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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..37c05b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #68653 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68653) diff --git a/old/68653-0.txt b/old/68653-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8bbee06..0000000 --- a/old/68653-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9980 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Southern Literary Messenger, Vol. -II., No. 4, March, 1836, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Southern Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 4, March, 1836 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 30, 2022 [eBook #68653] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Ron Swanson - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTHERN LITERARY -MESSENGER, VOL. II., NO. 4, MARCH, 1836 *** - - -THE SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER: - -DEVOTED TO EVERY DEPARTMENT OF LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS. - - -Au gré de nos desirs bien plus qu'au gré des vents. - _Crebillon's Electre_. - -As _we_ will, and not as the winds will. - - -RICHMOND: -T. W. WHITE, PUBLISHER AND PROPRIETOR. -1835-6. - - -{213} - - -SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER. - -VOL. II. RICHMOND, MARCH, 1836. NO. IV. - -T. W. WHITE, PROPRIETOR. FIVE DOLLARS PER ANNUM. - - - - -SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION OF TRIPOLI, WITH SOME -ACCOUNTS OF THE OTHER BARBARY STATES. NO. XI.--(Continued.) - - -The inertness of the French since their rupture with Algiers, had -induced Hussein to treat their threats with contempt, and he by no -means anticipated the extreme measures to which they were about to -resort. The certainty of their intentions to attack him, however, -effected no change in his resolve to maintain the position which he -had assumed; all offers of mediation or intercession were rejected, -and the approach of the storm only rendered him the more determined -to brave its violence. He was left to meet it alone. The mission of -Tahir Pasha was the only effort made by the Sultan in his behalf; -Great Britain had in vain offered its mediation to both Parties, and -did not appear disposed to interfere farther between them; the other -European Powers remained neutral. The Sovereigns of Tripoli and Tunis -were summoned to aid in defending the common cause of Islamism; but -the appeal was in both instances vain; Yusuf dreaded the vengeance of -the French, on account of the support which he had unwillingly -afforded to the accusations against their Consul, and was by no means -inclined to give them additional cause for enmity, or to involve -himself in expenses from which he could anticipate no immediate -benefit. The Bey of Tunis had long been devoted to the interests of -France; far from aiding the Dey, he had agreed to furnish his enemies -with provisions, and even if required to make a diversion in their -favor, by invading the Algerine Province of Constantina which lay -contiguous to his own dominions. - -Hussein was thus reduced entirely to his own resources; an -examination of the means at his disposal will show that he was unable -to make any effectual resistance, and that without the interposition -of some occurrence beyond the control of man, "_the well defended -city_" must have fallen into the hands of the French. - -The Algerine territory extends in length on the Mediterranean, about -six hundred miles; its breadth or the distance between that Sea and -the Desert no where exceeds one hundred miles, and is generally much -less. Shaler gives sixty as the average breadth, which would make the -superficial extent of the country about thirty-six thousand square -miles. A considerable portion of this territory consists of rugged -and almost inaccessible mountains, many of which are covered with -eternal snow; there are however vast tracts of the finest land, which -with proper attention would be rendered very productive, and even the -rude and careless mode of cultivation pursued by the inhabitants -enabled them frequently to export great quantities of wheat to -Europe. One of these tracts in the immediate vicinity of Algiers -called the plain of Metija is said to be of unparalleled fertility; -it is not less than a thousand square miles in extent, and is covered -with springs which by a judicious direction of their waters, might be -made the sources of health and plenty, instead of producing as they -now do only useless and insalubrious marshes. - -The country was divided into three provinces, separated by lines -drawn from points on the coast southwardly to the Desert; each of -these divisions was governed by a Bey who though appointed from -Algiers, was almost absolute within his own territories. The Eastern -province bordering on Tunis was the largest and the most populous; it -took its name from its capital Constantina, the ancient Cirta, a -strong town situated about sixty miles from the Sea, and said to have -more inhabitants than Algiers. The principal ports of this district -are Bugia and Bona; upon its coast near Bona were the _African -Concessions_ which in part led to the difficulties with France. -Tittery the middle province is the smallest, its surface not being -more than sixty miles square; it however contains the capital, and is -more populous in proportion to its extent, than any other part of the -Regency. The Western province lying contiguous to Morocco has been -called Oran, Tlemsen and Mascara, accordingly as its Bey resided in -either of the principal cities which bear those names. In 1830 the -seat of government was Oran or more properly Warran, a seaport town -near the frontiers of Morocco which possesses a fine harbor and may -be rendered very strong; the other ports of this province Arzew, -Mostaganem and Shershell though nearly deserted, are well situated -both for commerce and defence. Indeed the western territories of -Algiers are considered the most delightful and the richest of -Northern Africa; in addition to their grain, fruits and mines, they -are also famous for the beauty and spirit of their horses which are -sent in great numbers to the East, as well as to Spain and the South -of France. The population appears likewise to be of a better -character than that of other parts of the Regency; there are fewer -Arabs or Kabyles, and a great portion of the inhabitants are the -descendants of that noble race of Moors, who were expelled from Spain -in the fifteenth and two succeeding centuries. - -It is difficult to form any estimate of the number of inhabitants in -the Algerine territories. Shaler in 1824 considered it less than a -million; from the results of the latest inquiries made by the French -it amounted in 1830 to seven hundred and eighty thousand, who were -thus classed. - - _Moors_, the industrious and most civilized class, - inhabiting the cities or engaged in agriculture, 400,000 - - _Kabyles_ or _Berbers_ who probably descend from the - aboriginals of the country; they are still a wild and - intractable race, living in the mountains and frequently - plundering or levying contributions on the industrious - part of the population, 200,000 - - _Arabs_ who live in tents, on the borders of the Desert - from the produce of their flocks and herds, or are - employed in transporting goods through the country, 120,000 - - {214} _Turkish Soldiers_, generally from the coasts and - islands of the Archipelago, 8,000 - - _Koul-ogleis_ or children of Turks by native women. 32,000 - -------- - 780,000 - -Assuming this estimate as correct, it will be found by comparison -with the tables of population of other countries, that the Algerine -Dominions did not probably contain more than a hundred and twenty -thousand men capable of bearing arms; and when it is considered that -these are spread over an extensive territory, which is mountainous -and almost destitute of roads, it would be unreasonable to expect -that more than half that number could be collected at any one point, -even supposing the existence of universal patriotism and devotion to -the Government. Such feelings may have operated on the Moors, but -they could scarcely have produced much effect on the Kabyles and -Arabs, who according to the estimate form more than two-fifths of the -population; and although promises of high pay and the prospect of -plunder might induce many from each of those classes and from among -the wanderers of the Great Desert, to aid in the defence of the -country, yet little dependance could be placed upon these irregular -bands, when opposed to the disciplined troops of France. - -Hussein's experience may probably have led him to some such -conclusions, but every act of his reign served to shew that they -would have been ineffectual towards inducing him to make concessions, -even were it not too late. After the rejection of the overture which -had been wrung from him by his friend Halil, nothing less than an -immense pecuniary sacrifice on his part would have contented the -French; and policy as well as pride forbade this sacrifice, for he -was well aware that a peace purchased on such terms would have cost -him his life. Moreover he was evidently a thorough fatalist; two -expeditions against Algiers had already failed completely, although -taking into consideration its defences at the several periods, the -chances of its fall were in both those cases greater than under the -existing circumstances. "God is great and good, and the Sea is -uncertain and dangerous," was his observation to the Captain of the -British frigate Rattlesnake; a storm such as occurs on that coast in -every month of the year, might in a few hours have dissipated the -forces of his enemies, or have thrown so large a number of them into -his hands as prisoners, that their restoration would have been deemed -an equivalent for peace. - -On the 14th of May an incident took place which was calculated to -confirm the Dey in such expectations. During a violent gale from the -northeast, the Aventure and the Siléne two brigs which formed part of -the blockading squadron were on that night driven ashore near Cape -Bengut, about sixty miles east of Algiers. The officers and crews of -these vessels in number about two hundred persons, finding escape -impossible, and conceiving that any attempt at defence would only -insure their destruction, determined to march along the coast towards -Algiers, and to surrender themselves as prisoners of war to the first -party with which they might meet. They were soon observed and -surrounded by a troop of Kabyles whom they however induced to believe -that they were English, and that a large sum would be paid for their -safe delivery at Algiers. Under this persuasion the Barbarians were -conducting them towards the city, when their course was arrested by -the sudden rise of a river which it was necessary to cross; during -the delay thus occasioned, it was discovered that they were French, -and the greater part of them were immediately sacrificed to the fury -of the Kabyles. The heads of one hundred and nine of these -unfortunate persons were brought into Algiers on the 20th of May, -which having been purchased by the Dey at the regular price, were -exposed on the walls of the Casauba; they were however afterwards -surrendered for burial. The survivors, eighty-nine in number, were -confined in the dungeons of the castle; they were in other respects -treated by Hussein with as much lenity as the circumstances would -permit, and they received the kindest attentions from the Consuls of -Foreign Powers who remained in the place. - -Hussein did not however trust entirely to Providence for the safety -of his capital; on the contrary he made every preparation in his -power for its defence. In the city and its environs every man was -enrolled, and the slightest expression indicative of fear or mistrust -as to the result of the contest, was punished by death. From the -Provinces, the Beys were ordered to bring to Algiers all whom they -could enlist or force into the service, and immense sums from the -public treasury were placed at their disposal for the purpose. By -these means he speedily assembled a very large force, the exact -amount of which it is impossible to ascertain; the French historians -state it to have been seventy-two thousand; other accounts perhaps -equally worthy of credit make it much less. The number of what may be -termed regular troops appears to have been precisely twenty-two -thousand, viz. five thousand Turks or Janissaries, seven thousand -Koul-ogleis, and ten thousand Moors; to these the French accounts add -ten thousand Kabyles, and forty thousand others, principally Arab -horsemen. Major Lee the Consul of the United States, who made very -particular observations and inquiries on the subject, and whose -statements appear to be entirely free from prejudice, does not -consider that the irregular forces exceeded thirty thousand. Whatever -may have been the fact with regard to the whole number of the -Algerine troops, it is certain that a large and important portion -were never brought into action in the open field, having been -necessarily retained to garrison the city and the fortifications in -its immediate vicinity. - -When the preparations of the French had removed all doubts as to -their views with regard to Algiers, apprehensions were entertained by -the Governments of Christian nations for the safety of their Consuls -and citizens in the country, who, it was feared, might in a moment of -excitement be sacrificed to the fury of the inhabitants. Ships were -accordingly sent by several Powers for the purpose of bringing away -their respective agents and others who might be thus endangered; but -the commander of the blockading squadron having been strictly ordered -to allow no communication with Algiers prevented several of these -vessels from entering the harbor. An Austrian frigate and a Spanish -brig were thus ordered off, and the latter afterwards shewing some -disposition to enter was fired on. A Sardinian frigate was permitted -to send a boat on shore, to bring off the family of the Consul who -had protected {215} the interests of France during the difficulties -between the two countries, and several other vessels contrived to -enter and leave the port unnoticed. Commodore Biddle who commanded -the squadron of the United States in the Mediterranean, sent the -sloop of war Ontario to Algiers to bring off the American Consul -General and his family, in case they should be inclined to go. The -Ontario appeared at the entrance of the bay on the 4th of April, -accompanied by the frigate Constellation whose captain it is said was -ordered to engage any French ship which should attempt to oppose -their entrance. As no such attempt was made, it is needless to -inquire whether these instructions were really given, or to examine -whether they would have been in concordance with the received usages -of national intercourse. Major Henry Lee the American Consul General, -with his family and the Vice Consul, determined to remain; the ladies -of the Neapolitan and Spanish Consuls were however at his request -received on board the Ontario and carried to Mahon. - -Before the departure of the American ships the British frigate -Rattlesnake arrived, bringing despatches to the Consul Mr. St. John, -who had been ordered by his Government to remain; on leaving the -harbor she was spoken by one of the blockading ships and her captain -was informed that he would not be permitted again to enter. This fact -having been communicated to the Consul, the Rattlesnake sailed for -Malta whence she soon returned bearing a letter from Admiral Malcolm -to the French Commander, in consequence of which she was allowed to -enter Algiers on condition however that her stay should be limited to -a week. - -The Consuls who remained in Algiers found it necessary to adopt -measures for their own safety. The representative of Great Britain -having a large country house at a short distance from the city, out -of the probable line of operations, determined merely to retire to it -on the approach of the conflict: those of the United States, Denmark, -Spain and Naples agreed to establish themselves together at a villa -situated on a height overlooking the place, and capable of being -rendered sufficiently strong, to resist such attacks as might have -been expected. The Dey afforded them every facility in his power, for -the fortification and defence of their residence; they were allowed -to enlist some Janissaries, and the other Christians with some Jews -of the town having joined them, they mustered nearly two hundred men -who were tolerably well supplied with arms and ammunition. They -accordingly removed on the 26th of May to the _Castle_ as it was -termed, on which the flag of the United States was immediately -hoisted, Major Lee having by unanimous vote, been elected -Commander-in-Chief. - -On the 3d of June a part of the fleet which conveyed the French army -of invasion was seen off the coast near Algiers. An immediate attack -was anticipated, and the Dey prepared to resist it, although not more -than half the troops which he expected had then arrived. The -fortifications on the bay were well provided and manned, so that the -place might be considered secure on that side; the batteries of the -Mole were directed by the younger Ibrahim the Minister of the Marine, -and the charge of the Emperor's Castle had been committed to the -Hasnagee or Treasurer in whom Hussein placed the utmost confidence. -The Dey remained secluded within the walls of the Casauba, from which -his messengers were seen constantly flying in every direction. As it -was anticipated that the landing would be attempted on the shore west -of Algiers, the Aga Ibrahim marched out with a part of his forces and -encamped on a plain near the sea, distant about ten miles in that -direction. A violent gale from the eastward however dispersed the -French ships, and nothing more was seen of them for some days; at -length information was brought from a certain source that the whole -fleet had retired to Palma. - -On the 9th, Achmet Bey of Constantina who had been anxiously -expected, made his appearance with his troops principally Arabs and -Kabyles; the contingents of Oran and Tittery did not however arrive -until some days afterwards, and the whole force at that time under -Ibrahim's immediate command probably amounted to twenty thousand, of -whom at least one half were Arab horsemen. - -On the morning of the 13th the sea near Algiers was again covered -with ships under the white flag of France. The sky was cloudless, a -fresh breeze from the northeast permitted the vessels to move at -pleasure along the coast, and as they passed majestically almost -within gun shot of the batteries, the Algerines felt that the day of -trial was come. - -In order to understand the operations of the French against Algiers, -some knowledge of the surrounding country and of the relative -bearings and distances of important points, is necessary. It is -however difficult to convey such information without the aid of maps; -our geographical language is limited, and wants precision, and even -where it may be sufficient for the purpose, few readers are disposed -to study the details with the care requisite to comprehend them -fully. - -In the account of Lord Exmouth's attack upon Algiers in 1816, the -city was described as standing on the western shore, and near the -entrance of a bay about fifteen miles in diameter; it must now be -considered as situated on the north-eastern side, and near the -extremity of a tongue of land, which projects from the African -continent northwardly into the Mediterranean. This tongue is about -twelve miles in its greatest breadth, where it joins the continent, -and ten in length from north to south; the surface of its northern -portion is irregular, and in some places rugged, traversed by ridges -and ravines, and rising in the centre into a lofty peak, called -Jibbel Boujereah; southward from this mountain the inequalities -gradually disappear, and the extensive plain of the Metijah succeeds. - -The northernmost point or termination of the tongue is a bold -promontory called Ras Acconnatter, or Cape Caxine, which is four -miles west by north of Algiers; following the shore nine miles -south-west from this cape, we find a small peninsula, rather more -than a mile in length, and less than a mile in breadth, extending -westwardly into the sea. This peninsula is high and rocky at its -extremity, but low and sandy at the neck which unites it to the main -land; the sea around it affords safe anchorage for vessels, and its -shores as well as those in its vicinity, present a clear beach, free -from rocks or other impediments to approach. On its highest point -stood a small fort, called by the Spanish traders _Torreta Chica_, or -_the little tower_, on which were mounted or rather placed, four -light pieces of cannon {216} more curious from their antiquity than -useful. Against the tower was built a Marabout or chapel, containing -the tomb of Sidi Ferruch, a saint held in great veneration by the -Algerines, and from whom the peninsula takes its name. A battery of -stone with twelve embrasures had been also erected on the shore near -the end of the peninsula, in order to prevent hostile vessels from -anchoring, but on the approach of the expedition it was dismantled -and abandoned. - -Eastwardly from Sidi Ferruch the land rises almost imperceptibly for -three miles, presenting a sandy plain partially covered with aloes, -cactus, and evergreen shrubs, at the termination of which is an -irregular plateau called Staweli, where the shepherds of the country -were in the habit of encamping. Farther on a valley called -Backshé-dere separated this plateau from the south-western side of -Jibbel Boujereah, along which a road originally formed by the Romans -conducted to the walls of the Emperor's castle, within a mile of -Algiers. The whole distance by this way from Sidi Ferruch to the city -is twelve miles, over a country "gently undulating and perfectly -practicable for artillery or any species of carriage," which is also -abundantly supplied with fresh water from numerous springs. - -These and other circumstances had induced Shaler[1] in 1825 to -recommend Sidi Ferruch as the most advantageous point for the -disembarkation of a force destined to act against Algiers; and -although the intentions of the Commander in Chief of the French -expedition were kept profoundly secret, yet it was generally -supposed, even before his departure from Toulon, that he would -attempt a landing there. - -[Footnote 1: _Sketches of Algiers, political, historical, and civil, -&c. by William Shaler, American Consul General at Algiers. Boston: -1826._ - -Our country has produced few works displaying greater originality and -soundness of views than this; its subject has caused it to be -overlooked in the United States, but in France when circumstances -gave value to all information relative to Algiers, its merits were -soon recognized, and it was translated by order of the Government for -the benefit of the officers engaged in the expedition. His remarks on -the power, resources, and policy of the Algerine Government, or -rather upon its weakness, its want of means, and the absurdity of its -system, were calculated to dispel many of the illusions with regard -to it which the mutual jealousy of the great European nations had so -long contributed to maintain; and it is impossible to examine his -observations as to the proper disposition of a force destined to act -against the city, in conjunction with the statement of the plans -pursued by the French, without conceiving that in all probability -those plans were the result of his suggestions. At page 51 he says: - -"The several expeditions against Algiers, in which land forces have -been employed, have landed in the bay eastward of the city; this is -evidently an error, and discovers unpardonable ignorance of the coast -and topography of the country, for all the means of defence are -concentrated there. But it is obvious that any force whatever might -be landed in the fine bay of Sidi Ferruch without opposition; thence -by a single march they might arrive upon the heights commanding the -Emperor's castle, the walls of which, as nothing could prevent an -approach to them, might be scaled or breached by a mine in a short -time. This position being mastered, batteries might be established on -a height commanding the Casauba, which is indicated by the ruins of -two wind-mills, and of a fort called the Star, which the jealous -fears of this Government caused to be destroyed for the reason here -alleged, that it commanded the citadel and consequently the city. The -fleet which had landed the troops would by this time appear in the -bay, to distract the attention of the besieged, when Algiers must -either surrender at discretion or be taken by storm." - -Many other passages might be quoted in illustration of Mr. Shaler's -sagacity; so many of his speculations respecting the future destinies -of Barbary have been already confirmed, that we are warranted in -entertaining hopes of the fulfilment of his prediction, that it will -again be inhabited by a civilized and industrious race.] - -The French ships after their dispersion by the storms of the first -days of June retreated to Palma where they remained until the 10th. -On that day the first and second divisions of the fleet again sailed -for the African coast; the third division composed almost entirely of -merchant vessels, containing the battering artillery, provisions and -materials which would not be needed until the disembarkation had been -effected, was to have sailed on the 12th, but it was detained until -the 18th by adverse winds. - -As the distance between Palma and Algiers is only two hundred miles, -and the wind was favorable at an early hour on the 13th of June, the -first divisions of the armament, with all the troops on board, were -collected in front of the city, and every eye was fixed on the -Admiral's ship, in anxious expectation of the signal which was to -indicate the scene of the first operations. The Algerines, although -they expected that their enemies would land at some point westward -from the city, yet did not choose to subject themselves to the hazard -of a surprise, by leaving the place undefended; the batteries which -lined the bay were therefore all manned, and the greater part of the -moveable forces were disposed in their vicinity, so as to resist any -sudden attack. At eight o'clock, the signal was given by the French -Admiral, and his ships were soon under full sail towards the west; -they rounded Cape Caxine, and then changing their course to the -southward, no doubt was left respecting the intention of the -commander to attempt a landing at Sidi Ferruch. - -As the fleet drew near the spot which had been selected for the -disembarkation of the troops, preparations were made for immediate -action in case it should be necessary. The heavy armed ships advanced -in front, slowly and in order of battle, ready to pour a destructive -fire upon any forces or works of their opponents as soon as -discovered within its reach. At ten o'clock, they were opposite the -extremity of the peninsula, and it became evident that no precautions -had been taken by the Algerines, which were likely to prove effectual -in preventing the descent. No fortifications had been erected on Sidi -Ferruch, in addition to the shore battery near the point, and the -turret on the hill, both of which were deserted; indeed nothing less -than the strongest works and the most scientific defence could have -rendered it tenable, when surrounded by such a fleet. On the main -land, a division of the Algerine army, supposed to consist of twelve -thousand men, were encamped near a spring of water about two miles -from the neck of the peninsula; between them and the sea were erected -two batteries,[2] armed with nine pieces of cannon {217} and two -howitzers, which had been removed from the fort on Sidi Ferruch. Arab -horsemen enveloped in their white cloaks were seen collected in -groups on the beach, or galloping among the bushes on the plain -between it and the encampment. Nothing however betokened any -disposition on the part of the Africans, to meet the invaders at the -water's edge. - -[Footnote 2: Any fortification defended by artillery, and even the -spot occupied by artillery, is called a _battery_. These temporary -defences are formed by throwing up earth to the height of three or -four feet, so as to form a wall or _parapet_ for the protection of -the cannon and men; where this cannot be done, logs, barrels or sacks -filled with earth, &c. are employed. At New Orleans the American -lines of batteries were principally formed of bales of cotton. - -In order to protect an army from sudden attacks, _entrenchments_ are -made on the side on which they are apprehended; they consist of -ditches, the earth from which is thrown up within. - -In besieging a fortress, the object is to erect batteries on -particular points as near as possible to the place, and to render the -communications to and between them safe. For these purposes, a ditch -is commenced at a distance from the fortress, and is carried on in a -slanting direction towards it, the laborers being protected by the -earth thrown up on the side next the place. When these _approaches_ -have been carried as near as requisite, another ditch called _a -parallel_ is dug in front or even around the fortress, batteries -being constructed on its line where necessary. Sometimes another -parallel is made within the outer one. Along these ditches the -cannon, ammunition, troops, &c. are conveyed in comparative safety to -the different batteries.] - -Nevertheless Bourmont displayed here his determination to leave -nothing to chance, the success of which could be assured by caution -in the previous arrangements. The largest ships with the first and -second divisions of troops on board, passed around the extremity of -the peninsula, and anchored opposite its southwestern side on which -it had been resolved that the first descent should be made; a steamer -and some brigs entered the bay east of Sidi Ferruch, and took -positions so as to command the shore and the neck of the peninsula, -over which they could pour a raking fire, in case an attack should be -made by the Algerine forces at the moment of disembarkation. Some -rounds of grape shot from the steamer dispersed the Arabs who were -collected on the shore of the bay; the fire was returned from the -batteries; but it had no other effect than to wound a sailor on board -the Breslau, and it ceased after a few broadsides from the brigs. - -By sunset the vessels were all anchored at their appointed positions, -and preparations were instantly commenced for the disembarkation. The -broad flat bottomed boats destined to carry the troops to the shore -were hoisted out; each was numbered, and to each was assigned a -particular part of the force, so arranged that the men might on -landing, instantly assume their relative positions in the order of -battle. - -All things being ready, at three o'clock on the morning of the 14th -of June, the first brigade of the first division under General -Berthezéne, consisting of six thousand men, with eight pieces of -artillery were on their way to the shore, in boats towed by three -steamers. They were soon perceived by the Algerines, who commenced a -fire on them from their batteries; it however produced little or no -effect, and was soon silenced by the heavier shot from the steamers -and brigs in the eastern bay. At four the whole brigade was safely -landed, and drawn up on the south side of the peninsula near the -shore battery, which was instantly seized. In a few minutes more, the -white flag of France floated over the _Torreta Chica_; a guard was -however placed at the door of the Marabout, in order to show from the -commencement, that the religion of the inhabitants would be respected -by the invaders. - -By six o'clock the whole of the first and second divisions were -landed together with all the field artillery, and the -Commander-in-chief of the expedition was established in his head -quarters near the Marabout, from which he could overlook the scene of -operations. General Valazé had already traced a line of works across -the neck of the peninsula, and the men were laboring at the -entrenchments; they were however occasionally annoyed by shots from -the batteries, and it was determined immediately to commence the -offensive. General Poret de Morvan accordingly advanced from the -peninsula at the head of the first brigade, and having without -difficulty turned the left of the batteries, their defenders were -driven from them at the point of the bayonet; they were then pursued -towards the encampment, which was also after a short struggle -abandoned, the whole African force retreating in disorder towards the -city. - -This success cost the French about sixty men in killed and wounded; -two or three of their soldiers had been taken prisoners, but they -were found headless and horribly mutilated near the field of battle. -The loss of the Algerines is unknown, as those who fell were -according to the custom of the Arab warfare carried off. Nine pieces -of artillery and two small howitzers by which the batteries were -defended, being merely fixed on frames without wheels, remained in -the hands of the invaders. - -While the first brigade was thus employed, the disembarkation of the -troops was prosecuted with increased activity, and as no farther -interruption was offered, the whole army and a considerable portion -of the artillery, ammunition and provisions were conveyed on shore -before night. It was not however the intention of the commanding -general immediately to advance upon Algiers; his object was to take -the city, and he was not disposed to lose the advantage of the -extraordinary preparations, which had been made in order to insure -its accomplishment. The third division of the fleet containing the -horses and heavy artillery had not arrived; unprotected by cavalry -his men would have been on their march exposed at each moment to the -sudden and impetuous attacks of the Arabs, and it would have been -needless to present himself before the fortresses which surround the -city, while unprovided with the means of reducing them. He therefore -determined to await the arrival of the vessels from Palma, and in the -mean time to devote all his efforts to the fortification of the -peninsula, so that it might serve as the depository of his _materiel_ -during the advance of the army, and as a place of retreat in case of -unforeseen disaster. The first and second divisions under Berthezéne -and Loverdo were accordingly stationed on the heights in front of the -neck of the peninsula, from which the Algerines had been expelled in -the morning; in this position they were secured by temporary -batteries and by _chevaux de frise_ of a peculiar construction, -capable of being easily transported and speedily arranged for use. -The third division under the Duke D'Escars remained as a corps of -reserve at Sidi Ferruch, where the engineers, the general staff and -the greater part of the non-combatants of the expedition were also -established. Some difficulties were at first experienced from the -limited supply of water, but they were soon removed as it was found -in abundance at the depth of a few feet below the surface. - -On the 15th, it was perceived that the Algerines had established -their camp about three miles in front of the advanced positions of -the French, at a place designated by the guides of the expedition as -Sidi Khalef; between {218} the two armies lay an uninhabited tract, -crossed by small ravines, and overgrown with bushes, under cover of -which the Africans were enabled to approach the outposts of the -invaders, and thus to annoy them by desultory attacks. Each Arab -horseman brought behind him a foot soldier, armed with a long gun, in -the use of which those troops had been rendered very dexterous by -constant exercise; when they came near to the French lines, the sharp -shooter jumped from the horse and stationed himself behind some bush, -where he quietly awaited the opportunity of exercising his skill upon -the first unfortunate sentinel or straggler who should appear within -reach of his shot. In this manner a number of the French were -wounded, often mortally by their unseen foes; those who left the -lines in search of water or from other motives were frequently found -by their companions, without their heads and shockingly mangled. As -the Arabs were well acquainted with the paths, pursuit would have -been vain as well as dangerous, and the only effectual means of -checking their audacity was by a liberal employment of the artillery. - -The labors of the French were interrupted on the morning of the 16th, -by a most violent gale of wind from the northwest, accompanied by -heavy rain. The waves soon rose to an alarming height, threatening at -every moment to overwhelm the vessels, which lay wedged together in -the bays; several of them were also struck by lightning, and had one -been set on fire nothing could have prevented the destruction of the -whole fleet. Fortunately at about eleven o'clock, the wind shifted to -the east and became more moderate; the waves rapidly subsided, and it -was found that only trifling injuries had been sustained by the -shipping. Admiral Duperré however did not neglect the warning, and he -immediately issued orders that each transport vessel should sail for -France as soon as she had delivered her cargo; the greater part of -the ships of war, were at the same time commanded to put to sea, and -to cruise at a safe distance from the coast, leaving only such as -were required to protect the peninsula. - -On the 17th and 18th, some of the vessels arrived from Palma bringing -a few horses and pieces of heavy artillery, but not enough to warrant -an advance of the army. On the 18th, four Arab Scheicks appeared at -the outposts, and having been conducted to the commander of the -expedition, they informed him that the Algerines had received large -reinforcements, and were about to attack him on the succeeding day. -Bourmont however paid no attention to their declarations, and gave no -orders in consequence of them, although it was evident from the -increase in the number of their tents that a considerable addition -had been made to the force of his enemies. - -On the day after the French had effected their landing, all the -Algerine troops except those which were necessary to guard the city -and the fortifications in its vicinity, were collected under the -Aga's immediate command, at his camp of Sidi Khalef; on the morning -of the 18th, the contingent of Oran also arrived, accompanied by a -number of Arabs who had joined them on the way. Thus strengthened, -and encouraged by the inactivity of the French, which he attributed -probably to want of resolution, Ibrahim determined to make a -desperate attack upon their lines, calculating that if he could -succeed in throwing them into confusion, it would afterwards be easy -to destroy them in detail. For this purpose he divided his army into -two columns, which are supposed to have consisted of about twenty -thousand men each; the right column under Achmet Bey of Constantina -was destined to attack Loverdo's division, which occupied the left or -northern side of the French position; the other column was to be led -by Ibrahim in person, with Abderrahman Bey of Tittery as his -lieutenant, against the right division of the invaders, under -Berthezéne. - -At day break on the morning of the 19th, the Algerines appeared -before the lines of the French, who were however found drawn up, and -ready to receive them; the attack was commenced by the Arab cavalry -and Moorish regular troops intermingled, who rushed forward rending -the air with their cries, and endeavored to throw down the _chevaux -de frise_. The French reserved their fire, until the assailants were -near, and then opening their batteries poured forth a shower of grape -shot, which made great havoc in the ranks of the Algerines. Nothing -daunted however, the Moors and Arabs continued to pull up, and break -down the _chevaux de frise_, until they had gained entrances within -the lines; the action was then continued hand to hand, the keen sabre -of the African opposed to the rigid bayonet of the European. In this -situation there was less inequality between the parties engaged, and -the issue of the combat became doubtful. Berthezéne's division -however repulsed its assailants, and kept them at bay; that of -Loverdo was wavering when Bourmont appeared on the ground, followed -by a part of the reserved corps. He soon restored order in the ranks, -and having formed Loverdo's division together with the reserve into a -close column, he ordered them to advance against their opponents. -Achmet's forces were immediately driven into a ravine where the -artillery of the French having been brought to bear upon them, they -were after a few ineffectual attempts to regain the height, thrown -into disorder. Ibrahim's men seeing this also lost their courage, and -the route of the Africans became general. The French had on the field -only seventeen horses which were attached to the artillery; as the -Algerines could not therefore be pursued very closely they were -enabled to form again in front of their camp at Sidi Khalef; but they -were likewise driven from this position, and followed for some -distance beyond it, where the ground being less favorable for -cavalry, great numbers of their men fell into the power of the -invaders. Bourmont had issued orders to spare the prisoners, but his -troops irritated at the barbarities which had been so frequently -committed on their companions, disregarded the injunction and put to -death nearly every Algerine whom they could reach. A few Arabs who -were made prisoners, on being asked respecting the forces and -intentions of their General, haughtily bade the French to kill and -not to question them. The number of French slain in this engagement -according to the official reports, amounted to fifty-seven, and of -wounded to four hundred and sixty-three; but little reliance can be -placed on the exactness of Bourmont's published accounts, and there -is good reason for supposing that his loss was much more serious. The -destruction of life among the Algerines was very great; they also -left their camp of four hundred tents, together {219} with a large -supply of ammunition, sheep and camels, in the hands of their -enemies. - -The results of this action were highly important to the French, and -indeed it rendered their success certain. The Arabs began to -disappear, and the Turkish and Moorish soldiers retreated to the -city, from which it was not easy to bring them again to the field; -symptoms of insurrection among the populace also manifested -themselves. In this situation, it has been considered possible that -had Bourmont advanced immediately upon Algiers, the Dey would have -found it necessary to capitulate; there was however no reason to -believe that the disaffection would extend to the garrisons of the -fortresses, and the city could not have been reduced while they held -out. - -On the 23d the vessels from Palma began to come in; the horses were -immediately landed, and two small corps of cavalry were added to the -troops encamped at Sidi Khalef. The fortifications of the peninsula -were also by this time completed, a line of works fifteen hundred -yards in length, having been drawn across the neck, and armed with -twenty-four pieces of cannon; by this means the whole of the land -forces were rendered disposable, as two thousand men principally -taken from the _equipage de ligne_[3] of the fleet, were considered -sufficient for the security of the place. The provisions, &c. were -all landed, and placed within the lines, in temporary buildings which -had been brought in detached pieces from France; comfortable -hospitals were likewise established there, together with bakeries, -butcheries, and even a printing office, from which the _Estafette d' -Alger_, a semi-official newspaper, was regularly issued. The -communications between Sidi Ferruch and the camp, were facilitated by -the construction of a military road, defended by redoubts and -blockhouses placed at short intervals on the way. - -[Footnote 3: A certain number of young men are annually chosen by lot -in France, for the supply of the army and navy, in which they are -required to serve eight years. Those intended for the navy, are sent -to the dockyards, where they are drilled as soldiers, and instructed -in marine exercises for some time before they are sent to sea. The -crew of each public vessel must contain a certain proportion of those -soldier sailors, who are termed the _equipage de ligne_.] - -The Algerines encouraged by the delay of the French, rallied and made -another attack upon them at Sidi Khalef early on the morning of the -24th. On this occasion but few Arabs and Kabyles appeared, and the -action was sustained on the side of the Algerines, almost entirely by -the Turks, the Moorish regulars, and the militia of the city, who had -been at length induced to leave its walls. The assailants were spread -out on a very extended line, which was immediately broken by the -advance of the first division of the French army, with a part of the -second in close column. A few discharges of artillery increased the -confusion; the Algerines soon began to fly, and were pursued to the -foot of the last range of hills which separated them from the city. -On the summit of one of these heights, were the ruins of the Star -Fort, which had been some years before destroyed, "because it -commanded the Casauba, and consequently the city;" it was however -used as a powder magazine, and the Africans on their retreat, fearing -lest it should fall into the hands of the French, blew it up. The -loss of men in this affair was trifling on each side. The only French -officer dangerously wounded was Captain Amédée de Bourmont, the -second of four sons of the General who accompanied him on the -expedition; he received a ball in the head, while leading his company -of Grenadiers to drive a body of Turks from a garden in which they -had established themselves, and died on the 7th of July. - -While this combat was going on, the remainder of the vessels from -Palma, nearly three hundred in number, entered the bay of Sidi -Ferruch. Their arrival determined Bourmont not to retire to his camp -at Sidi Khalef, but to establish his first and second divisions five -miles in advance of that spot, in the valley of Backshé-dere, so that -the road might be completed, and the heavy artillery be brought as -soon as landed to the immediate vicinity of the position on which it -was to be employed. The third division was distributed between the -main body and Sidi Ferruch, in order to protect the communications. -This advantage was however dearly purchased; for during the four days -passed in this situation, the French suffered greatly from the -Algerine sharp-shooters, posted above them on the heights, and from -two batteries which had been established on a point commanding the -camp. In this way Bourmont acknowledges that seven hundred of his men -were rendered unfit for duty within that period; he does not say how -many were killed. - -The necessary arrangements having been completed, and several -battering pieces brought up to the rear of the French camp, Bourmont -put his forces in motion before day on the 29th of June. Two brigades -of d'Escar's division which had hitherto been little employed, were -ordered to advance to the left and turn the positions of the -Algerines on that side; on the right the same duty was to be -performed by a part of Berthezéne's division, while Loverdo was to -attack the enemy in the centre. They proceeded in silence, and having -gained the summits of the first eminences unperceived, directed a -terrible fire of artillery upon the Algerines, who having only small -arms to oppose to it were soon thrown into confusion and put to -flight. The Moors and Turks took refuge in the city and the -surrounding fortifications, while the Arabs and Kabyles escaped along -the seashore on the southeast, towards the interior of the country. - -The French had now only to choose their positions from investing -Algiers, which with all its defences lay before them. Besides the -Casauba and batteries of the city, they had to encounter four -fortresses. On the southeastern side near the sea, half a mile from -the walls was Fort Babazon, westward of which, and one mile southward -from the Casauba, was the Emperor's castle, presenting the most -formidable impediment to the approach of the invaders. This castle -was a mass of irregular brick buildings, disposed nearly in a square, -the circumference of which was about five hundred yards. From the -unevenness of the ground on which it was built, its walls were in -some places sixty feet high, in others not more than twenty; they -were six feet in thickness, and flanked by towers at the angles, but -unprotected by a ditch or any outworks, except a few batteries which -had been hastily thrown up on the side next the enemy. In the centre -rose a large round tower of great height and strength, forming the -keep or citadel, under which were the vaults containing the powder. -On its ramparts were mounted {220} one hundred and twenty large -cannon, besides mortars and howitzers, and it was defended by fifteen -hundred Turks well acquainted with the use of artillery, under the -command of the Hasnagee or Treasurer who had promised to die rather -than surrender. As it overlooked the Casauba and the whole city, it -was clear that an enemy in possession of this spot and provided with -artillery, could soon reduce the place to dust; but it was itself -commanded in a like manner, by several heights within the distance of -a thousand yards, which were in the hands of the French. The next -fortress was the Sittit Akoleit or _Fort of twenty-four hours_, half -a mile north of the city; and lastly a work called the English fort -was erected on the seashore near Point Pescada, a headland about -one-third of the way between Algiers and Cape Caxine. The object of -the French was to reduce the Emperor's castle as soon as possible, -and in the mean time to confine the Algerines within their walls as -well as to prevent them from receiving succors. For the latter -purposes, it was necessary to extend their lines much more than would -have been compatible with safety, in presence of a foe well -acquainted with military science; trusting however to the ignorance -and fears of his enemies, Bourmont did not hesitate to spread out his -forces, even at the risk of having one of his wings cut off by a -sudden sortie. Loverdo in consequence established his division on a -height within five hundred yards of the Emperor's castle; Berthezéne -changed his position from the right to the centre, occupying the -sides of mount Boujereah the heights immediately west of the city; -while d'Escars on the extreme left, overlooked the Sittit Akoleit, -and the English fort. These positions were all taken before two -o'clock in the day. - -On the right of Berthezéne's corps, was the country house in which -the foreign consuls were assembled under the flag of the United -States. As its situation gave it importance, General Achard who -commanded the second brigade determined to occupy it, and even to -erect a battery in front of it. Major Lee the _Commander in Chief_ of -the consular garrison, formally protested against his doing either, -maintaining that the flag which waved over the spot rendered it -neutral ground. The French General did not seem much inclined to -yield to this reasoning; but when it was also alleged that the -erection of the battery would draw the fire of the Algerine forts -upon the house, in which a number of females were collected, as well -as the representatives of several nations friendly to France, he -agreed to dispense with the execution of that part of his order, but -his soldiers were quartered on the premises, and his officers -received at the table of the consuls. The latter were, as might have -been expected, polished and gallant men; the soldiers were very -unruly, and by no means merited the praises which have been bestowed -on their moderation and good conduct, in the despatches of their -commander and the accounts of the historians. - -The night of the 29th passed without any attack on the lines of the -French. Before morning the engineers under Valazé had opened a trench -within five hundred yards of the Emperor's castle, and various -country houses situated in the vicinity of that fortress, were armed -with heavy pieces and converted into batteries. As soon as this was -perceived from the castle, a fire was opened upon the laborers; but -they were already too well protected by the works which had been -thrown up, and few of the balls took effect. A sortie was next made -by the garrison, and for a moment they succeeded in occupying the -house of the Swedish Consul, in which a French corps had been -stationed; they were however immediately driven out, and forced to -retire to their own walls. - -In order to divert the attention of the Algerines during the progress -of the works, false attacks were made on their marine defences by the -ships of the French squadron. On the 1st of July Admiral Rosamel, -with a portion of the naval force, passed across the entrance of the -bay, and opened a fire on the batteries, which after some time was -returned. Not the slightest damage appears to have been received by -either party, the French keeping, as the Admiral says, "à grande -portée de canon," that is to say, _nearly_ out of the reach of the -fire of the batteries; one bomb is stated to have fallen in the -vicinity of Rosamel's ship. The effect of this movement not answering -the expectations of the French, as it did not induce the Algerines to -suspend their fires on the investing force, it was determined that a -more formidable display should be made. Accordingly on the 3d, -Admiral Duperré made his appearance before the place, with seven sail -of the line, fifteen frigates, six bomb vessels, and two steamers. -The frigate Belloné which led the way, approached the batteries and -fired on them, as she passed with much gallantry; the other ships -kept farther off, and as they came opposite the Mole, retired beyond -the reach of the guns, where they continued for some hours, during -which each party poured tons of shot harmless into the sea. As the -Admiral states in his despatch, "none of his ships suffered any -apparent damage, or notable less of men," except from the usual -"bursting of a gun on board the Provence, by which ten were killed -and fifteen wounded." - -The high character for courage and skill which Admiral Duperré has -acquired by his long and distinguished services, precludes the -possibility of imagining that there could have been any want of -either of those qualities on his part in this affair. Indeed he would -have been most blameable had he exposed his ships and men to the fire -of the fortresses which extend in front of Algiers, at a period when -the success of the expedition was certain. The "moral effect" of -which the Admiral speaks in his despatch, might have been produced to -an equal or greater extent, by the mere display of the forces in the -bay; the only physical result of the cannonade, was the abandonment -of some batteries, on Point Pescada, which were in consequence -occupied by d'Escar's forces. The whole attack if it may be so -termed, was probably only intended to repress any feelings of -jealousy which may have arisen in the minds of the naval officers and -men, by thus affording them at least an ostensible right to share -with the army the glory of reducing Algiers. - - - - -BAI. - - -Bai was the Egyptian term for the branch of the Palm-tree. Homer says -that one of Diomede's horses, Phœnix, was of a palm-color, which is a -bright red. It is therefore not improbable that our word _bay_ as -applied to the color of horses, may boast as remote an origin as the -Egyptian Bai. - - -{221} - - -THE CLASSICS. - - -Amid the signs of the times in the present age--fruitful in change if -not of improvement,--we have observed with pain not only a growing -neglect of classical literature, but continued attempts on the part -of many who hold the public ear to cast contempt on those studies -which were once considered essential to the scholar and the -gentleman, which formed such minds as Bacon's and Milton's, and which -afforded the most delightful of occupations to the leisure of a -Newton and a Leibnitz. In every age there has been a class of men who -from a depravity of taste, or else a passion for singularity, have -maligned all that is ancient or venerable. And sometimes with a -strange perversity of purpose, we see men wasting their opportunities -in a mischievous ridicule of useful pursuits which they might have -advanced and illustrated to the benefit of themselves and mankind. -Thus the seventeenth century, deeply imbued as it was with the spirit -of classical inquiry and the love of ancient literature, gave birth -to a Scarron and a Cotton, of whom the latter particularly was fitted -for higher pursuits, and the former perhaps worthy of a better fate. -But if in a spirit of indulgence for misguided genius we pardon the -offence of their jest for its wit, and feel that in so doing we are -involuntarily paying that tribute which is due to talent even when -misapplied, let us beware of extending the same indulgence to those -who from ignorance undervalue pursuits which they cannot appreciate, -or to those who contemn like the fox in the fable, objects which they -have vainly sought to obtain, or worse than all, to those who have no -better motive for their censure than the wish to pilfer without -detection, from the rich stores of those whom they have banished from -the public eye, and driven from their rightful abodes in public -recollection by a course of systematised slander. It would perhaps be -unjust to say that the opposers of the ancient and learned -universities of England, who have chiefly wrought the evil influence -upon English literature to which we have been alluding, belong all of -them to one of these three classes, but that many of them may be -ranked with the last we cannot doubt, when we see what things they -often send forth to the world as _their own_, and this too with an -air of the greatest pretension. That some of these persons were -actuated by better motives we must admit when we trace to its origin -the history of this partially successful war against classical -studies. The two universities of Oxford and Cambridge, those ancient -abodes of learning, to a certain degree undoubtedly deserved the -reproach of lagging behind the march of mind, in denying to modern -literature the share of attention to which it was justly entitled. -Absorbed in explorations of the past, and wedded to the love of -antiquity in all their associations, they sought literature in her -earliest haunts, and delighted most in their olden walks, which they -loved for the very frequency with which they had trodden them. The -system of study which had trained so many of their sons to eminence, -seemed to them the best, and they were too slow in moulding its forms -to the progress of science. It was endeared to them not only from the -nature of its pursuits, but from past success, and it was no mean -ambition which stimulated their sons to tread in the paths which a -Bacon or a Clarendon, a Newton or a Locke, had trodden before them. -And yet a little reflection should have taught them that if these -glorious models of human excellence had left science where they found -it, their reputations had never existed. A fierce opposition at -length sprung up to a system of study so narrow and exclusive,--the -growing wants of education demanded a university in London, which -project was opposed by many of the friends of the old institutions. -The elements of a party thus formed, were soon combined, and as the -controversy waxed warmer, they attacked not only the venerable -temples of learning, but the very study of the ancient languages -itself, at first, perhaps, because the most celebrated abodes of this -species of literature were to be found in the universities to which -they had become inimical. Like every other literary controversy for -some time past in England, this question connected itself with the -party politics of the day, and thus many changed sides on the -literary, that they might be together on the political question. -Strange as it may seem, it has been for some time a reproach against -the English that the Tories would not encourage the Whig literature, -and vice versâ. No reader of the British periodicals for the last -twenty years can have failed to remark this fact, which serves to -account for the progress of the literary heresy which has already -done so much to degrade English literature and to deprave the tastes -of those who read only the English language. We shall not pause to -inquire further into the effects produced by this illicit connexion -between politics and literature in England, although it presents a -highly interesting subject of inquiry, and one which must deeply -occupy much of the attention of the historian who may hope hereafter -to give an accurate account either of the political or literary -condition of that country for many years past. Neither is it our -purpose to arraign at the bar of public opinion those who have -draggled the sacred "_peplon_" itself in the vile mire of party -politics, although we sincerely believe that they will have a heavy -account to settle with posterity for this unhallowed connexion. We -merely allude to it by way of pointing out one of the causes of the -heresy which we mean to combat, from the belief that it is -mischievous, and the more especially as it diverts public attention -from the particular want of American literature. Unhappily our -reading in this country is chiefly confined to the English novelists -and the periodicals of the day, from which we derive a contempt for -the lofty and venerable learning of antiquity, and a belief that -instead of too little, we bestow too much attention upon classical -literature in America! That the novelists and trash manufacturers of -the reviews should foster this opinion is not at all surprising, for -they find their account in it. And yet it stirs the bile within us -when we see a paltry novelist who cannot frame his tale without -borrowing his plot, or conduct his dialogue without theft, affect to -despise the study of those authors whom he robs without any other -restraint than the fear of detection; or when we hear them offer to -substitute their lucubrations for the writings of the great masters -of antiquity--men who put forth opinions upon the most difficult -questions in moral or physical science, and support them only by a -dogmatism which would look down all opposition and frown upon any -inquiry into the grounds of their doctrines, who, like Falstaff, will -give no reasons for their moral or political opinions, and yet -insinuate by their {222} air of pretension that they are "plenty as -blackberries"--sciolist novelists who doubt what is believed by all -the most intelligent of their race, and believe what no other persons -but themselves can be brought to believe--men who insinuate their -superiority over the great models of the human race by affecting to -despise whatever they have offered to the public view and modestly -intimating their reliance upon their own superior resources. Problems -in morals and politics which have filled with doubts and difficulties -the minds of Bacon or Locke, of Montesquieu or Grotius, are now -settled at a stroke of the pen by our novelist philosophers. Nothing -is more common than to see the solution of some one of them by the -dandy hero of some fashionable novel, who, sauntering from the dance -to the coterie of philosophers in blue, solves the difficulty _en -passant_, and fearing that this trifling occupation of so mighty a -genius may attract attention, then hastens to divert public -observation from his sage aphorism and impromptu philosophy by -flirting with his friend's wife or playing with his poodle. The -conception of a costume is the only occupation worthy of his fancy, -and the composition of a dish the only subject which he would have -the world to think capable of tasking his powers of attention and -reflection; and yet all the learning of all the schools is shamed by -the display of this literary _faineant_ who acquired his knowledge -without study, whilst inspiration only can account for the wisdom -with which he is instinct. A nation has groaned through long -centuries of almost hopeless bondage--the clank of a people in chains -is heard from the Emerald isle--a cry of distress fills the air--a -mighty orator, an O'Connell, arises before them, filling the public -mind with agitation and pointing the way to revenge. In the energy of -despair a portion of the captives have broken their manacles--they -rush to liberate their fellows--the air is full of their cry for -revenge--the conclave of Europe's wisest statesmen is at fault--a -king trembles on his throne--and what, gentle reader, do you suppose -is to be the result of these mighty throes and convulsions? why, just -nothing, literally nothing at all. A Countess of Blessington surveys -the scene from afar; reclining on an Ottoman, beneath a cloud of -aromatic odors she recollects the subject of conversation at her last -"soiree;" the idea flits across her brain with a gentle pang as it -flies, that the energy of O'Connell is becoming exceedingly vulgar, -and that the convulsions of a revolution so near her would be -extremely trying to her nerves, not to mention those of Messrs. -Bulwer and D'Israeli. Her resolution is taken, and at spare intervals -between morning visits and soirees, she writes the "_Repealers_," -which is at once to settle the agitations of a kingdom, and -annihilate O'Connell himself. She has no sooner finished, than -washing her hands "forty times in soap and forty in alkali," she -despatches the production to Mr. Bulwer, who looking upon the work -pronounces it good; and lo! the succeeding number of the New Monthly -shall teach you the wonderful virtues of the moral medicaments which -come from the Countess of Blessington's specific against Irish -agitation. But who is Mr. Bulwer himself? for in this age so -wonderful for accomplishing great ends by little means, it has become -necessary to know him. Why a literary magician, a sprite of Endor, -who by the potency of his charm conjures up the spirits of the mighty -dead. Evoked by him the departed prophets arise. A Peter the Great, -and a Bolingbroke, a Pope and a Swift, not to mention others of -somewhat lesser note, come forth and speak at his command as once -they spoke. The departed oracles of English literature are no longer -mute. But the visits of the dead are of necessity short. They have no -time now for such chit-chat as some may suspect they have hazarded -whilst living. They come on a mission of importance which they have -barely time to accomplish. The hidden secrets of policy are to be -revealed, mightly oracles in philosophy and criticism are to be -declared. Truths fall like hailstones, and wit descends in showers. -But lo! what figure is that which stalks across the scene and comes -to take his part in this play of phantasmagoria with which we have -just been entertained. Does he belong to the land of shadows or the -world of reality? "Under which king, Bezonian, speak or die." It is -an impersonation of the mental and moral qualities of Mr. Edward -Lytton Bulwer himself, not a prophet--but more than a prophet. The -"most wonderful wonder of wonders." Pope and Swift are overpowered by -his wit. The star of Bolingbroke pales before the superior effulgence -of this luminary, and Peter the Great, mute in astonishment, stands -"_erectis auribus_" to catch the oracles of government which flow -from the godlike man. The scene changes--whither doth he go? He -seizes the reins of government, he retrieves the affairs of a mighty -empire by way of recreating a mind exhausted with the play of its -mighty passions, and then wearied with the amusement, he turns in -quest of other pursuits. The rule of an empire and the affairs of -this world are objects too petty for the employment of his mind; he -looks for some higher subject, and finds it in himself--the only -subject in creation vast enough to fill the capacity of his spirit. -He communes with the stars--he talks to the "TOEN," and the "TOEN" -replies to him, and finally, big with his mighty purpose he achieves -the task of writing "his confessions." And as my lord Peter concocted -a dish containing the essence of all things good to eat, so this book -is full of something that is exquisite from every department of -thought. Such are the books which have displaced the writings of the -masters of antiquity and the old household books of the English -tongue. You may not take up a review or periodical now-a-days, but it -shall teach you the folly of bestowing your time upon the study of -the ancients, now that their writings afford so much that is more -worthy of attention. Alas! that such should be the priesthood who -administer the rites in the temple of English literature--the money -changer has indeed entered the temple, when those who write for money -come in to expel all who have written for fame. How often does it -happen now-a-days that the writer of a bawdy novel, derives -reputation enough from that circumstance, to assume the chair of -criticism, and exposing a front of hardened libertinism to the scorn -of the good and the contempt of the wise, avails himself of his -situation to frown down every attempt to resuscitate our decaying -literature, by the introduction of better models, and to restore -health to the public taste, which this very censor has contributed to -deprave? There is no more common occupation with such a man than the -correction of the errors of the most illustrious statesmen and -philosophers in magazine articles of some six or eight pages; the -French revolution is the {223} favorite theme of his lofty -speculations, and Napoleon's the only character which he will exert -himself to draw. With how much of the lofty contempt of a superior -spirit does he speak of the labors of a Bentley, a Porson, a Parr, or -an Elmsley; of a Gessner, a Brunck, a Heyne, a Schweihauser or a -Wolffe. The anxious labors, for years, of such men as those go for -nothing with him--they serve only to excite his scorn, or else afford -him the favorite subjects of his ridicule. With the ingratitude of a -malignant spirit, or the coarseness of ignorance, he reviles the -self-denying students who may be truly said to have renounced the -world in their enthusiastic search after the buried lore of -antiquity--men who have paled before the midnight lamp in their -ceaseless efforts to penetrate the obscurity of the past--lonely -eremites, who feed the lamps that cast their dim light on the votive -offerings which antiquity has laid upon the altar of knowledge--men -who have dwelt apart from their race and denied themselves the common -pleasures of life, that they might without distraction restore the -decaying temple of ancient literature, and recover for the use of -their own and future generations, treasures which else had been -buried and forgotten; who have lived in the past until they have -imbibed its spirit, and return like travellers full of the wisdom of -unknown lands, and rich with the accumulated experience of past ages -to shower their treasures and their blessings upon the ungrateful -many who despise them for their labors and taunt them for their -gifts, that they too may learn what a thing it is to cast pearls -before swine; and who, superior to the unmerited scorn of this world, -and to all the temptations of its grovelling pleasures, meekly bear -their ill treatment with no other emotion than the fear that the -benefits thus painfully acquired and freely bestowed, may turn out to -be coals of fire which they have been heaping upon unthankful heads. -And are men who labor for such objects as these to be ridiculed as -looking to things too small, because they sojourned so long in the -gloom of past ages, that their optics have been enlarged to discern -not only the mouldering monument, but the smallest eft that crawls -upon it? Shall they be taunted because they have learned to live in -mute companionship with their books, and like the lonely prisoner, -love objects which to others may seem inconsiderable, but are -endeared to them by all the force of a long association, whose chain -is interwoven link by link with the memory of their past? And if, -like Old Mortality, they love to restore each mouldering monument, -and retrace every time-worn inscription that may serve to renew their -silent communion with the hallowed and dreamy past, surely the -occupation may be pardoned, if not for its uses to others, at least -for the quiet affection and sweet enthusiasm of the dream which it -serves to awaken in the mind which is busy in the employment. But the -utilitarian spirit of the present age is ever ready to measure the -value of these pursuits by that pecuniary standard which alone it -uses. What are their fruits? Will they move spinning jennies or -propel boats? are they known on 'Change? how do they stand in the -prices current, and in what way will they put money in the purse? -Strangely as this may sound in the ears of those who love knowledge -for itself and its spiritual uses, and absurd as these things would -have appeared to the literary world a century ago, we much fear that -we must return answers to them satisfactory, in part, at least, -before we can even obtain an attentive hearing to what we shall say -of their higher excellences. It is true that classical attainments -are in few instances the objects of pecuniary speculation, nor is it -our purpose to hold out temptations to literary simony to those who, -insensible of the peace which the love of knowledge sheds abroad in -the human heart, would hope to sell or purchase that precious gift, -for mere money. If this were the only end which the student had in -view, we should regret to see him perverting to unworthy purposes the -sacred means to higher ends. To such a man learning has no -temptations to offer, for its best rewards he can never obtain -without a change of heart. We can no more unite the love of knowledge -and of Mammon than serve the two masters spoken of in Scripture. It -is the rare excellency of this holy taste that it releases us from -servitude to the unworthy desires which are too apt to fill the minds -of those who have never known what it was to thirst after the waters -of truth. It is indeed the redeeming spirit of the human mind, which -casts out the evil passions by which it had been possessed and torn. -But there is a class of students burning for distinction and -ambitious of eminence rather than wisdom, to whom we would appeal -under the hope that in the pursuit of their own lesser ends they will -cultivate tastes which may serve to awaken them to the more precious -uses of knowledge. If then we can show these that the study of the -ancient languages affords not only an admirable, but perhaps the best -exercise for training tender minds into healthful habits of thought -and reflection, that in looking to an economy of the time which -measures the little span of human life, it is the pursuit in which -the youthful mind can do most in acquiring human knowledge, we shall -at least hold out strong temptations to these studies, even to those -hasty and incautious inquirers who reject every thing for which they -have no present use. But if we go farther, and demonstrate that the -man who would thoroughly understand modern literature, must seek its -foundations in that of the ancients,--that the poet and philosopher, -the orator and statesman, who would train his mind to a successful -pursuit of his favorite object, must look to the great masters of -antiquity for the best models of his art, surely we shall persuade -him to apply the means which a knowledge of the dead languages -affords him, to the study of the literature which they embody. And -shall he pause here in his career? is it to be supposed that he will -still look to knowledge only for the earthly honors which it will -enable him to obtain when he has in view the higher rewards which the -love of truth has within itself? Will he be content with the narrow -horizon which first bounded his prospect when he has taken a more -elevated view of creation? Feeling that every sensible addition which -his knowledge makes to his wisdom is another link by which he mounts -in the chain of spiritual existence, he will lose the original ends -for which he was laboring in the nobler objects which unfold -themselves to his mind. He learns to disregard what men may say of -him, sustained by the proud consciousness of what he is. And like the -mariner who has become weary of coasting adventures, he boldly puts -forth to sea in quest of that unknown land which his spirit has seen -in its dreams. These are the higher uses of the pursuit of knowledge, -and although we are far from asserting that classical {224} studies -are the only pursuits that are thus rewarded, yet we will hazard the -assertion, that there are none more eminently fitted for -strengthening the human mind and elevating its character. - -But to return to the first position which we have taken as to the -peculiar fitness of this pursuit for the early employment of the -human mind. It is something in its favor, that for centuries past, -until of late, there has been nearly a common assent amongst literary -men that the study of the ancient languages affords the best exercise -for the youthful mind,--an opinion so old and so prevalent, must have -had at least some foundation in truth. Indeed, when we come to look -at the nature of the system of training necessary for the youthful -mind, we cannot long doubt the fitness of these pursuits for that -end. There is no period, but boyhood, of a man's life at which he -would submit to the drudgery necessary for training his memory in the -exercises by which it is most strengthened. It would be difficult to -induce him to submit to such tasks when he had arrived at a more -advanced period of life, and taken even a superficial view of the -more agreeable walks of knowledge. With a boy who stands upon the -threshold of science, it is far different. Taught that the end in -view is worthy of all his pains, and that his commencement of the -pursuit of knowledge must of necessity be difficult, he is as willing -to seek science through that pass as any other, and the more -especially as he perceives that the exercises are not beyond his -strength. In the study of the ancient languages, (the Greek -especially, because it is more regular than any other) he not only -finds an improvement in the powers of simple suggestion or mere -memory, but he is insensibly led to processes of generalization from -the great saving of labor which he discovers in classification, thus -burthening his memory with a rule only, instead of the mass of facts -which the rule serves to recall and connect--an advantage which the -study of none of the modern languages will afford to the same extent. -In the difficulties of translation, which occasionally present -themselves, he is not only forced to reason upon the rules which -regulated their forms of construction, but often finds it necessary, -by an examination of the context and subject matter, to ascertain the -meaning of the author; and thus early learns to consider the logical -arrangement of propositions and sentences. How often do we find boys -thus eagerly and earnestly engaged, in inquiring into the customs and -history of the people whose language they are studying, and reasoning -upon the motives of action and the characters of men, without being -conscious of the high nature of their speculations, or that they are -doing more than translating the meaning of a difficult sentence--thus -without weariness gradually storing their minds with a knowledge of -allusions necessary for their future reading, and which in the mass -would never be acquired by the youthful intellect from the fatiguing -nature of a study directed to them exclusively. How often do we find -a lad profitably engaged in metaphysical inquiries and nice -calculations of human motives at a time when works exclusively -devoted to these subjects would only serve to weary and disgust him. -The youthful mind is thus trained to the capacity of undergoing the -severest processes of thought and reasoning by a system of occasional -and gentle exercise which amuses without wearying or breaking its -spirit. There are certain advantages peculiar to the study of that -most wonderful of all languages, the Greek, in the culture of the -youthful mind. They are to be found in the regular forms of -compounding their words, and in the almost invariable applicability -of rules to its modes of expression. In tracing a compound word to -its root, the mind is insensibly forced to trace the compound -emotions of the human mind to their source through the seemingly -hidden links of the chain of association which are almost pointed out -one by one in the varying terminations of the radical as it branches -out into its many different shades of signification. What boy of -tolerable capacity could turn to a root in Scapula's Lexicon, with a -view of its various compounds, without tracing (often unconsciously -it is true) the simple to the compound emotions of the human mind -through that chain of association which may be deemed necessary and -invariable, since not only the simple, but also the compound emotions -and perceptions are to be found in every human mind? How could he -fail to acquire a knowledge of the cognate ideas of the mind with -this ocular reference to their connexion before him? He thus learns -the kindred ideas which the expression of certain given ideas will -call up, he begins to know how to marshal the host under their -leader, he perceives the true force of expression which belongs to -words, and traces much of the progress of human thought by means of -the land-marks which this regularly formed language indicates to the -inquirer. He perceives the modes by which the ancient masters of -style in this language learned to express with precision the most -abstract of ideas, and as it were, to transfer to paper almost every -shadow which flits through the human mind. Penetrating to the truth, -through the metaphysical and logical construction of this language, -that style consists more in the arrangement of ideas than words, he -acquires rules which he may transfer to his own language, and thus -increase its capacities of expression, at the same time that he may -often improve the beauty of its form without impairing its strength. -No man ever acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek without having -in the course of his progress penetrated often and far into the walks -of philology and metaphysics. As no philologist has ever arrived at -eminence without an attentive study of this language, so perhaps it -will not be going too far to say that without it, none ever will. -They were thus trained--the great masters of the English language who -have improved its construction and added so much to its beauty and -strength. The greatest and most sudden improvement which has ever -been wrought at any one period in the English language, certainly -took place in the reign of Elizabeth, and yet every page, nay, almost -every line of the great authors of that day, betrays a constant and -studied reference to the models of antiquity. Next to them, and -pre-eminent as a reformer in our language, stands Milton, who was -trained in the same studies, and whose marvellous power over language -has never been sufficiently considered in the attention which is -bestowed upon his genius. Perhaps no other man ever effected such a -change in the construction of a language, or did so much to reform -it. It has been well said that his construction was essentially -Greek. He only possessed the wonderful power of transferring the -construction of one language to another, dissimilar in its origin and -forms, and of transfusing as {225} it were an old spirit into a new -body. Profoundly versed in written and spoken languages, he was yet -more a master of the language of thought and feeling, and was thus -able to improve the arrangement of the groupes and to touch with a -more natural coloring and living expression the forms by which we had -sought to embody our ideas. And what was the chosen model of that -mighty genius, whose language may be said to mirror thought, if that -of any other English author can be said to paint it? The Greek! the -immortal Greek! which surviving the institutions and national -existence of its people, stands forth like the Parthenon itself, and -defies the genius of all other nations in all succeeding ages to -produce a structure which shall equal its combinations of strength -and elegance--a language which even yet justifies the proud boast of -its creators, that in comparison with them, all other nations are -barbarous. It is evident from the whole spirit of the writings of -this immortal man, that he believes in no other Helicon but the -Greek. If we were called upon to recommend to the reader of English -literature only the writings which would afford him the best -substitute for the study of the classics in the improvement of his -style, we should undoubtedly recommend him to the works of Milton. -There are several authors since his day, who, trained in the same -studies, have labored with less effect, it is true, for the same end; -and indeed it would be difficult to point out a single author who has -improved the strength and beauty of the English language, without a -knowledge of the structure and literature of the Greek. There have -been many who, without this knowledge, have well used the language as -they found it. But Temple, Tillotson, Addison, Bolingbroke, Warburton -and Johnson, who have all contributed sensible additions and changes -to its structure, formed their styles upon ancient models. - -We have already adverted to the knowledge of the allusions to the -ancient mythology acquired by the study of the Greek and Latin -authors, a knowledge which can only be fully acquired in this mode, -and which is of inestimable use to the student, not only in -understanding the writings even of modern times, but in learning to -write himself. The ardent imagination of the East has produced -nothing more beautiful than the splendid mythology of the Greeks--a -mythology which abounds in powerful imagery and poetic conception. -Perhaps there is nothing so little various as fiction, -notwithstanding the numerous and repeated efforts at such creations. -Indeed it would be curious to ascertain how much of the fiction now -in possession of the human race is of ancient origin, and thus to -perceive how little would be left if we were to abstract the -creations of the mythic ages of ancient Greece. Nothing could -illustrate more strongly the fact that the history of the human heart -is always the same. We find powerfully portrayed even in the fictions -of that early day, the intrigues of love and ambition, the vanity of -earthly hopes, and the warfare of contending passions. There is -scarcely a feeling which is not pictured in some poetic -personification which developes its tendencies and nature, and there -is not a moral of general use in the conduct of life which is not -illustrated by some well designed and beautiful allegory. It seems to -have been an early practice with the eastern sages to address the -reasons of their people through the medium of their ardent and -susceptible fancies. The Hebrew, the Egyptian and Grecian lawgivers -and sages, all resorted to it, and truth presented in this attractive -form has never failed to take a lasting hold upon the public mind. -Addressing itself in this form most powerfully to the young, because -their fancies are most susceptible, it cannot fail to make an -impression at that age when it sinks most deeply in the human mind. -It is thus that principles of action are instilled into the human -mind at an age when reason is scarcely yet capable of eliminating the -true from the false, and the youthful imagination receives an early -and wholesome excitement from the contemplations of poetic -conceptions whose simplicity fits them to be received, and whose -beauty commends them to be loved, by the youthful mind. The most -powerful, the most beautiful and concise modes of expressing much of -human feeling and passion, are to be found in the Grecian mythology. -The true value of an image consists in the conciseness with which it -expresses the idea that it represents. An image is misplaced and -useless, no matter how beautiful in itself, if it presents your idea -in a more tedious and cumbrous form than that in which a few simple -words would have explained your meaning as well. It is then obviously -unnecessary, and presents itself to the reader as a mere attempt at -beauty, which at once recalls him from the subject to the author,--an -effect which is always unfortunate for the latter. Good imagery, on -the contrary, offers a glowing picture which at once makes a vivid -impression upon the mind, accurately representing your meaning, and -calling up ideas through the force of a necessary and natural -association, which would not have been otherwise awakened except by -the use of many more words. Such in an eminent degree is the imagery -of the mythology of which we have been speaking. Where is the course -of power without knowledge to guide it, so briefly yet so forcibly -depicted as in the mad career of Phaeton misguiding the steeds of the -sun? And what picture so descriptive of the writhings of disappointed -ambition as that of Prometheus on his rock with the vulture at his -liver? Tantalus in the stream is an ever living fiction, because it -borrows the form of Truth when it points to the punishment of him who -rashly essays to satisfy his thirst for happiness by the -gratification of unhallowed lusts; and Sisyphus toiling at his stone, -is the faithful picture of man who vainly confident in his unassisted -strength seeks to roll the ball of fortune up the slippery eminence. -What can be more beautiful than that picture of fraternal affection -which we find in the fable of the sons of Leda--a union of spirit so -pure that it was typified in the two bright stars which still -maintain alternate sway in heaven as an everlasting memorial of that -undying love which married the mortal to the immortal in one common -destiny. In what other language could Byron have described fallen -Rome, "the Niobe of nations," than that which he used, the language -of truth and feeling which is now common to the whole of the -civilized world, and must be as universally used as known, since it -embodies the pictured thought and feeling of the human heart. The man -who neglects this mythic and most beautiful of languages, must be -content to see himself excelled by those who have studied it, both in -strength and beauty of expression. Perhaps we do not hazard too much -in asserting that a knowledge of this mythic language {226} alone (if -we may call it so,)--a knowledge only to be obtained by reading the -Greek and Latin authors--would compensate the student for the labor -bestowed in acquiring those languages. So far we have looked only to -the advantages to be derived from a mere study of these languages, -without any reference to the literature which they embody. And if we -have shown so far that these studies of themselves afford a reward -for our labors, how much more important will they seem when we -consider the learning which we shall find in them. But it may be said -that we promised to show that these studies were not only profitable, -but the most profitable in which the youthful mind could be engaged; -and so far we have not redeemed the pledge. To this we reply, that -the study of natural philosophy by which we comprehend physics and -morals, and that of languages, afford the only subjects to which the -mind is directed in books. Now, in relation to the first, we assume -in common with most of the best thinkers on the subject of education, -that such studies would serve to weaken the youthful mind by its -premature exertions under a load as yet beyond its capacity; and with -regard to the study of other languages than the Greek and Latin, that -all the advantages to be derived from the mere study of language, -which the others afford, are also to be had by the classical student, -whilst the more regular formation and peculiar structure of these two -ancient languages promise benefits to the youthful mind which are -peculiar to themselves, or at any rate, much greater in them than in -any others. - -We come now to the second proposition which we laid down, and that -is, that out of his own language, there are no other two languages -whose literature holds out as many inducements to the student for -acquiring them, as that of the Greek and Latin languages, since -independently of their own worth, these studies are absolutely -essential to the proper understanding of modern literature as it now -exists. Surely there could exist no opinion more unfortunate for the -progress of science, than that which supposes, that a view of science -as it now exists, is all that is necessary for its thorough -investigation; indeed, we believe the assertion may be safely -hazarded, that no one can ever qualify himself for the race of -discovery who looks alone to what men now think without a reference -to what they have formerly believed and written upon the subjects of -his inquiry. Strange as it may seem, the man who would ascertain -truth, must not confine himself to the simple inquiry of what it is. -He must also see what men have thought about it. He must look to the -history of human opinion and the modes of reasoning by which men have -arrived at their conclusions. He must not only be able to understand -the results of right reason, but he must learn also to reason for -himself. It was a perception of this necessity which induced the -immortal Bacon to turn his attention to the mode of investigating -truth, rather than to the discovery of truth itself. He perceived -that it was the most important benefit which could be conferred by -any man of that day, and the Novum Organon, the most wonderful of -mere human conceptions, was the result. A view of the different modes -of reasoning to truth which had been employed before him, a -comparison of the methods which the most successful philosophers had -pursued, soon taught him that there was as much in the method used as -in the genius of the investigator. He who would pursue the path of -truth, would do well to prepare himself with a guide book made up -from the experience of former travellers; he will thus learn the -various roads which intersect his true path, and might be likely to -put him out, each of which some former pilgrim has taken before him, -from whose recorded experience he may take warning; or sometimes it -may happen that whilst the crowd of philosophers have been wandering -for centuries through a mazy error, the account given by some long -gone traveller of a partially explored route may lead the happy -investigator into the true way, and thus forward him on his journey. -In the progress of truth, which of necessity must be slow and -cautious, it is important to weigh every step, and every chart should -be preserved. It was thus that Copernicus, retracing the steps of -philosophers for two thousand years, discovered in the almost -forgotten accounts of the writings of Nicetas, Heraclides and -Ecphontus, traces of a route into which he struck off and was -conducted to the most brilliant discoveries. It was thus that Galileo -was conducted to some of his discoveries in hydrostatics by the hints -of Archimedes. Indeed, how many of the most important discoveries of -science have thus originated? Had Archimedes and Pappus never -written, or had they been neglected, the method of tangential lines -of Fermat and Barrow, approximating so closely as they do to the -discovery of the differential calculus, had perhaps never existed, -and to these we must attribute the subsequent important discovery of -Newton and Leibnitz. Indeed, the whole history of scientific -discovery is the history of a chain whose links have been forged by -different men, and fitted at different times. If such be the most -fortunate mode of scientific discovery, how much do we increase the -importance of the study of the ancient literature, when we come to -reflect that the termination of their scientific labors during the -night of the middle ages, is the point of departure from which all -modern scientific discovery has emanated. It will at once be -recollected that at the revival of letters, the only sources of -information were derived from the study of the ancients revived -chiefly by Boccacio and the philosophers of the Medici school and -from the Arabians, whose knowledge was drawn chiefly though at an -early period from the same source. Notwithstanding the elegant -rivalry between the Abassides and Ommoiades, which so much fostered -the spirit of learned inquiry, notwithstanding the resort of the -Arabian philosophers to the Indian school, and the polite and -elevated spirit of the Saracen conquerers who offered peace to the -modern and degenerate Greeks in exchange for their philosophy, it is -still evident that with the exception of some few discoveries in the -science of medicine, they were yet far behind the ancients at the -period of the decay of letters. Ancient science became the text upon -which modern writings were for ages the commentary, one of its -languages became the medium of communication between the learned and -polite of all nations, and no book of science was published for a -long time except in the Latin. The writings of mathematicians as far -down as Euler, those in medicine in England as far down as Hunter, -the writings of Blumenback, of Grotius and Spinoza, the Novum Organon -of Bacon, and indeed those of nearly all the modern philosophers, -until the middle of the seventeenth century, {227} were in Latin. In -Belles Lettres, criticism and rhetoric, in history, physics and -morals, the models of the moderns were all chosen from antiquity. In -addition to this too, the progress of Roman arms, and afterwards the -advance of Roman letters, had incorporated much of the Latin language -and idiom in all of the polite modern languages except the German. -The Italian and Spanish in particular have been well called "bastard -Latin." How then can any student of modern literature only, hope to -understand the genius of his own language, or even the spirit of that -literature to which he has devoted himself? What scientific inquirer -can hope, in any great degree, to forward the march of discovery no -matter what may be his genius and spirit, if he be without this -learning? Independently then of the intrinsic value of ancient -learning, we humbly think that the reasons enumerated by us, suffice -to prove not only the importance but the absolute necessity of these -studies to the accomplished scholar and man of science. But we are -prepared to go further, and maintain that on certain subjects of -mental inquiry, it still affords the best models extant. In poetry, -the best models are confessedly ancient. In rhetoric, Aristotle, -Quinctilian and Horace, have left nothing for modern investigation to -add upon that subject. But it is in history, oratory, the philosophy -of government, law and psychology, that the pre-eminence of ancient -literature is most important to be noticed. We are perfectly aware -that the history of remote antiquity has for every mind a charm which -does not belong to the genius or the taste of the historian. Ideas of -events remote in point of time, whether past or future, always fill -the mind with a certain degree of awe and uncertainty. A feeling of -mystery always attends our ideas of what is remote in point of time -or place. It is on the tale of the traveller from far distant lands -that we hang with most delight and wonder. Had Columbus discovered -America within two days voyage of Europe, the tale of his genius had -been yet untold. So too the mind looks to events long past with an -awe and wonder akin to those feelings which fill it in its eager gaze -into futurity. It is this power of association which attaches the -antiquarian so devotedly to his peculiar study, and so soon converts -it into a pursuit of feeling rather than of reason. It is the same -mysterious link which binds the poet to the early customs and history -of his country, and which lends a charm to the simplest ballad if it -be ancient, and connects his contemplations with the past. It was the -same feeling so strong in the human heart which swelled in the breast -of the indignant old lawgiver when in despite of his formal pursuits -and fancy-killing studies, he pronounced his rebuke on those who -ignorantly maligned "that code which has grown grey in the hoar of -innumerable ages." It is a mighty journey which the human mind takes -when it is transported from the present to the past. When the mind -awakes to realize these long-gone scenes, feelings of mingled awe and -pleasure insensibly possess it. A thousand associations of gloomy -grandeur attend us as we seem to walk amid the mighty monuments of -the dead in the silent twilight of past ages. We feel as if we were -treading the lonely streets of the city of the dead, and lifting the -pall of ages. We start to find that the mouldering records of man's -pursuits then told as now, that still eternal tale of empty vanity -and misbegotten hopes. The ashes of buried cities on which we tread, -the timeworn records of fallen empires and past greatness, the -monuments of events yet more remote and faintly discernible in the -dim distance, seem the too visible memorials of "what shadows we are, -and what shadows we pursue," and like Crusoe we recoil with wonder -and fear from _that trace_ of man on the desert shore. The earlier -the records to which we refer, the more deeply are we struck with the -wonderful power of our minds which enables us to use the hoarded -experience of ages and enter into silent communion with the dead, and -the more sensibly are we impressed by the comparison of the -imperishable creations of our spiritual nature, with the fading -glories of our mortal state. We ascend the stream of time as the -traveller of the Nile in quest of its mysterious sources, and the -farther we proceed the more wonderful is the view adown that vale of -ages through which it flows. Behind us, in the dim distance arise the -dark and impenetrable barriers, whose cloud-capt summits seem to -point to the heavens as the source of the mysterious river, whilst -before us flow the dark rolling waves of that wide stream which is to -bear us too to the mysteries of that land of shadows where we are -taught to expect an eternal, perhaps an awful home. Fair cities and -mighty empires arise in momentary show along its shores, and then -pass away upon its rolling waters. In swift succession the -generations of man chase each other upon its heaving billows in -shadowy hosts,--the dim phantasmagoria of our mortal state! And yet -like shades that wander along the Styx, some memories still live upon -its silent shore to tell the tale of wrecks and ruins which stud the -wave-worn banks. Lo! yonder rocky headland around which sweeps the -swift stream as it stretches into the dark bay where the waters lie -in momentary repose. How many were the marble palaces, how smiling -were the gardens which gladdened that once lovely spot. Yon -mouldering fane that yet clings to the wave-worn rock, was once the -least amongst ten thousand, and where are they?