high box-like -affair, part of the front being occupied by a picture of a European -ship, the other part by a church with a tall tower and spire; while -over these was a text (in Malagasy), “Says the owner of this house, -Fear”; although it would be difficult to find the passage in this -exact form. These objects, together with birds perched on trees, made -a curious mixture of subjects for pulpit decoration. - -[Sidenote: BUTTERFLIES] - -In the narrow lanes near the village we passed great numbers and many -varieties of butterflies in a few minutes’ ride. Judging from what -we saw, an entomologist would find a rich harvest in the Taimòro -country. Dr Vinson, a French naturalist who came up to the capital -in 1862, says: “The habits of the lepidoptera are much affected in -Madagascar by atmospheric changes. In the misty mornings everything -sleeps or hides itself under the damp foliage, but as soon as the sun -shines out, the forest, the footpath, the beds of the torrents, are -peopled with bright-coloured and light-flying butterflies. They give -themselves up to all kinds of frolic with a wanton joy; they court, -they pursue, they fly, interlacing and eddying in their flight in -the air like the brilliant flakes of a coloured snow.” In travelling -up through this eastern forest a few years later, but in the hotter -season of the year, I was struck by the number and variety of the -butterflies which crossed our path. There was the rather common one -of greyish-green with dark markings, the blackish-brown one with -two large blue spots, the widely distributed warm brown one with -black-edged wings, the pure white one, the white with orange edges, -the white with black edges, the white with small black spots near the -edge of the wings, the small yellow species, the small buff one, the -white with crimped edges, the minute brown and blue, and many others. -In damp places, a cloud of the smaller yellow and buff kinds may be -often seen sipping the moisture. - -While staying near the forest I was several times struck by the -curious formation of the wings of one of the smaller species -of butterfly. The insect in question is of plain inconspicuous -colouring, chiefly shades of brown, and when at rest sits with the -wings erect. The noticeable point is that there are several strongly -marked and dark-tinted processes from the hinder part of the wings, -which resemble the head, eyes and antennæ of a butterfly, so that -when at rest it is very difficult to say which is the head and which -is the tail of the insect. The tail markings and points are so much -more strongly emphasised than the actual head and antennæ, that it -is only when the wings slightly open that one is undeceived. Mimicry -of one insect by another, and mimicry of leaves, grass, etc., by -insects, are of course well-known facts, but I do not remember to -have seen any similar instances noticed of resemblance between the -different parts of the same insect; but may not the reason of this -mimicry of the head by the tail be of some service in directing the -attention of birds and other enemies to the less vital part of the -butterfly’s structure? It is evident that the hinder portion of the -wings might be snapped at and broken off, and yet no serious injury -be done to the vital parts of the insect. However this may be, the -point appears to me to be worth noting down as a curious fact. - -[Sidenote: ARAB INFLUENCE] - -Talking with the people in the evening, we found we were in one of -the districts where the Arab influence must have been very strong in -former times. They are called Zafin Ibrahim (descendants of Abraham), -and told us they were connected with the Jews. There is no doubt, -however, that the Arabs had anciently an important settlement here, -and to some extent taught the use of Arabic letters and literature; -but being isolated from their fellow-countrymen and co-religionists, -they gradually became absorbed in the native population. It is -probable that many of the chiefs of the south-east tribes are of -Arab descent, and so are often lighter in colour than the mass of -the people. An intelligent young man gave me a paper containing -all the Arabic characters and many of the syllabic sounds, with -their equivalents in Malagasy. He had, about six years previously, -copied out for M. A. Grandidier, who was then exploring the coasts -of Madagascar, a number of extracts from native Arabic books of -prayers, genealogies, and sorcery. This young man’s father, then -dead, was one of the _ombiàsy_ or diviners, and his books of charms -and incantations, being supposed to be connected with idolatry, -were destroyed at the time of the burning of the idols in 1869. A -few years after our journey, two of the Bétsiléo missionaries, when -making an evangelistic tour among the south-east tribes, obtained -some pages of manuscript from this neighbourhood. These were -apparently written in Arabic; and on being submitted to an expert -in that language, were pronounced to be extracts from the Koran, -evidently copied by someone who did not know Arabic, and so were -full of errors; these quotations were no doubt used as charms and -invocations. (I may here notice that, very recently, copies of the -Malagasy scriptures have been boiled by the native diviners, and the -water sold as a very powerful charm!) - -[Sidenote: SEA-BIRDS] - -Being near the sea, we had opportunities of seeing many birds which -are oceanic in their distribution, among which are the frigate-birds -(one species), and the tropic-birds (two species). The former are -true pirates, living almost in dependence upon other fishing birds, -whom they force, when these are weaker than themselves, to give -up the fish they have taken. But they do also fish for themselves, -darting down upon the surface of the water. The white tropic-bird -is also an expert fisher, plunging sometimes to a great depth after -its prey. They remain all night on their nest, leaving it at sunrise -to fish in the open sea. After heavy storms the frigate-bird is -occasionally seen quite in the interior, being apparently driven -inwards by the violence of the wind. - -Of the sea-birds proper, there are about a score kinds frequenting -the coasts of Madagascar, including those widely spread and -powerful-winged species belonging to the terns, the noddies, the -gulls, and the petrels. Very little, however, has been noted here as -to their habits, and they probably differ little, if anything, from -their fellows which are found all over the world. One of the terns -comes up into the interior, and has been shot in Imèrina, and so -also has one of the gulls; another is common on the Alaotra lake in -Antsihànaka. - - -[29] I am glad to say that our visit was a means of calling attention -to the needs of the forest tribes; and that evangelists have been -stationed for many years past among these people, who are becoming -enlightened and Christianised. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -AMONG THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES - - -From the Hova military post at Ambòhipèno, my companion and I made -our way southwards, or rather first to the south-west, intending to -visit the congregations at the three or four other important places -in this district, as well as some of those in their vicinity. This -part of Madagascar is a comparatively level or undulating country, -extending for many miles between the forest-covered mountains and -highlands to the west, and the ocean to the east, and only about -three hundred to four hundred feet above sea-level. The native -inhabitants were conquered—often with much cruelty and treachery—by -the Hova, about fifty years previous to the date of our visit, but -the cruelties of the wars carried on by the armies of Radàma I. and -Rànavàlona I. were not forgotten. Over large districts, all the male -population whose heads were above the armpits of the soldiers were -ruthlessly shot down or speared, and the women and children taken as -slaves, so that a large proportion of the slave population of Imèrina -were descended from the tribes in these south-eastern districts. -Since then, the people quietly submitted to the superior power; but -these military posts were still maintained with governors, officers, -and a small force of soldiers; and at most of them there was a -considerable display of military authority, the gates being guarded, -and the drum beaten at regular times every morning and evening. With -one notable exception, we were everywhere received with the greatest -kindness and respect. Abundant presents of food for us and our men -were brought wherever we stopped; every facility was given us to -speak to the people, and we were helped in every way to prosecute our -journey. - -The country between Ambòhipèno and Màhamànina was varied by low -hills in all directions, and patches of wood, the traveller’s tree -appearing in great numbers. The fruit of this beautiful tree was seen -very conspicuously, forming three or four clusters of sheaths, about -a dozen in each, much resembling the horns of a short-horned ox. -These project from between the leaf-stalks, two in full bloom, and -the other two generally dying off, or shedding the seeds, or rather -the seed-pods. These are oval in shape, about two inches long, and -yellow in colour, something like very large dates. These, when ripe, -open and show each pod dividing into three parts, each of which is -double, thus containing six rows of seeds about the size of a small -bean. But what seems very curious is, that each seed is wrapped in -a covering exactly like a small piece of blue silk with scalloped -edges. I could not get these, however, without some difficulty from -the ants, which swarmed all over trunk, leaf-stalks, and leaves, and -resented vigorously any intrusion into their domains. - -[Sidenote: A LARGE GOVERNMENT HOUSE] - -At Màhamànina we found old friends in the governor and his wife. The -_làpa_ or government house was the largest and finest house I had -ever seen in Madagascar, except the chief palace in the capital. -It was three storeys high, entirely of timber, with stout verandah -posts and very high-pitched roof; and everything here, gateways, -guard-houses and stockades, was of the most substantial character, -and made of fine massive timbers. After two days’ stay we proceeded -farther south, and at the village where we encamped for the night we -noticed a new style of coiffure among the women. Some of them had -their hair done in two rows of little balls, while behind the head -there was a piece of hollow wood ornamented with brass-headed nails -and fastened into the hair. In this they kept their needles and other -small property. Beads also were a good deal worn, and they had the -_lòndo_ or square mat on the back. At one village the young women -wear round the breast a broad band of neatly woven straw, ornamented -with a variety of patterns in different colours. It was rather -difficult to understand the talk of the people; the nasal _n_, the -peculiar intonation, and the pronouns and adverbs being all different -from the Hova forms, made their conversation a puzzle to us. Some, if -not all the people here, are a Sàkalàva colony from the west of the -island. - -[Sidenote: EVIDENCE OF VOLCANIC ACTION] - -We came the next day to a very boggy and difficult rice-valley. -Hereabouts the people make their _vàlam-parìhy_, or low earthen banks -between the rice-fields, with a foundation of small stakes stuck in -the ground, apparently to hold the earth together, as it seems less -tenacious and binding than that in Imèrina. When a good deal of the -earth has been washed away, it may easily be imagined that it is not -a pleasant thing walking along these banks. During the afternoon we -passed for some time over a slightly hollow tract thickly covered -with rounded lumps of dark brown rock resembling slag or scoria, and -full of holes like those produced by air-bubbles when the mass was in -a state of fusion. These were of all sizes, from a yard or two to an -inch in diameter, while the ground was covered with rounded pebbles -of the same material, of the size of small beans. This must surely -have been the bed of some ancient stream, long since diverted into -other channels by subsequent elevation of the surface. But whence was -this volcanic substance derived? For many miles westward there seems -no broken or rugged surface, nor anything to indicate subterranean -disturbance. Probably the great isolated mountain of Ivòhibé, which -we have seen for several days far away to the west, is an extinct -volcano, like so many hills farther north; and the ancient stream -has at some remote period cut through a dyke of lava and brought the -rolled and rounded fragments down its bed. - -Walking about in the brilliant moonlight after our evening meal, -in a short time there was quite a crowd gathered together to watch -the extraordinary spectacle of two foreigners walking backwards and -forwards for no discoverable earthly purpose. After a little while we -stopped and began to talk to them, telling them of the old, but to -them perfectly new, story of the glad tidings, and of that “faithful -saying” which was worthy of their, and of all men’s, “acceptation.” - -Travelling again towards the shore, we passed for some time through -country which was like a beautiful shrubbery, with low trees, -amongst which the _vòavòntaka_, with its perfectly globular green -or yellow fruit, the size of a large orange, was very plentiful and -conspicuous. There was also a tree, the _karàbo_, having enormous -pods with seeds like beans, but from two to three inches in diameter. -We passed fresh evidence of volcanic action in ancient streams of -lava, with sand and dust from some long extinct crater. Stopping at -sunset at a village called Màhavèlona, we found it, notwithstanding -its promising name (“causing to live”), the filthiest spot we had -seen in all our journey, quite worthy of the name given by a friend -to a place he stopped at, of “the well-dunged village.” We could -find no space where the tent could be pitched, and so began to look -for a house. There was one in the centre of the village that looked -of fair size, but the difficulty was, how to get to it, for it -was surrounded for a considerable distance by a slough of mud and -cow-dung that took our men nearly up to their knees. Happily there -were a few stout planks lying near, and with these we made a causeway -over the bog. - -[Sidenote: THE TRAVELLER’S TREE] - -The following day, while waiting in the belt of wood bordering the -shore, we had an opportunity of testing the accuracy of accounts -given of the water procurable from the traveller’s tree, about which, -although backed by the authority of Mr Ellis, and an illustration in -his “Three Visits to Madagascar,” I had always felt rather sceptical, -as somewhat of “a traveller’s tale.” In fact I had never before seen -the tree where plenty of good water was not to be had; but here -there was none for several miles except the stagnant, brackish and -offensive water of the lagoon. (Even my friend, Baron, says that the -tree is always found where good water is procurable.) But we found -that on piercing with a spear or a pointed stick the lower part of -one of the leaf-stalks, where they all clasp one over the other, a -small stream of water spurted out, from which one could drink to the -full of good, cool, and sweet water. If one of the outer leaf-stalks -was forcibly pulled down, a quantity of water gushed out, so that we -afterwards filled a vessel with as much as we needed. On examining a -section of one of the stalks, a hollow channel about half-an-inch in -diameter is seen running all down the inner side of the stalk from -the base of the leaf. The large cool surface of the leaves appears -to collect the water condensed from the atmosphere, and this is -conducted by the little channel downward to the base. The leaf-stalks -are all full of cells and of water, like those of the banana. After -three hours’ walking along the shore in the heavy sand, with a -hot sun overhead, we were grateful to be able to draw from these -numberless vegetable springs, and we thanked God for the traveller’s -tree; we felt that its name was no misnomer. We afterwards found in -a village not far away that small water-pots were placed in a hollow -cut at the base of the leaves, so as to collect water for drinking -and household use. - -[Illustration: TREE FERNS IN THE FOREST] - -[Illustration: TRAVELLERS’ TREES - -In some places they are quite a feature of the landscape] - -[Sidenote: AN UNEXPECTED PROHIBITION] - -After five days’ journey from Màhamànina we reached a village -near Vangàindràno, another of the large Hova posts, and about three -hours’ ride from the sea. But here we met with a new and unexpected -experience, for we were prevented by the governor from going farther, -and in fact, all our men made prisoners and detained in the fort -for a couple of days, until we had agreed that we would not attempt -to travel farther southwards. He alleged that he was acting under -orders from the native government to allow no travelling south of the -Mànanàra river. Whether this was the truth or not, we never clearly -ascertained, nor any reason for such prohibition; but his whole -action was in such striking contrast to the courtesy with which we -were received everywhere else that it was difficult to believe he was -not exceeding his instructions, certainly in the harsh way in which -they were carried out. We had been repeatedly assured that there were -no difficulties in travelling along the coast and that the country -was perfectly tranquil, and that we could easily reach Fort Dauphine -in a week. However, there was no help for it; we had to abandon our -hope of seeing the congregations and people, as well as the country, -to the south, and on 11th July we turned northwards, “homeward -bound.” On one of the nights when we were thus stopped on our way, -we saw what is not at all a common sight—namely, a very well-defined -and distinct lunar rainbow. It looked pale and watery, however, quite -a ghost of the rainbow produced by sunlight. During many years’ -residence in Madagascar, I have only seen one on two other occasions. - -On the sides of the lagoons and marshes may be found the curious -pitcher-plant (_Nepenthes_). It is a shrub, about four feet high, -and its jug-shaped pitchers, four or five inches in length, contain -abundant water and numerous insects. The pitcher with its cover are -most remarkable modifications of the petiole or leaf-stalk; and this -plant, with a number of others, reverses the usual order of nature, -and instead of forming food for animals, secures animal life, in -the shape of insects, for its own nourishment. A French writer has, -not inaptly, compared the pitcher of _Nepenthes_ to the bowl of a -German meerschaum pipe; and Mr Scott Elliott says: “I found the -pitchers to be usually from a third to half full of the decomposing -remains of insects. In almost every pitcher there were live worms, -apparently living on the remains. Among the insects I found thirteen -species of beetle, ten species of butterfly or moth, seven species of -hemiptera (aphides, water-beetles, etc.); four species of hymenoptera -(bees, wasps, ants, etc.), of which one was a sand-wasp, nearly an -inch long; twelve species of diptera (mosquitoes, flies, etc.), two -grasshoppers, two dragonflies, and one spider.” The water contained -in the pitchers apparently contains some acid or other solvent, by -which the insects are slowly digested by the plant; and from the -above account it will be seen what a great variety of insect life is -entrapped, including even the largest and strongest insects. - -[Sidenote: A SUGAR-CANE PRESS] - -On one of the afternoons when we were detained near Vangàindràno, -hearing a sugar-cane press at work at one end of the village, we went -to look at it in operation. Like many others we saw on