--Lost in these dark -waters in whose deep womb are buried the long forgotten glories of -our mortal race. - -From the charm of such associations we do not pretend to be exempt, -nor do we envy the man who could claim such an exemption. But we are -free to confess that this circumstance is too apt to disturb the -judgment in a comparison of the merits of ancient and modern history. -To a certain extent it may fairly be estimated amongst the advantages -of the former, for if it gives a greater interest to early history it -holds out a greater temptation to the ardent prosecution of that -study. But we do not fear the comparison without such adventitious -aid, for we maintain that as historians the ancients are still -unequalled. Of all their histories which have descended to the -present time, there are none which have not many of the higher -excellences of historical composition; but it is for Thucydides, -Tacitus and Plutarchus, the great masters in their respective styles, -that we challenge modern history to produce the parallels. The -definition which Diodorus has given of history, "that it is -philosophy teaching by example," may truly be applied to the writings -of the two first named historians. Indeed, we have never taken up the -works of the first without wonder at the rare and philosophical -temperament which enabled him to conduct his eager search after truth -without disturbance from those {228} feelings which personal injuries -and the spirit of party would so naturally have awakened in others -under the same circumstances. Himself a principal actor in the scenes -which his page commemorates, his situation and temper alike fitted -him for conducting his researches in a spirit of truth, a task which -he accomplished in a manner as yet unrivalled. How deep is the -devotion to the austere majesty of truth which he displays in his -masterly preface when he offers up the favorite fictions of his -nation as a sacrifice upon its altars, and stripping his subject of -its stolen ornaments, presents it to the world in naked simplicity. -If historical criticism has become a science in the hands of the -accomplished Niehbuhr, surely its origin and chief ornament are to be -found in that noble monument of antiquity. It was no small evidence -of future greatness which the young Demosthenes gave, in the choice -of this history as his model. For where could he find the springs of -government touched with so true a knowledge of their nature, or in -what book are the actions of man in masses traced to their motives -and causes with an analysis so searching? If we would trace society -through the first forms of republican government, and witness its -agitations under the opposition of those ever living and opposing -forces the democratic and aristocratic principles, we must look to -Thucydides. A living witness and a profound observer of the -unbalanced democracies of ancient Greece, his deep sagacity always -enabled him to resolve their line of action into the two elementary -and diverging forces according to their true proportions. As the -modern astronomer is able to detect even in the course of the most -erratic comet the resultant of the two opposing forces of the solar -system, so this profound observer of the human heart was able to -trace in the madness of revolution, the contests of a more pacific -policy, and even in the horrors of anarchy, the direction given by -the two elementary and opposing forces of the social system. Would we -trace society still further as another combination of these -elementary forces in different proportions gives its direction in the -line of despotism, we must turn to the Roman Thucydides--to Tacitus, -for a true knowledge of the internal machinery which regulates it -under this form of government. Do we wish to obtain an accurate view -of the motives which move masses to action? would we investigate man, -not as an individual, but according to those common qualities of the -human mind by which we may classify his species and genera, and by -which only we must consider him if we would rightly estimate the -effects of circumstances upon masses? Turn to either or to both of -these historians, whose profound and searching analysis so rarely -fails of detecting the motives to human action. In both we shall find -the same deep philosophy, the same careful study of the human heart, -and the same eagerness to utter truth when clearly conceived, without -regard to the forms of expression; the great and distinctive -difference is in the difference of temperament arising perhaps out of -a difference of situation. The more fiery Roman gives you glowing -sketches, not pictures--they flow from him with that careless haste -so indicative of boundless wealth. Each sketch bears within itself -the evidence of lofty conception, and shows in every line the traces -of a master's hand whose rapid touch is too busy in embodying the -forms with which his brain is teeming to waste its energies in those -minuter cares so necessary for filling out a perfect picture. With -rapid pencil he leaves perhaps a simple line, but it is the line of -Apelles--the hand of the master was there. The conceptions of the -rival Greek, like his, are lofty but more matured, and the same -careless ease with a somewhat superior elegance, mark his execution. -His coloring however is milder, and you are never struck with those -startling contrasts of light and shade so peculiar to the Roman. - -The inquirer who would train his mind in those pursuits most -necessary for the statesman, and, for that reason, seeks an intimate -knowledge of human nature, would arise from an attentive study of the -works of these great historians with feelings of pleasure and self -gratulation. Conscious, that he had acquired much knowledge of man as -a mere instrument in the hands of the politician, he already begins -to perceive the rules by which men of sagacity have reckoned with -much of probability if not of certainty, upon the future actions of -their fellow beings. But not being yet fully aware of the uses to -which this knowledge may be applied in directing the affairs of -society, he is now anxious to inquire into the results of those -attempts which the great masters of the human race have made, to -regulate the movements of masses and mould them to their peculiar -views. He must now turn to Plutarch's superb gallery of portraits of -the distinguished men of antiquity; he must open that book, which -oftener than any other, has afforded the favorite subject of the -early studies of the distinguished statesmen and warriors of all the -countries to which modern civilization has extended. He will here -perceive the modes by which his models are trained to greatness, and -learn to know and estimate the distinctive qualities which have -elevated their possessors so far above the common mass. His studies -which heretofore were directed to his fellows will be now turned to -himself, and a course of self reflection will teach him to exercise -and improve his strength, and to measure the proportions in which it -must be applied to the levers which move the ball of public opinion. -To show that we do not place too high an estimate upon this wonderful -book, we might simply refer to the internal evidences of its rare -excellences. But we cannot refrain from offering further proofs, more -striking at least, if not as strong. It is no small evidence of its -excellence that it is a book of more general interest than any other -biography or history extant; that it is amongst the first and the -last books which we like; its interest taking an early hold upon the -youthful mind, and continuing through our after life. And the fact is -not to be forgotten, in choosing the books for such a course of study -as the one just referred to, that most of the great modern statesmen -and generals, have bestowed much of their early attention and study -on this work; for this is some evidence that its pages serve to -awaken an early love of heroic virtue, and contribute to form the -habits necessary for its growth and continued existence. In our -reference to the works of the three authors which we should choose in -preference to all others of human origin, for the study of human -nature we have not adverted to the true order in which they should be -read. The book of biography should precede as well as succeed the -study of the two historians. We challenge all modern history and -biography for the production of three parallels to our chosen {229} -models, whose works can contribute so much to the attainment of this -particular end. Davila, the favorite of Hampden,--and Guicciardini, -whom St. John preferred to all modern historians,--have some of the -excellences of which we have been speaking, but will any one compare -them to the first? In the English language, Clarendon is the only -history worthy of the attention of the student in search of an author -who illustrates the science of human nature by a reference to the -recorded experience of past generations. The works of Gibbon, Hume -and Robertson, are admirable for their style and general interest, -but they take no true views of man (_epistola non erubescit_) as the -instrument of legislation; they do not present us with that -impersonation of the common qualities and motives of our nature, -which alone can be the subject of laws, and whose character only can -be moulded by the general institutions of society,--in short, with -that man who is the true subject of the politician's study. Indeed we -doubt if the historical works of these gentlemen ever were or ever -will be the favorites of any great and practical statesman,--a test -which we ask shall be applied to the models which we have chosen. We -are perfectly aware of what we hazard by such assertions, but safe -behind our mask, we feel secure from danger. - -In the view of the course of study which we have just been surveying, -we paused at the point where the inquirer having learnt the strength -and the temper of the various great springs which chiefly influence -human action, had turned aside to ascertain the best modes of -handling them by a reference to the experience of those who had -successfully regulated the machinery of society and effected in its -movements the particular objects which they had in view. From this -point, the transition is easy from the history and biography of -antiquity to its oratory. For where shall we find the springs of -human action so dexterously handled? It must be remembered that the -orators of antiquity approached their subjects under circumstances -very different from those which attend our modern debates. They -practised upon the societies in which they lived, under the same -penalties which attend the eastern physician who undertakes the -Sultan's cure. The gift of this splendid but fatal talisman of the -heart was always attended with the most unhappy consequences to its -possessor. Exile and death were the penalties, in case of failure, in -the measures which they recommended, or even in case of the loss of -popular affection. And so deep were the distresses of those gifted -but unhappy children of genius, that one of their most sincere -admirers was forced to exclaim - - "Ridenda poemata malo - Quam te conspicuæ divina Philippica famæ, - Volveris a prima quæ proxima." - -It is not to be supposed, that under such circumstances they would -ever approach their subject without a most careful consideration of -its nature and consequences, or that they would fail to study the -means of recommending themselves and their plans to popular favor. -Indeed it would naturally be expected that in the effort to persuade -the will of those upon whom they were operating, into a concurrence -with their own, they would scarcely place in competition with that -object the desire to write an oration to be admired by posterity. We -should look to find then a more attentive observance of the modes of -influencing the human heart and reason, than amongst the modern -speakers who were moved by none of their fears. A comparison of the -ancient with the modern orators would fully prove the fact, but as we -cannot of course enter into that comparison here, and deserve no -thanks from the reader for inviting his attention to it, we would -advert to the fact that these are the only real statesmen whose -orations have had an interest for a remote posterity. From which the -conclusion is fair, that of all speeches accessible to the reader, -these are the most valuable for acquiring the means of influencing -men, since no other orations of successful orators remain in an -agreeable form. Who reads the speeches of any of the modern orators -who have been statesmen at the same time, and who succeeded in -impressing their views upon the public mind. No one reads the -speeches of Walpole, Chatham, and Fox, the real orator statesmen of -England, whilst Burke's orations, which invariably dispersed his -audience, are familiar to almost every reader of the English -language. The most distinguished orator and statesman that France has -produced was Mirabeau; the most successful in America were Henry and -Randolph. Yet what orations have they left behind them which are -indicative of the real genius of those master minds? The modern -speeches which are held up as models, are those which failed to -effect the end of their delivery, and even if pleasing in point of -style and composition, they must have been very feeble as orations. - -But the admirers of modern oratory, the readers of Sheridan, Curran -and Philips, will perhaps demand that definition of oratory which -thus excludes their favorites from all competition with the orators -of antiquity. We define it to be, the means of attaining, by the -persuasion either of the feelings or reasons of men, an end which of -ourselves, we cannot effect. This is the only point of view in which -a statesman would use rhetoric as an instrument. The display of -learning and the exhibition of the graces of composition and style, -he leaves to the author in his closet who has time to bestow upon -pursuits less exalted than his. The real orator, if he be the subject -of a despot, will study the character of the man whom he sues, and -mould his address in the form most persuasive to him who holds the -power of which he would avail himself. If on the other hand the power -which he seeks resides with the people, he will appeal to that temper -and those dispositions which are common to the mass, and having -selected the arguments and sentiments most persuasive to them, would -never think of sacrificing one tittle of them to secure the -reputation of an orator with the future generations who might read -his effusions. Ridiculous as it may seem to the lovers of the gaudy -imagery and polished periods of the Irish orators, we maintain that -the speeches of Cromwell and of Vane, which seem so absurd to us now, -in effecting their ends, accomplished the true object of rhetoric. -They suited the temper of the times, they served to mould the -progress of public opinion, and proved powerful instruments in -directing the revolution. Profound observers of those times, they -were too sagacious as statesmen to think of sacrificing the means of -securing great public ends for the sake of pleasing the taste of -posterity and acquiring the reputation of turning polished periods--a -task in which, after all, the wretched Waller had excelled them. - -{230} Who believes that such oratory as Sheridan's or Curran's, aye, -or even as Burke's, would have produced a tithe of the influence upon -the sturdy old roundheads which the cant of the day exercised over -them. These effusions would have been treated with scorn, or would -perhaps have called down punishment upon the heads of their authors -as holding out temptations to the carnal man. Any attempt, in the -temper of those times, to deliver orations fitted for the taste of -posterity, would have been as ridiculous and misplaced as Petit -Jean's apostrophes to the sun, moon and stars, in his defence of the -dog. Indeed, it is the prevailing sin of modern taste to suppose that -the making of a "fine speech," can be a sufficient inducement for -speaking. Plato has defined rhetoric to be "the art of ruling men's -minds," and the moment it ceases to look to that end, it is vain and -ridiculous. This is the besetting sin of American oratory. Adams, -Everett, or even Webster, will seize any occasion, the death of -Lafayette, the erection of a monument, or any thing which may serve -as a text for a speech, to deliver orations which can have no -possible influence except to convince the few who read them, that -their authors have not only read, but learned to round a period. -Polished sentences, brilliant imagery, and even the ancient forms of -attestation are profusely displayed, and all the orator's most showy -wares are studiously arrayed, for effect, so as to tempt the public -to what?--to any useful end which they have in view? No, simply to an -admiration of their authors. It was the practice of antiquity, it is -true, to deliver funeral orations--but they are miserably mistaken if -they expect to shelter themselves under those usages in their -unmeaning and personal displays. They pursue the form, but neglect -the substance. Do they suppose that when Pericles delivered his -funeral oration over his countrymen who had fallen in the expedition -to Samos, he had no other object than that of making a speech? Do -they believe for a moment that he whose rhetoric procured him the -surname of Olympius, that the master orator of antiquity, (if we may -judge his oratory by its effects,) that he who never addressed an -assembly without first praying the Gods "that no _word_ might fall -from him unawares which was _unsuitable to the occasion_," would have -spoken from such a motive as that only? Could they have supposed that -such was the motive of Demosthenes in his funeral oration over those -who fell at Cheronea? - -Higher ends were in the view of these orators upon these occasions. -They were subjects connected with the public policy of the times and -with measures which they themselves had directed. Upon the success of -these depended their popularity, and on that hung their fortunes, -their homes, nay, their lives. They afforded happy occasions for -defending their policy, for pushing their claims upon public favor, -and for weaving by a thousand plies the cord which bound them to -popular sympathy, in those moments of deep feeling when the people -were too much absorbed in their own emotions, to examine into the -personal motives of their orators. No such consequences depend upon -the popularity of our orators. Their popularity can scarcely be -really affected, by any orations which they could deliver on the -battle of Lexington, the Bunker Hill monument, or the death of La -Fayette. The public measures of the present day have but a remote -connection with them. What worthy motive then could have influenced -them, we were going to say, in the perpetration of such folly? In -such men of the closet as the younger Adams and Everett, it is not -surprising; but in Webster, who is capable of real and effective -oratory, it can only be viewed as a weak compliance with the morbid -taste of the clique around him. - -Of the importance of the study of the ancient laws, particularly the -Roman or civil, we shall say but little, as in the first place, a -view of that subject in all its relations with modern government and -civilization, would far exceed the limits of this essay; and because, -secondly, no one can be found who will deny the uses of this pursuit -to the lawyer. To the general reader we would only remark, that -instead of abandoning this useful study to the lawyers, as a pursuit -proper only to that profession, he would do well to remember that the -revival of letters has always been mainly ascribed to the discovery -of the pandects at Amalphi; that since that time professorships of -civil law have been attached to every learned University in Europe, -and no scholar for many centuries afterwards was reckoned -accomplished without some knowledge of this subject. He should -remember too, that since the revival of letters, this law has formed -an essential, nay, the chief ingredient of the jurisprudence of -Spain, Holland, France, and all Italy, with the exception of -Venice;--whilst, notwithstanding all that has been suggested by the -idle casuistry of national pride, it is the most important portion of -the law of Germany, Hungary, Poland and Scotland. And much as we -boast of the common law in England and what was English America, yet -in both countries, the civil code is the law of courts of admiralty, -the basis of most of our chancery law, and even on the common law -side of our judiciary it is freely used on the subject of contracts, -and has furnished the groundwork, nay, almost the entire system of -our legal pleadings. Should this reader be a divine, we would beg -leave to remind him that the canon law itself is so intimately -associated with the civil code, that no good canonist has yet existed -who neglected the study of this last. Indeed, the canon law is at -last but a compound of the christian system of ethics and the civil -code of municipal law. Need we say more in support of the claims of -this study upon the attention of the general scholar and reader? Can -the statesman or scholar expect to understand the history of nations -and governments without a knowledge of their laws and judicial -systems, those alimentary canals, which distribute the food that -supports the moral being of society? As well might the anatomist -expect to derive a knowledge of his science by a view of the external -structure of the human frame, whilst the internal organization and -the whole circulating system were concealed from his observation. And -quite as absurd are the investigations of the historical inquirer, -who, content with a knowledge of the form of government, looks no -farther into the internal structure of a society. We would fain -pursue the interesting inquiries which this subject suggests, in -connection with the history of modern governments and the progress of -civil liberty, did our limits permit. But our purpose is -accomplished, in having recurred to facts, which of themselves -demonstrate the necessity of this highly important study. - -We come now to the psychological view of ancient {231} literature, -which subject is so intimately connected with the inquiry into the -tendencies of this study, towards elevating and extending the -spiritual capacity of man, that we shall embrace it under that head. -As no man would engage in any laborious pursuit without having some -object in view, so perhaps no one would ever enter into the pursuit -after knowledge if it offered no rewards. It is coveted by many, -because it sometimes brings to its possessor wealth, and almost -always secures him reputation, whilst a few only desire it for its -spiritual uses--and yet these last constitute its highest reward. Let -the practical man of the world who doubts it, and who would laugh at -any arguments adapted to his reason upon this subject as a mere idle -thing, look to the history of literary men. Let him behold such a man -as Bayle, for example, who having secured in his taste for knowledge -a consolation and a happiness of which the world could not rob him, -only thought of his persecutions to laugh at them, and found but -amusement in what the world deems misfortunes. Poverty, exile, -disease, all in their turns assailed him, and yet no one who reads -his history can doubt but that he was the happiest man of his day. -Resigned to all human events, he found his pleasure in the one noble -taste which absorbed his mind, and he succeeded in elevating his -spirit to such a distance above the misfortunes and persecutions of -this world, that they dwindled into utter insignificance in his -estimation. A dismission from an office of honor and profit, under -circumstances which would have excited murmurs and anger in the minds -of most other men, was scarcely noticed by him, or noticed in a -spirit of cheerful content. "The sweetness and repose" (said he upon -this occasion) "I find in the studies in which I have engaged myself -and which are my delight, will induce me to remain in this city, if I -am allowed to continue in it, at least until the printing of my -dictionary is finished; for my presence is absolutely necessary in -the place where it is printed. I am no lover of money nor of honors, -and would not accept of any invitation should it be made to me; nor -am I fond of the disputes and cabals which reign in all academies: -_Canam mihi et musis_." Car. Lit. vol. i, p. 22. These were not mere -professions; his life, nay, his very death illustrated their truth -and sincerity. The very hour of his death was soothed and solaced by -this taste, which subdued even the sense of the last mortal agony. -This, and instances similar in nature, if not in degree, which abound -in the lives of literary men, afford conclusive evidence of the -rewards which knowledge brings to the human mind itself. What can -elevate the dignity of our nature more in our view than the -contemplation of such spectacles as these? What terms expressive -enough should we find, to convey our sense of gratitude to the genius -who would offer us a gift that would enable us to defy the -persecutions of this world and laugh at its misfortunes! a gift, -which, for our enjoyments, would render us independent of every other -being in existence, save ourselves and him who created us--a gift -which would endow us with a taste and the means of gratifying a taste -which age cannot dull, and gratification cannot satiate. And yet to a -great degree, the mind which is imbued with the _love_ of knowledge -enjoys these blessings. When this becomes the absorbing taste of our -minds, it not only endures--but man cannot take it from us. Whilst -sensual pleasures die, and the tastes which they gratify decay with -time, this is the immortal desire of our being which survives when -all others fade away. It is the charmed gift which we bear within -ourselves, and whose spells can call up a thousand forms of beauty -and light even in the depths of the dungeon, and surround the couch -of disease with bright visions and pleasant hopes. As those who ate -of the fabled lotus were said to forget their country and kindred in -their enjoyments, when they had tasted of its flowers, so those who -have once fed upon the immortal fruit of the tree of knowledge, cease -to regard those temporal cares and pleasures which bind man to this -earth, and lead through a maze of uncertainty to disappointment at -last. They look into nature--and each link which they discover in the -great chain of truth, seems, in the enthusiasm of the vision, another -step on that ladder by which man mounts from earth to heaven. Each -hidden harmony which they discover in nature is another thought of -the divine mind which they have conceived and understood, and serves -to bind them still more closely in that communion into which the -Creator permits them to enter with him. The consideration of man, the -pleasures merely earthly which he controls and which belong to him, -always temporal and always alloyed with pain, they can consent to -relinquish, in the consciousness that they are entering into closer -communion with him who is pure, perfect, and unchangeable. And their -pleasures as much exceed those which they renounce, as the Creator is -superior to the created. They have tasted the living stream of truth, -whose waters refresh the more, the more they are drunk--they find -themselves on the borders of that eternal spring whose course is -infinite in extent. Whilst they follow its trace they secure -immortality,--for none who drink of its waters shall ever die. - -See the student who dwells alone in his hermitage, or who perhaps -nightly cribs his worn frame in some almost forgotten attic;--he is -surrounded by circumstances which to the eye of the common observer -denote the extremity of wretchedness and misery! Those who are more -elevated by the pride of place and by the possession of those things -which the world calls good, often look upon him with pity and -contempt; and yet how rashly do they judge. Do they know whether he -regards their pleasures or whither his aspirations would lead him. He -looks out upon the stars, "those isles of light," which repose in the -liquid blue of the vaulted heavens, and they speak to him of wisdom -and love, of beauty and peace. He walks abroad amid the works of -nature, and traces in all her hidden harmonies a beauty and a unity -of design which speak but of one spirit, and that the infinite and -eternal spirit of the universe. He begins indeed "to mingle with the -universe;" and, like the mystic Egeria, a spirit of beauty pure and -undefiled arises from the silent memorials of creative design, to -commune with him in his morning walks and evening meditations. He -compares the soul, which guides and animates the physical universe, -with the vain and contentious spirit of his fellow man; he compares -the order and beauty of the physical universe, which submits all its -motions to the divine will, with the moral government of man,--at -once the sport and the victim of his own caprices; and learns to -despise what most men value, and to prize those pleasures {232} which -they neglect. He has learnt to feel that He who rules all events, has -considered him also, in his Providence; and willing to put his trust -in that being, without whose knowledge "not a sparrow falleth to the -ground," he stands forth the most self-humbled, and yet the most -elevated of God's creatures. - -If knowledge hath these spiritual uses,--and what reflecting man can -doubt the fact, how mortifying is it to see many wasting their -strength and throwing away the means by which they could attain these -ends, for the sake of wealth and earthly honors. As the alchemist -who, in his eager search after the grand magisterium, neglects many -discoveries really useful which were within his reach, so these men -put their frail trust in the world and waste their lives in the vain -pursuit of its phantoms. But we do not expect these men to take this -view of the subject unless they have trained their minds to it, -either through the christian philosophy, or what is second to that -system only, the school of the Platonist writers. It is for this -reason chiefly, that we have ventured to recommend the study of the -writings of the genius so nearly divine, of that author whose -psychological system presaged the christian revelation, as the -morning twilight betokens the coming sun. It was his, that beautiful -conception of the spirit of the universe, at once so poetical and -sublime;--an idea which Abraham Tucker only of modern English -writers, seems to have fully comprehended and explained. This sublime -and philosophical poet perceived that by an attentive study of -nature, the human mind was capable of entering into communion with -the divine mind through its works; he felt that he was capable of -conceiving more and more of the ideas which existed in the creative -mind, as he understood more of the system of the universe; he -meditated upon the harmony which extended through the greatest and -the least of nature's operations; his soul took in forms of beauty -and filled with lofty conceptions until it became enamored of its -contemplations, and in the spirit of true poetry he endowed the -universe with a soul which governed it and with which the mind of man -may commune. But to return to our original proposition; we asserted -that the writings of ancient philosophers afforded the best views of -psychology to which we have access. By psychology, we mean what -relates to our spiritual being. To maintain this proposition it will -be necessary to recur, for a moment, to the subject of inquiry which -engaged their attention, and to the spirit of those times. - -The most important and natural inquiry which would present itself to -a being of limited powers of knowledge and enjoyment, and whose -existence at most is brief, is as to the best pursuit which can -engage his time and energies. The vanity of human wishes, the -transitory nature of earthly enjoyments, must have been as apparent -to the first man as to us. The necessity of discriminating between -the various ends of our actions, and objects of our desires, in the -brief space which is allotted us for action, must have impressed -itself at an early period upon the human mind. And as happiness is -the proposed end of all our actions, the most important inquiry which -can engage the human mind, is as to the best means of attaining it. -Accordingly, we find the "TO KALON" engaging the attention of all -ancient philosophers; and however differently they might conduct -their reasoning, all of them who were respected arrived at the same -conclusion, viz: that he whose conduct was most strictly regulated by -the rules of virtue, would enjoy the greatest degree of happiness. It -was thus, according to Plato, that we were to restore the immaculate -qualities of the pre-existent soul. The sterner Zeno maintained that -nothing was pleasant but virtue, and nothing painful but vice; whilst -the gentle and more persuasive Epicurus, reversing the rule, (and in -a certain sense the doctrines were identical,) taught that nothing -was virtuous but what was pleasant, or vicious if it were not -painful--because virtue is at last but the rule which shall conduct -us to happiness. At that time the light of Christian revelation had -not burst upon the world; the flickering and uncertain rays of human -reason afforded the only light to guide them in the search for the -path of truth, and "shadows, clouds, and darkness rested on it." The -bright hopes and the awful fears by which the Christian revelation -would prompt man to virtue, were then either unknown or but little -heeded. To tempt his disciples then to a virtuous life, and to -fortify them against the seductions of vicious temptation, the -ancient philosopher was forced to hold forth the rewards which virtue -offers to us in this life. The persuasions of oratory, the -allurements of poetry, the demonstrations of philosophy, were all -used to entice the youthful mind to the pursuit of virtue; and more, -the masters practised their creed in the view of their disciples. But -so far as external appearances bear testimony on the subject, -happiness does not always attend the practice of virtue in this -world. It was necessary, then, to refer the doubtful to some other -source of enjoyment. The philosopher referred the pupil to a source -which was within--the pleasant consciousness of well-doing;--the -enlargement of the spiritual capacity under a virtuous discipline, -were the exalted and noble inducements which they presented to their -view. Their theories of the universe, their social customs, their -daily habits, were all made subsidiary to the end of impressing these -grand truths upon their disciples. These conceptions stood forth in -severe and sublime simplicity, as they were formed by the cold and -cautious inductions of philosophy; but the master mind of antiquity, -not content with their unspeaking beauty, seized fire from heaven, -and breathing into them the warm spirit of his eloquence, sent them -forth to the world radiant and impressive forms, which appealed not -only to the reason, but to the sensibility of the beholder. Every -argument was used which could exalt our spiritual being, and every -illustration which could explain its nature, so far at least as they -understood it. The pursuit of virtue became a matter of -feeling--self-denial was an enthusiasm, and the world often beheld -the disciples of these great masters acting upon the abstract maxims -of mere human reason, and pursuing virtue with that unfaltering trust -in the hopes which it excites, which would shame many disciples of a -more certain faith, and those who have the guidance of a clearer -light. It is not surprising, then, that the nature of our spiritual -being, and the invigorating and regenerating influences of the -pursuit of knowledge and virtue, should be more often the theme of -ancient than of modern philosophers. And yet the moralist, the -philosopher and the poet, would each derive both assistance and -delight from the too much neglected works of these noble old masters. -We have seen the wonderful {233} revival of letters in Germany in -modern times ascribed to the study of the Platonists,--with what -truth our knowledge of German literature will not permit us to say. -But we do not doubt that the ascribed cause is adequate to that end. -Certain it is, that Bulwer has derived from these sources much of -that which is worth any thing in his writings. His views of our -spiritual being, and of the spiritual uses of knowledge, are -evidently clothed in light reflected from the Platonists. Indeed, the -finest portion of all his writings, that in which he describes the -change wrought on Devereux's mind by a course of solitary meditation, -or, to use a shorter phrase, the metempsychosis of his hero, is but a -paraphrase of the finest of all moral fables, the Asinus Aureus of -Apuleius, and one which at last fails to do justice to the splendid -original. Should any reader think it worth the time to examine into -the truth of our remarks upon the spirit of ancient philosophy, we -would crave his attention to this most beautiful allegory, as -affording a complete and interesting illustration of their general -correctness. The fable, founded upon a Milesian story, opens with the -description of a young man who has debased his soul with debauchery -until he is transformed to an ass; he falls gradually from one vice -to another, and under the dominion of all he suffers under the -degrading and debasing penalties appropriate to each. He was at last -on the eve of perpetrating a crime so monstrous that nature suddenly -revolted, and horror-stricken, he broke from his keeper and flies to -the seashore. With solitude comes reflection, and reflection brings -remorse. Despair is the natural consequence; and feeling that without -assistance he is lost, he turns to heaven for succor. The moon is in -full splendor, just rising from the waves; the awful silence of the -night deepens his sense of solitude;--"Video præ micantis lunæ -candore nimis completum orbem, commodum marinis emergentem fluctibus, -nactusque opacæ noctis silentiosa secreta, certus etiam summatem Deam -præcipua majestate pollere resque prorsus humanas ipsius regi -providentia," &c. p. 375. Relief is vouchsafed to him, a change -passes over his spirit, and nature wears towards him a different -aspect--her countenance is clothed in smiles, and all things seem to -rejoice with him. "Tanta hilaritudine præter peculiarem meam, gestire -mihi cuncta videbantur; ut pecua etiam cujuscamodi et totas domos et -ipsam diem serena facie gaudire sentirem." The entire conception is -not only highly poetical, but eminently philosophical; the progress -of the human mind in its transition through the range of vices, the -sentiments of remorse and despair, that yearning after better things -which ever and anon returns like a guardian angel to rescue man from -his most fallen estate, the change of heart, and the influence of -nature, are depicted in the spirit of truth and beauty. - -But we fear that we are trespassing too far upon the patience of the -reader, and especially when our subject is not one of general -interest. And yet we are so deeply impressed with the fact that an -attention to this study is the great want of American literature, -that we could not forbear suggesting briefly the various points of -view from which its importance may be seen--even at the risk of being -tedious. Under the sanction, then, of past experience, and under the -higher authority of reason, we would crave the attention of the -rising generation to these studies, that they may prepare themselves -to do something worthy of their hopes and useful to their country. -And of this at least we can safely assure them that the exercises -which we recommend are those in which were trained all the best -models in science and general literature, whom they most revere and -admire. - - - - -A LOAN TO THE MESSENGER. - -NO. I. - - When I said I would die a bachelor, - I did not think I should live to be married.--_Benedict_. - -The day I was married, my dear Editor, I was greeted by a valued -crony of mine with the following _Jew desperate_, as Mrs. Malaprop -might call a _jeu d'esprit_. The occasion which gave this trifle -birth having now been some years a matter of history, I am disposed -to lend it to your good readers for a month, and beg them to be very -careful of it, as it is really one of the neatest things of the kind -I or they have ever seen. It is by a poet of no low order of genius, -I can assure you, whose fault alone it is that his name, albeit not -insignificant, is not yet higher on the rolls of poetic fame. It has -never been in print. - -J. F. O. - - -LIFE. - -A BRIEF HISTORY, IN THREE PARTS, WITH A SEQUEL: - -_Dedicated to my friend on his Wedding Day, November 1, 18--_. - - -Part I.--LOVE. - - A glance,--a thought,--a blow,-- - It stings him to the core. - A question--will it lay him low? - Or will time heal it o'er? - - He kindles at the name,-- - He sits, and thinks apart; - Time blows and blows it to a flame,-- - Burning within his heart. - - He loves it though it burns, - And nurses it with care: - He feeds the blissful pain, by turns, - With hope, and with despair! - - -Part II.--COURTSHIP. - - Sonnets and serenades, - Sighs, glances, tears and vows, - Gifts, tokens, souvenirs, parades, - And courtesies and bows. - - A purpose, and a prayer: - The stars are in the sky,-- - He wonders how e'en hope should dare - To let him aim so high! - - Still hope allures and flatters, - And doubt just makes him bold: - And so, with passion all in tatters, - The trembling tale is told! - - Apologies and blushes, - Soft looks, averted eyes, - Each heart into the other rushes, - Each yields, and wins, a prize. - - -{234} Part III.--MARRIAGE. - - A gathering of fond friends,-- - Brief, solemn words, and prayer,-- - A trembling to the fingers' ends, - As hand in hand they swear. - - Sweet cake, sweet wine, sweet kisses,-- - And so the deed is done: - Now for life's woes and blisses,-- - The wedded two are one. - - And down the shining stream - They launch their buoyant skiff, - Bless'd, if they may but trust Hope's dream,-- - But ah! Truth echoes--_If!_ - - -THE SEQUEL.--IF. - - If health be firm,--if friends be true,-- - If self be well controlled,-- - If tastes be pure,--if wants be few,-- - And not too often told,-- - - If reason always rule the heart,-- - And passions own its sway,-- - If love for aye to life impart - The zest it does to day,-- - - If Providence with parent care - Mete out the varying lot,-- - While meek Contentment bows to share - The palace or the cot,-- - - And oh! if Faith, sublime and clear, - The spirit upward guide,-- - Then bless'd indeed, and bless'd fore'er, - The Bridegroom, and the Bride! - -WILLIAM CUTTER. - -_P------d_. - - - - -READINGS WITH MY PENCIL. - -NO. II. - - Legere sine calamo est dormire.--_Quintilian_. - - -8. "A drayman is probably born with as good organs as Milton, Locke, -or Newton: but by culture they are as much above him, almost, as he -is above his horse."--_Chesterfield_. - -Chesterfield, it would seem, was a Phrenologist, in fact. - -9. "In matters of consequence, have nothing to do with secondary -people: deal always with principals."--_Edgeworth_. - -Good advice. In matters of state, deal never with a clerk,--he has no -discretion. In matters of trade deal never with an agent, if you can -come near the principal, for the same cause,--he lacks the discretion -that the latter has. But for a different cause than this, in matters -of love, deal never with parents, but with the child: it is true, she -has less discretion, but in this matter she is still _the principal_. - -10. "Women may have their wills while they live, for they may make -none when they die."--_Anon._ - -The author of that, whoever he be, was a kind soul: he found an -apology for that which husbands, lovers, and fathers are apt to think -a grievous fault in the sex. But the thought that strikes me most -forcibly upon reading that passage is, the injustice of the law's -treatment of women in this regard. Why should a woman's property, -upon her marriage, become, _ipso facto_, another's? I take it that is -a question which neither casuists nor gownsmen can answer. I knew an -old woman who could give the true reply, and it was one that she gave -as a reason for every query, puzzling or plain,--and that was -"_'Cause!_" - -11. "A soul conversant with virtue resembles a fountain: for it is -clear, and gentle, and sweet, and communicative, and rich, and -harmless and innocent."--_Epictetus_. - -Beautiful because true. Such a soul is _clear_; one can see deeply -into its crystal purity: it is _gentle_, and no waves disturb the -spectator as he gazes: it is _sweet_, and he who drinks of it is -refreshed and renovated in mental and intellectual health. -_Communicative_ is it, and throws out its _jets_ in affluent -profusion, making the atmosphere delicious to those who come within -its reach. _Rich_, too, abundantly, overflowingly _rich_, full of -jewels beyond price, ready for those who will gather them up from the -inexhaustible bed of that fountain: _harmless_, moreover, and -_innocent_, diffusing influences of a healthful and inspiring force, -which turns mere sense to soul, mere mortality to immortality! - -12. "The suspicion of Dean Swift's irreligion proceeded, in a great -measure, from his dread of hypocrisy: instead of wishing to seem -better, he delighted in seeming worse than he was."--_Dr. Johnson_. - -That is a queer apology for a great Moralist to make for a Dean of -the Church! It makes out Swift to be the worst of rascals: for it -makes him more regardful of other men's opinions than of his own. It -exhibits him as contravening conscience with _seeming_. Now, to my -mind, the mere suspicion of hypocrisy is a far less evil than the -positive conviction of it. He was, according to Johnson, afraid of -being thought a hypocrite, and so he actually became one! - -13. "As much company as I have kept, and as much as I love it, I love -reading better; and would rather be employed in reading, than in the -most agreeable company."--_Pope_. - -It is but a choice of company after all. For my part I verily believe -the poet loved both well enough, although the world of books he most -affected. He never wrote the "Essay on Man" or the "Dunciad" from the -experience of the study, however: men's hearts were the 'books' he -read from when he gave those splendid poems birth. The "world of -books"--reminds me of - -14. "Books are a real world, both pure and good, - Round which, with tendrils strong as flesh and blood, - Our pastime and our happiness may grow." - _Wordsworth_. - -15. "Oh! who shall tell the glory of the good man's course, when, as -his mortal organs are closing upon the world, he is looking forward -to the opening brightness of that sun which never sets, shining from -out the sapphire gates of Heaven! What earthly simile can your poet -or your rhapsodist furnish, to carry to the spirit so rapturous a -conception?"--_Chalmers_. - -The simplest similes for such purposes are the best. And it is a -beautiful order of our nature, that it furnishes them abundantly for -the improvement of the reflective mind. And thus would I assimilate -an earthly scene to the rapturous conception of the eloquent divine -whom I have quoted. A most beautiful autumn day, free from -clouds,--when the varied colored leaves _seem willing to fade_, with -so bright, so warm, so cheerful a sun upon them,--is to me an emblem -of the beaming of the sun of {235} righteousness, which, growing -brighter as their bodies decay, makes the happiest and holiest -spirits _willing to die_, under an influence so benign. - -16. "I walked, I rode, I hunted, I played, I read, I wrote, I did -every thing but think. I could not, or rather I would not think. -Thinking kept me too long to one point. I could not bear that turning -my face to a dead wall. In self defence, to keep me from my thoughts, -I flitted from one occupation to another in which my mind could not, -if it would, find the least employment or permanent satisfaction. But -the world called me a very happy man!"--_Bulwer_, (I believe.) - -Every man has those moments, I imagine, of struggling with his own -mind, endeavoring, yet almost impossibly, to fix it upon a single -object for any length of time: when it is like a bird in a storm, -attempting to alight upon a waving, trembling spray. - -17. "But Thomas Moore, albeit but an indifferent biographer, is one -of the greatest masters of versification the world has ever known, -while in song-writing he is perfectly unrivalled."--_Quarterly -Review_. - -Perhaps in a peculiar, refined style of song-writing he may be: but -while his are the music of the fancy, _Burns_ speaks the melodies of -the soul. - -18. "The Creator has so constituted the human intellect, that it -_can_ grow only by its own action, and by its own action it _will_ -most certainly and necessarily grow. Every man must, therefore, in an -important sense, educate himself. His books and teachers are but -aids, _the work_ is his."--_Daniel Webster_. - -The great statesman spoke this from the lessons of his own -experience, and it is true. Yet how many moments there are in a -scholar's life, when his progress seems so slow that he languishes -over every task; and, because he cannot attain every thing at once, -forgets, that every thing worth gaining is obtained after many -struggles: and, if one foot slips back a little, yet, if he gain _at -all_ on his way, that it is better to persevere! Besides, it is not -only _the ends_ of study which are delightful--for so also are its -_ways_: and, if we are not advancing rapidly, there is yet a pleasure -in exercise, even when much of it fails. - -19. "The preacher, raising his withered hands as if imparting a -benediction with the words, closed his discourse with the text he had -been enforcing,--'It is good that a man bear the yoke in his -youth.'"--_Lights and Shadows_. - -I do believe that text most implicitly. I myself feel that it is -true: for I am one of those who are best when most afflicted. While -the weight hangs heavily, I keep time and measure, like a clock; but -remove it, and all the springs and wheels move irregularly, and I am -but a mere useless thing. - -20. "Fair and bright to day, but windy and cold."--_My Old Journal_. - -------like a satirical beauty! - -J. F. O. - - - - -HALLEY'S COMET. - - - And who art thou amid the starry host, - Shedding thy pale and misty light, - Like some lone pearl, unseen and lost, - Amid the diamonds of a gala night. - - Thou comest from the measureless abyss, - Where God hath made his glory known; - Is it with mystic cord, to this - To bind some system yet unseen, unknown. - - Art thou the ship of heaven, laden with light, - From the eternal glory sent, - To feed the glowing suns, that might - In ceaseless radiance but for thee be spent? - - Or art thou rolling on thy way, a car, - Bearing from God some angel band, - Sent forth from world to world afar, - To regulate the fabric of his hand? - - Oh! if thou art on some such errand sent, - Forth from the throne of Him we love, - May not thy homeward path be bent - By our poor earth, to bear our souls above? - -_Prince Edward_. - - - - -EPIMANES. - -BY E. A. POE. - - Chacun a ses vertus.--_Crebillon's Xerxes_. - - -Antiochus Epiphanes is very generally looked upon as the Gog of the -prophet Ezekiel. This honor is, however, more properly attributable -to Cambyses, the son of Cyrus. And, indeed, the character of the -Syrian monarch does by no means stand in need of any adventitious -embellishment. His accession to the throne, or rather his usurpation -of the sovereignty, a hundred and seventy-one years before the coming -of Christ--his attempt to plunder the temple of Diana at Ephesus--his -implacable hostility to the Jews--his pollution of the Holy of -Holies, and his miserable death at Taba, after a tumultuous reign of -eleven years, are circumstances of a prominent kind, and therefore -more generally noticed by the historians of his time than the -impious, dastardly, cruel, silly, and whimsical achievements which -make up the sum total of his private life and reputation. - - * * * * * - -Let us suppose, gentle reader, that it is now the year of the world -three thousand eight hundred and thirty, and let us, for a few -minutes, imagine ourselves at that most grotesque habitation of man, -the remarkable city of Antioch. To be sure there were, in Syria and -other countries, sixteen cities of that name besides the one to which -I more particularly allude. But _ours_ is that which went by the name -of Antiochia Epidaphne, from its vicinity to the little village -Daphne, where stood a temple to that divinity. It was built (although -about this matter there is some dispute) by Seleucus Nicanor, the -first king of the country after Alexander the Great, in memory of his -father Antiochus, and became immediately the residence of the Syrian -monarchy. In the flourishing times of the Roman empire, it was the -ordinary station of the Prefect of the eastern provinces; and many of -the emperors of the queen city, among whom may be mentioned, most -especially, Verus and Valens, spent here the greater part of their -time. But I perceive we have arrived at the city itself. Let us -ascend this battlement, and throw our eyes around upon the town and -neighboring country. - -What broad and rapid river is that which forces its way with -innumerable falls, through the mountainous wilderness, and finally -through the wilderness of buildings? - -That is the Orontes, and the only water in sight, {236} with the -exception of the Mediterranean, which stretches, like a broad mirror, -about twelve miles off to the southward. Every one has beheld the -Mediterranean; but, let me tell you, there are few who have had a -peep at Antioch. By few, I mean few who, like you and I, have had, at -the same time, the advantages of a modern education. Therefore cease -to regard that sea, and give your whole attention to the mass of -houses that lie beneath us. You will remember that it is now the year -of the world three thousand eight hundred and thirty. Were it -later--for example, were it unfortunately the year of our Lord -eighteen hundred and thirty-six, we should be deprived of this -extraordinary spectacle. In the nineteenth century Antioch is--that -is, Antioch _will be_ in a lamentable state of decay. It will have -been, by that time, totally destroyed, at three different periods, by -three successive earthquakes. Indeed, to say the truth, what little -of its former self may then remain, will be found in so desolate and -ruinous a state, that the patriarch will remove his residence to -Damascus. This is well. I see you profit by my advice, and are making -the most of your time in inspecting the premises--in - - ------satisfying your eyes - With the memorials and the things of fame - That most renown this city. - -I beg pardon--I had forgotten that Shakspeare will not flourish for -nearly seventeen hundred and fifty years to come. But does not the -appearance of Epidaphne justify me in calling it _grotesque_? - -It is well fortified--and in this respect is as much indebted to -nature as to art. - -Very true. - -There are a prodigious number of stately palaces. - -There are. - -And the numerous temples, sumptuous and magnificent, may bear -comparison with the most lauded of antiquity. - -All this I must acknowledge. Still there is an infinity of mud huts -and abominable hovels. We cannot help perceiving abundance of filth -in every kennel, and, were it not for the overpowering fumes of -idolatrous incense, I have no doubt we should find a most intolerable -stench. Did you ever behold streets so insufferably narrow, or houses -so miraculously tall? What a gloom their shadows cast upon the -ground! It is well the swinging lamps in those endless collonades are -kept burning throughout the day--we should otherwise have the -darkness of Egypt in the time of her desolation. - -It is certainly a strange place! What is the meaning of yonder -singular building? See!--it towers above all the others, and lies to -the eastward of what I take to be the royal palace. - -That is the new Temple of the Sun, who is adored in Syria under the -title of Elah Gabalah. Hereafter a very notorious Roman Emperor will -institute this worship in Rome, and thence derive a cognomen -Heliogabalus. I dare say you would like a peep at the divinity of the -temple. You need not look up at the Heavens, his Sunship is not -there--at least not the Sunship adored by the Syrians. _That_ Deity -will be found in the interior of yonder building. He is worshipped -under the figure of a large stone pillar terminating at the summit in -a cone or _pyramid_, whereby is denoted Fire. - -Hark!--behold!--who _can_ those ridiculous beings be--half -naked--with their faces painted--shouting and gesticulating to the -rabble? - -Some few are mountebanks. Others more particularly belong to the race -of philosophers. The greatest portion, however--those especially who -belabor the populace with clubs, are the principal courtiers of the -palace, executing, as in duty bound, some laudable comicality of the -king's. - -But what have we here? Heavens!--the town is swarming with wild -beasts! What a terrible spectacle!--what a dangerous peculiarity! - -Terrible, if you please; but not in the least degree dangerous. Each -animal, if you will take the pains to observe, is following, very -quietly, in the wake of its master. Some few, to be sure, are led -with a rope about the neck, but these are chiefly the lesser or more -timid species. The lion, the tiger, and the leopard are entirely -without restraint. They have been trained without difficulty to their -present profession, and attend upon their respective owners in the -capacity of _valets-de-chambre_. It is true, there are occasions when -Nature asserts her violated dominion--but then the devouring of a -man-at-arms, or the throtling of a consecrated bull, are -circumstances of too little moment to be more than hinted at in -Epidaphne. - -But what extraordinary tumult do I hear? Surely this is a loud noise -even for Antioch! It argues some commotion of unusual interest. - -Yes--undoubtedly. The king has ordered some novel spectacle--some -gladiatorial exhibition at the Hippodrome--or perhaps the massacre of -the Scythian prisoners--or the conflagration of his new palace--or -the tearing down of a handsome temple--or, indeed, a bonfire of a few -Jews. The uproar increases. Shouts of laughter ascend the skies. The -air becomes dissonant with wind instruments, and horrible with the -clamor of a million throats. Let us descend, for the love of fun, and -see what is going on. This way--be careful. Here we are in the -principal street, which is called the street of Timarchus. The sea of -people is coming this way, and we shall find a difficulty in stemming -the tide. They are pouring through the alley of Heraclides, which -leads directly from the palace--therefore the king is most probably -among the rioters. Yes--I hear the shouts of the herald proclaiming -his approach in the pompous phraseology of the East. We shall have a -glimpse of his person as he passes by the temple of Ashimah. Let us -ensconce ourselves in the vestibule of the Sanctuary--he will be here -anon. In the meantime let us survey this image. What is it? Oh, it is -the God Ashimah in proper person. You perceive, however, that he is -neither a lamb, nor a goat, nor a Satyr--neither has he much -resemblance to the Pan of the Arcadians. Yet all these appearances -have been given--I beg pardon--_will be_ given by the learned of -future ages to the Ashimah of the Syrians. Put on your spectacles, -and tell me what it is. What is it? - -Bless me, it is an ape! - -True--a baboon; but by no means the less a Deity. His name is a -derivation of the Greek _Simia_--what great fools are antiquarians! -But see!--see!--yonder scampers a ragged little urchin. Where is he -going? What is he bawling about? What does he say? Oh!--he says the -king is coming in triumph--that he is dressed in state--and that he -has just finished putting {237} to death with his own hand a thousand -chained Israelitish prisoners. For this exploit the ragamuffin is -lauding him to the skies. Hark!--here come a troop of a similar -description. They have made a Latin hymn upon the valor of the king, -and are singing it as they go. - - Mille, mille, mille, - Mille, mille, mille, - Decollavimus, unus homo! - Mille, mille, mille, mille, decollavimus! - Mille, mille, mille! - Vivat qui mille mille occidit! - Tantum vini habet nemo - Quantum sanguinis effudit![1] - -which may be thus paraphrased. - - A thousand, a thousand, a thousand, - A thousand, a thousand, a thousand, - We, with one warrior, have slain! - A thousand, a thousand, a thousand, a thousand, - Sing a thousand over again! - Soho!--let us sing - Long life to our king, - Who knocked over a thousand so fine! - Soho!--let us roar, - He has given us more - Red gallons of gore - Than all Syria can furnish of wine! - -[Footnote 1: Flavius Vopiscus says that the Hymn which is here -introduced, was sung by the rabble upon the occasion of Aurelian, in -the Sarmatic war, having slain with his own hand nine hundred and -fifty of the enemy.] - -Do you hear that flourish of trumpets? - -Yes--the king is coming! See!--the people are aghast with admiration, -and lift up their eyes to the heavens in reverence. He comes--he is -coming--there he is! - -Who?--where?--the king?--do not behold him--cannot say that I -perceive him. - -Then you must be blind. - -Very possible. Still I see nothing but a tumultuous mob of idiots and -madmen, who are busy in prostrating themselves before a gigantic -cameleopard, and endeavoring to obtain a kiss of the animal's hoofs. -See! the beast has very justly kicked one of the rabble over--and -another--and another--and another. Indeed, I cannot help admiring the -animal for the excellent use he is making of his feet. - -Rabble, indeed!--why these are the noble and free citizens of -Epidaphne! Beast, did you say?--take care that you are not overheard. -Do you not perceive that the animal has the visage of a man? Why, my -dear sir, that cameleopard is no other than Antiochus Epiphanes, -Antiochus the Illustrious, King of Syria, and the most potent of the -Autocrats of the East! It is true that he is entitled, at times, -Antiochus Epimanes, Antiochus the madman--but that is because all -people have not the capacity to appreciate his merits. It is also -certain that he is at present ensconced in the hide of a beast, and -is doing his best to play the part of a cameleopard--but this is done -for the better sustaining his dignity as king. Besides, the monarch -is of a gigantic stature, and the dress is therefore neither -unbecoming nor over large. We may, however, presume he would not have -adopted it but for some occasion of especial state. Such you will -allow is the massacre of a thousand Jews. With what a superior -dignity the monarch perambulates upon all fours. His tail, you -perceive, is held aloft by his two principal concubines, Elline and -Argelais; and his whole appearance would be infinitely prepossessing, -were it not for the protuberance of his eyes, which will certainly -start out of his head, and the queer color of his face, which has -become nondescript from the quantity of wine he has swallowed. Let us -follow to the Hippodrome, whither he is proceeding, and listen to the -song of triumph which he is commencing. - - Who is king but Epiphanes? - Say--do you know? - Who is king but Epiphanes? - Bravo--bravo! - There is none but Epiphanes, - No--there is none: - So tear down the temples, - And put out the sun! - Who is king but Epiphanes? - Say--do you know? - Who is king but Epiphanes? - Bravo--bravo! - -Well and strenuously sung! The populace are hailing him 'Prince of -Poets,' as well as 'Glory of the East,' 'Delight of the Universe,' -and 'most remarkable of Cameleopards.' They have _encored_ his -effusion--and, do you hear?--he is singing it over again. When he -arrives at the Hippodrome he will be crowned with the Poetic Wreath -in anticipation of his victory at the approaching Olympics. - -But, good Jupiter!--what is the matter in the crowd behind us? - -Behind us did you say?--oh!--ah!--I perceive. My friend, it is well -that you spoke in time. Let us get into a place of safety as soon as -possible. Here!--let us conceal ourselves in the arch of this -aqueduct, and I will inform you presently of the origin of this -commotion. It has turned out as I have been anticipating. The -singular appearance of the Cameleopard with the head of a man, has, -it seems, given offence to the notions of propriety entertained in -general by the wild animals domesticated in the city. A mutiny has -been the result, and as is usual upon such occasions, all human -efforts will be of no avail in quelling the mob. Several of the -Syrians have already been devoured--but the general voice of the -four-footed patriots seems to be for eating up the Cameleopard. 'The -Prince of Poets,' therefore, is upon his hinder legs, and running for -his life. His courtiers have left him in the lurch, and his -concubines have let fall his tail. 'Delight of the Universe,' thou -art in a sad predicament! 'Glory of the East,' thou art in danger of -mastication! Therefore never regard so piteously thy tail--it will -undoubtedly be draggled in the mud, and for this there is no help. -Look not behind thee then at its unavoidable degradation--but take -courage--ply thy legs with vigor--and scud for the Hippodrome! -Remember that the beasts are at thy heels! Remember that thou art -Antiochus Epiphanes, Antiochus, the Illustrious!--also 'Prince of -Poets,' 'Glory of the East,' 'Delight of the Universe,' and 'most -remarkable of Cameleopards!' Heavens! what a power of speed thou art -displaying! What a capacity for leg-bail thou art developing! Run, -Prince! Bravo, Epiphanes! Well done, Cameleopard! Glorious Antiochus! -He runs!--he moves!--he flies! Like a shell from a catapult he -approaches the Hippodrome! He leaps!--he shrieks!--he is there! This -is {238} well--for hadst thou, 'Glory of the East,' been half a -second longer in reaching the gates of the Amphitheatre, there is not -a bear's cub in Epidaphne who would not have had a nibble at thy -carcase. Let us be off--let us take our departure!--for we shall find -our delicate modern ears unable to endure the vast uproar which is -about to commence in celebration of the king's escape! Listen! it has -already commenced. See!--the whole town is topsy-turvy. - -Surely this is the most populous city of the East! What a wilderness -of people! What a jumble of all ranks and ages! What a multiplicity -of sects and nations! What a variety of costumes! What a Babel of -languages! What a screaming of beasts! What a tinkling of -instruments! What a parcel of philosophers! - -Come let us be off! - -Stay a moment! I see a vast hubbub in the Hippodrome. What is the -meaning of it I beseech you? - -That? Oh nothing! The noble and free citizens of Epidaphne being, as -they declare, well satisfied of the faith, valor, wisdom, and -divinity of their king, and having, moreover, been eye witnesses of -his late superhuman agility, do think it no more than their duty to -invest his brows (in addition to the Poetic Crown) with the wreath of -victory in the foot race--a wreath which it is evident he _must_ -obtain at the celebration of the next Olympiad. - - - - -TO HELEN. - - - Helen, thy beauty is to me - Like those Nicean barks of yore, - That gently, o'er a perfum'd sea, - The weary wayworn wanderer bore - To his own native shore. - - On desperate seas long wont to roam, - Thy hyacinth hair, thy classic face, - Thy Naiad airs have brought me home - To the beauty of fair Greece, - And the grandeur of old Rome. - - Lo! in that little window-niche - How statue-like I see thee stand! - The folded scroll within thy hand-- - Ah! Psyche from the regions which - Are Holy land! - -E. A. P. - - - - -ON THE POETRY OF BURNS.[1] - -BY JAMES F. OTIS. - -[Footnote 1: This paper was written at the request of a literary -society of which the author was a member, and the facts are gathered -principally from Currie. Some extracts from the poet's own letters, -and from an eloquent review of Lockhart's Burns, which appeared a few -years since in the Edinburgh Review, are interwoven, and the whole -made up as an essay to be "read not printed."] - - -If we take the different definitions of the term "Poetry," that have -been given this beautiful and magical art by the various writers upon -its nature and properties, as _each_ supported by reason and fact, we -shall hardly arrive at any degree of certainty as to its _real_ -meaning. It has been called "the art of imitation," or mimickry. -Aristotle and Plato characterize it as "the expression of thoughts by -fictions;" and there are innumerable other definitions, none of which -are more satisfactory to the student than is that of the celebrated -"Blair." He says, "it is the language of Passion,--or enlivened -Imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers. The primary -object of a poet is to _please_, and to _move_; and therefore it is -to imagination and the passions that he speaks. He may, and he ought -to have it in his view to _instruct_ and _reform_; but it is -_indirectly_, and by _pleasing_, and _moving_, that he accomplishes -this end. His mind is supposed to be animated by some interesting -object which fires his imagination or engages his passions: and -which, of course, communicates to his style a peculiar elevation, -suited to his ideas, very different from that mode of expression -which is natural to the mind in its calm, ordinary state." And this -definition will allow of being yet more particularly and minutely -understood: it is susceptible of being analyzed still farther, and -described as "a language, in which fiction and imagination may, with -propriety, be indulged beyond the strict limits of truth and -reality." - -Who is there that has not felt the power of Poetry? For it is not -essential that it be embodied in regular and finely wrought periods, -and conveyed to the ear in alternate rhyme, and made to harmonize in -nicely-toned successions of sounds. Who is there that has not felt -its power? It originated with the very nature of man; and is confined -to no nation, age, or situation. This is proved by the well-attested -fact, that Poetry ever diminishes in strength of thought, boldness of -conception, and power of embodying striking images, in proportion as -it becomes polished and cultivated. The uncivilized tenant of our -forests is, _by nature_, a Poet! Whether he would lead his brethren -to the field of warfare, or conclude with the white man a treaty of -peace and future amity, still his style evinces the same grand -characteristic,--_the spirit of true Poetry_. The barbarous Celt, the -benighted Icelander, and the earliest and most unenlightened nations -of the world, as described on the page of history, are proofs of the -principle we have been considering; and it was not, indeed, until -society became settled and civilized, that poetical composition -ceased to embrace _every_ impulse of which the human soul is -susceptible. It was not till _then_, that, in the language of a -distinguished writer, "Poetry became a separate art, calculated, -chiefly, to _please_; and confined, generally, to such subjects as -related to the imagination and the passions." Then was it that there -arose, naturally, divisions in the classes or schools of Poetry,--as -Lyric, Elegiac, Pastoral, Didactic, Descriptive, and Dramatic. A -consideration of _each_ of these classes might furnish us with -_materiel_ for an interesting examination of their individual -peculiarities: but time will not permit so wide a range. - -ROBERT BURNS was born on the 25th of January, 1759, in the town of -Ayr, in Scotland. His pretensions by birth, were a descent from poor -and humble, but honest and intelligent parents; and a title to -inherit all their intelligence and virtue, as well as all their -poverty. Upon the nature of these pretensions, Burns, in a letter to -a friend, dated many years after, takes occasion to say: "I have not -the most distant pretensions to assume that character, which the -pye-coatcd guardians {239} of escutcheons call a gentleman. When at -Edinborough last winter, I got acquainted in the Herald's Office; and -looking through that granary of honors, I there found almost every -name in the kingdom: but for _me_,-- - - 'My ancient but ignoble blood - Has crept thro' scoundrels ever since the flood.'" - -His father was a native of the north of Scotland, but he was driven -by various misfortunes to Edinborough, and thence still farther south -to Ayrshire, where he was first employed as a gardener in one of the -families in that vicinity, and afterwards, being desirous of settling -in life, took a lease of a little farm of seven acres, on which he -reared a clay cottage with his own hands, and soon after married a -wife. The first fruit of this union was our poet, whose birth took -place two years thereafter. Robert, during his early days, was by no -means a favorite with any body. He was remarkable, however, for a -retentive memory, and a thoughtful turn of mind. His ear was dull, -and his voice harsh and dissonant, and he evinced no musical talent -or poetical genius until his fifteenth or sixteenth year. It is -pretended by his biographers, (of whom there have been several, and -who all agree in this opinion,) that the seeds of Poetry were very -early implanted in his mind, and that the recitations and fireside -chaunts of an old crone, who was familiar in his father's family, -served to cherish their growth, and strengthen their hold upon his -memory. This "auld gudewife" is said to have had the largest -collection in the country of tales and songs concerning fairies, -witches, warlocks, apparitions, giants, dragons, and other agents of -romantic fiction. Speaking of these tales and songs, he says, in his -later years, "so strong an effect had they upon my imagination, that -even to this hour, in my nocturnal rambles, I am fain to keep a sharp -look out in suspicious places; and, though nobody can feel more -sceptical than I have ever done in such matters, yet it often -requires an effort of Philosophy to shake off these idle terrors." - -When Robert was in his seventh year, his father quitted the -birth-place of the poet, and took a lease of a small farm on the -estate of Mr. Fergusson, called Mount Oliphant. He had been, for a -year or two previous to this event, a pupil of Dr. Murdoch, who is -represented as being a very worthy and acute man, and who took much -pains with the education of the future poet. In fact, his _father_ -had previously taught him arithmetic, and whatever of lore could be -gathered from the "big ha' bible," as they sat by their solitary -candle; and he had been sent, alternately with his brother, a week at -a time during a summer's quarter, to a writing master at the parish -school at Dalrymple. But Dr. Murdoch, his faithful friend in youth -and age, instructed him in English Grammar, and aided him in the -acquisition of a little French. After a fortnight's instruction in -the latter language, he was able to translate it into English prose, -but, farther than this, his new attainment was never of much -advantage to him. Indeed, his attempts to speak the language were -ridiculously futile at times. On one occasion, when he called in -Edinborough at the house of an accomplished friend, a lady who had -been educated in France, he found her conversing with a French lady, -to whom he was introduced. The French woman understood English; but -Burns must need try his powers. His first sentence was intended to -compliment the lady on her apparent eloquence in conversation; but by -mistaking some idiom, he made the lady understand that she was too -fond of hearing herself speak. The French woman, highly incensed, -replied, that there were more instances of vain poets than of -talkative women; and Burns was obliged to use his own language in -appeasing her. He attempted the Latin, but his success did not -encourage him to persevere. And, in fine, with the addition of a -quarter's attendance to Geometry and Surveying, at the age of -nineteen, and a few lessons at a country dancing school, I have now -mentioned all his opportunities of acquiring a scholastic education. -He says of himself, in allusion to his boyish days, "though it cost -the schoolmaster many _thrashings_, I made an excellent English -scholar; and by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a -critic in substantives, verbs and particles." - -As soon as young Burns had strength to work, he was employed as a -laborer upon his father's farm. At twelve he was a good ploughman; a -year later he assisted at the threshing-floor; and was his father's -main dependance at fifteen, there being no hired laborers, male or -female, in the family at the time. In one of his letters, (and it is -by extracting copiously from them, that I propose chiefly to narrate -his history,) he remarks upon this subject--"I saw my father's -situation entailed on me perpetual labor: the only two openings by -which I could enter the temple of fortune, were the gate of niggardly -economy, or the path of little, chicaning bargain-making. The _first_ -is so contracted an aperture, I never could squeeze myself into it; -the _last_ I _always_ hated--there was contamination in the very -entrance!" And it was this kind of life,--the cheerless gloom of a -hermit, with the unceasing toil of a galley-slave, that brought him -to his sixteenth year, at about which period he first perpetrated the -sin of rhyming. Of this you shall have an account in the author's own -language. - - -"You know our country custom of coupling a man and woman together as -partners in the labors of harvest. In my fifteenth autumn my partner -was a bewitching creature, a year younger than myself. My scarcity of -English denies me the power of doing her justice in that language; -but you know the Scottish idiom,--_she was a bonnie, sweet, sonsie -lass_. In short, she altogether, unwittingly to herself, initiated me -in that delicious passion, which, in spite of acid disappointment, -rigid prudence, and book-worm philosophy, I hold to be the first of -human joys, our dearest blessing here below! How she caught the -contagion I cannot tell. You medical people--(he was addressing the -celebrated Dr. Moore) you medical people talk much of infection from -breathing the same air, the touch, &c.; but I never expressly said I -loved her. Indeed, I did not know myself why I liked so much to -loiter behind with her, when returning in the evening from our -labors; why the tones of her voice made my heartstrings thrill like -an Eolian harp; and particularly why my pulse beat such a furious -ratan, when I plucked the cruel nettle-stings and thistles from her -little white hand. Among her other love-inspiring qualities, she sung -sweetly; and it was her favorite reel, to which I attempted giving an -embodied vehicle in rhyme. I was not so presumptuous as to imagine -that I could make verses like printed ones, composed by men who had -Greek and Latin: but my girl sung a song, which was said to have been -composed by a country laird's son upon a neighboring maiden with whom -he was in love! and I saw; no reason why I might not rhyme as well as -_he_; for, excepting that he could shear sheep and cast peats, (his -father living in the moorlands,) he had no more _scholar_ craft than -myself." - - -Thus, with Burns, began Love and Poetry. This, his first effort, is -valuable, more from the promise it {240} gave of his future -excellence as a poet, than for any intrinsic merit which it possessed -as a performance of so gifted a genius. I have been the more -particular in describing the circumstances attending the composition -of these, his earliest verses, for the proof they afford of the truth -of the general remark, that of all the poetical compositions of -Burns, his love-songs, and amatory poetry are far the best. His -feelings predominated over his fancy, and whenever the latter is -introduced we are forced to deem it an intrusion for the strong -contrast it presents with the native and characteristic simplicity of -his more natural and heartfelt effusions. - -Referring to the predilections which I have said gave a character to -so large a portion of his poetical writings, he says,--"My heart was -completely tinder, and was eternally lighted up by some goddess or -other: and, as in every other warfare in this world, my fortune was -various; sometimes I was received with favor, and sometimes I was -mortified with a repulse." And in another letter he says farther, -"Another circumstance in my life which made some alterations in my -mind and manners, was, that I spent my nineteenth summer on a -smuggling coast, a good distance from home, at a noted school, to -learn mensuration, surveying, dialling, &c. in which I made a pretty -good progress. But I made a greater progress in the knowledge of -mankind. Scenes of riot and roaring dissipation were, till now, new -to me; but I was no enemy to social life. For all that, I went on -with a high hand in my geometry till the sun entered _Virgo_, (a -month, which is always a carnival in my bosom,) when a charming fair -one, who lived next door to the school, overset my trigonometry, and -set me off at a tangent from the sphere of my duties. I, however, -struggled on with my _sines_ and _co-sines_ for a few days more, but -stepping into the garden one charming noon to take the sun's -altitude, there I met my angel, - - 'Like Proserpine, gathering flowers, - Herself, a fairer flower.' - -It was in vain to think of doing any more good at school. The -remaining weeks I staid I did nothing but craze the faculties of my -soul about her, or steal out to meet her. And the two last nights of -my stay in the country, had sleep been a mortal sin, the image of -this modest and innocent girl had kept me guiltless." - -This brings us to a period, which the poet calls an important era in -his life--his twenty-third year; and he explains this in the -following näive and characteristic style. "Partly through whim, and -partly that I wished to set about doing something in life, I joined a -flax-dresser in the neighboring town of Irvine to learn his trade. -This was an unlucky affair; as we were welcoming in the new year with -a carousal, our shop took fire and burnt to ashes, and I was left -like a true poet, not worth a sixpence." About this time the clouds -of misfortune thickened around his father's head, who, indeed, was -already far gone in a consumption; and to crown the distresses -incident to his situation, a girl, to whom he was engaged to be -married, jilted him with peculiar circumstances of mortification. - -During his residence at Irvine, our poet was miserably poor and -dispirited. His food consisted chiefly of oat meal, and this was sent -to him from his father's family; and so small was, of necessity, his -allowance, that he was obliged to borrow often of a neighbor, until -he should again be supplied. He was very melancholy with the idea, -that the dreams of future eminence and distinction which his -imagination had presented to his mind, were _only_ dreams; and to -dissipate this melancholy his resource was society with its -enjoyments. The incidents to which I have alluded took place some -years before the publication of his poems. About this time William -Burns removed from Mount Oliphant to Lochlea, and later still, to the -parish of Tarbolton, where, as we are informed by a letter from Dr. -Murdoch, written in 1799, that "Robert wrote most of his poems." It -was in Tarbolton that Burns established a debating club, which -consisted of the poet, his brother Gilbert, and five or six other -young peasants of the neighborhood--the laws and regulations for -which were furnished by the former. Among these members was David -Sillar, to whom the two beautiful poems, entitled "Epistles to Davie, -a brother poet," were addressed. Some of the rules and regulations of -this club are so peculiar, and bespeak so forcibly the character of -their author, that I cannot resist the temptation to transcribe some -of them. The eighth is in the following words: - - -"Every member shall attend at the meetings, without he can give a -proper excuse for not attending. And it is desired, that every one -who cannot attend will send his excuse with some other member: and he -who shall be absent three meetings without sending such excuse, shall -be summoned to the club night, when if he fail to appear, or send an -excuse, he shall be excluded." - - -And the tenth and last rule is worthy of particular notice, and a -part of it of incorporation into the code even of more extensive and -more pretending societies: it is as follows: - - -"Every man proper for a member of this club, must have a frank, -honest, open heart--above any thing low or mean, and must be a -professed lover of the female sex. No haughty, self-conceited person, -who looks upon himself as superior to the rest of the club--and -especially no mean spirited, worldly mortal, whose only will is to -heap up money, shall, upon any pretence whatever, be admitted. In -short, the proper person for this society, is a cheerful, -honest-hearted lad--who, if he has a friend that is true, a mistress -that is kind, and as much wealth as genteely to make both ends meet, -is just as happy as this world can make him." - - -But I must, however reluctantly, omit many interesting particulars in -the earlier, and more private life of our poet, and hasten to his -visit to Edinborough in the winter of 1786. The celebrated Dugald -Stewart, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Edinborough, in -a letter to Dr. Currie, alludes to several of Burns's early poems, -and avers, that it was upon _his_ showing a volume of them to Henry -McKenzie, (the celebrated author of "The Man of Feeling,") that this -gentleman introduced the rustic bard to the notice of the public, in -the xcvii No. of The Lounger, which justly famous periodical paper -was then in the course of publication, and had long been a favorite -work with the young poet. - -Depressed by poverty, and chagrined with the contrasts which fate -seemed malignantly bent upon opposing to his ambitious aspirations, -his only object, at last, had been to accumulate the petty sum of -nine guineas, (which he did by the publication of a few of his -poems,) and to take passage in the steerage of a ship bound to the -West Indies, determined to become a negro driver, or any thing else, -so that he could escape the fangs of that merciless pack, the -bailiffs; for, said he, - - "Hungry ruin had me in the wind." - -He had taken leave of his friends--had despatched _his_ {241} _single -chest_ to the vessel--had written his Farewell Song, which he sang to -the beautiful air of "Roslin Castle," and which closes with, - - "Adieu, my friends!