this coast, -it consisted of a long hollowed-out trough, one end being left solid -for a foot or two, thus forming a slightly convex surface, with a -channel cut on either side for the expressed juice to run into the -trough. Over this and across it was a rounded tree trunk, seven or -eight feet long, with three short handles fixed into it; this is -turned backwards and forwards over small pieces of cane placed on -the convex surface, the juice being expressed by the mere weight of -the round trunk. The freshly expressed juice makes a pleasant drink; -after a day or two it begins to ferment, and is then much like fresh -cider; but it rapidly becomes too heady and intoxicating. A good deal -of _tòaka_ (rum) is made, and is a cause of much evil among the coast -tribes; but the people here appear not to understand the manufacture -of sugar. Their still is as rude a contrivance as their press; an -earthen pot to boil the juice, and a piece of iron piping fixed -through a vessel of cold water so as to condense the steam which -forms the spirit. - -The people in this part of the country, who are called Taisàka, all -wear mats, as do the Tanàla and the Taimòro. To fasten the mat sack -about their waists, they use a girdle of bark cloth. Some of this -cloth (called _fànto_) is made by stripping off the bark of certain -trees, so that the whole comes off in one piece, forming a kind of -long bag, but open at each end. Another kind is made in a sheet of -about six feet long by four wide. It is prepared by being hammered -for a considerable time with a wooden mallet, the face of which is -cut in cross lines. This is chiefly women’s work. Very few of the -people had any garment made of woven cloth, indeed they seem to have -little, if any, knowledge of spinning or weaving. On the other hand, -they are clever in straw-work and in manufacturing mats and baskets. - -[Sidenote: TAISÀKA HOUSES] - -Their houses are very small, made of a slight framework and filled in -with the midrib of the leaves of the traveller’s tree in the same way -that the _zozòro_ (papyrus) is used in Imèrina, and looking almost -exactly like _zozòro_. These leaf-stalks, which are called _falàfa_, -are fixed together on long fine twigs so as to make a kind of stiff -mat, the triangular stems easily fitting in alternately. These mats -are the ordinary mattress, and are used in various other ways. One -of them forms the door on either side of the house, being shifted to -one side or another as required, and is kept from falling by sliding -within a pole hung from the framework. The flooring, which is always -raised above the ground, is made of the bark of the traveller’s tree, -pressed flat so as to form a rough kind of boarding; while the thatch -of every house is the leaves of the same tree, which forms a neat and -fairly durable covering. Here also, as among the other coast tribes -which we have seen, the traveller’s tree might be called with equal -or greater propriety, “the builder’s tree.” The hearth is at one end -of the house, in the centre, with a strong square framework above it, -having two or three rows of shelves. The _tràno àmbo_, or elevated -house for storing rice, seems common to every tribe we have visited -since leaving the Bétsiléo province. The villages here are arranged -in groups of from two to half-a-dozen in a line, and with only a -small space between each group. - -The rice-fields in this flat swampy district have a very different -appearance to those in Imèrina or Bétsiléo; they are like immense -pits, in some places dug out to some depth in the sides of the low -elevations. The people do not transplant their rice, as do those -of the central provinces, but reap it where it has been sown. We -continually came across traces of volcanic action; ancient streams of -lava, conical-shaped hills and, on the coast, reefs of basalt rock, -gradually being broken up by the action of the waves. All this showed -that the great groups of extinct volcanoes in the central provinces -had their counterpart in these southern regions of the island. -Another interesting fact was, that we found unmistakable signs also -of Secondary rocks here on the coast, in stratified sandstone tilted -up at a very high angle. - -[Sidenote: A MILITARY ESCORT] - -A day and a half’s journey from Vangàindràno brought us to another -Hova military post, a town called Ankàrana, which is situated on -a ridge about four hundred feet above the general level of the -surrounding country, forming a striking feature in the landscape. -Ascending a slippery and steep road in the red clay, I found myself -at one o’clock on the top of the ridge and close to the stockaded -_ròva_, or Hova fort, a much larger place than I had expected to -see, as hardly anything of the town could be seen from below. Mr -Street, being ill with fever, had gone on before, while I brought up -the rear. Coming to the gate of the stockade, my men were about to -take me in at once, but the people near requested me to stop, as the -officers were coming out to escort me in. This I rather unwillingly -did, as a very heavy shower came on just then. Presently the rolling -of drums announced their approach. First came a file of soldiers, -then a number of officers, then the lieutenant-governor in palanquin, -and then the governor in ditto, a little active old man in regimental -red coat and cocked hat. They all came forward and shook hands, and -evidently it was intended that the queen should be saluted and polite -speeches made; but the rain pelted down so furiously just then that -they thought better of it, and we made our way through the double -stockade into the Hova town with its lines of houses, and then into -an inner stockade enclosing the government house and flagstaff and -several large houses. We took shelter under the raised verandah of -one of these, while a dozen unfortunate individuals, soldiers and -petty officers, had to stand out in the pouring rain and “present -arms,” “support arms,” etc., and then, of course, came inquiries -after the queen and the great people at their capital. - -The governor then led me into the temporary _làpa_, a large -rough-looking room, where was a table spread with dishes, plates, -etc. He apologised for there being no meal ready for us, as our -coming was unexpected, but wine and biscuits were brought and we -drank the queen’s health, and they drank ours, a flourish of music -and drums following each toast. This extreme politeness, so soon -after the marked discourtesy shown us at Vangàindràno, astonished -and amused me not a little. I was gravely consulted as to whether -the royal flag might not be hauled down, as the day was so wet; I -accordingly graciously signified my approval of their doing so. As -soon as possible, I intimated that I would like to go and see my -friend and companion. The governor leading the way, I was taken to a -house at the far end of the enclosure, where I found Mr Street in bed -and very unwell. But the house was large and dry, a fire was burning -on the hearth, and we were glad to get our wet things dried. Several -of our men were also ill with fever, so I had my hands pretty full -with dispensing medicine and nursing. Besides this, numerous callers -had to be talked with and presents received. - -[Sidenote: A NOISY DINNER] - -A good part of the following day was occupied in conversation with -the native pastors, examining the school, teaching, singing, etc. -But soon after four o’clock in the afternoon the sound of music and -drumming in the courtyard told us that the time was approaching for -the feast they were going to give us, and presently the governor and -all his people came to fetch us. My companion was unable to go, but -I was led by the hand and had to receive all the honours. In the -open central space all the military force of the town, about five -and twenty soldiers, was drawn up, and the royal flag was flying. On -one side the ladies, the wives and daughters of the officers, were -arranged, dressed in their best; on the other side were row after -row of pots with fires under them, where the feast was being cooked. -There was a terrible din of drumming and music going on. After a -prayer, salutes, speech-making, including a long flourish of our -honour, and presentation of another immense heap of provisions, I -was again taken by the hand, and led into the government house for -the repast. I should add that the governor also gave us ten dollars -for _vàtsy_ (food by the way), counting them into my hand in English -numbers. - -[Sidenote: A LONG MENU] - -The dinner was, I think, the longest, and certainly _was_ the -noisiest, entertainment at which I have ever assisted. About a score -of the officers were at the table, and seven of the ladies. After -a long grace from the pastor, dinner was brought in, and consisted -of the following courses:—1st, curry; 2nd, goose; 3rd, roast pork; -4th, pigeons and water-fowls; 5th, chicken cutlets and poached eggs; -6th, beef sausages; 7th, boiled tongue; 8th, sardines; 9th, pigs’ -trotters; 10th, fried bananas; 11th, pancakes; 12th, manioc; 13th, -dried bananas; and last, when I thought everything must have been -served, came hunches of roast beef! All this was finished up with -coffee. By taking a constantly diminishing quantity of each dish I -managed to appear to do justice to them all. Claret went about very -freely, and at length some much stronger liquor; and the healths of -the Queen, “Our friends the two Foreigners,” then those of the Prime -Minister, Chief Secretary, and Chief Judge, were all drunk twice -over, the Governor’s coming last; all followed by musical (and drum) -honours. As already remarked, it was the noisiest affair of the kind -at which I have ever been present. There was a big drum just outside -in the verandah, as well as two small ones, besides clarionets and -fiddles, and these were in full play almost all the time. Then the -room was filled by a crowd of servants and aides-de-camp, and the -shouting of everybody to everybody, from the governor downwards, was -deafening. The old gentleman directed everything and everyone, filled -up everybody’s glass, and, in fact, filled up his own more often than -was quite good for him, so that he became a little incoherent in the -last toasts he proposed; so that I was glad when the finishing one -arrived, and I could take my leave after nearly two hours’ sitting. -But I was not to leave quietly; again I was taken by the hand, the -big drum being hammered at in front of us all the way, and, followed -by a posse of officers and ladies, was escorted home by the governor. -My invalid friend could well have dispensed with the big drum; -however, being a little better, he and I managed to say a few earnest -words to them about “the praying”; after which they took their leave. -I had afterwards to pay quite a round of visits to our men who were -poorly, some with fever, others lame, with feet hurt with thorns, -stumbling, etc. - -[Sidenote: A MELANCHOLY PARTING] - -It was fine on the following morning, and as my companion’s fever -had left him, although he was still very weak, we determined to get -off; but first, there were more visits to be paid, and more presents -to be received. Mr Street left first at half-past nine, but I waited -until all the baggage was off, and then went to wish our old friend -the governor good-bye. But I was not to get away so easily; I was -again taken into the chief house, the claret was brought out, and -the Queen’s health and our own drunk with military honours. Then I -turned to say _Velòma_; but no, the vigorous old gentleman was going -to escort me out of town, and his wives were to accompany us. But -some time elapsed in seeking bearers for them, during which I had to -go to the lieutenant-governor’s and drink coffee. On returning to -the courtyard I found the governor putting a couple of bottles of -claret and another of rum into his palanquin, as well as glasses and -cups. Sufficient bearers could not be procured for the ladies, so we -wished them good-bye, and set off in the following order:—Soldiers, -musicians, with drums, clarionet, and violin; “_ny havantsika ny -Vazàha_” (our foreign friend); the lieutenant-governor; the governor; -aides-de-camp, soldiers. And so escorted, with the drums, etc., in -full play, we marched out of the town. I had supposed that as soon as -we were fairly at the foot of the hill the governor would take his -leave, but he went on and on for an hour until we came to a rapid -stream, the Mànantsìmba. Here we halted; the claret was poured out -for more health-drinking, with musical honours; and then the whole of -the governor’s men were ordered to take me safely across the river, -which they did. From the opposite bank I bowed and shouted my last -adieux, and so parted from one of the jolliest old gentlemen I have -ever met with in my travels. It struck me as irresistibly comic that, -as soon as we had fairly started on our way from the river bank, the -musicians struck up a most melancholy strain. As my men said, the -governor appeared to be low-spirited at parting with us. - -I must add a word or two more about this “fine old _Malagasy_ -gentleman, all of the olden time.” It appeared that he had been -governor at Ankàrana for more than twenty years, and before then was -lieutenant-governor at Mànanjàra. We were somewhat shocked to find -that each of the three buxom ladies who accompanied him about was his -wife, and further, that he had another as well, whom we did not see. -The pastor told us that he had been admonished as to the impropriety -of his conduct in this respect, but he had been unable as yet to make -up his mind which of them to put away, and which to keep, out of the -four. He seemed quite a little king in the district he commanded, -and our servants told us that he was a most courageous old fellow, -delighted to hear of there being any enemies to be met with anywhere, -and going off to fight them with the greatest alacrity. Yesterday, -when the feast was being cooked, he sat in the courtyard, gun in -hand, shooting first a fowl, then a pigeon, and then a pig, all of -which, in addition to what was already preparing, he ordered to be -instantly cooked with the rest. They also say that he is very rich, -owning five hundred cattle and two hundred slaves, and that he is -always most hospitable to all strangers. Certainly we found him to be -so. Besides the abundant kindness he showed us at Ankàrana, he sent -with us an escort and guides, twelve soldiers, two officers, and a -drummer, besides as many baggage bearers as we required to replace -the men who were ill. - -We were interested to find that many of our bearers met with -relatives in these coast provinces. The mothers of several of them -were brought up from these parts as slaves, when children, in -Radàma’s cruel wars. The most remarkable circumstance was that our -cook discovered that one of the governor’s wives at Ankàrana was his -mother’s sister. And at the same place another of our men found that -the chief people of the Taisàka village were his mother’s brothers. - -[Sidenote: PRIMITIVE DISHES AND SPOONS] - -Our lodging on the evening of the day we left Ankàrana was in another -sample of the “well-dunged village,” although we procured a tolerably -good house in it. While taking lunch in one of the other villages, -we noticed the primitive dishes and spoons used by the people. The -former consist of the strong tough leaf of the pandanus-tree, which -is doubled over at one end so as to retain rice or liquid. The -spoons are pieces of the leaf of the traveller’s tree, folded up so -as easily to carry food to the mouth. This pandanus has a fruit, -yellow in colour, and something in shape and size like a pineapple -without its tuft of leaves. When dry it is brown in colour, and each -hexagonal division when separated from the rest is like a tough -wooden peg, and utterly uneatable. - -[Sidenote: A FUNERAL MEMORIAL] - -Outside a village called Iàboràno I noticed the first appearance of -anything like a funeral memorial we have seen since leaving Bétsiléo. -This consisted of four poles placed in a line, the two outer ones -higher than the others, and the inner ones pointed in a peculiar -fashion. These serve the same purpose as the upright stones called -_tsàngam-bàto_ in Imèrina. All through the Tanàla country and along -this south-eastern coast we have seen no graves or memorials of the -dead. I was told that each village has a large pit in, or on the -borders of, the forest, where the dead are thrown and are not covered -with earth. The corpses are wrapped in coarse matting made of rush. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES - - -On the Saturday afternoon we reached Ambàhy, a large village not far -from the sea, with a _ladoàna_ or custom-house. Here a detachment of -military awaited our arrival—viz. _four_ officers and _two_ soldiers, -but outside and inside the stockade rather more than the usual amount -of tedious ceremony was gone through, which was, however, amusing as -well, from the absurd costume of many of the performers. - -On the Sunday, as my companion was still unwell, I took the services -entirely. The church was in the village on the other side of the -water, and in going over to service I had a sail for the first time -in a native-made _built boat_. These boats are here called _sàry_, -and are about thirty feet long by eight feet beam, and easily carry -fifty people. I examined with interest the construction of the -craft, for the planks, about eight inches broad, were _tied_, not -nailed together, by twisted cord of _anìvona_ palm fibre, one of the -toughest known vegetable substances, the holes being plugged with -hard wood. The seat boards came right through the sides, so as to -stiffen the whole, for there were no ribs or framework. The seams -were caulked with strips of bamboo, loops of which also formed the -rowlocks for large oars of European shape. The ends of the boat -curved upwards considerably, and from its appearance it seemed likely -to stand a heavy sea with perfect safety. These boats are made for -going out to the shipping, for no dug-out canoe could live in the -great waves constantly rolling along these shores. - -From Ambàhy northwards there stretches a coral reef at a mile or -two’s distance from the beach, a white line of surf constantly -breaking over it. Along this part of the coast the vegetation of -pandanus is varied by a number of the tall graceful _filào_-trees -(casuarina), so common south of Tamatave. It was dusk before all -the baggage and our men were ferried over a small river, and as I -was the last I had a most unpleasant hour and a half in the dark, -floundering about in rice-fields and water, for our guides lost their -way, so that I thought we should have to take shelter under some bush -for the night. But at last we reached a good-sized village; two of -our men, however, got hopelessly astray and had to lie out all night -in the open. In the dark we several times thought we saw a lantern -coming to our aid, but it was only the beautiful little fireflies -dancing up and down in the bushes, a “will-o’-the-wisp” which -deceived us again and again. These flies do not give a continuous -light, but one which—like some lighthouses—is quenched every second -or two, the interval of darkness being longer than the time when the -light is visible.[30] - -[Sidenote: CANOE CHANTS] - -We were delayed on our journey one day by having to return and -search for a man who had been missing for a day or more. Leaving our -stopping-place before six in the morning, I took sixteen men, who -were divided into three parties to go in different directions. We did -not find him, but discovered where he was, and left him in charge -of some Hova officers to be sent on after us. I had two voyages -over the Màtitànana that day; the morning’s sail was delightful, -the water smooth as a mirror, and with a very large canoe and eight -or ten paddles we moved rapidly over the glassy surface. My men -began and sustained for some time several of their musical and -often amusing canoe chants, in which one man keeps up a recitative, -usually an improvised strain, often bringing in circumstances -recently happening, while the rest chime in with a chorus at regular -intervals, a favourite one being, “_E, misy và?