--Adieu, my foes! - My peace with these, my love with those: - The bursting tears my heart declare, - Farewell, the bonnie banks of Ayr!" - -when a letter from Dr. Blacklock, elicited by a perusal of the volume -to which I have just now alluded, opened for him new prospects to his -poetic ambition, by inviting him to Edinborough. Thither, then, he -went--and his reception by all classes, ages and ranks, was as -flattering as, in his most sanguine aspirations, he could have -desired. Dr. Robertson, the celebrated historian, Dr. Blair, Dr. -Gregory, Professor Stewart, Mr. McKenzie, and many more men of -letters were particularly interested in his reception, and in the -cultivation of his genius. He became, from his first entrance into -Edinborough, the object of universal attention, and it seemed as if -there was no possibility of rewarding his merits too highly. Mr. -Lockhart, the latest and most eloquent of the numerous biographers of -Burns, has a note, containing an extract from a letter of Sir Walter -Scott, and furnished by the latter for his work, which is too -interesting to be passed over. It relates to a personal interview of -Sir Walter with our poet, during his first visit to Edinborough. - -"As for Burns," writes he, "I may truly say, 'Virgilium vidi tantum.' -I was a lad of fifteen in 1786-7, when he came first to Edinborough, -but had sense and feeling enough to be much interested in his poetry, -and would have given the world to know him: but I had very little -acquaintance with any literary people, and still less with the gentry -of the west country, the two sets that he most frequented." ... "As -it was, I saw him one day at the late venerable Professor -Fergusson's, where there were several gentlemen of literary -reputation, among whom I remember the celebrated Mr. Dugald Stewart. -Of course, we youngsters sat silent, looked, and listened. The only -thing I remember, which was remarkable in Burns's manner, was the -effect produced upon him by a print, with the ideas suggested to his -mind upon reading the story whereof, (written under it) he was moved -even to tears. He asked whose the lines were? and it chanced that -nobody but myself remembered that they occur in a half forgotten poem -of Langhorne's. I passed this information to Burns by a friend, and I -was rewarded with a look and a word, which, though of mere civility, -I then received, and still recollect, with very great pleasure." ... -"His person," continues Sir Walter, "was strong and robust: his -manners rustic, not clownish, a sort of dignified plainness and -simplicity. There was a strong expression of sense and shrewdness in -all his lineaments: the _eye_, alone, I think, indicated the poetical -character and temperament. It was large, and of a dark cast, which -glowed, (I say literally _glowed_,) when he spoke with feeling or -interest." ... "I never saw another such eye in a human head, though -I have seen the most distinguished men of my time. His conversation -expressed perfect self-confidence, without the slightest -presumption." - -After making a few more observations with relation to the poet's -conversation and manner, the writer I have been quoting concludes his -reminiscence as follows: - - -"This is all I can tell you about Burns. I never saw him again, -except in the street, where he did not recognise me, as I could not -expect he should. I have only to add, that his dress corresponded -with his manner. He was like a farmer, dressed in his _best_, to dine -with the laird. I was told, but did not observe it, that his address -to females was extremely deferential, and always with a turn to the -pathetic or humorous, which engaged their attention particularly. I -do not know that I can add any thing to these recollections of forty -years since." - - -These are extracts, that, one day or other, will be looked upon as -curiosities in literature, and will be inestimably precious: at -present, I fear me, an apology should follow their introduction, at -such length: but I shall only say in the language of another, in -excuse for dwelling so long on this incident in the life of Burns, -that it forms "the most remarkable phenomenon in the history of -modern literature." - -But if this, his first winter in Edinborough, produced a favorable -effect upon the future fame of Robert Burns, as a poet, it was also -the source of vast unhappiness to him, during his after life. Not -only was he admitted to the company of men of letters and virtue, but -he was pressed into the society of those, whose social habits, and -love of the pleasures of life were their chief attractions. When -among his superiors in rank and intelligence, his carriage was -decorous and diffident: but among others, his boon companions, he, in -his turn, was lord of the ascendant: and thus commenced a career, -which, had its outset been a more prudent one, would probably not -have closed until a later period, nor without a much greater measure -of glory and honor to him, who was thus unfortunately misguided. - -During the residence of Burns at Edinborough, he published a new and -enlarged edition of his poems, and was thus enabled to visit other -parts of his native country, and some parts of England beside. Having -done this, he returned, and during most of the following winter, we -find him again in the gay and literary metropolis, much less an -object of novelty, and, of course, of general attention and interest, -than before. Unable to find employment or occupation of a literary -nature, he quitted Edinborough in the spring of 1788, and took the -farm of Ellisland, near Dumfries: besides advancing 200_l._ for the -liberation of his brother Gilbert from some difficulties into which -certain agricultural misfortunes had involved him. He was, soon -after, united to his "bonnie Jean," the theme of so much of his -delightful verse, and employed himself in stocking and cultivating -his farm, and rebuilding the dwelling house upon it. There is an -anecdote of him in the history furnished by Dr. Currie, the truth of -which Mr. Lockhart seems disposed to question: his doubts originate -from a consideration of the absurd costume in which the older -biographer has seen fit to invest the poet in his narration. As this -is the only exception taken to it, and as it is certainly -illustrative of Burns's character and manners in other respects, and -as it is related, too, upon so good authority, I shall venture to -introduce it in this, its proper place, in point of time. - - -"In the summer of 1791, two English gentlemen, who had before met -Burns at Edinborough, paid a visit to him in Ellisland. On calling at -his house, they were informed that he had walked out on the banks of -the river; and, dismounting from their horses, they proceeded in -search of him. On a rock that projected into the stream, they saw a -man employed in angling, of a singular appearance. He had a cap, made -of a fox's skin, on his head, a loose great coat fixed round him by a -belt, from which {242} depended an enormous Highland broadsword. It -was Burns. He received them with great cordiality, and asked them to -share his humble dinner; an invitation which they accepted. On the -table they found boiled beef with vegetables and barley-broth, after -the manner of Scotland, of which they partook heartily. After dinner, -the bard told them ingenuously that he had no wine to offer -them--nothing better than Highland whiskey, a bottle of which Mrs. -Burns set on the board. He produced, at the same time, his -punch-bowl, made of Inverary marble; and mixing the spirit with water -and sugar, filled their glasses, and invited them to drink. The -travellers were in haste, and besides, the flavor of the whiskey to -their _southron_ palates was scarcely tolerable: but the generous -poet offered them his best, and his ardent hospitality they found it -impossible to resist. Burns was in his happiest mood, and the charms -of his conversation were altogether fascinating. He ranged over a -great variety of topics, illuminating whatever he touched. He related -the tales of his infancy and his youth; he recited some of the -gayest, and some of the tenderest of his poems: in the wildest of his -strains of mirth he threw in some touches of melancholy, and spread -around him the electric emotions of his powerful mind. The Highland -whiskey improved in its flavor; the bowl was more than once emptied, -and as often replenished: the guests of our poet forgat the flight of -time and the dictates of prudence; at the hour of midnight they lost -their way in returning to Dumfries, and could scarcely distinguish -it, when assisted by the morning's dawn." - - -On his farm at Ellisland, Burns continued some few years; but the -novelty of his situation soon wore off, and then returned the -irregularities, to which, from his warm imagination, and his love of -society, and his independent turn of mind, he was so strongly -predisposed. Fearing that his farm alone would be insufficient to -procure for him that independence, which he had hoped one day or -other to attain, he applied for and obtained the office of exciseman, -or as it was vulgarly called _guager_, for the district in which he -lived. About the year 1792, he was solicited to contribute to a -collection of Scottish songs, to be published by Mr. Thompson, of -Edinborough. Abandoning his farm, which, from neglect and -mismanagement was by no means productive, and receiving from the -Board of Excise an appointment to a new district, with a salary of -70_l._ per annum, he removed to a small house in Dumfries, and -commenced the fulfilment of his literary engagement with Mr. -Thompson. His principal songs were written during this time, and day -after day was adding heighth and durability to the towering and -imperishable monument, which will hand down his name and fame to many -generations. - -But now commences his rapid and melancholy decay, the fast withering -consumption of his mental and physical faculties. His had been a -short but brilliant course in literature--a short and melancholy one -indeed, in other respects. Defeated in his hopes, mortified in the -discovery that of the two classes of friends who offered him their -society and their example in the outset of his career, he had chosen -the least improving and efficient as his guides and counsellors--he -fast declined into that common receptacle of dust which covers alike -the remains of the gifted and the simple, the prudent and the weak. -He was worn with toil and poverty, and disappointed hope. - - "Can the laborer rest from his labor too soon? - He had toiled all the morning, and slumbered at noon." - - * * * * * - -Imprudent in the declaration of his political sentiments, Burns lost -the path to preferment in the line of his political duties; easily -enticed beyond the sway of his sober and virtuous resolutions, he -became broken in health, and destitute of resources; too proud to beg -and too proud to complain, his temper became irritable and gloomy, -and at length a fever, attended with delirium and debility, -terminated his life in the thirty-eighth year of his age. Leaving a -widow, who is still living in the house where he died,[2] and four -sons, of whom three are also at present living. Thus died Robert -Burns, "poor, but not in debt, and bequeathing to posterity a name, -the fame of which will not soon be eclipsed." - -[Footnote 2: Since deceased.] - -_Burns_, though he sometimes forgot his homage to the purer and -brighter and more enduring orbs of heaven, in chasing the ignis -fatuus lights of earth, must ever interest us as a poet and a man. A -great many considerations may be properly urged in answer to the too -common, and far from just charges upon his moral character. I am of -opinion, that his own declaration, made not many months previous to -his death, is capable of full and complete support and proof, by a -reference to all the circumstances of his life. When accused of -disloyalty to his government, he says, in a letter to a distinguished -friend-- - - -"In your hands, sir, permit me to lodge my strong disavowal, and -defiance of such slanderous falsehoods. Be assured--and tell the -world, that Burns was a poor man from his birth, and an exciseman -from necessity; but--I _will_ say it! the sterling of his _honesty_, -poverty _could_ not debase, and his independent British spirit, -oppression might bend, but could not subdue!" - - -I have advanced the opinion that the crisis of Burns's fate was his -visit, his _first_ visit to Edinborough. From that event may be dated -the complete establishment of his character during his after life; -and with those who received him there, and undertook the task of -doing what they, in their wisdom, thought expedient for the -cultivation of his genius, and for his advancement or settlement in -life, must, I think, rest the credit or the blame of much--of almost -_all_ his future excellence or failure. Burns went into the midst of -that gay and literary circle, ready and liable to receive the most -striking impressions, as the guides of his opinions and the -regulators of his actions. It was another world! It had all the -freshness of a new existence in the eyes, and to the mind of the -rustic Ayrshire bard. Strong-minded and high-hearted as he was, he -could not but look up to his new friends and patrons, as exemplars -for his own imitation: and although he was not _visibly_ perplexed -with the flashings of these new and unaccustomed lights, yet he was, -_at heart_, led astray by them. They were like the fabled -corpse-fires, which danced merrily before the wildered eyes of the -traveller, luring him onward to his doom--_a grave!_ He had left the -"bonnie banks of Ayr," _a young plant_, shooting luxuriantly up into -a tall and rugged, but healthful tree; and it was upon the _new_ -soil, into which it had been transplanted, that this beautiful exotic -received an inclination which was destined to be a final one. And yet -I would not throw upon the fame of such men as Stewart, and Blair, -and Robertson, and McKenzie, the imputation of design, or even of -imprudence, in thus being accessory to the melancholy ruin, which -followed the victim's acceptance of their kind, and really benevolent -patronage. It is only to be lamented that upon his arrival at -Edinburgh, he was not introduced _at once, and alone_, into that -circle, which might reasonably have been designated as the only one, -in which such a genius and {243} character as Burns's could be duly -appreciated and cultivated. But the secret is, he was regarded by -them, _not_ as a being for their _sympathy_, but a thing for the -indulgence of their _curiosity_. In the language of another, "By the -great he was treated in the customary fashion; entertained at their -tables and dismissed: certain modica of pudding and praise are, from -time to time, gladly exchanged for the fascination of his presence; -which exchange once effected, the bargain is finished, and each party -goes his several way." - -Instead of treating with him, as a man, whose genius entitled him to -a stand upon their own proud and distinguished level, all -uncultivated and unpolished as that genius was--they universally -spoke _to_ him, and _of_ him, as an object of patronage--as something -that was to become valuable to the world, only through _their_ -instrumentality. This feeling, this mode of treatment, are not to be -objected to, in themselves considered: their existence was natural, -and, rightly conducted, might have been made productive of much good, -and lasting happiness to him, who was their subject. But Burns was -not the man to rest quietly under the most oppressive burthen that a -proud man can ever feel--_Patronage_. And thus his relative situation -to his literary friends could not but be viewed by a mind so -sensitive as his own, in its true character. And we find (as soon as -the novelty of a "ploughman-poet" had worn off--as every fashionable -novelty _will_ wear off in time,) that our poet began to remember -that "a life of pleasure and praise would not support his family," -and having experienced a portion of these reverses, which they, who -depend on popular favor and flattery, must ever find inseparable -therefrom--we see him stocking his little farm, and soon after adding -the emoluments of the office of exciseman for the district of Ayr, to -his scanty income. And here he might have been - - "Content to breathe his native air, - On his own ground," - -but for his kind yet misjudging friends, "the patrons," as they were -called, "of his genius." Unfortunately for his future peace, each new -arrival at his little home of Ellisland, of those who had known him -at Edinborough, furnished proof that his old habits of conviviality -were only interrupted, but by no means broken: And it was only by the -frequency of these opportunities of good cheer in the society of the -gay companions of his city life, that he became inattentive to his -agricultural concerns, and that he finally lost the composure and -happiness, which were the attendants of his new situation, and with -these was lost his inclination to temperate and assiduous exertion. - -I would not be understood as denying, in this argument, a previous, -perhaps a _natural_ tendency in the character of Burns, to undue and -intemperate excitement: but the impression upon my own mind is -strong, that this bias might have been checked and regulated, and -turned to good account by the noble and learned patrons of his -genius. Tried by the statutes of strict morality, a man like Burns -has many things to plead in his own defence, which those of less mind -and dimmer intellect cannot justly claim as their own: and it is in -the unwillingness to make this distinction, that the world are, too -often, unfair judges in cases of character. A distinguished writer -thus elegantly remarks, upon a similar subject. - - -"The world is habitually unjust in its judgments: It is not the few -inches of deflection from the mathematical orbit, which are so -_easily_ measured, but the _ratio_ of these to the _whole_ diameter, -which constitutes the _real_ aberration. With the world, this orbit -may be a planet's, its diameter the breadth of the solar system: or -it may be a city hippodrome, nay, the circle of a mill-course, its -diameter a score of feet or paces--but the inches of _deflection_, -_only_, are measured; and it is assumed that the diameter of the -mill-course, and that of the planet, will yield the same ratio when -compared with them. Here, then, lies the root of the blind, cruel -condemnation of such men as Robert Burns, which one never listens to -with approval. Granted--the ship comes into harbor with her shrouds -and tackle damaged, and is the pilot therefore blame-worthy, because -he has not been _all_-wise and _all_-powerful? For us to know _how_ -blame-worthy he is, tell us how long and how arduous his voyage has -been." - - -But, after all, it is chiefly with Burns as a _poet_ that we have to -do--it is in _this_ light that _posterity_ will regard him, and it is -into the hands of this tribunal that he must, finally, be resigned. I -would that time had allowed me to refer more particularly to the -works of this delightful bard, than I have been enabled to do on the -present occasion. They began with his earliest, and were continued -until his latest years. Scattered along his devious, and often -_gloomy_ path, they seem like beautiful wild flowers, which he threw -there to cheer and animate the passer-by, with their undying bloom -and sweet fragrance. "In the changes of language his songs may, no -doubt, suffer change--but the associated strain of sentiment and of -music will perhaps survive, while the clear stream sweeps down the -Vale of Yarrow, or the yellow broom waves on the Cowdenknowes." - -I have had occasion, in the course of this essay, to remark, that the -_songs_ of Burns are, by far, the most finished productions of his -muse: and his admirers may safely rest his fame upon them alone, even -if his longer and more elaborate poems should fail to secure him the -immortality he deserves. The celebrated Fletcher somewhere says, -"Give me the making of a people's _songs_, and let who will make -their laws!" And Burns has, in the composition of _his_ songs, placed -himself on an equality with the legislators of the _world!_ for -where, in the cottage or the palace, are they unsung? Whose blood has -not thrilled, and whose lip has not been compressed, as the noble air -of "Scots! wha hae wi' Wallace bled!" has swelled upon his ear? Who -cannot join in the touching and beautiful chorus of his "Auld lang -syne?" Who has not laughed over his "Willie brewed a peck o' maut," -nor felt the rising tear of sympathetic sadness whilst listening to -his "Farewell to Ayr!" and his celebrated "Mary in Heaven?" In all -these, and many more, which are familiar as _very proverbs_ in our -mouths, the poet has shown such a versatility, and yet such an -entireness of talent--such tenderness and delicacy in his sorrow--yet -withal, so pure and delightful a rapture in his mirth; he weeps with -so true and feeling a heart, and laughs with such loud, and at the -same time such unaffected mirth, that he finds sympathy wherever his -harp is strung. The subjects he chose, and the free, natural style in -which he treated them, have won him this praise--and it shall endure, -the constant and lasting tribute of generation after generation. - -But it has been beautifully said, (and who will not agree in the -sentiment?) that "in the hearts of men of right feelings, there -exists no consciousness of need to plead for Burns. In pitying -admiration, he lies {244} enshrined in all our hearts, in a far -nobler mausoleum than one of marble: neither will his works, even as -they are, pass away from the memory of men. While the Shakspeares and -Miltons roll on like mighty rivers through the country of thought, -bearing fleets of traffickers and assiduous pearl-fishers on their -waves, this little Vauclusa Fountain will also arrest the eye: For -this also is of nature's own and most cunning workmanship, and bursts -from the depths of the earth with a full, gushing current, into the -light of day. And often will the traveller turn aside to drink of its -clear waters, and muse among its rocks and pines." - - For Heaven, sweet bard! on thee bestowed - A boon, beyond all name: - And, bounteous, lighted up thy soul - With its own native flame. - - Soft may thy gentle spirit rest, - Sweet poet of the plain! - Light lay the green turf on thy breast, - Till it's illum'd again! - - - - -CHANGE. - - - If by my childhood's humble home - I chance to wander now, - Or through the grove with brambles grown, - Where cedars used to bow, - In search of something that I loved-- - Some little trifling thing - To mind me of my early days, - When life was in its spring,-- - I find on every thing I see - A something new and strange; - Time's iron hand on them and me - Hath plainly written--_Change_. - - My pulse beats slower than it did - When childhood's glow was on - My cheek, and colder, calmer now - Doth life's red current run. - - The stars I gaz'd with rapture on, - When youthful hopes were high, - With sterner years have seem'd to change - Their places in the sky. - - And moonlit nights are plenty now-- - How few they used to be! - When, with my little urchin crew, - I shouted o'er the lea. - - I've sought the places where we play'd - Our boyish "_hide and call_;" - Alas! the tyrant Change has made - A common stock of all-- - And bartered for a place of graves - That lea and all its bloom: - O, how upon the walls I wept, - To think of Change and Doom! - - The lovely lawn where roses grew, - Is strewn with gravestones o'er; - And half my little playmate crew - Have slept to wake no more - Till Change itself shall cease to be, - And one successive scene - Of stedfastness immutable - Remain where Change hath been. - - It may sometimes make old men glad - To see the young at play; - But always doth my soul grow sad - When thoughts of their decay - Come rushing with the memories - Of what my own hopes were-- - When Hudson's waters and my youth - Did mutual friendship share. - - - - -MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS. - -[Their importance as connected with Literary Institutions.(1)] - -[Footnote 1: This Address was delivered by the Rev. E. F. Stanton, -before the "Literary Institute" of Hampden Sidney College, at its -annual commencement in September last, and is now published, for the -first time, at the request of the Institute.] - - -The proper connection of physical, moral, and intellectual culture, -in a course of education, is a subject which, judging from the -defective systems that have almost universally prevailed, has -hitherto been but imperfectly understood, and whose importance has -been but superficially estimated. Man is a being possessed of a -compound nature, which consists of body, mind and spirit. In other -words, he has animal, intellectual, and moral powers. He is destined -for existence and action in two worlds--in this, and in that _which -is to come_. He is formed for an earthly, and an immortal state. Any -system of education, therefore, which restricts attention to either -of these constituent portions of his nature, is necessarily and -essentially defective. It is the cultivation which assigns to each -its appropriate share, that constitutes the perfection of education. -But few appear to admit, at least _practically_, the importance of -improving the mind to any great extent by the aids which Literature -and Science bestow. Fewer still are in favor of making religious -instruction a distinct and indispensable part of their plan. Yet -smaller is the number of those who would allow any suitable -prominence to be given to the cultivation of the physical powers: and -probably by far the most diminutive of all is the proportion of those -who would contend for a just and equable combination in the -improvement of _the whole man_, body, mind, and spirit. - -The monitory experience of past ages, which, if duly heeded, might -prevent a recurrence of serious disasters that have befallen other -generations, is overlooked or disregarded, as the devotees of a -worldly pleasure discredit the assurance of the sage, that "all is -vanity and vexation of spirit," and each in its turn, and for itself, -must try the experiment which wisdom had beforehand decided to be -folly. Vanity seeks the preferment arising from novel discoveries; -and inflated with an apprehension of superior knowledge, disdains to -receive the instructions of former ages, and in spite of experience, -gives an unrestrained indulgence to wild and hurtful extravagances. -Enough has long since been disclosed in the history of mankind, if -they were sufficiently docile and apt, to have demonstrated, to the -satisfaction of all, that on the early and assiduous {245} -inculcation of _religious principle_, depend the temporal, to say -nothing of the eternal welfare of individuals, and the peace and -prosperity of nations. The world, by this time, ought to have known, -even if Revelation had not proclaimed it, that _righteousness_, by -which I mean _religion_, is the stability and safeguard of -nations--that it cannot be dispensed with--that no substitute can be -made for it--and that no government can be prosperous or lasting -without it. Devoid of religious principle, the educated are but -madmen; and the more extensive and brilliant their talents, whether -natural or acquired, the more completely are they accoutred for the -work of mischief. Within the recollection of the present generation, -South America, and Greece, and France, where Romish corruptions and -infidel perfidy have obtained the ascendancy, and rooted out a pure -Christianity, have alternately struggled for the establishment of -freedom. Our own nation, so deeply enamored of the "fair goddess," -have looked on with an intensity of interest that bordered on -inebriation, and have hailed them as brethren of _the republican -fraternity_. But how soon have our hopes been disappointed, and our -exultation proved to be premature. The despotism which has been -thrown off, has been speedily succeeded by another which was scarcely -less odious and intolerable. Their temple of freedom was not reared -on _the rock of religious principle_, but on _the sand_. The tempest -of ungoverned passions, which righteousness only has the power to -allay, _beat vehemently upon it, and it fell_; and great has been the -fall of it. Better that a population deficient in virtue, (the virtue -which a pure religion only can impart,) be also deficient in -knowledge. There is no regenerating or transforming influence in -literature and science. The reverse of this, however, is the -practical creed of most politicians. Religion with them, if not an -odious and obsolete affair, is regarded as of secondary or -inconsiderable importance; and all the attention which, in their -estimation, it deserves, is to leave it for a spontaneous -development. But the issue of such an experiment is sure to result in -an absence of the fear of God, and an exuberant growth of noxious and -destructive passions. If no plan can be devised, which in its -operation shall secure an inseparable connection between literature -and religion in our American academies and colleges, their demolition -were devoutly to be desired, and our youth might better be reared in -ignorance and barbarism. - -These observations are made in passing, to anticipate an impression -which might arise in the minds of some who may accompany us in the -sequel of this discussion, that we are for giving to the _physical_ -an importance over every other department of education. So far from -admitting that this is the position which we intend to assume, we -would here be distinctly understood to allow, if you please, that it -is the least important of all, and sinks as far in comparison with -the cultivation of the mind and the heart, as the body is inferior to -the soul, or as the interests of time are transcended by those of -eternity. But the body, though comparatively insignificant, is still -deserving of special regard. The corporeal is a part of the nature -which the infinite Creator has bestowed on us--a piece of mechanism -"curiously wrought," and "fearfully and wonderfully made." The body -is the casement of the mind--the tenement in which the soul -resides--the "outer" in which dwells the "inner man." With the nature -of this union we are mostly unacquainted. We know, however, that it -is close, and that the influences which body and mind exert on each -other are reciprocal and powerful. - -A gentleman of our own country, who has been at great pains to -investigate this subject himself, and to collect the opinions of -others on it, has embodied in a pamphlet, which has been published, a -mass of information of the most valuable kind; but the production to -which I refer has been only partially circulated in this region, and -therefore has probably attracted less notice here than almost any -where else in the Union. And since I have ample evidence to believe -that his observations, and those of others which accompany them, are -better suited to subserve the purpose which I have in view, than any -of my own which I might hope to offer, I shall indulge myself on this -occasion in the liberty of making somewhat copious extracts from his -labors. - -The individual to whom I allude, was appointed the General Agent of -"the Society for promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions," -which was formed in the city of New York in July of 1831, "under the -conviction," as their committee remark, "that a reform in our -seminaries of learning was greatly needed, both for the preservation -of health, and for giving energy to the character by habits of useful -and vigorous exercise." Shortly after entering upon the prosecution -of his object, in an extensive tour of observation in the northern -and western states, the journey of the agent,[2] as his employers -relate, was interrupted by serious accidents which befel him, one of -which (and we notice the narrative as an apt and striking -illustration of the excellency of that system of training to which he -had been accustomed, and which it was the design of his agency to -recommend,) was the carrying away of the stage in Alum Creek, near -Columbus, in the state of Ohio. "The creek," as they inform us, -"being swollen by the great flood, in crossing, at midnight, the -swiftness of the current forced the whole down the stream, till the -stage-wagon came to pieces, and the Agent was thrown directly among -the horses. After being repeatedly struck down by their struggles, he -became entangled in the harness, and hurried with them along the -current. At length, released from this peril, he reached the shore, -and grasped a root in the bank; but it broke, and again the stream -bore him on to the middle of the channel. At length he espied a tree -which had fallen so that its top lay in the water, and by the most -desperate efforts, all encumbered as he was with his travelling -garments, he succeeded in reaching a branch; but his benumbed hands -refused their grasp, and slipped, and then he was swept among some -bushes in an eddy, where his feet rested on the ground. Here in the -dead of night, in the forest, ignorant whether there was a house or a -human being within many miles, bruised and chilled in the wintry -stream, he seems calmly to have made up his mind to die, sustained by -the hopes of the religion which he professed. But Providence had -determined otherwise, and reserved him for farther usefulness. His -cries were heard by a kind hearted woman on the opposite side of the -stream, who wakened her husband; and, after a few days detention, he -{246} proceeded on his journey. From the accounts (the committee -continue,) which are already before the public, it seems plain that -_nothing but a constitution invigorated by manual labor_, and a soul -sustained by the grace of God, could have survived the hardships of -that night." - -[Footnote 2: Mr. Weld.] - -There are probably but few who will dissent from this decision; and -we will add, that in our opinion, a preservation so extraordinary, -exclusive of a Providential interposition which some will think they -discern in it, affords an argument for manual labor schools, or -physical education, more pointed, and perhaps conclusive, than all -which this indefatigable agent has said himself, or gleaned from the -testimony of others, although this composes an amount of evidence of -the most convincing kind. - -In the report alluded to, the Agent himself observes that "God has -revealed his will to man upon the subject of education. It is written -in the language of nature, and can be understood without a -commentary. This revelation consists in the universal consciousness -of those influences which body and mind exert upon each -other--influences innumerable, incessant, and all-controlling; the -body continually modifying the state of the mind, and the mind ever -varying the condition of the body. - -"Every man who has marked the reciprocal action of body and mind, -surely need not be told that mental and physical training should go -together. Even the slightest change in the condition of the body -often produces an effect upon the mind so sudden and universal, as to -seem almost miraculous. The body is the mind's palace; but darken its -windows, and it is a prison. It is the mind's instrument; sharpened, -it cuts keenly--blunted, it can only bruise and disfigure. It is the -mind's reflector; if bright, it flashes day--if dull, it diffuses -twilight. It is the mind's servant; if robust, it moves with swift -pace upon its errands--if a cripple, it hobbles on crutches. We -attach infinite value to the mind, and justly; but in this world, it -is good for nothing without the body. Can a man think without the -brain?--can he feel without nerves?--can he move without muscles? The -ancients were right in the supposition that an unsound body is -incompatible with a sound mind. [They looked only for the _mens sana -in corpore sano_.] He who attempts mental effort during a fit of -indigestion, will cease to wonder that Plato located the soul in the -stomach. A few drops of water upon the face, or a feather burnt under -the nostril of one in a swoon, awakens the mind from its deep sleep -of unconsciousness. A slight impression made upon a nerve often -breaks the chain of thought, and the mind tosses in tumult. Let a -peculiar vibration quiver upon the nerve of hearing, and a tide of -wild emotion rushes over the soul. The man who can think with a gnat -in his eye, or reason while the nerve of a tooth is twinging, or when -his stomach is nauseated, or when his lungs are oppressed and -laboring; he who can give wing to his imagination when shivering with -cold, or fainting with heat, or worn down with toil, can claim -exemption from the common lot of humanity. - -"In different periods of life, the mind waxes and wanes with the -body; in youth, cheerful, full of daring, quick to see, and keen to -feel; in old age, desponding, timid, perception dim, and emotion -languid. When the blood circulates with unusual energy, the coward -rises into a hero; when it creeps feebly, the hero sinks into a -coward. The effects produced by the different states of the mind upon -the body, are equally sudden and powerful. Plato used to say that all -the diseases of the body proceed from the soul. [With more of -propriety, we think, it may be said, that at least three-fourths of -the diseases that afflict humanity, arise from an injudicious -treatment of the body. But be this as it may, the fact is too obvious -to be disputed, that the mind acts powerfully upon the animal frame.] -The expression of the countenance _is mind visible_. _Bad news_ -weaken the action of the heart, oppress the lungs, destroy appetite, -stop digestion, and partially suspend all the functions of the animal -system. An emotion of shame flushes the face; fear blanches it; joy -illuminates it; and an instant thrill electrifies a million of -nerves. Powerful emotion often kills the body at a stroke. Chilo, -Diagoras, and Sophocles died of joy at the Elean games. The news of a -defeat killed Philip V. One of the Popes died of an emotion of the -ludicrous, on seeing his pet monkey robed in pontificals, and -occupying the chair of state. The door-keeper of Congress expired -upon hearing of the surrender of Cornwallis. Pinckney, Emmet, and -Webster are recent instances of individuals who have died either in -the midst of an impassioned burst of eloquence, or when the deep -emotion that had produced it had suddenly subsided. Indeed, the -experience of every day demonstrates that the body and mind are -endowed with such mutual susceptibilities, that each is alive to the -slightest influence of the other. What is the common-sense inference -from this fact? Manifestly this--that the body and the mind _should -be educated together_. - -"The states of the body are infinitely various. All these different -states differently affect the mind. They are causes, and their -effects have all the variety which mark the causes that produce them. -If then different conditions of the body differently affect the mind, -some electrifying, and others paralyzing its energies, what duty can -be plainer than _to preserve the body in that condition which will -most favorably affect the mind_? If the Maker of both was infinitely -wise, then the highest _permanent_ perfection of the mind can be -found only in connection with the most healthful state of the body. -Has infinite wisdom established laws by which the best condition of -the mind is _permanently_ connected with any other than the best -condition of the body? When all the bodily functions are perfectly -performed, the mind must be in a better state than when these -functions are imperfectly performed. And now I ask, is not that -system of education fundamentally defective, which makes no provision -for putting the body in its best condition, and for keeping it in -that condition? A system which expends its energies upon the mind -alone, and surrenders the body either to the irregular promptings of -perverted instinct, or to the hap-hazard impulses of chance or -necessity? A system which aims solely at the development of mind, and -yet overlooks those very principles which are indispensable to -produce that development, and transgresses those very laws which -constitute the only ground-work of rational education? Such a system -sunders what God has joined together, and impeaches the wisdom which -pronounced that union good. It destroys the symmetry of human -proportion, and makes man a monster. It reverses the {247} order of -the constitution; commits outrage upon its principles; breaks up its -reciprocities; makes war alike upon physical health and intellectual -energy, dividing man against himself; arming body and mind in mutual -hostility, and prolonging the conflict until each falls a prey to the -other, and both surrender to ruin. - -"The system of education which is generally pursued in the United -States, is unphilosophical in its elementary principles; ill adapted -to the condition of man; practically mocks his necessities, and is -intrinsically absurd. The high excellences of the system in other -respects are readily admitted and fully appreciated. Modern education -has indeed achieved wonders. But what has been done meanwhile for the -body? [Nothing--comparatively nothing.] The prevailing neglect of the -body in the present system of education, is a defect for which no -excellence can atone. Nor is this a recent discovery. Two centuries -ago Milton wrote a pamphlet upon this subject, in which he eloquently -urged the connection of physical with mental education in literary -institutions. Locke inveighs against it in no measured terms. Since -that time, Jahn, Ackerman, Salzman, and Franck, in Germany; Tissot, -Rousseau, and Londe, in France; and Fellenberg, in Switzerland, have -all written largely upon the subject." - -In addition to what this individual has himself said, he has -exhibited in the pamphlet referred to, an amount of testimony derived -from a number of the most distinguished literary men in our country, -to the imperfections of the existing system of education which is -truly overwhelming, and enough, we should think, could it be -universally disseminated, to arouse and restore to reason the whole -civilized world. Indeed, we indulge the hope that it has planted the -seeds of a revolution in our literary institutions; and our only -surprise is, that it should advance with no greater celerity. The -following important positions, however, in regard to the subject, may -now be considered as established. Constant habits of exercise are -indispensable to a healthful state of the body. A healthful state of -body is essential to a vigorous and active state of mind. The habit -of exercise should commence with the ability to take it, and should -be continued with that ability through life. Of the different kinds -of exercise, as a general rule, agricultural, being the most natural, -and to which the human constitution is best adapted, is the most -unobjectionable; _mechanical_ is the next; and walking and riding are -the employments which follow in the rear. The exercise most -profitable, for the most part will be that which is most useful. The -neglect of exercise, with sedentary men, has occasioned fearful havoc -of health and life; and the wilful neglect of it, with those who have -had an opportunity to be enlightened with respect to its necessity -and value, is a species of suicide, and, therefore, _an immorality_. -The connection of _manual labor establishments with literary -institutions_, has been found to be greatly conducive to health and -morals, as also to proficiency in the various departments of human -learning; and as far as experience has gone, the promise which they -give of success is all that their most sanguine projectors had -anticipated. - -On the subject of _manual labor schools_, a deep interest has within -a few years been excited in various parts of the Union. Like all -other enterprises which aim at the accomplishment of extensive good, -it has met with opposition and discouragements; but originating in -the principles of true wisdom, and supported by arguments and facts -which none can gainsay or resist, its ultimate triumph may safely be -predicted, and confidently anticipated. - -Whether the system of physical education shall receive the -countenance, or is suited to the peculiar circumstances of the -southern country, may with some be made a question; but we are ready -to hazard the assertion, that whatever obstacles of a peculiar nature -may here lie in the way of reducing it to practice, if properly -considered, they must be seen to be in truth the most powerful -inducements that can be urged for its adoption. - -The country in which physical education cannot prevail, in the onward -march of improvements for which the present age is distinguished, -must necessarily be destined to be outstripped in the pursuit of -those objects which constitute the felicity and the glory of a -people. That this country is to fall behind, and to be contented to -remain there, is to suppose an event too disreputable for tolerance, -and too much opposed to a laudable spirit of emulation to be -cheerfully acquiesced in. The south needs men of vigorous -constitutions for professional avocations and other purposes, as well -as the rest of the world, and if she has them, must obtain them by -the same process. Trained on a different plan, her sons, in -comparison with others, will be effeminate and inefficient. Many of -them, as has happened with others in past times, would become the -prey of incurable disease, or fall the victims of an untimely grave. -According to the most accurate investigations that have been made, at -least _one-fourth_ of the individuals who, for several years past, -have been educated in our American colleges, have been completely -prostrated in their course, or have survived only to drag out an -existence rendered burdensome to themselves and unprofitable to -others. The voice of warning on this topic, while mournful and -alarming, is as "_the voice of many waters_." - -Distinguished intellectual excellence depends, we believe, to a -greater extent than almost any have imagined, on a robust frame of -the body; and in farther corroboration of the views that have already -been expressed on this subject, I would request the privilege of -subjoining a few passages of striking originality, from the pen of -the powerful and popular author of the essay "On Decision of -Character." - -"As a previous observation," he remarks, "it is beyond all doubt that -very much of the principles that appear to produce, or to constitute -this commanding distinction, (of decision of character) depends on -the constitution of the body. It is for physiologists to explain the -_manner_ in which corporeal organization affects the mind; I only -assert the fact, that there is in the material construction of some -persons, much more than of others, some quality which augments, if it -does not create, both the stability of their resolution, and the -energy of their active tendencies. There is something that, like the -ligatures which one class of Olympic combatants bound on their hands -and wrists, braces round, if I may so describe it, and compresses the -powers of the mind, giving them a steady and forcible spring and -reaction, which they would presently lose, if they could be -transferred into a constitution of soft, yielding, treacherous -debility. The action of strong {248} character seems to demand -something firm in its corporeal basis, as massive engines require for -their weight and for their working, to be fixed on a solid -foundation. Accordingly I believe it would be found, that a majority -of the persons most remarkable for decisive character, have possessed -great constitutional firmness. I do not mean an exemption from -disease and pain, nor any certain measure of mechanical strength, but -a tone of vigor, the opposite to lassitude, and adapted to great -exertion and endurance. This is clearly evinced in respect to many of -them, by the prodigious labors and deprivations which they have borne -in prosecuting their designs. The physical nature has seemed a proud -ally of the moral one, and with a hardness that would never shrink, -has sustained the energy that could never remit. - -"A view of the disparities between the different races of animals -inferior to man, will show the effect of organization on disposition. -Compare, for instance, a lion with the common beasts of our fields, -many of them composed of a larger bulk of animated substance. What a -vast superiority of courage, impetuous movement, and determined -action; and we attribute this difference to some great dissimilarity -of modification in the composition of the animated material. Now it -is probable that some difference, partly analogous, subsists between -human bodies, and that this is no small part of the cause of the -striking inequalities in respect of decisive character. A very -decisive man has probably more of the physical quality of a _lion_ in -his composition than other men. - -"It is observable that women in general have less inflexibility of -character than men; and though many moral influences contribute to -this difference, the principal cause is, probably, something less -firm in the corporeal texture. Now, one may have in his constitution -a firmness of texture, exceeding that of other men, in a much greater -degree than that by which men in general exceed women. - -"If there have been found some resolute spirits powerfully asserting -themselves in feeble vehicles, it is so much the better; since this -would authorize a hope, that if all other grand requisites can be -combined, they may form a strong character, in spite of the -counteraction of an unadapted constitution. And on the other hand, no -constitutional hardness will form the true character without those -grand principles; though it may produce that false and contemptible -kind of decision which we term _obstinacy_; a mere stubbornness of -temper, which can assign no reason but its will, for a constancy -which acts in the nature of dead weight rather than of strength; -resembling less the reaction of a powerful spring than the -gravitation of a big stone." - -In opposition to the system of education which we would defend, a -voice of objection has been raised, to which it may not be improper -to pay a passing regard. - -It has been preferred as an objection to manual labor schools, which -we shall assume, are, on the whole, the most unexceptionably -expedient that has been proposed for connecting exercise with a -course of literary training,[3] that _youth who have been -unaccustomed to manual labor, and who have been permitted to indulge -in idleness and sportive amusements for the purpose of recreation, -will feel an insuperable aversion to the toils and restraints which -such a revolution in their habits, as the one contemplated, will -impose on them_. - -[Footnote 3: Gymnastic exercises are both dangerous and frivolous.] - -The process of _taming_, though quite essential to the unruly, to -"flesh and blood" is never "joyous, but rather grievous." The -objection started is something like that which the celebrated Rush, -in some of his original effusions, has observed is met with in the -case of certain morbid patients, whose _weak stomachs refuse milk as -a diet_. The food itself, in the judgment of the acute physician, is -of the most simple, inoffensive, and invigorating character; and _the -fact that it is rejected is the proof that it is needed_. The -intemperate can ill brook the privation of _alcohol_; the epicure and -debauché will not relinquish with good will the gratification of -inordinate appetites; nor will the _slothful_, who _turns himself in -his bed as the door on the hinges_, give up with cheerfulness _the -luxury of laziness_. But the true and proper question for -determination is, would it not be doing to loungers and profligates -themselves, as well as to others, a kindness, to put them upon a -course of _regimen_, (provided it can be done without too great an -exertion of violence,) which should bring them back to nature, and -constrain them to a just and proper observance of the salutary laws -of industry, sobriety, and temperance? With such an authority we -think that the parents and guardians of youth every where should be -invested; and those who should manifest a spirit of insubordination -against its exercise, if that spirit could not be quelled by a -temperate yet firm resistance, would exhibit the proof of a temper -that ought to be regarded in a young man _as a positive -disqualification for receiving an education_. - -In our apprehension it is by no means among the most trivial -considerations that recommend the manual labor feature in a system of -education, that it furnishes an admirable _test_ by which to try the -spirit of a pupil, as well as a choice expedient to invigorate his -health and inure him to habits of diligence and sobriety. A young man -whose aversion to a manual labor school is so strong that it cannot -be overcome, when the subject has been fairly presented to his mind, -it may safely be taken for granted, is not worth educating. The -community would lose nothing by the operation of a system which -should exclude him from the ranks of its _literati_. Especially would -the test in question operate favorably in the education of the -_beneficiaries_ of the church, whom she is at present somewhat -extensively engaged in patronizing and preparing for her future -ministry. Great as we conceive it, and great as the history of past -ages has proved it to be, is the hazard which the church runs of -rearing an impure priesthood, by proposing the _gratuitous education_ -of all the professedly "indigent and pious" who will apply for her -bounty. The temptation to insincerity which is thus held out is too -powerful to be resisted by depraved human nature. The church for -safety in this respect must raise munitions and throw up her -ramparts, to guard against the admission of unhallowed intruders. And -what better defence, we would ask, could the ingenuity of man have -devised for the prevention of the evils adverted to, than that _the -entire amount of contributions which are made for the education of -candidates for the ministry, should flow to them exclusively through -the manual labor channel_? An inspired Apostle has said, that _if any -man will not work, neither shall he eat_: and in perfect accordance, -as we think, {249} with the spirit of this declaration, we would -unhesitatingly affirm, that if any man, who has the ministry in view, -when the opportunity is fully presented, will not enter a manual -labor school, _and labor, working with his own hands_, for at least a -part of his support, _neither should he eat the bread of the church_, -nor be fostered by her charities to minister at her altars. - -To say that students for their recreation need something more amusing -and sportive than the useful and sober exercises of agricultural and -mechanical employment, is to say that the propensity of young men to -levity and frivolity is so powerful that it cannot be, and ought not -to be, controlled; that to aim to instil into them the habits and -sentiments of gravity and sobriety is an unnatural and impracticable -undertaking; and that it is more advisable to treat them as _merry -Andrews_ than as possessing the dignity of rational, immortal and -accountable creatures. - -Let a system of education make provision for nothing but what is -elevated and useful, and still space enough will be left for all the -frivolity and sporting which any can deem to be absolutely essential. -These things will take care of themselves, and will inevitably come -in, on any plan that may be adopted, to secure all the advantages -which they are capable of affording. - -Another objection which has been preferred to manual labor schools -is, _that they contribute but little or nothing to the support of the -student_. - -The truth on this subject, as could be satisfactorily shown is, that, -as might naturally be expected, manual labor schools, being a novel -experiment in this country, have had to struggle, as do all similar -enterprises of benevolence at the outset, with formidable obstacles; -and in some instances, through injudiciousness in their location, or -mismanagement in their arrangements, have either been abandoned, or -have failed to fulfil the expectations of their projectors. -Mercantile and other adventurers often fail in their plans. At the -same time it is undeniable, that some institutions of this sort have -succeeded beyond all previous calculations, and the students that -composed them have not only enjoyed better health than others, and -made more rapid advances in knowledge, but a portion of them have, by -the avails of their labors, defrayed _the whole_ of their expenses; a -few have done _more_; and a majority have diminished them about -_one-half_. Manual labor establishments, therefore, will do -_something_ (we ought not to expect them to do _every thing_,) -towards _cheapening_ education, even in the infancy of their -existence; and the thought can hardly fail to be cheering to American -republicans and patriots, that in the full tide of successful -operation which we believe will attend their maturer age, "full many -a flower" which but for them would be "born to bloom and blush -unseen," will shed its "sweetness on" Columbia's "air." - -But admit for a moment that manual labor schools are an utter failure -as regards _the pecuniary advantages which they afford_. Admit, if -you please, that the manual labor feature is an expensive part of -education, and that to comply with it an education will cost more -than on any other plan. The argument for their utility remains alike -unanswered and unshaken. Is not the education thus obtained a more -perfect one? Is it not immensely more valuable? Are health, morals, -useful habits, vigorous intellects, and life, worth nothing? Is money -expended for the improvement and preservation of these thrown away? - -If manual labor schools increased the expenses of education -_fourfold_, they would still deserve the warm patronage of the -public, and all who have the ability should send their sons to them -to be educated, in preference to any other institutions, even should -they have as many of them as the Patriarch, or be endowed with the -riches of Crœsus. - -It is an ill-judged economy which saves money at the sacrifice of -life, health, and morals. Let this subject be _understood_ by an -intelligent and Christian community, and manual labor schools will -not be left to languish and die without endowments, while on other -institutions of less substantial claims, they are lavished with a -princely munificence. - -In this place, it may not be amiss to attend for a short time, to the -testimony of some of the pupils and superintendants of manual labor -schools, who have detailed the results of their observation and -experience, and which is strong and decided in their favor. - -In one instance the pupils say, that "believing the results of -experiment weightier than theory, we beg leave respectfully to -express those convictions respecting the plan of our institution, -which have been created solely by our own experience in its details. -1. We are convinced that the general plan is practicable. 2. That the -amount of labor required (three hours per day) does not exceed the -actual demands of the human system. 3. That this amount of labor does -not retard the progress of the student, but by preserving and -augmenting his physical energies, does eventually facilitate it. 4. -That the legitimate effect of such a system upon body and mind, is -calculated to make men hardy, enterprising and independent; and to -wake up within them a spirit perseveringly to do, and endure, and -dare. 5. Though the experiment at every step of its progress has been -seriously embarrassed with difficulties, neither few in number nor -inconsiderable in magnitude, as those know full well who have -experienced them, yet it has held on its way till the entire -practicability of the plan stands embodied in actual demonstration. -In conclusion, (they add,) we deem it a privilege, while tendering -this testimony of our experience, to enter upon the record our -unwavering conviction, that the principle which has been settled by -this experiment involves in its practical developments an immense -amount of good to our world; it is demanded by the exigences of this -age of action, when ardor is breathing for higher attempt, and energy -wakes to mightier accomplishment." - -On a subsequent occasion another set of pupils belonging to the same -institution, express their convictions in a similar tone of -approbation. - -"The influence of the system," they say, "on health, is decidedly -beneficial, as all of us can testify who have pursued it for any -length of time. We can pursue our studies not only without injury, -but with essential advantage. Not only is our bodily power increased -instead of being diminished on this plan, but the powers of the mind -are augmented, while moral sensibility is not blunted by hours of -idleness and dissipation. We suffer no loss of time, as no more is -spent in labor than is usually spent by students in recreation; and -we are taught to improve every hour. Our opinion is, that -intellectual progress is accelerated rather than retarded {250} by -this system. In its success, we are convinced, is deeply involved the -prosperity of education, and the great work of evangelizing the -world." - -The students of Cumberland College in the State of Kentucky, say, "we -beg leave to state the results of our own experience. Having been for -a considerable time, members of a manual labor institution, we have -had an exhibition of its principles and efficacy continually before -us; and we are convinced that labor, for two hours or more each day, -is essential to the health of all close students, and equally -necessary for the development of the mind." - -The young men in the theological institution at Hamilton, in the -State of New York, say, "we feel the fullest conviction that every -student who neglects systematic exercise, is effecting the ruin of -his physical and moral powers. Nor is the influence of this -unpardonable neglect less perceptible or deleterious, as it regards -his moral feelings. Without it, however pure his motives, or ardent -his desire to do good, we have but faint hopes of his success. Such -habits as he would inevitably form, we believe, would ruin all the -nobler energies of his nature. We think three hours appropriate -exercise each day will not eventually retard progress in study. We -must say, from five or six years experience in the institution, we -have not learned that any close student has ever completed an entire -course of study without serious detriment to health. We hope, -however, our present system of exercise will soon enable us to -exhibit a different statement. In the preservation and improvement of -health, we have found an unspeakable benefit arising from systematic -exercise. Without it, we deem it impossible for the close student to -preserve his health." - -The superintendants of a kindred institution, in a document which -they have laid before the public, declare, that they "have great -satisfaction in being able to state that a strong conviction pervades -the minds of the _young men_ generally, as well as their own, that -laborious exercise for three hours per day does not occupy more time -than is necessary for the highest corporeal and mental energy; that -so far from retarding literary progress, it greatly accelerates it; -that instead of finding labor to encroach upon their regular hours of -study, they find themselves able, with a vigorous mind, to devote -from eight to ten hours per day to intellectual pursuits; that under -the influence of this system, mental lassitude is seldom if ever -known; that good health and a good constitution are rarely if ever -injured; that constitutions rendered delicate, and prostrated by hard -study without exercise, have been built up and established; that this -system with temperance is a sovereign antidote against dyspepsia and -hypochondria, with all their innumerable and indescribable woes; that -it annihilates the dread of future toil, self-denial, and dependence; -secures to them the practical knowledge and benefits of agricultural -and mechanical employments; gives them familiar access to, and -important influence over that great class of business men, of which -the world is principally composed; equalizes and extends the -advantages of education; and lays deep and broad the foundations of -republicanism; promotes the advancement of consistent piety, by -connecting _diligence in business_ with _fervency of spirit_, and -will bless the church with such increasing numbers of ministers of -such spirit and physical energy, as will fit them to _endure hardness -as good soldiers of Jesus Christ_." - -We are every day more and more impressed with the importance and -practicability of the manual labor system, as the only one by which -the increasing hundreds and thousands of the pious and talented sons -of the church can be raised up with the enterprise, and activity, and -power of endurance, which are indispensable for the conversion of the -world to God. - -To these statements the individual who has collected them, adds his -own testimony in the following language: "I have been for three years -and a half a member of a manual labor school. The whole number of my -fellow students during that period was about two hundred. I was -personally acquainted with every individual, and merely 'speak what I -know,' and 'testify what I have seen,' when I state that every -_student_ who acquired a reputation for sound scholarship during this -time, was a _fast friend_ of the manual labor system. The most -intelligent, without a single exception, were not only thoroughly -convinced of the importance of the system, but _they loved it with -all their hearts_. They counted it a privilege and a delight to give -their testimony in its favor, and they _did it_ in good earnest. -Their approval of the system rose into an intelligent and abiding -passion; and it is no marvel that it was so; for they had within them -a permanent, living consciousness of its benefits and blessings. They -felt it in their _bodies_, knitting their muscles into firmness, -compacting their limbs, consolidating their frame work, and thrilling -with fresh life the very marrow of their bones. They felt it in their -_minds_, giving tenacity to memory, stability to judgment, acuteness -to discrimination, multiform analogy to the suggestive faculty, and -daylight to perception. They felt it in their _hearts_, renovating -every susceptibility, and swelling the tide of emotion. It is true, -with a few, a very few of the students, the system was unpopular, and -so were languages and mathematics, philosophy and rhetoric, and every -thing else in the daily routine, _save the bed and the dinner table_. -Such students were snails in the field, drones in the workshop, dumb -in debate, pigmies in the recitation room, and cyphers at the black -board. - -"In every manual labor school which I visited in my tour," he -continues, "it was the invariable testimony of trustees and teachers, -that the talent, the scholarship, the manliness, the high promise of -all such institutions, were found among the pupils who gave the -manual labor system their hearty approval; whereas if there were -among the students brainless coxcombs, sighing sentimentalists, -languishing effeminates, and other nameless things of equivocal -gender; to prostitute _their_ delicate persons to the vile outrage of -manual labor, was indeed a _sore affliction!_" - -We shall close these selections by adding to them the testimony of an -individual[4] of distinguished literary attainments, whose advantages -for obtaining correct information on this topic, as well as many -others, have been of the most favorable kind. - -[Footnote 4: Professor Stuart.] - -"The God of nature," he observes, "has designed the body for action; -and all efforts to counteract this design, end of course in -disappointment, sooner or later. The same God has designed that men -should _cultivate_ {251} _their minds_; and I never can believe that -this is deleterious in itself; it is so only when we neglect what he -has bidden us to observe, i.e. daily discipline and effort to -preserve health. - -"Students want vacations, journeys, remission from employment, &c. -&c. and this at a great expense of time and money. Why? Because they -will not be faithful, _every day_, to watch over their health, and to -use all the requisite means for its preservation. Why should the -farmer, the mechanic, the merchant, the physician, the lawyer, -support a never ceasing round of employment, and the student not? Is -there any curse laid by heaven upon study? No; it is -inaction--laziness--that makes all the mischief, and occasions all -the expense. This is my full persuasion from thirty years experience, -and somewhat extensive observation." - -To these selections others of similar interest and importance might -be added from the _Report_ from which they have been derived, -particularly the numerous and harmonious opinions of literary men, -_on the necessity and utility of regular systematic exercise to the -student_; but our time forbids the indulgence, and the maxim of -_Festina ad finem_ admonishes us to cut short this address. - -From the view that has been taken, we perceive then, with a clearness -which cannot be mistaken, that the manual labor system of education -is applauded by "a cloud of witnesses," and commended to our -patronage and attention by arguments and facts innumerable, palpable, -and unanswerable. Will the inquiry be misplaced, when we ask, Shall -it _here_, (on this consecrated ground, this literary _high place_, -which is destined to send forth a mighty stream of influence for good -or ill, to an extent which no arithmetic can calculate,) shall it -_here_ receive the countenance and patronage which it so richly -deserves? Manual labor schools are already in successful operation in -this southern country, and the prosperity that has attended them has -been such as to silence the cavils of opposers, and remove the -apprehensions of the distrustful. With all enlightened and candid -persons there can be but _one mind_ respecting their practicability -and their _peculiar_ importance in this southern region. It is the -very section perhaps, of all others, within the limits of our -republic, that is best adapted to their growth, both on account of -its soil and climate, and in which, from its peculiar situation, -their influence is most imperiously demanded. - -Again, then, I ask, will "the ancient and honorable Dominion" consent -to be outstripped by her neighbors in an enterprise of so much -grandeur and promise? Will parents, instructors, and pupils, repose -in inglorious ease, and cry _a little more sleep, a little more -folding of the hands to sleep_, while others in the race of -competition press forward and bear off the prize? Will the young men -of Hampden Sidney and Union Seminary sit still; or will they "awake, -arise, and put on their strength?" Interests that are dear as honor -and life, are suspended on the _practical_ reply which this inquiry -receives. - -It is stated, as is probable on good authority, that in years that -have gone by, "some of the Virginian philanthropists offered to -educate some of the Indians, and that they received from the shrewd -savages the following reply." (He that hath ears to hear, let him -hear what the _savages_ have said to the _civilized_!) - -"Brothers of the white skin! You must know that all people do not -have the same ideas upon the same subjects; and you must not take it -ill that our manner of thinking in regard to the kind of education -which you offer us does not agree with yours. We have had in this -particular some experience. Several of our young men were some time -since educated at the Northern Colleges, and learned there all the -sciences. But when they returned to us, we found they were spoiled. -They were _miserable runners_. They did not know how to live in the -woods. They could not bear hunger and cold. They could not build a -cabin, nor kill a deer, nor conquer an enemy. They had even forgotten -our language; so that not being able to serve us as warriors, or -hunters, or counsellors, they were absolutely good for nothing." - -The calamities which are here set forth in such graphic terms have by -no means been confined to the fathers and the sons of the forest. The -_white_ young men of Virginia, in great numbers, have since been -educated in like manner "at Northern Colleges," or nearer home: and -when restored to their parents and guardians have been found, for the -most part, like the sons of the _red men_, to be "_absolutely good -for nothing_." They have proved to be "miserable runners." Not one in -twenty of them has risen to eminence in professional life. They could -"bear neither hunger nor cold." They were practically ignorant of -mechanical and agricultural employments, and strongly averse to them; -too high minded and indolent to labor, and too weak and effeminate to -"serve as warriors, and hunters, and counsellors." Will Virginian -parents learn a lesson from their own past experience and that of -their savage predecessors? The corrective which we propose for the -evil complained of, (and it is too serious for merriment,) is the -immediate introduction of the manual labor system into all our -institutions of learning. If this feature is introduced and kept up -in them, with a prominence proportioned to its importance, our youth, -who are educated in them, if not fitted for usefulness and -distinction in the departments of law, medicine and theology, will -not be utterly "spoiled" as the sons of the _red men_ were; but will -be good "runners," useful and respectable laborers, mechanics, -planters, and farmers. This, after all, is the population, of which, -more than any other, Virginia needs an increase. The low state of -mechanic arts and of agriculture among us, or rather the prevailing -vice of _indolence_, is the true source of the present disasters -which are so often made the theme of popular declamation by stump -orators and upstart politicians. It is _indolence_, more than any or -every thing else, that checks the spirit of enterprise; that covers -this fairest portion of our continent with _sackcloth_, and spreads -over it the sable shroud of desolation. Let then a revolution be -effected in our system of education. Let our youth be trained for the -duties of practical life. Let them be instructed in what is useful, -as well as ornamental; and let them bring minds stored with the -riches of learning and science, to bear and act on _the subject of -most absorbing temporal interest to the American people_, I mean the -neglected subject of _agriculture_, and all will yet be well. The -citizens of the South will then be independent indeed, and not in -boast. Labor, like "marriage," will be "honorable in all." The work -which misguided abolitionists are laboring, with a zeal that would be -becoming in a better cause, to perform {252} by a meddlesome and -violent interference, will be effected by the gradual and voluntary -agency of her own inhabitants. Her population will multiply. Commerce -will thrive. Barren fields will be clothed with verdure. The -productions of the earth will be increased. Crowded cities and -smiling villages will spring up. The halls of legislation will be -occupied by the hardy and virtuous cultivators of the soil, the men -of all others the most safe to be entrusted with the enactment and -administration of laws. Colleges, academies, and schools, will prove -the nurseries of enlightened, healthful, industrious, and happy -freemen; and Christianity, untrammelled by the obstacles that now so -powerfully impede its progress, with a field wide and waving with a -luxuriant harvest open and inviting before her, will send abroad her -genial and regenerating influences, and render this the Paradise of -lands. - -We will conclude this, perhaps too protracted performance, in the -language of an Indian Cazique. - -"Would you know," he asked, "how I would have my children instructed -in the ways of men? Look at this handful of dust gathered from the -golden bed of the silver-flowing Aracara. What an infinite number of -particles--yet how few the grains of ore which we prize; how great -the toil which is necessary to sift out and separate them from the -worthless heap in which they are concealed; even so it is with the -history of the generations of men, from the creation downwards. -Events have passed which no tongue can number; but the events which -mark the character of human nature, and which are worthy of being -treasured up in our memories, are but few, and only by the eye of -wisdom to be distinguished. - -"Let my children then be taught what these few events are; let them -be spared the life's labor of turning over the mountain of dross -which time has heaped up, in search of the scattered gems which are -to lighten their path through the world; conduct them at once into -the only treasury of true knowledge--that treasury which Philosophy -has gleaned from the experience of thousands of generations." - - - - -SONG OF LEE'S LEGION. - - - Our chargers are plunging and pawing the ground, - And champing and tossing the white foam around-- - So fleet to pursue, and so mighty to crush, - No foe will remain in the path where they rush. - Away, then, my heroes--away, then, away! - Let "Freedom or Death!" be the watchword to-day. - - Remember the burnings we witnessed last night; - The fair and the feeble we passed in their flight; - The wail of the wounded, the red blood that flowed, - Still warm in the path, where by moonlight we rode. - Away, then, &c. - - The marauder is nigh--he is hurrying back; - The sand, as we gallop, still falls in his track. - On! on! then, our swords for the battle are rife, - And soon they shall drink at the fountain of life. - Away, then, &c. - -_Prince Edward_. - - - - -NATURAL BRIDGE OF PANDI, IN COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA. - - -The Bridge of Pandi is distant two days journey from Bogotá. We made -it less toilsome by remaining several days at Fusugazugá--an -intermediate village, which possesses the advantage of a fine climate -and refreshing verdure, unknown to the plain upon which this city -stands. The bridge is situated considerably lower--almost in the -_tierra caliente_ hot country--where the thermometer rose to 86°, but -still the heat was not very oppressive. - -Our first view of the bridge was just at the moment when such a scene -is most impressive. The sun had sunk behind the mountains. We were -without a guide, nor did we need one. We had merely to follow the -high road--a mule path--down into a deep ravine, near the bottom of -which we heard the sound of rushing waters. On reaching the bridge, -this sound and the dismal shrieks of numerous birds of night--the -sole occupants of this gloomy region--called our attention to the -scene below us. We then first knew we were upon the bridge of Pandi. -Three hundred and fifty-eight feet beneath, rushes a stream, called -Suma Paz, which fills the entire chasm--being, if we can trust our -sight under circumstances so deceptive, about thirty or forty feet -wide. We could see the deep chasm and the dark waters of the -stream--but where was the bridge which Nature built? We were standing -upon a rude structure of logs with railings so frail as almost to -dismay the most daring; but upon closer examination we discovered -that it rested upon several huge fragments which had fallen and -lodged so as to form the bridge for which we were searching. The -edges of the largest rock rest upon other rocks on one side, and on -the other upon the sloping face of the severed mountain. Upon this we -descended, and enjoyed a better view of what the imagination is so -readily inclined to paint as infernal regions. The cries of the birds -echo from the depths below, like the shrieks of troubled souls -destined to the sad fate of never leaving the abodes to which their -sins had driven them. Night was rapidly approaching; and with the -feelings which the scene had inspired, we retraced our steps to the -little village of Pandi or _El Mercadillo_, to which we had to -clamber nearly half a league. Our hamacs welcomed us to rest, and -after the fatigues of the day, sleep soon robbed us of our wandering -thoughts. - -On the following morning, we repeated our visit to the bridge, and -reviewed the whole more leisurely. Although the awe of the preceding -evening had subsided, our admiration was undiminished. The same Great -Being which had ruptured the mountain asunder and opened a fearful -fissure, had thrown down the loose fragments, and so lodged them as -to contribute to the convenience as well as to arouse the -astonishment and wonder of all who crossed. The natives of the -country have destroyed much of the effect by the rude logs which they -have laid upon the rocks across the chasm. It is also remarkable, -that this fissure could not be passed elsewhere for many leagues in -either direction. - -How will the Natural Bridge of Pandi compare with that of Rockbridge -County in Virginia? The beauty of this must sink before the awful and -grand sublimity of the other. In that you would look in vain for the -{253} well turned arch of this, while the latter is deficient in the -almost unfathomable abyss and in the surrounding scenery and in the -roaring waters of that of Pandi. I should have observed, that no -means exist of reaching the bottom--nor is it desirable, as the -bridge in itself, seen from below, cannot be imposing. - -The birds which occupy the ledges and caverns formed by the ruptured -rock, are called "_Pajaros del Puente_"--Birds of the Bridge--and are -not known elsewhere. They are birds of night, and sally out only -after it is dark into the neighboring dense forests, in search of the -fruit with which they maintain themselves. If perchance the light of -day overtake them before they regain their dark abodes, it is so -noxious to them that they cannot survive it. Thus say the -natives--and that this is shown by their being many times found dead -in the paths of the mountains. They are equal in size to a -pheasant--their color is a reddish brown, and their beaks square and -very hard. - - - - -LINES - -On the Statue of Washington in the Capitol. - - - It is our WASHINGTON that you behold, - Whom Nature fashioned in her grandest mould, - To be the leader of a noble band, - The friends of freedom, and their native land: - A perfect hero, free from all excess; - Above Napoleon, though he dazzled less: - Not quite so great for what he did, 'tis true, - But greater far for what he did not do: - And, nought he ought not, all he ought, to be, - He made his country, and he left her, free. - - - - -EPIGRAM. - - - "A party, you tell me," says Dick, not invited, - But who would not believe such a beau could be slighted; - "A party at Modeley's?--can't possibly be; - For how could he have such a thing _without me_?" - - - - -FALL OF TEQUENDÁMA, IN COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA. - - -The _Salto de Tequendama_, a remarkable cascade, of which we had -heard much, and which has been described in most glowing language, is -distant to the southwest of Bogotá about fifteen miles. We had made -arrangements to visit it a fortnight ago, but the illness of one of -our party caused us to defer it. We now determined to see the fall, -and return to the city on the same day. To accomplish our design, we -set out before day (about 5 o'clock) this morning. A rapid ride of an -hour and a half brought us to the small village of Suácha, situated -upon the plain of Bogotá, near its southern border. The last -earthquake, from which Bogotá suffered so severely, was felt with the -utmost violence at Suácha, and prostrated entirely the church, which -is again rising from its ruins. Our route continued a league further -over the plain, and we crossed the river Funza, whose course has been -very circuitous through the plain, but is particularly devious where -we passed over it, upon an uncouth and not very safe bridge, to the -Hacienda de Canoas. The river winds sluggishly to our left towards -the fall. Our path led over the high hills which appear to have been -once the banks of the great lake which must have covered the plain -which the view from these heights embraces. To eminences which are -wholly devoid of trees succeed others which are well wooded, where we -enter a more picturesque region, worthy of the fine scene which we -were now eager to witness. We were convinced that we were near it, -and listened for the deafening roar which we expected would betray -the rush of the waters into the tremendous gulf that receives them. -The path was steep, and shortly before we arrived at the spot where -it was necessary to alight from our horses, the sounds of the fall -reached us; but we were distant from it a few hundred yards only. My -first sensation was disappointment, when I stood upon the brink of -the chasm into which a stream whose greatest width is estimated at -forty feet, is precipitated to a depth which did not seem to exceed -three hundred feet, but which is estimated to be more than six -hundred. The river being now uncommonly low, a sheet of water about -fourteen or fifteen feet in width, is tossed about thirty feet upon a -ledge of rocks, from which it dashes in foam to the bottom of the -deep abyss, a large proportion of it dissipating in spray. The foot -of man has never trodden the bottom of this chasm. Its sides are -perpendicular to a considerable distance below, and the strata of -rock are exactly horizontal, so that no means of descending have yet -been discovered within the curvilinear aperture, where the mountain -seems to have parted and given passage to the Funza. - -Attempts have been made repeatedly to reach the foot of the cataract -by ascending the bed of the river, into which it is easy to enter at -some distance below. A fall of about twenty feet had resisted -heretofore the efforts of every adventurer. A party of Americans -preceded us to-day, provided with ladders and ropes, with a -determination to surmount this obstacle. In this they succeeded, but -another yet more difficult presented itself--this they also -surmounted with the strengthened hope of having then overcome every -obstruction which resisted the accomplishment of their wishes. They -were too sanguine. On ascending further, a fall of about forty feet -now stared them in the face, and resisted all their efforts. -Perpendicular rocks enclosed the narrow chasm. The only possible -ascent was through the dashing torrent--with this they struggled -nobly, but they had not the means of resisting it. The abode of -innumerable parrots, whose screams, heard faintly at the height on -which we stood, warned us of the exertions made to encroach upon -their domain, that continues unmolested and untrodden by man. We -spent more than two hours at the fall, hoping to witness the success -of the enterprising adventurers. Although disappointed in this -respect, we were amply compensated by the increased admiration with -which we viewed this beautiful fall, notwithstanding it is seen so -imperfectly. There are two spots from which good views may be -obtained. We must leave to the fancy to imagine the grand effect of a -sight from beneath it. It is to be hoped that ladders will be placed -or that some means will be discovered to gratify the ardent desire -one naturally feels of seeing to the best advantage this admirable -work of nature. - -{254} The Fall of Tequendáma has been compared with the cataract of -Niagara. Such a comparison cannot be instituted fairly. In the one, -nature has been most lavish with her grandeur and sublimity: the -other she has endowed liberally with the beautiful and the -picturesque. The height of Tequendáma may be four times greater than -that of Niagara; its width not the thirtieth part: and to judge the -comparative volume of the waters of both, it suffices to reflect, -that Tequendáma drains the river Funza; Niagara the waters of four -inland seas, which united, are not exceeded in size by the Gulf of -Mexico. - - - - -LIONEL GRANBY. - -CHAP. IX. - - The proudest land of all, - That circling seas admire-- - The Land where Power delights to dwell, - And War his mightiest feats can tell, - And Poesy to sweetest swell, - Attunes her voice and lyre. - _Aristophanes_. - - -The ship in which I had embarked soon fell down the river, and, aided -by a favorable breeze, we quickly shot by the massy and motionless -scenery of the majestic Rappahannock. Changing our course we entered -one of the beautiful and tributary waters of the Chesapeake, and -dropped anchor directly in front of an antique mansion, the stately -residence of a proud and well known name. An extensive garden, which -declared the taste and pedantry of its owner, for its chaste and -beautiful model was drawn from the pages of the Odyssey, stretched -its broad walks to the margin of the river. A throng of merry girls -and romping boys poured down from the porch of the house, welcoming -with glad voices that, happiest of all Virginian visiters, an -importing ship. Disguising myself I leaped into the boat which left -the vessel, and ere its keel had grated on the sand, many negroes had -rushed into the water, and were dragging it to the shore with songs -of triumph and congratulation. An elderly gentleman, grave, dignified -and thoughtful--peace to his fair-top boots and glittering -buckles!--now appeared and commenced the usual ledger conversation -with Captain Z. about the quality and price of his tobacco, and in a -whisper he told him on no account to sacrifice his "new ground sweet -scented." Holding a paper in his hand he called aloud to his family -to enter their wishes on that magic tablet, which he was about to -send _home_. No commercial newspaper ever declared a more incongruous -catalogue of the comforts of life and the luxuries of opulence: lace -and iron, silk and spades, wine and jesuit's bark, all figured in the -same column; and when the negroes were called on to declare what they -wanted, they filled the mystic page with calico, fiddle strings and -bottles. Many a bronzed and ebon colored child was led up to old -massa by its mother, and each lisping petition for a hat or a fishing -hook, was sacredly entered on the list. - -I returned to the ship, and dropping a hasty line to my uncle, -informing him of the reasons which compelled me to leave Virginia, -despatched it by the last canoe which quitted our side, and retiring -to sleep I did not awake until the ship was dancing gaily over the -broad waters of the Atlantic. I looked on the furrowed track behind -me--and, far in the amber west, the lessening glory of the Virginian -coast was sinking in the wilderness of waters. With a fixed and -quenchless eye I watched its expiring outline, and when it had sunk -down into a wavy and shadowy mist, I felt as the exile whose -pulseless heart has heard the requiem of hope and the knell of love. -Young, inexperienced, and ignorant of the world, I was launched like -a rotten barque in the tempestuous ocean of man, while home, love, -hope and all the primal sympathies of the human heart, were to me, -sealed, buried, and forever annihilated. I had fled!--leaving a name -associated with the scorn of honor and the vengeance of society. Who -that heard of me would believe me innocent in the duel with Ludwell, -or who would believe that self-defence prompted my attack on the life -of Pilton? God in his goodness gave us tears! I had them not, and -from a tearless eye I became sullen and satisfied, with no human -passion but an increased affection for Ellen Pilton, which streamed -through my heart like phosphoric words on the dark walls of a cavern. -I was proud to be the victim of wayward and adverse circumstances, -and yielding to their mystic control, I found that destiny weaves an -argument which philosophy cannot unravel. - -On the second day of our voyage, Scipio presented himself, telling me -that he was sent from Chalgrave with letters for the ship, that he -had discovered me through my disguise, that he had secreted himself -on board of the vessel, and that he was determined to follow me to -the end of the world. I soon settled the manner and purpose of his -appearance with the captain, and found in the priceless fidelity of -my servant, a green spot on which my heart might rest from its storm -of revenge and misanthropy. - -Cheered by the balmy spirit of the western gale our gallant ship sped -her onward course, and the glad cry of land which echoed through the -vessel as we approached the beetling coast of England fell on my ear -like words of mercy to the prisoned captive. Standing on the quarter -deck, I saw before me the bustle, hurry and turmoil of commerce. The -surface of the water was chequered with a dense throng of vessels, -while, broadly floating in the breeze, appeared that proud flag on -whose glory the sun rises, and over whose empire he sets. As a -Virginian! as one whom early education and childish associations had -inspired, I gazed with a hallowed enthusiasm on that rugged land, -which looked down from its iron-bound eyre, the eagle of the -deep--that land which my boyish feelings had made the seat of -intellect and the dwelling place of genius. The early colonists had -called it by the tender name of Home; and the mellow tales of its -glory, which had been poured into my infant ear, were now started -into life and freshness. It was the land of Sir Philip Sydney, -Hampden and Pope, and on each spot of its classic earth Poetry had -raised her hallowed memorials, and Patriotism its stirring examples. -From the frozen sea to the burning tropics her name is respected, her -influence felt, her example imitated, her kindness cherished, her -resentment dreaded, while a radiant wake of glory streams behind the -path of her march. Far in the forests of the western world, the names -of her gifted sons who have asserted the triumphs of virtue or the -dignity of man, are heard, and are re-echoed back from the Thames to -the Ganges, and from the Volga to the Mississippi. In the solitude of -power she stands alone, {255} a massy trunk, resisting anarchy and -bending to every storm of revolution, yet rising from each assault in -more verdant and luxuriant foliage. Philosophy may claim the gigantic -birth of Printing--Religion the Reformation, and Science the -discovery of Gunpowder, as the great engines which opened the path of -civilization. The mind of England seized these mighty levers, her -hand perfected them, and achieved for herself that towering fame -which pours its lustre from the table-land of the world. This picture -was the dream of ignorance. Alas! how soon was its frost-work melted -before the light of truth! Unconscious of the hideous vice which -lurked beneath the gorgeous fabric, I saw only its glowing outline--I -was ignorant of its rapine, fraud and avarice--its selfishness of -motive and act--its singleness of empire and power, and of that -universal corruption which yields power to wealth, and honors to -knavery. The demon of gain is abroad throughout England--a pestilence -which walketh in the darkness of the human heart, expanding its -ravenous arms in her cities, or secretly hugging its penny in her -lowliest cottages. Her metropolis is the shamble of the universe--a -capacious reservoir, where vice elbows virtue, and where selfishness -festers itself into the loathsome obesity of the toad. Every thing is -on sale, and in the "mixed assortment" of her merchandise, even -learning, genius and wit, succumb to the secret spirit of her ledger. - - "E'en the learned pate - Ducks to the golden fool." - -Without her Christianity, which often blooms in guileless and -untainted simplicity, her blood-stained empire would tumble to the -earth. It is the influence of this holy faith which neutralizes the -excess of profligacy, and stimulates her expanded philanthropy. -Excited by its spirit, benevolence becomes religion, patriotism -springs into virtue, and in the remotest corners of the earth we see -the charity of the Christian opening the purse and heart of the -Englishman. - -I leave the narrative of sights and curiosities to the guide book. -Born in the wilderness, my mind was as rugged as the grandeur of the -forest, and like the native Indian I had naught to admire but the -still and noiseless majesty of my own beautiful land. The stately -palaces--the lofty towers and all the fantastic pageantry which -opulence engenders, were but the moral to the fine sarcasm which -antiquity has fabled in the bridge of Salmoneus. Man's "brief -authority" decorates folly with a pyramid or a cathedral, and -succeeding ages call it glory. What son of Virginia would barter her -broad rivers--her sunny sky--her fertile plains, and her snow-capped -mountains, for the crumbling monuments of tyranny and superstition, -or the fœtid marts of gain? Who would exchange the infant purity of -the western world for the hoary vice and aged rottenness of Europe? -Uncontaminated by the example of England, we have yet seized from her -the sacred flame of freedom--her _habeas corpus_ without the act of -impressment--her _bill of rights_ without a borough representation, -and the rose of civil liberty transplanted to the west has bloomed -without a thorn. - -I was soon in London, and received many marks of attention and -kindness from the representatives of an old commercial house, which -for years had sold every hogshead of tobacco from the Granby -plantations. My bills were honored, and at the instance of Scipio I -took a suite of rooms in the most fashionable street of the city. -Without letters of introduction, and too proud to search for my many -noble relatives, (my uncle had drugged me with their amors, duels and -honors!) I succumbed in silence to that cheerless solitude which -flaps its funeral wing around the indurated selfishness of a crowded -city. At the Virginia Coffee House, I frequently found many of my own -countrymen, who were making the tour of Europe only because their -fathers had done it. An utter contempt of money--a carelessness of -air and manner--a generous and open hearted confidence in every -one--a familiarity with the Doncaster and Epsom turf--an anxious zeal -in attending the courts of Westminster, and the gallery of the House -of Commons, with a thorough knowledge of the literary history of -England, and the places hallowed by Shakspeare and the Spectator, -were their striking and changeless characteristics. - -Shortly after my permanent and fixed residence had been made, I was -lounging, as was my wont, in the crowded walks of the Exchange--the -only idle being in that heated and feverish walk of gain, when a loud -cry broke through the multitude and a horse dashed near me, the foot -of his rider hanging in the stirrup. I instantly sprang forward, -caught the bridle, leaped on his back, and leaning down I rescued the -unfortunate rider from his perilous situation. From this event an -intimacy commenced between Col. R---- and myself. His history was -brief. High birth and fortune smiled on his cradle. Entering into -manhood he had purchased a commission in the army, and had lived out -Swift's spirited description of the man of fashion, "in dancing, -fighting, gaming, making the circle of Italy, riding the great horse -and speaking French." Satiated with the world, he had left it without -being either a churl or a misanthrope. He resided in a costly villa -near London, which his taste had decorated with elegance and -refinement. The massy richness of an aged grove, soothed, without -chilling the fancy, and through its broad vista the glimmering light -lent itself to diversify uniformity without diminishing grandeur. -Consistency towered above vanity, for there were no glades rolled -into gravelled plains, nor trees sheared into fantastic foliage--that -sickly taste which finds honor in the sacrifice of simplicity, and -pride in its outrage on nature. The walls of his house were hung with -rare and deeply mellowed paintings, and his capacious library was -stocked with the heavy tomes of ancient lore. Gone are those good old -books!--their spirit has been turned into a tincture!--their life and -soul have been abridged--the stern Clitus has been disgraced by a -Persian dress--the march of mind cannot brook a folio! The education -of Col. R---- was deeply tainted with the forgotten glory of his -library--a wild flower blooming amid the silence of a neglected ruin. -He had literature without pedantry, learning without arrogance; and -being neither author nor compiler, he yet mingled on equal terms of -compliment and civility with the gifted names of his land. Proud -pre-eminence of genius! respected even in its slumbers. Though its -possessor be unknown to print, though his pen sleep in idleness, like -the prophet, the sacred flame plays around his brow and lightens up -his onward course. - -In his society I drank from a deep stream of {256} intellect pure and -unalloyed happiness--yet dashed into bitterness by the remembrance -that under his protection I had first visited a gaming table--though -he had carried me thither more for the purpose of portraying human -character than of making me either the proselyte or victim of its -insidious vice. - -Come Lionel! said he, gently touching my shoulder, as I was deeply -absorbed in the unhallowed rites of the blind goddess--leave this -dangerous place! Your warm blood and ardent temperament cannot -withstand its harlotry. Crush in its infancy that juggling fiend, -which martyrs the pride of mind--the dignities of virtue, the -immunities of education, and the consolations of religion. - -His warning voice fell on a sodden ear. Seated at a long table, in a -magnificent saloon blazing with lights and ornamented with costly -curtains of damask, whose billowy drapery dropped over grotesque and -luxurious furniture, I bowed with prostrate devotion to the idol of -Chance. I was in the temple of suicide--the hell of earth; and -inebriated with its deadly vapor, I saw not the thronging crowd, -whose passion-stricken countenances alternately displayed the rapid -transitions from joy to sadness, from successful cupidity to luckless -despair. I went through the usual vicissitudes of the game. I won. -Success made me bold, failure excited me to more and more dangerous -enterprise. I had drawn on our tobacco merchant until my bills were -protested, nor could I ask from Col. R---- the wages of humanity. I -paid a heavy premium to one of the loungers of the table, to teach me -a system by which I might always win. Duped by its deceitful -sophistry, I risked my all--my watch, breast-pin, and all the jewelry -of my dress were successively staked and lost. My hand was on the -golden locket consecrated as the gift of Isa Gordon. With a painful -struggle I preserved it from the gripe of despair, and quitted the -accursed table a bankrupt and a beggar! - -When I reached my lodgings, Scipio met me with his usual kindness, -which I repelled with a severity and harshness that called a tear to -his eye. Go! cried I, leave me, I am a broken man and a friendless -beggar, I give you your freedom. Go! and for God's sake do not longer -tempt my avarice! An unusual cheerfulness spread itself over his -countenance--the convincing indication of my fallen fortune. The idea -was no sooner conceived, than my despair gave it certainty, and -rising I drove my servant from the room with a blow and a curse. - -I sold all the furniture with which I had supplied my rooms, and -again rushed to the gaming table. The fickle goddess had forever -deserted me, and, lost to all sense of shame, I hung around the -table, a silent spectator of the deep, passionate, and thrilling -drama. - -About a week after Scipio's departure, a gentleman accosted me at the -table, and delivered a letter which he informed me he had brought -from Liverpool. It was written in the sententious style of a -merchant, and enclosed a draft in my favor on an eminent banker for -fifty pounds. - -The writer informed me that Scipio had sold himself for this sum to a -Liverpool trader--that he had requested that the money should be sent -to me, and that on the day after the purchase he had shipped the -servant, with his own free consent, to the West Indies. - -I waited on the banker, received the sacrifice of my slave's -short-lived freedom; and as I looked on the tear-stained money, I -learned from that generous and affectionate fidelity, a lesson which -made me loathe with horror the moral prostitution of the gaming -table. - - - - -THE PATRIARCH'S INHERITANCE. - -The following is an extract from an unfinished MS. and occurs at the -close of an interview between the Almighty and Abraham, in the course -of which is introduced the promise thus stated in Genesis: "And the -Lord said unto Abram, after that Lot was separated from him, Lift up -now thine eyes, and look from the place where thou art, northward, -and southward, and eastward, and westward: For all the land which -thou seest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed forever," &c. - - - ------This pronounced, - The Radiant Form withdraws. And now return - Sunshine and shade, and cool, delicious airs, - Restoring common joys. The saintly chief, - Reviving, stands erect; and still his robes, - With lingering glory, make the moon-beams pale. - Soon all his senses feel the flowing soul, - Quick with new life and thrilling power intense. - His eyes, undazzled, drink the pouring sun, - And sweep entranced the swelling scene below-- - Mountains, and hills, and plains, and lakes, and streams. - - O, blest, enchanting vision! All around, - Enrich'd with purest green, and all remote - Adorn'd with deepest blue; the bending sky - And farthest summits mingling fainter hues, - Walling the world with sapphire. All he sees, - He hails his own; and burns with lordly flame. - His the down-rushing torrents; his the brooks, - Flashing from every vale; and his the lakes, - Wide sparkling bright, as though a shower of gems - On silver falling scattered countless lights. - His too the rolling woods, the laughing meads, - And rocks of waving grapes--his every wind, - Stirring the world with life and breathing far - Fragrance and music--his the silent cloud, - That fleetly glides along the soft mid-air, - Reflecting, moon-like, from its upper plain - Of snowy beauty, every ray from heaven; - And o'er the under landscape leading on - Its shadowy darkness, running up and down - The ever-changing mountains. Who may tell - The many sources of his gushing joy? - Not only Jordan, and its palmy plains; - Lot's Citied Garden; and the orient heights - Of fruitful Gilead, sweeping to the marge - Of Bashan's mellow pastures: not alone - The visual charms delight his ardent soul, - Around, though fair, and fairer still remote; - But wider regions--lost in distant haze, - Or shut from sight by intercepting bounds-- - Fairest of all. Far flies his circling thought - From Edom's southern plains to Hermon's brow, - Frost-wreath'd, and lowlands steep'd in streaming dew; - And on to snow-crown'd Lebanon, with slopes - Of fadeless verdure nursed by living founts, - And glorious cedars swayed by balmy winds, - In whose high boughs the eagle builds her nest, - And on whose roots the fearful lion sleeps; - And thence to Tabor's central cone, and fields {257} - Of Eden, like Esdrelon; and the oaks - Of flowery Carmel, waving o'er the sea; - And Sharon's rosy bloom; and Eshcol's vale, - Purple with vines from Hebron to the coast. - O'er all the range his ravished mind expands, - Warm with high hopes of wondrous days to come. - The promise--like a meteor--how it lights - The gloom of future ages! Lonely there - The childless stranger stands--sublime in faith: - Sure that the ten throned nations reigning round, - In stately power, with pomp of idol shrines, - Shall yield to his descendants; shall behold - His mightier seed--thick as the seashore sands-- - Countless as stars that crowd the clearest sky,-- - Pouring their myriads over hill and dale, - Casting the champion pride of princes down, - Dashing the templed monsters in the dust, - Sounding the trump of triumph through the land, - Thronging the scene with holier, happier homes, - And rearing high, to flame with heavenly fire, - Earth's only altars to the Only God! - -T. H. S. - -_Washington, March 17, 1836_. - - - - -AMERICANISMS. - - -The _Americanisms_ of our language have been a prolific source of -ridicule and reproach for the British critics. When a word in an -American publication has fallen upon the eyes of these literary -lynxes, which they have thought an innovation, they have fiercely -denounced it as Yankee slang--as a proof of our uneducated ignorance; -they have even denied that we understand the English language, or can -speak or write it intelligibly. In most of the cases it turned out -and was demonstrated, that the poor words thus assailed were true and -genuine English, used by their best writers and speakers; found in -their best dictionaries; but unhappily for the poor things, unknown -to these erudite and conceited knights of the pen, either too -careless to turn to their books for information, or having none to -turn to. In a few instances in which we have taken a little license -with the language, we have seen that after overloading us with abuse -for the birth of the child, they have taken it to themselves, and put -it into the service of writers and orators of the highest rank. Such -was the fate of our Americanisms--_to advocate_, _influential_, in -the sense in which we use it, and several others. They found the -brats really not such deformities as they supposed, and were willing -to adopt and use them; but this did not abate their contempt of the -parents. Englishmen residing in England, seem to claim an exclusive -right in the invention of English words. In Bulwer's character of -_Rienzi_, this hero is said to have been _avid_ of personal power. -This is the coinage of the ingenious author; at least I find no -authority for it even in the latest dictionaries, nor in any other -writer of reputation. Now I have no objection to the introduction of -a new word into our language by Mr. Bulwer or any body else, provided -that it be done with due discretion, and subject to some just -regulation and principle. In the first place, it should be necessary, -supplying a want, or at least obviously convenient in the expression -of some idea with more precision than it can be done by any existing -word. In the second place, it should be in full consistence and -harmony with the idiom of the language. Lord Kames, on using a word -of his own making, gives this note. "This word, hitherto not in use, -seems to fulfil all that is required by Demetrius Phalereus in -coining a new word--first, that it be perspicuous; and next, that it -be in the tone of the language." - -I find no fault with Mr. Bulwer for the production of his mint, but I -will not acknowledge that he, or any other English author, has a -better right than an American to take this license. We understand the -language as well as they do; we derive our knowledge from the same -sources, and we shall use the liberty with as much caution, propriety -and discrimination. If this monopolizing, exclusive people, could -have their way, they would not suffer us to spin a pound of cotton, -or hammer out a bar of iron; and now, forsooth, we must not presume -to turn a noun into a verb, or add a monosyllable to the stock of -English words. - -H. - - - - -TO RANDOLPH OF ROANOKE.[1] - -[Footnote 1: Written soon after his death.] - - - Start not, great spirit of the mighty dead! - No sneering cynic comes with fiendish tread, - To mock the laurels of thy honored brow, - And ask,--where lies thy strength or glory now? - - No snarling critic, jackal-like, to brave - The fearful lion, nerveless in his grave, - Whose living look had shrunk his trembling form, - As craven creatures crouch before the storm: - - No saintly, sinning bigot vents his spite - For crimes exposed, or horrors brought to light; - No puppy-patriot, peculator bold, - Would bark at thee, for sneering at his gold: - - No spaniel dog, to gain a master's smile, - Would crunch thy bones, thy hallowed grave defile; - No smiling sycophant, or grovelling hind, - Whose soul succumbs beneath a mastermind: - - No little gatherer of great men's words, - No album-filling fool of flowers and birds, - Or autographic-maniac now weeps - In sickly sympathy, where Randolph sleeps. - - Bereaved Virginia's voice majestic calls - In mournful wailings from her fun'ral halls, - "Whose strength shall terror strike? Whose voice shall charm? - Who wound, or win, the wretch who wills me harm? - - Since thy great soul hath left its feeble frame, - My only pride is thy undying name; - My sun hath set in parting glory bright, - My Randolph's dead, my shores are wrapt in night. - - Oh choose,--great spirit, from my blood alone, - Some worthy one, with genius like thine own; - Lest prophets false, my gallant sons deceive,-- - To him, Elisha-like, thy mantle leave." - -HESPERUS. - - -{258} - - -ADDRESS - -Delivered by the Hon. Henry St. George Tucker, before the Virginia -Historical and Philosophical Society.[1] - -[Footnote 1: The anniversary meeting of this Society was held at the -Capitol in Richmond, on the second of March, in presence of a -numerous auditory of both sexes. There was much disappointment at the -absence of Professor Dew, who was expected to deliver the annual -Address, but whose attendance was prevented by ill health. The Hon. -Henry St. Geo. Tucker was unanimously appointed President in the room -of Chief Justice Marshall, and the address which we now have the -pleasure of publishing was delivered by the new President upon taking -the chair. It was listened to with profound attention and pleasure. -So, also, was a speech to be found on page 260 of Mr. Maxwell on -presenting a resolution commemorative of the services and virtues of -the late Chief Justice. - -During the meeting, Mr. Winder, the Clerk of Northampton, presented a -collection of MSS. found in some of the dark corners of the clerk's -office of that ancient county. These papers, we are informed, are -highly valuable, and shed new and interesting light upon an early -period of Virginia History. They were the papers, it appears, of a -Mr. Godfrey Poole, who early in the eighteenth century, was the clerk -of Northampton court--was also a lawyer of considerable practice, and -for many years clerk of the committee of Propositions and Grievances, -an office, we suppose, of much higher relative grade then than at -present. The MSS. are various in their character--consisting for the -most part, of addresses by the then governors Spotswood and Dugsdale -to the House of Burgesses--answers to those addresses, by the House, -and copies of various acts of Assembly and Reports of Committees, not -found in any printed record extant. There is also an undoubted copy -of the Colonial Charter which received the signet of King Charles, -and was stopped in the Hamper office upon that monarch's receiving -intelligence of Bacon's rebellion. This charter, we believe, is not -to be found in any of the printed collections of State papers or -Historical Records in this country, having eluded the researches of -Mr. Burke, and of the indefatigable Mr. Hening, the compiler of the -Statutes at Large. - -It appears also that Mr. Poole contrived to enliven the barren paths -of Law and Legislation by an occasional intercourse with the Muses. -We find among his papers two Poems--one is brief, of an amatory -character, and addressed to Chloe--that much besonnetted name. The -other, containing about one hundred and ninety lines is thus entitled - - The Expedition oe'r the mountain's: - Being Mr. Blackmore's Latin Poem, entitled, - Expeditio Ultra-Montana: - Rendered into English verse and inscribed - To the Honourable the Governour. (A. O. Spotswood.) - -The "Expedition &c" is remarkable for three things--its antiquity -(Virginian antiquity)--its mediocrity--and for one or two lines in -which (singularly enough) direct reference is made to the discovery -of a gold region in Virginia. The lines run thus-- - - Here taught to dig by his auspicious hand, - They prov'd the growing Pregnance of the land; - For, being search'd, the fertile earth gave signs - That her womb teem'd with gold and silver mines. - This ground, if faithful, may in time outdo - The soils of Mexico, and of fam'd Peru.] - - -_Gentlemen_,--In accepting, with the profoundest sense of my own -unworthiness, the station you have been pleased to confer upon me, my -mind very naturally reverts to the distinguished individual who has -heretofore presided over your deliberations, and has added to the -interest of your proceedings by the lustre of his own reputation, and -the mild dignity of his exalted character. Since the days of General -Washington, no man has lived more beloved and respected, or died more -universally regretted, than the late venerable Chief Justice. -Throughout this widely extended republic, our fellow citizens have -vied in the distinguished honors which have been paid to his memory. -Those honors have not been confined to the state which gave him -birth, to the city in which he dwelt, to the supreme tribunal of his -native state, which owes so much of its former reputation to the -efficient aid he brought to their deliberations in the flower of his -age. They have not been confined to any political party, or denied by -those who have honestly and widely differed from him in their views -of the construction of the great charter of our government. No, -gentlemen, his character and life have been the themes of universal -eulogy. The meditations of the wise have dwelt upon his virtues, and -the lips of the eloquent have poured forth his praises throughout the -Union. It is right that it should be so. As Chief Justice of the -United States, his fame was the common property of that Union, which -he so truly loved, and which he so long and so faithfully has served. -For five and thirty years he presided over the first judicial -tribunal of the United States; a tribunal which he elevated by his -dignity, which he illustrated by his abilities, and instructed by his -wisdom; a tribunal which was not only enlightened by the splendor of -his meridian greatness, but was illumined by the last rays of his -departing genius, and beheld with admiration its broad and spotless -disc as it descended to the horizon. Even the hand of time seems to -have dealt gently with his noble mind; and, like Mansfield and -Pendleton, he too sunk into the grave full indeed of years as well as -honors, but with unfading powers: thus affording another illustrious -instance of the preservation of the undying intellect amid the ruins -of a decaying frame. - - Orbis illabetur ævo, vires hominumque tabescent, - Mens sola cælestis in œvum intacta manebit. - -But, gentlemen, it has been the good fortune of some among us to have -known our venerated countryman, not only in the elevated station to -which his abilities had exalted him, but also in the not less -interesting relations of private life. - - Seen him we have, and in the happier hour, - Of social ease but ill exchanged for power; - -And in that delightful intercourse who has not remarked how -beautifully the amiable urbanity and simplicity of his manners, -commingled with the unpretending dignity which was inseparable from -the elevation of his character and his station? Who has not witnessed -the purity of his feelings, the warmth of his benevolence, and the -fervor of his zeal, in lending the support and countenance of his -great name and influence to every enterprise which was calculated to -promote the public good; to every scheme which promised to assist the -march of intellect; to every association which had for its object the -advancement of his countrymen in wisdom and virtue, and to every plan -which philanthropy could plausibly suggest, for the amelioration of -the condition of the humblest of our species? His heart and his hand -were equally open, and his purse and his services were always freely -commanded where they were called for by any object of public utility -or private beneficence. It is not then surprising, gentlemen, that -such a man should have been found at the head of this Society; that -you should have selected him to grace your laudable enterprise, or -that he should have lent his ready aid to an institution, which, -however humble in its beginnings, gives the promise of important aid -to the {259} knowledge and literature of our country. But it is a -matter of the most painful regret, that the light of his countenance -will shine no more upon us here, and that the influence of his -counsels and the inspiration of his wisdom are withdrawn from us -forever. Those cannot be replaced; and we may say of him as was said -of the great father of his country more than forty years ago, - - Successors we may find, but tell us where, - Of all thy virtues we shall find the heir. - -For myself, gentlemen, I can bring to the discharge of the duties of -this station nothing but the most earnest wishes for the success of -your institution; an institution, whose laudable design is to save -from oblivion whatever is interesting in the natural, civil and -literary history of our country; to rescue from unmerited obscurity -the many interesting papers which may throw light upon our annals; -and to concentrate in its "transactions" the materials now scattered -through the land, which at some future day may assist the researches -of the historian or the speculations of the philosopher. It is -neither my purpose nor my province here to dilate upon the benefits -of such an institution. That duty was performed on a former occasion, -by one who is now no more, with distinguished ability. Yet I trust I -may be excused for a very cursory allusion to this interesting topic. -It is not required to whet your purpose or to stimulate your -exertions. But it is not amiss that we should occasionally advert to -the powerful motives which impel us to sustain this infant -institution. Do we look to the reputation of our ancient and beloved -commonwealth; to her progress in the arts and in the cultivation of -that literature which softens the manners and gives its finest polish -to society? How then can we hear unmoved the taunts of others at her -supineness? How can we listen without an ingenuous blush, to the -reproaches of those who are ever ready to cast into our teeth our -inglorious neglect of the noble cause of literature? Throughout the -civilized world, the lovers of learning and of science are on the -alert. Academies and societies for their promotion are no longer -confined to Europe. They have long since found their way across the -Atlantic, and have been growing and extending in our sister states -for half a century. Some of them have grown to maturity and no longer -totter in a state of infantile weakness. Those of Pennsylvania and -Massachusetts particularly rest upon a basis stable and enduring, and -have attained a noble elevation that does honor to their founders. -And what has Virginia done? Absolutely nothing, until the spirited -efforts of a few individuals first gave existence to this -institution. She has aroused indeed from her slumbers at the voice of -internal improvements, and has caught the enthusiasm with which they -seem to have inspired the world. Her canals and her rail roads are -sustained with all the zeal of patriotic feeling, backed by the less -meritorious, but more steady influences of pecuniary profit. In every -direction those arts and enterprises which promise to pour their -rapid returns of wealth into the lap of the adventurer, are pursued -with an eye that never winks, and a step that never tires. _Their_ -progress is as rapid as the speed of a locomotive. But -literature--neglected literature, still lags at a sightless distance -behind. While companies spring up in a day for the excavation of a -canal or the construction of a rail road, for the working of a coal -mine or the search after gold. Behold what a little band has -associated here, to redeem our state from the disgrace of a Bœotian -neglect of literature--and to pluck up drowning honor by the locks, -without other reward than the participation with our great corrivals -in all the dignities of science. But let us not despair because we -are but a handful. Our little society is but the germ of better -things. This little seedling will, if properly nourished, become like -a spreading and majestic oak. Then indeed, will it be an enduring -monument to your memory, and posterity will look upon the noble -object which has been planted by your hands and watered by your care, -with respect and veneration for the authors of so great a -benefaction. But remember it will wither when so young, unless -sedulously fostered. An annual meeting at the seat of government and -a discourse from a learned academician once a year, however -interesting, will effect but little without the zealous and personal -co-operation of us all. Wherever we go, we may be of use to the -institution. The sagacious and observing will every where meet with -interesting matter to be communicated and collected into this common -reservoir. In the library of almost every man of ordinary diligence -in the collection of what is curious and interesting, there are -materials which by themselves are of little worth, but united with -others here would become valuable and important--like the jewel, -which shows to little advantage until it is surrounded by other -brilliants, and is set by the hands of a master workman. So too, in -our intercourse with society, we daily meet with the men of other -days--those living depositaries of the transactions of early times; -of transactions which live only in tradition and must be buried in -the grave with the venerable patriarch or interesting matron, unless -rescued from oblivion by the present generation. These evanescing -fragments of our history should be gathered together with the most -diligent care, like the flowers of an herbarium or the minerals of a -geologist, and prepared for the historical department in this cabinet -of literature. In short, gentlemen, go where we will, the most humble -among us may still advance the great cause in which we are engaged. -And while the learning and ability of some may contribute the rich -treasures of their own minds, and the valuable results of their own -profound lucubrations, there is not one among us who cannot in some -way or other add his mite to the general stock. This is indeed no -small consolation to myself; for I would not be a drone in such a -hive; and yet my professional pursuits have been too exclusive to -permit me to hope that I can ever be of other service than as an -humble gleaner in the great field which lies before us. - -It now only remains for me, gentlemen, to offer my most respectful -acknowledgments for the honor you have conferred upon me, accompanied -by the assurance that I shall discharge the duties assigned me with -alacrity, and contribute to the success of your laudable views, as -far as my humble abilities and my very limited acquirements in these -walks of literature will permit. - - - - -AUTHORS. - - -Adam Smith has decided that authors are "manufacturers of certain -wares for a very paltry recompense." - - -{260} - - -MR. MAXWELL'S SPEECH, - -Before the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society, at its late -annual meeting, held in the Hall of the House of Delegates, on the -evening of the 2d March, on moving the following resolution: - -_Resolved_, That the Society most truly laments the loss which it has -sustained in the common calamity, the death of its illustrious -President, the late John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United -States, whose name, associated with our Institution in its origin, -will grace its annals, while his life and character shall adorn the -history of our State and country to the end of time. - - -Mr. President,--In the report of the Executive Committee, which has -just been read, we are officially informed of what we knew but too -well before, the loss which our Society has sustained in the death of -our late venerable and illustrious President. Yes, Sir, the man whom -Virginia--whom his country--whom all his fellows-citizens in all -parts of the United States, admired, and loved, and delighted to -honor--the man whom we, Sir, who knew him, fondly and affectionately -called "THE CHIEF," (as he was indeed in almost every sense of the -word,) our MARSHALL is no more. We shall see him no more in the midst -of us--we shall see him no more in this very Hall, where his wisdom -and eloquence have so often enlightened and convinced the listening -assemblies of the State--we shall see his face, we shall hear his -voice no more, forever. But we do not, we cannot forget him; but the -remembrance of his transcendant abilities, his spotless integrity, -his pure patriotism, his eminent public services, and his most -amiable private virtues, is embalmed in all our hearts. - -With these sentiments, Sir, which I am persuaded are the sentiments -of all our members, I have felt it to be a duty which I owe not only -to the memory of the deceased, but to the honor of our Society, to -offer the resolution which the announcement suggests. In doing so, -however, I shall not deem it either necessary or proper to detain you -with many words, when I feel, most unaffectedly, that any which I -could use would be entirely inadequate, and almost injurious, to the -fame of such a man. I will not, therefore, Sir, enlarge upon the -particulars of his life, which are already familiar to you. I will -not tell you of the brilliancy of his first entrance upon the stage -of action, when the voice of our Commonwealth, rising in arms to -defend her constitutional rights against the tyranny of Britain, -called him from his native forest, and from the studies in which he -had just engaged, to join her army hurrying to the rescue of my own -native town from the grasp of her insolent invader: nor of his -following campaigns under Washington himself, and his gallant bearing -on the memorable plains of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth: nor -of his subsequent stand at the bar of this city, (then, as it is now, -one of the most distinguished in the country,) where he was _primus -inter pares_, the first amongst his fellows--the brightest star in -the constellation which shed its radiance over our state: nor of his -appearances in the House of Delegates, and in the Convention for the -ratification of the constitution: nor of his conduct at the court of -revolutionary France, where (with his worthy associates) he baffled -all the arts and stratagems of the wily Proteus of Politics himself, -and maintained the honor of his country to the admiration of all her -citizens: nor of his reappearance in this place: nor of his -translation to the floor of the House of Representatives, where he -stood, spoke, and conquered: nor of his short but substantial service -as Secretary of State: nor, above all, of his crowning elevation to -that chair of judicial supremacy for which he seemed to have been -made; and where he sat for so many years, like incarnate Justice--not -blind, indeed, like that fabled divinity, but seeing all things with -that quick, clear, and penetrating eye, which pierced at once through -all the intricacies and involutions of law and fact, to discover the -latent truth, or detect the lurking fallacy, as by the glance of -intuition. No wonder, Sir, that with such admirable faculties, -combined with such perfect pureness of purpose, such entire -singleness and simplicity of heart, he shed a lustre around that seat -which it never had before, and which I greatly fear it will never -have again. No wonder, Sir, that he appeared to the eyes of many in -all parts of our land, and even of some who could not exactly agree -with him in all his views of our federal compact, as the very Atlas -of the Constitution, supporting the starry firmament of our Union -upon his single shoulder, which bowed not, bent not beneath its -weight; and that when he died, there was something like a feeling of -apprehension (for an instant at least) as if the fabric which he had -so long sustained must fall along with him to the dust, and become -the fit monument of the man. - -But I will not dwell, nor even touch any longer, Sir, on these -things, which indeed hardly belong to us, or belong to us only in -common with all our fellow-citizens. _Vix ea nostra voco._ I can -hardly call them our own. But I must just glance for a single moment, -Sir, at the connection of the illustrious deceased with our Society. -Sir, when we were about to form our institution, conscious as we were -of the mortifying fact, that from the unfortunate passion of our -people for politics, so called, (mere party politics) the more calm -and rational pursuits of science and letters to which we were about -to invite their attention, could hardly hope to find favor in their -eyes, we were naturally desirous to call some person to that chair -whose character, whose very name, might give the public an assurance -of the utility of our labors; and we turned instinctively to _him_. -We saw him, Sir, with all the honors of a long, laborious, and useful -life clustered upon him; enjoying the respect and confidence of -honorable men of all parties alike; maintaining his official -neutrality with a meek and modest dignity that nothing could disturb, -or ruffle for a moment; and soothing his old age with Christian -philosophy, and polite letters, and the "sweetly-uttered wisdom" of -poesy, which he had always loved from his youth--and we tendered him -the office. He accepted it, Sir, at once, with that gracious -condescension which belonged to him--expressed his cordial -concurrence in our views--presented us with his own immortal work, -the Life of the Father of his Country--and stamped our enterprise -with the seal of his decisive approbation. - -After this, Sir, we naturally felt a new interest in him; and you -remember Sir, I dare say, how our hearts flowed out to him with a -sort of filial reverence and affection, as he came about amongst us, -like a father amongst his children, like a patriarch amongst his -people--like that patriarch whom the sacred Scriptures have canonized -for our admiration--"when the eye saw him, it blessed him: when the -ear heard him, it gave witness to him; {261} _and after his words men -spake not again_." For his words, indeed, even in his most familiar -conversation, fell upon us with a sort of judicial weight; and from -his private opinions, as from his public decisions, there was no -appeal. Happy, thrice happy old man! How we wished and prayed for the -continuance of his days, and of all the happiness and honor which he -had so fairly won, and which he seemed to enjoy still more for our -sakes than for his own! We gazed upon him indeed, Sir, as upon the -setting sun, whilst, his long circuit of glory almost finished, he -sank slowly to his rest; admiring the increased grandeur of his orb, -and the graciousness with which he suffered us to view the softened -splendors of his face; but with a mournful interest, too, which -sprang from the reflection that we should soon lose his light. And we -have lost it indeed. He has left us now--and we mourn for his -departure. But we are consoled, Sir, by the transporting assurance -which we feel, that the splendid luminary which the benificent -Creator had kindled up for the blessing and ornament of our native -land, and of the world, is not gone out in darkness, but shines still -with inextinguishable lustre in the firmament of Heaven. - - - - -AN ADDRESS, - -ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE FEDERATIVE REPUBLICAN SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT -UPON LITERATURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER. - -Prepared to be delivered before the Historical and Philosophical -Society of Virginia, at their annual meeting in 1836, by THOMAS R. -DEW, Professor of History, Metaphysics and Political Law, in the -College of William and Mary. Published by request of the Society,[1] -March 20, 1836. - -[Footnote 1: "It being understood that Professor Dew has been -prevented by delicate health and the inclemency of the season, from -attending the present meeting-- - -"_Resolved_, That he be requested to furnish the Recording Secretary -of this Society with a copy of his intended address, for insertion in -the Southern Literary Messenger." - - Extract from the minutes. - - G. A. MYERS, _Recording Secretary - Of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society_.] - - -Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Society, - -I have consented to appear before you this evening with feelings of -the deepest solicitude--a solicitude which has been increased by my -knowledge of the ability and eloquence of the gentleman who was first -chosen by you to perform this task, and by the fact that this is the -first time that circumstances have permitted my attendance on your -sessions, though early admitted by the kindness of your body to the -honor of membership. - -The subject upon which I propose to address you is one which I hope -will not be considered as inappropriate to the occasion. I shall -endeavor to present to your view some of the most important effects -which the Federative Republican System of government is calculated to -produce on the progress of literature and on the development of -individual and national character. - -When we cast a glance at the nations of the earth and contemplate -their character, and that of the individuals who compose them, we are -amazed at the almost endless variety which such a prospect presents -to our view. We perceive the most marked differences, not only -between the savage and civilized nations, but between the civilized -themselves--not only between different races of different physical -organization, but between the same races--not only between nations -situated at immense distances from each other, but among those -enjoying the same climate, and inhabiting the same region. How marked -the difference, for example, between the nations of India and those -of Europe--how different the citizen who merely vegetates under the -still silent crushing despotisms of the East, from that restless, -bustling, energetic being who lives under the limited monarchies and -republics of the West! And again, what great differences do we find -among the latter themselves! What differences do we observe between -the French and the English, the Germans and the Spaniards, the Swiss -and the Italians! How often does the whole moral nature of man seem -to change, by crossing a range of mountains, passing a frontier -stream, or even an imaginary line! "The Languedocians and Gascons," -says Hume, "are the gayest people in France; but whenever you pass -the Pyrenees you are among Spaniards." "Athens and Thebes were but a -short day's journey from each other; though the Athenians were as -remarkable for ingenuity, politeness and gaiety, as the Thebans for -dulness, rusticity, and a phlegmatic temper." - -There is no subject more worthy the attention of the philosopher and -the historian, than a consideration of the causes which thus -influence the moral destiny, and determine the character of nations -and individuals. Among the generating causes of national differences, -none exert so powerful, so irresistible an influence as Religion and -Government; and of these two potent engines in the formation of -character, it may be affirmed, that if the former be sometimes, under -the operation of peculiar circumstances, more powerful and -overwhelming, directing for a season the spirit of the age and -overcoming every resistance to its progress, the latter is much more -constant and universal in its action, and mainly contributes to the -formation of that permanent national character which lasts through -ages. - -Of all the governments which have ever been established, it may -perhaps be affirmed, that ours, if the most complicate in structure, -is certainly the most beautiful in theory, correcting by the -principle of representation, and a proper system of responsibility, -the wild extravagances and the capricious levities of the unbalanced -democracies of antiquity. Ours is surely the system, which, if -administered in the pure spirit of that patriotism and freedom which -erected it, holds out to the philanthropists and the friends of -liberty throughout the world, the fairest promise of a successful -solution of the great problem of free government. Ours is indeed the -great experiment of the eighteenth century--to it the eyes of all, -friends and foes, are now directed, and upon its result depends -perhaps the cause of liberty throughout the civilized world. In the -meantime it well behooves us all to hope for the best, and never to -despair of the republic. Let me then proceed to inquire into some of -the most marked effects which our peculiar system of government is -likely to produce, in the progress of time, upon literature and the -development of character. - -Some have maintained the opinion that the {262} monarchical form of -government is better calculated to foster and encourage every species -of literature than the republican, and consequently that the -institutions of the United States would prove unfavorable to the -growth and progress of literature. This opinion seems to be based -upon the supposition that a king and aristocracy are necessary for -the support and patronage of a literary class. I will briefly explain -my views on this point, and then proceed to the consideration of that -peculiar influence which our state or federative system of government -will, in all probability, exert over the character and literature of -our inhabitants. It is this latter view which I wish mainly to -present this evening--it is this view which has been neglected or -misunderstood in almost all the speculations which I have seen upon -the character and influence of our institutions. - -In the first place, it has been affirmed that republics are too -economical--too niggardly in their expenditures, to afford that -salutary and efficient patronage necessary to the growth of -literature. To this I would answer, first, that this argument takes -for granted that the literature of a nation advances or recedes in -proportion to the pecuniary wages which it earns. Now, although I do -not say with Dr. Goldsmith, that the man who draws his pen to take a -purse, no more deserves to have it, than the man who draws his pistol -for the same purpose, yet I may safely assert, that of the motives -which operate on the literary man--the love of fame, the desire to be -useful, and the love of money--the former, in the great majority of -cases, exerts an infinitely more powerful influence than the latter. -And if I shall be able to show, as I hope to do in the sequel, that -the republican form of government is the one which is best calculated -to stimulate these great passions of our nature and throw into action -all the energies of man, then must we acknowledge its superiority, -even in a literary point of view. - -But even supposing that the progress of literature depends directly -upon the amount of pecuniary patronage which it can command, it by no -means follows that it will flourish most under a monarchical -government. For granting that this kind of government may have the -ability to patronise, it is by no means certain that it will always -possess the will to do so. Augustus and his Mecænas may lavish to day -the imperial treasures upon literature, but Tiberius and Sejanus may -starve and proscribe it to-morrow. That which depends upon the will -of one man must ever be unsteady and uncertain. It is much easier to -predict the conduct of a multitude--of a whole nation--than of one -individual. The support then which monarchs can be expected to yield -to learning, must necessarily be extremely capricious and -fluctuating. It is not however by sudden starts and violent impulses, -that a sound, solid, wholesome literature can be created. Ages must -conspire to the formation of such a literature. Constantine the -Great, seated on the throne of the Eastern Empire, with all the -resources of the Roman world at his command, could not awaken the -slumbering genius of a degenerate race, nor revive the decaying arts -of the ancient empire. The literature of his reign, with all the -patronage he could bestow upon it, did but too nearly resemble those -gorgeous piles, which his pride and vanity caused to be erected in -his _own_ imperial city, composed of the ruins of so many of the -splendid monuments of antiquity. - -Not only, however, is the support a capricious and uncertain one -which a monarchy is calculated to yield to literature, but there are -only certain departments of learning, and those by no means the most -important, which such a government can ever be expected cordially to -foster. Monarchs may patronise the fine arts and light -literature--they may encourage the mathematical and physical -sciences, but they can rarely feel a deep interest in the promotion -of correct and orthodox moral, political and theological knowledge, -which is, at the same time, much the most important and most -difficult department of literature. The great law of -self-preservation prompts us to war on every thing which threatens -our interest and happiness. Moral and political philosophy has too -often aimed its logic at the throne, and questioned the title of the -monarch, ever to be a favorite with rulers. Hence, while even the -absolute despot may encourage the arts, light literature and the -physical and mathematical sciences, he dares not unbind the fetters -of the mind in the region of politics, morals and religion. He can -but tremble at that bold spirit of inquiry which may be aroused on -those subjects--which dares to advance to the throne itself and -loosen even the foundations on which it is erected. Napoleon -Bonaparte, in the plenitude of his power, could give the utmost -encouragement to all those departments of learning, whose principles -could not be arrayed against despotism. In these departments he -delighted to behold the genius and talent of the country. In the -provinces and in the capital he called to the physical and -mathematical chairs of his colleges, his universities and his -polytechnic schools, some of the most splendid lecturers of the age; -but selfishness forbade him to tolerate a free and manly spirit of -inquiry in morals and politics, and he whose armies had deluged -Europe with blood, whose name was a terror and whose word was a law -unto nations, could not feel secure upon his throne while such men as -Cousin were illustrating the nineteenth century by the splendor of -their professorial eloquence, before the youth of France, or such -writers as De Stael were making their animated appeals to the nation, -in behalf of liberty of thought, and freedom of action. It is -impossible, without full freedom of thought, and a single eye to -truth and usefulness, that the scientific investigator, no matter how -great his genius may be, can unravel the difficulties of moral and -political philosophy. The very patronage of the throne enthrals his -intellect, and his fears or his avarice tempt him to desert the cause -of truth and humanity. - - "Thus trammell'd, thus condemn'd to flattery's trebles, - He toils through all, still trembling to be wrong: - For fear some noble thoughts like heavenly rebels - Should rise up in high treason to his brain, - He sings as the Athenean spoke, with pebbles - In 's mouth, lest truth should stammer through his strain." - -If we look even to those epochs under monarchical governments, which -have been designated by the high sounding title of the golden ages of -literature, we shall observe a full exemplification of the remarks -which I have made on this subject. Let us take the Augustan age -itself. Under the patronage of the first of the Roman Emperors we -find, it is true, the arts and light literature rising to a pitch -which perhaps they had not reached under the republic. After the -death of Brutus the world of letters experienced a revolution almost -as {263} great as that of the political world. The literature of the -Augustan age is distinguished by that tone and spirit which mark the -downfall of liberty, and the consequent thraldom of the mind. The -bold and manly voice of eloquence was hushed. The high and lofty -spirit of the republic was tamed down to a sickly and disgusting -servility. The age of poetry came when that of eloquence and -philosophy was past; and Virgil and Horace and Propertius, flattered, -courted and enriched by an artful prince and an elegant courtier, -could consent to sing the sycophantic praises of the monarch who had -signed the proscriptions of the triumvirate, and rivetted a despotism -on his country. - -But the men who most adorned the various departments of learning -during the long reign of Augustus, were born in the last days of the -republic. They saw what the glory of the commonwealth had been--they -beheld with their own eyes the greatness of their country, and they -had inhaled in their youth the breath of freedom. No Roman writer, -for example, excels the Lyric Bard in true feeling and sympathy for -heroic greatness. We ever behold through the medium of his -writings--even the gayest--a deep rooted sorrow locked up in his -bosom, for the subversion of the liberties of the commonwealth. "On -every occasion we can see the inspiring flame of patriotism and -freedom breaking through that mist of levity in which his poetry is -involved." "He constrained his inclinations," says Schlegel, "and -endeavored to write like a royalist, but in spite of himself he is -still manifestly a republican and a Roman."[2] - -[Footnote 2: Horace fought under Brutus and Cassius, on the side of -the Republic, at the battle of Philippi, and he was after the battle -saved from the wreck of the republican army, and treated with great -respect and kindness by Augustus and his minister Mecænas.] - -"In the last years of Augustus," says the same writer, "the younger -generation who were born, or at least grew up to manhood, after the -commencement of the monarchy, were altogether different. We can -already perceive the symptoms of declining taste--in Ovid -particularly, who is overrun with an unhealthy superfluity of fancy, -and a sentimental effeminacy of expression." Even History itself, in -which the Romans so far excelled, yielded to the corrupting influence -of the Cæsars. Tacitus concluded the long series of splendid and -vigorous writers, and he grew up and was educated under the -comparatively happy reigns of Vespasian and Titus, and wrote under -the mild government of Nerva. Unnatural pomp and extravagance of -expression seem, strange as it may appear, to be the necessary -results of social and political degradation. And it is curious indeed -to behold among the writers under the first Cæsars, the extraordinary -compounds which genius can produce, when impelled on the one hand by -the all-powerful and stimulating love of liberty, and vivid glimpses -of the real dignity of human nature, while checked and subdued on the -other by the fear of arbitrary power. Take Lucan for an example. "In -him we find the most outrageously republican feelings making their -chosen abode in the breast of a wealthy and luxurious courtier of -Nero. It excites surprise and even disgust, to observe how he stoops -to flatter that disgusting tyrant, in expressions the meanness of -which amounts to a crime, and then in the next page, exalts Cato -above the Gods themselves, and speaks of all the enemies of the first -Cæsar with an admiration that approaches to idolatry." - -Let us now look for an exemplification of the same great truths, to -the reign of Louis the fourteenth, a reign which has been celebrated -as the zenith of warlike and literary splendor--and here I borrow the -language of Macintosh. "Talent seemed robbed of the conscious -elevation, of the erect and manly port, which is its noblest -associate and its surest indication. The mild purity of Fenelon, the -lofty spirit of Bossuet, the masculine mind of Boileau, the sublime -fervor of Corneille, were confounded by the contagion of ignominious -and indiscriminate servility." Purity, propriety and beauty of style, -were indeed carried during this reign to a high pitch of perfection. -The literature of this period was "the highest attainment of the -imagination." An aristocratic society, such as that which adorned the -court of Louis XIV, is particularly favorable to the delicacy and -polish of style, the fascinations of wit and gaiety, and to all the -decorations of an elegant imagination. No one has ever surpassed -Racine, Fenelon, and Bossuet, in purity of style and elegance of -language. - -The literature of this age, however, as well asserted by Madame de -Stael, was not a "philosophic power." "Sometimes indeed, authors were -seen, like Achilles, to take up warlike weapons in the midst of -frivolous employments, but, in general, books at that time did not -treat upon subjects of _real_ importance. Literary men retired to a -distance from the active interests of life. An analysis of the -principles of government, an examination into religious opinions, a -just appreciation of men in power, every thing in short that could -lead to any applicable result, was strictly forbidden them." Hence, -however perfect the compositions of this age in mere style and -ornament, we find them sadly deficient in profundity of reflection -and utility of purpose. The human mind during this period had not yet -reached its proper elevation, because it was enthralled by arbitrary -power. The succeeding, was one of more grandeur of thought, and -consequently of a more bold, daring, and profound philosophy. In vain -would we look over the annals of the age of Louis XIV, to find a -parallel to Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and Raynal. And what, let -me ask, had so soon produced this mighty difference in the philosophy -of France? It surely could not be the patronage of that base, -profligate, licentious libertine, who during the period of his -unfortunate regency, loosened the very foundation of human virtue, -polluted the morals of his country, and weakened or destroyed those -dearest of ties which bind together in harmony, in happiness and in -love, the whole social fabric. It could not surely be the patronage -of a monarch who had been reared and educated in such a school as -this. No! it was the new spirit which animated the age--the spirit of -liberty--the spirit of free inquiry--the spirit of utility. It was -this spirit which quickened and aroused the stagnant genius of the -nation, and filled the soul with the "_aliquid immensum -infinitumque_," which had in the days of antiquity inspired the -eloquence of a Tully and the sublime vehemence of Demosthenes. It was -this new spirit, and not the puny patronage of a monarch, that called -forth {264} those intellectual giants of their age, Voltaire, -Montesquieu and Rousseau, who have traced out three different periods -in the progress of reflection--and if I may borrow the language of De -Stael, like the Gods of Olympus, have gone over the ground in three -steps. It was this new spirit in fine, which in spite of the -influence of the monarch and his nobility, sapped the foundation of -the throne and hastened on the awful crisis of revolution in that -devoted country. - -Thus do we see that it is only the lighter kinds of literature, and -the physical and mathematical sciences, which the patronage of a -monarch can be expected to foster. In those nobler and more useful -branches of knowledge--moral, mental, religious, and political,--the -patronage of the throne clips the wings of philosophy and arrests the -growth of science and the progress of truth.[3] - -[Footnote 3: In the great Austrian University established at Vienna, -the Professor of Statistics is strictly forbidden to present to the -view of his class any other Statistics than those of Austria, lest -this country should suffer by comparison with others. How limited -must be the range of intellect on political subjects under such fatal -restrictions as this, imposed by the narrow jealousy of arbitrary -power!] - -So far from this particular species of literature flourishing most -under the bounty and patronage of a monarch, we find, in almost every -monarchy, the party arrayed against the government, at the same time -the most talented and the most philosophical party. The remark is -susceptible of still greater generalization. I may, perhaps, with -truth assert that in every age and in every nation, the men who have -arrayed themselves against the usurpations of government, whether -monarchical or republican--the men who have arrayed themselves on the -side of liberty, who have led on the forlorn hope against the -aggressions of despotism, have been the men who against the patronage -of power and wealth, have reared up those systems of philosophy that -time cannot destroy--they are the men who have performed those noble -achievements which most illustrate their country, and weave for it -the chaplet of its glory--these are the men whose eloquence has -shaken senates and animated nations. These are the men, who, whatever -may be their destiny whilst they live, will ever be remembered and -honored by a grateful posterity. Where now are those writings which -contend for _jure divino_ rights and patriarchal power?--past and -gone! The Filmers are forgotten, the Hobbes are despised--while the -writings of Locke will live forever, and the memory of Sidney and -Russell and Hampden will be cherished through all ages. What were the -Grenvilles and the Norths in more recent times, when compared with -Chatham, Burke, Fox and Sheridan, in England, or with the -Washingtons, Franklins, Henrys, Jeffersons and Adamses of our own -revolutionary crisis. And thus would a review of the history of the -world bear me out in the assertion, that in almost every age and -country since the annals of history have become authentic, the -opposition literature, in moral, political and religious philosophy -has been purer, deeper, more vivifying and useful, than that sickly -literature which has grown up under the shadow of the throne, though -encouraged and stimulated by the smiles of power, and sustained and -fostered by the lavish expenditure of exhaustless treasures. - -The only additional remark which I shall make upon the general -question of the relative influences exerted upon the progress of -literature and the development of character, by the monarchical and -republican forms of government is, that in the former the aspirants -to office and honors look upwards to the throne and the nobility, in -the latter they look downwards to the people. This simple difference -between the two governments is calculated to produce the most -extensive and material consequences. In the first place, the kind of -talent requisite for success under the two governments, is very -different. Even Mr. Hume himself acknowledges, that, to be successful -with the people, it is generally necessary for a man to make himself -_useful_ by his industry, capacity, or knowledge; to be prosperous -under a monarchy, it is requisite to render himself _agreeable_ by -his wit, complaisance, or civility. "A strong genius succeeds best in -republics: a refined taste in monarchies. And consequently the -sciences are the more natural growth of the one, and the polite arts -of the other." We are told, that in France under the old monarchy, -men did not expect to reach the elevated offices of government either -by hard labor, close study, or real efficiency of character. A _bon -mot_, some peculiar gracefulness, was frequently the occasion of the -most rapid promotions; and these frequent examples, we are told, -inspired a sort of careless philosophy, a confidence in fortune, and -a contempt for studious exertions, which could only end in a -sacrifice of utility to mere pleasure and elegance. - -The fate of individuals under those circumstances is determined, not -by their intrinsic worth or real talents, but by their capacity to -please the monarch and his court. Poor Racine, we are told by St. -Çimon, was banished forever from the royal sunshine in which he had -so long basked, because in a moment of that absence of mind for which -he was remarkable, he made an unlucky observation upon the writings -of Scarron in presence of the king and Madame de Maintenon, which -could never be forgotten or forgiven. We all know that the Raleighs, -Leicesters, Essexes, &c. under the energetic reign of Elizabeth, were -much more indebted to their personal accomplishments and devoted and -adulatory gallantries, for their rapid promotions, than to any real -services which they had rendered, or extraordinary talents which they -had displayed. And in the time of Queen Anne, it has been said that -the scale was turned in favor of passive obedience and nonresistance, -by the Duchess of Marlborough's gloves; and the ill humor of the -Duchess caused the recall of Marlborough, which alone could have -saved the kingdom of France from almost certain conquest at that -eventful crisis. - -Another consequence which almost necessarily follows from the -difference just pointed out between the monarchical and republican -forms of government, is, that the stimulus furnished by the former, -both to thought and action, is much less universal in its operation -than that furnished by the latter. In the republican form of -government, the sovereignty of the people is the mainspring--the -moving power of the whole political engine. This sovereignty pervades -the whole nation, like the very atmosphere we breath--it reaches to -the farthest, and binds the most distant together. In a well -administered and well balanced republic, it {265} matters not where -our lot may be cast, whether in the north or the south, at the centre -or on the confines, the action of the political machine is still made -to reach us--to stimulate our energies and waken up our ambition. The -people under this system become more enlightened and more energetic, -because the exercise of sovereignty leads to reflection, and creates -a demand for knowledge. Aspirants to office must study to become -useful, intelligent and efficient, for by these attributes they will -be the better enabled to win that popularity which may ensure the -suffrages of those around them, so necessary to their attainment of -political elevation--and thus does the republican system operate on -all, and call into action the latent talent and energy of the -country, no matter where they may exist. - -In the monarchy, on the contrary, the moving spring of the whole -machinery lies at the centre--the virtual sovereignty of the nation -reposes in the capital. The want of political rights and powers sinks -the dignity of the people, stagnates the public mind, and torpifies -all the energies of man. In such a body politic you may have action -and life, and even greatness at the centre, whilst you have the -torpor and lethargy of death itself at the extremities. The man who -is born at a distance from the capital has no chance for elevation -there. If he aspires to political distinction he must make a -pilgrimage to the seat of government. He must travel up to court, -where alone he can bask in the beams of the royal sunshine. How -partial is the operation of such a system as this! How many noble -intellects may pass undiscovered and undeveloped under its sway! How -many noble achievements may be lost, for the want of a proper -opportunity to display them! And all this may happen while the -monarch and his court are disposed to foster literature, to encourage -talent, and to stimulate into action all the energies of the -nation.[4] - -[Footnote 4: Hence we see at once the error committed by the great -author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in the assertion, -that the absolute monarchy would be the most desirable form of -government in the world, if such men as Nerva, Trajan, and the -Antonines could always be upon the throne.] - -But how debasing does this form of government become, when the -monarch, either from policy or inclination, shuns the talent and -virtue of the country, addresses himself to the lowest, the most -vulgar and most selfish passions of man, and draws around him into -the high places of the government men taken from the lowest and most -despised functions of life. "Kings," says Burke, "are naturally -lovers of low company; they are so elevated above all the rest of -mankind that they must look upon all their subjects as on a level." -They are apt, unless they be wise men, to hate the talent and virtue -of the country, and attach themselves to those vile instruments who -will consent to flatter their caprices, pander to their low and -grovelling pleasures, and offer up to them the disgusting incense of -sycophantic fawning adulation. Every man of talent and virtue is an -obstacle in the path of such a monarch as this--he holds up to his -view a most hateful mirror. When such monarchs as these are on the -throne, the government exercises the most withering influence on the -intellect and virtue of the country. Science is dishonored and -persecuted because she is virtuous, because she will consent to -flatter neither the monarch on his throne nor his sycophantic -courtier--she will consent to mingle in no degrading strife, nor does -she bring up any reserve to the dishonest minister, either to swell -his triumph or to break his fall. When men of rank thus sacrifice all -ideas of dignity to an ambition without a useful and noble object, -and work with low instruments and for low ends, the whole composition -becomes low and base. Whilst Tiberius surrenders himself into the -keeping of so vile a being as Sejanus--whilst Nero is fiddling and -dancing, and Commodus in the arena with the gladiators--all that is -noble and great in the empire must retire into the shade and seek for -safety in solitude and obscurity. - -When Louis XI dismissed from the court those faithful nobles and -distinguished citizens, who had stood by his father and saved the -monarch and his throne in the hour of adversity, and filled their -places with men taken from the lowest and meanest condition of life, -with no other merit than that possessed by the eunuch guard of the -Medio-Persian monarch, of adhering to the king, because despised by -all the world besides, he conquered, for the time at least, the -virtue, the chivalry, the real greatness of France. Well, then, may -we say, in the emphatic language of England's most philosophic -statesman, "Woe to the country which would madly and impiously reject -the service of the talents and virtues, civil, military or religious, -that are given to grace and to serve it; and would condemn to -obscurity every thing formed to diffuse lustre and glory around a -state. Woe to that country too, that considers a low education, a -mean contracted view of things, a sordid, mercenary occupation, as a -preferable title to command." - -But it may be asked, may not some of the effects which I have just -described as flowing from monarchy, be produced under the republican -form of government? To this I answer that almost all of them may be -expected to be the result of one homogeneous republic, stretching -over a great extent of territory, including a numerous population and -a great diversity of interest; but, as such a government as this has -been wisely provided against in our country at least, by a system of -confederated republics, I will now proceed to the main object of my -discourse this evening--to point out the peculiar influence which our -federative system of government is calculated to produce upon -literature and character. - -And in the first place, supposing our system to continue as perfect -in practice as it undoubtedly is in theory, a mere statistical exposé -of its future condition in regard to numbers and wealth at no very -distant period, is of itself sufficient to present to our view -prospects of the most cheering and animating character. We have a -territory extending over three millions of square miles, composed of -soils of every variety and every degree of fertility, stretching -almost from the tropics to the poles in one direction, and from the -Atlantic to the Pacific in the other. We have spread sparsely over a -portion of this immense territorial expanse, a population of fifteen -millions, principally descended from that nation in Europe, which is -at the same time the most wealthy, the most powerful, the most -enterprising, the most free, the most civilized, and perhaps the most -moral, purely religious and intellectual nation, among all the great -powers of Europe. This population, which has, so far, {266} shown -itself worthy of the immortal stock of ancestors from which it is -descended, is rapidly advancing in numbers and in wealth. Our -censuses have hitherto shown a duplication of our population, in -periods of less time than twenty-five years. We will assume, however, -this period in our calculation, and we shall find this elastic spring -of population, (if we can only bind down the movements of the -governments of our system within their prescribed orbits,) of itself, -like the magic wand of the enchanter, or the marvellous lamp of -Aladdin, capable of achieving all which may confer glory and power -and distinction on nations. In a period of seventy-five years, which -is but a short time in a nation's history, we shall have a population -of one hundred and twenty millions of souls, and yet not so dense as -the population of many of the states of Europe. We shall then have an -empire, formed by mere internal development, as populous as that of -Rome and much more wealthy, speaking all the same language, and -living under the same or similar institutions. - -Let us then for a moment contemplate the inspiring influence which -the mere grandeur of such a theatre is calculated to produce on -literature and character. Whether the author write for wealth or for -fame, or for usefulness, he will have the most unbounded field open -to his exertions. The law which secures the property in his -productions throughout such an immense empire, will ensure the most -unlimited pecuniary patronage to all that is valuable and great, a -patronage beyond what kings and princes can furnish. And the most -powerful stimulus will be applied to every noble and generous -principle of his nature, by the simple reflection that complete -success in his literary efforts will introduce him to the knowledge -of millions, all of whom may be edified by his instruction, or made -more happy by the enjoyment of that literary repast which he may -spread before them. - -Do we not read of the mighty influence produced upon mind and body in -ancient Greece, by the assemblages at the Olympic games? It was the -hope of winning the prizes before these assemblages which called -forth energy and awakened genius. It was under the thrilling -applauses of these bodies that Herodotus recited his prose, and -Pindar his poetry. And what, let me ask, was the great idea which -animated every Roman writer? It was the idea of _Rome_ herself--of -Rome so wonderful in her ancient manners and laws--so great even in -her errors and crimes. It was this idea which was breathed from the -lips of her orators and embalmed in her literature--it is this idea -which stamps the character of independent dignity and grandeur on the -page of her philosophy, her history and her poetry. - -But what were the multitudes that could be assembled together in -Elis, or the heterogeneous half civilized polyglot people of the -Roman Empire, bound together by the strong arm of power and overawed -by the presence of the legions, in comparison with the millions that -will ere long spring up within the limits of our wide spread -territory,--speaking the same language,--formed under similar -institutions,--and impelled by the same inspiring spirit of -independence? - -Another advantage which it is proper to present, as growing out of -that condition of our people, which a mere statistical exposé will -exhibit, is the security furnished by the magnitude and resources of -our country, and by the immense distance of all bodies politic of -great power and ambition, from our borders, against foreign invasion, -or foreign interference in domestic concerns. I shall not here dwell -upon the consequent exemption of our country from those mighty -engines of despotism, overgrown navies and armies, and the -deleterious influence which these essentially anti-literary -establishments exercise over the genius and energy of man. I shall -merely briefly advert to some of the effects which this security of -individuals and states against foreign aggression is calculated to -produce on individual enterprise and state exertion. - -Since the governments of the world have become more regular and -stable, and the great expense of war has made even victory and -conquest ruinous to nations, rulers are beginning to look to the -development of the internal resources of their countries, more than -to foreign conquest and national spoliations. The great system of -internal improvement in all its branches, is without doubt one of the -most powerfully efficient means which can be devised to hurry forward -the accumulation of wealth, and speed on the progress of -civilization. The canal and the rail road, the steam boat and the -steam car, the water power and steam power, constitute in fact the -great and characteristic powers of the nineteenth century--they are -the mighty civilizers of the age in which we live. They bind together -in harmony and concord the discordant interests of nations, and like -the vascular system of the human frame, they produce a wholesome -circulation, and a vivifying and stimulating action throughout the -whole body politic. - -These great improvements in our own country, with but few exceptions, -and those well defined, ought to be executed solely by states and -individuals. But neither states nor individuals would execute those -necessary works, without security from interruption and invasion, and -consequent security in the enjoyment of the profits which they might -yield. What wealthy individual in our own state, for example, would -erect a costly bridge across one of our rivers, or embark his capital -in the construction of a canal or rail road, if foe or friend might -blow up his bridge during the next year, or a war might interrupt -trade, and perhaps a treaty of peace might cede the canal or rail way -to a different state? - -Of all the nations in Europe, England is the one which has been most -exempt from foreign invasion, and we find in that country that -individual enterprise has achieved more in the cause of internal -improvement than in any other nation in Europe; and the prosperity -and real greatness of England are no doubt due in a great measure to -the energy and enterprise of her citizens. In the continental nations -we find this constant liability to invasion every where paralyzing -the enterprise of both individuals and states. One of the most -skilful engineers of France tells us that in passing through some of -the frontier provinces of that country, he every where beheld the -most mournful evidences of the want of both national and individual -enterprise, in miserable roads, in decayed or fallen bridges, in the -absence of canals and turnpikes, of manufactures, commerce, and even -of agriculture itself, in many almost deserted regions. Paris, the -second city in Europe in point of numbers and wealth, and the capital -of the nation hitherto most powerful on the continent, has not {267} -yet in this age of ardor and enterprise, constructed either a canal -or rail road to the ocean, or even to any intermediate point. If our -federative system contained within its borders a city thus wealthy -and populous, and so well situated, can there be a doubt that it -would long ere this have sent its rail roads and canals not only to -the ocean, but in all probability to the Rhine and the Danube, to the -Rhone, the Garonne, and the Mediterranean. - -This spirit of improvement, under the hitherto benign protection of -our government, is already abroad in the land. New York and -Pennsylvania have already executed works which rival in splendor and -grandeur the boasted monuments of Egypt, Rome or China, and far excel -them in usefulness and profit. The states of the south and west too -are moving on in the same noble career. And our own Virginia, the -_Old Dominion_, has at last awakened from her inglorious repose, and -is pushing forward with vigor her great central improvement, destined -soon to pass the Blue Ridge and Alleghany ranges of mountains, and -thus to realize the fable of antiquity, which represented the -sea-gods as driving their herds to pasture on the mountains. - - "Omne cum Proteus pecus egit altos - Visere montes." - -One certain effect of our great systems of improvement must be the -rearing up of large towns throughout our country. I know full well -that great cities are cursed with great vices. The worst specimens of -the human character, squalid poverty, gorgeous, thoughtless luxury, -misery and anxiety, are all to be found in them. But we find, at the -same time, the noblest and most virtuous specimens of our race on the -same busy, bustling theatre. Mind is here brought into collision with -mind--intellect whets up intellect--the energy of one stimulates the -energy of another--and thus we find all the great improvements -originate here. It is the cities which constitute the great moving -power of society; the country population is much more tardy in its -action, and thus becomes the regulator to the machinery. It is the -cities which have hurried forward the great revolutions of modern -times, "whether for weal or woe." It is the cities which have made -the great improvements and inventions in mechanics and the arts. It -is the great cities which have pushed every department of literature -to the highest pitch of perfection. It is the great cities alone -which can build up and sustain hospitals, asylums, -dispensaries--which can gather together large and splendid libraries, -form literary and philosophical associations, assemble together bands -of literati, who stimulate and encourage each other. In fine, it is -the large cities alone which can rear up and sustain a mere literary -class. When there shall arise in this country, as there surely will, -some eight or ten cities of the first magnitude, we shall then find -the opprobrium which now attaches to us, of having no national -literature, wiped away; and there are no doubt some branches of -science which we are destined to carry to a pitch of perfection which -can be reached no where else. Where, for example, can the great -moral, political, and economical sciences be studied so successfully -as here? And this leads me at once to the consideration of the -operation of the state or federative system of government, which I -regard as the most beautiful feature in our political system, and -that which is calculated to produce the most beneficial influence -both on the progress of science, and on the development of character. - -It has been observed, under all great governments acting over wide -spread empires, that both the arts and literature quickly come to a -stand, and most generally begin to decline afterwards. In fact, Mr. -Hume makes the bold assertion in his Essays, "that when the arts and -sciences come to perfection in any state, from that moment they -naturally or rather necessarily decline, and seldom or never revive -in that nation where they formerly flourished." His remark is -certainly much more applicable to large monarchical governments than -to such a system as ours. In large countries, with great national -governments, there will be quickly formed in literature as perfect a -despotism as exists in politics. Some few great geniuses will arise, -explore certain departments of literature, earn an imperishable -reputation, die, and bequeath to posterity in their writings a model -ever after to be imitated, and for that very reason never to be -excelled. And thus it is that certain standard authors establish -their dominion in the world of letters, and impose a binding law on -their successors, who, it has been well said, do nothing more than -transpose the incidents, new-name the characters, and paraphrase the -sentiments of their great prototypes. It is known that under the -Roman emperors, even as late as the time of Justinian, Virgil was -called _the poet_, by way of distinction, throughout the western -empire, while Homer received the same appellation in the eastern -empire. These two poets were of undisputed authority to all their -successors in epic poetry. - -We are told that in the vast empire of China, speaking but one -language, governed by one law, and consequently moulded into one dull -homogeneous character, this literary despotism is still more marked. -When the authority of a great teacher, like that of Confucius, is -once established, the doctrine of passive obedience to such authority -is just as certainly enforced upon succeeding literati as the same -doctrine towards the monarch is enforced on the subject. Now all this -has a tendency to cramp genius, and paralyze literary effort. - -The developing genius of the modern world was arrested in the career -of invention at least, and the imagination was tamed down by the -servile imitation of the ancients immediately after the revival of -letters. And perhaps one of the greatest benefits conferred on -learning by the reformation, consisted of the new impulse that was -suddenly communicated to the human mind--an impulse that at once -broke asunder the bonds which the literature of the ancient world had -rivetted--set free the mind after directing it into a new career of -inquiry and investigation, unshackled even by the Latin language, -which had so long robbed the vernacular tongues of Europe of the -honors justly due to them from the literati of the age.[5] - -[Footnote 5: I would not by any means be understood as advancing the -opinion that the language and literature of the ancients have been -always an impediment to the progress of modern literature. On the -contrary, at the revival of letters, the moderns were an almost -immeasurable distance in the rear of the ancients. Ancient literature -then became a power, by which the moderns were at once elevated to -the literary level of antiquity; but when once we had reached that -point, all farther _exclusive_ devotion to the learning and the -language of antiquity became hurtful to the mind by the trammels -which it imposed. The study of the classics will forever be useful -and interesting to him who aspires to be a scholar. But it becomes -injurious when we make it our exclusive study, and substitute the -undefined and loose system of morality--the high sounding and empty -philosophy of the ancients, for the purer morals and deeper learning -of the moderns.] - -{268} But not only do great writers in large nations establish their -authority over their successors, and thus set bounds to the progress -of literature, but they repress the genius of the country by -discouraging those first intellectual efforts of young aspirants for -fame, which appear insignificant by comparison with established -models. Now in literature, as well as in the accumulation of wealth, -the proverb is strictly true, that it is the first step which is the -most difficult, "_c'est le premier pas qui coute_." The timid and the -modest, (and real genius is always modest,) are frequently deterred -from appearing in a particular department of literature, because of -the great distance at which their first efforts must fall in the rear -of the standard authors who have preceded them. They are overawed and -alarmed at the first step which it is necessary to take, and -frequently recoil from the task, sinking back into the quiet -obscurity of listlessness and mental inactivity--whereas, if a proper -encouragement could have been furnished to their incipient labors, it -would have cheered and animated them in their literary career, and -finally conducted them to proud and exalted rank in the world of -letters. - -The splendor, profundity, and irresistible fascination of -Shakspeare's plays, have perhaps deterred many a genius in England -from writing plays. So Corneille and Racine have no doubt produced -similar effects in France. Even the great names which I have -mentioned, would have been overawed, if in the commencement of their -career, they had been obliged to contend with their own more splendid -productions. "If Moliere and Corneille," said Hume, "were to bring -upon the stage at present their early productions which were formerly -so well received, it would discourage the young poets to see the -indifference and disdain of the public. The ignorance of the age -alone could have given admission to the '_Prince of Tyre_;' but it is -to that we owe '_The Moor_.' Had '_Every Man in his Humor_' been -rejected, we had never seen '_Volpone_.'" - -Now there is no system of government which has ever been devised by -man, better calculated to remove the withering and blighting -influence of great names in literature, and at the same time to -insure the full possession of all the great benefits which their -labors can confer, than the federal system of republics--a system -which, at the same time that it binds the states together in peace -and harmony, leaves each one in the possession of a government of its -own, with its sovereignty and liberty unimpaired. In such a condition -as this, there is a wholesome circulation of literature from one -state to another, without establishing, however, any thing like a -dictatorship in the republic of letters. A salutary rivalry is -generated; and a true and genuine patriotism, I must be allowed to -assert, will always lead us to foster and stimulate genius, wherever -we may perceive symptoms of its development, throughout the limits of -that commonwealth to which we are attached. The soldier in the field -may love the marshal, and feel an attachment to the grand army which -has been so often led to conquest and glory; but I must confess that -I admire more that warm, generous, and sympathetic attachment, which -his heart feels for that small division and its officer with which he -has been connected--for that little platoon in which his own name has -been enrolled, and where his own little share of glory has been won. - -The history of antiquity, and the history of the modern world, alike -show that small independent contiguous states, speaking the same -language, living under similar governments, actuated by similar -impulses, and bound together by the ties of cordial sympathy and -mutual welfare, are the most favorable for the promotion of -literature and science--in fine, for the development of every thing -that is great, noble, and useful. On such a theatre, the candidate -for literary honor is not overawed by the fame of those who have won -trophies in adjoining states. He looks to the commonwealth to which -he is attached, for support and applause; and when his name begins to -be known abroad, and his fame to spread, his horizon expands with the -increasing elevation of his station, until it comprehends the whole -system of homogeneous republics. In such a system as this, the -literature of each state will be aided and stimulated by that of all -the rest--it will draw from all the pure fountains in every quarter -of the world, without being manacled and stifled by the absolute -authority of any. In such a system as this, there is no _jure divino_ -right in science--there is no national prejudice fostered in a -national literature; respect, and even veneration, will be paid in -such a system to all true learning, wherever it may be found; but -there will be no worship, no abject submission to literary dictators. -And if such a people may fail to form a regular homogeneous national -literature, they will perhaps for that very reason be enabled to -carry each art and science, in the end, to a higher pitch of -perfection than it could reach if trammelled by the binding laws -imposed by an organized national literature. - -Among the nations of the earth which have made any progress in -civilization, we find from the operation of causes which it would be -foreign from my object to explain, that Asia most abounds in great -and populous empires. And it is precisely in this quarter of the -globe that we find a most irresistible despotism in both government -and literature. Europe is divided into smaller states, and in them we -find more popular governments, and more profound literature. Of all -the portions of Europe, Greece was anciently the most divided; but as -long as those little states could preserve their freedom, they were -by far the most successful cultivators, in the ancient world, of -every art and every science. The literature of the little republics -of Italy, during the middle ages, illustrates the same great -principles; and the rapid progress of the little states of Germany, -since the general pacification of Europe in 1815, in literary and -philosophical research of every kind, proves likewise the truth of -the remarks made above. - -Germany was accused by Madame de Stael of having no national -literature: but the German state system of government, though by no -means equal to ours, bids fair to carry German literature beyond that -of any other nation in Europe. Although the literati of these small -states are not trammelled either by their own or foreign literature, -yet there is no body of learned men {269} in the world who profit -more by all that is really good and great in the learning of their -neighbors. Without any narrow prejudices, they go with eagerness in -search of truth and beauty wherever they are to be found. Every -literature in the world has been cultivated by the Germans. We are -told that "Shakspeare and Homer occupy the loftiest station in the -poetical Olympus, but there is space in it for all true singers out -of every age and clime. Ferdusi, and the primeval mythologists of -Hindostan, live in brotherly union with the troubadours and ancient -story-tellers of the west. The wayward, mystic gloom of Calderon--the -lurid fire of Dante--the auroral light of Tasso--the clear, icy -glitter of Racine, all are acknowledged and reverenced." - -Of all modern literature, the German has the best, as well as the -most translations. In 1827, there were three entire versions of -Shakspeare, all admitted to be good, besides many that were partial, -or considered inferior. How soon, let me ask, would the literature of -Germany wane away, if all her little independent states were moulded -into one consolidated empire, with a great central government in the -capital? - -But the most beneficial influence produced upon literature and -character under the federative system of government, springs from the -operation of the state governments themselves. We have seen that the -monarchical government, in a large state, fails to stimulate learning -and elicit great activity of character, because its influence does -not pervade the whole body politic--while the centre may be properly -acted on, the confines are in a state of inextricable languor. A -great consolidated republican government, if such an one could exist, -would be little better than a monarchy. The aspirants for the high -offices in such a nation, would all look up to the government as the -centre for promotion, and not to the people. The talent and ambition -of the country would have to make the same weary pilgrimage here as -in the monarchies--to travel up to court--to fawn upon and flatter -the men whom fortune had thrown into the high places of the -government. The stimulus which such a government could afford, must -necessarily be of the most partial and capricious character. A system -of state governments preserves the sovereignty unimpaired in every -portion of the country; it carries the beneficial stimulus, which -government itself is capable of applying to literature and character, -to every division of the people. Under such governments as these, if -properly regulated, and not overawed or corrupted by central -power--it matters very little where a man's destiny may place him, -whether he may be born on the borders of the Lakes, on the banks of -the Mississippi, or even in future times on the distant shores of the -Pacific--the sovereignty is with him--the action of the state and -federal governments reaches him in his distant home as effectually as -if he had been born in the federal metropolis, or on the banks of the -Potomac, or the waters of the Chesapeake. - -Under such a system as this, there is no one part more favored than -the rest; but all are subjected to similar governments, and operated -on by similar stimulants. In all other countries the term province is -a term of reproach. Niebuhr tells us that in France the best book -published in Marseilles or Bordeaux is hardly mentioned. _C'est -publie dans la province_ is enough to consign the book at once to -oblivion--so complete is the literary dictatorship of Paris over all -France. In such a system as ours, we have no provinces; if the -governments shall only move in their prescribed orbits, all will be -principals, all will be heads--each member of the confederacy will -stand on the same summit level with every other. While this condition -of things exists, the institutions of one state will not be -disparaged or overshadowed by those of another--not even by those of -the central department. A great and flourishing university for -example, established in one state, will but encourage the -establishment of another in an adjoining state. The literary efforts -of one will not damp or impede those of another, but will stimulate -it to enter on the same career. - -Where, in all Europe for example, can be found so large a number of -good universities for the same amount of population as in the states -of Germany. The number, it is said, has reached thirty-six--nineteen -Protestant, and seventeen Catholic; and nearly all of them, -particularly the Protestant, are in a flourishing condition. Even as -early as 1826 there were twenty-two universities in Germany, not one -of which numbered less than two hundred students. And Villers tells -us that there is more real knowledge in one single university, as -that of Gottingen, Halle, or Jena, than in all the eight universities -of San Jago de Compostella, Alcala, Orihuela, &c. of the consolidated -monarchy of Spain.[6] - -[Footnote 6: The literature of Spain has never revived since the -consolidation of her government under Charles and Philip. It -flourished most, strange as it may appear, when the Spanish peninsula -was divided among several independent governments, and when the -spirit of independence and individuality was excited to the highest -pitch by that spirit of honor, love of adventure, and of individual -notoriety, infused into the nations of Europe by the Institution of -Chivalry. "The literature of Spain," says Sismondi, (Literature of -South Europe) "has, strictly speaking, only one period, that of -Chivalry. Its sole riches consist in its ancient honor and frankness -of character. The poem of the Cid first presented itself to us among -the Spanish works, as the Cid himself among the heroes of Spain; and -after him, we find nothing in any degree equalling either the noble -simplicity of his real character, or the charm of the brilliant -fictions of which he is the subject. Nothing that has since appeared -can justly demand our unqualified admiration. In the midst of the -most brilliant efforts of Spanish genius, our taste has been -continually wounded by extravagance and affectation, or our reason -has been offended by an eccentricity often bordering on folly." Spain -then furnishes a most convincing illustration of the melancholy -influence of great consolidated governments on mind and literature. -The poem of the Cid, so highly eulogized by Sismondi, is supposed to -have been written about the middle of the twelfth century.] - -If we look to that period of greatest glory in the history of modern -Italy, when her little states with all their bustle and faction were -still free--still unawed by the great powers of Europe, we shall -behold in her universities a beautiful exemplification of the truth -of the same principles. Almost every independent state had its -university or its college; and no matter how limited its territory, -or small its population, the spirit of the state system--the spirit -of liberty itself, breathed into these institutions the breath of -life, and made them the nurseries of genius and independence, of -science and literature. - -How soon was the whole character of Holland {270} changed by the -benign operation of the federative system, after she had thrown off -the odious yoke of the Spanish monarchy! Soon did the spirit of -freedom give rise to five universities in this small but interesting -country. "When the city of Leyden, in common with all the lower -countries, had fought through the bloodiest and perhaps the noblest -struggle for liberty on record, the great and good William of Orange -offered her immunities from taxes, that she might recover from her -bitter sufferings, and be rewarded for the important services which -she had rendered to the sacred cause. Leyden however declined the -offer, and asked for nothing but the privilege of erecting a -university within her walls, as the best reward for more than human -endurance and perseverance." This simple fact, says the writer from -whom I have obtained this anecdote, is a precious gem to the student -of history; for if the protection of the arts and sciences reflects -great honor upon a monarch, though it be for vanity's sake, the -fostering care with which communities or republics watch over the -cultivation of knowledge, and the other ennobling pursuits of man, -sheds a still greater lustre upon themselves. - -In our own country, it is true that we have not yet passed into the -gristle and bone of literary manhood. But we have already established -more colleges and universities than exist perhaps in any other -country on the face of the globe. We have already about seventy-six -in operation, and some of them even now, whether we consider the -munificence of their endowments, or the learning which they can boast -of, would do credit to any age or country. If the time shall ever -come when our state governments shall be broken down, and the power -shall be concentrated in one great national system, then will the era -of state universities be past, and a few bloated, corrupt, _jure -divino_ establishments will be reared in their stead, more interested -in the support of absolute power, and the suppression of truth, than -in the cause of liberty and freedom of investigation.