_” (“Oh, is there -any?”). This question refers to various good things they hope to get -at the end of the day’s journey, such as plenty of rice, beef, sweet -potatoes, etc., these articles of food being mentioned one after -another by the leader of the song. A little delicate flattery of -their employer, the Englishman they are rowing, is often introduced, -and praises of his hoped-for generosity in providing these luxuries -for them, something in this style: - - E, misy và? Oh, is there any? - E, misy rè! Oh yes, there’s some! - E, ny vorontsiloza, zalàhy, è! Oh, the turkeys, lads, oh! - E, misy rè! Oh yes, there’s some! - E, ny gisy matavy, zalàhy, è! Oh, the plump-looking geese, lads, oh! - E, misy ré! Oh yes, there’s some! - E, ny akoho manatody, zalàhy, é! Oh, the egg-laying fowls, lads, oh! - E, misy ré! Oh yes, there’s some! - E, ny vazaha be vola, zalàhy, é Oh, the very rich foreigner, lads, oh! - E, misy ré! Oh yes, here he is! - -and so on, _ad libitum_. - -In another song sung by men on this voyage, the chorus was, _Mandàny -vàtsy, Toamasina malaza é!_—_i.e._ “Consumes provisions for the way, -famous Tamatave O!”—while the recitative brought in all the different -villages on the journey from Tamatave to the capital, ending with -Avàra-dròva, the northern entrance to the palace yard. Our return -voyage was a rough one; there was a considerable swell, for the sea -breeze had set in very strongly, as is generally the case in the -afternoon along the east coast; and had I not had an unusually large -and good canoe, I dared not have ventured across the broad expanse of -water near the mouth of the river. - -[Illustration: A MALAGASY ORCHID (Angræcum Superbum) - -The blooms are pure white, waxlike flowers] - -[Sidenote: MAGNIFICENT ORCHIDS] - -While waiting for the canoe that afternoon I was delighted to see -the profusion of orchids along the shore. I had, of course, often -admired these on the trunks and branches of trees on the coast; but, -here, the magnificent _Angræcum superbum_ was growing by hundreds -on the ground, on good-sized bushes, which occurred in scores, the -large waxy-white flowers all in full bloom. It was worth a fatiguing -journey to see such a wealth of floral beauty. Here I may notice -that another fine orchid, the _Angræcum sesquipedale_, is also to be -seen in flower in the months of June and July on this eastern coast. -It is not so numerous in blooms as the other species, but its large -pure white flowers shine out like stars against the dark trunks of -the trees on which it grows. As its specific name signifies, its -remarkable spur or nectary is nearly a foot and a half long, pointing -to an insect with a very long sucking tube in order to reach the -honey stored there. There are several other species of _Angræcum_ -found in Madagascar, but with smaller flowers than the two just -named. As Mr Baron remarks, “Whatever else may escape the notice of -the traveller, the _A. superbum_ forms far too striking an ornament -to be passed by unheeded.” And I think the same might almost be said -of the _sesquipedale_; of this latter Mr Baron says that it generally -chooses trees which overhang the rivers or lagoons as its habitat. -I have, however, noticed it at some distance from water. - -Farther north along this coast there is a large proportion of trees -of considerable size, in addition to the pandanus and more shrubby -vegetation seen farther south. The latter also attain a much greater -height in the struggle to get up to the light amongst the crowd of -other trees. In one spot for some distance there was no undergrowth, -but “a pillared shade” of the slender trunks of the pandanus, -while high overhead their graceful crowns of long saw-edged leaves -made a canopy impervious to the sun. Among the larger trees one -called _atàfa_ (_Terminalia catappa_) is prominent; in these the -branches strike directly at right angles from the trunk and then -spread away horizontally for a considerable distance. The leaves -are spatula-shaped and from eight to ten inches long, and a large -proportion of them are always a ruddy brown or scarlet, giving a -blaze of colour. The tree is called also the “Indian almond,” and the -kernel of the fruit is edible. While waiting for a canoe, we walked -two or three hundred yards towards the outlet of a small river, and -were startled by a crocodile only a few feet in front of us, rousing -himself from his nap in the setting sunshine, and waddling off into -the river. - -About seventy miles north of the Màtitànana river we came to an -extensive lagoon stretching northward for several miles. This -appeared to be the first—from the south—of that remarkable series -bordering the shore and extending with but few breaks nearly to -Tamatave, a distance of two hundred and sixty miles (see Chapter -III.). Along the northern side of this lagoon are masses of lava -rock, some of it in enormous blocks. - -[Sidenote: THE TAIMÒRO TRIBE] - -We found here that we had reached another centre of population, an -important settlement of the Taimòro tribe; the principal chief, a -very fine tall man, came to see us, and was extremely polite and -kind. We were amused to see his daughters, two nice little girls, -attended by all the other children of the village, who were going -through the peculiar monotonous native singing with clapping of -hands; while these two girls moved together slowly backwards and -forwards, and with a slow movement of their feet, and a graceful -movement of the hands, performed a native dance. They were strikingly -different from the other children in their dress, having scarlet -caps, with a long veil behind of coloured print, jackets of figured -stuff and a skirt of scarlet or a broad girdle of the same colour. -Afterwards they were mounted on the shoulders of two stout girls, who -went through the same performance with their feet, while the little -girls moved their hands and arms. - -At a village where we stayed it was the custom that no bird or animal -could be killed for food except by someone belonging to the family of -the native king. This agrees with what is stated by Drury and other -early writers on Madagascar as to the customs of many tribes in the -south-west of the island. - -[Sidenote: AN OBJECT OF WONDER] - -On 22nd and 23rd July, Saturday and Sunday, we had two long and very -fatiguing journeys, the more so as our maps were of the vaguest -description, and we could get no accurate information as to distances -or villages; rice for our bearers was not at all easy to procure, and -when crossing rivers, a single canoe for fifty men and a quantity of -baggage often delayed us very seriously. On the Saturday morning we -met a wheeled vehicle, the first I had ever seen in Madagascar—viz. a -cart drawn by yoked oxen; this excited much wonder among our men. We -had to cross rivers or wide lagoons five times that day, so that late -in the afternoon we still saw no stopping-place. But as we understood -that there was a small village two or three hours farther on, and -that the road was along the shore, we thought we could not miss it -even if it was late. So we went along the sands; the sun set, and it -grew dark, but there was no sign of any village; then the path turned -inland among the bush, where we went on feeling our way for some -time. But at last we got hopelessly adrift in the dense vegetation -and total darkness. There was no help for it but to retrace our -steps to the shore, which we did, not without great difficulty. It -seemed highly probable that we should have to spend the night under -the trees, without food, fire, or light, as our baggage had gone -on ahead. Continually we mistook the light of the fireflies for a -lantern coming to our assistance; but still going on we saw at last -a light ahead, steadier and redder than that of the fireflies. Then -we lost it, but going on again we at length came up to the embers of -a fire lighted on the sand. Opposite was a path leading up to four -little huts, where most of our men had arrived, and where we got -better accommodation than the woods would have afforded, although -the huts were mere rough sheds of traveller’s tree leaves. It was -fortunate for us that we reached them, for heavy rain came directly -and continued all night. There was no rice to be bought; so our men -had to go supperless to bed, and we had very little to eat ourselves. -Some dozen or more of the men slept with us in our hut, as thick as -they could lie, and the other places were as full. - -[Illustration: MALAGASY MEN DANCING - -This consists of graceful movements of hands, body, and feet. Men and -women never dance together] - -The following day, Sunday, was a disappointing one, for we quite -thought in the morning that we were only two or three hours’ journey, -at most, from Màsindràno, where we hoped to meet with a good -congregation. But we had to travel for hour after hour, delayed in -crossing the lagoons in a vain search for food, and in other ways, so -that it was sunset before we crossed the Mànanjàra river, and after -dark before we at last reached the town. However, here we met with -the kindest welcome, had good houses put at our disposal, and there -was abundance of food for us all. - -[Sidenote: WHALES] - -On the following day we left the seashore, along which, first going -southwards and afterwards northwards, we had travelled for so many -days. And here I may remark that dolphins are often seen in the -Madagascar seas, especially the small species called _Delphinus -pas_, which is frequently seen leaping, plunging and swimming with -astonishing swiftness and in large shoals. These animals love to -pursue the flying-fish, and in this chase they display extraordinary -dexterity. Two species of whale also frequent the seas round -Madagascar, but they are chiefly seen on the western side of the -island. The huge form of the cachelot or sperm-whale, with its -remarkably square head, looking as if it had been cut off right -across, especially when it turns to dive, as I have seen it, seems -to have impressed the imagination of the Malagasy, because when an -earthquake occurs they say, _Mivàdika ny tròzona_—_i.e._ “The whales -are turning over.” - -After leaving the east coast we sailed up the broad river Mànanjàra, -stopping a night at another Hova military post, a large village -called Itsìatòsika. Here again we had great kindness shown to us by -the most polite and gentlemanly set of Hova officers we had ever -met. For the first day and a half our route lay chiefly up the -valley of the river, over undulating country; but during the next -two and half days we had to travel to the north-west, through the -belt of dense forest covering the lines of mountain which are the -successive steps into the bare interior highland. Through this rugged -country, travelling was very difficult, and the steep ascents very -fatiguing. As we got up a thousand feet, there was line after line -of hill and mountain, all covered with forest, as far as the eye -could reach, to the north and south and west. Besides the ordinary -forest trees, there were great numbers of the graceful palm called -_Anìvona_, which, in the struggle for light and heat, here grows to a -great height. As we have seen in speaking of the old style of timber -houses, this palm was made much use of in their construction. There -were magnificent and extensive views from the higher ground; and -conspicuous for a whole day’s journey was a lofty perpendicular cliff -of bright red rock, rising sheer up many hundreds of feet from the -valley below. - -[Sidenote: A HEATHENISH FUNERAL] - -A little before reaching the summit of one ridge we heard a good -deal of noise and shouting ahead of us, and supposed that the Tanàla -were dragging an unusually large piece of timber. On getting nearer, -we found fifty or sixty people, men and women, and a number of men -carrying something, which, coming closer to them, we found was a -child’s coffin, made of a piece of the trunk of a tree hollowed out, -and with a rough cover of wood fastened on with bands of a strong -creeper. This was being carried with a barbarous kind of chant, -but without the slightest sign of mourning on the part of anyone. -It was the most heathenish kind of funeral we had ever seen. Among -these forest people funerals are called _fàndrorìtam-pàty_ (_lit._ -“stretching out of the corpse”), and it seems that the coffin is -pulled about first in one direction and then in another by the -different parties of those following it; and it is finally thrown -into some hollow in the woods. It was a saddening sight. - -We found that we had come again among our old friends, the Tanàla, -for in their mats and undressed appearance, and their use of bark -cloth, the women in the villages were just like those we had seen -from Ivòhitròsa downwards. - -Our second day in the forest brought us to a height of fourteen -hundred and fifty feet above the sea; and, notwithstanding our -fatigue from having to walk continually for several hours, we -were charmed again with the luxuriance of the vegetation. The -anìvona-palms shot up their slender columns, banded with lines of -white on dark green to heights of eighty to a hundred feet, and the -traveller’s trees were as lofty, in the fierce competition for life. -The tree-ferns spread out their graceful fronds over the streams; and -the _Vaquois pandanus_ carried its large clusters of serrated leaves -high overhead to get up to the light. In some places the woods were -very dense, and there was a green twilight as we passed along the -narrow path amongst the crowd of tall trunks. We were struck by the -intense silence of the forest; there was no sound of animal life, and -no voice of bird, or beast, or insect broke the oppressive stillness. -For six hours and a half we hardly saw a house except isolated -woodcutters’ huts; and we were glad at last to see the sparkling -waters of the Mànanjàra in front of us, and to find a village of -twenty houses on its banks. - -[Sidenote: THE CICADA] - -Although in the cold season, which was the time of our journey, the -woods were very silent, they are not so at all times of the year, -and among the sounds of the forest we must not omit one which, once -heard, can never be forgotten—viz. the extremely shrill piercing note -of the _Jorèry_, a cicada, which makes the woods ring again with its -stridulous reverberations. If it should happen that two or three -of these little creatures are giving out their sound together, the -jarring, ringing noise becomes almost painful to the ear; and it is -difficult to believe that such a loud noise can be produced from the -friction of the wing-cases of such a comparatively small insect, for -it does not exceed an inch and a half in length. - -On rainy nights a stridulous sound, but far less loud than that -produced by the jorèry, is heard in and near the forest, and is -produced by a large species of earthworm called _Kànkandoròka_. It -somewhat resembles the noise of a rattle, and is far from unpleasant -to the ear. - -[Sidenote: THE SILENCE OF THE WOOD] - -Yet it would be a mistake to suppose that these comparatively silent -woods are destitute of animal life, and the stillness is largely -attributable to the peculiar character of the Madagascar fauna. -Many of the lemurs are nocturnal animals and are therefore not seen -or heard in the daytime. Then again, the twenty-four species of -centetidæ are burrowing animals, and so do not often appear in the -open. And it is much the same with the sixteen species of rats and -mice, which live in the woods and on their borders. In confirmation -of the above remarks as to the animal life of the forest, it may be -stated that in the latter part of the year 1894, and the beginning of -1895, Dr Forsyth Major, the eminent naturalist and palæontologist, -lived for several months collecting in the woods not very far from -the route we followed about eighteen years previously; and his -specimens of recent mammals amounted to no fewer than sixteen hundred -specimens, which added _twenty species_ to those previously known. -These were chiefly in the tenrecs and the rats, but also included -a new species of lemur. Some of these forms were exceptionally -interesting, one being aquatic and web-footed; and others showed -transitions from a hairy to a spiny condition in closely allied -animals, suggesting that the prickly state had been gradually -attained for purposes of defence. Several of the centetidæ, of the -genus _Oryzorictes_, feed largely on rice, as their generic name -denotes, and do much damage to the crops. This is equally true of -the indigenous rats and mice. We have seen how the forest and coast -Malagasy protect their rice stores by elevated houses, with special -precautions against these little marauders. - -It should be added that Dr Major’s unprecedentedly large collections -would probably have been larger still but for the disturbed state -of the country at that time. It was during the early months of the -French invasion and subsequent conquest of Madagascar, when the -feeling against all Europeans was very strong; so that again and -again Dr Major was in considerable danger of his life. Besides adding -so largely to our knowledge of the living fauna of the island, he -made large collections of the sub-fossil fauna, in collections of the -remains of the extinct æpyornis, hippopotami, tortoises, crocodiles, -and other animals, finding bones of several of the smaller mammals -which he afterwards discovered to be still living. - -[Illustration: A WOMAN OF THE ANTÀNKÀRANA TRIBE N.W. MADAGASCAR - -She is in full gala costume] - -[Illustration: WOMAN OF ANTANÒSY TRIBE, S.E. MADAGASCAR - -She is got up in all her finery] - -[Sidenote: BIRD LIFE IN MADAGASCAR] - -With regard to the silence of the wood just spoken of, and the -apparent dearth of animal life, it must be remembered that, in -addition to the character of the mammalian fauna above-mentioned, -our journey was made in the cold season, when all life is much less -in evidence. As we have seen in the chapters VIII. and IX., -speaking of the forest, it is by no means destitute of bird life -during the warm months of the year. And yet I have never been able -satisfactorily to account for the _comparative_ fewness of birds in -Madagascar, notwithstanding the number of species. It can hardly -be from want of appropriate food, for the great variety of trees -and shrubs must surely supply sufficient in the way of fruits and -berries and seeds, to say nothing of caterpillars, and insects in -various stages of development. My friend, Mr Cory, an enthusiastic -naturalist and sportsman, wrote to me: “I think the want of bird life -in Madagascar is very marked when compared with England, and I was -much struck with this on my first arrival. I have been in the forest -at all times of the year; and although there _are_ a good many birds -in summer, yet if you try bird’s-nesting here, you will soon find out -how few and far between the nests are.” I have sometimes thought that -these facts may be partly explained by the rather large proportion of -rapacious birds in Madagascar to the general air-fauna—twenty-two, -as compared with two hundred and ten species known to inhabit the -island; for, leaving out the twenty-eight species of oceanic birds, -we have nearly a seventh of the birds belonging to rapacious kinds, -a proportion which would be still greater if we reckon, as we might -well do, several of the eight species of shrikes as rapacious. As we -shall see in the next chapter, there appear to be a far larger number -of birds on the western side of the island