[7] - -[Footnote 7: Perhaps in our country we have multiplied colleges to -too great an extent, and consequently have lessened their usefulness -by too great a division of the funds destined for their support. The -spirit of sectarianism co-operating with the system of state -governments, has produced this result. The college and university -ought, to some extent, to partake of the nature of a monopoly. There -should be some concentration of funds, or you will fail to obtain -adequate talents for your professorships. In our country -particularly, professors should be paid high, or they cannot be -induced to relinquish the more brilliant prospects which the learned -professions hold out to them. But the evil of too great a number of -colleges and universities, is one which will correct itself in the -course of time, by the ultimate failure of those not properly -endowed.] - -But it is said by some that the state system tinges all literature -with a political hue--that under this system politics becomes the -great, the engrossing study of the mind--that the lighter kinds of -literature and the fine arts will be neglected--that the mathematical -and physical sciences will be uncultivated--in fine, that the -literature of such a people will be purely utilitarian. This -objection is perhaps, founded principally upon too exclusive a view -of the past literary history of our own country. Up to this time -there has, if I may use the phraseology of political economy, been a -greater demand for political knowledge in this country than for any -other species of literature. The new political condition into which -we entered at the revolution--the formation of our state and federal -governments--the jarring and grating almost necessarily incident to -new political machinery just started into action--severely tested too -as ours has been, and is still, by the inharmonious and too often -selfish action of heterogeneous interests on each other--the -formation of new states, and the rapid development of new interests -and unforeseen powers, together with the great sparseness of our -population, have all contributed to turn the public mind of this -country principally to the field of politics and morals--and surely -we have arrived at an eminency on these subjects not surpassed in any -other country. - -One of the most distinguished writers on the continent of Europe, -even before the close of the eighteenth century, says most justly, -"the American literature, indeed, is not yet formed, but when their -magistrates are called upon to address themselves on any subject to -the public opinion, they are eminently gifted with the power of -touching all the affections of the heart, by expressing simple truths -and pure sentiments; and to do this, is already to be acquainted with -the most useful secret of elegant style." The Declaration of American -Independence, the Constitution of the United States, the speeches -delivered on it in the conventions of the states, particularly in -Virginia--the collection of essays known by the name of The -Federalist--the resolutions on the Alien and Sedition Laws, and the -report thereon in the Virginia Legislature of '98 and '99--with the -messages of our Presidents, documents from the Cabinets, speeches of -our congressmen,[8] and political {271} expositions of our -distinguished statesmen, form altogether a mass of political learning -not to be surpassed in any other country. We are not to wonder then -that a German writer of much celebrity, and a defender too of the -Holy Alliance, in full view of the nascent literature of our country, -should have proclaimed the 4th of July, '76, as the commencement of a -new era in the history of the world; nor that that eloquent royalist -of France, the Vicompte de Chateaubriand, should assert that the -representative republic, which has been first reduced to practice in -the United States, is the most splendid discovery of modern times. - -[Footnote 8: There is no species of talent which republican -institutions are better calculated to foster and perfect than that of -public speaking. Wherever the sovereignty resides with the people, -this talent becomes an engine of real power, and one of the surest -means of political advancement to the individual who possesses it. -Mr. Dunlop remarks, in his Roman Literature, that Cicero's treatise -_De Claris Oratoribus_, makes mention of scarcely one single orator -of any distinction in the Roman Republic, who did not rise to the -highest dignities of the state. We may certainly expect then, in the -progress of time, if our institutions shall endure, that the great -art of oratory will be carried to perhaps greater perfection here -than in any other country. Our federal system is particularly -favorable to the encouragement of this art. Had we but one great -legislature in this country, very few could ever be expected to -figure in it, and those would be the more elderly and sober. Under -these circumstances, the more ardent eloquence of the youthful -aspirant might fail to be developed, in consequence of the want of a -proper stimulus. The state governments now supply that stimulus in -full force, and furnish the first preparatory theatres for oratorical -display. When in addition to all this, we take into consideration the -training which our public men receive during the canvass, at the -elections, in public meetings, and even at the festive board, we must -acknowledge that our system is admirably calculated for the -development of the talent for public speaking. Perhaps I would not go -beyond the truth in making the assertion, that we have now in this -country more and better trained public speakers than are to be found -in any other. Judging from our own legislature and congress, I would -say, without hesitation, that our public men are generally the most -efficient speakers in the world, in comparison with their general -ability and the learning which they possess. In the latter, -unfortunately, they are too often very deficient. - -It is very true that our style of speaking is too diffusive. Our -orators too often seem to be speaking against time, and to be utterly -incapable of condensation. It has been observed, that it would take -three or four of the great speeches of Demosthenes to equal in length -a speech which a second rate member of Congress would deliver _de -Lana Caprina_. I am well aware that this style is frequently the -result of confused ideas, and an indistinct conception of the subject -under discussion. But it arises in part from the nature of our -republican institutions. Most of the speeches delivered in Congress -are really intended for the constituency of those who deliver them, -and not to produce an effect in Washington. They are consequently of -an elementary character, long and labored too, to suit the pleasure -and the capacity of the people. From this cause, combined with -others, it has happened that the division of labor in our -deliberative bodies has never been so complete as in the British -Parliament. When particular subjects are brought up in that body, -particular men are immediately looked to for information, and for the -discussion of them. Men who are not supposed to be qualified on them, -are coughed down when they interrupt the body with their crude -remarks. But in our own country, particular subjects have not been -thus appropriated to particular individuals; and when a matter of -importance is brought up for discussion, all are anxious to speak on -it, and it is not to be wondered at that the clouded intellect of -some of the speakers, together with the great courtesy of the body, -should sometimes lead on to long-winded and tiresome effusions. - -No body in ancient times displayed so much patience and courtesy -towards its speakers as the Senate of Rome, and we are told that the -speeches delivered before the Roman Senate were much longer than -those delivered before the _Comitia_.--There is no body in modern -times which displays more impatience than the French Chambers, and -accordingly you find generally that the speeches delivered before -them are very short. But whatever may be the cause of this tendency -to prolixity in many of our speakers, we may console ourselves with -the reflection that it is not the fault of all--that there are some -now in the United States who can compare with any in the world--that -the eloquence of our country is decidedly advancing, and will no -doubt shed a much brighter lustre over our future history, if we can -only preserve our federal system in all its original purity and -perfection.] - -May we not then, judging even from the past, form the most brilliant -conceptions of the future? When our wide spread territory shall be -filled up with a denser population--when larger cities shall be -erected within our borders, the necessary nurseries of a literary -class--when physical and mental labor shall be more subdivided, then -will the intellectual level of our country begin to rise; the -increasing competition in every department of industry will call for -greater labor, greater energy, and more learning on the part of the -successful candidates for distinction. And then may we expect that -every branch of literature will be cultivated, and every art be -practiced by the matured and invigorated genius of the country. - -But although in the progress of time we may expect that literature in -all its forms and varieties will be successfully cultivated here, yet -we must still acknowledge that the character of our political system -will give a most decided bias towards moral and political science. -Under a system of republics like ours, where the sovereignty resides -_de jure_ and _de facto_ in the people, the business of politics is -the business of every man. Men in power, in every age and country, -are disposed to grasp at more than has been confided to them; they -have always developed wolfish propensities. To guard against these -dangerous propensities in a republic, it is necessary that the people -in whom the sovereignty resides, should always be on the watch-tower; -they should never be caught slumbering at their posts; they should -take the alarm not only against the palpable and open usurpations of -power, but against those gradual, secret, imperceptible changes, -which silently dig away the very foundations of our constitution, and -create no alarm until they are ready to shake down the whole fabric -of our liberties. Under these circumstances, it is the business of -every man--it is more, it is the duty of every man--to think, to -reflect, to instruct himself, that he may be prepared to perform that -part at least which must necessarily devolve on each freeman in the -great political drama of our country. He must recollect that the -great experiment of a free government depends upon the intelligence -and the virtue of the people. It is this knowledge and this virtue -which constitute at once their power and their safety. It is in the -reliance on this power, resulting from the intelligence and virtue of -the people alone, that the honest patriot may well exclaim in the -glowing language of Sheridan on a different subject, "I will give to -the minister a venal house of peers--I will give him a corrupt and -servile house of commons--I will give him the full swing of the -patronage of his office--I will give him all the power that place can -confer, to overawe resistance and purchase up submission; and yet -armed, with this mighty power of the people, I will shake down from -its height corruption, and bury it beneath the ruins of the abuse it -was meant to shelter." - -Surely then it can be no disadvantage to a country to direct the -virtue and talents of its citizens principally to that science whose -principles, when well understood and practiced on, will secure the -liberty and happiness of the people, but when mistaken by ignorance, -or perverted by corruption, will subvert the one, and dissipate the -other. Look to the past history of the world, from the days of the -Patriarchs to the days of our Presidents, and we are at a loss, after -the review, to determine whether the world has been injured more by -the unwise and unskilful efforts of statesmen and philanthropists to -benefit, or by the nefarious attempts of wicked men and tyrants to -injure it. We shall find from this review, that where a Hampden, a -Sidney, and a Russell have been crushed by the tyrannous exercise of -power, and been wept over by posterity after they had fallen, -thousands have been reduced to misery, or sent untimely out of the -world, unpitied and unmourned, by the stupid legislation of ignorant -statesmen. Of such bodies of functionaries, we may well exclaim, in -the language of England's bard, - - "How much more happy were good Æsop's frogs - Than we?--for ours are animated logs, - With ponderous malice swaying to and fro, - And crushing nations with a stupid blow." - -The statistics of the densely populated countries of Europe and Asia -inform us, that there are large masses of population in those -countries constantly vacillating, if I may use the expression, -between life and death; a feather may decide the preponderance of the -scales, in favor of one or the other. In view of such a pregnant fact -as this, how awfully responsible becomes the duty {272} of the -legislator! Suppose, whilst he is endeavoring to organize the labor -and capital of the country, he should unfortunately tamper with the -sources of production, and, if I may use the beautiful simile of -Fenelon, like him who endeavors to enlarge the native springs of the -rock, should suddenly find that his labors had but served to dry them -up,--what calamities would not such legislative blunders at once -inflict upon that lowest and most destitute class, which is already -holding on upon life, with so frail a tenure! How many would be -hastened prematurely out of existence! And these are the melancholy -every-day consequences, too often misunderstood or unnoticed, of -ignorant legislation. How vastly different is the benign influence of -that wise legislator, whose laws, in the language of Bacon, "are -deep, not vulgar; not made on the spur of a particular occasion for -the present, but out of Providence for the future, to make the estate -of the people still more and more happy!" - -But not only should political science be a prominent study in every -republic, in consequence of its immense importance and universal -application, but it demands the most assiduous cultivation, because -of the intrinsic difficulties which belong to it. There is no science -in which we are more likely to ascribe effects to wrong causes than -in politics--there is none which demands a more constant exercise of -reason and observation, and in which first impressions are so likely -to be false. The moral and political sciences, particularly the -latter, are much more difficult than the physical and mathematical. -There is scarcely any intellect, no matter how common, which may not, -by severe study and close application, be brought at last to master -mere physical and mathematical science. Eminence here is rather a -proof of labor than of genius.[9] - -[Footnote 9: A very able reviewer in Blackwood, of Allison's History -of the French Revolution, says of Napoleon, in attempting to disprove -his precocious greatness, "even his faculty for mathematics, which -has been frequently adduced as one of the most sufficient proofs of -his future fame as a soldier, fails; perhaps no faculty of the human -mind is less successful in promoting those enlarged views, or that -rapid and vigorous comprehension of the necessities of the moment, -which form the essentials of the great statesman or soldier. The -mathematician is generally the last man equal to the sudden -difficulties of situation, or even to the ordinary problems of human -life. Skill in the science of equations might draw up a clear system -of tactics on paper. But it must be a mental operation, not merely of -a more active, but of a totally different kind, which constructed the -recovery of the battle at Marengo, or led the march to Ulm."] - -But in matters of morals and politics how many must turn their -attention to them, and how few become eminent! Suppose that the -exalted talents which have been turned into a political career in -this country, had been employed with the same assiduity in physics or -mathematics--to what perfection might they not have attained in those -sciences? If the genius and study which have been expended upon one -great subject in political economy, the Banks for example, could have -been directed with equal ardor to mathematics and physics, with what -complete success would they have been crowned? And yet this whole -subject of Banking is far, very far from being thoroughly -comprehended by the most expanded intellects of the age. Thus do we -find the moral and political departments of literature the most -useful,[10] and at the same time much the most difficult to cultivate -with success. They require too a concurrence of every other species -of knowledge to their perfection, and hence the literature of that -country may always be expected to be most perfect and most useful, in -which these branches are made the centre, the great nucleus around -which the others are formed.[11] - -[Footnote 10: Dr. Johnson in his Life of Milton, has given us his -opinion on these subjects, and as it is perfectly coincident with my -own, I cannot forbear to add it in a note. "The truth is," says the -Doctor, "that the knowledge of external nature and the sciences which -that knowledge requires or includes, are not the great nor frequent -business of the human mind. Whether we provide for action or -conversation--whether we wish to be useful or pleasing, the first -requisite is the religious and moral knowledge of right and wrong; -the next is an acquaintance with the history of mankind, and with -those examples which may be said to embody truth, and prove by events -the reasonableness of opinions. Prudence and justice are virtues and -excellences of all times and of all places. We are perpetually -moralists, but we are geometricians only by chance. Our intercourse -with intellectual nature is necessary; our speculations upon matter -are voluntary, and at leisure. Physical learning is of such rare -emergence, that one may know another half his life, without being -able to estimate his skill in hydrostatics or astronomy; but his -moral and prudential character immediately appears. Those authors, -therefore, are to be read at schools that supply most axioms of -prudence, most principles of moral truth, and most materials for -conversation."] - -[Footnote 11: Although our political institutions have the effect of -directing the matured minds of the country into the field of politics -and morals, yet we are not to suppose, on that account, that the -mathematical and physical sciences will be neglected here. In almost -all our colleges, particular attention is paid to these latter -branches. In fact, so far as I have been enabled to examine into the -condition of our colleges and universities, I would say the moral and -political sciences are almost always too much neglected. It is easy -generally to fill the mathematical and physical departments with able -professors, because those who are well qualified to fill those -departments, can find no other employments so lucrative and -honorable. But those who would make eminent moral and political -lecturers, would be generally well qualified, with but little -additional study, to enter into the learned professions, or into the -still more enticing field of politics, with the most unlimited -prospects before them. Hence, whilst in many of our colleges the -physical and mathematical chairs are most ably filled, you find the -moral and political professors but second rate men. Now talent and -real comprehension of mind are particularly required on the subjects -of morals and politics. In the mathematics and physics, the merest -dunce, if he teaches at all, must teach correctly. He may not give -the most concise, or the most beautiful, or the most recent -demonstration; but if he gives any demonstration at all, his -reasoning is irrefutable, and his conclusions undeniably true. How -vastly different are our speculations in politics and morals! What -fatal principles may ignorance or dishonesty inculcate here! In our -colleges, then the fixed sciences do now, and are likely in future to -receive most attention; and consequently, we need not fear that they -will be neglected. On the contrary, the danger seems to be, that they -may be studied too exclusively. - -Again, the wide extent of our country, the variety of our soils, our -immense mineralogical resources, our mountains and rivers, our -diversified geological phenomena, our canals, our rail roads, our -immense improvements of all descriptions, open a wide and unlimited -range for the research and practical skill of the physical and -mathematical student, which will always stimulate the talent of the -country sufficiently in this direction. Our past history too, -confirms my remarks; and the great names in mathematics and physics, -and the great and useful inventions in the arts, which have already -shed a halo of glory around our infant institutions, point us to that -brilliant prospect in the vista of the future, when our mathematical -and natural philosophers, if not the very first, will certainly rank -among the greatest of the world.] - -But again, the state system of government, in all its details, -awakens the genius and elicits the energies of the citizens, by the -high inducement to exertion held out to all,--from the stimulating -hope of influencing the {273} destinies of others, and becoming -useful to mankind and an ornament to our country. Under the benign -operation of the federative system, the hope of rising to some -distinction in the commonwealth, is breathed into us all. From the -highest to the lowest, we stand ready and anxious to step forth into -the service of our country. This universal desire to be useful--this -constant hope of rising to distinction--this longing after -immortality, arouses the spirit of emulation, excites all the powers -of reflection, calls forth all the energies of mind and body, and -makes man a greater, nobler, and more efficient being, than when he -moves on sluggishly in the dull routine of life, through the -unvarying, noiseless calm of despotism. All the rewards, all the -distinctions of arbitrary power, can never inspire that energy which -arises from the patriotic hope of being useful, and weaving our name -with the history of our country. - -Philosophy is the most frivolous and shallow of employments in a -country where it dares not penetrate into the institutions which -surround it. When reflection durst not attempt to amend or soften the -lot of mankind, it becomes unmanly and puerile. Look to the -literature of those deluded beings, who immured within the walls of -their monasteries, separated themselves from the great society of -their country, and vainly imagined that they were doing service to -their God, by running counter to those great laws which he has -impressed upon his creatures, and by violating those principles which -he has breathed into us all. What a melancholy picture is presented -to our view--what waste of time, of intellect, and of labor, on -subjects which true philosophy is almost ashamed to name! What -endless discussions, what pointless wit, what inconsequential -conclusions--in fine, what empty, useless nonsense, do we find in -that absurd philosophy reared up in seclusion, and entirely -unconnected with man and the institutions by which he is -governed![12] - -[Footnote 12: As a specimen, let us take the work of the celebrated -St. Thomas Aquinas, with the lofty title of Summa Totius Theologiæ, -1250 pages folio. In this work there are 168 articles on Love, 358 on -Angels, 200 on the Soul, 85 on Demons, 151 on Intellect, 134 on Law, -3 on the Catamenia, 237 on Sins, and 17 on Virginity. He treats of -Angels, says D'Israeli, their substances, orders, offices, natures, -habits, &c. as if he himself had been an old experienced Angel. When -men are thus cut off from the active pursuits of life, it is curious -to contemplate the very trifling character of their discussions and -labors. D'Israeli tells us that the following question was a favorite -topic for discussion, and thousands of the acutest logicians through -more than one century, never resolved it. "When a hog is carried to -market with a rope tied about its neck, which is held at the other -end by a man, whether is the _hog_ carried to market by the _rope_ or -the _man_?" The same writer too, tells us of a monk who was -sedulously employed through a long life, in discovering more than -30,000 new questions concerning the Virgin Mary, with appropriate -answers. And it was the same useless industry which induced the monks -often to employ their time in writing very _minutely_, until they -brought this worthless art to such perfection, as to write down the -whole Iliad on parchment that might be enclosed in a nutshell. In the -Imperial Library of Vienna, there is still preserved an extraordinary -specimen of chirography by a Jew, who had no doubt imbibed the -_in_-utilitarian spirit of the monks. On a single page, eight inches -long by six and a half broad, are written without abbreviations and -very legible to the naked eye, the Pentateuch and book of Ruth in -German; Ecclesiasticus in Hebrew; the Canticles in Latin; Esther in -Syriac; and Deuteronomy in French.] - -Nothing so much animates and cheers the literary man in his -intellectual labors, as the hope of being able to promote the -happiness of the human race. Hence the custom among the ancients of -blending together military, legislative, and philosophic pursuits, -contributed greatly to the progress of mental activity and -improvement. When thought may be the forerunner of action--when a -happy reflection may be instantaneously transformed into a beneficent -institution, then do the contemplations and reflections of a man of -genius ennoble and exalt philosophy. He no longer fears that the -torch of his reason will be extinguished without shedding a light -along the path of active life. He no longer experiences that -embarrassing timidity, that crushing shame, which genius, condemned -to mere speculation, must ever feel in the presence of even an -inferior being, when that being is invested with a power which may -influence the destiny of those around him--which may enable him to -render the smallest service to his country, or even to wipe away one -tear from affliction's cheek. - -I am not now dealing in vague conjecture; the history of the past -will bear me out in the assertions which I have made. In casting a -glance over the nations of antiquity, our attention is arrested by -none so forcibly as by the little Democracies of Greece. I will not -occupy the attention of this society by the details of that history -which is graven upon the memory of us all. I will not stop here to -relate the warlike achievements of that extraordinary system of -governments which, covering an extent of territory not greater than -that of our own state, even with division among themselves, was yet -enabled to meet, with their small but devoted bands, the countless -hosts of Persia, led on by their proud and vain-glorious monarch, and -to roll back in disgrace and defeat, the mighty tide upon the East. -Nor will I recount the trophies which they won in philosophy, or -describe their beautiful and sublime productions in the arts, which -they at once created and perfected. Nor will I detain you with an -account of that matchless eloquence displayed in their popular -assemblies, which the historian tells us drew together eager, gazing, -listening crowds from all Greece, as if about to behold the most -splendid spectacle which the imagination of man could conceive, or -even the universe could present. The history of Greece is too well -known to us all to require these details. A people with such -historians as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon, acquires a strange -pre-eminence--a wonderful notoriety among the nations of the earth. -The extraordinary power of this cluster of little states, the -superiority of their literature, the resistless energy of the minds -and bodies of their citizens, whether for weal or woe--in short, -their real greatness, are acknowledged by all. - -What then, we may well be permitted to ask, could have generated so -much greatness of mind, so much energy and loftiness of character in -this apparently secluded corner of Europe, scarcely visible on the -world's map? It was not the superiority of her climate and soil. -Spain--worn out and degenerate Spain, enjoys the genial climate of -the Athenian, and possesses a soil more fertile. It was not the -superior protection which her governments afforded to persons and -property, which generated this wonderful character. Property was -almost as unsafe amid the turbulent factions of Greece, as under the -despotisms of the East; and the stroke of tyranny was as often -inflicted upon {274} patriots and statesmen, by the ungrateful hand -of a capricious and unbalanced democracy, as by the great monarchs of -Persia, or by the barbarian kings of Scythia. No!--it was the system -of independent state governments, which, badly organized as they -were, without a proper system of representation and responsibility, -and often shaken by faction and torn to pieces by discord, -nevertheless extended their inspiring, animating influence over all, -and drew forth from the shade of retirement or solitude the talent -and energy of the people, wherever they existed. It was this system -of state government which so completely identified each citizen of -Greece with that little body politic with which his destiny was -connected--which breathed into his soul that ardent patriotism which -can sacrifice self upon the altar of our country's happiness, and -which could make even an Alcibiades, or a Themistocles, whilst -laboring under the bitter curse of their country, stop short in their -vindictive career, amid their meditations of mischief and vengeance, -and cast many a longing, lingering, pitying look back upon the -distresses of that ungrateful city that had driven them forth from -its walls. - -The great moral which may be drawn from the history of Greece, is one -which the patriot in no age or clime should ever forget. In looking -over this little system of states, we find uniformly that each -displayed genius, energy, and patriotism, while really free and -independent; but the moment one was overawed and conquered by its -neighbor, it lost its greatness, its patriotism--even its virtue. And -when, at last, a great state arose in the north of Greece, and placed -a monarch upon its throne, who substituted the obedient spirit of the -mercenary soldier and crouching courtier, for the independent genius -of liberty and patriotism--who overawed Greece by his armies, and -silenced the Council of Amphictyon by his presence--then was it found -that the days of Grecian greatness had been numbered, and that the -glory of these republics was destroyed forever; then was it seen that -the Spartan lost his patriotism, and the Athenian that energy of mind -almost creative, which could lead armies and navies to battle and to -victory, adorn and enrich the stores of philosophy and literature, -agitate the public assemblies from the _Bema_, or make the marble and -the canvass breathe. The battle of Cheronea overthrew at the same -time the state governments, the liberties, the prosperity, and, worst -of all, the virtue and the towering intellect of Greece. - -With the destruction of the governments of her independent states, -Greece lost the great animating principle of her system. Forming but -an insignificant subject province of the great Macedonian kingdom, -and afterwards of the still greater empire of Rome, her sons -preserved for a time the books and the mere learning of their -renowned ancestors; but the spirit, the energy, the principle of -thought and reflection,--the mind,--were all gone. "For more than ten -centuries, (says an eloquent historian) the Greeks of Byzantium -possessed models of every kind, yet they did not suggest to them one -original idea; they did not give birth to a copy worthy of coming -after these masterpieces. Thirty millions of Greeks, the surviving -depositaries of ancient wisdom, made not a single step, during twelve -centuries, in any one of the social sciences. There was not a citizen -of free Athens who was not better skilled in the science of politics -than the most erudite scholar of Byzantium; their morality was far -inferior to that of Socrates--their philosophy to that of Plato and -Aristotle, upon whom they were continually commenting. They made not -a single discovery in any one of the physical sciences, unless we -except the lucky accident which produced the Greek fire. They loaded -the ancient poets with annotations, but they were incapable of -treading in their footsteps; not a comedy or a tragedy was written at -the foot of the ruins of the theatres of Greece; no epic poem was -produced by the worshippers of Homer; not an ode by those of Pindar. -Their highest literary efforts do not go beyond a few epigrams -collected in the Greek Anthology, and a few romances. Such is the -unworthy use which the depositaries of every treasure of human wit -and genius make of their wealth, during an uninterrupted course of -transmission for more than a thousand years." And such will always be -the destiny of states as soon as they are moulded into one -consolidated empire, with a controlling despotism at the centre. - -But while the states of Greece were thus sinking into insignificance, -under the crushing weight of one great consolidated government,--in -another part of Europe, almost as small and secluded as Greece, -little confederacies or associations of independent states were -rapidly developing a literature and a character equal to those of the -ancient Greek, and affording perhaps a still more striking and -beautiful illustration of the truth of the principles for which I -have contended this night. It was Italy that first restored -intellectual light to Europe, after the long and gloomy night of -ignorance and barbarism, which the Goth, the Vandal and the Hun had -shed over the western half of the Roman world. It was Italy which -recalled youth to the study of laws and philosophy--created the taste -for poetry and the fine arts--revived the science and literature of -antiquity, and gave prosperity to commerce, manufactures and -agriculture. And what was it, let me ask, which made this small -peninsula the cradle of commerce, of the arts, sciences and -literature--in one word, of the civilization of modern Europe? It was -because the whole of this beautiful and interesting country was -dotted over with little republics or democracies, which, like those -of Greece, applied their stimulating power to every portion of the -soil of Italy. These little states, it is true, were factious, -turbulent and revolutionary, but they awakened the genius and -stimulated the energies of the whole people. - -The exertions of this people were truly wonderful. No nation in any -age of the world has ever raised up in its cities, and even in its -villages, so many magnificent temples,--which even now attract the -stranger from every country and clime to the classic soil of Italy. -We find throughout this land, whether on the extensive plains of -Lombardy, or on the fertile hills of Tuscany and Romagna, or on the -now deserted _campania_ of the Patrimony of St. Peter, towns of the -most splendid character, reared during the palmy days of modern -Italy; and in those cities we find long lines of once stately palaces -now tumbling into ruins. Their gates, their columns, their -architraves, says the eloquent historian of Italy, remain, but the -wood is worm-eaten and decayed, the crystal glasses have been broken, -the lead has been taken from the roofs, and the stranger from one end -to the {275} other of this _monumental_ land, asks in mournful -sadness in each town through which he passes,--Where now is the -population which could have required so many habitations? Where is -the commerce which could have filled so many magazines? Where are -those opulent citizens who could have lived in so many palaces? Where -now are those numerous crowds that bowed in reverential awe and -devotion before the altars of Christ, of the Virgin and the Saints? -Where now are the grandeur and magnificence of the living, which -should have replaced that grandeur and magnificence of the dead, of -which their monuments so eloquently tell? All are gone. While other -nations have been growing in importance and multiplying the materials -of their history as they approach the age in which we live, how -different has been the mournful destiny of Italy! The present has -well been called the epoch of death in that lovely land. When we -observe, says the historian, the whole of Italy, whether we examine -the physiognomy of the soil, or the works of man, or man himself, we -always regard ourselves as being in the land of the dead; every where -we are struck by the feebleness and degeneracy of the race that now -is, compared with that which has been. The sun of Italy now sheds as -warm and vivifying rays over the land as before--the earth remains as -fertile--the Appenines present to our view the same varient smiling -aspect--the fields are as abundantly watered by the genial showers of -heaven, and all the lower animals of nature preserve here their -pristine beauty and habits. Man too, at birth, seems in this -delightful climate, to be endowed still with the same quick creative -imagination, with the same susceptibility of deep, passionate -feeling--with the same wonderful aptitude of mind--and yet man alone -has changed here! In contrast with his fathers-- - - "As the slime, - The dull green ooze of the receding deep, - Is with the dashing of the spring-tide foam, - That drives the sailor shipless to his home." - -It is the change in government--the fatal change in the political -destiny of the Italian, which has wrought this melancholy change in -his whole nature. When this beautiful land was covered with leagues -of independent states, inspired with the genius of liberty and -political independence,--the stimulating influence of the government -was felt every where--it animated and aroused all--it communicated -the spirit of activity and enterprise, the love of home and the -ardent love of country to all the citizens alike--from the proud lord -of Venice, whose stately palace was lashed by the wave of the -Adriatic, to the poor peasant whose thatched and humble cottage lay -in some secluded solitary hollow of the Alps or the Appenines. Under -this system of government there was no favored spot upon which the -treasures of the nation were expended; there was no Thebes, no -Babylon, no imperial Rome built up, adorned and beautified by the -degradation and utter prostration of all the rest. We might almost -say of Italy what has been affirmed of Omnipotence itself--its centre -was every where, its circumference no where. Every little independent -state, no matter how limited its area or small its population, had -its great men, its thriving cities, its noble monuments. The little -Florentine democracy with but eighty thousand souls, had more great -men within its limits than any of the great kingdoms of Europe; and -all were animated with the spirit of patriotism, of industry,[13] of -learning. - -[Footnote 13: "The habit of industry," says Sismondi, "was the -distinctive characteristic of the Italians even to the middle of the -15th century. The first rank at Florence, Venice, and Genoa, was -occupied by merchants; and the families who possessed the offices of -the state, of the church or the army, did not for that reason give up -their business. Philip Strozzi, brother-in-law of Leo X, the father -of Mareschal Strozzi, and the grandfather of Capua, the friend of -several sovereigns, and the first citizen of Italy, remained even to -the end of his life chief of a banking house. He had seven sons, but -in spite of his immense fortune, he suffered none of them to be -brought up in idleness."] - -No wonder then that the citizens of Italy should have prospered amid -their domestic broils, their factions, their revolutions--even amid -the sanguinary conflicts of the Guelph and the Ghibeline. If the -energy and elasticity of the mind be not destroyed by the pressure of -despotism, it is curious to contemplate the wonderfully recuperative -powers of man, and to behold the appalling difficulties which he can -surmount, undismayed and unscathed. You may prostrate him to day, but -the energy and vitality that is within him will raise him up on the -morrow.[14] Of all sorts of destruction, of every kind of death, that -is the worst, because the most productive of melancholy consequences, -which reaches the mind itself. That system of government which slays -the mind, is the system which, at the same time reaches the sanctuary -of the heart, overthrows the purity of morals, and forges the fetters -for the slave. And such a government as this have the Spaniard the -Frenchman and the German rivetted but too fatally upon Italy. The day -that saw those modern Goths and Vandals pouring their mercenary -hordes over the Alps to rob and plunder, was a black day for Italy, -and well might the friend of that lovely land have then exclaimed in -the language of the poet, - - "Oh! Rome, the spoiler or the spoil of France, - From Brennus to the Bourbon, never, never - Shall foreign standard to thy walls advance, - But Tiber shall become a mournful river." - -[Footnote 14: Whilst Italy was free, there was no country which could -repair its losses with so much despatch; the town that was sacked and -burnt to-day, would be built up and stored with wealth on the morrow, -and the losses of one excited the sympathies and support of all those -engaged in the same cause. When the Emperor Frederic carried fire and -sword through the Milanese territory, and left the treasury of that -state completely exhausted, we are told that the rich citizens soon -replenished it from their private purses, contenting themselves in -the mean time with coarse bread, and cloaks of black stuff. And at -the command of their consuls they left Milan to join their fellow -citizens in rebuilding _with their own hands_ the walls and houses of -Tortona, Rosata, Tricate, Galiate, and other towns, which had -suffered in the contest for the common cause.] - -The independence of the little states of Italy is now gone, and with -it all the real greatness of that country. The power that now sways -the Italian, emanates from a nation situated afar off on the banks of -the Danube. And can we wonder while the Austrian soldier stands -sentinel in the Italian cities, that their citizens should - - "Creep, - Crouching and crab-like, through their sapping streets." - -But enough of a spectacle so sad as this![15] - -[Footnote 15: Small states, if truly independent, are very favorable -to the production of great characters, and even great virtues. "The -regeneration of liberty in Italy," says Sismondi, "was signalized -still more, if it were possible, by the development of the moral, -than by that of the intellectual character of the {276} Italians. The -sympathy existing among fellow-citizens, from the habit of living for -each other, and by each other--of connecting every thing with the -good of all, produced in those republics virtues which despotic -states cannot even imagine." But the moment the independence of the -small states is destroyed by the overshadowing and overawing -influence of larger ones, then does the system work the most -disastrous consequences upon the political, moral, and literary -character of the citizens. A little state overawed by a large one, -instantly has recourse to cunning, intrigue, and duplicity, to -accomplish its ends. Cæsar Borgia in Italy, says Mr. Hume, had -recourse to more villainy, hypocrisy, and meanness, to get possession -of a few miles of territory, than was practised by Julius Cæsar, -Zenghis, or Tamerlane for the conquest of a large portion of the -world. Hence we are not to wonder that Italy should become the most -infamous of all schools, in the production of subtile, intriguing, -hypocritical politicians, and that the literature should soon become -as corrupt as the political morals of the country. The Marini, the -Achillini in poetry, and the Bernini in the arts, had a reputation -similar to that of Concini, Mazarini, Catherine, and Mary di Medici -in politics.] - -Did the limits which I have prescribed to myself in this address -allow it, I could easily adduce the history of the Swiss Cantons, the -Netherlands and Holland, the Hanseatic League, the little states -formerly around the Baltic, and even the Germanic Confederation, as -confirmation strong of the truth of the positions which I have taken -in favor of the federative system. Indeed I might go farther than -this, and show that the feudal aristocracy of the middle ages, -horrible as was its oppression, calamitous as were its petty wars, -and feuds, and dissensions, intolerable as was that anarchical -confusion which it generated in Europe towards the close of the tenth -century, was nevertheless the instrument which kept alive the mind of -man in the great nations of Christendom, by splitting up the powers -of government among the Baronial Lords, and thereby preventing that -fatal tendency to centralism and consolidation, which would -inevitably have shrouded the mind of Europe in inextricable darkness. -Far be from me that vain presumption which would dare to scan the -mysterious plans of Providence; but I have always thought that the -regeneration of the mind of Europe required that the barbarian should -come from the North and the East--that an Alaric, a Genseric and an -Attila, should pour out the vials of their wrath upon the Roman's -head--that the monstrous, corrupt and gigantic fabric of his power -might be broken to pieces by barbarian hordes, who had not the genius -and political skill requisite to establish another great military -despotism on its ruins. - -After this review I turn with pleasure again to our own system of -government. We have seen how stimulating were the little republics of -Greece and of Italy, to the genius of those countries. But their -systems were not made for peaceable endurance--they were too -disunited, too turbulent, too prone to civil wars; hence they either -fell a prey to some ambitious state in their own system, or invited -by their reckless internal dissensions the foreigner into their land, -who broke down their institutions, overthrew their liberty, and -imposed upon their submissive necks the galling yoke of military -despotism. But those venerated fathers of our republics, who framed -the federal constitution, came forward to their task in full view of -the history of the republics of the ancient and modern world, with -that almost holy spirit of freedom and patriotism which gave them -that undaunted courage and unremitting perseverance that enabled them -to wade through the blood and turmoil of the revolution. They -completed their task, and the wisdom and virtue of our confederacy -did sanction their work, and long may that work endure if -administered in that spirit of purity and virtue which inspired those -who framed it. - -Our states are much larger than the little democracies of ancient -Greece or of modern Italy--the new and improved principle of -representation, combined with the modern improvements in the whole -machinery of government, have rendered the republican form much -better suited to large states than formerly. Some of our states may -perhaps be too large, and others too small. But our ancestors very -wisely avoided that geometrical policy, which would have divided our -country into equal squares, like France in the dark days of her -revolution. "No man ever was attached," says Burke, "by a sense of -pride, partiality, or real affection, to a description of square -measurement. He never will glory in belonging to the chequer No. 71, -or to any other badge ticket. We begin our public affections in our -families. No cold relation is a zealous citizen. We pass on to our -neighborhoods and our habitual provincial connections;" and these -ties and habits were respected by our forefathers. No sovereign -state, no matter how small, was disfranchised--the giant and the -dwarf had their rights and liberties alike respected and secured in -this new system, and all were bound together by a wise and beneficent -plan of government, based upon the mutual interests and sympathies of -all the members of the confederacy--a plan which was wisely framed to -give lasting peace to our country, and to demonstrate the -inapplicability to our portion of the western hemisphere at least, of -the gloomy philosophy of the European statesman, that the natural -condition of man is war. Thus organized, our system was calculated to -apply the beneficial stimulus of government to every portion of our -soil and every division of our population, and at the same time in -the midst of profound peace and freedom of intercourse, both social -and commercial, among the states, to secure that enlarged and -extended theatre for action, which may stimulate and reward the -exalted genius and talent of the country, and crown the pyramid of -our greatness. - -But I must turn from this view of my subject, which has ever been so -delightful to my mind, to the contemplation always gloomy, of the -dangerous evils which may beset us in our progress onwards. It is too -true that there can be nothing pure in this world; good and evil are -always intertwined. It has well been said that the wave which wafts -to our shore the genial seed that may spring up and gladden our land -with luxuriant vegetation, may unfold the deadly crocodile. - -One of the most fatal evils with which the republican system of -government is liable to be assailed, is the diffusion of a spirit of -agrarianism among the indigent classes of society. This spirit is now -abroad in the world--it is fearfully developing itself in the -insurrectionary heavings and tumults of continental Europe, which, -however ineffectual now, do nevertheless mark the great internal -conflagration--"the march of that mighty burning, which however -intangible by human vigilance, is yet hollowing the ground under -every community of the civilized world." England's most eloquent and -learned divine, tells us but too truly that {277} "there now sits an -unnatural scowl on the aspect of the population, a resolved -sturdiness in their attitude and gait; and whether we look to the -profane recklessness of their habits, or to the deep and settled -hatred which rankles in their hearts, we cannot but read in these -moral characteristics of this land, the omens of some great and -impending overthrow." - -In our own more happy country, the almost unlimited extension of -suffrage in the most populous states, the frequent appeals made to -the indigent and the destitute by demagogues for the purpose of -inflaming their passions, and of exciting that most blighting and -deadly hostility of all, the hostility of the poor against the -rich--the tumults and riots at the elections in our great cities--the -lawless mobs of the north which have already set the civil authority -at defiance, and have pulled down and destroyed the property of the -citizen--all are but premonitory symptoms of the approaching -calamity--they are but the rumbling sound which precedes the mighty -shock of the terrible earthquake. If these things happen now, what -may we not expect hereafter? At present the great territorial -resources of our country offer the most stimulating reward to labor -and enterprise. The laborer of to-day looks forward, and hopes, yes, -knows, that by his industry he is to be the capitalist of to-morrow. -He feels a prospective interest in the defence of property. The -little German farmer with a hundred acres of poor land in the Key -Stone State, clad in the coarsest raiment, contented with the -simplest food, and saving from his hard earnings the small sum of one -hundred dollars a year, would not wish the property of the country to -be thrown in jeopardy--he would shudder at the idea of a general -scramble, lest he might lose that little patrimony around which the -very affections of his heart have been twined. - -But the time must come when the powerfully elastic spring of our -rapidly increasing numbers shall fill up our wide spread territory -with a dense population--when the great safety valve of the west will -be closed against us--when millions shall be crowded into our -manufactories and commercial cities--then will come the great and -fearful pressure upon the engine--then will the line of demarkation -stand most palpably drawn between the rich and the poor, the -capitalist and the laborer--then will thousands, yea, millions arise, -whose hard lot it may be to labor from morn till eve through a long -life, without the cheering hope of passing from that toilsome -condition in which the first years of their manhood found them, or -even of accumulating in advance that small fund which may release the -old and infirm from labor and toil, and mitigate the sorrows of -declining years. Many there will be even, who may go to and fro and -be able to say in the melancholy language of Holy Writ, "the foxes -have holes, and the birds of the air their nest, but the son of man -has not where to lay his head." When these things shall come--when -the millions, who are always under the pressure of poverty, and -sometimes on the verge of starvation, shall form your numerical -majority, (as is the case now in the old countries of the world) and -universal suffrage shall throw the political power into their hands, -can you expect that they will regard as sacred the tenure by which -you hold your property? I almost fear the frailties and weakness of -human nature too much, to anticipate confidently such justice. When -hunger is in the land, we can scarcely expect, by any species of -legerdemain, to turn the eyes and thoughts of the sufferers from the -flesh pots of Egypt. The old Roman populace demanded a regular -distribution of corn from the public granaries; the Grecian populace -received bribes, fined and imprisoned their wealthy men, or made them -build galleys, equip soldiers, give public feasts, and furnish the -victims for the sacrifices at their own expense.[16] The mode of -action in modern times may be changed, but the result will be the -same if the spirit of agrarianism shall once get abroad in our land. -France has already furnished us with the great moral. First comes -disorganization and legislative plunder, then the struggle of -factions and civil war, and lastly a military despotism, into whose -arms all will be driven by the intolerable evils of anarchy and -rapine. I fondly hope that the future may bring along with it a -sovereign remedy for these evils, but what that remedy may be, it is -past perhaps the sagacity of man now to determine. We can only say in -the language of Kepler upon a far different subject,--"Hæc et cetera -hujusmodi latent in pandectis œvi sequentis, non antea discenda, quam -librum hunc deus arbiter seculorum recluserit mortalibus." - -[Footnote 16: When an individual was tried before an Athenian -tribunal, his wealth was generally a serious disadvantage to his -cause, and there was nothing which the defence labored harder to -establish than the poverty of the accused. "I know," says the orator -Lisias, in his defence of Nicophemus, "how difficult it will be -effectually to refute the report of the great riches of Nicophemus. -The present scarcity of money in the city, and the wants of the -treasury which the forfeiture has been calculated upon to supply, -will operate against me." In the celebrated dialogue of Xenophon, -called the Banquet, he makes a rich man who has suddenly become poor, -congratulate himself upon his poverty; "inasmuch," he says, "as -cheerfulness and confidence are preferable to constant apprehension, -freedom to slavery, being waited upon, to waiting upon others. When I -was a rich man in this city, I was under the necessity of courting -the sycophants, knowing it was in their power to do me mischief which -I could little return. Nevertheless, I was continually receiving -orders from the people, to undertake some expenses for the -commonwealth, and I was not allowed to go any where out of Attica. -But now I have lost all my foreign property, and nothing accrues from -my Attic estate, and all my goods are sold, I sleep any where -fearless; I am considered as faithful to the government; I am never -threatened with prosecutions, but I have it in my power to make -others fear; as a freeman I may stay in the country or go out of it -as I please; the rich rise from their seats for me as I approach, and -make way for me as I walk; I am now like a tyrant, whereas I was -before an absolute slave; and whereas before I paid tribute to the -people, now a tribute from the public maintains me." This picture, -though perhaps overwrought, marks still but too conclusively the -agrarian spirit in Greece.] - -In the mean time I may boldly assert that the frame work of our -southern society is better calculated to ward off the evils of this -agrarian spirit, which is so destructive to morals, to mind and to -liberty, than any other mentioned in the annals of history. Domestic -slavery, such as ours, is the only institution which I know of, that -can secure that spirit of equality among freemen, so necessary to the -true and genuine feeling of republicanism, without propelling the -body politic at the same time into the dangerous vices of -agrarianism, and legislative intermeddling between the laborer and -the capitalist. The occupations which we follow, necessarily and -unavoidably create distinctions in society. It is {278} said that all -occupations are honorable. This is certainly true, if you mean that -no honest employment is disgraceful. But to say that all confer equal -honor, if well followed even, is not true. Such an assertion -militates alike against the whole nature of man and the voice of -reason. But whatever may be the vain deductions of mere theorists -upon this subject, one thing is certain--Reason informed me of its -truth long before experience had shown it to me in actual life--The -hirelings who perform all the menial offices of life, will not and -cannot be treated as equals by their employers. And those who stand -ready to execute all our commands, no matter what they may be, for -mere pecuniary reward, cannot feel themselves equal to us in reality, -however much their reason may be bewildered by the voice of -sophistry. - -Now, let us see what is likely to be the effect of universal suffrage -in a state where there are no slaves. Either the dependant classes, -the laborers and menial servants, will be driven forward by the -dictation of their employers and the bribery of the man of property, -thus giving the government a proclivity towards an aristocracy of -wealth;[17] or they become discontented with their condition, and ask -why these differences among beings pronounced equal--they look with -eyes of cupidity upon the fortunes of the rich. The demagogue -perceives their ominous sullenness, and marks the hatred which is -rankling in their hearts--then the parties of the rich and the poor -are formed--then come the legislative plunder and the dark train of -evils consequent on the spirit of equality, which is in fact, in such -a community, the spirit of agrarianism. - -[Footnote 17: Men whose impulses are all communicated by the -expectation of small pecuniary rewards, quickly acquire that -suppleness of conscience, which renders them peculiarly liable to -bribery. Take, for example, the waiter in an hotel--it is the hope of -little gains that moves him in any direction which you may dictate, -and which makes him a ready tool for the execution of any project -whatever. His motto is, _I take the money and my employer the -responsibility_. Bring this man to the polls, and offer him money for -his vote, and the probability is that he would not refuse that which -the whole education and training of his life would impel him to -receive.] - -But in our slaveholding country the case is far different. Our -laboring classes and menials are all slaves of a different color from -their masters--the source of greatest distinction among the freemen -is taken away; and the spirit of equality, the true spirit of genuine -republicanism may exist here,--without leading on to corruption on -the one side or agrarianism on the other.[18] Political power is thus -taken from the hands of those who might abuse it, and placed in the -hands of those who are most interested in its judicious exercise. Our -law most wisely ordains that the slaves "shall not be sought for in -public council, nor sit high in the congregation: they shall not sit -high on the judges' seats nor understand the sentence of judgment; -they cannot declare justice and judgment; and they shall not be found -where parables are spoken. How can he get wisdom that holdeth the -plough, that glorieth in the goad, that driveth oxen and is occupied -in their labors, and whose talk is of bullocks?" Lycurgus, more than -two thousand years ago, in his celebrated system of laws, was so well -aware of the aristocratic feeling generated by diversity of -occupation, that he decreed in order that a perfect spirit of -equality might reign among the Spartans, that slaves alone should -practice the most laborious arts, or fill the menial stations. And in -this particular he showed perhaps as much sagacity as in any other -law of the whole system. We want no legislation in the south to -secure this effect--it flows spontaneously from our social system. - -[Footnote 18: I will take leave here to introduce a short extract -from my Essay on Slavery, in corroboration of the assertions which I -have made. "The citizen of the north will not shake hands familiarly -with his servant, and converse, and laugh, and dine with him, no -matter how honest and respectable he may be. But go to the south, and -you will find that no white man feels such inferiority of rank as to -be unworthy of association with those around him. Color alone is here -the badge of distinction, the true mark of aristocracy; and all who -are white are equal, in spite of the variety of occupation. The same -thing is observed in the West Indies. 'Of the character common to the -white resident of the West Indies,' says B. Edwards, 'it appears to -me that the leading feature is an independent spirit, and a display -of _conscious equality_ throughout all ranks and conditions. The -poorest white person seems to consider himself nearly on a level with -the condition of the richest; and emboldened by this idea, he -approaches his employer with extended hand, and a freedom which, in -the countries of Europe, is seldom displayed by men in the lower -orders of life towards their superiors.'"] - -But whilst the political effects of our social system are so -peculiarly beneficial, the moral effects are no less striking and -advantageous. I have no hesitation in affirming that the relation -between capitalist and laborer in the south is kinder, and more -productive of genuine attachment, than exists between the same -classes any where else on the face of the globe. The slave is happy -and contented with his lot, unless indeed the very demons of -Pandemonium shall be suffered to come among us and destroy his -happiness by their calumnious falsehoods and hypocritical promises. -He compares himself with his own race and his own color alone, and he -sees that all are alike--he does not covet the wealth of the rich -man, nor envy that happiness which liberty imparts to the patriot, -but he identifies all his interests with those of his master--free -from care--free from that constant feeling of insecurity which -continually haunts the poor man of other countries, he moves on in -the round of his existence, cheerful, contented and grateful.[19] We -have no Manchester and Smithfield riots here--no breaking of -machinery--no scowl of discontent or sullenness hovering over the -brow--no midnight murders for the money which we have in our -houses--no melancholy forebodings of that agrarian spirit which calls -up the very demon of wrath to apply the torch to the political -edifice. The statistics of the slaveholding population prove that it -is the most quiet and secure population in the world--there are fewer -great crimes and murders among them than in any other form in which -society can exist. I defy the world too, to produce a parallel to the -rapid improvement of the slave on our continent since the period of -his landing from the shores of his forefathers. And when the -philanthropist tells us to plant our colonies on the coast of that -benighted region, that the tide of civilization may be rolled back on -Africa, the very enthusiasm of his {279} language marks the -inappreciable improvement which slavery has here wrought upon the -character of the negro. On the other hand the master is attached to -his slaves by every tie of interest and sympathy, generated by a -connection that sometimes lasts for life. He does not work them -to-day for sixteen hours, reducing them to mere bread and water, and -capriciously discharge them to-morrow from his employment, and turn -them adrift without money or resource, upon a cold and inhospitable -world. When their labor will not support themselves, the master is -bound to consume his capital for their sustenance. There are evils, -no doubt, incidental to this relation--but where is the relation of -life exempt from them?[20] - -[Footnote 19: Any one who has ever seen the negro at hard labor by -the side of the white man, or who has noticed him while performing -menial services along with his white associate, has marked no doubt -the striking difference. The negro is all gaiety and -cheerfulness--his occupation seems to ennoble him. His companion, on -the contrary, whom the world calls a freeman, but really treats as a -slave, is seen sullen and discontented, and feels himself degraded -for the very reason that he is called a freeman.] - -[Footnote 20: Whatever philanthropists may say upon the subject, I -believe the history of the world will bear me out in the assertion -that slavery is certainly the most efficient and perhaps the only -means by which the contact of the civilized man with the barbarian -can contribute to the advantage and civilization of the latter. The -relation of master and slave is the only means which has ever yet -been devised by the wisdom of man, capable of bringing the element of -civilization into close union with that of barbarism, without either -dragging down the civilized man to a level with the barbarian, or -corrupting and then exterminating the latter in the attempt to -elevate him. Every one who is acquainted with the condition of -society in our southern country, will bear witness to the truth of -the assertion, that whilst slavery by producing the closest and most -constant intercourse between the whites and blacks, elevates the -character, purifies the morals, and speeds on the civilization of the -latter, it has not the slightest tendency to introduce their -barbarism or their vices among the former. It is for this very -reason, while virtue and knowledge may travel downwards, and vice and -barbarism cannot move upwards, that the institution of such slavery -as ours becomes the greatest security for virtue, and the most -certain preservative of morals. It is this inestimable feature in -this most slandered institution, which keeps the upper stratum of the -social fabric in the healthiest and soundest state, which makes the -character of the slaveholder so lofty, generous, chivalrous, and -sternly incorruptible wherever we find him. It is this same feature -too which contributes most to elevate and adorn the character of the -mistress of slaves--which enshrines her heart in the very purity and -constancy of the affections, and makes her the ornament and -immaculate blessing of that delightful domestic sanctuary, which is -never to be polluted by the vile and wicked arts of the base -designing corrupter of the female heart. - -What then, in presence of these facts, must we think of the -slanderous tongues that would dare asperse the character of southern -females--that would endeavor to blacken that almost spotless purity -of heart, which I hope will forever remain the proud characteristic -of southern women? Ignorance does not excuse such calumniators. The -men who can attack, without having taken even the trouble to -ascertain the facts, that class whose virtue constitutes their -greatest ornament, and whom the usages and customs of the world have -driven from the active bustling arena of life into the shade of -retirement, there to be loved, honored, and protected by all who are -noble and generous, show to the world the real hollowness of their -hearts and the reckless impurity of their intentions. But when they -cannot even plead such ignorance, their past lives should not be -suffered to shield them from the imputation of crime, and the mantle -of that pure and beautiful religion, preached by the meek Saviour of -mankind, was never designed to cover the canting hypocrisy of the -insidious calumnious slanderer. It is Sterne who says that the man -who is capable of doing _one dirty trick_ can do another--he thus at -once unmasks his real character, and stands forth confessed in all -his naked deformity before the world. And we may perhaps but too -truly assert, that those whose minds are incapable of comprehending -the purity, whilst they maliciously asperse the innocence of female -character, are the beings who are most apt at last to be displayed as -the true Tartuffes of the world.] - -I would say then, let us cherish this institution which has been -built up by no sin of ours--let us cleave to it as the ark of our -safety. Expediency, morality and religion, alike demand its -continuance; and perhaps I would not hazard too much in the -prediction, that the day will come when the whole confederacy will -regard it as the sheet anchor of our country's liberty. - -I will now conclude my long address, by a brief notice of two results -which may happen to our system of government, either of which would -be fatal to the system--dismemberment on the one side, or -consolidation, on the other. The evils of dismemberment may be -quickly told. Separate governments, or confederacies, would of course -have rivalries and jealousies and wars. Our militia would be found -inadequate to our defence; standing armies and navies would be -established: and all history has shown that these will trample upon -the civil authority. War with their concomitant establishments, -navies and armies, entail the heaviest expense on nations.[21] These -expenditures require taxation; and heavy taxation in an extensive -range of country, whether levied on imports or on native productions, -would be sure to lead on to partial and vicious legislation, to the -intolerable oppression of one part for the benefit of another. And -all the guards and checks which constitutional charters would impose -on government, could not prevent the rapid concentration of power -into the hands of the executive, in most of our independent states, -amid wars, armies, navies, taxation, expenditures and increasing -patronage of the governments. We should, I fear, exhibit the picture -of Europe to the world, with governments perhaps less balanced[22] -and more sanguinary in their wars. It is more than probable, then, -that if ever disunion shall come, as has been said by a distinguished -statesman,--we shall close the book of the republics, and open that -of the kings, not in name perhaps--but in reality. - -[Footnote 21: It may perhaps be affirmed with truth, that there is -scarcely a nation in Europe, with a population equal to that of the -United States, whose army does not cost more than the whole expenses -of our federal government. The military statistics of Europe are -truly formidable. Great Britain keeps at home an army of 100,000 men, -and 250,000 in India. France has a standing army of 280,000; Austria -271,000; Prussia 162,000; and Russia 800,000. The United States have -6,000, with a population more than the half of Austria, and greater -than that of Prussia. Even the kingdom of Sardinia, with a population -of a little more than one-fourth of ours, has an army more than seven -times as great; and Spain, with a population not so great as ours, -has an army fifteen times as great. Comment is unnecessary.] - -[Footnote 22: If a nation must have monarchy, I have no hesitation in -saying that it should not be isolated. It should be "buttressed by -establishments." If we must have Kings, it would be better that the -Lords and Commons should follow. Kings, Lords, and Commons are -perhaps the nearest approach which the monarchical form of government -can make towards liberty. When there is no intermediate power between -the king and the people, every dispute between the parties, for want -of a conciliatory compromise, brings the nation at once to blows; and -the immediate issue is necessarily either a despotism established, or -a dynasty overthrown. The chances against a perfect balance are -infinite. But in our country we can never have a regular nobility. -Antiquity is absolutely necessary to such an establishment. Bonaparte -tried the experiment of a suddenly created nobility, and it entirely -failed; although his nobles were much more talented and efficient -than the ancient noblesse. Bonaparte's nobles besides were the most -unprincipled, and the most remorselessly rapacious of modern Europe; -and this perhaps is the almost necessary character of an upstart -nobility.] - -This would certainly be the result in the non-slaveholding states, -where the agrarian spirit, co-operating {280} with executive -usurpation, would inevitably overthrow the balance of the government, -and lead on eventually to military despotism. But such is my -confidence in the influence of slavery on the slaveholder--so certain -am I, judging from all fair reasoning on the subject, and from the -past history of the world, that the spirit of liberty and of -equality, glows with the most unqualified intensity in the bosoms of -the masters of slaves, that I believe the slaveholding states, with -all the horrors of disunion against them, would nevertheless, under -the impulse of this spirit, so ineradicable among _them_, be enabled -to preserve their liberties, and arrest their governments in their -dangerous proclivity towards monarchy. It is true, circumstances -might often even here concentrate too much power in the executive -department; but the owners of slaves, with a spirit like that of the -Barons at Runnimede, would embrace the first opportunity to take back -the power that had slipt from their hands; and the absence of any -thing like a formidable agrarian party, would deprive the executive -of that infallible resource to which, under other circumstances, it -might resort, to obtain the power necessary to break through the -trammels of constitutions, and finally to entrench itself safely -behind military power. Where has a greater love for liberty been -shown, or a more noble struggle made for its preservation than in -Poland? And in our own country, it is a matter of history, that in no -portion of it has the spirit of freedom so fervently developed itself -as in the Southern States, nor has any portion been found more -constantly and effectually battling against power. Two -administrations have been overthrown since the constitution went into -operation, and it has been Southern talent, and Southern energy, -which have accomplished it. Whenever the South shall present a solid -unbroken phalanx against usurpation, I hazard little in the -prediction, that it will generally accomplish its ends. - -But disunion, with all its attendant evils, would not so completely -prostrate the mind, and relax all the energies of man, as the other -more dangerous result which may happen--I mean consolidation! A -number of independent governments, no matter how bad, no matter how -despotic, must to some extent at least, exert a stimulating -influence, each over a portion of its own territory. The greater the -number of governments therefore, the greater the number of -stimulants, as long as each one remains independent. And the -probability is, that a sort of political equilibrium would be formed -very soon on our continent, which would, as in Europe, preserve the -territorial integrity of the smaller states, and prevent the larger -from a dangerous accumulation of power.[23] - -[Footnote 23: It is curious to look now to the condition of Europe, -and compare it with the same quarter of the world three hundred years -ago, and to see how small the change in the division of countries -after all the wars, bloodshed, and expense which have been inflicted -on it. And some of the greatest gainers too have been the small -states. The Duke of Savoy, for example, now takes honorable rank -among the second rate monarchs, under the more imposing title of King -of Sardinia, and with a territory more than doubled in extent. The -Marquis of Brandenburg now hails as King of Prussia, and takes his -station among the great powers in Europe with a greatly augmented -dominion. It is the system of the political equilibrium in Europe -which has bridled the great nations, and prevented them from -swallowing up the smaller. "Consider," says Sir James Macintosh, in -one of his ablest speeches, "the Republic of Geneva--think of her -defenceless position, in the very jaws of France; but think also of -her undisturbed security, of her profound quiet, of the brilliant -success with which she applied herself to industry and literature, -while Louis XIV was pouring his myriads into Italy before her gates. -Call to mind that happy period, when we scarcely dreamed more of the -subjugation of the feeblest republic of Europe, than of the conquest -of her mightiest empire--and say, whether any spectacle can be -imagined more beautiful to the moral eye, or which affords a more -striking proof of progress in the noblest principles of true -civilization."] - -But if ever our state institutions shall be overthrown, and the -concentration of all the powers into one great central government -shall mould this system of republics into one grand consolidated -empire, then will the last and greatest evil which can befal our -country have arrived. The wide extent of our territory, and the -numbers of our population, which under a system of confederated -republics, would awaken the genius and patriotism of the country, and -call forth an almost resistless energy and enterprise in our -citizens, would then be a blighting curse--the bane of our land. All -eyes would be turned to that great and fearful engine at the centre, -whose oppressive action would paralyze all the parts, whilst it would -bind them together in indissoluble union--in the numbness and torpor -of death itself. - -Could it be possible for our government, after such consolidation, to -retain its democratic form, then would it become the most corrupt, -the most demoralizing, the most intolerably oppressive government -which the annals of history could furnish. That diversity of climate, -of soil, of character, and of interest--that great difference of -condition springing from the existence or non-existence of slavery, -all of which, under a mild, federative system, would increase the -general happiness and add to the blessings of union, by interlocking, -in the harmony of free trade, all the interests of the parts, would -then lead on to vicious combinations in our national legislature, for -the purpose of robbing one portion of the union for the benefit of -another--then would be formed our fixed and sectional majorities, who -by their unprincipled and irresponsible legislation, would prostrate -the rights and suck out the very substance from the minority. The -history of past ages informs us that physical force has hitherto been -the great engine which has distributed the wealth and overthrown the -liberties of nations. But the system would be changed here. -Governmental action and legislative jugglery would accomplish more -effectually what the sword has done elsewhere. And to the oppressed -there would be but one right left--the right that belongs to the worm -when trodden on--the right of turning upon the oppressor and shaking -off his iron grasp, if possible. This is the most valuable of all -rights to the European citizen--because there the few, the units, are -the oppressors, and the millions are the oppressed; and when tyranny -has passed beyond the point of endurance, and the people are at last -roused to a sense of the injustice and wrongs which they are -suffering, they rise in their might and pull down the pillars of the -political edifice. - -But in our own country, if the state governments shall ever be broken -down, and state marks obliterated, what will the right of resistance -be worth to us? When the oppression comes from the greedy many, and -is exerted over the proscribed few, is it not worse than {281} -mockery to tell them they may resist in the last resort--that the -minority, enfeebled and impoverished by legislative plunder, without -army, navy, or treasury, disorganized, unsteady, and vacillating in -its plans, may rise against the many who possess the advantages of -physical force, wealth, organization, together with the whole power -of an energetic government, which can break the ranks of the -minority, and sow the seeds of dissension among them, by the -corrupting influence of its mighty patronage, or attack and conquer -by its force those who shall first have the temerity to take the -field against its oppression? Resistance is worth but little, when -the strong man, armed and resolute, has pushed me, feeble and -unarmed, to the wall.[24] - -[Footnote 24: The principle of the _absolute majority_ claimed by a -great central government, would make the republican form of -government more intolerable than any other, for the following -reasons: 1st. The parties may be permanent, and consequently the -oppression may be permanent likewise. 2d. An individual with power to -oppress may or may not do it. Even Nero or Caligula may refrain from -exactions--but a multitude being _always_ governed by the selfish -principle, will be _sure_ to oppress if they have the power; the -operation of the selfish principle on _one_ man is a matter of -chance,--on a _multitude_, it is a certainty. 3d. In such a -government, the influence of the public opinion of the oppressed -produces the _least possible_ influence on the oppressors, first, -because the majorities and minorities being almost always sectional, -the opinions of the latter are not likely to be known to the former; -and secondly, if they were known they would produce little effect, -because the former have on their side the majority of public opinion, -and therefore would generally disregard that of the minority. 4th. -The rapacity of such a government would be increased, from the -necessity of procuring a large _dividend_ for so great a number of -_divisors_.] - -But let not the many console themselves with the vain belief that -democracy would long survive the consolidation of our -government--that very power which they would endeavor so sedulously -to concentrate in the hands of one great central government, would be -quickly made to recoil upon their own heads. The executive -department, which would be built up and established by the dominant -majority, the better to accomplish its own selfish purposes, would -quickly become omnipotent; and when once safely entrenched in the -impregnable bulwarks of its power, like Athens enclosed in the walls -of Themistocles, it would bid defiance to all assaults, and all would -then be ground down to the same ignominious common level. The -Executive, in such a system, would be all--the People, nothing! We -should then be reduced to the condition of the silent crushing -despotisms of Asia--with every principle of improvement gone, and the -whole elasticity of mind destroyed. Soon would we, then, hug the -chains which bound us; and bend the knee in degrading servility -before him who had rivetted them on us. Soon would we be ready to use -the idolatrous language of the Roman bard, - - "Erit ille mihi semper Deus: illius aram - Sœpe tener nostris ab ovilibus imbuet agnus." - -A great empire speedily assimilates every thing to its own genius. No -long season is requisite to generate the spirit of submission. The -monarch that first mounts the throne is often the most worshipped. -The first emperor of Rome had not descended to his grave before the -servility of his subjects had become so disgusting as to call forth -censure from even the monarch himself.[25] - -[Footnote 25: Augustus, at the expiration of his third term in the -imperial office, was accosted by the people at a public entertainment -with the title of "Lord," or "Master," which so much disgusted him, -that he published a serious edict on the following day, forbidding -such a title, and saying, - - "_My name is Cæsar, and not Master._"] - -These great despotisms too, when once established, are likely long to -endure. Great empires have an extraordinary vitality--a wonderful -tenacity of existence; they but too closely resemble that fabled -serpent whose parts when forced asunder were quickly drawn together -again and united into a living body. There has always been something -painfully revolting to my mind in the contemplation of the history of -great empires. From our boyhood we contract a horror of eastern -despotisms, with their great monarchs, their satraps and tyrants; and -who that has read the _luminous page_ of Gibbon and contemplated the -imperial despot with his - - Prætors, pro-consuls to their provinces - Hasting, or on return, in robes of state, - Lictors and rods the ensigns of their power, - Legions and cohorts, turms of horse and wings, - -but sickens at the bare contemplation of such despotic machinery. And -whilst we peruse the eloquent recital of these internal throes and -convulsions, which to-day would seem to break the empire into -fragments and scatter them to the very winds of heaven,--but would -cease on the morrow, by the elevation to the throne of perhaps some -barbarian military chieftain from the banks of the Rhine or the -Danube, binding again together in the rude embrace of military power -the conquered parts of the empire,--we cannot but weep over the -fearful immortality with which such a nation seems almost to be -endowed. It reminds us but too strongly of that persecuted being, -gifted with a cursed immortality, whom the fables of antiquity -reported to have been bound down upon the mountain, with a vulture -forever lacerating his liver, which grew as fast as it was destroyed. -When contemplating the horrors of such a government, we almost hail -with pleasure the advent of the Goth and the Vandal, whose barbarian -power alone could break it into fragments. The death of such an -empire is always hard--painfully, fearfully hard! Unless its -destruction is prepared from without, there are no elements within -that can achieve it. The gravity of the parts too towards the centre, -is so wonderfully great, that disunion can never be effected. - -It is mournful to behold how the rights of man, and of nations, may -be destroyed by the mere magnitude of empire. Humanity now weeps when -wronged and injured Poland shows symptoms of a revolt,--we know that -the blood of the patriotic Pole will be shed in vain, and that the -Russian and the Cossack soldier will soon come to place the galling -yoke again upon his neck; and yet if Poland were united to a nation -no larger than herself--Poland would have rights, and what is better -still, Poland would have the power to defend them. And when she -should send her petitions to the throne and demand redress, the -Autocrat would dare not answer her deputies by pointing them to his -Marshal, and telling them that _he_ had his orders and would execute -them. - -Let us then forever guard against the dangerous evil of -consolidation. Let us foster and cherish and love our State -institutions as the palladium of our liberties and the nursery of our -real greatness. Let the motto {282} inscribed upon the banner of each -patriot, in regard to his state, be that which was placed upon the -urn that enclosed the heart of the philosopher of Ferney, "_Mon cœur -est ici, mon esprit est partout_;" and sure we may be, that this -elementary training of the affections will not destroy a proper love -for the whole, but is absolutely necessary, to keep the State and -Federal governments moving, in those distinct orbits which have been -prescribed to them by the wisdom of our ancestors. - -But, whatever may be the course of other states,--I hope our own -Virginia,--so rich in soil, but so much richer in her noble sons who -have grown up on that soil and illustrated her history, will ever -cherish with becoming affection her own institutions--for certain she -may be, when a great consolidated central government shall have fixed -its embrace on the Union--the sun of her glory will have set -forever--certain she may be, that in the awful silence of central -despotism, no such statesmen as Washington, Jefferson or Madison, -will ever again arise upon her soil--no such men as Wythe, Pendleton -and Roane, will grace her benches--nor will the thrilling eloquence -of the Henrys, the Masons and the Randolphs, be ever again heard -within her borders. The power that then reposes at the centre, may, -after the example of the most wily and politic of Roman emperors, -suffer the mere state forms to remain, but the spirit, the energetic -life, the independence that once animated them, will all be gone. -They will then obey an impulse that comes from without; and like the -consuls, the senate, and the tribunes of imperial Rome, they will but -speak the will and execute the commands of the Cæsar upon the throne. -Then indeed may the passing stranger, when he beholds this capital, -once the proud theatre for the exhibition of the conflicts of mind -and talents, exclaim--Poor Virginia! how art thou fallen! - -But I sincerely hope, that the patriotism and the intelligence of the -people of this country, will be sufficient to keep our state and -federal governments moving on harmoniously in their legitimate -spheres,--avoiding at the same time dismemberment on the one side, or -the more dangerous tendency of consolidation on the other. All, -however, depends on the virtue, the intelligence, and the vigilance -of the People. Power to be restrained must always be watched with -Argus eyes--the people must always be on the alert--they must never -slacken their vigilance. If they have succeeded to-day in stripping -the usurper of his assumed powers--let them not remit their exertions -on the morrow, but let them remember that power after "these gentle -prunings" does sometimes vegetate but the more luxuriantly. If we -shall wisely avoid the evils with which we are beset in our onward -progress, then I would boldly assert, that never since the foundation -of the world has the eye of the philanthropist rested on a country -which has furnished so grand, so magnificent a theatre for the -creation and the display of arts, science and literature, and for the -production of all those virtues and high intellectual energies, which -so ennoble and adorn the human being and render him the true image of -his Maker, as our own most beautiful system of Confederated Republics -will then present. - -Mr. President, I have done. The great importance and interest of the -topic I have so unworthily discussed, must be my apology for having -detained you so long. - - - - -CRITICAL NOTICES. - - -EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN VIRGINIA. - -_Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States of -America--Virginia. A Narrative of Events connected with the Rise and -Progress of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. To which is -added an Appendix, containing the Journals of the Conventions in -Virginia, from the Commencement to the Present Time. By the Reverend -Francis L. Hawks, D.D. Rector of St. Thomas's Church, New York. New -York: Published by Harper and Brothers._ - -This is a large and handsome octavo of 620 pages. The very cursory -examination which we have as yet been able to give it, will not -warrant us in speaking of the work in other than general terms. A -word or two, however, we may say in relation to the plan, the object, -and circumstances of publication, with some few observations upon -points which have attracted our especial attention. - -From the Preface we learn that, more than five years ago, the author, -in conjunction with the Rev. Edward Rutledge, of South Carolina, -first conceived the idea of gathering together such materials for the -History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, as -might still exist either in tradition or in the manuscripts of the -earlier clergy. That these materials were abundant might rationally -be supposed--still they were to be collected, if collected at all, at -the expense of much patience, time, and labor, from a wide diversity -of sources. Dr. Hawks and his associate, however, were stimulated to -exertion by many of the bishops and clergy of the church. The plan -originally proposed was merely, if we understand it, the compilation -of an annalistic journal--a record of naked facts, to be subsequently -arranged and shaped into narrative by the pen of the historiographer. -In the prosecution of the plan thus designed, our author and his -coadjutor were successful beyond expectation, and a rich variety of -matter was collected. Death, at this period, deprived Dr. Hawks of -his friend's assistance, and left him to pursue his labor alone. He -now, very properly, determined upon attempting, himself, the -execution of the work for which his Annals were intended as -_materiel_. He began with Virginia--selecting it as the oldest State. -The present volume is simply an experiment. Should it succeed, of -which there can be no doubt whatever, we shall have other volumes in -turn--and that, we suppose, speedily, for there are already on hand -sufficient _data_ to furnish a history of "each of the older -diocesses." - -For the design of this work--if even not for the manner of its -execution--Dr. Hawks is entitled to the thanks of the community at -large. He has taken nearly the first step (a step, too, of great -decision, interest and importance) in the field of American -Ecclesiastical History. To that church, especially, of which he is so -worthy a member, he has rendered a service not to be lightly -appreciated in the extraordinary dearth of materials for its story. -In regard to Protestant Episcopalism in America it may be safely said -that, prior to this publication of Dr. Hawks, there were no written -memorials extant, with the exception of the Archives of {283} the -General and Diocesan Meetings, and the Journal of Bishop White. For -other religious denominations the _materiel_ of history is more -abundant, and it would be well, if following the suggestions and -example of our author, Christians of all sects would exert themselves -for the collection and preservation of what is so important to the -cause of our National Ecclesiastical Literature. - -The History of any Religion is necessarily a very large portion of -the History of the people who profess it. And regarded in this point -of view the "_Narrative_" of Dr. Hawks will prove of inestimable -value to Virginia. It commences with the first settlement of the -colony--with the days when the first church was erected in -Virginia--that very church whose hoary ruins stand so tranquilly -to-day in the briar-encumbered graveyard at Jamestown--with the -memorable epoch when Smith, being received into the council, partook, -with his rival, the President, of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, -and Virginia "commenced its career of civilization" with the most -impressive of Christian solemnities. Bringing down the affairs of the -church to the appointment of the Reverend William Meade, D.D. as -Assistant Bishop of Virginia, the narration concludes with a highly -gratifying account of present prosperity. The diocess is said to -possess more than one hundred churches, "some of them the fruit of -reviving zeal in parishes which once flourished, but have long been -almost dead." Above seventy clergymen are in actual service. There is -a large missionary fund, a part of which lies idle, because -missionaries are not to be had. Much reliance is placed, however, -upon the Seminary at Alexandria. This institution has afforded -instruction, during the last three years, to sixty candidates for -orders, and has given no less than thirty-six ministers to the -Episcopalty. - -We will mention, briefly, a few of the most striking points of the -History before us. At page 48, are some remarks in reply to Burk's -insinuation of a persecuting and intolerant spirit in the early -colonial religion of the State--an insinuation based on no better -authority than a statement in "certain ancient records of the -province" concerning the trial, condemnation, and execution by fire, -of a woman, for the crime of witchcraft. Dr. Hawks very justly -observes, that even if the supposed execution did actually take -place, it cannot sanction the inferences which are deduced from it. -Evidence is wanting that the judgment was rendered by an -ecclesiastical power. Witchcraft was an offence cognizable by the -common courts of law, having been made a felony, without benefit of -clergy, by the twelfth chapter of the first statute of James I, -enacted in 1603. So that, allowing the prisoner to have suffered, her -death, says our author, cannot more properly be charged to the -ecclesiastical, than to the civil, authority. But in point of fact, -the trial alluded to by Burk, (see Appendix xxxi,) can be no other -than that of the once notorious Grace Sherwood. And this trial, we -are quite certain, took place before a civil tribunal. Besides, (what -is most especially to the purpose) the accused though found guilty, -and condemned, was _never executed_. - -Some observations of our author upon a circumstance which History has -connected with the secular feelings of the colony, will be read with -pleasure by all men of liberal opinions. We allude to the fact that -when one of the colony's agents in England (George Sandys, we -believe) took it upon himself to petition Parliament, _in the name of -his constituents_, for the restoration of the old company, the colony -formally disavowed the act and begged permission to remain under the -royal government. Now, Burk insists that this disavowal was induced -solely by attachment to the Church of England, for whose overthrow -the Puritans were imagined to be particularly zealous. With Dr. Hawks -we protest against the decision of the historian. It can be viewed in -no other light than that of an effort (brought about, perhaps, by -love of our political institutions, yet still exceedingly -disingenuous) to _apologise_ for the loyalty of Virginia--to -apologise for our forefathers having felt what not to have felt would -have required an apology indeed! By faith, by situation, by habits -and by education they had been taught to be loyal--and with them, -consequently, loyalty was a virtue. But if it was indeed a crime--if -Virginia has committed an inexpiable offence in resisting the -encroachments of the Dictator, (we shall not say of the Commonwealth) -let not the Church--in the name of every thing reasonable--let not -the Church be saddled with her iniquity--let not political -prejudices, always too readily excited, be now enlisted against the -religion we cherish, by insinuations artfully introduced, that the -loyalty of the State was involved in its creed--that through faith -alone it remained a slave--and that its love of monarchy was a mere -necessary consequence of its attachment to the Church of England. - -While upon this subject we beg leave to refer our readers to some -remarks, (from the pen of Judge Beverley Tucker) which appeared under -the Critical head of our Messenger before the writer of this article -assumed the Editorial duties. The remarks of which we speak, are in -reply to the aspersions of Mr. George Bancroft, who, in his late -History of the United States, with every intention of paying Virginia -a compliment, accuses her of disloyalty, immediately before, and -during the Protectorate. Of such an accusation, (for Hening's -suggestions, upon pages 513 and 526, of the Statutes at Large cannot -be considered as such) we had never seriously dreamed prior to the -publication of Mr. Bancroft's work, and that Mr. Bancroft himself -should never have dreamed of it, we were sufficiently convinced by -the arguments of Judge Tucker. We allude to these arguments now, with -the view of apprizing such of our readers as may remember them, that -the author of the History in question, in a late interview with Dr. -Hawks, has "disclaimed the intention of representing Virginia as -wanting in loyalty." All parties would have been better pleased with -Mr. B. had he worded his disclaimer so as merely to assure us that in -representing Virginia as disloyal he has found himself in error. - -We will take the liberty of condensing here such of the leading -points on both sides of the debated question as may either occur to -us personally or be suggested by those who have written on the -subject. In proof of Virginia's _disloyalty_ it is said: - -1. There is a deficiency of evidence to establish the fact, (a fact -much insisted upon) that on the death of the governor, Matthews, in -the beginning of 1659, a tumultuous assemblage resolved to throw off -the government of the Protectorate, and repairing to the residence of -Sir William Berkeley, then living in retirement, {284} requested him -to resume the direction of the colony. If such had been the fact, -existing records would have shown it--but they do not. Moreover, -these records show that Berkeley was elected precisely as the other -governors had been, in Virginia, during the Protectorate. - -2. After the battle of Dunbar, and the fall of Montrose Virginia -passed an act of surrender--she was therefore in favor of the -Parliament. - -3. The Colonial Legislature claimed the supreme power as residing -within itself. In this it evinced a wish to copy the Parliament--to -which it was therefore favorable. - -4. Cromwell acted magnanimously towards Virginia. The terms of the -article in the Treaty of Surrender by which Virginia stipulated for a -trade free as that of England, were faithfully observed till the -Restoration. The Protector's Navigation Act was not enforced in -Virginia. Cromwell being thus lenient, Virginia must have been -satisfied. - -5. Virginia elected her own governors. Bennett, Digges, and Matthews, -were commonwealth's men. Therefore Virginia was republican. - -6. Virginia was infected with republicanism. She wished to set up for -herself. Thus intent, she demands of Berkeley a distinct -acknowledgement of her assembly's supremacy. His reply was "I am but -the servant of the assembly." Berkeley, therefore, was republican, -and his tumultuous election proves nothing but the republicanism of -Virginia. - -These arguments are answered in order, thus: - -1. The fact of the "tumultuous assemblage," &c. might have existed -without such fact appearing in the records spoken of. For these -records are manifestly incomplete. Some whole documents are lost, and -parts of many. Granting that Berkeley was _elected_ precisely in the -usual way, it does not disprove that a multitude urged him to resume -his old office. The election is all of which these records would -speak. But _the call to office_ might have been a popular -movement--the election quite as usual. This latter was left to go on -in the old mode, probably because it was well known "that those who -were to make it were cavaliers." - -Moreover--Beverley, Burk, Chalmers and Holmes are all direct -testimony in favor of the "tumultuous assemblage." - -2. The act of surrender was in self-defence, when resistance would -have availed nothing. Its terms evince no acknowledgment of -authority, but mere submission to force. They contain _not one word_ -recognizing the rightful power of Parliament, nor impeaching that of -the king. - -3. The "claiming the supreme power," &c. proves any thing but the -fealty of the Colonial Legislature to the Commonwealth. According to -Mr. Bancroft himself, Virginians in 1619 "first set the world the -example of equal representation." "From that time" (we here quote the -words of Judge Tucker,) "they held that the supreme power was in the -hands of the Colonial Parliament, then established, and of the king -as king of Virginia. Now the authority of the king being at an end, -and no successor being acknowledged, it followed, as a corollary from -their principles, that no power remained but that of the -assembly,"--and this is precisely what they mean by claiming the -supreme power as residing in the Colonial Legislature. - -4. Chalmers, Beverley, Holmes, Marshall and Robertson speak, -positively, of great discontents occasioned by restrictions and -oppressions upon Virginian commerce: and a Memorial in behalf of the -trade of the State presented to the Protector, mentions "_the poor -planters' general complaints that they are the merchant's slaves_," -as a consequence of "_that Act of Navigation_." - -5. It is probable that Bennett, Digges, and Matthews, (granting -Bennett to have been disloyal) were forced upon the colony by -Cromwell, whom Robertson (on the authority of Beverley and Chalmers,) -asserts to have named the governors during the Protectorate. The -election was possibly a mere form. The use of the equivocal word -_named_, is, as Judge Tucker remarks, a proof that the historian was -not speaking at random. He does not say _appointed_. They were -_named_--with no possibility of their nomination being rejected--as -the speaker of the House of Commons was frequently named in England. -But Bennett was a staunch loyalist--a fact too well known in Virginia -to need proof. - -6. The reasoning here is reasoning in a circle. Virginia is first -declared republican. From this assumed fact, deductions are made -which prove Berkeley so--and Berkeley's republicanism, thus proved, -is made to establish that of Virginia. But Berkeley's answer (from -which Mr. Bancroft has extracted the words "I am but the servant of -the Assembly") runs thus. - -"You desire me to do that concerning your titles and claims to land -in this northern part of America, which I am in no capacity to do; -for I am but the servant of the Assembly: _neither do they arrogate -to themselves any power farther than the miserable distractions in -England force them to_. For when God shall be pleased to take away -and dissipate the unnatural divisions of their native country, _they -will immediately return to their professed obedience_." Smith's New -York. It will be seen that Mr. Bancroft has been disingenuous in -quoting only a portion of this sentence. _The whole_ proves -incontestibly that neither Berkeley nor the Assembly _arrogated to -themselves any power beyond what they were forced to assume by -circumstances_--in a word, it proves their loyalty. But Berkeley was -loyal beyond dispute. _Norwood_, in his "Journal of a Voyage to -Virginia," states that "Berkeley showed great respect to all the -royal party who made that colony their refuge. His house and purse -were open to all so qualified." The same journalist was "sent over, -at Berkeley's expense, to find out the King in Holland, and have an -interview with him." - -To these arguments in favor of Virginia's loyalty may be added the -following. - -1. Contemporaries of Cromwell--men who were busy in the great actions -of the day--have left descendants in Virginia--descendants in whose -families the loyalty of Virginia is a cherished _tradition_. - -2. The question, being one of _fact_, a mistake could hardly have -been made originally--or, if so made, could not have been -perpetuated. Now all the early historians call Virginia loyal. - -3. The cavaliers in England (as we learn from British authorities) -looked upon Virginia as a place of refuge. - -4. Holmes' Annals make the population of the state, at the -commencement of the civil wars in England, about 20,000. Of these let -us suppose only 10,000 loyal. At the Restoration the same Annals make -the population 30,000. Here is an increase of 10,000, which {285} -increase consisted altogether, or nearly so, of loyalists, _for few -others had reason for coming over_. The loyalists are now therefore -double the republicans, and Virginia must be loyal. - -5. Cromwell was always suspicious of Virginia. Of this there are many -proofs. One of them may be found in the fact that when the state, -sympathizing with the victims of Claiborne's oppression, (a felon -employed by Cromwell to "root out popery in Maryland") afforded them -a refuge, she was sternly reprimanded by the Protector, and -admonished to keep a guard on her actions. - -6. A pamphlet called "Virginia's Cure, an Advisive Narrative -concerning Virginia," printed in 1661, speaks of the people as "men -which generally bear a great love to the stated constitutions of the -Church of England in her government and public worship; which gave us -the advantage of liberty to use it constantly among them, after the -naval force had reduced the colony under the power (_but never to the -obedience_) of the usurpers." - -7. John Hammond, in a book entitled "Leah and Rachell, or the two -fruitful Sisters of Virginia and Maryland," printed in 1656, speaking -of the State during the Protectorate, has the words "_Virginia being -whole for monarchy_." - -8. Immediately after the fall of Charles I, Virginia passed an Act -making it _high treason_ to justify his murder, or to acknowledge the -Parliament. The Act is not so much as the terms of the Act. - -Lastly. The distinguishing features of Virginian character at -present--features of a marked nature--not elsewhere to be met with in -America--and evidently akin to that chivalry which denoted the -Cavalier--can be in no manner so well accounted for as by considering -them the _debris_ of a devoted loyalty. - -At page 122 of the work before us, Dr. Hawks has entered into a -somewhat detailed statement (involving much information to us -entirely new) concerning the celebrated "Parson's cause"--the -church's controversy with the laity on the subject of payments in -money substituted for payments in tobacco. It was this controversy -which first elicited the oratorical powers of Patrick Henry, and our -author dwells with much emphasis, and no little candor, upon the -fascinating abilities which proved so unexpectedly fatal to the -clerical interest. - -On page 160 are some farther highly interesting reminiscences of Mr. -Henry. The opinion of Wirt is considered unfounded, that the great -orator was a believer in Christianity without having a preference for -any of the forms in which it is presented. We are glad to find that -Mr. Wirt was in error. The Christian religion, it has been justly -remarked, must assume _a distinct form of profession_--or it is worth -little. An avowal of a merely general Christianity is little better -than an avowal of none at all. Patrick Henry, according to Dr. Hawks, -was of the Episcopalian faith. That at any period of his life he was -an unbeliever is explicitly denied, on the authority of a MS. letter, -in possession of our author, containing information of Mr. H. derived -from his widow and descendants. - -It is with no little astonishment that we have seen Dr. Hawks accused -of illiberality in his few remarks upon "that noble monument of -liberty," the _Act for the Establishment of Religious Freedom_. If -there is any thing beyond simple justice in his observations we, for -our own parts, cannot perceive it. No respect for the civil services, -or the unquestionable mental powers of Jefferson, shall blind us to -his iniquities. That our readers may judge for themselves we quote in -full the sentences which have been considered as objectionable. - - -"We are informed by him (Jefferson) that an amendment was proposed to -the Preamble, by the insertion of the name of our Saviour before the -words 'The Holy Author of our Religion.' This could at most have had -no other effect upon the enacting clause, but that of granting the -utmost freedom to all denominations _professing to own and worship -Christ_, without affording undue preference to any; and against this, -it would be unreasonable to object. Certain it is, that more than -this had never been asked by any religious denomination in Virginia, -in any petition presented against the Church; the public, therefore, -would have been satisfied with such an amendment. The proposed -alteration, however, was rejected, and it is made the subject of -triumph that the law was left, in the words of its author, 'to -comprehend within the mantle of its protection the Jew and the -Gentile, the Christian and Mohammedan, the Hindoo, and Infidel of -every denomination.' That these various classes should have been -protected both in person and property, is obviously the dictate of -justice, of humanity, and of enlightened policy. But it surely was -not necessary, in securing to them such protection, to degrade, not -the establishment, but Christianity itself to a level with the -voluptuousness of Mahomet, or the worship of Juggernaut; and if it be -true that there is danger in an established alliance between -Christianity and the civil power, let it be remembered that there is -another alliance not less fatal to the happiness and subversive of -the intellectual freedom of man--it is an alliance between the civil -authority and infidelity; which, whether formally recognized or not, -if permitted to exert its influence, direct or indirect, will be -found to be equally ruinous in its results. On this subject, -Revolutionary France has once read to the world an impressive lesson, -which it is to be hoped will not speedily be forgotten." - - -In Chapter xii, the whole history of the Glebe Law of 1802--a law the -question of whose constitutionality is still undetermined--is -detailed with much candor, and in a spirit of calm inquiry. A vivid -picture is exhibited of some desecrations which have been consequent -upon the sale. - -In Chapter xiii, is an exceedingly well-written memoir of our -patriarchal bishop the Right Reverend Richard Channing Moore. From -this memoir we must be permitted to extract a single passage of -peculiar interest. - - -"It was at one of his stated lectures in the church, (St. Andrew's in -Staten Island) that after the usual services had concluded, and the -benediction been pronounced, he sat down in his pulpit waiting for -the people to retire. To his great surprise, he soon observed that -not an individual present seemed disposed to leave the Church; and -after the interval of a few minutes, during which a perfect silence -was maintained, one of the members of the congregation arose, and -respectfully requested him to address those present a second time. -After singing a hymn, the bishop delivered to them a second -discourse, and once more dismissed the people with the blessing. But -the same state of feeling which had before kept them in their seats, -still existed, and once more did they solicit the preacher to address -them. Accordingly he delivered to them a third sermon, and at its -close, exhausted by the labor in which he had been engaged, he -informed them of the impossibility of continuing the services on his -part, once more blessed {286} them and affectionately entreated them -to retire to their homes. It was within the space of six weeks, after -the scene above described, that more than sixty members of the -congregation became communicants; and in the course of the year more -than one hundred knelt around the chancel of St. Andrew's who had -never knelt there before as partakers of the sacrament of the Lord's -Supper." - - -The historical portion of the work before us occupies about one half -of its pages. The other half embraces "Journals of the Conventions of -the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocess of Virginia--from 1785 -to 1835, inclusive." It is, of course, unnecessary to dwell upon the -great value to the church of such a compilation. Very few, if any, -complete sets of diocesan Journals of Conventions are in existence. -We will conclude our notice, by heartily recommending the entire -volume, as an important addition to our Civil as well as -Ecclesiastical History. - - -PHRENOLOGY. - -_Phrenology, and the Moral Influence of Phrenology: Arranged for -General Study, and the Purposes of Education, from the first -published works of Gall and Spurzheim, to the latest discoveries of -the present period. By Mrs. L. Miles. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, and -Blanchard._ - -Phrenology is no longer to be laughed at. It _is_ no longer laughed -at by men of common understanding. It has assumed the majesty of a -science; and, as a science, ranks among the most important which can -engage the attention of thinking beings--this too, whether we -consider it merely as an object of speculative inquiry, or as -involving consequences of the highest practical magnitude. As a study -it is very extensively accredited in Germany, in France, in Scotland, -and in both Americas. Some of its earliest and most violent opposers -have been converted to its doctrines. We may instance George Combe -who wrote the "Phrenology." Nearly all Edinburgh has been brought -over to belief--in spite of the Review and its ill sustained -opinions. Yet these latter were considered of so great weight that -Dr. Spurzheim was induced to visit Scotland for the purpose of -refuting them. There, with the Edinburgh Review in one hand, and a -brain in the other, he delivered a lecture before a numerous -assembly, among whom was the author of the most virulent attack which -perhaps the science has ever received. At this single lecture he is -said to have gained five hundred converts to Phrenology, and the -Northern Athens is now the strong hold of the faith. - -In regard to the _uses_ of Phrenology--its most direct, and, perhaps, -most salutary, is that of _self-examination and self-knowledge_. It -is contended that, with proper caution, and well-directed inquiry, -individuals may obtain, through the science, a perfectly accurate -estimate of their own moral capabilities--and, thus instructed, will -be the better fitted for decision in regard to a choice of offices -and duties in life. But there are other and scarcely less important -uses too numerous to mention--at least here. - -The beautiful little work now before us was originally printed in -London in a manner sufficiently quaint. The publication consisted of -forty cards contained in a box resembling a small pocket volume. An -embossed head accompanied the cards, giving at a glance the relative -situations and proportions of each organ, and superseding altogether -the necessity of a bust. This head served as an Index to the -explanations of the system. The whole formed a lucid, compact, and -portable compend of Phrenology. The present edition of the work, -however, is preferable in many respects, and is indeed exceedingly -neat and convenient--we presume that it pretends to be nothing more. - -The Faculties are divided into _Instinctive Propensities and -Sentiments_ and _Intellectual Faculties_. The Instinctive -Propensities and Sentiments are subdivided into _Domestic -Affections_, embracing Amativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, -Inhabitiveness, and Attachment--_Preservative Faculties_, embracing -Combativeness, Destructiveness, and Gustativeness--_Prudential -Sentiments_, embracing Acquisitiveness, Secretiveness, and -Cautionness--_Regulating Powers_, including Self-Esteem, Love of -Approbation, Conscientiousness, and Firmness--_Imaginative -Faculties_, containing Hope, Ideality, and Marvellousness--and _Moral -Sentiments_, under which head come Benevolence, Veneration, and -Imitation. The _Intellectual Faculties_ are divided into _Observing -Faculties_, viz: Individuality, Form, Size, Weight, Color, Order, and -Number--_Scientific Faculties_, viz: Constructiveness, Locality, -Time, and Tune--_Reflecting Faculties_, viz: Eventuality, Comparison, -Casuality and Wit--and lastly, the _Subservient Faculty_, which is -Language. This classification is arranged with sufficient clearness, -but it would require no great degree of acumen to show that to mere -perspicuity points of vital importance to the science have been -sacrificed. - -At page 17 is a brief chapter entitled a _Survey of Contour_, well -conceived and well adapted to its purpose which is--to convey by a -casual or superficial view of any head, an idea of what propensities, -sentiments, or faculties, most distinguish the individual. It is here -remarked that "any faculty may be possessed in perfection without -showing itself in a prominence or bump," (a fact not often attended -to) "it is only where _one_ organ predominates above those nearest to -it, that it becomes singly perceptible. Where a number of contiguous -organs are large, there will be a general fulness of that part of the -head." - -Some passages in Mrs. Miles' little book have a very peculiar -interest. At page 26 we find what follows. - - -"The cerebral organs are double, and inhabit both sides of the head, -from the root of the nose to the middle of the neck at the nape. They -act in unison, and produce a single impression, as from the double -organs of sight and hearing. The loss of one eye does not destroy -vision. The deafness of one ear does not wholly deprive us of -hearing. In the same manner Tiedman reports the case of a madman, -whose disease was confined to one side of his head, the patient -having the power to perceive his own malady, with the unimpaired -faculties of the other side. It is no uncommon thing to find persons -acute on all subjects save _one_--thus proving the possibility of a -partial injury of the brain, or the hypothesis of a plurality of -organs." - - -In the chapter on _Combativeness_, we meet with the very sensible and -necessary observation that we must not consider the possession of -particular and instinctive propensities, as acquitting us of -responsibility in the indulgence of culpable actions. On the contrary -it is the perversion of our faculties which causes the greatest -misery we endure, and for which (having the free exercise of -_reason_) we are accountable to God. - -{287} The following is quoted from _Edinensis, vol. iv._ - - -"All the faculties are considered capable of producing actions which -are good, and it is not to be admitted that any one of them is -essentially, and in itself _evil_--but if given way to beyond a -certain degree, all of them (with the sole exception of -_Conscientiousness_) may lead to results which are improper, -injurious, or culpable." - - -The words annexed occur at page 102. - - -"Anatomy decides that the brain, notwithstanding the softness of its -consistence, _gives shape to the cranium_, as the crustaceous -tenement of the crab is adjusted to the animal that inhabits it. An -exception is made to this rule when disease or ill-treatment injure -the skull." - - -And again at page 159. - - -"By appealing to Nature herself, it can scarcely be doubted that -certain forms of the head denote particular talents or dispositions; -and anatomists find that _the surface of the brain_ presents the same -appearance in shape which the skull exhibits during life. Idiocy is -invariably the consequence of the brain being too small, while in -such heads the animal propensities are generally very full." - - -To this may be added the opinion of Gall, that a skull which is -large, which is elevated or high above the ears, and in which the -head is well developed and thrown forward, so as to be nearly -perpendicular with its base, may be presumed to lodge a brain of -greater power (whatever may be its propensities) than a skull -deficient in such proportion. - - -MAHMOUD. - -_Mahmoud. New-York. Published by Harper and Brothers._ - -Of this book--its parentage or birth-place--we know nothing beyond -the scanty and equivocal information derivable from the title-page, -and from the brief Advertisement prefixed to the narrative itself. -From the title-page we learn, or rather we do _not_ learn that Harper -and Brothers are the publishers--for although we are informed, in so -many direct words that such is the fact, still we are taught by -experience that, in the bookselling vocabulary of the day, the word -_published_ has too expansive, too variable, and altogether too -convenient a meaning to be worthy of very serious attention. The -volumes before us are, we imagine, (although really without any good -reason for so imagining,) a reprint from a London publication. It is -quite possible, however, that the work is by an American writer, and -now, as it professes to be, for the first time actually published. -From the Advertisement we understand that the book is a combination -of _facts_ derived from private sources; or from personal -observation. We are told that "with the exception of a few of the -inferior characters, and the trifling accessories necessary to blend -the materials, and impart a unity to the rather complex web of the -narrative, the whole may be relied upon as perfectly true." - -Be this as it may, we should have read "_Mahmoud_" with far greater -pleasure had we never seen the Anastasius of Mr. Hope. That most -excellent and vivid, (although somewhat immoral) series of Turkish -paintings is still nearly as fresh within our memory as in the days -of perusal. The work left nothing farther to be expected, or even to -be desired, in rich, bold, vigorous, and accurate delineation of the -scenery, characters, manners, and peculiarities of the region to -which its pages were devoted. Nothing less than the consciousness of -superior power could have justified any one in treading in the steps -of Mr. Hope. And, certainly, nothing at all, under any circumstances -whatsoever, could have justified a direct and palpable copy of -Anastasius. Yet Mahmoud is no better. - - -GEORGIA SCENES. - -_Georgia Scenes, Characters, Incidents, &c. in the First Half Century -of the Republic. By a Native Georgian. Augusta, Georgia._ - -This book has reached us anonymously--not to say anomalously--yet it -is most heartily welcome. The author, whoever he is, is a clever -fellow, imbued with a spirit of the truest humor, and endowed, -moreover, with an exquisitely discriminative and penetrating -understanding of _character_ in general, and of Southern character in -particular. And we do not mean to speak of _human_ character -exclusively. To be sure, our Georgian is _au fait_ here too--he is -learned in all things appertaining to the biped without feathers. In -regard, especially, to that class of southwestern mammalia who come -under the generic appellation of "savagerous wild cats," he is a very -Theophrastus in duodecimo. But he is not the less at home in other -matters. Of geese and ganders he is the La Bruyere, and of -good-for-nothing horses the Rochefoucault. - -Seriously--if this book were printed in England it would make the -fortune of its author. We positively mean what we say--and are quite -sure of being sustained in our opinion by all proper judges who may -be so fortunate as to obtain a copy of the "_Georgia Scenes_," and -who will be at the trouble of sifting their peculiar merits from amid -the _gaucheries_ of a Southern publication. Seldom--perhaps never in -our lives--have we laughed as immoderately over any book as over the -one now before us. If these _scenes_ have produced such effects upon -_our_ cachinnatory nerves--upon _us_ who are not "of the merry mood," -and, moreover, have not been unused to the perusal of somewhat -similar things--we are at no loss to imagine what a hubbub they would -occasion in the uninitiated regions of Cockaigne. And what would -Christopher North say to them?--ah, what would Christopher North say? -that is the question. Certainly not a word. But we can fancy the -pursing up of his lips, and the long, loud, and jovial resonnation of -his wicked, and uproarious ha! ha's! - -From the Preface to the Sketches before us we learn that although -they are, generally, nothing more than fanciful combinations of real -incidents and characters, still, in some instances, the narratives -are literally true. We are told also that the publication of these -pieces was commenced, rather more than a year ago, in one of the -Gazettes of the State, and that they were favorably received. "For -the last six months," says the author, "I have been importuned by -persons from all quarters of the State to give them to the public in -the present form." This speaks well for the Georgian taste. But that -the publication will _succeed_, in the bookselling sense of the word, -is problematical. Thanks to the long indulged literary supineness of -the South, her presses are not as apt in putting forth a _saleable_ -book as her sons are in concocting a wise one. - -{288} From a desire of concealing the author's name, two different -signatures, Baldwin and Hall, were used in the original _Sketches_, -and, to save trouble, are preserved in the present volume. With the -exception, however, of one scene, "The Company Drill," all the book -is the production of the same pen. The first article in the list is -"Georgia Theatrics." Our friend _Hall_, in this piece, represents -himself as ascending, about eleven o'clock in the forenoon of a June -day, "a long and gentle slope in what was called the Dark Corner of -Lincoln County, Georgia." Suddenly his ears are assailed by loud, -profane, and boisterous voices, proceeding, apparently, from a large -company of raggamuffins, concealed in a thick covert of undergrowth -about a hundred yards from the road. - -"You kin, kin you? - -"Yes I kin, and am able to do it! Boo-oo-oo-oo! Oh wake snakes and -walk your chalks! Brimstone and fire! Dont hold me Nick Stoval! The -fight's made up, and lets go at it--my soul if I dont jump down his -throat, and gallop every chitterling out of him before you can say -'quit!' - -"Now Nick, dont hold him! Jist let the wild cat come, and I'll tame -him. Ned'll see me a fair fight--wont you Ned? - -"Oh yes; I'll see you a fair fight, my old shoes if I dont. - -"That's sufficient, as Tom Haynes said when he saw the Elephant. Now -let him come!" &c. &c. &c. - -And now the sounds assume all the discordant intonations inseparable -from a Georgia "rough and tumble" fight. Our traveller listens in -dismay to the indications of a quick, violent, and deadly struggle. -With the intention of acting as pacificator, he dismounts in haste, -and hurries to the scene of action. Presently, through a gap in the -thicket, he obtains a glimpse of one, at least, of the combatants. -This one appears to have his antagonist beneath him on the ground, -and to be dealing on the prostrate wretch the most unmerciful blows. -Having overcome about half the space which separated him from the -combatants, our friend Hall is horror-stricken at seeing "the -uppermost make a heavy plunge with both his thumbs, and hearing, at -the same instant, a cry in the accent of keenest torture, 'Enough! My -eye's out!'" - -Rushing to the rescue of the mutilated wretch the traveller is -surprised at finding that all the accomplices in the hellish deed -have fled at his approach--at least so he supposes, for none of them -are to be seen. - -"At this moment," says the narrator, "the victor saw me for the first -time. He looked excessively embarrassed, and was moving off, when I -called to him in a tone emboldened by the sacredness of my office, -and the iniquity of his crime, 'come back, you brute! and assist me -in relieving your fellow mortal, whom you have ruined forever!' My -rudeness subdued his embarrassment in an instant; and with a taunting -curl of the nose, he replied; you need'nt kick before you're spurred. -There 'ant nobody there, nor ha'nt been nother. I was jist seein how -I could 'a' _fout_! So saying, he bounded to his plow, which stood in -the corner of the fence about fifty yards beyond the battle ground." - -All that had been seen or heard was nothing more nor less than a -Lincoln rehearsal; in which all the parts of all the characters, of a -Georgian Court-House fight had been sustained by the youth of the -plough _solus_. The whole anecdote is told with a raciness and vigor -which would do honor to the pages of Blackwood. - -The second Article is "The Dance, a Personal Adventure of the Author" -in which the oddities of a backwood reel are depicted with inimitable -force, fidelity and picturesque effect. "The Horse-swap" is a vivid -narration of an encounter between the wits of two Georgian -horse-jockies. This is most excellent in every respect--but -especially so in its delineations of Southern bravado, and the keen -sense of the ludicrous evinced in the portraiture of the steeds. We -think the following free and easy sketch of a _hoss_ superior, in -joint humor and verisimilitude, to any thing of the kind we have ever -seen. - - -"During this harangue, little Bullet looked as if he understood it -all, believed it, and was ready at any moment to verify it. He was a -horse of goodly countenance, rather expressive of vigilance than -fire; though an unnatural appearance of fierceness was thrown into -it, by the loss of his ears, which had been cropped pretty close to -his head. Nature had done but little for Bullet's head and neck, but -he managed in a great measure to hide their defects by bowing -perpetually. He had obviously suffered severely for corn; but if his -ribs and hip bones had not disclosed the fact he never would have -done it; for he was in all respects as cheerful and happy as if he -commanded all the corn cribs and fodder stacks in Georgia. His height -was about twelve hands; but as his shape partook somewhat of that of -the giraffe his haunches stood much lower. They were short, straight, -peaked, and concave. Bullet's tail, however, made amends for all his -defects. All that the artist could do to beautify it had been done; -and all that horse could do to compliment the artist, Bullet did. His -tail was nicked in superior style, and exhibited the line of beauty -in so many directions, that it could not fail to hit the most -fastidious taste in some of them. From the root it dropped into a -graceful festoon; then rose in a handsome curve; then resumed its -first direction; and then mounted suddenly upwards like a cypress -knee to a perpendicular of about two and a half inches. The whole had -a careless and bewitching inclination to the right. Bullet obviously -knew where his beauty lay, and took all occasions to display it to -the best advantage. If a stick cracked, or if any one moved suddenly -about him or coughed, or hawked, or spoke a little louder than -common, up went Bullet's tail like lightning; and if the _going up_ -did not please, the _coming down_ must of necessity, for it was as -different from the other movement as was its direction. The first was -a bold and rapid flight upwards usually to an angle of forty five -degrees. In this position he kept his interesting appendage until he -satisfied himself that nothing in particular was to be done; when he -commenced dropping it by half inches, in second beats--then in triple -time--then faster and shorter, and faster and shorter still, until it -finally died away imperceptibly into its natural position. If I might -compare sights to sounds, I should say its _settling_ was more like -the note of a locust than any thing else in nature." - - -"The character of a Native Georgian" is amusing, but not so good as -the scenes which precede and succeed it. Moreover the character -described (a practical humorist) is neither very original, nor -appertaining exclusively to Georgia. - -"The Fight" although involving some horrible and disgusting details -of southern barbarity is a sketch unsurpassed in dramatic vigor, and -in the vivid truth to nature of one or two of the personages -introduced. _Uncle Tommy Loggins_, in particular, an oracle in "rough -and tumbles," and Ransy Sniffle, a misshapen urchin "who in his -earlier days had fed copiously upon red clay and blackberries," and -all the pleasures of whose life concentre in a love of -fisticuffs--are both forcible, {289} accurate and original generic -delineations of real existences to be found sparsely in Georgia, -Mississippi and Louisiana, and very plentifully in our more remote -settlements and territories. This article would positively make the -fortune of any British periodical. - -"The Song" is a burlesque somewhat overdone, but upon the whole a -good caricature of Italian bravura singing. The following account of -Miss Aurelia Emma Theodosia Augusta Crump's execution on the piano is -inimitable. - - -"Miss Crump was educated at Philadelphia; she had been taught to sing -by Madam Piggisqueaki, who was a pupil of Ma'm'selle Crokifroggietta, -who had sung with Madam Catalani; and she had taken lessons on the -piano, from Signor Buzzifuzzi, who had played with Paganini. - -"She seated herself at the piano, rocked to the right, then to the -left,--leaned forward, then backward, and began. She placed her right -hand about midway the keys, and her left about two octaves below it. -She now put off the right in a brisk canter up the treble notes, and -the left after it. The left then led the way back, and the right -pursued it in like manner. The right turned, and repeated its first -movement; but the left outrun it this time, hopt over it, and flung -it entirely off the track. It came in again, however, behind the left -on its return, and passed it in the same style. They now became -highly incensed at each other, and met furiously on the middle -ground. Here a most awful conflict ensued, for about the space of ten -seconds, when the right whipped off, all of a sudden, as I thought, -fairly vanquished. But I was in the error, against which Jack -Randolph cautions us--'It had only fallen back to a stronger -position.' It mounted upon two black keys, and commenced the note of -a rattle-snake. This had a wonderful effect upon the left, and placed -the doctrine of snake charming beyond dispute. The left rushed -furiously towards it repeatedly, but seemed invariably panic struck, -when it came within six keys of it, and as invariably retired with a -tremendous roaring down the bass keys. It continued its assaults, -sometimes by the way of the naturals, sometimes by the way of the -sharps, and sometimes by a zigzag, through both; but all its attempts -to dislodge the right from its strong hold proving ineffectual, it -came close up to its adversary and expired." - - -The "_Turn Out_" is excellent--a second edition of Miss Edgeworth's -"Barring Out," and full of fine touches of the truest humor. The -scene is laid in Georgia, and in the good old days of _fescues_, -_abbiselfas_, and _anpersants_--terms in very common use, but whose -derivation we have always been at a loss to understand. Our author -thus learnedly explains the riddle. - - -"The _fescue_ was a sharpened wire, or other instrument, used by the -preceptor, to point out the letters to the children. _Abbiselfa_ is a -contraction of the words 'a, by itself, a.' It was usual, when either -of the vowels constituted a syllable of a word, to pronounce it, and -denote its independent character, by the words just mentioned, thus: -'a by itself _a_, c-o-r-n corn, _acorn_'--e by itself _e_, v-i-l vil, -evil. The character which stands for the word '_and_' (&) was -probably pronounced with the same accompaniment, but in terms -borrowed from the Latin language, thus: '& _per se_ (by itself) &.' -'Hence anpersant.'" - - -This whole story forms an admirable picture of school-boy democracy -in the woods. The _master_ refuses his pupils an Easter holiday; and -upon repairing, at the usual hour of the fatal day, to his school -house, "a log pen about twenty feet square," finds every avenue to -his ingress fortified and barricadoed. He advances, and is assailed -by a whole wilderness of sticks from the cracks. Growing desperate, -he seizes a fence rail, and finally succeeds in effecting an entrance -by demolishing the door. He is soundly flogged however for his pains, -and the triumphant urchins suffer him to escape with his life, solely -upon condition of their being allowed to do what they please as long -as they shall think proper. - -"_The Charming Creature as a Wife_," is a very striking narrative of -the evils attendant upon an ill-arranged marriage--but as it has -nothing about it peculiarly Georgian, we pass it over without further -comment. - -"_The Gander Pulling_" is a gem worthy, in every respect, of the -writer of "The Fight," and "The Horse Swap." What a "_Gander -Pulling_" is, however, may probably not be known by a great majority -of our readers. We will therefore tell them. It is a piece of -unprincipled barbarity not unfrequently practised in the South and -West. A circular horse path is formed of about forty or fifty yards -in diameter. Over this path, and between two posts about ten feet -apart, is extended a rope which, swinging loosely, vibrates in an arc -of five or six feet. From the middle of this rope, lying directly -over the middle of the path, a gander, whose neck and head are well -greased, is suspended by the feet. The distance of the fowl from the -ground is generally about ten feet--and its neck is consequently just -within reach of a man on horseback. Matters being thus arranged, and -the mob of vagabonds assembled, who are desirous of entering the -chivalrous lists of the "Gander Pulling," a hat is handed round, into -which a quarter or half dollar, as the case may be, is thrown by each -competitor. The money thus collected is the prize of the victor in -the game--and the game is thus conducted. The ragamuffins mounted on -horseback, gallop round the circle in Indian file. At a word of -command, given by the proprietor of the gander, the pulling, properly -so called, commences. Each villain as he passes under the rope, makes -a grab at the throat of the devoted bird--the end and object of the -tourney being to pull off his head. This of course is an end not -easily accomplished. The fowl is obstinately bent upon retaining his -caput if possible--in which determination he finds a powerful adjunct -in the grease. The rope, moreover, by the efforts of the human -devils, is kept in a troublesome and tantalizing state of vibration, -while two assistants of the proprietor, one at each pole, are -provided with a tough cowhide, for the purpose of preventing any -horse from making too long a sojourn beneath the gander. Many hours, -therefore, not unfrequently elapse before the contest is decided. - -"_The Ball_"--a Georgia ball--is done to the life. Some passages, in -a certain species of sly humor, wherein intense observation of -character is disguised by simplicity of relation, put us forcibly in -mind of the Spectator. For example. - - -"When De Bathle and I reached the ball room, a large number of -gentlemen had already assembled. They all seemed cheerful and happy. -Some walked in couples up and down the ball room, and talked with -great volubility; but none of them understood a word that himself or -his companion said. - -"Ah, sir, how do you know that? - -"Because the speakers showed plainly by their looks and actions, that -their thoughts were running upon their own personal appearance, and -upon the figure they would cut before the ladies, when they should -arrive; and not upon the subject of the discourse. And furthermore, -their conversation was like that of {290} one talking in his -sleep--without order, sense, or connexion. The hearer always made the -speaker repeat in sentences and half sentences; often interrupting -him with 'what?' before he had proceeded three words in a remark; and -then laughed affectedly, as though he saw in the senseless unfinished -sentence, a most excellent joke. Then would come his reply, which -could not be forced into connexion with a word that he had heard; and -in the course of which he was treated with precisely the civility -which he had received. And yet they kept up the conversation with -lively interest as long as I listened to them." - - -"_The Mother and her Child_," we have seen before--but read it a -second time with zest. It is a laughable burlesque of the baby -'gibberish' so frequently made use of by mothers in speaking to their -children. This sketch evinces, like all the rest of the Georgia -scenes--a fine dramatic talent. - -"_The Debating Society_" is the best thing in the book--and indeed -one among the best things of the kind we have ever read. It has all -the force and freedom of some similar articles in the Diary of a -Physician--without the evident straining for effect which so -disfigures that otherwise admirable series. We will need no apology -for copying _The Debating Society_ entire. - - -About three and twenty years ago, at the celebrated school in -W------n, was formed a Debating Society, composed of young gentlemen -between the ages of seventeen and twenty-two. Of the number were two, -who, rather from an uncommon volubility, than from any superior gifts -or acquirements, which they possessed over their associates, were by -common consent, placed at the head of the fraternity.--At least this -was true of one of them: the other certainly had higher claims to his -distinction. He was a man of the highest order of intellect, who, -though he has since been known throughout the Union, as one of the -ablest speakers in the country, seems to me to have added but little -to his powers in debate, since he passed his twenty-second year. The -name of the first, was Longworth; and McDermot was the name of the -last. They were congenial spirits, warm friends, and classmates, at -the time of which I am speaking. - -It was a rule of the Society, that every member should speak upon the -subjects chosen for discussion, or pay a fine; and as all the members -valued the little stock of change, with which they were furnished, -more than they did their reputation for oratory, not a fine had been -imposed for a breach of this rule, from the organization of the -society to this time. - -The subjects for discussion were proposed by the members, and -selected by the President, whose prerogative it was also to arrange -the speakers on either side, at his pleasure; though in selecting the -subjects, he was influenced not a little by the members who gave -their opinions freely of those which were offered. - -It was just as the time was approaching, when most of the members -were to leave the society, some for college, and some for the busy -scenes of life, that McDermot went to share his classmate's bed for a -night. In the course of the evening's conversation, the society came -upon the tapis. "Mac," said Longworth, "would'nt we have rare sport, -if we could impose a subject upon the society, which has no sense in -it, and hear the members speak upon it?" - -"Zounds," said McDermot, "it would be the finest fun in the world. -Let's try it at all events--we can lose nothing by the experiment." - -A sheet of foolscap was immediately divided between them, and they -industriously commenced the difficult task of framing sentences, -which should possess the _form_ of a debateable question, without a -particle of the _substance_.--After an hour's toil, they at length -exhibited the fruits of their labor, and after some reflection, and -much laughing, they selected, from about thirty subjects proposed, -the following, as most likely to be received by the society: - -"_Whether at public elections, should the votes of faction -predominate by internal suggestions or the bias of jurisprudence?_" - -Longworth was to propose it to the society, and McDermot was to -advocate its adoption.--As they had every reason to suppose, from the -practice of the past, that they would be placed at the head of the -list of disputants, and on opposite sides, it was agreed between -them, in case the experiment should succeed, that they would write -off, and interchange their speeches, in order that each might quote -literally from the other, and thus _seem_ at least, to understand -each other. - -The day at length came for the triumph or defeat of the project; and -several accidental circumstances conspired to crown it with success. -The society had entirely exhausted their subjects; the discussion of -the day had been protracted to an unusual length, and the horns of -the several boarding-houses began to sound, just as it ended. It was -at this auspicious moment, that Longworth rose, and proposed his -subject. It was caught at with rapture by McDermot, as being -decidedly the best that had ever been submitted; and he wondered that -none of the members had ever thought of it before. - -It was no sooner proposed, than several members exclaimed, that they -did not understand it; and demanded an explanation from the mover. -Longworth replied, that there was no time then for explanations, but -that either himself or Mr. McDermot would explain it, at any other -time. - -Upon the credit of the _maker_ and _endorser_, the subject was -accepted; and under pretence of economising time, (but really to -avoid a repetition of the question,) Longworth kindly offered to -record it, for the Secretary. This labor ended, he announced that he -was prepared for the arrangement of the disputants. - -"Put yourself," said the President, "on the affirmative, and Mr. -McDermot on the negative." - -"The subject," said Longworth "cannot well be resolved into an -affirmative and negative. It consists more properly, of two -conflicting affirmatives: I have therefore drawn out the heads, under -which the speakers are to be arranged thus: - - _Internal Suggestions_. _Bias of Jurisprudence_. - -Then put yourself Internal Suggestions--Mr. McDermot the other side, -Mr. Craig on your side--Mr. Pentigall the other side," and so on. - -McDermot and Longworth now determined that they would not be seen by -any other member of the society during the succeeding week, except at -times when explanations could not be asked, or when they were too -busy to give them. Consequently, the week passed away, without any -explanations; and the members were summoned to dispose of the -important subject, with no other lights upon it than those which they -could collect from its terms. When they assembled, there was manifest -alarm on the countenances of all but two of them. - -The Society was opened in due form, and Mr. Longworth was called on -to open the debate. He rose and proceeded as follows: - -"_Mr. President_--The subject selected for this day's discussion, is -one of vast importance, pervading the profound depths of psychology, -and embracing within its comprehensive range, all that is interesting -in morals, government, law and politics. But, sir, I shall not follow -it through all its interesting and diversified ramifications; but -endeavor to deduce from it those great and fundamental principles, -which have direct bearing, upon the antagonist positions of the -disputants; confining myself more immediately to its psychological -influence when exerted, especially upon the _votes of faction_: for -here is the point upon which the question mainly turns. In the next -place, I shall consider the effects of those 'suggestions' -emphatically termed '_internal_' when applied to the same subject. -And in the third place, I shall compare these effects, with 'the bias -of jurisprudence,' considered as the only resort in times of popular -excitement--for these are supposed to exist by the very terms of the -question. - -"The first head of this arrangement, and indeed the whole subject of -dispute, has already been disposed of by this society. We have -discussed the question, 'are there any innate maxims?' and with that -subject and this, there is such an intimate affinity, that it is -impossible to disunite them, without prostrating the vital energies -of both, and introducing the wildest disorder and confusion, where, -by the very nature of things, there exist the most harmonious -coincidences, and the most happy and euphonic congenialities. Here -then might I rest, Mr. President, upon the decision of this society, -with perfect confidence. But, sir, I am not forced to rely upon the -inseparable affinities of the two questions, for success in this -dispute, obvious as they must be to every reflecting mind. All -history, ancient and modern, furnish examples corroborative of the -views which I have taken of this deeply interesting subject. By what -means did the renowned poets, philosophers, orators and statesmen of -{291} antiquity, gain their immortality? Whence did Milton, -Shakspeare, Newton, Locke, Watts, Paley, Burke, Chatham, Pitt, Fox, -and a host of others whom I might name, pluck their never-fading -laurels? I answer boldly, and without the fear of contradiction, -that, though they all reached the temple of fame by different routes, -they all passed through the broad vista of '_internal suggestions_.' -The same may be said of Jefferson, Madison, and many other -distinguished personages of our own country. - -"I challenge the gentlemen on the other side to produce examples like -these in support of their cause." - -Mr. Longworth pressed these profound and logical views to a length to -which our limits will not permit us to follow him, and which the -reader's patience would hardly bear, if they would. Perhaps, however, -he will bear with us, while we give the conclusion of Mr. Longworth's -remarks: as it was here, that he put forth all his strength: - -"_Mr. President_,--Let the bias of jurisprudence predominate, and how -is it possible, (considering it merely as extending to those impulses -which may with propriety be termed a _bias_,) how is it possible, for -a government to exist, whose object is the public good? The marble -hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil authority, and hurl -into thraldom the votaries of rational liberty. Virtue, justice and -all the nobler principles of human nature, would wither away under -the pestilential breath of political faction, and an unnerved -constitution be left to the sport of demagogue and parasite. Crash -after crash would be heard in quick succession, as the strong pillars -of the republic give way, and Despotism would shout in hellish -triumph amidst the crumbling ruins--Anarchy would wave her bloody -sceptre over the devoted land, and the blood-hounds of civil war, -would lap the crimson gore of our most worthy citizens. The shrieks -of women, and the screams of children, would be drowned amidst the -clash of swords, and the cannon's peal: and Liberty, mantling her -face from the horrid scene, would spread her golden-tinted pinions, -and wing her flight to some far distant land, never again to re-visit -our peaceful shores. In vain should we then sigh for the beatific -reign of those 'suggestions' which I am proud to acknowledge as -peculiarly and exclusively 'internal.'" - -Mr. McDermot rose promptly at the call of the President, and -proceeded as follows: - -"_Mr. President_,--If I listened unmoved to the very labored appeal -to the passions, which has just been made, it was not because I am -insensible to the powers of eloquence; but because I happen to be -blessed with the small measure of sense, which is necessary to -distinguish true eloquence from the wild ravings of an unbridled -imagination. Grave and solemn appeals, when ill-timed and misplaced, -are apt to excite ridicule; hence it was, that I detected myself more -than once, in open laughter, during the most pathetic parts of Mr. -Longworth's argument, if so it can be called.[1] In the midst of -'crashing pillars,' 'crumbling ruins,' 'shouting despotism,' -'screaming women,' and 'flying Liberty,' the question was perpetually -recurring to me, 'what has all this to do with the subject of -dispute?' I will not follow the example of that gentleman--It shall -be my endeavor to clear away the mist which he has thrown around the -subject, and to place it before the society, in a clear, intelligible -point of view: for I must say, that though his speech '_bears strong -marks of the pen_,' (sarcastically,) it has but few marks of sober -reflection. Some of it, I confess, is very intelligible and very -plausible; but most of it, I boldly assert, no man living can -comprehend. I mention this, for the edification of that gentleman, -(who is usually clear and forcible,) to teach him, that he is most -successful when he labors least. - -[Footnote 1: This was extemporaneous, and well conceived; for Mr. -McDermot had not played his part with becoming gravity.] - -"Mr. President: The gentleman, in opening the debate, stated that the -question was one of vast importance; pervading the profound depths of -_psychology_, and embracing, within its ample range, the whole circle -of arts and sciences. And really, sir, he has verified his statement; -for he has extended it over the whole moral and physical world. But, -Mr. President, I take leave to differ from the gentleman, at the very -threshhold of his remarks. The subject is one which is confined -within very narrow limits. It extends no further than to the elective -franchise, and is not even commensurate with this important -privilege; for it stops short at the _vote of faction_. In this point -of light, the subject comes within the grasp of the most common -intellect; it is plain, simple, natural and intelligible. Thus -viewing it, Mr. President, where does the gentleman find in it, or in -all nature besides, the original of the dismal picture which he has -presented to the society? It loses all its interest, and becomes -supremely ridiculous. Having thus, Mr. President, divested the -subject of all obscurity--having reduced it to those few elements, -with which we are all familiar; I proceed to make a few deductions -from the premises, which seem to me inevitable, and decisive of the -question. I lay it down as a self-evident proposition, that faction -in all its forms, is hideous; and I maintain, with equal confidence, -that it never has been, nor ever will be, restrained by those -suggestions, which the gentleman '_emphatically terms internal_.' No, -sir, nothing short of the bias, and the very strong bias too, of -jurisprudence or the potent energies of the sword, can restrain it. -But, sir, I shall here, perhaps, be asked, whether there is not a -very wide difference between a turbulent, lawless faction, and the -_vote_ of faction? Most unquestionably there is; and to this -distinction I shall presently advert and demonstrably prove that it -is a distinction, which makes altogether in our favor." - -Thus did Mr. McDermot continue to dissect and expose his adversary's -argument, in the most clear, conclusive and masterly manner, at -considerable length. But we cannot deal more favorably by him, than -we have dealt by Mr. Longworth. We must, therefore, dismiss him, -after we shall have given the reader his concluding remarks. They -were as follows: - -"Let us now suppose Mr. Longworth's principles brought to the test of -experiment. Let us suppose his language addressed to all mankind--We -close the temples of justice as useless; we burn our codes of laws as -worthless; and we substitute in their places, the more valuable -restraints of _internal suggestions_. Thieves, invade not your -neighbor's property: if you do, you will be arraigned before the -august tribunal of _conscience_. Robbers, stay your lawless hand; or -you will be visited with the tremendous penalties of _psychology_. -Murderers, spare the blood of your fellow creatures; you will be -exposed to the excruciating tortures of _innate maxims_--_when it -shall be discovered that there are any_. Mr. President, could there -be a broader license to crime than this? Could a better plan be -devised for dissolving the bands of civil society? It requires not -the gift of prophecy, to foresee the consequences of these novel and -monstrous principles. The strong would tyrannize over the weak; the -poor would plunder the rich; the servant would rise above the master; -the drones of society would fatten upon the hard earnings of the -industrious. Indeed, sir, industry would soon desert the land; for it -would have neither reward nor encouragement. Commerce would cease; -the arts and sciences would languish; all the sacred relations would -be dissolved, and scenes of havoc, dissolution and death ensue, such -as never before visited the world, and such as never will visit it, -until mankind learn to repose their destinies upon 'those -suggestions, _emphatically termed internal_.' From all these evils -there is a secure retreat behind the brazen wall of the 'bias of -jurisprudence.'" - -The gentleman who was next called on to engage in the debate, was -John Craig; a gentleman of good hard sense, but who was utterly -incompetent to say a word upon a subject which he did not understand. -He proceeded thus: - -"_Mr. President_,--When this subject was proposed, I candidly -confessed I did not understand it, and I was informed by Mr. -Longworth and Mr. McDermot, that either of them would explain it, at -any leisure moment. But, sir, they seem to have taken very good care, -from that time to this, to have no leisure moment. I have inquired of -both of them, repeatedly for an explanation; but they were always too -busy to talk about it. Well, sir, as it was proposed by Mr. -Longworth, I thought he would certainly explain it in his speech; but -I understood no more of his speech than I did of the subject. Well, -sir, I thought I should certainly learn something from Mr. McDermot; -especially as he promised at the commencement of his speech to clear -away the mist that Mr. Longworth had thrown about the subject, and to -place it in a clear, intelligible point of light. But, sir, the only -difference between his speech and Mr. Longworth's is, that it was not -quite as flighty as Mr. Longworth's. I could n't understand head nor -tail of it. At one time they seemed to argue the question, as if it -were this: 'Is it better to have law or no law?' At another, as -though it was, 'should factions be governed by law, or be left to -their own consciences?' But most of the time they argued it, as if it -were just what it seems to be--a sentence without sense or meaning. -But, sir, I suppose its {292} obscurity is owing to my dullness of -apprehension, for they appeared to argue it with great earnestness -and feeling, as if they understood it. - -"I shall put my interpretation upon it, Mr. President, and argue it -accordingly. - -"'_Whether at public elections_'--that is, for members of Congress, -members of the Legislature, &c. '_should the votes of faction_'--I -don't know what 'faction' has got to do with it; and therefore I -shall throw it out. '_Should the votes predominate, by internal -suggestions or the bias_,' I don't know what the _article_ is put in -here for. It seems to me, it ought to be, _be biased by_ -'jurisprudence' or law. In short, Mr. President, I understand the -question to be, should a man vote as he pleases, or should the law -say how he should vote?" - -Here Mr. Longworth rose and observed, that though Mr. Craig was on -his side, he felt it due to their adversaries, to state, that this -was not a true exposition of the subject. This exposition settled the -question at once on his side; for nobody would, for a moment contend, -that _the law_ should declare how men should vote. Unless it be -confined to the vote _of faction_ and _the_ bias of jurisprudence, it -was no subject at all. To all this Mr. McDermot signified his -unqualified approbation; and seemed pleased with the candor of his -opponent. - -"Well," said Mr. Craig, "I thought it was impossible that any one -should propose such a question as that to the society; but will Mr. -Longworth tell us, if it does not mean that, what does it mean? for I -don't see what great change is made in it by his explanation." - -Mr. Longworth replied, that if the remarks which he had just made, -and his argument, had not fully explained the subject to Mr. Craig, -he feared it would be out of his power to explain it. - -"Then," said Mr. Craig, "I'll pay my fine, for I don't understand a -word of it." - -The next one summoned to the debate was Mr. Pentigall. Mr. Pentigall -was one of those who would never acknowledge his ignorance of any -thing, which any person else understood; and that Longworth and -McDermot were both masters of the subject, was clear, both from their -fluency and seriousness. He therefore determined to understand it, at -all hazards. Consequently he rose at the President's command, with -considerable self-confidence. I regret, however, that it is -impossible to commit Mr. Pentigall's _manner_ to paper, without -which, his remarks lose nearly all their interest. He was a tall, -handsome man; a little theatric in his manner, rapid in his delivery, -and singular in his pronunciation. He gave to the _e_ and _i_, of our -language, the sound of _u_--at least his peculiar intonations of -voice, seemed to give them that sound; and his rapidity of utterance -seemed to change the termination, "_tion_" into "_ah_." With all his -peculiarities, however, he was a fine fellow. If he was ambitious, he -was not invidious, and he possessed an amicable disposition. He -proceeded as follows: - -"_Mr. President_,--This internal suggestion which has been so -eloquently discussed by Mr. Longworth, and the bias of jurisprudence -which has been so ably advocated by Mr. McDermot--hem! Mr. President, -in order to fix the line of demarkation between--ah--the internal -suggestion and the bias of jurisprudence--Mr. President, I think, -sir, that--ah--the subject must be confined to the _vote of faction_, -and _the_ bias of jurisprudence"---- - -Here Mr. Pentigall clapt his right hand to his forehead, as though he -had that moment heard some overpowering news; and after maintaining -this position for about the space of ten seconds, he slowly withdrew -his hand, gave his head a slight inclination to the right, raised his -eyes to the President as if just awakening from a trance, and with a -voice of the most hopeless despair, concluded with "I don't -understand the subject, Muster Prusidunt." - -The rest of the members on both sides submitted to be fined rather -than attempt the knotty subject; but by common consent, the penal -rule was dispensed with. Nothing now remained to close the exercises, -but the decision of the Chair. - -The President, John Nuble, was a young man, not unlike Craig in his -turn of mind; though he possessed an intellect a little more -sprightly than Craig's. His decision was short. - -"Gentlemen," said he, "I do not understand the subject. This," -continued he, (pulling out his knife, and pointing to the silvered or -_cross_ side of it,) "is 'Internal Suggestions.' And this" (pointing -to the other, or _pile_ side,) "is 'Bias of Jurisprudence:'" so -saying, he threw up his knife, and upon its fall, determined that -'Internal Suggestions' had got it; and ordered the decision to be -registered accordingly. - -It is worthy of note, that in their zeal to accomplish their purpose, -Longworth and McDermot forgot to destroy the lists of subjects, from -which they had selected the one so often mentioned; and one of these -lists containing the subject discussed, with a number more like it, -was picked up by Mr. Craig, who made a public exhibition of it, -threatening to arraign the conspirators before the society, for a -contempt. But, as the parting hour was at hand, he overlooked it with -the rest of the brotherhood, and often laughed heartily at the trick. - - -"_The Militia Company Drill_," is not by the author of the other -pieces but has a strong family resemblance, and is very well -executed. Among the innumerable descriptions of Militia musters which -are so rife in the land, we have met with nothing at all equal to -this in the matter of broad farce. - -"_The Turf_" is also capital, and bears with it a kind of dry and -sarcastic morality which will recommend it to many readers. - -"_An Interesting Interview_" is another specimen of exquisite -dramatic talent. It consists of nothing more than a fac-simile of the -speech, actions, and _thoughts_ of two drunken old men--but its air -of truth is perfectly inimitable. - -"_The Fox-Hunt_," "_The Wax Works_," and "_A Sage Conversation_," are -all good--but neither _as_ good as many other articles in the book. - -"_The Shooting Match_," which concludes the volume, may rank with the -best of the Tales which precede it. As a portraiture of the manners -of our South-Western peasantry, in especial, it is perhaps better -than any. - -Altogether this very humorous, and very clever book forms an æra in -our reading. It has reached us per mail, and without a cover. We will -have it bound forthwith, and give it a niche in our library as a sure -omen of better days for the literature of the South. - - -THE TEA PARTY. - -_Traits of the Tea Party: Published by Harper & Brothers._ - -This is a neat little duodecimo of 265 pages, including an Appendix, -and is full of rich interest over and above what the subject of the -volume is capable of exciting. In Boston it is very natural that the -veteran Hewes should be regarded with the highest sentiments of -veneration and affection. He is too intimately and conspicuously -connected with that city's chivalric records not to be esteemed a -hero--and such indeed he is--a veritable hero. Of the Tea Party he is -the oldest--but _not_ the only survivor. From the book before us we -learn the names of nine others, still living, who bore a part in the -drama. They are as follows--Henry Purkitt, Peter Slater, Isaac -Simpson, Jonathan Hunnewell, John Hooton, William Pierce, ---- -Mcintosh, Samuel Sprague, and John Prince. - -Reminiscences such as the present cannot be too frequently laid -before the public. _More than any thing else_ do they illustrate that -which can be properly called the History of our Revolution--and in so -doing how vastly important do they appear to the entire cause of -civil liberty? As the worthies of those great days are sinking, one -by one, from among us, the value of what is known about them, and -especially of what may be known through their memories, is increasing -in a rapidly augmenting ratio. Let us treasure up while we may, the -recollections which are so valuable now, and which will be more than -invaluable hereafter. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTHERN LITERARY -MESSENGER, VOL. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: <span lang='' xml:lang=''>The Southern Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 4, March, 1836</span></p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Various</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 30, 2022 [eBook #68653]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Ron Swanson</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK <span lang='' xml:lang=''>THE SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER, VOL. II., NO. 4, MARCH, 1836</span> ***</div> -<center>THE</center> -<h2>SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER:</h2> -<center>DEVOTED TO</center> -<h3>EVERY DEPARTMENT OF</h3> -<h1>LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.</h1> -<br> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem1"> - <tr><td><small>Au gré de nos desirs bien plus qu'au gré des vents. </small></td></tr> - <tr><td align="right"><small><i>Crebillon's Electre</i>.</small></td></tr> - <tr><td><small> </small></td></tr> - <tr><td><small>As <i>we</i> will, and not as the winds will.</small></td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<center><small>RICHMOND:<br> -T. W. WHITE, PUBLISHER AND PROPRIETOR.<br> -1835-6.</small></center> -<br><br><br><br> -<h3>CONTENTS OF VOLUME II, NUMBER 4</h3> - -<p><a href="#sect01">S<small>KETCHES OF THE</small> H<small>ISTORY</small> and -Present Condition of Tripoli, with some accounts of the other -Barbary States (No. XI.)</a>: by R. G.</p> - -<p><a href="#sect02">B<small>AI</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect03">T<small>HE</small> C<small>LASSICS</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect04">A L<small>OAN TO THE</small> M<small>ESSENGER</small></a> No. I: by J. F. O.<br> - <a href="#sect05">L<small>IFE</small></a> a brief history, in three -parts, with a sequel: by William Cutter</p> - -<p><a href="#sect06">R<small>EADINGS WITH MY</small> P<small>ENCIL</small></a>, No. II: by J. F. O.</p> - -<p><a href="#sect07">H<small>ALLEY'S</small> C<small>OMET</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect08">E<small>PIMANES</small></a>: by E. A. Poe</p> - -<p><a href="#sect09">T<small>O</small> H<small>ELEN</small></a>: by E. A. P.</p> - -<p><a href="#sect10">O<small>N THE</small> P<small>OETRY OF</small> B<small>URNS</small></a>: by James F. Otis</p> - -<p><a href="#sect11">C<small>HANGE</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect12">M<small>ANUAL</small> L<small>ABOR</small> S<small>CHOOLS</small></a>: by E. F. Stanton</p> - -<p><a href="#sect13">S<small>ONG OF</small> L<small>EE'S</small> L<small>EGION</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect14">N<small>ATURAL</small> B<small>RIDGE OF</small> P<small>ANDI</small>, -<small>IN</small> C<small>OLOMBIA</small>, S<small>OUTH</small> A<small>MERICA</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect15">L<small>INES</small></a>, on the Statue of Washington in the Capitol</p> - -<p><a href="#sect16">E<small>PIGRAM</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect17">F<small>ALL OF</small> T<small>EQUENDÁMA</small>, -<small>IN</small> C<small>OLOMBIA</small>, S<small>OUTH</small> A<small>MERICA</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect18">L<small>IONEL</small> G<small>RANBY</small></a>, Chapter IX: by Theta</p> - -<p><a href="#sect19">T<small>HE</small> P<small>ATRIARCH'S</small> I<small>NHERITANCE</small></a>: by T. H. S.</p> - -<p><a href="#sect20">A<small>MERICANISMS</small></a>: by H.</p> - -<p><a href="#sect21">T<small>O</small> R<small>ANDOLPH OF</small> R<small>OANOKE</small></a>: by Hesperus</p> - -<p><a href="#sect22">A<small>DDRESS</small></a>: by Henry St. George Tucker</p> - -<p><a href="#sect23">A<small>UTHORS</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect24">M<small>R</small>. M<small>AXWELL'S</small> S<small>PEECH</small></a></p> - -<p><a href="#sect25">A<small>N</small> A<small>DDRESS</small>, on the Influence of the Federative -Republican System of Government upon Literature and the Development of Character</a>: by Thomas R. Dew</p> - -<p>C<small>RITICAL</small> N<small>OTICES</small><br> - <a href="#sect26">E<small>PISCOPAL</small> C<small>HURCH IN</small> -V<small>IRGINIA</small></a>: by Francis L. Hawks, D.D.<br> - <a href="#sect27">P<small>HRENOLOGY</small></a>: by Mrs. L. Miles<br> - <a href="#sect28">M<small>AHMOUD</small></a><br> - <a href="#sect29">G<small>EORGIA</small> S<small>CENES</small></a>: by a native Georgian<br> - <a href="#sect30">T<small>RAITS OF THE</small> T<small>EA</small> -P<small>ARTY</small></a></p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213"><small><small>[p. 213]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<hr> -<h3>SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER.</h3> -<hr> -<center>V<small>OL</small>. II. RICHMOND, MARCH, -1836. N<small>O</small>. IV.</center> -<hr> -<center><small>T. W. WHITE, PROPRIETOR. FIVE -DOLLARS PER ANNUM.</small></center> -<a name="sect01"></a> -<hr> -<br> -<br> -<h4>SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY</h4> -<h5>AND PRESENT CONDITION OF TRIPOLI, WITH SOME -ACCOUNTS OF THE OTHER BARBARY STATES.</h5> -<center>N<small>O</small>. XI.—(Continued.)</center> -<br> - -<p>The inertness of the French since their rupture with Algiers, had -induced Hussein to treat their threats with contempt, and he by no -means anticipated the extreme measures to which they were about to -resort. The certainty of their intentions to attack him, however, -effected no change in his resolve to maintain the position which he -had assumed; all offers of mediation or intercession were rejected, -and the approach of the storm only rendered him the more determined -to brave its violence. He was left to meet it alone. The mission of -Tahir Pasha was the only effort made by the Sultan in his behalf; -Great Britain had in vain offered its mediation to both Parties, and -did not appear disposed to interfere farther between them; the other -European Powers remained neutral. The Sovereigns of Tripoli and Tunis -were summoned to aid in defending the common cause of Islamism; but -the appeal was in both instances vain; Yusuf dreaded the vengeance of -the French, on account of the support which he had unwillingly -afforded to the accusations against their Consul, and was by no means -inclined to give them additional cause for enmity, or to involve -himself in expenses from which he could anticipate no immediate -benefit. The Bey of Tunis had long been devoted to the interests of -France; far from aiding the Dey, he had agreed to furnish his enemies -with provisions, and even if required to make a diversion in their -favor, by invading the Algerine Province of Constantina which lay -contiguous to his own dominions.</p> - -<p>Hussein was thus reduced entirely to his own resources; an -examination of the means at his disposal will show that he was unable -to make any effectual resistance, and that without the interposition -of some occurrence beyond the control of man, "<i>the well defended -city</i>" must have fallen into the hands of the French.</p> - -<p>The Algerine territory extends in length on the Mediterranean, about -six hundred miles; its breadth or the distance between that Sea and -the Desert no where exceeds one hundred miles, and is generally much -less. Shaler gives sixty as the average breadth, which would make the -superficial extent of the country about thirty-six thousand square -miles. A considerable portion of this territory consists of rugged -and almost inaccessible mountains, many of which are covered with -eternal snow; there are however vast tracts of the finest land, which -with proper attention would be rendered very productive, and even the -rude and careless mode of cultivation pursued by the inhabitants -enabled them frequently to export great quantities of wheat to -Europe. One of these tracts in the immediate vicinity of Algiers -called the plain of Metija is said to be of unparalleled fertility; -it is not less than a thousand square miles in extent, and is covered -with springs which by a judicious direction of their waters, might be -made the sources of health and plenty, instead of producing as they -now do only useless and insalubrious marshes.</p> - -<p>The country was divided into three provinces, separated by lines -drawn from points on the coast southwardly to the Desert; each of -these divisions was governed by a Bey who though appointed from -Algiers, was almost absolute within his own territories. The Eastern -province bordering on Tunis was the largest and the most populous; it -took its name from its capital Constantina, the ancient Cirta, a -strong town situated about sixty miles from the Sea, and said to have -more inhabitants than Algiers. The principal ports of this district -are Bugia and Bona; upon its coast near Bona were the <i>African -Concessions</i> which in part led to the difficulties with France. -Tittery the middle province is the smallest, its surface not being -more than sixty miles square; it however contains the capital, and is -more populous in proportion to its extent, than any other part of the -Regency. The Western province lying contiguous to Morocco has been -called Oran, Tlemsen and Mascara, accordingly as its Bey resided in -either of the principal cities which bear those names. In 1830 the -seat of government was Oran or more properly Warran, a seaport town -near the frontiers of Morocco which possesses a fine harbor and may -be rendered very strong; the other ports of this province Arzew, -Mostaganem and Shershell though nearly deserted, are well situated -both for commerce and defence. Indeed the western territories of -Algiers are considered the most delightful and the richest of -Northern Africa; in addition to their grain, fruits and mines, they -are also famous for the beauty and spirit of their horses which are -sent in great numbers to the East, as well as to Spain and the South -of France. The population appears likewise to be of a better -character than that of other parts of the Regency; there are fewer -Arabs or Kabyles, and a great portion of the inhabitants are the -descendants of that noble race of Moors, who were expelled from Spain -in the fifteenth and two succeeding centuries.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to form any estimate of the number of inhabitants in -the Algerine territories. Shaler in 1824 considered it less than a -million; from the results of the latest inquiries made by the French -it amounted in 1830 to seven hundred and eighty thousand, who were -thus classed.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="population"> - <tr><td><i>Moors</i>, the industrious and most civilized class, - inhabiting the cities or engaged in agriculture,</td> - <td valign="bottom" align="right">400,000</td> - </tr> - <tr><td><i>Kabyles</i> or <i>Berbers</i> who probably descend from the - aboriginals of the country; they are still a wild and - intractable race, living in the mountains and frequently - plundering or levying contributions on the industrious - part of the population,</td> - <td valign="bottom" align="right">200,000</td> - </tr> - <tr><td><i>Arabs</i> who live in tents, on the borders of the Desert - from the produce of their flocks and herds, or are - employed in transporting goods through the country,</td> - <td valign="bottom" align="right">120,000</td> - </tr> - <tr><td><i>Turkish Soldiers</i>, generally from the coasts and - islands of the Archipelago, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214"><small><small>[p. 214]</small></small></a></span></td> - <td valign="bottom" align="right">8,000</td> - </tr> - <tr><td><i>Koul-ogleis</i> or children of Turks by native women.</td> - <td valign="bottom" align="right"><u> 32,000</u></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td> - <td valign="bottom" align="right">780,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Assuming this estimate as correct, it will be found by comparison -with the tables of population of other countries, that the Algerine -Dominions did not probably contain more than a hundred and twenty -thousand men capable of bearing arms; and when it is considered that -these are spread over an extensive territory, which is mountainous -and almost destitute of roads, it would be unreasonable to expect -that more than half that number could be collected at any one point, -even supposing the existence of universal patriotism and devotion to -the Government. Such feelings may have operated on the Moors, but -they could scarcely have produced much effect on the Kabyles and -Arabs, who according to the estimate form more than two-fifths of the -population; and although promises of high pay and the prospect of -plunder might induce many from each of those classes and from among -the wanderers of the Great Desert, to aid in the defence of the -country, yet little dependance could be placed upon these irregular -bands, when opposed to the disciplined troops of France.</p> - -<p>Hussein's experience may probably have led him to some such -conclusions, but every act of his reign served to shew that they -would have been ineffectual towards inducing him to make concessions, -even were it not too late. After the rejection of the overture which -had been wrung from him by his friend Halil, nothing less than an -immense pecuniary sacrifice on his part would have contented the -French; and policy as well as pride forbade this sacrifice, for he -was well aware that a peace purchased on such terms would have cost -him his life. Moreover he was evidently a thorough fatalist; two -expeditions against Algiers had already failed completely, although -taking into consideration its defences at the several periods, the -chances of its fall were in both those cases greater than under the -existing circumstances. "God is great and good, and the Sea is -uncertain and dangerous," was his observation to the Captain of the -British frigate Rattlesnake; a storm such as occurs on that coast in -every month of the year, might in a few hours have dissipated the -forces of his enemies, or have thrown so large a number of them into -his hands as prisoners, that their restoration would have been deemed -an equivalent for peace.</p> - -<p>On the 14th of May an incident took place which was calculated to -confirm the Dey in such expectations. During a violent gale from the -northeast, the Aventure and the Siléne two brigs which formed part of -the blockading squadron were on that night driven ashore near Cape -Bengut, about sixty miles east of Algiers. The officers and crews of -these vessels in number about two hundred persons, finding escape -impossible, and conceiving that any attempt at defence would only -insure their destruction, determined to march along the coast towards -Algiers, and to surrender themselves as prisoners of war to the first -party with which they might meet. They were soon observed and -surrounded by a troop of Kabyles whom they however induced to believe -that they were English, and that a large sum would be paid for their -safe delivery at Algiers. Under this persuasion the Barbarians were -conducting them towards the city, when their course was arrested by -the sudden rise of a river which it was necessary to cross; during -the delay thus occasioned, it was discovered that they were French, -and the greater part of them were immediately sacrificed to the fury -of the Kabyles. The heads of one hundred and nine of these -unfortunate persons were brought into Algiers on the 20th of May, -which having been purchased by the Dey at the regular price, were -exposed on the walls of the Casauba; they were however afterwards -surrendered for burial. The survivors, eighty-nine in number, were -confined in the dungeons of the castle; they were in other respects -treated by Hussein with as much lenity as the circumstances would -permit, and they received the kindest attentions from the Consuls of -Foreign Powers who remained in the place.</p> - -<p>Hussein did not however trust entirely to Providence for the safety -of his capital; on the contrary he made every preparation in his -power for its defence. In the city and its environs every man was -enrolled, and the slightest expression indicative of fear or mistrust -as to the result of the contest, was punished by death. From the -Provinces, the Beys were ordered to bring to Algiers all whom they -could enlist or force into the service, and immense sums from the -public treasury were placed at their disposal for the purpose. By -these means he speedily assembled a very large force, the exact -amount of which it is impossible to ascertain; the French historians -state it to have been seventy-two thousand; other accounts perhaps -equally worthy of credit make it much less. The number of what may be -termed regular troops appears to have been precisely twenty-two -thousand, viz. five thousand Turks or Janissaries, seven thousand -Koul-ogleis, and ten thousand Moors; to these the French accounts add -ten thousand Kabyles, and forty thousand others, principally Arab -horsemen. Major Lee the Consul of the United States, who made very -particular observations and inquiries on the subject, and whose -statements appear to be entirely free from prejudice, does not -consider that the irregular forces exceeded thirty thousand. Whatever -may have been the fact with regard to the whole number of the -Algerine troops, it is certain that a large and important portion -were never brought into action in the open field, having been -necessarily retained to garrison the city and the fortifications in -its immediate vicinity.</p> - -<p>When the preparations of the French had removed all doubts as to -their views with regard to Algiers, apprehensions were entertained by -the Governments of Christian nations for the safety of their Consuls -and citizens in the country, who, it was feared, might in a moment of -excitement be sacrificed to the fury of the inhabitants. Ships were -accordingly sent by several Powers for the purpose of bringing away -their respective agents and others who might be thus endangered; but -the commander of the blockading squadron having been strictly ordered -to allow no communication with Algiers prevented several of these -vessels from entering the harbor. An Austrian frigate and a Spanish -brig were thus ordered off, and the latter afterwards shewing some -disposition to enter was fired on. A Sardinian frigate was permitted -to send a boat on shore, to bring off the family of the Consul who -had protected <span class="pagenum"><a name="page215"><small><small>[p. 215]</small></small></a></span> -the interests of France during the difficulties -between the two countries, and several other vessels contrived to -enter and leave the port unnoticed. Commodore Biddle who commanded -the squadron of the United States in the Mediterranean, sent the -sloop of war Ontario to Algiers to bring off the American Consul -General and his family, in case they should be inclined to go. The -Ontario appeared at the entrance of the bay on the 4th of April, -accompanied by the frigate Constellation whose captain it is said was -ordered to engage any French ship which should attempt to oppose -their entrance. As no such attempt was made, it is needless to -inquire whether these instructions were really given, or to examine -whether they would have been in concordance with the received usages -of national intercourse. Major Henry Lee the American Consul General, -with his family and the Vice Consul, determined to remain; the ladies -of the Neapolitan and Spanish Consuls were however at his request -received on board the Ontario and carried to Mahon.</p> - -<p>Before the departure of the American ships the British frigate -Rattlesnake arrived, bringing despatches to the Consul Mr. St. John, -who had been ordered by his Government to remain; on leaving the -harbor she was spoken by one of the blockading ships and her captain -was informed that he would not be permitted again to enter. This fact -having been communicated to the Consul, the Rattlesnake sailed for -Malta whence she soon returned bearing a letter from Admiral Malcolm -to the French Commander, in consequence of which she was allowed to -enter Algiers on condition however that her stay should be limited to -a week.</p> - -<p>The Consuls who remained in Algiers found it necessary to adopt -measures for their own safety. The representative of Great Britain -having a large country house at a short distance from the city, out -of the probable line of operations, determined merely to retire to it -on the approach of the conflict: those of the United States, Denmark, -Spain and Naples agreed to establish themselves together at a villa -situated on a height overlooking the place, and capable of being -rendered sufficiently strong, to resist such attacks as might have -been expected. The Dey afforded them every facility in his power, for -the fortification and defence of their residence; they were allowed -to enlist some Janissaries, and the other Christians with some Jews -of the town having joined them, they mustered nearly two hundred men -who were tolerably well supplied with arms and ammunition. They -accordingly removed on the 26th of May to the <i>Castle</i> as it was -termed, on which the flag of the United States was immediately -hoisted, Major Lee having by unanimous vote, been elected -Commander-in-Chief.</p> - -<p>On the 3d of June a part of the fleet which conveyed the French army -of invasion was seen off the coast near Algiers. An immediate attack -was anticipated, and the Dey prepared to resist it, although not more -than half the troops which he expected had then arrived. The -fortifications on the bay were well provided and manned, so that the -place might be considered secure on that side; the batteries of the -Mole were directed by the younger Ibrahim the Minister of the Marine, -and the charge of the Emperor's Castle had been committed to the -Hasnagee or Treasurer in whom Hussein placed the utmost confidence. -The Dey remained secluded within the walls of the Casauba, from which -his messengers were seen constantly flying in every direction. As it -was anticipated that the landing would be attempted on the shore west -of Algiers, the Aga Ibrahim marched out with a part of his forces and -encamped on a plain near the sea, distant about ten miles in that -direction. A violent gale from the eastward however dispersed the -French ships, and nothing more was seen of them for some days; at -length information was brought from a certain source that the whole -fleet had retired to Palma.</p> - -<p>On the 9th, Achmet Bey of Constantina who had been anxiously -expected, made his appearance with his troops principally Arabs and -Kabyles; the contingents of Oran and Tittery did not however arrive -until some days afterwards, and the whole force at that time under -Ibrahim's immediate command probably amounted to twenty thousand, of -whom at least one half were Arab horsemen.</p> - -<p>On the morning of the 13th the sea near Algiers was again covered -with ships under the white flag of France. The sky was cloudless, a -fresh breeze from the northeast permitted the vessels to move at -pleasure along the coast, and as they passed majestically almost -within gun shot of the batteries, the Algerines felt that the day of -trial was come.</p> - -<p>In order to understand the operations of the French against Algiers, -some knowledge of the surrounding country and of the relative -bearings and distances of important points, is necessary. It is -however difficult to convey such information without the aid of maps; -our geographical language is limited, and wants precision, and even -where it may be sufficient for the purpose, few readers are disposed -to study the details with the care requisite to comprehend them -fully.</p> - -<p>In the account of Lord Exmouth's attack upon Algiers in 1816, the -city was described as standing on the western shore, and near the -entrance of a bay about fifteen miles in diameter; it must now be -considered as situated on the north-eastern side, and near the -extremity of a tongue of land, which projects from the African -continent northwardly into the Mediterranean. This tongue is about -twelve miles in its greatest breadth, where it joins the continent, -and ten in length from north to south; the surface of its northern -portion is irregular, and in some places rugged, traversed by ridges -and ravines, and rising in the centre into a lofty peak, called -Jibbel Boujereah; southward from this mountain the inequalities -gradually disappear, and the extensive plain of the Metijah succeeds.