than are found in the -eastern forests. - -With regard to the paucity of insect life in the forest, I think it -has been clearly shown by eminent naturalists like Dr Wallace and -the late Mr Bates, that _dense_ wood is not favourable to such life; -but that in open spaces in the forest, where sunshine can penetrate, -and where there is also water, there is where you may hope to find -butterflies, moths, and various handsome flies, bees and wasps; while -patches of cleared forest and felled trees are the most favourable -hunting-grounds for the numerous species of beetle and also of ants. -In travelling from the east coast to Imèrina seventeen years later -than this journey, on a route about eighty miles north of that -described in this chapter, we found numerous butterflies, a dozen -species at least, in some localities; and the voice of birds was -heard all along the road, the noisy call of the _Kankàfotra_ cuckoo, -_kow-kow, kow-kow_, constantly repeated; the mellow flute-like call -of another cuckoo, the _Tolòho_, whose notes we heard all the way -from Màhanòro; the chirp and whistle of the _Railòvy_, or king-crow, -as well as the incessant twitter of many smaller birds. Then came -frequently the wailing notes of the lemurs high up among the trees. -This, however, was in November, when the hot season was advancing. - -[Sidenote: PROTECTIVE COLOURING] - -In our walks in the forest from the Ankèramadìnika Sanatorium -(Chapters VIII. and IX.), we saw, it will be remembered, many cases -of protective colouring. As we are again in the eastern forests, the -following instances may also be noted. There is found in these woods -a curious walking-stick mantis, about eight inches long and a quarter -of an inch thick. It is exactly the colour of a dried branchlet or -twig, with joints distinctly articulated like the nodes of many -plants. The tail (if the end of the creature may be thus called) is -rather more than an inch long, and is a hollow, canoe-shaped trough, -somewhat resembling part of the bark torn off a twig. The legs are -alate and spiny. At about two inches from the head are the wings and -wing-sheaths, the latter being somewhat like obovate stipules about -half-an-inch long, and the former marked with black and yellow and -about an inch and a half long. When the wings are closed, it would -take a very keen eye to discover the creature, as the part of the -wing when closed is of the same colour as the rest of the body. The -legs can be brought together lengthwise in front, and so appear to -form a continuous part of the twig, especially as the femurs are -hollowed out to form a socket for the head. - -Another singular creature, a kind of springtail, known as -_Tsikòndry_, is found on the branches of certain trees. The tail, -which is about half-an-inch long—a little longer than the body of -the insect—is a remarkable and curious appendage. This tail consists -of a tuft of white threads, somewhat divided and fluffy at the tip, -and which, at the pleasure of the insect, can be raised or lowered -or spread out, the threads radiating in a circle from the root. This -tail is so exactly like a lichen in appearance as thoroughly to -deceive the eye. Unless a branch on which a number of these tsikòndry -are seated is accidentally shaken, causing them to spring off, they -would be passed by as lichens. The leap or spring is effected by a -jerk of the tail. - -[Sidenote: PREVOST’S BROADBILL] - -I have already pointed out somewhere in this book that Madagascar -is a kind of museum of several forms of animal life found nowhere -else in the world; for among mammals there are some of the lemuridæ, -especially the aye-aye; also some of the centetidæ; among the -insects, the uranid butterfly; while there are several birds, which -are isolated, having no near relation, so that new genera, and even -new families, have had to be formed for their classification. Among -these latter, and inhabiting the eastern forests, is Prevost’s -broadbill (_Euryceros prevosti_). The zoological affinities of -this remarkable bird were for long a puzzle to ornithologists; but -it is so different from the wood-swallows, starlings and shrikes, -which groups are nearest to it, that the French naturalists have -formed a special family (_Eurycerotidæ_) for this solitary genus -and species. This bird is remarkable for a beak formed like a very -capacious helmet, strongly compressed and swelled towards the base, -which advances to just as far as the eyes; and its very convex -edge is terminated by a sharp hook. This extraordinary form of the -beak is seen best in the skeleton, in which the beak is seen to -be considerably larger than the skull. The bird is as large as a -starling, velvety black in colour, with a saddle-shaped patch of -light brown on the back. The large beak is steely-blue in colour, and -pearly, like the inside of an oyster shell. Such specialised birds—as -well as the other peculiar forms of life—speak of high antiquity and -of the long isolation of their habitat from continental influences. - -Four or five days of hard travelling brought us to Ambòhimànga, -_an-àla_, so called to distinguish it from the old Hova capital of -the same name, north of Antanànarìvo. As on many previous occasions, -we had long delays in crossing rivers, from the fewness and smallness -of the canoes available. We were detained for three hours crossing -the Mànanjàra, which, although so far from the sea, was still a wide -river, with a powerful current and full of rapids and rocks. We had -time to notice and examine carefully a graceful plant which covered -the stones in the water; this looked like a fern—but is not one—from -one to two feet long and with very thick and fleshy stem and fronds. -On examining one of these, I found it to be the home of a variety -of minute animals; some of them caterpillars, which were burrowing -into the stalk; others, small green creatures like caddis-worms, but -with a transparent shell; others, minute leeches; others like the -fresh-water hydra; with several other kinds, all finding house and -provision on one frond in the rushing waters. - -[Sidenote: A TANÀLA CHIEFTAINESS] - -This “forest Ambòhimànga” was the home of Ihòvana, the Tanàla -chieftainess of the tribe of the surrounding district, who, with -her husband, was most kind and friendly, and I believe a sincere -Christian. She was a remarkably stout old lady, getting grey, and -a woman of considerable ability and force of character. On special -occasions, when the Malagasy nobles and tributary chiefs were -summoned up to the capital, Ihòvana would appear in the public -assembly, and with _làmba_ girded round her and spear in hand, would -give assurances of loyalty and obedience to Queen Rànavàlona, and say -“she was not a woman, but a man,” and would fight, if need be, at the -head of her people in defence of their sovereign. - -The situation of this place is exceedingly pleasant, on a hill about -two hundred feet above the river flowing to the east and north. -Around it are hills covered with bamboo, while to the lines of hill, -the edges of the upper plateau are dark with forest. Here we and our -bearers were glad to rest for a couple of days, including a Sunday, -during which we were glad to find that these northern Tanàla, through -Christian teaching and Ihòvana’s influence, had made wonderful -advances compared with those farther south. There was a congregation -of about three hundred, a school of about as many children, and nine -village congregations connected with the central church here. - -On the Monday morning, on leaving Ambòhimànga, we had to cross the -river at the foot of the hill, and this made the _thirtieth_ time -we had to be ferried across a river with all our men and property, -and glad we were that it was the last. A description of our water -conveyances would include bamboo rafts, canoes great and small, -especially the latter, canoes with one end rotted away or broken off, -and stuffed with clay, and craft so small that they seemed rather -fitted for children’s playthings than for business. The forest became -thinner as we travelled to the north-west, and this was due to the -custom of the Tanàla, who cut down the woods and sow the rice in -the ashes of the trees which have been burnt; for the people do not -plant much in one place, but remove their village to another spot -after getting a crop or two. This morning we lost the traveller’s -tree, which does not grow at heights much above two thousand feet -above the sea; and in the afternoon we also lost sight of the -graceful bamboo. - -The following morning brought us to steep ascents of nine hundred and -fifty feet, of four hundred and twenty, and then of six hundred feet -successively, the last bringing us to Ivòhitràmbo (lofty town), well -named, for it has a most elevated situation and higher than a good -deal of the interior table-land to the west. I had noticed all the -previous afternoon that on the very summit of the highest ground to -the north was a lofty cone of rock. Perched upon this like an eagle’s -nest was part of the village, the rest of the houses being a hundred -and forty feet lower. The summit was forty-seven hundred and fifty -feet above the sea; we were now on the high land of the interior and -had come up twenty-four hundred and fifty feet since we breakfasted. -As may be supposed, the view was most extensive; the plains of -North Bétsiléo were not far distant, and soon we came to the long -bare rolling downs of the central provinces. Uninteresting as these -generally appear after four or five months without rain, they looked -home-like, and the keen air seemed bracing and invigorating. We -began to see rice-fields again and the scattered round _vàla_ of the -Bétsiléo. We had got into the country of a different tribe of people, -with different houses, speech and customs. At the village where we -stopped for the night was a good timber house, with elaborately -carved central pillars, and we began to see again the carved memorial -posts, which had so much interested us on our journey south. - -[Sidenote: PECULIAR TOMBS] - -We noticed again the peculiar tombs of the Bétsiléo; these, which -consist of a large square of stones, are not, as in Imèrina, the real -burial-places; for the actual tomb is often twenty feet below the -ground, a stone chamber, to which access is gained by a long inclined -passage opening out at a distance of eighty or a hundred feet from -the tomb. - -And now, as we reached the oft-trodden route between Antanànarìvo and -Fianàrantsòa, this record may come to a close. We arrived safely at -the capital on 5th August, having been away nearly eleven weeks, and -having travelled by palanquin, on foot, and in canoes, more than -nine hundred miles. - - -[Sidenote: FIREFLIES] - -[30] These fireflies are not seen in the interior except in two or -three localities, where portions of the original forest still cover -the mountains on which old towns were built. I have seen them at -Vòhilèna, a hill about fifteen hundred feet high, near the valley of -the Mànanàra river, in North Imèrina. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -TO SÀKALÀVA LAND AND THE NORTH-WEST - - -As the contents of former chapters in this book show, I was able -on various occasions during the first few years of residence in -Madagascar to make journeys in different directions: from the east -coast to the interior; from Imèrina to Antsihànaka; from Imèrina -again to Bétsiléo and from thence to the south-east, visiting the -Tanàla, the Taimòro, and other tribes in that part of the island, not -to mention shorter journeys in the central province itself, to Itàsy -and other places. But the north-west of the country and the districts -occupied by the Sàkalàva people were still unknown to me, so I was -glad when in 1877 there came the opportunity of traversing this -portion of the great island. - -For a long time past Tamatave had been—as it still is—the most -frequented port of Madagascar, but the western ports, from their -proximity to South Africa, were sure to increase in importance. Not -very long before the above-mentioned date, the British India Steam -Navigation Company had begun a service of steamers from Aden to -Mozambique, touching at Mojangà, on the north-west coast, both on -the outward and the return journeys. This appeared to give Europeans -living here a good opportunity of reaching England, avoiding the -unpleasant experience of the “bullocker” (see Chapter II.), between -Tamatave and Port Louis, and taking a mail steamer direct from -Madagascar. As we were leaving this country for Europe in September -1877, we determined to take this new route, which, although a little -longer than that by Tamatave, was far less difficult, besides being -partly by canoes, and the last day or two by a dhow, thus giving -a pleasant variety to the journey. Our party consisted of seven, -including my wife and self and three children—Willie, aged six; May, -aged three, and a baby girl of ten months—Frank Briggs, about the -same age as our boy, whom we were taking home (his father joined us a -day or two later), and my former fellow-traveller, Mr Louis Street. -I ought also to include a Mozambique nurse, one of those African -slaves recently set free, in accordance with an agreement made -between the English and the Malagasy governments. - -We left Antanànarìvo on Thursday afternoon, 13th September, a large -number of our missionary friends accompanying us for a distance out -of the city, in fact as far as the banks of the Ikòpa, along which -our route lay for several miles. Here one could not but be again -impressed with the importance of these river banks in preserving the -rice-fields from being flooded, and by the good work done by the old -kings of Imèrina in embanking the river and thus turning marsh and -bog into fruitful fields. Stopping at the L.M.S. mission station -of Ambòhidratrìmo for the first night of our journey, we reached -the station of Fihàonana in Vònizòngo on the second day, putting up -at the manse, although the minister (Rev. T. T. Matthews) and his -family were away from home. A short half-day’s ride brought us to a -third mission station, that at Fierènana, where we had a Sunday’s -rest before setting out on the unknown and principal portion of our -journey. We stayed in the house which, a year or two before then, -I had marked out for our friends, and recalled how I had taught -Mrs Stribling to lay bricks, to bond together the corners of the -walls, to manage the chimney breasts, etc., so that she became quite -proficient and was able to teach the native workmen bricklaying, -which was then to them an unknown art. - -[Sidenote: ATTRACTIONS OF A MARKET] - -On Monday morning we fairly started on our journey away from mission -stations and Europeans. Two hours’ ride brought us to a large market -where hundreds of people were assembled. We were set down and, before -we knew what our men were about, were left almost without a bearer, -it being too great a temptation for our fellows not to go into the -thick of a market; and it was some little time before we could get -hold of them to carry us into the village near the place. All this -day’s journey was up a long wide valley enclosed by lines of hills, -which gradually approached as we proceeded; and our evening halt -was in a village covered with a layer of finely powdered cow-dung, -although the village chapel, our usual inn on such journeys, provided -a fairly comfortable resting-place for the night. - -Outside this village the following morning we passed a shoe—or -rather sandal—market, with scores of pairs of rough bullock-hide -sandals for sale. I noticed also that everyone we passed carried a -pair fastened to his or her burdens. Although we had to go up and, -of course, down again, a long ascent, the route was less difficult -and fatiguing than are those we often traversed in Imèrina, and far -less so than the roads to the eastern coast through the forest. The -increasing temperature told us that we were getting to a lower level; -indeed all the western side of Madagascar is hotter than the eastern -side, as it is deprived of the cool south-east trade-wind from the -Indian Ocean. At the village where we stopped for the night, all the -dwelling-houses were made of the gigantic bamboo-like grass called -_bàraràta_, although the school church which served us for a lodging -was of clay. The place had a double entrance gateway, one of them -being a low narrow tunnel; and like most of these villages had a -great quantity of cattle brought into it, for security every evening. -In consequence, the whole place was covered with a foot or two of -manure; and it was here that our friend, Mr Grainge, stopping for the -night the previous year, had an experience which I will give in his -own words. - -[Sidenote: AN UNSAVOURY CAMPING PLACE] - - “On entering,” he says, “we raised a considerable amount of dust - and general astonishment; for wishing to pitch our tent inside - the village, we set a few of our men to sweep away the filth from - the cleanest spot we could select. You may guess the result. I - first tried to get to the windward of the horrible cloud, but not - being able to find that desirable quarter, as there happened to - be no wind at the time, I sent a man to fetch water and then ran - away until the atmosphere cleared. I had better have stopped, for, - running through the first hole in the entrenchment of the village, - I heard a cry of ‘_Omby ó!_’ (‘The cattle!’), and saw the head of - an ox, closely followed by his tail, coming through the gap. As the - people evidently expected to see me run, I stood my ground with - true British pig-headedness and waited in the narrow ditch for the - big beast to pass; but this one was closely followed by another, - and that by a third—the whole of the herds were coming in for the - night, and the fosse was soon as full of oxen as of dust. There was - no escape; grunting, puffing, blowing, and bellowing, in they came, - and with nothing but bare hands to smack them, I was hustled and - jostled, bumped and butted, pushed and driven about, until, after - three-quarters of an hour, I came out in company with the last - calf, choked with dust, streaming with perspiration, and inwardly - vowing that the very next time I heard the cry of ‘_Omby ó!_’ I - would run for it, however undignified it might appear.” - -As we were walking about just before sunset, they brought us a -chameleon, here called _taròndro_ (_Dicranosaura bifurca_), about -nine inches long and as much more in length of tail; it was dark -brownish-grey in colour, with a white line along the sides, and the -head and back serrated like a saw. The nose of the male has two -compressed long horns covered with large scales. As we have already -seen, Madagascar contains a considerable number of these reptiles, -especially of species with remarkable processes on the head. - -[Sidenote: AN UNCOMFORTABLE NIGHT] - -After arranging for the night, we congratulated ourselves on our -comfortable lodgings, but there was a drawback in the number of -openings to the outer air, two doorways and three windows, but all -destitute of doors or shutters. Mats, rugs, waterproof sheeting and -pillows were, however, fixed up; but soon after the wind rose until -it blew quite a gale; it was like being in a ship at sea, and it -blew so violently as to tear away the coverings from the nails. For -an hour or two paterfamilias’ chief occupation was to go round the -place and fix nail after nail, until I think at least a hundred long -tin tacks, as well as a number of two-inch nails, had been driven -in, besides propping up palanquins against the openings. Often it -came in such tremendous gusts that I feared everything would be torn -away, and lay for some time apprehensive of what might happen next. -However, it moderated towards morning, and, happily, there were no -mosquitoes. - -We had not got far on our way the following day before making -acquaintance with the _mòkafòhy_, an insect about half the size of a -housefly, but with wings less divergent. They have a large proboscis -and give a distinct prick, sometimes drawing blood, and with -after-irritating effects like mosquito bites. They are more sluggish -than mosquitoes and so can be more easily killed, and with a small -whisk of leaves it is not very difficult to ward them off. The road -was still along a valley with precipitous hills on our left, and -perpendicular faces of rock. All along were clumps of adàbo-trees, -making the scenery much like an English park. We noticed a large -number of earthen mounds, often two and a half feet high; these were -the nests of a large ant, which, like those we met on the eastern -side of the island, is said to kill a serpent which makes its home in -the lower part of the ant-hill. The native travellers often use these -mounds as a fireplace for cooking their rice, by knocking off the -top, scooping out the centre, and making a hole near the bottom for -draught. - -The route continued to be very easy travelling, with gentle ascents -and one long one, following generally river valleys; and in the -afternoon along a river bank for some distance, with pretty scenery -of pandanus, adàbo, dracæna and other trees growing in clumps. This -last-named tree, called _hàsina_ by the Malagasy, is believed to be -a favourite with the Vazìmba, the supposed aboriginal inhabitants -of the island, and was consequently planted where their graves are -and where their spirits are thought to dwell in order to secure -their good will. The leaves, which are sword-shaped, grow in large -clusters, so that the tree makes a beautiful variety amongst other -foliage. - -[Sidenote: A DESERT] - -We stopped on Wednesday night at a large village called Màngasoàvina, -and the next morning passed along the eastern base of Andrìba, a -lofty and very peculiarly shaped mountain, which had been prominent -before us during the preceding day. It appeared to have a large flat -top, and in outline resembled the stump of an immense tree left in -the earth, its northern face being a stupendous perpendicular mass -of rock. (Here I may remark, in parenthesis, that this Andrìba was -expected, in the French war of 1895, to have presented the most -formidable obstacle to the advance of an invading force and, in the -hands of European troops, would certainly have done so.) In the -afternoon we entered on the part called in Malagasy, _èfitra_, or -desert, but which simply means an uninhabited region, and seemed to -promise to be the most pleasant part of the whole route. A long deep -gorge which we entered was beautiful with luxuriant vegetation, and -in one of the lateral valleys I soon perceived the traveller’s tree, -a sure sign that we were now from two thousand to three thousand feet -lower than Imèrina. Every hollow was filled with trees; the hills -became lower, and the vegetation more distinctly tropical, with -graceful palms and other trees common on the eastern coast; as well -as species of ficus, ròtra (_Eugenia sp._), hibiscus, tamarind and -_rofìa_ palms; and the mango, escaped from cultivation, often attains -the dimensions of a very large tree. - -[Sidenote: A PICTURESQUE SCENE] - -Early on Thursday afternoon we came down to a river, called -Màrokalòy, where our bearers wished us to encamp, but we feared both -mosquitoes and consequent malaria in such a situation, and ascended -a low hill about a hundred and fifty feet above the river. Here we -pitched our tents, and after arranging for the night sat down to -our evening meal round a mat in the bright moonlight. It was a very -picturesque scene: the brilliant moon and the four chief planets -shining resplendently; our group of men near the tents lighted up by -the ruddy glare of the cooking fires; while down below, the greater -body of our men had encamped and had a score or two of fires blazing -under the dark shade of fine large trees. The night was so warm that -there was no inconvenience sitting out of doors, while in the tents -it soon grew so hot that we were glad to keep out of them as long as -possible. But what surprised us most was the almost entire absence of -mosquitoes; for there was no garden in Imèrina where one could sit -for five minutes at such an hour without being soon informed of the -presence of these tiny pests. It must, however, be added that for -an hour or two before sunset, and for a little after it also, the -_mòkafòhy_ were extremely numerous and annoying. They persecuted us -incessantly while encamping, but happily, unlike their namesakes,[31] -they retire at dark. By a merciful dispensation of providence they -do not bite at night. After our _al fresco_ meal, Mr Street and I -descended to the river and enjoyed a delicious bathe. - -The following morning we were up early, but the _mòkafòhy_ were up -before us and made it a misery to do anything immediately we emerged -from the tent. Getting breakfast was therefore disposed of in a -very short space of time, for mouth, nostrils, and eyes got full of -these detestable little flies; one could not eat, and we hurried the -children into their palanquins and got off as fast as was possible. -The name of this pretty valley (Màrokalòy = “Many _alòy_”) ought to -have warned us, as _alòy_ is the proper name of the insect, and this -place seems to be their head-quarters. The scenery and the route -continued to be as pleasant and as easy as before; every hollow was -filled with vegetation of a tropical character, and streams of bright -water crossed our path every few hundred yards. - -[Sidenote: ABUNDANT BIRD LIFE] - -Bird life seems much more abundant on this western side of the -island than on the east. Black parrots exist in great numbers and -may be heard screeching all the day long. But perhaps the birds -which are more numerous still are the small green and white parakeet -(_Sàrivàzo_), which fly about from tree to tree in large flocks, -all ceaselessly chirping during their rapid flight. My friend, Mr -Baron, says: “A flock of them settling on a bare tree gives it the -appearance of being covered with foliage. On one or two occasions -what we thought were the leaves of trees suddenly disappeared, -leaving the branches entirely bare. The ‘leaves’ turned out to be -parakeets.” Guinea-fowl, in flocks of six to a dozen, are also -abundant. The handsome long-tailed green _Tsìkirìoka_ (the Madagascar -bee-eater) is found here, and builds its nest in holes in sand-banks; -some of these run in a horizontal direction for above a yard. A -very pretty hoopoe (_Tàkodàra_) may occasionally be seen, a bird -which is extremely active and graceful in its movements. It gives -forth five or six very weird notes, as it sits on a tree during the -night. A species of sand-grouse, called _Gàdragàdraka_, a bird of a -beautiful fawn-colour, much like a pigeon in general appearance, may -often be heard. Like many other native bird names, this name is very -expressive of its chuckling. Many of the birds found in the central -parts of the island exist also here, while there are also others -peculiar to this western region. - -Part of our fifth and the whole of our sixth and last day’s land -journey was taken at no great distance from the Ikòpa river; and I -began to wonder where the western forest-belt was; for, as we have -seen, we had passed through no such masses of dense forest as must -be crossed anywhere on the eastern side of the island when one comes -up to the interior of Madagascar. The fact seems to be that there is -no such continuous wooded region on the western side. There is, in -many places, a considerable amount of country covered with forest, -but these are not connected, and a great deal of the surface has -scattered clumps of trees. In the same way also, there are nothing -like the difficult ascents and deep gorges to be crossed on this -route such as are described in Chapters IV. and V. The descent -to the level western plains is gradual; so that a railway to the -north-west ports, along the valleys of the Ikòpa and Bétsibòka -rivers, would, although longer, present very much less engineering -difficulty than that from Tamatave to the capital. - -[Sidenote: A DIFFICULT PROBLEM] - -On Saturday morning we came to the bank of the Ikòpa, which river -is at some points half-a-mile or more wide, but then at its lowest -level, being apparently very shallow, but so interrupted everywhere -with shelves of rock that it would be difficult for even a small -canoe to make its way far. There were numerous islands, covered with -bamboo, bàraràta, _rofìa_-palms and other vegetation. From a low hill -we had a view over an immense expanse of flat country on the western -side of the river. Only here and there was the level broken by a -line of hills of small elevation. After leaving the Ikòpa we found -ourselves in a very different kind of country from any we had yet -passed through, a succession of low hills or mamelons of dry sandy -gravel, with hardly any vegetation, and looking as if no rain had -fallen upon it for years. In the afternoon I noticed that a large -number of granite boulders were strewn over the country, and could -hardly doubt that these, from their rounded forms, but especially -from the absence, as far as I could see, of any such rock _in situ_, -must by some means or other have been transported from the granitic -region of the interior far to the eastward. Must this not have been -glacier or iceberg action? Although it is difficult to understand -such agency in the tropics. - -Ten years after making the journey, my friend, Mr Baron, in -travelling across the island towards the north-west coast, but about -a hundred and twenty miles farther north, came across isolated -rocks, which were quite different in composition from anything near -them. Of these he said: “I could think of no agent to account for -their occurrence but that of glacial action. They seemed to me to be -perched blocks, as there was no hill near from which they could have -fallen, nor any rock of the kind _in situ_.” I was interested to find -that an expert in Madagascar geology like Mr Baron had come to the -same conclusion as myself with regard to these granite boulders. - -Early in the afternoon we arrived at Mèvatanàna, the most important -place in this part of the country, with about a hundred houses; it -had, however, been quite recently burnt down, but was in process of -rebuilding. The houses seemed rather larger than those in Imèrina, -made of round-pole framework, filled in with _bàraràta_ stems, the -roofs of _rofìa_-palm leaf-stalks and thatched with grass. We secured -a new house, not quite finished; and as this was very like a large -birdcage, besides having no doors in the three doorways, we put up -the tent on one side, piled up our heavy luggage against another of -the doorways, and hung a rug over the third, so as to make ourselves -less of a public spectacle. - -We were glad of the Sunday’s rest after our week of continuous -travelling, and that we had _not_ “to shift our moving tent” that -morning, but could let beds and baggage, boxes and bottles, and pots -and pans rest in peace. We had large and attentive congregations in -the native church morning and afternoon, Mr Briggs and I taking the -services. Our dwelling, although perfect as regards ventilation, -was certainly not cool, and we all were suffering somewhat from the -mosquito bites on the journey. We were as much stared at by the -“natives” as if we had been a kind of wild animal, a wondering, if -not admiring, crowd unpleasantly blocking up the one doorway left -open—in fact, we formed an apparently popular exhibition, open, -Sundays not excepted, for a limited period only. - -[Sidenote: OUR CANOES] - -We were astir very early on the Monday morning, for there was a large -amount of work to be got through before we could start on our canoe -voyage. We got away from the town before seven, and half-an-hour’s -ride brought us down to the river, where we found six large canoes, -four of which were being loaded with our luggage. When everything -had been arranged, we had to pay all our men, only about ten going -through with us to Mojangà; and a few others had to be engaged in -addition to row the canoes and help in various ways. About nine -o’clock we got away and began our four days’ voyage down the Ikòpa. -It was a pleasant change from the jolting of the palanquin to the -smooth gliding of the canoe. These vessels were about forty feet -long; and the one in which we went was three feet six inches beam, -and two feet six inches deep, and had three paddlers, besides one -at the stern to steer; as we were going down with the current, more -men were not necessary. Two of the palanquins with their hoods were -placed in our canoe, for wife, nurse and little girls, while the -little boys, in their palanquin, went in another one with Mr Street -and Mr Briggs. - -[Sidenote: CROCODILES] - -The shores of the river are exceedingly pretty, although there was -nothing grand or striking. They are flat, but beautifully wooded, the -great _bàraràta_ grass, with its light grey feathery head of flowers, -giving quite a character to the scenery. Islands are numerous, some -being mere sand-banks, but many covered with trees and bush. We soon -made acquaintance with the crocodiles, for there was one basking in -the sunshine on a sand-bank just opposite our starting-place. We saw -a good many of them during the day, although not as many as other -travellers have observed, perhaps from twenty to thirty, and some -of them quite near enough to be seen very distinctly. Most of them -were light grey in colour, but others slaty, and others again spotted -with black; they varied in length from seven or eight to fourteen or -fifteen feet. The head is small, and the back and tail serrated like -a great pit-saw. They were generally lying with the jaws wide open, -and sometimes were near enough to be splashed by the paddles as we -passed them. The heat on the river was much less than when travelling -on the land, or at Mèvatanàna; a delightful breeze blew against us -all day, and we enjoyed the change immensely. - -The banks of the river, which was from half to three-quarters of a -mile wide, were only a few feet above the water, and from them flew -numbers of birds. Among these were many with which we were familiar -in the interior—the pure white lesser egret, varieties of heron, -purple kingfishers, wild ducks and wild geese, and many others. The -_Railòvy_ or fork-tailed shrike is one of the most widely distributed -birds of the island, and is very active and an excellent singer. -Perched on a dead branch, it keeps up a constant noise, its strong -voice giving forth several notes, which very much resemble that of an -organ. In the spots frequented by a large number of these shrikes, -each one reserves to itself a hunting-ground, in which according -to M. Pollen, he tolerates the presence of no other birds, even of -his own kind, not excepting those stronger than himself. It is dark -bluish-green in colour, with a long tail, forked at the extremity. -These western woods are fairly full of singing birds, especially in -the hot season, which was coming on at the time of our journey. -Among these are three species of fly-catcher, one of which is -called the “changeable,” from the remarkable changes of colour it -undergoes according to its age and sex. The female bird is entirely -of reddish-brown, except the cap and nape, which are dark green. -The young male has during the first month the same livery as the -female, but its plumage soon changes to a beautiful maroon red; then -very soon the two middle tail feathers become greatly lengthened, -the quills being black with a white fringe; the wing coverts become -partly black and partly white; and the feathers of the head change to -dark green, with brilliant metallic reflections. At the breeding-time -the back and throat take the same tints as the head, and the belly -and breast become white. - -[Sidenote: TAMARIND-TREES] - -We stopped for lunch at a low rising ground, a few feet above the -water, at a grove of _Madìro_ or tamarind-trees, and under one -of these we spread our meal. It was a magnificent tree, shapely -and rounded in outline like a great oak or chestnut, the branches -spreading over a circle of a hundred feet in diameter and touching -the ground. The foliage was then rather thin, the leaves being -minute, like those of a mimosa, and the ground was strewed with them, -as well as with the pods of the fruit. Most of these were dry and -worthless, but we got many fresh enough to eat, and their acid dark -red pulp was very refreshing. Mr Baron believes the tamarind-tree to -be truly indigenous to Madagascar, but only in the western region, -which he thinks forms its original home. The seeds were, and probably -still are, employed in the _sikìdy_, or divination; and a decoction -from the leaves as a medicine. - -About an hour after leaving our stopping-place we came to the -junction with the Bétsibòka, the latter being strongly coloured with -red clay from North Imèrina. What impressed us most this afternoon -was the total absence of population on the banks of this large river, -and it appeared strange that immense tracts of such apparently -fertile country should be uninhabited; it was different from the -crowded villages along the Màtitànana and Mànanàra and other rivers -in South-east Madagascar. In the afternoon the beautiful fan-palm -became very plentiful, growing in extensive groves and mingled with -the other trees. Stopping for the night by a sand-bank, we made the -canoe fast to a stake and proceeded to put up the tents. Although -dry and pleasant for a floor, the sand had the disadvantage of giving -bad holding-ground for the tent-pegs, and, had not the fresh breeze -died away at sunset, a very slight gust would have brought down the -whole concern over our heads. - -[Sidenote: THE AGY-TREE] - -We might congratulate ourselves in not coming across, in short -rambles among the trees, a tree which caused no small discomfort to -some of our missionary friends in this very locality. Mr Montgomery -thus describes his experiences. He says: - - “Walking under some trees and pushing aside the reeds and grass, - I was startled, in a moment, by a sudden tingling and pricking - sensation over the back of my hands and fingers, for never had come - the like to me, in Madagascar or elsewhere. I stopped in sudden - surprise, for the pain was severe, and I had touched nothing except - the grass. But in another moment the pain increased, the tingling - burning sensation seemed extending rapidly up my wrists, and I - could see nothing to cause it. But as I lowered my head to look, - pain, scalding pain, shot into my ears and neck, growing worse, - too, every instant. Dazed and bewildered, I stood a few seconds in - helplessness, for I could neither see nor guess at the cause of the - terrible distress. Then I got back to my company with agony writ - plain enough on every line of my face. - - “The men started up when they saw me, some of them crying out, - ‘You have been stung by the agy.’ Some of them led me to a seat, - others rushed for water from the river, and two or three brought - sand heaped up in their hands. Then they chafed me with the sand - and water to take out the stinging hairs, which they knew caused - the mischief. As they rubbed me, I felt the pain abate, and after - about a quarter of an hour’s continuance of the operation I was - comparatively free from pain. While the men were rubbing me, I was - able to discern to some extent the cause of my distress. Countless - hairs, like tiny arrows, almost transparent, pointed at either end, - and from a third to a fourth of an inch long, had dropped down - on me in an invisible shower from the agy-tree, as I passed and - stood under it. Ere I came away that afternoon, very cautiously I - ventured to examine the tree at a little distance, and found that - these tiny hairs grew outside a thickish pod or shell, not quite - so large as a small banana. These pods were fully ripe (unluckily - for me) just at that very time, and the light wind was scattering - their covering.” - -Mr Baron says that the agy is _Mucuna axillaris_; it is not, however, -“a tree,” but a climbing plant, and had grown over the tree under -which Mr Montgomery happened to pass. He had himself a similar -experience on his way to Mojangà, and the sensation “reminded him of -the sting of a nettle, but was ten times more virulent.” - -[Sidenote: A PERPETUAL DELIGHT] - -Our second day’s canoe voyage brought us into a part of the river, -with many windings among park-like glades of trees. Then the lovely -fan-palms became very numerous; at times we passed closer to the -banks, a tangled mass of _bàraràta_ bending down into the river, -and the tall grey columns of the palms standing up sometimes from -the very edge of the water, with their graceful crown of green fans -sharply defined against the blue of the sky. Everything seemed to be -steeped in light and heat. Surely of all the millions of beautiful -things in this beautiful world, palms are among the most lovely, and -the fan-palm not least among this glorious family of trees. It was -a perpetual delight to the eye to watch them as we swept rapidly by -the banks with the strong current, as one by one they passed by as in -a panorama. But for mosquitoes, certainly parts of the tropics are -earthly Edens. These palms are called _Sàtranabé_, and are much used -by the western peoples in building their huts. A smaller species, -called _Sàtramira_, is also employed in manufacturing mats and -baskets. Both are species of _Hyphæne_. - -But beautiful objects were not the only ones prominent in this -journey, and the presence of the scaly reptiles we saw every few -minutes was not altogether in harmony with the graceful palms. -They seemed, indeed, to be somewhat out of place, “survivals,” -as indeed they are, of an earlier age of the world when gigantic -saurians—creeping, walking, swimming and flying—were the ruling -existences, in a world of slime and mud and ooze, and not in accord -with these beautiful trees, which seem as if they should rather be -associated with bright-coloured birds and insects than with these -crawling saw-backed monsters. Beautiful birds were not wanting, -however, in the scene, for we came across a flight of lovely little -sun-birds, with bright metallic plumage, which glittered in the -sunshine. - -[Sidenote: FRUIT-BATS] - -Birds are not the only flying creatures to be seen in this western -region; although I was not so fortunate as to see them, Mr Grainge, -in travelling down this river in the preceding year speaks of seeing -great numbers of fruit-bats (_Pteropus edwardsii_). Their flight is -slow, and broken at each moment by strokes of the wings; and those -he saw flew so straight and steadily that he took them at first, in -the doubtful evening light, for benighted crows. He also remarks that -they were always flying in a direct line _from_ the setting sun. One -that he shot measured more than four feet across the wings. M. Pollen -says that they may be seen sometimes in broad daylight, flying from -one forest to another, when one might take them for crows. He also -remarks: “I have observed these animals fly like swallows over a -lake, just skimming the surface of the water with their wings. They -choose isolated places, especially the little wooded islands at some -distance from the coast.” - -Madagascar is the home of one or two other species of fruit-bat, -two species of the horseshoe-bats (_Rhinolo-phidæ_), seven species -of the _Vespertilionidæ_ or true bats, and three species of the -_Emballonuridæ_ or thick-legged bats; no doubt there are still many -species undescribed, and until much more minute investigation is made -of the fauna of the island, the crepuscular and nocturnal habits of -these animals will always make it difficult to learn much about their -peculiarities. - -The morning’s voyage brought us in several places along low sections -of stratified sandstone rock, looking like ruined walls, some courses -being deeply honeycombed by the action of the water, while others, of -harder material, were smooth, like newly laid masonry. It was clear -that we had left behind us, in the upper highland, the crystalline -rocks, the granites and gneisses and the like, and were in a region -of Secondary strata, like the oolites of our own country. Subsequent -examination by many observers has confirmed this fact, and shown that -an extensive series of Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks occupies a great -portion of the western low land, from north to south of the island. -These plains must have formerly been a portion of a wider Mozambique -Channel than now exists to separate Madagascar from Africa. - -In certain shales which occur among the Secondary strata of the -western plains, Belemnites are so numerous that the Sàkalàva used -them as rifle balls; while many species of ammonites are formed, some -being a foot in diameter. - -[Sidenote: THE SÀKALÀVA] - -As we proceeded, the country became more hilly and with more -extensive woods; but as for population, not a soul did we see, -except two women at one spot, and again we asked, where are the -people? And here a few words may be said about the inhabitants of -this part of the country. Along about two-thirds of the western side -of Madagascar, the people are loosely called Sàkalàva; but every -district has its people with its own tribal name, for “Sàkalàva” was -originally the name of one particular tribe, which, through European -or Arab admixture and the possession of fire-arms, conquered the -other tribes and founded two kingdoms, Ibòina to the north, and -Mènabé to the south. These Sàkalàva kingdoms were the dominant ones -in the island until the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the -Hovas gradually obtained the leadership. Physically, these people -are taller and stronger than the Hovas, are darker in colour, less -civilised, and have an African strain in them, from their proximity -to the continent. Still, they are not of African stock, but are no -doubt, Melanesian in origin. Their language presents a good deal of -difference from the Hova form of Malagasy, both in vocabulary and -in pronunciation, yet the groundwork and the grammar is essentially -the same. They are more nomadic in habit than the Hovas, breaking -up their villages at the death of any of its inhabitants, and not -cultivating rice like most Malagasy tribes, but subsisting largely on -manioc root, bananas, fish and vegetables. - -[Sidenote: AN OFFENSIVE TREE] - -We stopped to lunch under a fine adàbo-tree; all along the main -branches of this tree, the small fig-like fruits were clustered by -hundreds, most of them being ripe and scarlet in colour. During an -afternoon’s voyage the river became narrower, but with a deep and -strong current. We lost the fan-palms, but passed for some miles -along a beautifully wooded portion of country, with fine large trees, -like those in an English park, and growing close to the water’s edge. -One of these beautiful trees, however, has a very vile odour when cut -up for timber, so that although the wood is good for carpentry, when -new it is in the highest degree offensive. It is called _Komàngo_, -and the people say that its smell, as a tree, is so strong that -birds settling on its branches die immediately. A high price is given -for chips or twigs of the tree, to be used as charms, for few are -daring enough to cut it down. - - -[31] _Mòka_ is the native word for “mosquito”; _Mòkafòhy_ is, -literally, “short mosquito”; but the insect is not a gnat, but a fly, -and its name is, more correctly, _Alòy_. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -TO THE NORTH-WEST COAST - - -Crocodiles are not the only reptiles to be seen in the river, for -we also saw many large tortoises. They were chiefly of the genus -_Pyxis_, the Geometric or Box tortoise, having the carapace divided -into large hexagons beautifully marked, and were basking in the sun -on small spits of sand rising just above the surface of the water. A -carapace which I afterwards procured on the coast was about eighteen -inches long. Two other species are also found in Madagascar, named -respectively, _Testudo geometria_ and _Testudo radiata_. - -In former times the lakes and marshes of the island were inhabited -by an immense species of tortoise, whose remains have been -found together with those of the gigantic birds (Æpyornis), the -hippopotamus and the great extinct lemurs, all of which were no doubt -contemporaneous, lasting until the arrival of man on the scene. But -although extinct on the mainland of Madagascar, they seem to have -survived on the Mascarene group of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez -until a very recent date, and they are still living in the little -island of Aldabra, which is about two hundred and sixty miles -north-west of Cape Ambro. There are two living examples of these huge -creatures in the Regent’s Park Gardens. The male tortoise, which -is much the larger of the two, is five feet five inches in length, -and five feet nine inches in breadth, broader, in fact, than it is -long. It weighs about eight hundred pounds, and is believed to be -able to carry a ton weight on its back. It is now at least a hundred -and fifty years old, but is still young and is likely to grow to a -much greater size. From the geometric-shaped plates of its carapace, -it seems to be allied to the geometric tortoise, still plentiful -in Madagascar, as we have just seen. Until lately, it was supposed -that these great tortoises were becoming extinct on Aldabra, but by -the most recent accounts of the island, it appears that this is not -likely to be the case, the dense jungle of pandanus giving them -ample protection, as it is at night when they leave this shelter, and -go in search of food.[32] - -Although we saw no villages during this day’s voyage, there was -evidence of some population, in people fishing along the river bank, -canoes moored by the shore, and women drawing water, carefully -avoiding going into the stream, and filling their vessels with a -small gourd fastened to a long bamboo. The scenery also was more -varied, there being lines of low hills, partly covered with wood, and -the banks of the river lined with large trees. - -Our third day’s voyage took us again along a very beautiful extent -of park-like scenery. All yesterday afternoon we were gradually -approaching a long line of blue hills running north-north-west and -south-south-east, and this morning we got nearer to them. They -appeared to be about a thousand feet high, and almost covered with -dense forest, with patches of rock and red clay showing here and -there. Landing at noon for lunch among magnificent trees, I noticed -that these were swarming with ants, which covered the trunks and -devoured every fruit as soon as it became ripe. - -[Illustration: THE FÒSA - -It is the largest Madagascar carnivore, and is like a small jaguar] - -[Illustration: MALAGASY OXEN - -Note their large humps and horns] - -[Sidenote: A FIERCE ANIMAL] - -During this journey to the north-west, we saw no mammals except herds -of oxen; but as there _are_ a few others, it will be fitting here -to say something about the largest carnivorous animal found in the -island, especially as this district is its special habitat. This -creature is called by the people, _Fòsa_ (_Cryptoprocta ferox_), -and although small is very ferocious, as its specific name denotes. -The fòsa differs from most of the felidæ by the greater elongation -of the body, including the head, and it is plantigrade, like the -bears, and not digitigrade, like the majority of the cats. In its -structure it resembles the jaguar, and in its colouring the puma, -indeed it is very like a small jaguar, as it has thick glossy fur -of a tawny-brown, which becomes somewhat darker under the body. Its -total length is four feet eight inches, but of this the tail occupies -two feet two inches, and it stands about one foot three inches high. -For its size, the animal is powerful, but it is not dangerous to -man, except when it is wounded, or at the breeding season. It is -destructive to poultry and small animals, and it is able to emit a -very fetid odour from an anal pouch, with which fowls are said to -be killed. Examples of the fòsa have been seen in the outskirts -of the upper belt of forest on the east side of the island; and of -somewhat larger size than the dimensions already given. A specimen -I once saw was of a beautiful black colour, but I believe this was -only a variety, and not a distinct species from the brown animal. -The fòsa is much dreaded by the Malagasy, and, from its mode of -attack, appears to be like an immense weasel, attacking large -animals, such as the wild boar and even oxen. Like the aye-aye among -the quadrumana, and many of the native birds, the fòsa has no near -relative, and therefore a new family had to be formed for it, of -which it is the only genus and species. - -The other carnivora of Madagascar are all small animals, and are -rarely seen except when trapped. They all belong to the viverridæ -or civets, two to the civets proper, five (or six) being mungooses, -and one, an ichneumon. The mungooses, known to the Malagasy under -the name of _Vontsìra_, somewhat resemble the weasels and ferrets -of Europe, except that they are not exclusively flesh feeders. They -feed upon poultry, rats and mice, and also fruits. The ichneumon, or -_Fanàloka_, is about twenty inches long, with a bushy tail of about -a third that length, and is covered with thick warm brown fur. Its -claws are long and are used to dig up the eggs of the crocodile, on -which it is said to feed. - -[Sidenote: COLOURED FISH] - -Although we saw an occasional angler on the banks of the river, we -were not fortunate enough to see any of the fish. According to M. -Pollen, the rivers of the north-west contain a number of fish, many -of which are coloured in a most striking manner; the plates of his -valuable work on the fauna of the island show these as banded and -barred with the most vivid colours—blue, scarlet, black and yellow—in -fact, very much like those strikingly coloured and curiously marked -fishes which inhabit the sea round coral reefs and feed upon the -brightly tinted polyps. - -Wednesday afternoon’s voyage was, as regards scenery, the most -beautiful of the whole journey. Instead of the country becoming -flatter as we approach the sea, it increases in boldness and -picturesqueness. Lines of hills covered with wood lie in all -directions, and amongst these the river winds, making sudden turns -almost at right angles, so that we proceeded towards almost every -point of the compass except due south. A few scattered hamlets, -of three to six huts each, began to appear. The crocodiles were -numerous, from the old patriarch to the infant of a foot or so long. -We must have seen a hundred of them that afternoon. We had some -difficulty in landing and pitching our tents, and on account of the -heat and the mosquitoes passed the most uncomfortable night of the -entire journey. Hardly anyone was able to sleep, and I was glad to -get up at four o’clock and dress in the bright moonlight and rouse up -the others. - -[Sidenote: OUTRIGGER CANOES] - -Our fourth (and last) day of canoe voyaging was begun soon after six -o’clock. Outrigger canoes made their appearance, a style of craft the -Hovas seem never to have invented, nor are such in use on the east -coast. The scenery increased in boldness, with precipitous hillsides -rising from the side of the river, which here was about the size of -the Thames at Kew. About an hour after leaving, we found the current -running up the stream; it was feeling the influence of the tide from -the ocean, still many miles distant. The foliage was most dense and -luxuriant, from the summit of the hills down to the water’s edge, -in some parts the long lianas forming immense festoons and making a -perfect wall of exquisite green, while the ever-present _bàraràta_ -shoots up its feathery head. After some time we turned from the main -stream into a branch river, much narrower, but running for many miles -in a straight line. As the day advanced, the intense sunlight made -everything glow with light and heat, lighting up the dense vegetation -most brilliantly. Groups of pandanus were frequent here among the -more European-like trees; these are of two species, one rising into -a lofty cone, almost like a low poplar, and the other one more -spreading and brandishing, with the aerial roots rising high above -the ground. After an hour or two we came again into the main stream, -here more than a mile wide, the banks being still thickly wooded. -It was intensely hot, and we were not sorry to see Màrovoày (“Many -crocodiles”) a few miles ahead of us on a detached hill to the east -of the river. - -At one o’clock we stopped when opposite the town, the water approach -to it being by a small tidal stream which flows into the main river -some miles farther down. Our men were just enough to carry the -wife and baby and little girl in their palanquin across the mile -or two, while the native nurse and I walked; the others, who were -some way behind, had to go farther down the river in the canoes, -and consequently had three or four hours’ paddling in the glowing -afternoon sun, which we who took the land journey avoided. - -Màrovoày is situated on the north-east bank of a small river, which -we had to cross by a canoe. Nearly a dozen dhows were either anchored -in the stream or aground on mud-banks, giving the place the aspect -of a small fishing town. The lower town, with perhaps two hundred -houses, was chiefly occupied by Arab and Indian traders, their stores -and warehouses lining the main street through which we passed. The -Hova town and government compound (_ròva_) was on a low hill, rising -abruptly from the level to the height of eighty or a hundred feet. -Coming up to the gate of the _ròva_, we stopped to rest and sent word -of our arrival to the governor. While we were waiting, one of our men -thoughtfully got us a coffee-pot full of _rànom-pàry_ (sugar-cane -juice), and never did nectar taste more delicious than that as we -took repeated “pulls” at it after our walk across the rice-fields in -the glowing sunshine. - -[Sidenote: A WELCOME REST] - -Presently we were invited to enter, the governor coming out to meet -us, and brought us into his house, a rather smartly furnished place -of one large room, but with a wide gallery all round it. Here we -were glad to rest after our hot voyage and walk, and enjoyed an -excellent cup of coffee, which they kindly made for us, as well as -some of Huntley & Palmer’s “best mixed biscuits.” We felt as if we -were getting back into a civilised land again! After a little while -we moved into the chapel, which was also within the _ròva_; this -was a large building, and looked quite gay, from being completely -papered with good wall-paper, but badly laid on, for the native -workman evidently thought that the white edging to each piece was a -part of the pattern, and so had carefully left it visible in every -case! The wooden posts of the roof were all papered too. The pulpit -was a curious example of its kind, being made of lattice-work, gaily -painted, with a number of small looking-glasses let into its front, -and backed by wall-paper. It had a flat canopy or sounding board -and a large door, so it was like a little room of itself. With its -numerous doors and windows there was a beautiful breeze through -the building, and we anticipated a comfortable night, but, alas! -our hopes were not realised, for the heat was intense, and the -mosquitoes persecuted us by hundreds. This town is probably one of -the hottest in the island, and we were told that later on, in the -rainy