</p> - -<p>The northernmost point or termination of the tongue is a bold -promontory called Ras Acconnatter, or Cape Caxine, which is four -miles west by north of Algiers; following the shore nine miles -south-west from this cape, we find a small peninsula, rather more -than a mile in length, and less than a mile in breadth, extending -westwardly into the sea. This peninsula is high and rocky at its -extremity, but low and sandy at the neck which unites it to the main -land; the sea around it affords safe anchorage for vessels, and its -shores as well as those in its vicinity, present a clear beach, free -from rocks or other impediments to approach. On its highest point -stood a small fort, called by the Spanish traders <i>Torreta Chica</i>, or -<i>the little tower</i>, on which were mounted or rather placed, four -light pieces of cannon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page216"><small><small>[p. 216]</small></small></a></span> -more curious from their antiquity than -useful. Against the tower was built a Marabout or chapel, containing -the tomb of Sidi Ferruch, a saint held in great veneration by the -Algerines, and from whom the peninsula takes its name. A battery of -stone with twelve embrasures had been also erected on the shore near -the end of the peninsula, in order to prevent hostile vessels from -anchoring, but on the approach of the expedition it was dismantled -and abandoned.</p> - -<p>Eastwardly from Sidi Ferruch the land rises almost imperceptibly for -three miles, presenting a sandy plain partially covered with aloes, -cactus, and evergreen shrubs, at the termination of which is an -irregular plateau called Staweli, where the shepherds of the country -were in the habit of encamping. Farther on a valley called -Backshé-dere separated this plateau from the south-western side of -Jibbel Boujereah, along which a road originally formed by the Romans -conducted to the walls of the Emperor's castle, within a mile of -Algiers. The whole distance by this way from Sidi Ferruch to the city -is twelve miles, over a country "gently undulating and perfectly -practicable for artillery or any species of carriage," which is also -abundantly supplied with fresh water from numerous springs.</p> - -<p>These and other circumstances had induced Shaler<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> in 1825 to -recommend Sidi Ferruch as the most advantageous point for the -disembarkation of a force destined to act against Algiers; and -although the intentions of the Commander in Chief of the French -expedition were kept profoundly secret, yet it was generally -supposed, even before his departure from Toulon, that he would -attempt a landing there.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> <i>Sketches of Algiers, political, historical, and civil, -&c. by William Shaler, American Consul General at Algiers. Boston: -1826.</i></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Our country has produced few works displaying greater originality and -soundness of views than this; its subject has caused it to be -overlooked in the United States, but in France when circumstances -gave value to all information relative to Algiers, its merits were -soon recognized, and it was translated by order of the Government for -the benefit of the officers engaged in the expedition. His remarks on -the power, resources, and policy of the Algerine Government, or -rather upon its weakness, its want of means, and the absurdity of its -system, were calculated to dispel many of the illusions with regard -to it which the mutual jealousy of the great European nations had so -long contributed to maintain; and it is impossible to examine his -observations as to the proper disposition of a force destined to act -against the city, in conjunction with the statement of the plans -pursued by the French, without conceiving that in all probability -those plans were the result of his suggestions. At page 51 he says:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The several expeditions against Algiers, in which land forces have -been employed, have landed in the bay eastward of the city; this is -evidently an error, and discovers unpardonable ignorance of the coast -and topography of the country, for all the means of defence are -concentrated there. But it is obvious that any force whatever might -be landed in the fine bay of Sidi Ferruch without opposition; thence -by a single march they might arrive upon the heights commanding the -Emperor's castle, the walls of which, as nothing could prevent an -approach to them, might be scaled or breached by a mine in a short -time. This position being mastered, batteries might be established on -a height commanding the Casauba, which is indicated by the ruins of -two wind-mills, and of a fort called the Star, which the jealous -fears of this Government caused to be destroyed for the reason here -alleged, that it commanded the citadel and consequently the city. The -fleet which had landed the troops would by this time appear in the -bay, to distract the attention of the besieged, when Algiers must -either surrender at discretion or be taken by storm."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Many other passages might be quoted in illustration of Mr. Shaler's -sagacity; so many of his speculations respecting the future destinies -of Barbary have been already confirmed, that we are warranted in -entertaining hopes of the fulfilment of his prediction, that it will -again be inhabited by a civilized and industrious race.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The French ships after their dispersion by the storms of the first -days of June retreated to Palma where they remained until the 10th. -On that day the first and second divisions of the fleet again sailed -for the African coast; the third division composed almost entirely of -merchant vessels, containing the battering artillery, provisions and -materials which would not be needed until the disembarkation had been -effected, was to have sailed on the 12th, but it was detained until -the 18th by adverse winds.</p> - -<p>As the distance between Palma and Algiers is only two hundred miles, -and the wind was favorable at an early hour on the 13th of June, the -first divisions of the armament, with all the troops on board, were -collected in front of the city, and every eye was fixed on the -Admiral's ship, in anxious expectation of the signal which was to -indicate the scene of the first operations. The Algerines, although -they expected that their enemies would land at some point westward -from the city, yet did not choose to subject themselves to the hazard -of a surprise, by leaving the place undefended; the batteries which -lined the bay were therefore all manned, and the greater part of the -moveable forces were disposed in their vicinity, so as to resist any -sudden attack. At eight o'clock, the signal was given by the French -Admiral, and his ships were soon under full sail towards the west; -they rounded Cape Caxine, and then changing their course to the -southward, no doubt was left respecting the intention of the -commander to attempt a landing at Sidi Ferruch.</p> - -<p>As the fleet drew near the spot which had been selected for the -disembarkation of the troops, preparations were made for immediate -action in case it should be necessary. The heavy armed ships advanced -in front, slowly and in order of battle, ready to pour a destructive -fire upon any forces or works of their opponents as soon as -discovered within its reach. At ten o'clock, they were opposite the -extremity of the peninsula, and it became evident that no precautions -had been taken by the Algerines, which were likely to prove effectual -in preventing the descent. No fortifications had been erected on Sidi -Ferruch, in addition to the shore battery near the point, and the -turret on the hill, both of which were deserted; indeed nothing less -than the strongest works and the most scientific defence could have -rendered it tenable, when surrounded by such a fleet. On the main -land, a division of the Algerine army, supposed to consist of twelve -thousand men, were encamped near a spring of water about two miles -from the neck of the peninsula; between them and the sea were erected -two batteries,<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> armed with nine pieces of cannon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217"><small><small>[p. 217]</small></small></a></span> and two -howitzers, which had been removed from the fort on Sidi Ferruch. Arab -horsemen enveloped in their white cloaks were seen collected in -groups on the beach, or galloping among the bushes on the plain -between it and the encampment. Nothing however betokened any -disposition on the part of the Africans, to meet the invaders at the -water's edge.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Any fortification defended by artillery, and even the -spot occupied by artillery, is called a <i>battery</i>. These temporary -defences are formed by throwing up earth to the height of three or -four feet, so as to form a wall or <i>parapet</i> for the protection of -the cannon and men; where this cannot be done, logs, barrels or sacks -filled with earth, &c. are employed. At New Orleans the American -lines of batteries were principally formed of bales of cotton.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>In order to protect an army from sudden attacks, <i>entrenchments</i> are -made on the side on which they are apprehended; they consist of -ditches, the earth from which is thrown up within.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>In besieging a fortress, the object is to erect batteries on -particular points as near as possible to the place, and to render the -communications to and between them safe. For these purposes, a ditch -is commenced at a distance from the fortress, and is carried on in a -slanting direction towards it, the laborers being protected by the -earth thrown up on the side next the place. When these <i>approaches</i> -have been carried as near as requisite, another ditch called <i>a -parallel</i> is dug in front or even around the fortress, batteries -being constructed on its line where necessary. Sometimes another -parallel is made within the outer one. Along these ditches the -cannon, ammunition, troops, &c. are conveyed in comparative safety to -the different batteries.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Nevertheless Bourmont displayed here his determination to leave -nothing to chance, the success of which could be assured by caution -in the previous arrangements. The largest ships with the first and -second divisions of troops on board, passed around the extremity of -the peninsula, and anchored opposite its southwestern side on which -it had been resolved that the first descent should be made; a steamer -and some brigs entered the bay east of Sidi Ferruch, and took -positions so as to command the shore and the neck of the peninsula, -over which they could pour a raking fire, in case an attack should be -made by the Algerine forces at the moment of disembarkation. Some -rounds of grape shot from the steamer dispersed the Arabs who were -collected on the shore of the bay; the fire was returned from the -batteries; but it had no other effect than to wound a sailor on board -the Breslau, and it ceased after a few broadsides from the brigs.</p> - -<p>By sunset the vessels were all anchored at their appointed positions, -and preparations were instantly commenced for the disembarkation. The -broad flat bottomed boats destined to carry the troops to the shore -were hoisted out; each was numbered, and to each was assigned a -particular part of the force, so arranged that the men might on -landing, instantly assume their relative positions in the order of -battle.</p> - -<p>All things being ready, at three o'clock on the morning of the 14th -of June, the first brigade of the first division under General -Berthezéne, consisting of six thousand men, with eight pieces of -artillery were on their way to the shore, in boats towed by three -steamers. They were soon perceived by the Algerines, who commenced a -fire on them from their batteries; it however produced little or no -effect, and was soon silenced by the heavier shot from the steamers -and brigs in the eastern bay. At four the whole brigade was safely -landed, and drawn up on the south side of the peninsula near the -shore battery, which was instantly seized. In a few minutes more, the -white flag of France floated over the <i>Torreta Chica;</i> a guard was -however placed at the door of the Marabout, in order to show from the -commencement, that the religion of the inhabitants would be respected -by the invaders.</p> - -<p>By six o'clock the whole of the first and second divisions were -landed together with all the field artillery, and the -Commander-in-chief of the expedition was established in his head -quarters near the Marabout, from which he could overlook the scene of -operations. General Valazé had already traced a line of works across -the neck of the peninsula, and the men were laboring at the -entrenchments; they were however occasionally annoyed by shots from -the batteries, and it was determined immediately to commence the -offensive. General Poret de Morvan accordingly advanced from the -peninsula at the head of the first brigade, and having without -difficulty turned the left of the batteries, their defenders were -driven from them at the point of the bayonet; they were then pursued -towards the encampment, which was also after a short struggle -abandoned, the whole African force retreating in disorder towards the -city.</p> - -<p>This success cost the French about sixty men in killed and wounded; -two or three of their soldiers had been taken prisoners, but they -were found headless and horribly mutilated near the field of battle. -The loss of the Algerines is unknown, as those who fell were -according to the custom of the Arab warfare carried off. Nine pieces -of artillery and two small howitzers by which the batteries were -defended, being merely fixed on frames without wheels, remained in -the hands of the invaders.</p> - -<p>While the first brigade was thus employed, the disembarkation of the -troops was prosecuted with increased activity, and as no farther -interruption was offered, the whole army and a considerable portion -of the artillery, ammunition and provisions were conveyed on shore -before night. It was not however the intention of the commanding -general immediately to advance upon Algiers; his object was to take -the city, and he was not disposed to lose the advantage of the -extraordinary preparations, which had been made in order to insure -its accomplishment. The third division of the fleet containing the -horses and heavy artillery had not arrived; unprotected by cavalry -his men would have been on their march exposed at each moment to the -sudden and impetuous attacks of the Arabs, and it would have been -needless to present himself before the fortresses which surround the -city, while unprovided with the means of reducing them. He therefore -determined to await the arrival of the vessels from Palma, and in the -mean time to devote all his efforts to the fortification of the -peninsula, so that it might serve as the depository of his <i>materiel</i> -during the advance of the army, and as a place of retreat in case of -unforeseen disaster. The first and second divisions under Berthezéne -and Loverdo were accordingly stationed on the heights in front of the -neck of the peninsula, from which the Algerines had been expelled in -the morning; in this position they were secured by temporary -batteries and by <i>chevaux de frise</i> of a peculiar construction, -capable of being easily transported and speedily arranged for use. -The third division under the Duke D'Escars remained as a corps of -reserve at Sidi Ferruch, where the engineers, the general staff and -the greater part of the non-combatants of the expedition were also -established. Some difficulties were at first experienced from the -limited supply of water, but they were soon removed as it was found -in abundance at the depth of a few feet below the surface.</p> - -<p>On the 15th, it was perceived that the Algerines had established -their camp about three miles in front of the advanced positions of -the French, at a place designated by the guides of the expedition as -Sidi Khalef; between <span class="pagenum"><a name="page218"><small><small>[p. 218]</small></small></a></span> -the two armies lay an uninhabited tract, -crossed by small ravines, and overgrown with bushes, under cover of -which the Africans were enabled to approach the outposts of the -invaders, and thus to annoy them by desultory attacks. Each Arab -horseman brought behind him a foot soldier, armed with a long gun, in -the use of which those troops had been rendered very dexterous by -constant exercise; when they came near to the French lines, the sharp -shooter jumped from the horse and stationed himself behind some bush, -where he quietly awaited the opportunity of exercising his skill upon -the first unfortunate sentinel or straggler who should appear within -reach of his shot. In this manner a number of the French were -wounded, often mortally by their unseen foes; those who left the -lines in search of water or from other motives were frequently found -by their companions, without their heads and shockingly mangled. As -the Arabs were well acquainted with the paths, pursuit would have -been vain as well as dangerous, and the only effectual means of -checking their audacity was by a liberal employment of the artillery.</p> - -<p>The labors of the French were interrupted on the morning of the 16th, -by a most violent gale of wind from the northwest, accompanied by -heavy rain. The waves soon rose to an alarming height, threatening at -every moment to overwhelm the vessels, which lay wedged together in -the bays; several of them were also struck by lightning, and had one -been set on fire nothing could have prevented the destruction of the -whole fleet. Fortunately at about eleven o'clock, the wind shifted to -the east and became more moderate; the waves rapidly subsided, and it -was found that only trifling injuries had been sustained by the -shipping. Admiral Duperré however did not neglect the warning, and he -immediately issued orders that each transport vessel should sail for -France as soon as she had delivered her cargo; the greater part of -the ships of war, were at the same time commanded to put to sea, and -to cruise at a safe distance from the coast, leaving only such as -were required to protect the peninsula.</p> - -<p>On the 17th and 18th, some of the vessels arrived from Palma bringing -a few horses and pieces of heavy artillery, but not enough to warrant -an advance of the army. On the 18th, four Arab Scheicks appeared at -the outposts, and having been conducted to the commander of the -expedition, they informed him that the Algerines had received large -reinforcements, and were about to attack him on the succeeding day. -Bourmont however paid no attention to their declarations, and gave no -orders in consequence of them, although it was evident from the -increase in the number of their tents that a considerable addition -had been made to the force of his enemies.</p> - -<p>On the day after the French had effected their landing, all the -Algerine troops except those which were necessary to guard the city -and the fortifications in its vicinity, were collected under the -Aga's immediate command, at his camp of Sidi Khalef; on the morning -of the 18th, the contingent of Oran also arrived, accompanied by a -number of Arabs who had joined them on the way. Thus strengthened, -and encouraged by the inactivity of the French, which he attributed -probably to want of resolution, Ibrahim determined to make a -desperate attack upon their lines, calculating that if he could -succeed in throwing them into confusion, it would afterwards be easy -to destroy them in detail. For this purpose he divided his army into -two columns, which are supposed to have consisted of about twenty -thousand men each; the right column under Achmet Bey of Constantina -was destined to attack Loverdo's division, which occupied the left or -northern side of the French position; the other column was to be led -by Ibrahim in person, with Abderrahman Bey of Tittery as his -lieutenant, against the right division of the invaders, under -Berthezéne.</p> - -<p>At day break on the morning of the 19th, the Algerines appeared -before the lines of the French, who were however found drawn up, and -ready to receive them; the attack was commenced by the Arab cavalry -and Moorish regular troops intermingled, who rushed forward rending -the air with their cries, and endeavored to throw down the <i>chevaux -de frise</i>. The French reserved their fire, until the assailants were -near, and then opening their batteries poured forth a shower of grape -shot, which made great havoc in the ranks of the Algerines. Nothing -daunted however, the Moors and Arabs continued to pull up, and break -down the <i>chevaux de frise</i>, until they had gained entrances within -the lines; the action was then continued hand to hand, the keen sabre -of the African opposed to the rigid bayonet of the European. In this -situation there was less inequality between the parties engaged, and -the issue of the combat became doubtful. Berthezéne's division -however repulsed its assailants, and kept them at bay; that of -Loverdo was wavering when Bourmont appeared on the ground, followed -by a part of the reserved corps. He soon restored order in the ranks, -and having formed Loverdo's division together with the reserve into a -close column, he ordered them to advance against their opponents. -Achmet's forces were immediately driven into a ravine where the -artillery of the French having been brought to bear upon them, they -were after a few ineffectual attempts to regain the height, thrown -into disorder. Ibrahim's men seeing this also lost their courage, and -the route of the Africans became general. The French had on the field -only seventeen horses which were attached to the artillery; as the -Algerines could not therefore be pursued very closely they were -enabled to form again in front of their camp at Sidi Khalef; but they -were likewise driven from this position, and followed for some -distance beyond it, where the ground being less favorable for -cavalry, great numbers of their men fell into the power of the -invaders. Bourmont had issued orders to spare the prisoners, but his -troops irritated at the barbarities which had been so frequently -committed on their companions, disregarded the injunction and put to -death nearly every Algerine whom they could reach. A few Arabs who -were made prisoners, on being asked respecting the forces and -intentions of their General, haughtily bade the French to kill and -not to question them. The number of French slain in this engagement -according to the official reports, amounted to fifty-seven, and of -wounded to four hundred and sixty-three; but little reliance can be -placed on the exactness of Bourmont's published accounts, and there -is good reason for supposing that his loss was much more serious. The -destruction of life among the Algerines was very great; they also -left their camp of four hundred tents, together -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219"><small><small>[p. 219]</small></small></a></span> with a large -supply of ammunition, sheep and camels, in the hands of their -enemies.</p> - -<p>The results of this action were highly important to the French, and -indeed it rendered their success certain. The Arabs began to -disappear, and the Turkish and Moorish soldiers retreated to the -city, from which it was not easy to bring them again to the field; -symptoms of insurrection among the populace also manifested -themselves. In this situation, it has been considered possible that -had Bourmont advanced immediately upon Algiers, the Dey would have -found it necessary to capitulate; there was however no reason to -believe that the disaffection would extend to the garrisons of the -fortresses, and the city could not have been reduced while they held out.</p> - -<p>On the 23d the vessels from Palma began to come in; the horses were -immediately landed, and two small corps of cavalry were added to the -troops encamped at Sidi Khalef. The fortifications of the peninsula -were also by this time completed, a line of works fifteen hundred -yards in length, having been drawn across the neck, and armed with -twenty-four pieces of cannon; by this means the whole of the land -forces were rendered disposable, as two thousand men principally -taken from the <i>equipage de ligne</i><small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> of the fleet, were considered -sufficient for the security of the place. The provisions, &c. were -all landed, and placed within the lines, in temporary buildings which -had been brought in detached pieces from France; comfortable -hospitals were likewise established there, together with bakeries, -butcheries, and even a printing office, from which the <i>Estafette d' -Alger</i>, a semi-official newspaper, was regularly issued. The -communications between Sidi Ferruch and the camp, were facilitated by -the construction of a military road, defended by redoubts and -blockhouses placed at short intervals on the way.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> A certain number of young men are annually chosen by lot -in France, for the supply of the army and navy, in which they are -required to serve eight years. Those intended for the navy, are sent -to the dockyards, where they are drilled as soldiers, and instructed -in marine exercises for some time before they are sent to sea. The -crew of each public vessel must contain a certain proportion of those -soldier sailors, who are termed the <i>equipage de ligne</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The Algerines encouraged by the delay of the French, rallied and made -another attack upon them at Sidi Khalef early on the morning of the -24th. On this occasion but few Arabs and Kabyles appeared, and the -action was sustained on the side of the Algerines, almost entirely by -the Turks, the Moorish regulars, and the militia of the city, who had -been at length induced to leave its walls. The assailants were spread -out on a very extended line, which was immediately broken by the -advance of the first division of the French army, with a part of the -second in close column. A few discharges of artillery increased the -confusion; the Algerines soon began to fly, and were pursued to the -foot of the last range of hills which separated them from the city. -On the summit of one of these heights, were the ruins of the Star -Fort, which had been some years before destroyed, "because it -commanded the Casauba, and consequently the city;" it was however -used as a powder magazine, and the Africans on their retreat, fearing -lest it should fall into the hands of the French, blew it up. The -loss of men in this affair was trifling on each side. The only French -officer dangerously wounded was Captain Amédée de Bourmont, the -second of four sons of the General who accompanied him on the -expedition; he received a ball in the head, while leading his company -of Grenadiers to drive a body of Turks from a garden in which they -had established themselves, and died on the 7th of July.</p> - -<p>While this combat was going on, the remainder of the vessels from -Palma, nearly three hundred in number, entered the bay of Sidi -Ferruch. Their arrival determined Bourmont not to retire to his camp -at Sidi Khalef, but to establish his first and second divisions five -miles in advance of that spot, in the valley of Backshé-dere, so that -the road might be completed, and the heavy artillery be brought as -soon as landed to the immediate vicinity of the position on which it -was to be employed. The third division was distributed between the -main body and Sidi Ferruch, in order to protect the communications. -This advantage was however dearly purchased; for during the four days -passed in this situation, the French suffered greatly from the -Algerine sharp-shooters, posted above them on the heights, and from -two batteries which had been established on a point commanding the -camp. In this way Bourmont acknowledges that seven hundred of his men -were rendered unfit for duty within that period; he does not say how -many were killed.</p> - -<p>The necessary arrangements having been completed, and several -battering pieces brought up to the rear of the French camp, Bourmont -put his forces in motion before day on the 29th of June. Two brigades -of d'Escar's division which had hitherto been little employed, were -ordered to advance to the left and turn the positions of the -Algerines on that side; on the right the same duty was to be -performed by a part of Berthezéne's division, while Loverdo was to -attack the enemy in the centre. They proceeded in silence, and having -gained the summits of the first eminences unperceived, directed a -terrible fire of artillery upon the Algerines, who having only small -arms to oppose to it were soon thrown into confusion and put to -flight. The Moors and Turks took refuge in the city and the -surrounding fortifications, while the Arabs and Kabyles escaped along -the seashore on the southeast, towards the interior of the country.</p> - -<p>The French had now only to choose their positions from investing -Algiers, which with all its defences lay before them. Besides the -Casauba and batteries of the city, they had to encounter four -fortresses. On the southeastern side near the sea, half a mile from -the walls was Fort Babazon, westward of which, and one mile southward -from the Casauba, was the Emperor's castle, presenting the most -formidable impediment to the approach of the invaders. This castle -was a mass of irregular brick buildings, disposed nearly in a square, -the circumference of which was about five hundred yards. From the -unevenness of the ground on which it was built, its walls were in -some places sixty feet high, in others not more than twenty; they -were six feet in thickness, and flanked by towers at the angles, but -unprotected by a ditch or any outworks, except a few batteries which -had been hastily thrown up on the side next the enemy. In the centre -rose a large round tower of great height and strength, forming the -keep or citadel, under which were the vaults containing the powder. -On its ramparts were mounted -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220"><small><small>[p. 220]</small></small></a></span> -one hundred and twenty large -cannon, besides mortars and howitzers, and it was defended by fifteen -hundred Turks well acquainted with the use of artillery, under the -command of the Hasnagee or Treasurer who had promised to die rather -than surrender. As it overlooked the Casauba and the whole city, it -was clear that an enemy in possession of this spot and provided with -artillery, could soon reduce the place to dust; but it was itself -commanded in a like manner, by several heights within the distance of -a thousand yards, which were in the hands of the French. The next -fortress was the Sittit Akoleit or <i>Fort of twenty-four hours</i>, half -a mile north of the city; and lastly a work called the English fort -was erected on the seashore near Point Pescada, a headland about -one-third of the way between Algiers and Cape Caxine. The object of -the French was to reduce the Emperor's castle as soon as possible, -and in the mean time to confine the Algerines within their walls as -well as to prevent them from receiving succors. For the latter -purposes, it was necessary to extend their lines much more than would -have been compatible with safety, in presence of a foe well -acquainted with military science; trusting however to the ignorance -and fears of his enemies, Bourmont did not hesitate to spread out his -forces, even at the risk of having one of his wings cut off by a -sudden sortie. Loverdo in consequence established his division on a -height within five hundred yards of the Emperor's castle; Berthezéne -changed his position from the right to the centre, occupying the -sides of mount Boujereah the heights immediately west of the city; -while d'Escars on the extreme left, overlooked the Sittit Akoleit, -and the English fort. These positions were all taken before two -o'clock in the day.</p> - -<p>On the right of Berthezéne's corps, was the country house in which -the foreign consuls were assembled under the flag of the United -States. As its situation gave it importance, General Achard who -commanded the second brigade determined to occupy it, and even to -erect a battery in front of it. Major Lee the <i>Commander in Chief</i> of -the consular garrison, formally protested against his doing either, -maintaining that the flag which waved over the spot rendered it -neutral ground. The French General did not seem much inclined to -yield to this reasoning; but when it was also alleged that the -erection of the battery would draw the fire of the Algerine forts -upon the house, in which a number of females were collected, as well -as the representatives of several nations friendly to France, he -agreed to dispense with the execution of that part of his order, but -his soldiers were quartered on the premises, and his officers -received at the table of the consuls. The latter were, as might have -been expected, polished and gallant men; the soldiers were very -unruly, and by no means merited the praises which have been bestowed -on their moderation and good conduct, in the despatches of their -commander and the accounts of the historians.</p> - -<p>The night of the 29th passed without any attack on the lines of the -French. Before morning the engineers under Valazé had opened a trench -within five hundred yards of the Emperor's castle, and various -country houses situated in the vicinity of that fortress, were armed -with heavy pieces and converted into batteries. As soon as this was -perceived from the castle, a fire was opened upon the laborers; but -they were already too well protected by the works which had been -thrown up, and few of the balls took effect. A sortie was next made -by the garrison, and for a moment they succeeded in occupying the -house of the Swedish Consul, in which a French corps had been -stationed; they were however immediately driven out, and forced to -retire to their own walls.</p> - -<p>In order to divert the attention of the Algerines during the progress -of the works, false attacks were made on their marine defences by the -ships of the French squadron. On the 1st of July Admiral Rosamel, -with a portion of the naval force, passed across the entrance of the -bay, and opened a fire on the batteries, which after some time was -returned. Not the slightest damage appears to have been received by -either party, the French keeping, as the Admiral says, "à grande -portée de canon," that is to say, <i>nearly</i> out of the reach of the -fire of the batteries; one bomb is stated to have fallen in the -vicinity of Rosamel's ship. The effect of this movement not answering -the expectations of the French, as it did not induce the Algerines to -suspend their fires on the investing force, it was determined that a -more formidable display should be made. Accordingly on the 3d, -Admiral Duperré made his appearance before the place, with seven sail -of the line, fifteen frigates, six bomb vessels, and two steamers. -The frigate Belloné which led the way, approached the batteries and -fired on them, as she passed with much gallantry; the other ships -kept farther off, and as they came opposite the Mole, retired beyond -the reach of the guns, where they continued for some hours, during -which each party poured tons of shot harmless into the sea. As the -Admiral states in his despatch, "none of his ships suffered any -apparent damage, or notable less of men," except from the usual -"bursting of a gun on board the Provence, by which ten were killed -and fifteen wounded."</p> - -<p>The high character for courage and skill which Admiral Duperré has -acquired by his long and distinguished services, precludes the -possibility of imagining that there could have been any want of -either of those qualities on his part in this affair. Indeed he would -have been most blameable had he exposed his ships and men to the fire -of the fortresses which extend in front of Algiers, at a period when -the success of the expedition was certain. The "moral effect" of -which the Admiral speaks in his despatch, might have been produced to -an equal or greater extent, by the mere display of the forces in the -bay; the only physical result of the cannonade, was the abandonment -of some batteries, on Point Pescada, which were in consequence -occupied by d'Escar's forces. The whole attack if it may be so -termed, was probably only intended to repress any feelings of -jealousy which may have arisen in the minds of the naval officers and -men, by thus affording them at least an ostensible right to share -with the army the glory of reducing Algiers.</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect02"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>BAI.</h4> -<br> -<p>Bai was the Egyptian term for the branch of the Palm-tree. Homer says -that one of Diomede's horses, Phœnix, was of a palm-color, which is -a bright red. It is therefore not improbable that our word <i>bay</i> as -applied to the color of horses, may boast as remote an origin as the -Egyptian Bai.</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221"><small><small>[p. 221]</small></small></a></span> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect03"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>THE CLASSICS.</h4> -<br> -<p>Amid the signs of the times in the present age—fruitful in change if -not of improvement,—we have observed with pain not only a growing -neglect of classical literature, but continued attempts on the part -of many who hold the public ear to cast contempt on those studies -which were once considered essential to the scholar and the -gentleman, which formed such minds as Bacon's and Milton's, and which -afforded the most delightful of occupations to the leisure of a -Newton and a Leibnitz. In every age there has been a class of men who -from a depravity of taste, or else a passion for singularity, have -maligned all that is ancient or venerable. And sometimes with a -strange perversity of purpose, we see men wasting their opportunities -in a mischievous ridicule of useful pursuits which they might have -advanced and illustrated to the benefit of themselves and mankind. -Thus the seventeenth century, deeply imbued as it was with the spirit -of classical inquiry and the love of ancient literature, gave birth -to a Scarron and a Cotton, of whom the latter particularly was fitted -for higher pursuits, and the former perhaps worthy of a better fate. -But if in a spirit of indulgence for misguided genius we pardon the -offence of their jest for its wit, and feel that in so doing we are -involuntarily paying that tribute which is due to talent even when -misapplied, let us beware of extending the same indulgence to those -who from ignorance undervalue pursuits which they cannot appreciate, -or to those who contemn like the fox in the fable, objects which they -have vainly sought to obtain, or worse than all, to those who have no -better motive for their censure than the wish to pilfer without -detection, from the rich stores of those whom they have banished from -the public eye, and driven from their rightful abodes in public -recollection by a course of systematised slander. It would perhaps be -unjust to say that the opposers of the ancient and learned -universities of England, who have chiefly wrought the evil influence -upon English literature to which we have been alluding, belong all of -them to one of these three classes, but that many of them may be -ranked with the last we cannot doubt, when we see what things they -often send forth to the world as <i>their own</i>, and this too with an -air of the greatest pretension. That some of these persons were -actuated by better motives we must admit when we trace to its origin -the history of this partially successful war against classical -studies. The two universities of Oxford and Cambridge, those ancient -abodes of learning, to a certain degree undoubtedly deserved the -reproach of lagging behind the march of mind, in denying to modern -literature the share of attention to which it was justly entitled. -Absorbed in explorations of the past, and wedded to the love of -antiquity in all their associations, they sought literature in her -earliest haunts, and delighted most in their olden walks, which they -loved for the very frequency with which they had trodden them. The -system of study which had trained so many of their sons to eminence, -seemed to them the best, and they were too slow in moulding its forms -to the progress of science. It was endeared to them not only from the -nature of its pursuits, but from past success, and it was no mean -ambition which stimulated their sons to tread in the paths which a -Bacon or a Clarendon, a Newton or a Locke, had trodden before them. -And yet a little reflection should have taught them that if these -glorious models of human excellence had left science where they found -it, their reputations had never existed. A fierce opposition at -length sprung up to a system of study so narrow and exclusive,—the -growing wants of education demanded a university in London, which -project was opposed by many of the friends of the old institutions. -The elements of a party thus formed, were soon combined, and as the -controversy waxed warmer, they attacked not only the venerable -temples of learning, but the very study of the ancient languages -itself, at first, perhaps, because the most celebrated abodes of this -species of literature were to be found in the universities to which -they had become inimical. Like every other literary controversy for -some time past in England, this question connected itself with the -party politics of the day, and thus many changed sides on the -literary, that they might be together on the political question. -Strange as it may seem, it has been for some time a reproach against -the English that the Tories would not encourage the Whig literature, -and vice versâ. No reader of the British periodicals for the last -twenty years can have failed to remark this fact, which serves to -account for the progress of the literary heresy which has already -done so much to degrade English literature and to deprave the tastes -of those who read only the English language. We shall not pause to -inquire further into the effects produced by this illicit connexion -between politics and literature in England, although it presents a -highly interesting subject of inquiry, and one which must deeply -occupy much of the attention of the historian who may hope hereafter -to give an accurate account either of the political or literary -condition of that country for many years past. Neither is it our -purpose to arraign at the bar of public opinion those who have -draggled the sacred "<i>peplon</i>" itself in the vile mire of party -politics, although we sincerely believe that they will have a heavy -account to settle with posterity for this unhallowed connexion. We -merely allude to it by way of pointing out one of the causes of the -heresy which we mean to combat, from the belief that it is -mischievous, and the more especially as it diverts public attention -from the particular want of American literature. Unhappily our -reading in this country is chiefly confined to the English novelists -and the periodicals of the day, from which we derive a contempt for -the lofty and venerable learning of antiquity, and a belief that -instead of too little, we bestow too much attention upon classical -literature in America! That the novelists and trash manufacturers of -the reviews should foster this opinion is not at all surprising, for -they find their account in it. And yet it stirs the bile within us -when we see a paltry novelist who cannot frame his tale without -borrowing his plot, or conduct his dialogue without theft, affect to -despise the study of those authors whom he robs without any other -restraint than the fear of detection; or when we hear them offer to -substitute their lucubrations for the writings of the great masters -of antiquity—men who put forth opinions upon the most difficult -questions in moral or physical science, and support them only by a -dogmatism which would look down all opposition and frown upon any -inquiry into the grounds of their doctrines, who, like Falstaff, will -give no reasons for their moral or political opinions, and yet -insinuate by their <span class="pagenum"><a name="page222"><small><small>[p. 222]</small></small></a></span> -air of pretension that they are "plenty as -blackberries"—sciolist novelists who doubt what is believed by all -the most intelligent of their race, and believe what no other persons -but themselves can be brought to believe—men who insinuate their -superiority over the great models of the human race by affecting to -despise whatever they have offered to the public view and modestly -intimating their reliance upon their own superior resources. Problems -in morals and politics which have filled with doubts and difficulties -the minds of Bacon or Locke, of Montesquieu or Grotius, are now -settled at a stroke of the pen by our novelist philosophers. Nothing -is more common than to see the solution of some one of them by the -dandy hero of some fashionable novel, who, sauntering from the dance -to the coterie of philosophers in blue, solves the difficulty <i>en -passant</i>, and fearing that this trifling occupation of so mighty a -genius may attract attention, then hastens to divert public -observation from his sage aphorism and impromptu philosophy by -flirting with his friend's wife or playing with his poodle. The -conception of a costume is the only occupation worthy of his fancy, -and the composition of a dish the only subject which he would have -the world to think capable of tasking his powers of attention and -reflection; and yet all the learning of all the schools is shamed by -the display of this literary <i>faineant</i> who acquired his knowledge -without study, whilst inspiration only can account for the wisdom -with which he is instinct. A nation has groaned through long -centuries of almost hopeless bondage—the clank of a people in chains -is heard from the Emerald isle—a cry of distress fills the air—a -mighty orator, an O'Connell, arises before them, filling the public -mind with agitation and pointing the way to revenge. In the energy of -despair a portion of the captives have broken their manacles—they -rush to liberate their fellows—the air is full of their cry for -revenge—the conclave of Europe's wisest statesmen is at fault—a -king trembles on his throne—and what, gentle reader, do you suppose -is to be the result of these mighty throes and convulsions? why, just -nothing, literally nothing at all. A Countess of Blessington surveys -the scene from afar; reclining on an Ottoman, beneath a cloud of -aromatic odors she recollects the subject of conversation at her last -"soiree;" the idea flits across her brain with a gentle pang as it -flies, that the energy of O'Connell is becoming exceedingly vulgar, -and that the convulsions of a revolution so near her would be -extremely trying to her nerves, not to mention those of Messrs. -Bulwer and D'Israeli. Her resolution is taken, and at spare intervals -between morning visits and soirees, she writes the "<i>Repealers</i>," -which is at once to settle the agitations of a kingdom, and -annihilate O'Connell himself. She has no sooner finished, than -washing her hands "forty times in soap and forty in alkali," she -despatches the production to Mr. Bulwer, who looking upon the work -pronounces it good; and lo! the succeeding number of the New Monthly -shall teach you the wonderful virtues of the moral medicaments which -come from the Countess of Blessington's specific against Irish -agitation. But who is Mr. Bulwer himself? for in this age so -wonderful for accomplishing great ends by little means, it has become -necessary to know him. Why a literary magician, a sprite of Endor, -who by the potency of his charm conjures up the spirits of the mighty -dead. Evoked by him the departed prophets arise. A Peter the Great, -and a Bolingbroke, a Pope and a Swift, not to mention others of -somewhat lesser note, come forth and speak at his command as once -they spoke. The departed oracles of English literature are no longer -mute. But the visits of the dead are of necessity short. They have no -time now for such chit-chat as some may suspect they have hazarded -whilst living. They come on a mission of importance which they have -barely time to accomplish. The hidden secrets of policy are to be -revealed, mightly oracles in philosophy and criticism are to be -declared. Truths fall like hailstones, and wit descends in showers. -But lo! what figure is that which stalks across the scene and comes -to take his part in this play of phantasmagoria with which we have -just been entertained. Does he belong to the land of shadows or the -world of reality? "Under which king, Bezonian, speak or die." It is -an impersonation of the mental and moral qualities of Mr. Edward -Lytton Bulwer himself, not a prophet—but more than a prophet. The -"most wonderful wonder of wonders." Pope and Swift are overpowered by -his wit. The star of Bolingbroke pales before the superior effulgence -of this luminary, and Peter the Great, mute in astonishment, stands -"<i>erectis auribus</i>" to catch the oracles of government which flow -from the godlike man. The scene changes—whither doth he go? He -seizes the reins of government, he retrieves the affairs of a mighty -empire by way of recreating a mind exhausted with the play of its -mighty passions, and then wearied with the amusement, he turns in -quest of other pursuits. The rule of an empire and the affairs of -this world are objects too petty for the employment of his mind; he -looks for some higher subject, and finds it in himself—the only -subject in creation vast enough to fill the capacity of his spirit. -He communes with the stars—he talks to the "TOEN," and the "TOEN" -replies to him, and finally, big with his mighty purpose he achieves -the task of writing "his confessions." And as my lord Peter concocted -a dish containing the essence of all things good to eat, so this book -is full of something that is exquisite from every department of -thought. Such are the books which have displaced the writings of the -masters of antiquity and the old household books of the English -tongue. You may not take up a review or periodical now-a-days, but it -shall teach you the folly of bestowing your time upon the study of -the ancients, now that their writings afford so much that is more -worthy of attention. Alas! that such should be the priesthood who -administer the rites in the temple of English literature—the money -changer has indeed entered the temple, when those who write for money -come in to expel all who have written for fame. How often does it -happen now-a-days that the writer of a bawdy novel, derives -reputation enough from that circumstance, to assume the chair of -criticism, and exposing a front of hardened libertinism to the scorn -of the good and the contempt of the wise, avails himself of his -situation to frown down every attempt to resuscitate our decaying -literature, by the introduction of better models, and to restore -health to the public taste, which this very censor has contributed to -deprave? There is no more common occupation with such a man than the -correction of the errors of the most illustrious statesmen and -philosophers in magazine articles of some six or eight pages; the -French revolution is the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223"><small><small>[p. 223]</small></small></a></span> -favorite theme of his lofty -speculations, and Napoleon's the only character which he will exert -himself to draw. With how much of the lofty contempt of a superior -spirit does he speak of the labors of a Bentley, a Porson, a Parr, or -an Elmsley; of a Gessner, a Brunck, a Heyne, a Schweihauser or a -Wolffe. The anxious labors, for years, of such men as those go for -nothing with him—they serve only to excite his scorn, or else afford -him the favorite subjects of his ridicule. With the ingratitude of a -malignant spirit, or the coarseness of ignorance, he reviles the -self-denying students who may be truly said to have renounced the -world in their enthusiastic search after the buried lore of -antiquity—men who have paled before the midnight lamp in their -ceaseless efforts to penetrate the obscurity of the past—lonely -eremites, who feed the lamps that cast their dim light on the votive -offerings which antiquity has laid upon the altar of knowledge—men -who have dwelt apart from their race and denied themselves the common -pleasures of life, that they might without distraction restore the -decaying temple of ancient literature, and recover for the use of -their own and future generations, treasures which else had been -buried and forgotten; who have lived in the past until they have -imbibed its spirit, and return like travellers full of the wisdom of -unknown lands, and rich with the accumulated experience of past ages -to shower their treasures and their blessings upon the ungrateful -many who despise them for their labors and taunt them for their -gifts, that they too may learn what a thing it is to cast pearls -before swine; and who, superior to the unmerited scorn of this world, -and to all the temptations of its grovelling pleasures, meekly bear -their ill treatment with no other emotion than the fear that the -benefits thus painfully acquired and freely bestowed, may turn out to -be coals of fire which they have been heaping upon unthankful heads. -And are men who labor for such objects as these to be ridiculed as -looking to things too small, because they sojourned so long in the -gloom of past ages, that their optics have been enlarged to discern -not only the mouldering monument, but the smallest eft that crawls -upon it? Shall they be taunted because they have learned to live in -mute companionship with their books, and like the lonely prisoner, -love objects which to others may seem inconsiderable, but are -endeared to them by all the force of a long association, whose chain -is interwoven link by link with the memory of their past? And if, -like Old Mortality, they love to restore each mouldering monument, -and retrace every time-worn inscription that may serve to renew their -silent communion with the hallowed and dreamy past, surely the -occupation may be pardoned, if not for its uses to others, at least -for the quiet affection and sweet enthusiasm of the dream which it -serves to awaken in the mind which is busy in the employment. But the -utilitarian spirit of the present age is ever ready to measure the -value of these pursuits by that pecuniary standard which alone it -uses. What are their fruits? Will they move spinning jennies or -propel boats? are they known on 'Change? how do they stand in the -prices current, and in what way will they put money in the purse? -Strangely as this may sound in the ears of those who love knowledge -for itself and its spiritual uses, and absurd as these things would -have appeared to the literary world a century ago, we much fear that -we must return answers to them satisfactory, in part, at least, -before we can even obtain an attentive hearing to what we shall say -of their higher excellences. It is true that classical attainments -are in few instances the objects of pecuniary speculation, nor is it -our purpose to hold out temptations to literary simony to those who, -insensible of the peace which the love of knowledge sheds abroad in -the human heart, would hope to sell or purchase that precious gift, -for mere money. If this were the only end which the student had in -view, we should regret to see him perverting to unworthy purposes the -sacred means to higher ends. To such a man learning has no -temptations to offer, for its best rewards he can never obtain -without a change of heart. We can no more unite the love of knowledge -and of Mammon than serve the two masters spoken of in Scripture. It -is the rare excellency of this holy taste that it releases us from -servitude to the unworthy desires which are too apt to fill the minds -of those who have never known what it was to thirst after the waters -of truth. It is indeed the redeeming spirit of the human mind, which -casts out the evil passions by which it had been possessed and torn. -But there is a class of students burning for distinction and -ambitious of eminence rather than wisdom, to whom we would appeal -under the hope that in the pursuit of their own lesser ends they will -cultivate tastes which may serve to awaken them to the more precious -uses of knowledge. If then we can show these that the study of the -ancient languages affords not only an admirable, but perhaps the best -exercise for training tender minds into healthful habits of thought -and reflection, that in looking to an economy of the time which -measures the little span of human life, it is the pursuit in which -the youthful mind can do most in acquiring human knowledge, we shall -at least hold out strong temptations to these studies, even to those -hasty and incautious inquirers who reject every thing for which they -have no present use. But if we go farther, and demonstrate that the -man who would thoroughly understand modern literature, must seek its -foundations in that of the ancients,—that the poet and philosopher, -the orator and statesman, who would train his mind to a successful -pursuit of his favorite object, must look to the great masters of -antiquity for the best models of his art, surely we shall persuade -him to apply the means which a knowledge of the dead languages -affords him, to the study of the literature which they embody. And -shall he pause here in his career? is it to be supposed that he will -still look to knowledge only for the earthly honors which it will -enable him to obtain when he has in view the higher rewards which the -love of truth has within itself? Will he be content with the narrow -horizon which first bounded his prospect when he has taken a more -elevated view of creation? Feeling that every sensible addition which -his knowledge makes to his wisdom is another link by which he mounts -in the chain of spiritual existence, he will lose the original ends -for which he was laboring in the nobler objects which unfold -themselves to his mind. He learns to disregard what men may say of -him, sustained by the proud consciousness of what he is. And like the -mariner who has become weary of coasting adventures, he boldly puts -forth to sea in quest of that unknown land which his spirit has seen -in its dreams. These are the higher uses of the pursuit of knowledge, -and although we are far from asserting that classical -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224"><small><small>[p. 224]</small></small></a></span> studies -are the only pursuits that are thus rewarded, yet we will hazard the -assertion, that there are none more eminently fitted for -strengthening the human mind and elevating its character.</p> - -<p>But to return to the first position which we have taken as to the -peculiar fitness of this pursuit for the early employment of the -human mind. It is something in its favor, that for centuries past, -until of late, there has been nearly a common assent amongst literary -men that the study of the ancient languages affords the best exercise -for the youthful mind,—an opinion so old and so prevalent, must have -had at least some foundation in truth. Indeed, when we come to look -at the nature of the system of training necessary for the youthful -mind, we cannot long doubt the fitness of these pursuits for that -end. There is no period, but boyhood, of a man's life at which he -would submit to the drudgery necessary for training his memory in the -exercises by which it is most strengthened. It would be difficult to -induce him to submit to such tasks when he had arrived at a more -advanced period of life, and taken even a superficial view of the -more agreeable walks of knowledge. With a boy who stands upon the -threshold of science, it is far different. Taught that the end in -view is worthy of all his pains, and that his commencement of the -pursuit of knowledge must of necessity be difficult, he is as willing -to seek science through that pass as any other, and the more -especially as he perceives that the exercises are not beyond his -strength. In the study of the ancient languages, (the Greek -especially, because it is more regular than any other) he not only -finds an improvement in the powers of simple suggestion or mere -memory, but he is insensibly led to processes of generalization from -the great saving of labor which he discovers in classification, thus -burthening his memory with a rule only, instead of the mass of facts -which the rule serves to recall and connect—an advantage which the -study of none of the modern languages will afford to the same extent. -In the difficulties of translation, which occasionally present -themselves, he is not only forced to reason upon the rules which -regulated their forms of construction, but often finds it necessary, -by an examination of the context and subject matter, to ascertain the -meaning of the author; and thus early learns to consider the logical -arrangement of propositions and sentences. How often do we find boys -thus eagerly and earnestly engaged, in inquiring into the customs and -history of the people whose language they are studying, and reasoning -upon the motives of action and the characters of men, without being -conscious of the high nature of their speculations, or that they are -doing more than translating the meaning of a difficult sentence—thus -without weariness gradually storing their minds with a knowledge of -allusions necessary for their future reading, and which in the mass -would never be acquired by the youthful intellect from the fatiguing -nature of a study directed to them exclusively. How often do we find -a lad profitably engaged in metaphysical inquiries and nice -calculations of human motives at a time when works exclusively -devoted to these subjects would only serve to weary and disgust him. -The youthful mind is thus trained to the capacity of undergoing the -severest processes of thought and reasoning by a system of occasional -and gentle exercise which amuses without wearying or breaking its -spirit. There are certain advantages peculiar to the study of that -most wonderful of all languages, the Greek, in the culture of the -youthful mind. They are to be found in the regular forms of -compounding their words, and in the almost invariable applicability -of rules to its modes of expression. In tracing a compound word to -its root, the mind is insensibly forced to trace the compound -emotions of the human mind to their source through the seemingly -hidden links of the chain of association which are almost pointed out -one by one in the varying terminations of the radical as it branches -out into its many different shades of signification. What boy of -tolerable capacity could turn to a root in Scapula's Lexicon, with a -view of its various compounds, without tracing (often unconsciously -it is true) the simple to the compound emotions of the human mind -through that chain of association which may be deemed necessary and -invariable, since not only the simple, but also the compound emotions -and perceptions are to be found in every human mind? How could he -fail to acquire a knowledge of the cognate ideas of the mind with -this ocular reference to their connexion before him? He thus learns -the kindred ideas which the expression of certain given ideas will -call up, he begins to know how to marshal the host under their -leader, he perceives the true force of expression which belongs to -words, and traces much of the progress of human thought by means of -the land-marks which this regularly formed language indicates to the -inquirer. He perceives the modes by which the ancient masters of -style in this language learned to express with precision the most -abstract of ideas, and as it were, to transfer to paper almost every -shadow which flits through the human mind. Penetrating to the truth, -through the metaphysical and logical construction of this language, -that style consists more in the arrangement of ideas than words, he -acquires rules which he may transfer to his own language, and thus -increase its capacities of expression, at the same time that he may -often improve the beauty of its form without impairing its strength. -No man ever acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek without having -in the course of his progress penetrated often and far into the walks -of philology and metaphysics. As no philologist has ever arrived at -eminence without an attentive study of this language, so perhaps it -will not be going too far to say that without it, none ever will. -They were thus trained—the great masters of the English language who -have improved its construction and added so much to its beauty and -strength. The greatest and most sudden improvement which has ever -been wrought at any one period in the English language, certainly -took place in the reign of Elizabeth, and yet every page, nay, almost -every line of the great authors of that day, betrays a constant and -studied reference to the models of antiquity. Next to them, and -pre-eminent as a reformer in our language, stands Milton, who was -trained in the same studies, and whose marvellous power over language -has never been sufficiently considered in the attention which is -bestowed upon his genius. Perhaps no other man ever effected such a -change in the construction of a language, or did so much to reform -it. It has been well said that his construction was essentially -Greek. He only possessed the wonderful power of transferring the -construction of one language to another, dissimilar in its origin and -forms, and of transfusing as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225"><small><small>[p. 225]</small></small></a></span> -it were an old spirit into a new -body. Profoundly versed in written and spoken languages, he was yet -more a master of the language of thought and feeling, and was thus -able to improve the arrangement of the groupes and to touch with a -more natural coloring and living expression the forms by which we had -sought to embody our ideas. And what was the chosen model of that -mighty genius, whose language may be said to mirror thought, if that -of any other English author can be said to paint it? The Greek! the -immortal Greek! which surviving the institutions and national -existence of its people, stands forth like the Parthenon itself, and -defies the genius of all other nations in all succeeding ages to -produce a structure which shall equal its combinations of strength -and elegance—a language which even yet justifies the proud boast of -its creators, that in comparison with them, all other nations are -barbarous. It is evident from the whole spirit of the writings of -this immortal man, that he believes in no other Helicon but the -Greek. If we were called upon to recommend to the reader of English -literature only the writings which would afford him the best -substitute for the study of the classics in the improvement of his -style, we should undoubtedly recommend him to the works of Milton. -There are several authors since his day, who, trained in the same -studies, have labored with less effect, it is true, for the same end; -and indeed it would be difficult to point out a single author who has -improved the strength and beauty of the English language, without a -knowledge of the structure and literature of the Greek. There have -been many who, without this knowledge, have well used the language as -they found it. But Temple, Tillotson, Addison, Bolingbroke, Warburton -and Johnson, who have all contributed sensible additions and changes -to its structure, formed their styles upon ancient models.</p> - -<p>We have already adverted to the knowledge of the allusions to the -ancient mythology acquired by the study of the Greek and Latin -authors, a knowledge which can only be fully acquired in this mode, -and which is of inestimable use to the student, not only in -understanding the writings even of modern times, but in learning to -write himself. The ardent imagination of the East has produced -nothing more beautiful than the splendid mythology of the Greeks—a -mythology which abounds in powerful imagery and poetic conception. -Perhaps there is nothing so little various as fiction, -notwithstanding the numerous and repeated efforts at such creations. -Indeed it would be curious to ascertain how much of the fiction now -in possession of the human race is of ancient origin, and thus to -perceive how little would be left if we were to abstract the -creations of the mythic ages of ancient Greece. Nothing could -illustrate more strongly the fact that the history of the human heart -is always the same. We find powerfully portrayed even in the fictions -of that early day, the intrigues of love and ambition, the vanity of -earthly hopes, and the warfare of contending passions. There is -scarcely a feeling which is not pictured in some poetic -personification which developes its tendencies and nature, and there -is not a moral of general use in the conduct of life which is not -illustrated by some well designed and beautiful allegory. It seems to -have been an early practice with the eastern sages to address the -reasons of their people through the medium of their ardent and -susceptible fancies. The Hebrew, the Egyptian and Grecian lawgivers -and sages, all resorted to it, and truth presented in this attractive -form has never failed to take a lasting hold upon the public mind. -Addressing itself in this form most powerfully to the young, because -their fancies are most susceptible, it cannot fail to make an -impression at that age when it sinks most deeply in the human mind. -It is thus that principles of action are instilled into the human -mind at an age when reason is scarcely yet capable of eliminating the -true from the false, and the youthful imagination receives an early -and wholesome excitement from the contemplations of poetic -conceptions whose simplicity fits them to be received, and whose -beauty commends them to be loved, by the youthful mind. The most -powerful, the most beautiful and concise modes of expressing much of -human feeling and passion, are to be found in the Grecian mythology. -The true value of an image consists in the conciseness with which it -expresses the idea that it represents. An image is misplaced and -useless, no matter how beautiful in itself, if it presents your idea -in a more tedious and cumbrous form than that in which a few simple -words would have explained your meaning as well. It is then obviously -unnecessary, and presents itself to the reader as a mere attempt at -beauty, which at once recalls him from the subject to the author,—an -effect which is always unfortunate for the latter. Good imagery, on -the contrary, offers a glowing picture which at once makes a vivid -impression upon the mind, accurately representing your meaning, and -calling up ideas through the force of a necessary and natural -association, which would not have been otherwise awakened except by -the use of many more words. Such in an eminent degree is the imagery -of the mythology of which we have been speaking. Where is the course -of power without knowledge to guide it, so briefly yet so forcibly -depicted as in the mad career of Phaeton misguiding the steeds of the -sun? And what picture so descriptive of the writhings of disappointed -ambition as that of Prometheus on his rock with the vulture at his -liver? Tantalus in the stream is an ever living fiction, because it -borrows the form of Truth when it points to the punishment of him who -rashly essays to satisfy his thirst for happiness by the -gratification of unhallowed lusts; and Sisyphus toiling at his stone, -is the faithful picture of man who vainly confident in his unassisted -strength seeks to roll the ball of fortune up the slippery eminence. -What can be more beautiful than that picture of fraternal affection -which we find in the fable of the sons of Leda—a union of spirit so -pure that it was typified in the two bright stars which still -maintain alternate sway in heaven as an everlasting memorial of that -undying love which married the mortal to the immortal in one common -destiny. In what other language could Byron have described fallen -Rome, "the Niobe of nations," than that which he used, the language -of truth and feeling which is now common to the whole of the -civilized world, and must be as universally used as known, since it -embodies the pictured thought and feeling of the human heart. The man -who neglects this mythic and most beautiful of languages, must be -content to see himself excelled by those who have studied it, both in -strength and beauty of expression. Perhaps we do not hazard too much -in asserting that a knowledge of this mythic language -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226"><small><small>[p. 226]</small></small></a></span> alone (if -we may call it so,)—a knowledge only to be obtained by reading the -Greek and Latin authors—would compensate the student for the labor -bestowed in acquiring those languages. So far we have looked only to -the advantages to be derived from a mere study of these languages, -without any reference to the literature which they embody. And if we -have shown so far that these studies of themselves afford a reward -for our labors, how much more important will they seem when we -consider the learning which we shall find in them. But it may be said -that we promised to show that these studies were not only profitable, -but the most profitable in which the youthful mind could be engaged; -and so far we have not redeemed the pledge. To this we reply, that -the study of natural philosophy by which we comprehend physics and -morals, and that of languages, afford the only subjects to which the -mind is directed in books. Now, in relation to the first, we assume -in common with most of the best thinkers on the subject of education, -that such studies would serve to weaken the youthful mind by its -premature exertions under a load as yet beyond its capacity; and with -regard to the study of other languages than the Greek and Latin, that -all the advantages to be derived from the mere study of language, -which the others afford, are also to be had by the classical student, -whilst the more regular formation and peculiar structure of these two -ancient languages promise benefits to the youthful mind which are -peculiar to themselves, or at any rate, much greater in them than in -any others.</p> - -<p>We come now to the second proposition which we laid down, and that -is, that out of his own language, there are no other two languages -whose literature holds out as many inducements to the student for -acquiring them, as that of the Greek and Latin languages, since -independently of their own worth, these studies are absolutely -essential to the proper understanding of modern literature as it now -exists. Surely there could exist no opinion more unfortunate for the -progress of science, than that which supposes, that a view of science -as it now exists, is all that is necessary for its thorough -investigation; indeed, we believe the assertion may be safely -hazarded, that no one can ever qualify himself for the race of -discovery who looks alone to what men now think without a reference -to what they have formerly believed and written upon the subjects of -his inquiry. Strange as it may seem, the man who would ascertain -truth, must not confine himself to the simple inquiry of what it is. -He must also see what men have thought about it. He must look to the -history of human opinion and the modes of reasoning by which men have -arrived at their conclusions. He must not only be able to understand -the results of right reason, but he must learn also to reason for -himself. It was a perception of this necessity which induced the -immortal Bacon to turn his attention to the mode of investigating -truth, rather than to the discovery of truth itself. He perceived -that it was the most important benefit which could be conferred by -any man of that day, and the Novum Organon, the most wonderful of -mere human conceptions, was the result. A view of the different modes -of reasoning to truth which had been employed before him, a -comparison of the methods which the most successful philosophers had -pursued, soon taught him that there was as much in the method used as -in the genius of the investigator. He who would pursue the path of -truth, would do well to prepare himself with a guide book made up -from the experience of former travellers; he will thus learn the -various roads which intersect his true path, and might be likely to -put him out, each of which some former pilgrim has taken before him, -from whose recorded experience he may take warning; or sometimes it -may happen that whilst the crowd of philosophers have been wandering -for centuries through a mazy error, the account given by some long -gone traveller of a partially explored route may lead the happy -investigator into the true way, and thus forward him on his journey. -In the progress of truth, which of necessity must be slow and -cautious, it is important to weigh every step, and every chart should -be preserved. It was thus that Copernicus, retracing the steps of -philosophers for two thousand years, discovered in the almost -forgotten accounts of the writings of Nicetas, Heraclides and -Ecphontus, traces of a route into which he struck off and was -conducted to the most brilliant discoveries. It was thus that Galileo -was conducted to some of his discoveries in hydrostatics by the hints -of Archimedes. Indeed, how many of the most important discoveries of -science have thus originated? Had Archimedes and Pappus never -written, or had they been neglected, the method of tangential lines -of Fermat and Barrow, approximating so closely as they do to the -discovery of the differential calculus, had perhaps never existed, -and to these we must attribute the subsequent important discovery of -Newton and Leibnitz. Indeed, the whole history of scientific -discovery is the history of a chain whose links have been forged by -different men, and fitted at different times. If such be the most -fortunate mode of scientific discovery, how much do we increase the -importance of the study of the ancient literature, when we come to -reflect that the termination of their scientific labors during the -night of the middle ages, is the point of departure from which all -modern scientific discovery has emanated. It will at once be -recollected that at the revival of letters, the only sources of -information were derived from the study of the ancients revived -chiefly by Boccacio and the philosophers of the Medici school and -from the Arabians, whose knowledge was drawn chiefly though at an -early period from the same source. Notwithstanding the elegant -rivalry between the Abassides and Ommoiades, which so much fostered -the spirit of learned inquiry, notwithstanding the resort of the -Arabian philosophers to the Indian school, and the polite and -elevated spirit of the Saracen conquerers who offered peace to the -modern and degenerate Greeks in exchange for their philosophy, it is -still evident that with the exception of some few discoveries in the -science of medicine, they were yet far behind the ancients at the -period of the decay of letters. Ancient science became the text upon -which modern writings were for ages the commentary, one of its -languages became the medium of communication between the learned and -polite of all nations, and no book of science was published for a -long time except in the Latin. The writings of mathematicians as far -down as Euler, those in medicine in England as far down as Hunter, -the writings of Blumenback, of Grotius and Spinoza, the Novum Organon -of Bacon, and indeed those of nearly all the modern philosophers, -until the middle of the seventeenth century, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227"><small><small>[p. 227]</small></small></a></span> were in Latin. In -Belles Lettres, criticism and rhetoric, in history, physics and -morals, the models of the moderns were all chosen from antiquity. In -addition to this too, the progress of Roman arms, and afterwards the -advance of Roman letters, had incorporated much of the Latin language -and idiom in all of the polite modern languages except the German. -The Italian and Spanish in particular have been well called "bastard -Latin." How then can any student of modern literature only, hope to -understand the genius of his own language, or even the spirit of that -literature to which he has devoted himself? What scientific inquirer -can hope, in any great degree, to forward the march of discovery no -matter what may be his genius and spirit, if he be without this -learning? Independently then of the intrinsic value of ancient -learning, we humbly think that the reasons enumerated by us, suffice -to prove not only the importance but the absolute necessity of these -studies to the accomplished scholar and man of science. But we are -prepared to go further, and maintain that on certain subjects of -mental inquiry, it still affords the best models extant. In poetry, -the best models are confessedly ancient. In rhetoric, Aristotle, -Quinctilian and Horace, have left nothing for modern investigation to -add upon that subject. But it is in history, oratory, the philosophy -of government, law and psychology, that the pre-eminence of ancient -literature is most important to be noticed. We are perfectly aware -that the history of remote antiquity has for every mind a charm which -does not belong to the genius or the taste of the historian. Ideas of -events remote in point of time, whether past or future, always fill -the mind with a certain degree of awe and uncertainty. A feeling of -mystery always attends our ideas of what is remote in point of time -or place. It is on the tale of the traveller from far distant lands -that we hang with most delight and wonder. Had Columbus discovered -America within two days voyage of Europe, the tale of his genius had -been yet untold. So too the mind looks to events long past with an -awe and wonder akin to those feelings which fill it in its eager gaze -into futurity. It is this power of association which attaches the -antiquarian so devotedly to his peculiar study, and so soon converts -it into a pursuit of feeling rather than of reason. It is the same -mysterious link which binds the poet to the early customs and history -of his country, and which lends a charm to the simplest ballad if it -be ancient, and connects his contemplations with the past. It was the -same feeling so strong in the human heart which swelled in the breast -of the indignant old lawgiver when in despite of his formal pursuits -and fancy-killing studies, he pronounced his rebuke on those who -ignorantly maligned "that code which has grown grey in the hoar of -innumerable ages." It is a mighty journey which the human mind takes -when it is transported from the present to the past. When the mind -awakes to realize these long-gone scenes, feelings of mingled awe and -pleasure insensibly possess it. A thousand associations of gloomy -grandeur attend us as we seem to walk amid the mighty monuments of -the dead in the silent twilight of past ages. We feel as if we were -treading the lonely streets of the city of the dead, and lifting the -pall of ages. We start to find that the mouldering records of man's -pursuits then told as now, that still eternal tale of empty vanity -and misbegotten hopes. The ashes of buried cities on which we tread, -the timeworn records of fallen empires and past greatness, the -monuments of events yet more remote and faintly discernible in the -dim distance, seem the too visible memorials of "what shadows we are, -and what shadows we pursue," and like Crusoe we recoil with wonder -and fear from <i>that trace</i> of man on the desert shore. The earlier -the records to which we refer, the more deeply are we struck with the -wonderful power of our minds which enables us to use the hoarded -experience of ages and enter into silent communion with the dead, and -the more sensibly are we impressed by the comparison of the -imperishable creations of our spiritual nature, with the fading -glories of our mortal state. We ascend the stream of time as the -traveller of the Nile in quest of its mysterious sources, and the -farther we proceed the more wonderful is the view adown that vale of -ages through which it flows. Behind us, in the dim distance arise the -dark and impenetrable barriers, whose cloud-capt summits seem to -point to the heavens as the source of the mysterious river, whilst -before us flow the dark rolling waves of that wide stream which is to -bear us too to the mysteries of that land of shadows where we are -taught to expect an eternal, perhaps an awful home. Fair cities and -mighty empires arise in momentary show along its shores, and then -pass away upon its rolling waters. In swift succession the -generations of man chase each other upon its heaving billows in -shadowy hosts,—the dim phantasmagoria of our mortal state! And yet -like shades that wander along the Styx, some memories still live upon -its silent shore to tell the tale of wrecks and ruins which stud the -wave-worn banks. Lo! yonder rocky headland around which sweeps the -swift stream as it stretches into the dark bay where the waters lie -in momentary repose. How many were the marble palaces, how smiling -were the gardens which gladdened that once lovely spot. Yon -mouldering fane that yet clings to the wave-worn rock, was once the -least amongst ten thousand, and where are they?—Lost in these dark -waters in whose deep womb are buried the long forgotten glories of -our mortal race.</p> - -<p>From the charm of such associations we do not pretend to be exempt, -nor do we envy the man who could claim such an exemption. But we are -free to confess that this circumstance is too apt to disturb the -judgment in a comparison of the merits of ancient and modern history. -To a certain extent it may fairly be estimated amongst the advantages -of the former, for if it gives a greater interest to early history it -holds out a greater temptation to the ardent prosecution of that -study. But we do not fear the comparison without such adventitious -aid, for we maintain that as historians the ancients are still -unequalled. Of all their histories which have descended to the -present time, there are none which have not many of the higher -excellences of historical composition; but it is for Thucydides, -Tacitus and Plutarchus, the great masters in their respective styles, -that we challenge modern history to produce the parallels. The -definition which Diodorus has given of history, "that it is -philosophy teaching by example," may truly be applied to the writings -of the two first named historians. Indeed, we have never taken up the -works of the first without wonder at the rare and philosophical -temperament which enabled him to conduct his eager search after truth -without disturbance from those -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228"><small><small>[p. 228]</small></small></a></span> feelings which personal injuries -and the spirit of party would so naturally have awakened in others -under the same circumstances. Himself a principal actor in the scenes -which his page commemorates, his situation and temper alike fitted -him for conducting his researches in a spirit of truth, a task which -he accomplished in a manner as yet unrivalled. How deep is the -devotion to the austere majesty of truth which he displays in his -masterly preface when he offers up the favorite fictions of his -nation as a sacrifice upon its altars, and stripping his subject of -its stolen ornaments, presents it to the world in naked simplicity. -If historical criticism has become a science in the hands of the -accomplished Niehbuhr, surely its origin and chief ornament are to be -found in that noble monument of antiquity. It was no small evidence -of future greatness which the young Demosthenes gave, in the choice -of this history as his model. For where could he find the springs of -government touched with so true a knowledge of their nature, or in -what book are the actions of man in masses traced to their motives -and causes with an analysis so searching? If we would trace society -through the first forms of republican government, and witness its -agitations under the opposition of those ever living and opposing -forces the democratic and aristocratic principles, we must look to -Thucydides. A living witness and a profound observer of the -unbalanced democracies of ancient Greece, his deep sagacity always -enabled him to resolve their line of action into the two elementary -and diverging forces according to their true proportions. As the -modern astronomer is able to detect even in the course of the most -erratic comet the resultant of the two opposing forces of the solar -system, so this profound observer of the human heart was able to -trace in the madness of revolution, the contests of a more pacific -policy, and even in the horrors of anarchy, the direction given by -the two elementary and opposing forces of the social system. Would we -trace society still further as another combination of these -elementary forces in different proportions gives its direction in the -line of despotism, we must turn to the Roman Thucydides—to Tacitus, -for a true knowledge of the internal machinery which regulates it -under this form of government. Do we wish to obtain an accurate view -of the motives which move masses to action? would we investigate man, -not as an individual, but according to those common qualities of the -human mind by which we may classify his species and genera, and by -which only we must consider him if we would rightly estimate the -effects of circumstances upon masses? Turn to either or to both of -these historians, whose profound and searching analysis so rarely -fails of detecting the motives to human action. In both we shall find -the same deep philosophy, the same careful study of the human heart, -and the same eagerness to utter truth when clearly conceived, without -regard to the forms of expression; the great and distinctive -difference is in the difference of temperament arising perhaps out of -a difference of situation. The more fiery Roman gives you glowing -sketches, not pictures—they flow from him with that careless haste -so indicative of boundless wealth. Each sketch bears within itself -the evidence of lofty conception, and shows in every line the traces -of a master's hand whose rapid touch is too busy in embodying the -forms with which his brain is teeming to waste its energies in those -minuter cares so necessary for filling out a perfect picture. With -rapid pencil he leaves perhaps a simple line, but it is the line of -Apelles—the hand of the master was there. The conceptions of the -rival Greek, like his, are lofty but more matured, and the same -careless ease with a somewhat superior elegance, mark his execution. -His coloring however is milder, and you are never struck with those -startling contrasts of light and shade so peculiar to the Roman.</p> - -<p>The inquirer who would train his mind in those pursuits most -necessary for the statesman, and, for that reason, seeks an intimate -knowledge of human nature, would arise from an attentive study of the -works of these great historians with feelings of pleasure and self -gratulation. Conscious, that he had acquired much knowledge of man as -a mere instrument in the hands of the politician, he already begins -to perceive the rules by which men of sagacity have reckoned with -much of probability if not of certainty, upon the future actions of -their fellow beings. But not being yet fully aware of the uses to -which this knowledge may be applied in directing the affairs of -society, he is now anxious to inquire into the results of those -attempts which the great masters of the human race have made, to -regulate the movements of masses and mould them to their peculiar -views. He must now turn to Plutarch's superb gallery of portraits of -the distinguished men of antiquity; he must open that book, which -oftener than any other, has afforded the favorite subject of the -early studies of the distinguished statesmen and warriors of all the -countries to which modern civilization has extended. He will here -perceive the modes by which his models are trained to greatness, and -learn to know and estimate the distinctive qualities which have -elevated their possessors so far above the common mass. His studies -which heretofore were directed to his fellows will be now turned to -himself, and a course of self reflection will teach him to exercise -and improve his strength, and to measure the proportions in which it -must be applied to the levers which move the ball of public opinion. -To show that we do not place too high an estimate upon this wonderful -book, we might simply refer to the internal evidences of its rare -excellences. But we cannot refrain from offering further proofs, more -striking at least, if not as strong. It is no small evidence of its -excellence that it is a book of more general interest than any other -biography or history extant; that it is amongst the first and the -last books which we like; its interest taking an early hold upon the -youthful mind, and continuing through our after life. And the fact is -not to be forgotten, in choosing the books for such a course of study -as the one just referred to, that most of the great modern statesmen -and generals, have bestowed much of their early attention and study -on this work; for this is some evidence that its pages serve to -awaken an early love of heroic virtue, and contribute to form the -habits necessary for its growth and continued existence. In our -reference to the works of the three authors which we should choose in -preference to all others of human origin, for the study of human -nature we have not adverted to the true order in which they should be -read. The book of biography should precede as well as succeed the -study of the two historians. We challenge all modern history and -biography for the production of three parallels to our chosen -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229"><small><small>[p. 229]</small></small></a></span> -models, whose works can contribute so much to the attainment of this -particular end. Davila, the favorite of Hampden,—and Guicciardini, -whom St. John preferred to all modern historians,—have some of the -excellences of which we have been speaking, but will any one compare -them to the first? In the English language, Clarendon is the only -history worthy of the attention of the student in search of an author -who illustrates the science of human nature by a reference to the -recorded experience of past generations. The works of Gibbon, Hume -and Robertson, are admirable for their style and general interest, -but they take no true views of man (<i>epistola non erubescit</i>) as the -instrument of legislation; they do not present us with that -impersonation of the common qualities and motives of our nature, -which alone can be the subject of laws, and whose character only can -be moulded by the general institutions of society,—in short, with -that man who is the true subject of the politician's study. Indeed we -doubt if the historical works of these gentlemen ever were or ever -will be the favorites of any great and practical statesman,—a test -which we ask shall be applied to the models which we have chosen. We -are perfectly aware of what we hazard by such assertions, but safe -behind our mask, we feel secure from danger.</p> - -<p>In the view of the course of study which we have just been surveying, -we paused at the point where the inquirer having learnt the strength -and the temper of the various great springs which chiefly influence -human action, had turned aside to ascertain the best modes of -handling them by a reference to the experience of those who had -successfully regulated the machinery of society and effected in its -movements the particular objects which they had in view. From this -point, the transition is easy from the history and biography of -antiquity to its oratory. For where shall we find the springs of -human action so dexterously handled? It must be remembered that the -orators of antiquity approached their subjects under circumstances -very different from those which attend our modern debates. They -practised upon the societies in which they lived, under the same -penalties which attend the eastern physician who undertakes the -Sultan's cure. The gift of this splendid but fatal talisman of the -heart was always attended with the most unhappy consequences to its -possessor. Exile and death were the penalties, in case of failure, in -the measures which they recommended, or even in case of the loss of -popular affection. And so deep were the distresses of those gifted -but unhappy children of genius, that one of their most sincere -admirers was forced to exclaim</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem2"> - <tr><td><small> - - -"Ridenda poemata malo<br> - Quam te conspicuæ divina Philippica famæ,<br> - Volveris a prima quæ proxima."