season, the place is almost unbearable from the clouds of these -insects. - -[Sidenote: FROM CANOE TO DHOW] - -Our day at Màrovoày was occupied chiefly in arranging for leaving for -Mojangà the same evening, and in transferring all our baggage to one -of the dhows lying in the river. There is an extensive view from the -upper part of the town, as the country is very flat for many miles -round. In the evening we dined with the governor and his wife in the -_làpa_, and went down to the river at about nine o’clock. With some -difficulty, in the darkness, we transferred ourselves and palanquins, -etc., from shore to canoe, and from canoe to dhow, and at last were -crowded together as thick as we could sit and lie on the little deck. -The ship we embarked in was about thirty-five feet long, by fourteen -or fifteen feet beam; the middle portion open to the keel, but with -a little deck forward and another aft. This small quarter-deck was -about ten to twelve feet square, and when the two large palanquins -for the children to sleep in had been placed on either side, there -was not much space left for five adults to pack together, in fact we -had about as much room as would be found on a good-sized dining-table. - -Soon after ten o’clock we got under way, the tide having begun to ebb -for the previous hour or two. There was no wind, so six men rowed -us down the stream, accompanying their work with the most curious -weird-sounding songs, in Arabic, I suppose (or perhaps Suahili), some -of them sounding very comic. We swept down rapidly with the tide, the -trees looking dark and gloomy in the uncertain light, and presently -the moon rose. After an hour or two we got into the main river, and -in a little time had to cast anchor, as the tide had turned. It was a -strange night, and we did not get much sleep, as we had not room to -turn, so we waited impatiently for the dawn. Dawn, however, brought -with it a cloud of mosquitoes from the low swampy ground bordering -the river, which was thick with mangroves and rank vegetation. Just -at twilight they surrounded us by thousands; but as soon as the sun -rose, they disappeared, a gentle breeze sprang up, and we set sail. -The river widened as we proceeded, until it became a large estuary, -and gradually opened into the Bay of Bèmbatòka. The breeze freshened -as the day advanced, and we sailed at a considerable speed. - -These dhows are first-rate sailers; they carry one large sail, in -shape like a triangle with one corner cut off. But what struck us as -very curious was that when tacking, they did not run into the wind’s -eye as a European ship does, but they turned the dhow right round -before the wind, while shifting the long boom to the other side of -the mast. But they sail very close to the wind, and seem excellent -sea boats. This form of ship is probably a very ancient one, for -vessels very similar in shape and rig are figured on the Egyptian -monuments, and most likely the “ships of Tarshish” were only rather -large dhows. The largest of these vessels have two masts, the one at -the stern being much smaller than the other, and both have a _rake_ -forward, instead of aft, as in European ships. - -[Sidenote: MOJANGÀ] - -Our spirits rose with the wind, for there had been many prophecies -at Màrovoày that we might be a long time on the way, and, in fact, -some friends who preceded us by a month or two were actually three -nights on the voyage. But we bounded over the waves and soon felt -a considerable swell. Bèmbatòka Bay is so wide for a considerable -distance that the north-western shore is only faintly visible, but it -narrows again towards the mouth, and a line of hills running out to -the western point defines its outline very clearly; opposite Mojangà -it is about five miles across. Towards noon they pointed out to us a -projecting headland, some way ahead to the right, and told us that -after rounding that we should see Mojangà. The wind continued strong, -but as it got more and more ahead, we had to tack repeatedly. At -about half-past three o’clock we reached our destination, casting -anchor a quarter of a mile or so from the beach. - -[Sidenote: CAMELS] - -Mojangà was a decidedly pretty and picturesque-looking place from the -sea, and a much more civilised-looking town than any I had previously -seen in Madagascar. Instead of rush and bamboo houses, there was a -long line of white flat-topped buildings of two and three storeys, -some having castellated battlements. A score or two of dhows were at -anchor in the roads, but there was no European vessel in the harbour. -Behind the Arab and Indian town the ground rises gently for two -hundred or three hundred feet, and at the top of this higher ground -is the _ròva_ and Hova town. Between the two, and to the north, is -a beautiful park-like expanse, thickly studded with magnificent -trees, chiefly mangoes, which here grow to a great size, as well as -baobabs, and clumps of cocoanut-palms and a few fan-palms. A fort -crowns the crest of the hill to the north; and altogether, we were -agreeably surprised with Mojangà. Just as we had cast anchor, we were -surprised to see several camels brought down to the sea for a bath. -They were imported from Aden some time ago by a French firm, but had -not proved a success, commercially, for Madagascar has too damp a -climate for animals accustomed to the sand and gravel of the Arabian -desert. We had not landed many minutes before our brother missionary, -Mr Pickersgill, then stationed at Mojangà, came down and gave us a -hearty welcome and every assistance with our baggage, etc. Our little -family party found quarters in the verandah of the house of a Madame -Beker, very near the shore, while the others went to stay with Mr -Pickersgill near the _ròva_. This house was of coral rock, plastered, -but was so hot that we preferred the verandah, which was roofed with -fan-palm leaves and surrounded with the same slight materials. We -were glad of the quiet and rest we had there for a week after our two -or three weeks’ travelling by land and river. - -The following morning, Sunday, the mail steamer, _Packumba_, came -in about midday, but left again for Mozambique in the afternoon. On -going on board to see the ship we were to sail in, we found that her -main deck was arranged so as to take a great number of passengers, -the iron plating at the sides all turning up on hinges to allow a -free passage of air. I was glad to be able to preach to a large -congregation in the native church during the afternoon. - -The week at Mojangà passed away rapidly, for we had plenty to do -in rearranging and labelling luggage, disposing of our palanquins, -bedding, and other no longer needful property, and preparing for our -voyage. At this town we found ourselves in quite a different place -and surroundings from what we had seen everywhere else in Madagascar. -We were in the midst of an Indian and Mohammedan population, the -traders here being mostly Banians and a large proportion of them -British subjects. Hindoo speech, dress, ornament, and customs met us -at every turn, and also those of the Arabs. The houses are chiefly -built of coral rock, plastered with lime, and roofed with fan-palm -leaves. The door and window openings are made with flat-pointed and -zigzagged arches; and when the rooms are wide, a line of piers and -arches runs down its length, giving a cool depth of shade quite -Eastern in its effect. The doorways have elaborately carved lintels -and posts; these are all done at Bombay and brought here ready for -fitting. There is a little stone carving also here and there, and -Arabic sentences are carved over the doors in some cases. The men -are in Indian dress, and the women with nose-jewels, silver armlets -and anklets, and the long muslin robe thrown over the head and wound -round the body. - -[Sidenote: ARABIC DRESS AND CUSTOMS] - -Arabic dress and customs were not less prominent in Mojangà. Close -to our lodging was a small mosque, and from the flat roof we could -hear the _muezzin_ calling the faithful to prayers five times a day -in a long sonorous musical cry—before sunrise, in the forenoon, -at noon, at three o’clock, and at sunset, and could see his form -silhouetted against the sky, making a number of prostrations when the -call was finished. Our stay here was in the month Ramazan, the great -fasting-time of the Mohammedans, when they eat and drink nothing all -day, at least the strictly orthodox do not. They make up for it, -however, at night; and feasting and jollity seemed to be the general -employment. Our house adjoining the main street, it was extremely -noisy until long after midnight. There is no doubt that the Arabs, -and also the Indians, have been settled at Mojangà, as well as at -other places on the north-west coast, for centuries. As we have seen -in Chapter XII., there was an Arab colony at some remote period on -the south-east coast, but this was gradually absorbed and lost in -the native population and no longer maintains a separate existence. -The north-western colony, however, being in constant communication -with Suahili land and the Arab element there, has maintained its -individuality, and kept its dress, customs, language, and religion -quite distinct from the Malagasy around it. - -Amongst the magnificent mango-trees in the park are many specimens of -the baobab-tree (_Adansonia madagascariensis_); one of these must be -from seventy to eighty feet in girth. The trunks of these trees are -of enormous size compared with the small expanse of the branches; -and their glossy dark brown bark, their rapid tapering upwards, and -their bareness of foliage for the greater part of the year, mark them -very distinctly from all others. They are curious in appearance, but -not at all beautiful. The bark is used to make rope, and the sap is -said to be potable and tasteless; the wood, however, is so soft that -it can be pulled away by the fingers. - -Many trees affording beautiful and valuable timber are found in -these western woods; among these is one yielding the kind called by -cabinet-makers “zebra-wood,” while ebony is obtained from one or more -of the twenty-two species of _Diospyros_ known in the island. We have -seen the mangrove (_Rhizophora mucronata_) on the shores of Bèmbatòka -Bay, and this tree is found at the mouths of almost all the rivers -and inlets on the north-western coast, where it is the most prominent -feature in the extensive swamps, probably also helping to extend the -land. - -[Sidenote: FISHING EAGLES] - -We had no opportunity of seeing the largest of the Madagascar birds, -the _Ankoày_, or fishing eagle (_Haliaetus vociferoides_), although -it is found all along the western coast. It is a large and handsome -bird, and is said to keep watch on a tree or cliff at the edge of -the water, swooping down like lightning into the sea after its finny -prey, and being able to arrest instantaneously its downward flight. -M. Grandidier says that a single pair of these eagles is found in -very many of the innumerable small bays of the north-western coast, -and of this they take exclusive possession, allowing no other eagle -to encroach on their own preserves. They feed principally on fish, -catching adroitly those which appear near the surface. The name of -_Ankoày_ applied to this bird appears to be an imitative one derived -from its cry of _hoai, hoai_. - -It is doubtful whether there is another eagle really indigenous to -Madagascar, although a harrier-eagle (_Eutriorchis_) was once shot -in the Mangòro valley; if this was not a chance immigrant, it must -be extremely rare. This one example was remarkable for the extreme -shortness of its wings, and immoderate length of tail. - -[Sidenote: TURTLES] - -One of the most important occupations of the coast Sàkalàva is the -catching of turtles (_fàno_). Some of these creatures are oval in -form and very fat and plump, others are much thinner and flat; of -these latter, some are said to attain a length of eight or nine -feet. In catching them the natives go out to sea in the early -morning, when the turtles come to the surface to enjoy their morning -nap, and at which time the sea is usually very smooth. A kind of -harpoon, about twelve feet long, shod with a piece of barbed iron is -used, and to this a strong rope, a couple of hundred yards in length, -is attached. Great care and caution has to be used in approaching -the sleeping animal, for, if struck, it dives down immediately, and -the fisherman will not leave go of the rope, but dives down with -it, if the water is deep. The natives seem to be able to stop an -extraordinary time under water. As soon as the turtle is secured, the -captors make for the shore, and all the people gather together to -share in the feast. Nobody must bring anything from a house to the -spot, for the animal must be wrenched open and cut in pieces with -knives belonging to the canoe, it must be cooked in sea-water in the -shell of the turtle itself, and served in scoops or other vessels -from the canoe, or in pieces of turtle-shell. None of the flesh is -allowed to be brought into a house to be cooked or eaten there. All -these and several other precautions are ancestral customs and must be -religiously observed, or the turtles would disappear. - -A curious account is given by the natives of the north-west coast of -a fish which they call _Hàmby_, whose length is said to be about that -of a man’s arm, and its girth about that of his thigh. Its dorsal -fin, they say, is just like a brush, and it has a liquid about it, -sticky like glue, and when it fastens on to another fish from below, -with this brush on its head, the fish cannot get away, but is held -fast. On account of this peculiarity, the people use the hàmby to -fish with. When they catch one, they confine it in a light cage, -which they fasten in the sea, feeding it daily with cooked rice or -small fish; and when they want to use it, they tie a long cord round -its tail and let it go, following it in a canoe. When it fastens on a -fish they pull it in and secure the spoil. I wonder whether this fish -has any connection with one found on the east coast, which is called -_Làdintavìa_, and is said by Mr Connorton to be covered with a kind -of slime, so that when many of them are together, it looks as if they -are floating in a thick lather of soap. - -Two or more kinds of oysters are found on this north-west coast; -one of these is called by the people _Sàja_, which may be seen -covering the rocks in great abundance on the seashore at low water. -It is a small oyster, but excellent in quality. Another kind, -called _Téfaka_, is only found at some depth below water. It is a -much larger oyster than the sàja, with the interior of the shell -beautifully pearly. It is said to be delicious in flavour. Quite -recently an English company was projected to exploit these oyster -beds for pearls and for the pearly shells themselves. - -Another sea-living creature in Madagascar waters is a species of -octopus called _Horìta_, which, notwithstanding its repulsive -appearance, is reckoned a delicacy by the coast people, although -Europeans who have tried it pronounce it as tough and gluey and -uneatable, although cooked for a long time. - -[Sidenote: HERONS] - -The north-west coasts, from the numerous estuaries surrounded with -trees, are particularly favourable for such birds as the herons, -some species of which are regarded as sacred by the natives, and are -consequently less shy than these birds are in Europe, while others -are very wary and most difficult to approach. In habits and feeding -these Madagascar herons are much like the European and African -species, mostly living on fish, molluscs and crustacea, the larger -ones devouring reptiles and small birds and mammals, while the -smaller kinds are insectivorous. They are often found in companies, -including several different species, settled on the trees overhanging -or near water, and remaining perfectly motionless for a long time. -Some of the herons appear to be very common, as the ashy, the -black-necked, the purple, the white-winged, the garzetta, and some -others, and especially the small white egret, which we have noticed -more than once in these chapters. Fifteen species of heron are found -in Madagascar, three storks, a spoonbill, five ibises and a flamingo. - -[Sidenote: ISLAND OF NÒSIBÉ] - -It was a pleasure to us during our week’s stay at Mojangà to meet -with several old acquaintances among the Hova officers stationed -there; anyone coming from their loved Imèrina always received a -warm welcome. On the Saturday of the week after our arrival there, -the _Packumba_ returned from Africa, and on the following morning -we left in her for Aden and Europe. Steaming northwards, we kept in -sight of the mainland of Madagascar during the next day, and this -appeared bold and mountainous, and very different from the greater -portion of the eastern coast of the island. There were many islands -rising precipitously out of the sea, while ahead of us the lofty -mountains of the island of Nòsibé soon appeared. These looked exactly -like portions of the interior of Madagascar set down in the midst -of the sea; the same red clay soil and the same markings of valley -and ravine as seen all through the interior plateaux. Two or three -very regular volcanic cones, truncated and showing the craters, -were very prominent; these are parts of that chain of extinct vents -of which we have seen numerous examples in our travelling through -other parts of the country. Besides the main island of Nòsibé, there -are many outlying portions of it, looking like detached islets -dropped into the sea. Some of these are densely wooded from base to -summit. Altogether, as may be seen from a brief glance at the map, -the north-western side of Madagascar is totally different, with its -numerous deep bays and inlets, from the eastern side, where there is -almost a straight line for many hundreds of miles. The geology of the -two sides is very different, and this has powerfully affected their -physical geography. - -We stayed several hours at Nòsibé, discharging and receiving cargo, -and it was nearly sunset when we steamed away to the north-west for -Mayotta. For several hours we could still see the island and the -mainland by the glare of the burning grass on the hillsides; and -these, for more than five years subsequently, were the last glimpses -we had of Madagascar. - - -[32] See “The South-West Indian Ocean”; by J. C. F. Fryer; _The -Geographical Journal_, September 1910; pp. 249-271. - - -[Illustration: MAP FOR “A NATURALIST IN MADAGASCAR.” - -SEELEY, SERVICE & CO., LIMITED, 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C.] - - - - -INDEX - - - Ambòdinangàvo, 70 - - Adàbo-tree, 252, 289, 299 - - _Æpyornis_, 213 - - Agave, the, 32 - - _Agy_, a stinging plant, 297 - - Alamazaotra, 63 - - Alaotra, Lake, 68, 174, 193, 197, 207 - - Alàtsinainy, 116 - - Algæ, species of, 200 - - _Aloe macroclada_, 90 - - Aloes and agaves, 91 - - Ambàhy, 270 - - Ambàtoharànana, 56, 109 - - Ambàtomànga, 72 - - Ambàtondrazàka, 178, 205 - - Ambàtovòry, 127 - - Ambinàny, chief, 237 - - Ambòdinònoka, 185 - - Ambòhidèhilàhy, 184 - - Ambòhijànahàry, 194 - - Ambòhimanàrina, 103 - - Ambòhimànga, 77, 105, 121, 205 - - Ambòhimiangàra, 209 - - “Ambòhimitsímbina,” 76 - - Ambòhinàmboàrina, 229 - - Ambòhipèno, 188, 253 - - Ambòhitròmby, 187 - - Ambòhitritankàdy, 120 - - Ambòhitsàra, 196 - - Ambòhitsitàkatra Mountains, 174 - - Ambòhitsòa, 201 - - Ambòndrombé Mountain, 234 - - Ambòro Mountain, 61 - - Ambòsitra, 230 - - _Amìana_, or tree-nettle, 122, 146 - - Ampàrafàravòla, 185, 188 - - Ampàsimbé, 57 - - Ampàsimpòtsy, 68 - - Anàlamazàotra Mountains, 175 - - Ancient towns and villages, 113 - - Andohàlo, 118 - - Andòvorànto, 45 - - Andraikìba, Lake, 215 - - Andrànokòbaka, 176 - - Andrànokòditra, 38 - - Andrìambàvibé, 64 - - _Andrìana_, 25 - - Andrìba Mountain, 289 - - _Andropogon contortus_, 190 - - Angàvo Mountains, 69, 71, 229 - - Angàvokèly Mountain, 71 - - _Angræcum_, orchid, 32 - - Animal life, ancient, 225 - - Animal life, peculiarity of, 66 - - Anìvona-palm, 276 - - Anjozòrobé, 174, 206 - - Ankàrana, 264 - - Ankàratra Mountain, 61, 77, 208, 219, 221 - - Ankay, plain of, 68, 127, 175 - - Ankèramadìnika, 71, 127 - - Ankìtsika, 195 - - Ànoròro, 205 - - Antanànarìvo, 73 - - Ant-hills, 176, 234 - - Ants, destruction by, 34 - - Ants’ nests, 130, 289 - - Antsèsika river, 222 - - Antsihànaka Province, 173 - - Antsìrabé, 101, 211 - - Antsìrabé plain, 219 - - _Apenthes madagascariensis_, 42 - - Aquatic fowl, 186 - - Arabic influence, 255, 309 - - _Ardea bubulcus_, 34 - - _Àrondòvy_, the, 251 - - Arums, Gigantic, 34, 253 - - Asabòtsy, market at, 116 - - _Astacoides madagasc._, 157 - - _Avara-patana_, or place of honour, 98 - - _Aviavy_, a species of _ficus_, 122 - - Aye-aye, the, 45 - - - Ball-insect, 159 - - Bamboo, the, 49, 57, 65 - - Banana-trees, 49 - - Baobab-trees, 309 - - Bàra people, the, 233 - - Baron, Mr, 60, 127, 138, 200 - - Bats, 298 - - Bearers, our, 55, 228 - - Bee-eater, 170, 291 - - “Beefwood tree,” 41 - - Bees, the enemies of, 145 - - Bees, wild, 144 - - Beetles, 132, 154 - - Béfòrona, 59, 61, 175 - - Béhòsy, the, 147 - - Belemnites, 299 - - Bèmbatòka, Bay of, 77, 161, 307 - - Benyowski, Count, 235 - - Bétàfo, 208 - - Bétsibòka, River, 77, 174, 295 - - Bétsiléo province, 229 - - Bétsimitàtatra, 77, 92 - - Bétsimisàraka people, the, 43 - - Bezànozàno tribe, 6 - - Bird life, 63 - - Bird life, scant, 279 - - Birds, extinct gigantic, 213 - - Birds: parakeets, green pigeons, cardinal-birds, sun-birds, 32; - crows, 34; - egret, 34; - ducks and geese, 38; - storks, herons, 69; - rapacious, 82; - egret, 105; - crow, 105; - kingfisher, 105; - song, 137; - sun-birds, 137; - rollers, 138; - shrike, parrot, warbler, cuckoo, wood-pigeon, hawks, 138; - goat-sucker, 140; - owls, 140; - weaver-bird, 169; - bee-eater, 170; - birds on Lake Itàsy, 210; - parrots, 233; - Prevost’s broadbill, 281; - black parrots, 291; - bee-eater, 291; - fork-tailed shrike, 294; - fly-catcher, 293 - - Blow-pipe, native, 61 - - Boa, a, 44 - - Botanising in Madagascar, 128 - - “Bound-by-blood” ceremony, 235 - - _Brehmia spinosa_, 42 - - Bridges, 187, 194, 234, 238 - - _Buddleia madagasc._, 90 - - Buildings, modern, 99 - - Bull-baiting, 194 - - “Bullockers,” 20 - - Burial customs, 43 - - Butterflies, 110, 254 - - - _Cærostris stygiana_, 162 - - _Cæsalpinia sepiaria_, 90 - - Camels, 308 - - Canals, 37 - - “Candle-nut-tree,” the, 158 - - Canoe chants, 271 - - Canoes, native, 33 - - Cape Lilac, 81 - - Cardinal-birds, 32 - - Carnivora, species of, 66, 167, 303 - - Carving in Bétsiléo, 230 - - _Cassia lævigata_, the, 90 - - _Cassis_, 36 - - Casuarina, the, 270 - - Caterpillars, 132 - - Caterpillars, a bag of, 130 - - Cattle rearing, 182, 195 - - _Centetes ecaudatus_, or tail-less tenrec, 167 - - Centetidæ, the, 278 - - Centipedes, 160 - - _Cercopis_ species, 91 - - Chameleons, 135, 288 - - Chameleonidæ, species of the, 135 - - Charms, 86, 249 - - _Cheirogaleus minor_, 243 - - Children, Hova, 122 - - Cicada, the, 171 - - Clay in building, use of, 96 - - _Clematis bojeri_, 101 - - Climate, 75 - - Climbing plants, 37, 142 - - Clothing of the Malagasy, 124 - - Coast-line, the, 36 - - Coffee, 51 - - Cold month, the, 124 - - Commelyna Madagasc., 89 - - Constellations, Malagasy names for, 125 - - _Conus_, 36 - - Convolvuli, 49 - - _Coraciadæ_, 138 - - _Coracopsis obscura_, 234 - - _Corvus scapulatus_, 34 - - Cory, Mr, 99 - - _Cosmaria_, 200 - - Couas, the, 170 - - Crabs, 35 - - Crater lakes, 215 - - Craters, extinct, 208 - - Crayfish, 157 - - Crocodiles, 294 - - Crocodiles of Lake Alaotra, 200 - - Crocodiles, superstitious dread of, 49 - - Crocodiles, extinct species of, 223 - - Crows, 34 - - Cryptogamic vegetation, 143 - - Custom, a curious, 194 - - Customs at the New Year, 88 - - Customs of the Sihànaka, 203 - - _Cycas thouarsii_, 41 - - Cyclones, 148 - - _Cynoglossum_, 101 - - _Cypræa_, 36 - - - Dauphine, Fort, 232 - - Davidson, Dr, 74 - - Day, divisions of the, 93 - - Days, uniformity in the length of the, 92 - - “Death-moths,” 110 - - Death’s-head moth, 145 - - Deciduous trees, 125 - - _Delphinus pas_, 275 - - Dhows, 307 - - Dialects, Hova and Malagasy, 236 - - Dinner with the Governor, 191 - - Dishes and spoons, primitive, 268 - - Dolphins, 275 - - Doorways, Bétsiléo, 236 - - Dracæna, 289 - - Dragonflies, 108 - - Dress, children’s, 125 - - Dress, Sihànaka, 202 - - Drury, Robert, 183 - - Dry season, the, 113 - - Dye from trees, 158 - - - Earthquake, 224 - - Earthworms, enormous, 112, 155 - - Ebony, 159 - - Eels, 107 - - _Èfitra_, or desert, 289 - - Eggs of the _Æpyornis_, 213 - - Egret, white, 105 - - Egyptian kite, the, 83 - - _Eleocarpus sericeus_, leaves of, 158 - - Embankments, 78 - - Eucalyptus, cultivation of, 125 - - Euphorbia, the, 60, 125 - - _Euryceros prevosti_, 281 - - - _Fàhitra_, or pens for oxen, 121 - - _Famòa_, 179 - - _Fànataovana_, or lucky heaps, 155 - - Fauna and flora, 17 - - Feather-bellows, 156 - - Félana, or decoration, 233 - - Ferns, 59, 128, 157 - - Fianàrantsòa, 232 - - Fibres, for rope, 158 - - _Filanjàna_, the, 18, 24 - - Fire, method of producing, 151 - - Fireflies, 271, 284 - - Firing the grass, 82 - - Fish, 39; - octopus, 40; - mullet, 40; - prawns and shrimps, 40; - shark, 40; - saw-fish, 40; - dolphins, 275, 303 - - Fishing, 196 - - Fishing eagle, 310 - - “Fitomanìanòmby,” 63 - - Flamingoes, 210 - - Flora: orchids, 32; - arums, 34; - palms, 37; - climbing plants, 37; - ferns, 38; - tangèna, 38; - sago palms, 41; - _Filào_, 41; - _Brehmia spinosa_, 42; - _Hibiscus_, 42; - _Stephanotis_, 42; - _Ipomæa_, 42; - pitcher-plant, 42; - gum-copal, 42; - india-rubber, 42; - bamboo, sugar-cane, manioc, banana, palms, pandanus, water-lilies, - palms, convolvuli, traveller’s tree, 49; - raspberries, 51; - coffee, 51; - lace-leaf plant, 53; - bamboo, 57; - tree-ferns, 57; - pine-apples, 57; - _rofìa_-palm, 58; - ferns, 59; - euphorbias, 60; - orchids, 64; - bamboo, 65; - rice, 79; - Cape lilac, 81; - vine, 81; - euphorbia, 81; - orchids, 101; - indigenous plants, 127; - ferns, orchids, 128; - grasses and ferns, 128; - palms, 142; - climbing plants, 142; - cryptogamic vegetation, 143; - mosses and lichens, 143; - fungi, 144; - spiny plants, 145; - stinging plants, 146; - ferns, 157; - valuable trees, 158; - Tamarind-trees, 295 - - Flowers, comparative scarcity of, 64 - - Fly-catchers, 295 - - Food, curious articles of, 106 - - Food, articles of, 23 - - Forest, stillness of the, 60, 65, 277 - - Fòsa, the, 302 - - Fosses, 119 - - Fossils, 212 - - Foundry, native, 156 - - Fragrance of wild plants, 178 - - French invasion, the, 28 - - Frigate-birds, 255 - - Frogs, 152 - - Fruit-bats, 298 - - Funeral, a heathenish, 276 - - Funeral memorial, a, 268 - - Funerals, expensive, 203 - - Fungi, 144 - - Furniture, 98 - - - Games, 122 - - Gates of stone, 119 - - Geese, 186 - - “General Hàzo” and “General Tàzo,” 28 - - Geological formations, quartz, red sandstone, 39, 53 - - Goat-sucker, the, 140 - - Goudot, M., 91 - - Grainge, Mr, and the cattle, 287 - - Granaries, 54 - - Grandidier, Alfred, 17, 169, 235 - - Grasses and rushes, 128, 178, 191, 201, 206 - - Grass, firing the, 72, 73 - - “Grave of the French,” 42 - - Guinea-fowl, 186 - - Gum-copal tree, 37, 42 - - Gums and resins, 158 - - - Hail, 86 - - Hair-dressing, 252, 258 - - _Hàmby_, the, 311 - - _Hapalemur simus_, 243 - - Hawks, 84 - - _Hàzondràno_, or rush, 108 - - Hearth, the, 97 - - _Hèrana_, the, 108 - - Herons, 69, 312 - - _Hibiscus_, 42 - - _Hibiscus diversifolius_, 90 - - Hills, outline of, 52 - - Hippopotamus, extinct, 212 - - Hippopotamus Lemerlei, 212 - - Hivòndrona, 32 - - Hoar-frost, 113 - - Hooker, Sir W. J., 54 - - Horned memorial poles, 182 - - Hospitality of the Malagasy, 41 - - Hot springs, 53 - - Houlder, Mr, and the boa, 44 - - Houses, native, 23, 70, 236 - - “House-horns,” 97 - - Hovas, 299 - - Humped duck, 186 - - - Iàboràno, 268 - - Iàritsèna, 232 - - Iatsìfitra volcano, 224 - - Ice, 92 - - Ifànja marsh, 225 - - Ifòdy Hills, 69 - - Ihàroka river, 45, 48 - - Ihòvana, chieftainess, 282 - - Ikòngo, 235 - - Ikòpa river, 76, 286, 291 - - Imàhazòny, 236 - - Imèrina, 71 - - India-rubber, 42, 158 - - Indigenous plants, 128 - - Insect life, 65, 279 - - Insectivora, species of, 67 - - Insects: ants, 34; - cockroaches, 38, 43; - a new spider, 43; - beauty of, 70; - spiders, 71; - water-producing, 91; - black wasp, 99; - silkworm moth, 109; - butterflies, 110; - grasshoppers, 111; - mantis, 112; - dog-locust, 112; - nests, 130; - ants, 131; - beetles, 132; - caterpillars, 132; - spiders, 133; - mantis religiosa, 153; - grasshoppers, 153; - beetles, 154; - ball-insect, 159; - millipedes, centipedes, scorpions, 160; - venomous spiders, 162; - protective resemblance, 164, 280; - mòkafòhy, 289 - - Intelligence of the people, 56 - - Inundations, damage by, 78 - - Iòlomàka, 237 - - Ipomæa, 42, 101 - - Iron, 156 - - Irrigation, 80 - - Isoàvina, 110 - - Itàsy, Lake, 208 - - Itsìatòsika, 275 - - Ivàlokiànja, 236 - - Ivàtoàvo, 232 - - Ivòhibé Mountain, 259 - - Ivòhitràmbo, 283 - - Ivòhitròsa, 237, 241 - - Ivòko volcano, 224 - - - Jacanas, 211 - - _Jàka_, 50 - - Jigger, the, 161 - - _Jìro_, or memorial poles, 203 - - Johnson, Rev. H. T., 107 - - _Jorèry_ or cicada, 277 - - - _Kabàry_ or National Assembly, 117 - - _Kankàfotra_, or cuckoo, 82 - - _Kànkandoròka_, a species of worm, 277 - - _Karàbo_, the, 259 - - Kestrel, the, 83 - - _Kètsa_ grounds, 79, 80 - - “King-butterfly,” 110 - - Kingfisher, 105 - - _Kinòly_, the, 159 - - Kiròmbo roller, 138 - - _Kòlikòly_, or after-crop, 304 - - Komàngo-tree, 299 - - - Lace-leaf plant, 53 - - Ladders, primitive, 54 - - Lagoons, 36, 273 - - Lake-dwellers, 173 - - Lakes and marshes, anciently a country of, 22 - - _Làmba_, the, 25, 58, 62, 109 - - Land-shells, 136 - - _Landolphia Madagas._, 42 - - _Làpa_, or Government House, 179 - - Le Sage, Captain, 59 - - Leeches, 157 - - _Lemur Catta_, 243 - - _Lemur mongos_, 45 - - Lemuroid animals, extinct, 222, 226 - - Lemuroida, species of, 66 - - Lemurs, 45, 66, 67, 168 - - Lichens, 116, 143 - - Lightning, freaks played by, 85, 87 - - Lilìa, river, 209 - - Lime deposit, 211 - - Lizards, 43, 134 - - Lizards, extinct species of, 223 - - Locusts, 73 - - _Longòzy_ plant, the, 249 - - Looms, primitive, 58 - - - Madagascar, 19; - its ancient connection with Africa, 67 - - Madagascar bee, the, 144 - - Màhamànina, 257 - - Màhavèlona, 259 - - Major, Dr Forsyth, 278 - - Malarial fever, 42 - - Mammalia, 66 - - Mammals, species of, 278 - - _Mampìta-hàdy_, or fosse-crosser, 109 - - Manàkambahìny, 185 - - Mànanàra river, 174, 295 - - Mànanjàra river, 275, 281 - - Mandànivàtsy, 207 - - Mandràka river, 71 - - Mandràka Valley, 142 - - Màngasoàvina, 289 - - Mango-trees, 81 - - Mangòro river, 69 - - Màningòry river, 174, 193 - - Manioc, 49 - - _Mantidactylus_ genus of frogs, 153 - - Mantis, a curious, 112 - - _Mantis religiosa_, 153 - - Market day, 181 - - Markets, 116 - - Màrokalòy, 290 - - Maròmby, 51 - - _Maromita_, or porters, 24, 30 - - Màrosalàzana, 202 - - Màrovoày, 304 - - Marshes, 108 - - Màsindràno, 275 - - Màtitànana river, 240, 295 - - Matthey, M. C., 111 - - Mats, Sihànaka, 185 - - Mead, 145 - - Medicinal waters, 212 - - Medicine from trees, 158 - - _Melia azederach_, 81 - - Memorial poles, 203, 231 - - _Merops superciliosus_, 170 - - _Mesites_, 211 - - Mèvatanàna, 225, 292 - - Millipedes, 160 - - Mimicry amongst plants, 155 - - Mineral wealth of the country, 57 - - _Mitra_, 36 - - Mojangà, 285, 307 - - _Mòkafòhy_, insect, 288, 300 - - Money, 117 - - Months, origin of names of, 88 - - Moraféno, 187 - - Mòramànga, 68 - - Mòraràno, 187, 193 - - Mortar and pestle, the, 97 - - Mosses, 143 - - Moths, 109 - - Mouse-lemurs, 243 - - Mozambique Channel, 67 - - _Mugil borbonicus_, 40 - - Mullens, Dr, 31, 173 - - Mullet, 40 - - _Mundulea suberosa_, the, 90 - - Mungooses, 303 - - Musical instruments, 56 - - Mysore thorn, the, 146 - - Mythical creatures of Lake Alaotra, 201 - - - Nàndihìzana, 229 - - Native houses, structure of, 95 - - _Nectarinidæ_ or sun-birds, 32 - - Neodrepanis coruscans, 137 - - _Nephila_ spider, 109 - - Nest of the aye-aye, 47 - - Nests of insects, 130 - - Nests of wasps, 99 - - New Year, Malagasy, 87 - - Nòsibé, 224 - - - Obstructions in rivers and paths, 51 - - Ocean currents, 39 - - Octopus, 40, 312 - - _Oliva_, 36 - - _Opuntia ferox_, 145 - - Oranges, 51 - - Orchards, 81 - - Orchids: angræcum, 32, 38, 64; - terrestrial, 101, 212 - - Ordeals, 251 - - Ornamentation, female, 240 - - Outrigger canoes, 304 - - _Ouvirandra fenestralis_, 53 - - Owen, Sir R., 45 - - Owls, 140 - - Ox, extinct species of, 223 - - Oxen, 35, 183 - - Oysters, 311 - - - Paddles, native, 34 - - Palms, 142 - - Pandanus, the, 32, 37, 49 - - _Papàngo_, or Egyptian kite, 83 - - Parakeets, 32, 233, 291 - - Parrots, 233, 291 - - Paths, forest, 150 - - Pearse, Rev. J., 191 - - _Pelophilus madagasc._, 44 - - Pigeons, 32 - - Pillans, Rev. J., 173 - - Pine-apples, 57 - - Pitcher-plant, 42, 261 - - Plant, Mr, 22, 67 - - _Ploceus pensilis_, 169 - - Poison ordeal, the, 38 - - Poison tree, a, 38 - - Poisonous fish, 40 - - Pollen, M., 137 - - _Potamochærus larvatus_, 136 - - Prawns and shrimps, 40 - - Prevost’s broadbill, 281 - - Prickly pear, 90, 119 - - _Pristis sp._, 40 - - Proctor, S., 22 - - Protective mimicry, 111, 153, 164, 280 - - Psittacula Madagasc., 233 - - Pulpit, a decorated, 253 - - Pumice from Krakatoa, 38 - - - Quadrumana, 66 - - Quadrupeds, 167 - - - Radàma I., 37 - - Radàma II., 38 - - Rail, 211 - - _Railòvy_, or fork-tailed shrike, 294 - - Railways, 18 - - Rain, 81, 85, 100 - - _Rallus gularis_, 211 - - Rànavàlona I., 38 - - Rànavàlona, Queen, 87 - - Rànomafàna, 53 - - Rapacious birds, 83 - - Rapèto, chief, 210 - - Raphia ruffia, 62 - - _Ràry_, or war-chant, 98 - - Raspberries, 51, 242 - - Rats, 54, 59 - - _Ravenala madagasc._, 49 - - Rayed Gymnogene, the, 84 - - Religious observances, 250 - - Reptiles: snakes, 134; - lizards, 134; - chameleons, 135; - ancient, 226 - - Rest-houses, 33 - - Rice cultivation, 77, 79, 92, 103, 106, 177, 195, 263 - - Rice cultivation in Bétsiléo, 230 - - Rice-houses, 241 - - Ring-tailed lemur, 243 - - River-hog, extinct species of, 223 - - Rivers, 36 - - Roads and pathways, 27 - - Rocks, 223, 233, 292, 298 - - _Rofìa_-palm, 31, 56, 58, 62 - - _Rofìa_ cloth, 57 - - _Ròva_, or square, 26, 179, 305 - - Rollers (_Coraciadæ_), 138 - - Rose-apple, the, 91 - - Rum drinking, 176 - - - Sago palms, 41 - - Ste Marie, Isle, 42 - - Sàkalàva, 176, 299 - - _Salàka_, or loin-cloth, 55 - - _Sàmpy_, or household charm, 98 - - Sanatoria, 127 - - Sand-bars, 36 - - Sand-grouse, 291 - - Sandalwood, 159 - - Sawfish, 40 - - Scenery, 41 - - Scenery of the coast, 37 - - Scorpions, 160 - - Screw-pine, 250 - - Sea-birds, 256 - - Seasons, the, 75 - - Serpents, 43 - - Shark, the hammer-headed, 40 - - Shaw, Mr G. A., 235 - - Shells, 35; - _Conus_, _Triton_, _Cypræa_, _Oliva_, _Mitra_, _Cassis_, 36 - - Shrimps, 107 - - Sihànaka, the, 173, 184, 195, 203 - - Silk, spiders’, 109 - - _Sìmpona_, species of lemur, 169 - - _Siòna_, 159 - - Sloth, extinct species of, 223 - - Smelting stations, 156 - - Snakes, 43, 44 - - Snare for birds, 185 - - Snow, absence of, 113 - - _Solanum auriculatum_, 125 - - Solitary wasps, 100 - - _Sòngosòngo_, the, 146 - - _Sopubia triphylla_, 101 - - Spade, the native, 79 - - Sphærotheria, 160 - - Spiders, 43, 71, 133, 162, 165 - - Spiny and prickly plants, 145 - - Springtime, 79 - - Stephanotis, 42 - - Stinging plants, 146 - - Storks, 69 - - Street, Mr Louis, 228 - - Stribling, Rev. E. H., 192 - - Striped tenrec, 167 - - Sugar-cane, 49 - - Sugar-cane press, a, 262 - - Summer, 84 - - Sun-birds, 32, 137 - - Sunsets, beautiful, 123 - - Swine, extinct species of, 223 - - - Taimòro tribe, the, 273 - - Taisàka, the, 262 - - Tàkatra, or stork, 69 - - Tamarind-trees, 295 - - Tamatave, 21; - governor of, 24; - garrison, 26 - - Tanàla, the, 147, 245, 249, 250 - - Tangèna, the, 38 - - Tanòsy country, a village in the, 163 - - Tèlomiràhavàvy, 71 - - _Terminalia catappa_, or “Indian almond,” 273 - - Terraced hills, 230 - - Threshing rice, 195 - - Thunderstorms, 84 - - Timber, valuable, 158 - - Time, division of, 87, 93 - - Tin cans on memorial poles, 183 - - Tins, old jam, 192 - - _Tsìrika_ or blow-pipe, 61 - - _Tòkan-tòngotra_, 159 - - Tombs in Bétsiléo, 231, 283 - - Tombs, Hova, 72, 114 - - Tortoises, 201, 301 - - Tortoises, extinct, 223 - - _Trachylobium verrucosa_, 42 - - _Tràndraka_ or hedgehog, 167 - - Trànomàro, 35 - - Trap-door spiders, 165 - - Traveller’s tree, 49, 257, 260 - - Travelling in Madagascar, 28, 229 - - Tree-duck, 186 - - Tree-ferns, 57 - - Tree-frogs, 153 - - Trees, introduction of new, 125 - - _Triton_, 36 - - Trìtrìva, Lake, 215, 220 - - Tropic-birds, 256 - - _Tsikòndry_, the, 280 - - _Tsingàla_, the, 107 - - Twilight, 92 - - _Typhonodorum lindleyanum_, 34 - - - Vàkinankàratra, 208 - - Valàla river, 69 - - Valàlanambòa, or dog-locust, 112 - - _Valìha_, the, 56 - - Vangàindràno, 261 - - Variety of face and colour, 56 - - _Vàtolàhy_, or “male stones,” 116 - - Vàvavàto district, the, 161, 219 - - Vavòny, 41 - - _Vazìmba_, the, 114, 227, 289 - - Vegetation, 41, 239 - - Vehicles, 27 - - _Véro_, 178 - - _Vérontsànjy_, 178 - - _Vernonia appendiculata_, 80 - - Village squares, 61 - - Villages, 73 - - Villages, old style, 119 - - Vine, the, 81 - - _Vinca angivensis_, the, 89-90 - - _Vinca rosea_, 90 - - Vinson, Dr, 162 - - Visit of ceremony, a, 24 - - Vòhilèna, 284 - - Vòhitra volcano, 215 - - Volcanic belt, 224 - - Volcanoes, extinct, 215 - - Vòlombòrona Mountain, 219 - - Vòromahèry or hawk, 84 - - - Ungulata, species of, 67 - - Unhealthiness of the coast, 42 - - Unlucky days, 205, 247 - - Uranid butterfly, 281 - - _Usnea_, 65, 143 - - - Walking-stick mantis, 280 - - Wallace, Dr A. R., 64 - - Wasp, black, 99 - - Water conveyances, 282 - - Water-courses, 79 - - Waterfalls, 152, 242 - - Water-hens, 210 - - Water-lilies, 49, 201 - - Water-plants, 201, 281 - - Water-pots, 97 - - Water-producing insects, 91 - - Water-snakes, 134 - - Water yam or lace-leaf plant, 53 - - Weapons, ancient, 227 - - Weaver-bird, 169 - - Webs, spiders’, 108, 163, 166 - - Whales, 275 - - Wheeled vehicles, 274 - - Whistling teal, 186 - - White-backed duck, the, 186 - - White lemur, a, 146 - - Wild boar or river-hog, 136 - - Wild duck on Lake Itàsy, 210 - - Wild fowl, 185 - - Wild man, a, 147 - - Windows, absence of, 45 - - Winds, prevailing, 73 - - Winter, 113 - - Words denoting different appearances of nature, 95 - - - Yams, wild, 152 - - - _Zàhitra_, or raft, a, 247 - - Zànatsàra clan, 218 - - Zomèna, Chief, 235 - - _Zozòro_, the, 108 - - _Zygæna malleus_, 40 - - -THE RIVERSIDE PRESS LIMITED, EDINBURGH - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Obvious typographical, punctuation and accenting errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, - when a predominant preference was found in the original book. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. - - Pg 16 List of Maps: the ‘Physical’ map was moved in front of - the ‘Ethnographical’ map, with page numbers of 16 and 17 - respectively. - Pg 38: ‘hartstongue fern’ replaced by ‘hart’s-tongue fern’. - Pg 53: ‘at Pamplemouses’ replaced by ‘at Pamplemousses’. - Pg 94: ‘1.3 (P.M.)’ replaced by ‘1.30 (P.M.)’. - Pg 98: ‘and wearing’ replaced by ‘and weaving’. - Pg 110: ‘called Centelidæ’ replaced by ‘called Centetidæ’. - Pg 149 Footnote [13]: ‘indebted to the the’ replaced by - ‘indebted to the’. - Pg 191: ‘as the _lòpa_’ replaced by ‘as the _làpa_’. - Pg 229: ‘of Ambòsita’ replaced by ‘of Ambòsitra’. - Pg 241: ‘tree miles across’ replaced by ‘three miles across’. - Pg 243: ‘Cheirgaleus major’ replaced by ‘Cheirogaleus major’. - Pg 272: ‘Agræcum superbum’ replaced by ‘Angræcum superbum’. - Pg 274: ‘that that was a’ replaced by ‘that there was a’. - - Index: the spelling of some entries has been changed to match the - spelling in the main text. 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