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>It is not to be supposed, that under such circumstances they would -ever approach their subject without a most careful consideration of -its nature and consequences, or that they would fail to study the -means of recommending themselves and their plans to popular favor. -Indeed it would naturally be expected that in the effort to persuade -the will of those upon whom they were operating, into a concurrence -with their own, they would scarcely place in competition with that -object the desire to write an oration to be admired by posterity. We -should look to find then a more attentive observance of the modes of -influencing the human heart and reason, than amongst the modern -speakers who were moved by none of their fears. A comparison of the -ancient with the modern orators would fully prove the fact, but as we -cannot of course enter into that comparison here, and deserve no -thanks from the reader for inviting his attention to it, we would -advert to the fact that these are the only real statesmen whose -orations have had an interest for a remote posterity. From which the -conclusion is fair, that of all speeches accessible to the reader, -these are the most valuable for acquiring the means of influencing -men, since no other orations of successful orators remain in an -agreeable form. Who reads the speeches of any of the modern orators -who have been statesmen at the same time, and who succeeded in -impressing their views upon the public mind. No one reads the -speeches of Walpole, Chatham, and Fox, the real orator statesmen of -England, whilst Burke's orations, which invariably dispersed his -audience, are familiar to almost every reader of the English -language. The most distinguished orator and statesman that France has -produced was Mirabeau; the most successful in America were Henry and -Randolph. Yet what orations have they left behind them which are -indicative of the real genius of those master minds? The modern -speeches which are held up as models, are those which failed to -effect the end of their delivery, and even if pleasing in point of -style and composition, they must have been very feeble as orations.</p> - -<p>But the admirers of modern oratory, the readers of Sheridan, Curran -and Philips, will perhaps demand that definition of oratory which -thus excludes their favorites from all competition with the orators -of antiquity. We define it to be, the means of attaining, by the -persuasion either of the feelings or reasons of men, an end which of -ourselves, we cannot effect. This is the only point of view in which -a statesman would use rhetoric as an instrument. The display of -learning and the exhibition of the graces of composition and style, -he leaves to the author in his closet who has time to bestow upon -pursuits less exalted than his. The real orator, if he be the subject -of a despot, will study the character of the man whom he sues, and -mould his address in the form most persuasive to him who holds the -power of which he would avail himself. If on the other hand the power -which he seeks resides with the people, he will appeal to that temper -and those dispositions which are common to the mass, and having -selected the arguments and sentiments most persuasive to them, would -never think of sacrificing one tittle of them to secure the -reputation of an orator with the future generations who might read -his effusions. Ridiculous as it may seem to the lovers of the gaudy -imagery and polished periods of the Irish orators, we maintain that -the speeches of Cromwell and of Vane, which seem so absurd to us now, -in effecting their ends, accomplished the true object of rhetoric. -They suited the temper of the times, they served to mould the -progress of public opinion, and proved powerful instruments in -directing the revolution. Profound observers of those times, they -were too sagacious as statesmen to think of sacrificing the means of -securing great public ends for the sake of pleasing the taste of -posterity and acquiring the reputation of turning polished periods—a -task in which, after all, the wretched Waller had excelled them.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230"><small><small>[p. 230]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Who believes that such oratory as Sheridan's or Curran's, aye, -or even as Burke's, would have produced a tithe of the influence upon -the sturdy old roundheads which the cant of the day exercised over -them. These effusions would have been treated with scorn, or would -perhaps have called down punishment upon the heads of their authors -as holding out temptations to the carnal man. Any attempt, in the -temper of those times, to deliver orations fitted for the taste of -posterity, would have been as ridiculous and misplaced as Petit -Jean's apostrophes to the sun, moon and stars, in his defence of the -dog. Indeed, it is the prevailing sin of modern taste to suppose that -the making of a "fine speech," can be a sufficient inducement for -speaking. Plato has defined rhetoric to be "the art of ruling men's -minds," and the moment it ceases to look to that end, it is vain and -ridiculous. This is the besetting sin of American oratory. Adams, -Everett, or even Webster, will seize any occasion, the death of -Lafayette, the erection of a monument, or any thing which may serve -as a text for a speech, to deliver orations which can have no -possible influence except to convince the few who read them, that -their authors have not only read, but learned to round a period. -Polished sentences, brilliant imagery, and even the ancient forms of -attestation are profusely displayed, and all the orator's most showy -wares are studiously arrayed, for effect, so as to tempt the public -to what?—to any useful end which they have in view? No, simply to an -admiration of their authors. It was the practice of antiquity, it is -true, to deliver funeral orations—but they are miserably mistaken if -they expect to shelter themselves under those usages in their -unmeaning and personal displays. They pursue the form, but neglect -the substance. Do they suppose that when Pericles delivered his -funeral oration over his countrymen who had fallen in the expedition -to Samos, he had no other object than that of making a speech? Do -they believe for a moment that he whose rhetoric procured him the -surname of Olympius, that the master orator of antiquity, (if we may -judge his oratory by its effects,) that he who never addressed an -assembly without first praying the Gods "that no <i>word</i> might fall -from him unawares which was <i>unsuitable to the occasion</i>," would have -spoken from such a motive as that only? Could they have supposed that -such was the motive of Demosthenes in his funeral oration over those -who fell at Cheronea?</p> - -<p>Higher ends were in the view of these orators upon these occasions. -They were subjects connected with the public policy of the times and -with measures which they themselves had directed. Upon the success of -these depended their popularity, and on that hung their fortunes, -their homes, nay, their lives. They afforded happy occasions for -defending their policy, for pushing their claims upon public favor, -and for weaving by a thousand plies the cord which bound them to -popular sympathy, in those moments of deep feeling when the people -were too much absorbed in their own emotions, to examine into the -personal motives of their orators. No such consequences depend upon -the popularity of our orators. Their popularity can scarcely be -really affected, by any orations which they could deliver on the -battle of Lexington, the Bunker Hill monument, or the death of La -Fayette. The public measures of the present day have but a remote -connection with them. What worthy motive then could have influenced -them, we were going to say, in the perpetration of such folly? In -such men of the closet as the younger Adams and Everett, it is not -surprising; but in Webster, who is capable of real and effective -oratory, it can only be viewed as a weak compliance with the morbid -taste of the clique around him.</p> - -<p>Of the importance of the study of the ancient laws, particularly the -Roman or civil, we shall say but little, as in the first place, a -view of that subject in all its relations with modern government and -civilization, would far exceed the limits of this essay; and because, -secondly, no one can be found who will deny the uses of this pursuit -to the lawyer. To the general reader we would only remark, that -instead of abandoning this useful study to the lawyers, as a pursuit -proper only to that profession, he would do well to remember that the -revival of letters has always been mainly ascribed to the discovery -of the pandects at Amalphi; that since that time professorships of -civil law have been attached to every learned University in Europe, -and no scholar for many centuries afterwards was reckoned -accomplished without some knowledge of this subject. He should -remember too, that since the revival of letters, this law has formed -an essential, nay, the chief ingredient of the jurisprudence of -Spain, Holland, France, and all Italy, with the exception of -Venice;—whilst, notwithstanding all that has been suggested by the -idle casuistry of national pride, it is the most important portion of -the law of Germany, Hungary, Poland and Scotland. And much as we -boast of the common law in England and what was English America, yet -in both countries, the civil code is the law of courts of admiralty, -the basis of most of our chancery law, and even on the common law -side of our judiciary it is freely used on the subject of contracts, -and has furnished the groundwork, nay, almost the entire system of -our legal pleadings. Should this reader be a divine, we would beg -leave to remind him that the canon law itself is so intimately -associated with the civil code, that no good canonist has yet existed -who neglected the study of this last. Indeed, the canon law is at -last but a compound of the christian system of ethics and the civil -code of municipal law. Need we say more in support of the claims of -this study upon the attention of the general scholar and reader? Can -the statesman or scholar expect to understand the history of nations -and governments without a knowledge of their laws and judicial -systems, those alimentary canals, which distribute the food that -supports the moral being of society? As well might the anatomist -expect to derive a knowledge of his science by a view of the external -structure of the human frame, whilst the internal organization and -the whole circulating system were concealed from his observation. And -quite as absurd are the investigations of the historical inquirer, -who, content with a knowledge of the form of government, looks no -farther into the internal structure of a society. We would fain -pursue the interesting inquiries which this subject suggests, in -connection with the history of modern governments and the progress of -civil liberty, did our limits permit. But our purpose is -accomplished, in having recurred to facts, which of themselves -demonstrate the necessity of this highly important study.</p> - -<p>We come now to the psychological view of ancient -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231"><small><small>[p. 231]</small></small></a></span> literature, -which subject is so intimately connected with the inquiry into the -tendencies of this study, towards elevating and extending the -spiritual capacity of man, that we shall embrace it under that head. -As no man would engage in any laborious pursuit without having some -object in view, so perhaps no one would ever enter into the pursuit -after knowledge if it offered no rewards. It is coveted by many, -because it sometimes brings to its possessor wealth, and almost -always secures him reputation, whilst a few only desire it for its -spiritual uses—and yet these last constitute its highest reward. Let -the practical man of the world who doubts it, and who would laugh at -any arguments adapted to his reason upon this subject as a mere idle -thing, look to the history of literary men. Let him behold such a man -as Bayle, for example, who having secured in his taste for knowledge -a consolation and a happiness of which the world could not rob him, -only thought of his persecutions to laugh at them, and found but -amusement in what the world deems misfortunes. Poverty, exile, -disease, all in their turns assailed him, and yet no one who reads -his history can doubt but that he was the happiest man of his day. -Resigned to all human events, he found his pleasure in the one noble -taste which absorbed his mind, and he succeeded in elevating his -spirit to such a distance above the misfortunes and persecutions of -this world, that they dwindled into utter insignificance in his -estimation. A dismission from an office of honor and profit, under -circumstances which would have excited murmurs and anger in the minds -of most other men, was scarcely noticed by him, or noticed in a -spirit of cheerful content. "The sweetness and repose" (said he upon -this occasion) "I find in the studies in which I have engaged myself -and which are my delight, will induce me to remain in this city, if I -am allowed to continue in it, at least until the printing of my -dictionary is finished; for my presence is absolutely necessary in -the place where it is printed. I am no lover of money nor of honors, -and would not accept of any invitation should it be made to me; nor -am I fond of the disputes and cabals which reign in all academies: -<i>Canam mihi et musis</i>." Car. Lit. vol. i, p. 22. These were not mere -professions; his life, nay, his very death illustrated their truth -and sincerity. The very hour of his death was soothed and solaced by -this taste, which subdued even the sense of the last mortal agony. -This, and instances similar in nature, if not in degree, which abound -in the lives of literary men, afford conclusive evidence of the -rewards which knowledge brings to the human mind itself. What can -elevate the dignity of our nature more in our view than the -contemplation of such spectacles as these? What terms expressive -enough should we find, to convey our sense of gratitude to the genius -who would offer us a gift that would enable us to defy the -persecutions of this world and laugh at its misfortunes! a gift, -which, for our enjoyments, would render us independent of every other -being in existence, save ourselves and him who created us—a gift -which would endow us with a taste and the means of gratifying a taste -which age cannot dull, and gratification cannot satiate. And yet to a -great degree, the mind which is imbued with the <i>love</i> of knowledge -enjoys these blessings. When this becomes the absorbing taste of our -minds, it not only endures—but man cannot take it from us. Whilst -sensual pleasures die, and the tastes which they gratify decay with -time, this is the immortal desire of our being which survives when -all others fade away. It is the charmed gift which we bear within -ourselves, and whose spells can call up a thousand forms of beauty -and light even in the depths of the dungeon, and surround the couch -of disease with bright visions and pleasant hopes. As those who ate -of the fabled lotus were said to forget their country and kindred in -their enjoyments, when they had tasted of its flowers, so those who -have once fed upon the immortal fruit of the tree of knowledge, cease -to regard those temporal cares and pleasures which bind man to this -earth, and lead through a maze of uncertainty to disappointment at -last. They look into nature—and each link which they discover in the -great chain of truth, seems, in the enthusiasm of the vision, another -step on that ladder by which man mounts from earth to heaven. Each -hidden harmony which they discover in nature is another thought of -the divine mind which they have conceived and understood, and serves -to bind them still more closely in that communion into which the -Creator permits them to enter with him. The consideration of man, the -pleasures merely earthly which he controls and which belong to him, -always temporal and always alloyed with pain, they can consent to -relinquish, in the consciousness that they are entering into closer -communion with him who is pure, perfect, and unchangeable. And their -pleasures as much exceed those which they renounce, as the Creator is -superior to the created. They have tasted the living stream of truth, -whose waters refresh the more, the more they are drunk—they find -themselves on the borders of that eternal spring whose course is -infinite in extent. Whilst they follow its trace they secure -immortality,—for none who drink of its waters shall ever die.</p> - -<p>See the student who dwells alone in his hermitage, or who perhaps -nightly cribs his worn frame in some almost forgotten attic;—he is -surrounded by circumstances which to the eye of the common observer -denote the extremity of wretchedness and misery! Those who are more -elevated by the pride of place and by the possession of those things -which the world calls good, often look upon him with pity and -contempt; and yet how rashly do they judge. Do they know whether he -regards their pleasures or whither his aspirations would lead him. He -looks out upon the stars, "those isles of light," which repose in the -liquid blue of the vaulted heavens, and they speak to him of wisdom -and love, of beauty and peace. He walks abroad amid the works of -nature, and traces in all her hidden harmonies a beauty and a unity -of design which speak but of one spirit, and that the infinite and -eternal spirit of the universe. He begins indeed "to mingle with the -universe;" and, like the mystic Egeria, a spirit of beauty pure and -undefiled arises from the silent memorials of creative design, to -commune with him in his morning walks and evening meditations. He -compares the soul, which guides and animates the physical universe, -with the vain and contentious spirit of his fellow man; he compares -the order and beauty of the physical universe, which submits all its -motions to the divine will, with the moral government of man,—at -once the sport and the victim of his own caprices; and learns to -despise what most men value, and to prize those pleasures -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232"><small><small>[p. 232]</small></small></a></span> which -they neglect. He has learnt to feel that He who rules all events, has -considered him also, in his Providence; and willing to put his trust -in that being, without whose knowledge "not a sparrow falleth to the -ground," he stands forth the most self-humbled, and yet the most -elevated of God's creatures.</p> - -<p>If knowledge hath these spiritual uses,—and what reflecting man can -doubt the fact, how mortifying is it to see many wasting their -strength and throwing away the means by which they could attain these -ends, for the sake of wealth and earthly honors. As the alchemist -who, in his eager search after the grand magisterium, neglects many -discoveries really useful which were within his reach, so these men -put their frail trust in the world and waste their lives in the vain -pursuit of its phantoms. But we do not expect these men to take this -view of the subject unless they have trained their minds to it, -either through the christian philosophy, or what is second to that -system only, the school of the Platonist writers. It is for this -reason chiefly, that we have ventured to recommend the study of the -writings of the genius so nearly divine, of that author whose -psychological system presaged the christian revelation, as the -morning twilight betokens the coming sun. It was his, that beautiful -conception of the spirit of the universe, at once so poetical and -sublime;—an idea which Abraham Tucker only of modern English -writers, seems to have fully comprehended and explained. This sublime -and philosophical poet perceived that by an attentive study of -nature, the human mind was capable of entering into communion with -the divine mind through its works; he felt that he was capable of -conceiving more and more of the ideas which existed in the creative -mind, as he understood more of the system of the universe; he -meditated upon the harmony which extended through the greatest and -the least of nature's operations; his soul took in forms of beauty -and filled with lofty conceptions until it became enamored of its -contemplations, and in the spirit of true poetry he endowed the -universe with a soul which governed it and with which the mind of man -may commune. But to return to our original proposition; we asserted -that the writings of ancient philosophers afforded the best views of -psychology to which we have access. By psychology, we mean what -relates to our spiritual being. To maintain this proposition it will -be necessary to recur, for a moment, to the subject of inquiry which -engaged their attention, and to the spirit of those times.</p> - -<p>The most important and natural inquiry which would present itself to -a being of limited powers of knowledge and enjoyment, and whose -existence at most is brief, is as to the best pursuit which can -engage his time and energies. The vanity of human wishes, the -transitory nature of earthly enjoyments, must have been as apparent -to the first man as to us. The necessity of discriminating between -the various ends of our actions, and objects of our desires, in the -brief space which is allotted us for action, must have impressed -itself at an early period upon the human mind. And as happiness is -the proposed end of all our actions, the most important inquiry which -can engage the human mind, is as to the best means of attaining it. -Accordingly, we find the "TO KALON" engaging the attention of all -ancient philosophers; and however differently they might conduct -their reasoning, all of them who were respected arrived at the same -conclusion, viz: that he whose conduct was most strictly regulated by -the rules of virtue, would enjoy the greatest degree of happiness. It -was thus, according to Plato, that we were to restore the immaculate -qualities of the pre-existent soul. The sterner Zeno maintained that -nothing was pleasant but virtue, and nothing painful but vice; whilst -the gentle and more persuasive Epicurus, reversing the rule, (and in -a certain sense the doctrines were identical,) taught that nothing -was virtuous but what was pleasant, or vicious if it were not -painful—because virtue is at last but the rule which shall conduct -us to happiness. At that time the light of Christian revelation had -not burst upon the world; the flickering and uncertain rays of human -reason afforded the only light to guide them in the search for the -path of truth, and "shadows, clouds, and darkness rested on it." The -bright hopes and the awful fears by which the Christian revelation -would prompt man to virtue, were then either unknown or but little -heeded. To tempt his disciples then to a virtuous life, and to -fortify them against the seductions of vicious temptation, the -ancient philosopher was forced to hold forth the rewards which virtue -offers to us in this life. The persuasions of oratory, the -allurements of poetry, the demonstrations of philosophy, were all -used to entice the youthful mind to the pursuit of virtue; and more, -the masters practised their creed in the view of their disciples. But -so far as external appearances bear testimony on the subject, -happiness does not always attend the practice of virtue in this -world. It was necessary, then, to refer the doubtful to some other -source of enjoyment. The philosopher referred the pupil to a source -which was within—the pleasant consciousness of well-doing;—the -enlargement of the spiritual capacity under a virtuous discipline, -were the exalted and noble inducements which they presented to their -view. Their theories of the universe, their social customs, their -daily habits, were all made subsidiary to the end of impressing these -grand truths upon their disciples. These conceptions stood forth in -severe and sublime simplicity, as they were formed by the cold and -cautious inductions of philosophy; but the master mind of antiquity, -not content with their unspeaking beauty, seized fire from heaven, -and breathing into them the warm spirit of his eloquence, sent them -forth to the world radiant and impressive forms, which appealed not -only to the reason, but to the sensibility of the beholder. Every -argument was used which could exalt our spiritual being, and every -illustration which could explain its nature, so far at least as they -understood it. The pursuit of virtue became a matter of -feeling—self-denial was an enthusiasm, and the world often beheld -the disciples of these great masters acting upon the abstract maxims -of mere human reason, and pursuing virtue with that unfaltering trust -in the hopes which it excites, which would shame many disciples of a -more certain faith, and those who have the guidance of a clearer -light. It is not surprising, then, that the nature of our spiritual -being, and the invigorating and regenerating influences of the -pursuit of knowledge and virtue, should be more often the theme of -ancient than of modern philosophers. And yet the moralist, the -philosopher and the poet, would each derive both assistance and -delight from the too much neglected works of these noble old masters. -We have seen the wonderful <span class="pagenum"><a name="page233"><small><small>[p. 233]</small></small></a></span> -revival of letters in Germany in -modern times ascribed to the study of the Platonists,—with what -truth our knowledge of German literature will not permit us to say. -But we do not doubt that the ascribed cause is adequate to that end. -Certain it is, that Bulwer has derived from these sources much of -that which is worth any thing in his writings. His views of our -spiritual being, and of the spiritual uses of knowledge, are -evidently clothed in light reflected from the Platonists. Indeed, the -finest portion of all his writings, that in which he describes the -change wrought on Devereux's mind by a course of solitary meditation, -or, to use a shorter phrase, the metempsychosis of his hero, is but a -paraphrase of the finest of all moral fables, the Asinus Aureus of -Apuleius, and one which at last fails to do justice to the splendid -original. Should any reader think it worth the time to examine into -the truth of our remarks upon the spirit of ancient philosophy, we -would crave his attention to this most beautiful allegory, as -affording a complete and interesting illustration of their general -correctness. The fable, founded upon a Milesian story, opens with the -description of a young man who has debased his soul with debauchery -until he is transformed to an ass; he falls gradually from one vice -to another, and under the dominion of all he suffers under the -degrading and debasing penalties appropriate to each. He was at last -on the eve of perpetrating a crime so monstrous that nature suddenly -revolted, and horror-stricken, he broke from his keeper and flies to -the seashore. With solitude comes reflection, and reflection brings -remorse. Despair is the natural consequence; and feeling that without -assistance he is lost, he turns to heaven for succor. The moon is in -full splendor, just rising from the waves; the awful silence of the -night deepens his sense of solitude;—"Video præ micantis lunæ -candore nimis completum orbem, commodum marinis emergentem fluctibus, -nactusque opacæ noctis silentiosa secreta, certus etiam summatem Deam -præcipua majestate pollere resque prorsus humanas ipsius regi -providentia," &c. p. 375. Relief is vouchsafed to him, a change -passes over his spirit, and nature wears towards him a different -aspect—her countenance is clothed in smiles, and all things seem to -rejoice with him. "Tanta hilaritudine præter peculiarem meam, gestire -mihi cuncta videbantur; ut pecua etiam cujuscamodi et totas domos et -ipsam diem serena facie gaudire sentirem." The entire conception is -not only highly poetical, but eminently philosophical; the progress -of the human mind in its transition through the range of vices, the -sentiments of remorse and despair, that yearning after better things -which ever and anon returns like a guardian angel to rescue man from -his most fallen estate, the change of heart, and the influence of -nature, are depicted in the spirit of truth and beauty.</p> - -<p>But we fear that we are trespassing too far upon the patience of the -reader, and especially when our subject is not one of general -interest. And yet we are so deeply impressed with the fact that an -attention to this study is the great want of American literature, -that we could not forbear suggesting briefly the various points of -view from which its importance may be seen—even at the risk of being -tedious. Under the sanction, then, of past experience, and under the -higher authority of reason, we would crave the attention of the -rising generation to these studies, that they may prepare themselves -to do something worthy of their hopes and useful to their country. -And of this at least we can safely assure them that the exercises -which we recommend are those in which were trained all the best -models in science and general literature, whom they most revere and -admire.</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect04"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>A LOAN TO THE MESSENGER.</h4> - -<center>NO. I.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem3"> - <tr><td><small>When I said I would die a bachelor,<br> - I did not think I should live to be married.—<i>Benedict</i>.</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The day I was married, my dear Editor, I was greeted by a valued -crony of mine with the following <i>Jew desperate</i>, as Mrs. Malaprop -might call a <i>jeu d'esprit</i>. The occasion which gave this trifle -birth having now been some years a matter of history, I am disposed -to lend it to your good readers for a month, and beg them to be very -careful of it, as it is really one of the neatest things of the kind -I or they have ever seen. It is by a poet of no low order of genius, -I can assure you, whose fault alone it is that his name, albeit not -insignificant, is not yet higher on the rolls of poetic fame. It has -never been in print.</p> -<div align="right"><small>J. F. O. </small></div> -<a name="sect05"></a> -<br> -<h4>LIFE.</h4> -<center><small>A BRIEF HISTORY, IN THREE PARTS, WITH A SEQUEL:<br> -<br> -<i>Dedicated to my friend on his Wedding Day, November 1, 18—</i>.</small></center> -<br> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem4"> - <tr><td align="center">Part I.—L<small>OVE</small>.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td>A glance,—a thought,—a blow,—<br> - It stings him to the core.<br> -A question—will it lay him low?<br> - Or will time heal it o'er?<br> -<br> -He kindles at the name,—<br> - He sits, and thinks apart;<br> -Time blows and blows it to a flame,—<br> - Burning within his heart.<br> -<br> -He loves it though it burns,<br> - And nurses it with care:<br> -He feeds the blissful pain, by turns,<br> - With hope, and with despair!</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td align="center">—</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td align="center">Part II.—C<small>OURTSHIP</small>.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td>Sonnets and serenades,<br> - Sighs, glances, tears and vows,<br> -Gifts, tokens, souvenirs, parades,<br> - And courtesies and bows.<br> -<br> -A purpose, and a prayer:<br> - The stars are in the sky,—<br> -He wonders how e'en hope should dare<br> - To let him aim so high!<br> -<br> -Still hope allures and flatters,<br> - And doubt just makes him bold:<br> -And so, with passion all in tatters,<br> - The trembling tale is told!<br> -<br> -Apologies and blushes,<br> - Soft looks, averted eyes,<br> -Each heart into the other rushes,<br> - Each yields, and wins, a prize.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td align="center">— -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234"><small><small>[p. 234]</small></small></a></span></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td align="center">Part III.—M<small>ARRIAGE</small>.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td>A gathering of fond friends,—<br> - Brief, solemn words, and prayer,—<br> -A trembling to the fingers' ends,<br> - As hand in hand they swear.<br> -<br> -Sweet cake, sweet wine, sweet kisses,—<br> - And so the deed is done:<br> -Now for life's woes and blisses,—<br> - The wedded two are one.<br> -<br> -And down the shining stream<br> - They launch their buoyant skiff,<br> -Bless'd, if they may but trust Hope's dream,—<br> - But ah! Truth echoes—<i>If!</i></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td align="center">—</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td align="center">T<small>HE</small> S<small>EQUEL</small>.—I<small>F</small>.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td>If health be firm,—if friends be true,—<br> - If self be well controlled,—<br> -If tastes be pure,—if wants be few,—<br> - And not too often told,—<br> -<br> -If reason always rule the heart,—<br> - And passions own its sway,—<br> -If love for aye to life impart<br> - The zest it does to day,—<br> -<br> -If Providence with parent care<br> - Mete out the varying lot,—<br> -While meek Contentment bows to share<br> - The palace or the cot,—<br> -<br> -And oh! if Faith, sublime and clear,<br> - The spirit upward guide,—<br> -Then bless'd indeed, and bless'd fore'er,<br> - The Bridegroom, and the Bride!</td></tr> -</table> -<div align="right"><small>W<small>ILLIAM</small> C<small>UTTER</small>. </small></div> -<blockquote><i>P———d</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect06"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>READINGS WITH MY PENCIL.</h4> - -<center>NO. II.<br> -<br> -<small>Legere sine calamo est dormire.—<i>Quintilian</i>.</small></center> -<br> -<br> -<blockquote><small>8. "A drayman is probably born with as good organs as Milton, Locke, -or Newton: but by culture they are as much above him, almost, as he -is above his horse."—<i>Chesterfield</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Chesterfield, it would seem, was a Phrenologist, in fact.</p> - -<blockquote><small>9. "In matters of consequence, have nothing to do with secondary -people: deal always with principals."—<i>Edgeworth</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Good advice. In matters of state, deal never with a clerk,—he has no -discretion. In matters of trade deal never with an agent, if you can -come near the principal, for the same cause,—he lacks the discretion -that the latter has. But for a different cause than this, in matters -of love, deal never with parents, but with the child: it is true, she -has less discretion, but in this matter she is still <i>the principal</i>.</p> - -<blockquote><small>10. "Women may have their wills while they live, for they may make -none when they die."—<i>Anon.</i></small></blockquote> - -<p>The author of that, whoever he be, was a kind soul: he found an -apology for that which husbands, lovers, and fathers are apt to think -a grievous fault in the sex. But the thought that strikes me most -forcibly upon reading that passage is, the injustice of the law's -treatment of women in this regard. Why should a woman's property, -upon her marriage, become, <i>ipso facto</i>, another's? I take it that is -a question which neither casuists nor gownsmen can answer. I knew an -old woman who could give the true reply, and it was one that she gave -as a reason for every query, puzzling or plain,—and that was -"<i>'Cause!</i>"</p> - -<blockquote><small>11. "A soul conversant with virtue resembles a fountain: for it is -clear, and gentle, and sweet, and communicative, and rich, and -harmless and innocent."—<i>Epictetus</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Beautiful because true. Such a soul is <i>clear;</i> one can see deeply -into its crystal purity: it is <i>gentle</i>, and no waves disturb the -spectator as he gazes: it is <i>sweet</i>, and he who drinks of it is -refreshed and renovated in mental and intellectual health. -<i>Communicative</i> is it, and throws out its <i>jets</i> in affluent -profusion, making the atmosphere delicious to those who come within -its reach. <i>Rich</i>, too, abundantly, overflowingly <i>rich</i>, full of -jewels beyond price, ready for those who will gather them up from the -inexhaustible bed of that fountain: <i>harmless</i>, moreover, and -<i>innocent</i>, diffusing influences of a healthful and inspiring force, -which turns mere sense to soul, mere mortality to immortality!</p> - -<blockquote><small>12. "The suspicion of Dean Swift's irreligion proceeded, in a great -measure, from his dread of hypocrisy: instead of wishing to seem -better, he delighted in seeming worse than he was."—<i>Dr. Johnson</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>That is a queer apology for a great Moralist to make for a Dean of -the Church! It makes out Swift to be the worst of rascals: for it -makes him more regardful of other men's opinions than of his own. It -exhibits him as contravening conscience with <i>seeming</i>. Now, to my -mind, the mere suspicion of hypocrisy is a far less evil than the -positive conviction of it. He was, according to Johnson, afraid of -being thought a hypocrite, and so he actually became one!</p> - -<blockquote><small>13. "As much company as I have kept, and as much as I love it, I love -reading better; and would rather be employed in reading, than in the -most agreeable company."—<i>Pope</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>It is but a choice of company after all. For my part I verily believe -the poet loved both well enough, although the world of books he most -affected. He never wrote the "Essay on Man" or the "Dunciad" from the -experience of the study, however: men's hearts were the 'books' he -read from when he gave those splendid poems birth. The "world of -books"—reminds me of</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem5"> - <tr><td><small>14. "Books are a real world, both pure and good,<br> - Round which, with tendrils strong as flesh and blood,<br> - Our pastime and our happiness may grow."<br> - - - - - - -<i>Wordsworth</i>.</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small>15. "Oh! who shall tell the glory of the good man's course, when, as -his mortal organs are closing upon the world, he is looking forward -to the opening brightness of that sun which never sets, shining from -out the sapphire gates of Heaven! What earthly simile can your poet -or your rhapsodist furnish, to carry to the spirit so rapturous a -conception?"—<i>Chalmers</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The simplest similes for such purposes are the best. And it is a -beautiful order of our nature, that it furnishes them abundantly for -the improvement of the reflective mind. And thus would I assimilate -an earthly scene to the rapturous conception of the eloquent divine -whom I have quoted. A most beautiful autumn day, free from -clouds,—when the varied colored leaves <i>seem willing to fade</i>, with -so bright, so warm, so cheerful a sun upon them,—is to me an emblem -of the beaming of the sun of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page235"><small><small>[p. 235]</small></small></a></span> -righteousness, which, growing -brighter as their bodies decay, makes the happiest and holiest -spirits <i>willing to die</i>, under an influence so benign.</p> - -<blockquote><small>16. "I walked, I rode, I hunted, I played, I read, I wrote, I did -every thing but think. I could not, or rather I would not think. -Thinking kept me too long to one point. I could not bear that turning -my face to a dead wall. In self defence, to keep me from my thoughts, -I flitted from one occupation to another in which my mind could not, -if it would, find the least employment or permanent satisfaction. But -the world called me a very happy man!"—<i>Bulwer</i>, (I believe.)</small></blockquote> - -<p>Every man has those moments, I imagine, of struggling with his own -mind, endeavoring, yet almost impossibly, to fix it upon a single -object for any length of time: when it is like a bird in a storm, -attempting to alight upon a waving, trembling spray.</p> - -<blockquote><small>17. "But Thomas Moore, albeit but an indifferent biographer, is one -of the greatest masters of versification the world has ever known, -while in song-writing he is perfectly unrivalled."—<i>Quarterly -Review</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Perhaps in a peculiar, refined style of song-writing he may be: but -while his are the music of the fancy, <i>Burns</i> speaks the melodies of -the soul.</p> - -<blockquote><small>18. "The Creator has so constituted the human intellect, that it -<i>can</i> grow only by its own action, and by its own action it <i>will</i> -most certainly and necessarily grow. Every man must, therefore, in an -important sense, educate himself. His books and teachers are but -aids, <i>the work</i> is his."—<i>Daniel Webster</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The great statesman spoke this from the lessons of his own -experience, and it is true. Yet how many moments there are in a -scholar's life, when his progress seems so slow that he languishes -over every task; and, because he cannot attain every thing at once, -forgets, that every thing worth gaining is obtained after many -struggles: and, if one foot slips back a little, yet, if he gain <i>at -all</i> on his way, that it is better to persevere! Besides, it is not -only <i>the ends</i> of study which are delightful—for so also are its -<i>ways:</i> and, if we are not advancing rapidly, there is yet a pleasure -in exercise, even when much of it fails.</p> - -<blockquote><small>19. "The preacher, raising his withered hands as if imparting a -benediction with the words, closed his discourse with the text he had -been enforcing,—'It is good that a man bear the yoke in his -youth.'"—<i>Lights and Shadows</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>I do believe that text most implicitly. I myself feel that it is -true: for I am one of those who are best when most afflicted. While -the weight hangs heavily, I keep time and measure, like a clock; but -remove it, and all the springs and wheels move irregularly, and I am -but a mere useless thing.</p> - -<blockquote><small>20. "Fair and bright to day, but windy and -cold."—<i>My Old Journal</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>———like a satirical beauty!</p> -<div align="right"><small>J. F. O. </small></div> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect07"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>HALLEY'S COMET.</h4> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem6"> - <tr><td>And who art thou amid the starry host,<br> - Shedding thy pale and misty light,<br> - Like some lone pearl, unseen and lost,<br> - Amid the diamonds of a gala night.<br> -<br> - Thou comest from the measureless abyss,<br> - Where God hath made his glory known;<br> - Is it with mystic cord, to this<br> - To bind some system yet unseen, unknown.<br> -<br> - Art thou the ship of heaven, laden with light,<br> - From the eternal glory sent,<br> - To feed the glowing suns, that might<br> - In ceaseless radiance but for thee be spent?<br> -<br> - Or art thou rolling on thy way, a car,<br> - Bearing from God some angel band,<br> - Sent forth from world to world afar,<br> - To regulate the fabric of his hand?<br> -<br> - Oh! if thou art on some such errand sent,<br> - Forth from the throne of Him we love,<br> - May not thy homeward path be bent<br> - By our poor earth, to bear our souls above?</td></tr> -</table> -<blockquote><i>Prince Edward</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect08"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>EPIMANES.</h4> -<center>BY E. A. POE.<br> -<br> -<small>Chacun a ses vertus.—<i>Crebillon's Xerxes</i></small>.</center> -<br> -<br> -<p>Antiochus Epiphanes is very generally looked upon as the Gog of the -prophet Ezekiel. This honor is, however, more properly attributable -to Cambyses, the son of Cyrus. And, indeed, the character of the -Syrian monarch does by no means stand in need of any adventitious -embellishment. His accession to the throne, or rather his usurpation -of the sovereignty, a hundred and seventy-one years before the coming -of Christ—his attempt to plunder the temple of Diana at Ephesus—his -implacable hostility to the Jews—his pollution of the Holy of -Holies, and his miserable death at Taba, after a tumultuous reign of -eleven years, are circumstances of a prominent kind, and therefore -more generally noticed by the historians of his time than the -impious, dastardly, cruel, silly, and whimsical achievements which -make up the sum total of his private life and reputation.</p> - -<center>* * - * - * - *</center> - -<p>Let us suppose, gentle reader, that it is now the year of the world -three thousand eight hundred and thirty, and let us, for a few -minutes, imagine ourselves at that most grotesque habitation of man, -the remarkable city of Antioch. To be sure there were, in Syria and -other countries, sixteen cities of that name besides the one to which -I more particularly allude. But <i>ours</i> is that which went by the name -of Antiochia Epidaphne, from its vicinity to the little village -Daphne, where stood a temple to that divinity. It was built (although -about this matter there is some dispute) by Seleucus Nicanor, the -first king of the country after Alexander the Great, in memory of his -father Antiochus, and became immediately the residence of the Syrian -monarchy. In the flourishing times of the Roman empire, it was the -ordinary station of the Prefect of the eastern provinces; and many of -the emperors of the queen city, among whom may be mentioned, most -especially, Verus and Valens, spent here the greater part of their -time. But I perceive we have arrived at the city itself. Let us -ascend this battlement, and throw our eyes around upon the town and -neighboring country.</p> - -<p>What broad and rapid river is that which forces its way with -innumerable falls, through the mountainous wilderness, and finally -through the wilderness of buildings?</p> - -<p>That is the Orontes, and the only water in sight, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236"><small><small>[p. 236]</small></small></a></span> with the -exception of the Mediterranean, which stretches, like a broad mirror, -about twelve miles off to the southward. Every one has beheld the -Mediterranean; but, let me tell you, there are few who have had a -peep at Antioch. By few, I mean few who, like you and I, have had, at -the same time, the advantages of a modern education. Therefore cease -to regard that sea, and give your whole attention to the mass of -houses that lie beneath us. You will remember that it is now the year -of the world three thousand eight hundred and thirty. Were it -later—for example, were it unfortunately the year of our Lord -eighteen hundred and thirty-six, we should be deprived of this -extraordinary spectacle. In the nineteenth century Antioch is—that -is, Antioch <i>will be</i> in a lamentable state of decay. It will have -been, by that time, totally destroyed, at three different periods, by -three successive earthquakes. Indeed, to say the truth, what little -of its former self may then remain, will be found in so desolate and -ruinous a state, that the patriarch will remove his residence to -Damascus. This is well. I see you profit by my advice, and are making -the most of your time in inspecting the premises—in</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem7"> - <tr><td><small> -———satisfying your eyes<br> - With the memorials and the things of fame<br> - That most renown this city.</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>I beg pardon—I had forgotten that Shakspeare will not flourish for -nearly seventeen hundred and fifty years to come. But does not the -appearance of Epidaphne justify me in calling it <i>grotesque?</i></p> - -<p>It is well fortified—and in this respect is as much indebted to -nature as to art.</p> - -<p>Very true.</p> - -<p>There are a prodigious number of stately palaces.</p> - -<p>There are.</p> - -<p>And the numerous temples, sumptuous and magnificent, may bear -comparison with the most lauded of antiquity.</p> - -<p>All this I must acknowledge. Still there is an infinity of mud huts -and abominable hovels. We cannot help perceiving abundance of filth -in every kennel, and, were it not for the overpowering fumes of -idolatrous incense, I have no doubt we should find a most intolerable -stench. Did you ever behold streets so insufferably narrow, or houses -so miraculously tall? What a gloom their shadows cast upon the -ground! It is well the swinging lamps in those endless collonades are -kept burning throughout the day—we should otherwise have the -darkness of Egypt in the time of her desolation.</p> - -<p>It is certainly a strange place! What is the meaning of yonder -singular building? See!—it towers above all the others, and lies to -the eastward of what I take to be the royal palace.</p> - -<p>That is the new Temple of the Sun, who is adored in Syria under the -title of Elah Gabalah. Hereafter a very notorious Roman Emperor will -institute this worship in Rome, and thence derive a cognomen -Heliogabalus. I dare say you would like a peep at the divinity of the -temple. You need not look up at the Heavens, his Sunship is not -there—at least not the Sunship adored by the Syrians. <i>That</i> Deity -will be found in the interior of yonder building. He is worshipped -under the figure of a large stone pillar terminating at the summit in -a cone or <i>pyramid</i>, whereby is denoted Fire.</p> - -<p>Hark!—behold!—who <i>can</i> those ridiculous beings be—half -naked—with their faces painted—shouting and gesticulating to the -rabble?</p> - -<p>Some few are mountebanks. Others more particularly belong to the race -of philosophers. The greatest portion, however—those especially who -belabor the populace with clubs, are the principal courtiers of the -palace, executing, as in duty bound, some laudable comicality of the -king's.</p> - -<p>But what have we here? Heavens!—the town is swarming with wild -beasts! What a terrible spectacle!—what a dangerous peculiarity!</p> - -<p>Terrible, if you please; but not in the least degree dangerous. Each -animal, if you will take the pains to observe, is following, very -quietly, in the wake of its master. Some few, to be sure, are led -with a rope about the neck, but these are chiefly the lesser or more -timid species. The lion, the tiger, and the leopard are entirely -without restraint. They have been trained without difficulty to their -present profession, and attend upon their respective owners in the -capacity of <i>valets-de-chambre</i>. It is true, there are occasions when -Nature asserts her violated dominion—but then the devouring of a -man-at-arms, or the throtling of a consecrated bull, are -circumstances of too little moment to be more than hinted at in Epidaphne.</p> - -<p>But what extraordinary tumult do I hear? Surely this is a loud noise -even for Antioch! It argues some commotion of unusual interest.</p> - -<p>Yes—undoubtedly. The king has ordered some novel spectacle—some -gladiatorial exhibition at the Hippodrome—or perhaps the massacre of -the Scythian prisoners—or the conflagration of his new palace—or -the tearing down of a handsome temple—or, indeed, a bonfire of a few -Jews. The uproar increases. Shouts of laughter ascend the skies. The -air becomes dissonant with wind instruments, and horrible with the -clamor of a million throats. Let us descend, for the love of fun, and -see what is going on. This way—be careful. Here we are in the -principal street, which is called the street of Timarchus. The sea of -people is coming this way, and we shall find a difficulty in stemming -the tide. They are pouring through the alley of Heraclides, which -leads directly from the palace—therefore the king is most probably -among the rioters. Yes—I hear the shouts of the herald proclaiming -his approach in the pompous phraseology of the East. We shall have a -glimpse of his person as he passes by the temple of Ashimah. Let us -ensconce ourselves in the vestibule of the Sanctuary—he will be here -anon. In the meantime let us survey this image. What is it? Oh, it is -the God Ashimah in proper person. You perceive, however, that he is -neither a lamb, nor a goat, nor a Satyr—neither has he much -resemblance to the Pan of the Arcadians. Yet all these appearances -have been given—I beg pardon—<i>will be</i> given by the learned of -future ages to the Ashimah of the Syrians. Put on your spectacles, -and tell me what it is. What is it?</p> - -<p>Bless me, it is an ape!</p> - -<p>True—a baboon; but by no means the less a Deity. His name is a -derivation of the Greek <i>Simia</i>—what great fools are antiquarians! -But see!—see!—yonder scampers a ragged little urchin. Where is he -going? What is he bawling about? What does he say? Oh!—he says the -king is coming in triumph—that he is dressed in state—and that he -has just finished putting <span class="pagenum"><a name="page237"><small><small>[p. 237]</small></small></a></span> -to death with his own hand a thousand -chained Israelitish prisoners. For this exploit the ragamuffin is -lauding him to the skies. Hark!—here come a troop of a similar -description. They have made a Latin hymn upon the valor of the king, -and are singing it as they go.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem8"> - <tr><td><small>Mille, mille, mille,<br> - Mille, mille, mille,<br> - Decollavimus, unus homo!<br> - Mille, mille, mille, mille, decollavimus!<br> - Mille, mille, mille!<br> - Vivat qui mille mille occidit!<br> - Tantum vini habet nemo<br> - Quantum sanguinis effudit!<small><sup>1</sup></small></small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>which may be thus paraphrased.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem9"> - <tr><td><small>A thousand, a thousand, a thousand,<br> - A thousand, a thousand, a thousand,<br> - We, with one warrior, have slain!<br> - A thousand, a thousand, a thousand, a thousand,<br> - Sing a thousand over again!<br> - Soho!—let us sing<br> - Long life to our king,<br> - Who knocked over a thousand so fine!<br> - Soho!—let us roar,<br> - He has given us more<br> - Red gallons of gore<br> - Than all Syria can furnish of wine!</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Flavius Vopiscus says that the Hymn which is here -introduced, was sung by the rabble upon the occasion of Aurelian, in -the Sarmatic war, having slain with his own hand nine hundred and -fifty of the enemy.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Do you hear that flourish of trumpets?</p> - -<p>Yes—the king is coming! See!—the people are aghast with admiration, -and lift up their eyes to the heavens in reverence. He comes—he is -coming—there he is!</p> - -<p>Who?—where?—the king?—do not behold him—cannot say that I -perceive him.</p> - -<p>Then you must be blind.</p> - -<p>Very possible. Still I see nothing but a tumultuous mob of idiots and -madmen, who are busy in prostrating themselves before a gigantic -cameleopard, and endeavoring to obtain a kiss of the animal's hoofs. -See! the beast has very justly kicked one of the rabble over—and -another—and another—and another. Indeed, I cannot help admiring the -animal for the excellent use he is making of his feet.</p> - -<p>Rabble, indeed!—why these are the noble and free citizens of -Epidaphne! Beast, did you say?—take care that you are not overheard. -Do you not perceive that the animal has the visage of a man? Why, my -dear sir, that cameleopard is no other than Antiochus Epiphanes, -Antiochus the Illustrious, King of Syria, and the most potent of the -Autocrats of the East! It is true that he is entitled, at times, -Antiochus Epimanes, Antiochus the madman—but that is because all -people have not the capacity to appreciate his merits. It is also -certain that he is at present ensconced in the hide of a beast, and -is doing his best to play the part of a cameleopard—but this is done -for the better sustaining his dignity as king. Besides, the monarch -is of a gigantic stature, and the dress is therefore neither -unbecoming nor over large. We may, however, presume he would not have -adopted it but for some occasion of especial state. Such you will -allow is the massacre of a thousand Jews. With what a superior -dignity the monarch perambulates upon all fours. His tail, you -perceive, is held aloft by his two principal concubines, Elline and -Argelais; and his whole appearance would be infinitely prepossessing, -were it not for the protuberance of his eyes, which will certainly -start out of his head, and the queer color of his face, which has -become nondescript from the quantity of wine he has swallowed. Let us -follow to the Hippodrome, whither he is proceeding, and listen to the -song of triumph which he is commencing.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem10"> - <tr><td><small>Who is king but Epiphanes?<br> - Say—do you know?<br> - Who is king but Epiphanes?<br> - Bravo—bravo!<br> - There is none but Epiphanes,<br> - No—there is none:<br> - So tear down the temples,<br> - And put out the sun!<br> - Who is king but Epiphanes?<br> - Say—do you know?<br> - Who is king but Epiphanes?<br> - Bravo—bravo!</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Well and strenuously sung! The populace are hailing him 'Prince of -Poets,' as well as 'Glory of the East,' 'Delight of the Universe,' -and 'most remarkable of Cameleopards.' They have <i>encored</i> his -effusion—and, do you hear?—he is singing it over again. When he -arrives at the Hippodrome he will be crowned with the Poetic Wreath -in anticipation of his victory at the approaching Olympics.</p> - -<p>But, good Jupiter!—what is the matter in the crowd behind us?</p> - -<p>Behind us did you say?—oh!—ah!—I perceive. My friend, it is well -that you spoke in time. Let us get into a place of safety as soon as -possible. Here!—let us conceal ourselves in the arch of this -aqueduct, and I will inform you presently of the origin of this -commotion. It has turned out as I have been anticipating. The -singular appearance of the Cameleopard with the head of a man, has, -it seems, given offence to the notions of propriety entertained in -general by the wild animals domesticated in the city. A mutiny has -been the result, and as is usual upon such occasions, all human -efforts will be of no avail in quelling the mob. Several of the -Syrians have already been devoured—but the general voice of the -four-footed patriots seems to be for eating up the Cameleopard. 'The -Prince of Poets,' therefore, is upon his hinder legs, and running for -his life. His courtiers have left him in the lurch, and his -concubines have let fall his tail. 'Delight of the Universe,' thou -art in a sad predicament! 'Glory of the East,' thou art in danger of -mastication! Therefore never regard so piteously thy tail—it will -undoubtedly be draggled in the mud, and for this there is no help. -Look not behind thee then at its unavoidable degradation—but take -courage—ply thy legs with vigor—and scud for the Hippodrome! -Remember that the beasts are at thy heels! Remember that thou art -Antiochus Epiphanes, Antiochus, the Illustrious!—also 'Prince of -Poets,' 'Glory of the East,' 'Delight of the Universe,' and 'most -remarkable of Cameleopards!' Heavens! what a power of speed thou art -displaying! What a capacity for leg-bail thou art developing! Run, -Prince! Bravo, Epiphanes! Well done, Cameleopard! Glorious Antiochus! -He runs!—he moves!—he flies! Like a shell from a catapult he -approaches the Hippodrome! He leaps!—he shrieks!—he is there! This -is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"><small><small>[p. 238]</small></small></a></span> -well—for hadst thou, 'Glory of the East,' been half a -second longer in reaching the gates of the Amphitheatre, there is not -a bear's cub in Epidaphne who would not have had a nibble at thy -carcase. Let us be off—let us take our departure!—for we shall find -our delicate modern ears unable to endure the vast uproar which is -about to commence in celebration of the king's escape! Listen! it has -already commenced. See!—the whole town is topsy-turvy.</p> - -<p>Surely this is the most populous city of the East! What a wilderness -of people! What a jumble of all ranks and ages! What a multiplicity -of sects and nations! What a variety of costumes! What a Babel of -languages! What a screaming of beasts! What a tinkling of -instruments! What a parcel of philosophers!</p> - -<p>Come let us be off!</p> - -<p>Stay a moment! I see a vast hubbub in the Hippodrome. What is the -meaning of it I beseech you?</p> - -<p>That? Oh nothing! The noble and free citizens of Epidaphne being, as -they declare, well satisfied of the faith, valor, wisdom, and -divinity of their king, and having, moreover, been eye witnesses of -his late superhuman agility, do think it no more than their duty to -invest his brows (in addition to the Poetic Crown) with the wreath of -victory in the foot race—a wreath which it is evident he <i>must</i> -obtain at the celebration of the next Olympiad.</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect09"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>TO HELEN.</h4> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem11"> - <tr><td>Helen, thy beauty is to me<br> - Like those Nicean barks of yore,<br> - That gently, o'er a perfum'd sea,<br> - The weary wayworn wanderer bore<br> - To his own native shore.<br> -<br> - On desperate seas long wont to roam,<br> - Thy hyacinth hair, thy classic face,<br> - Thy Naiad airs have brought me home<br> - To the beauty of fair Greece,<br> - And the grandeur of old Rome.<br> -<br> - Lo! in that little window-niche<br> - How statue-like I see thee stand!<br> - The folded scroll within thy hand—<br> - Ah! Psyche from the regions which<br> - Are Holy land!</td></tr> -</table> -<div align="right"><small>E. A. P. </small></div> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect10"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>ON THE POETRY OF BURNS<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small></h4> -<center>BY JAMES F. OTIS.</center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> This paper was written at the request of a literary -society of which the author was a member, and the facts are gathered -principally from Currie. Some extracts from the poet's own letters, -and from an eloquent review of Lockhart's Burns, which appeared a few -years since in the Edinburgh Review, are interwoven, and the whole -made up as an essay to be "read not printed."</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p>If we take the different definitions of the term "Poetry," that have -been given this beautiful and magical art by the various writers upon -its nature and properties, as <i>each</i> supported by reason and fact, we -shall hardly arrive at any degree of certainty as to its <i>real</i> -meaning. It has been called "the art of imitation," or mimickry. -Aristotle and Plato characterize it as "the expression of thoughts by -fictions;" and there are innumerable other definitions, none of which -are more satisfactory to the student than is that of the celebrated -"Blair." He says, "it is the language of Passion,—or enlivened -Imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers. The primary -object of a poet is to <i>please</i>, and to <i>move;</i> and therefore it is -to imagination and the passions that he speaks. He may, and he ought -to have it in his view to <i>instruct</i> and <i>reform;</i> but it is -<i>indirectly</i>, and by <i>pleasing</i>, and <i>moving</i>, that he accomplishes -this end. His mind is supposed to be animated by some interesting -object which fires his imagination or engages his passions: and -which, of course, communicates to his style a peculiar elevation, -suited to his ideas, very different from that mode of expression -which is natural to the mind in its calm, ordinary state." And this -definition will allow of being yet more particularly and minutely -understood: it is susceptible of being analyzed still farther, and -described as "a language, in which fiction and imagination may, with -propriety, be indulged beyond the strict limits of truth and reality."</p> - -<p>Who is there that has not felt the power of Poetry? For it is not -essential that it be embodied in regular and finely wrought periods, -and conveyed to the ear in alternate rhyme, and made to harmonize in -nicely-toned successions of sounds. Who is there that has not felt -its power? It originated with the very nature of man; and is confined -to no nation, age, or situation. This is proved by the well-attested -fact, that Poetry ever diminishes in strength of thought, boldness of -conception, and power of embodying striking images, in proportion as -it becomes polished and cultivated. The uncivilized tenant of our -forests is, <i>by nature</i>, a Poet! Whether he would lead his brethren -to the field of warfare, or conclude with the white man a treaty of -peace and future amity, still his style evinces the same grand -characteristic,—<i>the spirit of true Poetry</i>. The barbarous Celt, the -benighted Icelander, and the earliest and most unenlightened nations -of the world, as described on the page of history, are proofs of the -principle we have been considering; and it was not, indeed, until -society became settled and civilized, that poetical composition -ceased to embrace <i>every</i> impulse of which the human soul is -susceptible. It was not till <i>then</i>, that, in the language of a -distinguished writer, "Poetry became a separate art, calculated, -chiefly, to <i>please;</i> and confined, generally, to such subjects as -related to the imagination and the passions." Then was it that there -arose, naturally, divisions in the classes or schools of Poetry,—as -Lyric, Elegiac, Pastoral, Didactic, Descriptive, and Dramatic. A -consideration of <i>each</i> of these classes might furnish us with -<i>materiel</i> for an interesting examination of their individual -peculiarities: but time will not permit so wide a range.</p> - -<p>R<small>OBERT</small> B<small>URNS</small> was born on the 25th of January, 1759, in the town of -Ayr, in Scotland. His pretensions by birth, were a descent from poor -and humble, but honest and intelligent parents; and a title to -inherit all their intelligence and virtue, as well as all their -poverty. Upon the nature of these pretensions, Burns, in a letter to -a friend, dated many years after, takes occasion to say: "I have not -the most distant pretensions to assume that character, which the -pye-coatcd guardians <span class="pagenum"><a name="page239"><small><small>[p. 239]</small></small></a></span> -of escutcheons call a gentleman. When at -Edinborough last winter, I got acquainted in the Herald's Office; and -looking through that granary of honors, I there found almost every -name in the kingdom: but for <i>me</i>,—</p> - -<center><small>'My ancient but ignoble blood<br> - Has crept thro' scoundrels ever since the flood.'"</small></center> - -<p>His father was a native of the north of Scotland, but he was driven -by various misfortunes to Edinborough, and thence still farther south -to Ayrshire, where he was first employed as a gardener in one of the -families in that vicinity, and afterwards, being desirous of settling -in life, took a lease of a little farm of seven acres, on which he -reared a clay cottage with his own hands, and soon after married a -wife. The first fruit of this union was our poet, whose birth took -place two years thereafter. Robert, during his early days, was by no -means a favorite with any body. He was remarkable, however, for a -retentive memory, and a thoughtful turn of mind. His ear was dull, -and his voice harsh and dissonant, and he evinced no musical talent -or poetical genius until his fifteenth or sixteenth year. It is -pretended by his biographers, (of whom there have been several, and -who all agree in this opinion,) that the seeds of Poetry were very -early implanted in his mind, and that the recitations and fireside -chaunts of an old crone, who was familiar in his father's family, -served to cherish their growth, and strengthen their hold upon his -memory. This "auld gudewife" is said to have had the largest -collection in the country of tales and songs concerning fairies, -witches, warlocks, apparitions, giants, dragons, and other agents of -romantic fiction. Speaking of these tales and songs, he says, in his -later years, "so strong an effect had they upon my imagination, that -even to this hour, in my nocturnal rambles, I am fain to keep a sharp -look out in suspicious places; and, though nobody can feel more -sceptical than I have ever done in such matters, yet it often -requires an effort of Philosophy to shake off these idle terrors."</p> - -<p>When Robert was in his seventh year, his father quitted the -birth-place of the poet, and took a lease of a small farm on the -estate of Mr. Fergusson, called Mount Oliphant. He had been, for a -year or two previous to this event, a pupil of Dr. Murdoch, who is -represented as being a very worthy and acute man, and who took much -pains with the education of the future poet. In fact, his <i>father</i> -had previously taught him arithmetic, and whatever of lore could be -gathered from the "big ha' bible," as they sat by their solitary -candle; and he had been sent, alternately with his brother, a week at -a time during a summer's quarter, to a writing master at the parish -school at Dalrymple. But Dr. Murdoch, his faithful friend in youth -and age, instructed him in English Grammar, and aided him in the -acquisition of a little French. After a fortnight's instruction in -the latter language, he was able to translate it into English prose, -but, farther than this, his new attainment was never of much -advantage to him. Indeed, his attempts to speak the language were -ridiculously futile at times. On one occasion, when he called in -Edinborough at the house of an accomplished friend, a lady who had -been educated in France, he found her conversing with a French lady, -to whom he was introduced. The French woman understood English; but -Burns must need try his powers. His first sentence was intended to -compliment the lady on her apparent eloquence in conversation; but by -mistaking some idiom, he made the lady understand that she was too -fond of hearing herself speak. The French woman, highly incensed, -replied, that there were more instances of vain poets than of -talkative women; and Burns was obliged to use his own language in -appeasing her. He attempted the Latin, but his success did not -encourage him to persevere. And, in fine, with the addition of a -quarter's attendance to Geometry and Surveying, at the age of -nineteen, and a few lessons at a country dancing school, I have now -mentioned all his opportunities of acquiring a scholastic education. -He says of himself, in allusion to his boyish days, "though it cost -the schoolmaster many <i>thrashings</i>, I made an excellent English -scholar; and by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a -critic in substantives, verbs and particles."</p> - -<p>As soon as young Burns had strength to work, he was employed as a -laborer upon his father's farm. At twelve he was a good ploughman; a -year later he assisted at the threshing-floor; and was his father's -main dependance at fifteen, there being no hired laborers, male or -female, in the family at the time. In one of his letters, (and it is -by extracting copiously from them, that I propose chiefly to narrate -his history,) he remarks upon this subject—"I saw my father's -situation entailed on me perpetual labor: the only two openings by -which I could enter the temple of fortune, were the gate of niggardly -economy, or the path of little, chicaning bargain-making. The <i>first</i> -is so contracted an aperture, I never could squeeze myself into it; -the <i>last</i> I <i>always</i> hated—there was contamination in the very -entrance!" And it was this kind of life,—the cheerless gloom of a -hermit, with the unceasing toil of a galley-slave, that brought him -to his sixteenth year, at about which period he first perpetrated the -sin of rhyming. Of this you shall have an account in the author's own -language.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"You know our country custom of coupling a man and woman together as -partners in the labors of harvest. In my fifteenth autumn my partner -was a bewitching creature, a year younger than myself. My scarcity of -English denies me the power of doing her justice in that language; -but you know the Scottish idiom,—<i>she was a bonnie, sweet, sonsie -lass</i>. In short, she altogether, unwittingly to herself, initiated me -in that delicious passion, which, in spite of acid disappointment, -rigid prudence, and book-worm philosophy, I hold to be the first of -human joys, our dearest blessing here below! How she caught the -contagion I cannot tell. You medical people—(he was addressing the -celebrated Dr. Moore) you medical people talk much of infection from -breathing the same air, the touch, &c.; but I never expressly said I -loved her. Indeed, I did not know myself why I liked so much to -loiter behind with her, when returning in the evening from our -labors; why the tones of her voice made my heartstrings thrill like -an Eolian harp; and particularly why my pulse beat such a furious -ratan, when I plucked the cruel nettle-stings and thistles from her -little white hand. Among her other love-inspiring qualities, she sung -sweetly; and it was her favorite reel, to which I attempted giving an -embodied vehicle in rhyme. I was not so presumptuous as to imagine -that I could make verses like printed ones, composed by men who had -Greek and Latin: but my girl sung a song, which was said to have been -composed by a country laird's son upon a neighboring maiden with whom -he was in love! and I saw; no reason why I might not rhyme as well as -<i>he;</i> for, excepting that he could shear sheep and cast peats, (his -father living in the moorlands,) he had no more <i>scholar</i> craft than -myself."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Thus, with Burns, began Love and Poetry. This, his first effort, is -valuable, more from the promise it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240"><small><small>[p. 240]</small></small></a></span> -gave of his future -excellence as a poet, than for any intrinsic merit which it possessed -as a performance of so gifted a genius. I have been the more -particular in describing the circumstances attending the composition -of these, his earliest verses, for the proof they afford of the truth -of the general remark, that of all the poetical compositions of -Burns, his love-songs, and amatory poetry are far the best. His -feelings predominated over his fancy, and whenever the latter is -introduced we are forced to deem it an intrusion for the strong -contrast it presents with the native and characteristic simplicity of -his more natural and heartfelt effusions.</p> - -<p>Referring to the predilections which I have said gave a character to -so large a portion of his poetical writings, he says,—"My heart was -completely tinder, and was eternally lighted up by some goddess or -other: and, as in every other warfare in this world, my fortune was -various; sometimes I was received with favor, and sometimes I was -mortified with a repulse." And in another letter he says farther, -"Another circumstance in my life which made some alterations in my -mind and manners, was, that I spent my nineteenth summer on a -smuggling coast, a good distance from home, at a noted school, to -learn mensuration, surveying, dialling, &c. in which I made a pretty -good progress. But I made a greater progress in the knowledge of -mankind. Scenes of riot and roaring dissipation were, till now, new -to me; but I was no enemy to social life. For all that, I went on -with a high hand in my geometry till the sun entered <i>Virgo</i>, (a -month, which is always a carnival in my bosom,) when a charming fair -one, who lived next door to the school, overset my trigonometry, and -set me off at a tangent from the sphere of my duties. I, however, -struggled on with my <i>sines</i> and <i>co-sines</i> for a few days more, but -stepping into the garden one charming noon to take the sun's -altitude, there I met my angel,</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem12"> - <tr><td><small>'Like Proserpine, gathering flowers,<br> - Herself, a fairer flower.'</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>It was in vain to think of doing any more good at school. The -remaining weeks I staid I did nothing but craze the faculties of my -soul about her, or steal out to meet her. And the two last nights of -my stay in the country, had sleep been a mortal sin, the image of -this modest and innocent girl had kept me guiltless."</p> - -<p>This brings us to a period, which the poet calls an important era in -his life—his twenty-third year; and he explains this in the -following näive and characteristic style. "Partly through whim, and -partly that I wished to set about doing something in life, I joined a -flax-dresser in the neighboring town of Irvine to learn his trade. -This was an unlucky affair; as we were welcoming in the new year with -a carousal, our shop took fire and burnt to ashes, and I was left -like a true poet, not worth a sixpence." About this time the clouds -of misfortune thickened around his father's head, who, indeed, was -already far gone in a consumption; and to crown the distresses -incident to his situation, a girl, to whom he was engaged to be -married, jilted him with peculiar circumstances of mortification.</p> - -<p>During his residence at Irvine, our poet was miserably poor and -dispirited. His food consisted chiefly of oat meal, and this was sent -to him from his father's family; and so small was, of necessity, his -allowance, that he was obliged to borrow often of a neighbor, until -he should again be supplied. He was very melancholy with the idea, -that the dreams of future eminence and distinction which his -imagination had presented to his mind, were <i>only</i> dreams; and to -dissipate this melancholy his resource was society with its -enjoyments. The incidents to which I have alluded took place some -years before the publication of his poems. About this time William -Burns removed from Mount Oliphant to Lochlea, and later still, to the -parish of Tarbolton, where, as we are informed by a letter from Dr. -Murdoch, written in 1799, that "Robert wrote most of his poems." It -was in Tarbolton that Burns established a debating club, which -consisted of the poet, his brother Gilbert, and five or six other -young peasants of the neighborhood—the laws and regulations for -which were furnished by the former. Among these members was David -Sillar, to whom the two beautiful poems, entitled "Epistles to Davie, -a brother poet," were addressed. Some of the rules and regulations of -this club are so peculiar, and bespeak so forcibly the character of -their author, that I cannot resist the temptation to transcribe some -of them. The eighth is in the following words:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Every member shall attend at the meetings, without he can give a -proper excuse for not attending. And it is desired, that every one -who cannot attend will send his excuse with some other member: and he -who shall be absent three meetings without sending such excuse, shall -be summoned to the club night, when if he fail to appear, or send an -excuse, he shall be excluded."</small></blockquote> - -<p>And the tenth and last rule is worthy of particular notice, and a -part of it of incorporation into the code even of more extensive and -more pretending societies: it is as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Every man proper for a member of this club, must have a frank, -honest, open heart—above any thing low or mean, and must be a -professed lover of the female sex. No haughty, self-conceited person, -who looks upon himself as superior to the rest of the club—and -especially no mean spirited, worldly mortal, whose only will is to -heap up money, shall, upon any pretence whatever, be admitted. In -short, the proper person for this society, is a cheerful, -honest-hearted lad—who, if he has a friend that is true, a mistress -that is kind, and as much wealth as genteely to make both ends meet, -is just as happy as this world can make him."</small></blockquote> - -<p>But I must, however reluctantly, omit many interesting particulars in -the earlier, and more private life of our poet, and hasten to his -visit to Edinborough in the winter of 1786. The celebrated Dugald -Stewart, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Edinborough, in -a letter to Dr. Currie, alludes to several of Burns's early poems, -and avers, that it was upon <i>his</i> showing a volume of them to Henry -McKenzie, (the celebrated author of "The Man of Feeling,") that this -gentleman introduced the rustic bard to the notice of the public, in -the xcvii No. of The Lounger, which justly famous periodical paper -was then in the course of publication, and had long been a favorite -work with the young poet.</p> - -<p>Depressed by poverty, and chagrined with the contrasts which fate -seemed malignantly bent upon opposing to his ambitious aspirations, -his only object, at last, had been to accumulate the petty sum of -nine guineas, (which he did by the publication of a few of his -poems,) and to take passage in the steerage of a ship bound to the -West Indies, determined to become a negro driver, or any thing else, -so that he could escape the fangs of that merciless pack, the -bailiffs; for, said he,</p> - -<center><small>"Hungry ruin had me in the wind."</small></center> - -<p>He had taken leave of his friends—had despatched <i>his</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241"><small><small>[p. 241]</small></small></a></span> <i>single -chest</i> to the vessel—had written his Farewell Song, which he sang to -the beautiful air of "Roslin Castle," and which closes with,</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem13"> - <tr><td><small>"Adieu, my friends!—Adieu, my foes!<br> - My peace with these, my love with those:<br> - The bursting tears my heart declare,<br> - Farewell, the bonnie banks of Ayr!"</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>when a letter from Dr. Blacklock, elicited by a perusal of the volume -to which I have just now alluded, opened for him new prospects to his -poetic ambition, by inviting him to Edinborough. Thither, then, he -went—and his reception by all classes, ages and ranks, was as -flattering as, in his most sanguine aspirations, he could have -desired. Dr. Robertson, the celebrated historian, Dr. Blair, Dr. -Gregory, Professor Stewart, Mr. McKenzie, and many more men of -letters were particularly interested in his reception, and in the -cultivation of his genius. He became, from his first entrance into -Edinborough, the object of universal attention, and it seemed as if -there was no possibility of rewarding his merits too highly. Mr. -Lockhart, the latest and most eloquent of the numerous biographers of -Burns, has a note, containing an extract from a letter of Sir Walter -Scott, and furnished by the latter for his work, which is too -interesting to be passed over. It relates to a personal interview of -Sir Walter with our poet, during his first visit to Edinborough.</p> - -<p>"As for Burns," writes he, "I may truly say, 'Virgilium vidi -tantum.' I was a lad of fifteen in 1786–7, when he came first to -Edinborough, but had sense and feeling enough to be much interested -in his poetry, and would have given the world to know him: but I had -very little acquaintance with any literary people, and still less -with the gentry of the west country, the two sets that he most -frequented." ... "As it was, I saw him one day at the late venerable -Professor Fergusson's, where there were several gentlemen of literary -reputation, among whom I remember the celebrated Mr. Dugald Stewart. -Of course, we youngsters sat silent, looked, and listened. The only -thing I remember, which was remarkable in Burns's manner, was the -effect produced upon him by a print, with the ideas suggested to his -mind upon reading the story whereof, (written under it) he was moved -even to tears. He asked whose the lines were? and it chanced that -nobody but myself remembered that they occur in a half forgotten poem -of Langhorne's. I passed this information to Burns by a friend, and I -was rewarded with a look and a word, which, though of mere civility, -I then received, and still recollect, with very great pleasure." ... -"His person," continues Sir Walter, "was strong and robust: his -manners rustic, not clownish, a sort of dignified plainness and -simplicity. There was a strong expression of sense and shrewdness in -all his lineaments: the <i>eye</i>, alone, I think, indicated the poetical -character and temperament. It was large, and of a dark cast, which -glowed, (I say literally <i>glowed</i>,) when he spoke with feeling or -interest." ... "I never saw another such eye in a human head, though -I have seen the most distinguished men of my time. His conversation -expressed perfect self-confidence, without the slightest -presumption."</p> - -<p>After making a few more observations with relation to the poet's -conversation and manner, the writer I have been quoting concludes his -reminiscence as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"This is all I can tell you about Burns. I never saw him again, -except in the street, where he did not recognise me, as I could not -expect he should. I have only to add, that his dress corresponded -with his manner. He was like a farmer, dressed in his <i>best</i>, to dine -with the laird. I was told, but did not observe it, that his address -to females was extremely deferential, and always with a turn to the -pathetic or humorous, which engaged their attention particularly. I -do not know that I can add any thing to these recollections of forty -years since."</small></blockquote> - -<p>These are extracts, that, one day or other, will be looked upon as -curiosities in literature, and will be inestimably precious: at -present, I fear me, an apology should follow their introduction, at -such length: but I shall only say in the language of another, in -excuse for dwelling so long on this incident in the life of Burns, -that it forms "the most remarkable phenomenon in the history of -modern literature."</p> - -<p>But if this, his first winter in Edinborough, produced a favorable -effect upon the future fame of Robert Burns, as a poet, it was also -the source of vast unhappiness to him, during his after life. Not -only was he admitted to the company of men of letters and virtue, but -he was pressed into the society of those, whose social habits, and -love of the pleasures of life were their chief attractions. When -among his superiors in rank and intelligence, his carriage was -decorous and diffident: but among others, his boon companions, he, in -his turn, was lord of the ascendant: and thus commenced a career, -which, had its outset been a more prudent one, would probably not -have closed until a later period, nor without a much greater measure -of glory and honor to him, who was thus unfortunately misguided.</p> - -<p>During the residence of Burns at Edinborough, he published a new and -enlarged edition of his poems, and was thus enabled to visit other -parts of his native country, and some parts of England beside. Having -done this, he returned, and during most of the following winter, we -find him again in the gay and literary metropolis, much less an -object of novelty, and, of course, of general attention and interest, -than before. Unable to find employment or occupation of a literary -nature, he quitted Edinborough in the spring of 1788, and took the -farm of Ellisland, near Dumfries: besides advancing 200<i>l.</i> for the -liberation of his brother Gilbert from some difficulties into which -certain agricultural misfortunes had involved him. He was, soon -after, united to his "bonnie Jean," the theme of so much of his -delightful verse, and employed himself in stocking and cultivating -his farm, and rebuilding the dwelling house upon it. There is an -anecdote of him in the history furnished by Dr. Currie, the truth of -which Mr. Lockhart seems disposed to question: his doubts originate -from a consideration of the absurd costume in which the older -biographer has seen fit to invest the poet in his narration. As this -is the only exception taken to it, and as it is certainly -illustrative of Burns's character and manners in other respects, and -as it is related, too, upon so good authority, I shall venture to -introduce it in this, its proper place, in point of time.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"In the summer of 1791, two English gentlemen, who had before met -Burns at Edinborough, paid a visit to him in Ellisland. On calling at -his house, they were informed that he had walked out on the banks of -the river; and, dismounting from their horses, they proceeded in -search of him. On a rock that projected into the stream, they saw a -man employed in angling, of a singular appearance. He had a cap, made -of a fox's skin, on his head, a loose great coat fixed round him by a -belt, from which <span class="pagenum"><a name="page242"><small>[p. 242]</small></a></span> -depended an enormous Highland broadsword. It -was Burns. He received them with great cordiality, and asked them to -share his humble dinner; an invitation which they accepted. On the -table they found boiled beef with vegetables and barley-broth, after -the manner of Scotland, of which they partook heartily. After dinner, -the bard told them ingenuously that he had no wine to offer -them—nothing better than Highland whiskey, a bottle of which Mrs. -Burns set on the board. He produced, at the same time, his -punch-bowl, made of Inverary marble; and mixing the spirit with water -and sugar, filled their glasses, and invited them to drink. The -travellers were in haste, and besides, the flavor of the whiskey to -their <i>southron</i> palates was scarcely tolerable: but the generous -poet offered them his best, and his ardent hospitality they found it -impossible to resist. Burns was in his happiest mood, and the charms -of his conversation were altogether fascinating. He ranged over a -great variety of topics, illuminating whatever he touched. He related -the tales of his infancy and his youth; he recited some of the -gayest, and some of the tenderest of his poems: in the wildest of his -strains of mirth he threw in some touches of melancholy, and spread -around him the electric emotions of his powerful mind. The Highland -whiskey improved in its flavor; the bowl was more than once emptied, -and as often replenished: the guests of our poet forgat the flight of -time and the dictates of prudence; at the hour of midnight they lost -their way in returning to Dumfries, and could scarcely distinguish -it, when assisted by the morning's dawn."</small></blockquote> - -<p>On his farm at Ellisland, Burns continued some few years; but the -novelty of his situation soon wore off, and then returned the -irregularities, to which, from his warm imagination, and his love of -society, and his independent turn of mind, he was so strongly -predisposed. Fearing that his farm alone would be insufficient to -procure for him that independence, which he had hoped one day or -other to attain, he applied for and obtained the office of exciseman, -or as it was vulgarly called <i>guager</i>, for the district in which he -lived. About the year 1792, he was solicited to contribute to a -collection of Scottish songs, to be published by Mr. Thompson, of -Edinborough. Abandoning his farm, which, from neglect and -mismanagement was by no means productive, and receiving from the -Board of Excise an appointment to a new district, with a salary of -70<i>l.</i> per annum, he removed to a small house in Dumfries, and -commenced the fulfilment of his literary engagement with Mr. -Thompson. His principal songs were written during this time, and day -after day was adding heighth and durability to the towering and -imperishable monument, which will hand down his name and fame to many -generations.</p> - -<p>But now commences his rapid and melancholy decay, the fast withering -consumption of his mental and physical faculties. His had been a -short but brilliant course in literature—a short and melancholy one -indeed, in other respects. Defeated in his hopes, mortified in the -discovery that of the two classes of friends who offered him their -society and their example in the outset of his career, he had chosen -the least improving and efficient as his guides and counsellors—he -fast declined into that common receptacle of dust which covers alike -the remains of the gifted and the simple, the prudent and the weak. -He was worn with toil and poverty, and disappointed hope.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem14"> - <tr><td><small>"Can the laborer rest from his labor too soon?<br> - He had toiled all the morning, and slumbered at noon."</small></td></tr> -</table><br> - -<center>* * - * - * - *</center> - -<p>Imprudent in the declaration of his political sentiments, Burns lost -the path to preferment in the line of his political duties; easily -enticed beyond the sway of his sober and virtuous resolutions, he -became broken in health, and destitute of resources; too proud to beg -and too proud to complain, his temper became irritable and gloomy, -and at length a fever, attended with delirium and debility, -terminated his life in the thirty-eighth year of his age. Leaving a -widow, who is still living in the house where he died,<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> and four -sons, of whom three are also at present living. Thus died Robert -Burns, "poor, but not in debt, and bequeathing to posterity a name, -the fame of which will not soon be eclipsed."</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Since deceased.</small></blockquote> - -<p><i>Burns</i>, though he sometimes forgot his homage to the purer and -brighter and more enduring orbs of heaven, in chasing the ignis -fatuus lights of earth, must ever interest us as a poet and a man. A -great many considerations may be properly urged in answer to the too -common, and far from just charges upon his moral character. I am of -opinion, that his own declaration, made not many months previous to -his death, is capable of full and complete support and proof, by a -reference to all the circumstances of his life. When accused of -disloyalty to his government, he says, in a letter to a distinguished -friend—</p> - -<blockquote><small>"In your hands, sir, permit me to lodge my strong disavowal, and -defiance of such slanderous falsehoods. Be assured—and tell the -world, that Burns was a poor man from his birth, and an exciseman -from necessity; but—I <i>will</i> say it! the sterling of his <i>honesty</i>, -poverty <i>could</i> not debase, and his independent British spirit, -oppression might bend, but could not subdue!"</small></blockquote> - -<p>I have advanced the opinion that the crisis of Burns's fate was his -visit, his <i>first</i> visit to Edinborough. From that event may be dated -the complete establishment of his character during his after life; -and with those who received him there, and undertook the task of -doing what they, in their wisdom, thought expedient for the -cultivation of his genius, and for his advancement or settlement in -life, must, I think, rest the credit or the blame of much—of almost -<i>all</i> his future excellence or failure. Burns went into the midst of -that gay and literary circle, ready and liable to receive the most -striking impressions, as the guides of his opinions and the -regulators of his actions. It was another world! It had all the -freshness of a new existence in the eyes, and to the mind of the -rustic Ayrshire bard. Strong-minded and high-hearted as he was, he -could not but look up to his new friends and patrons, as exemplars -for his own imitation: and although he was not <i>visibly</i> perplexed -with the flashings of these new and unaccustomed lights, yet he was, -<i>at heart</i>, led astray by them. They were like the fabled -corpse-fires, which danced merrily before the wildered eyes of the -traveller, luring him onward to his doom—<i>a grave!</i> He had left the -"bonnie banks of Ayr," <i>a young plant</i>, shooting luxuriantly up into -a tall and rugged, but healthful tree; and it was upon the <i>new</i> -soil, into which it had been transplanted, that this beautiful exotic -received an inclination which was destined to be a final one. And yet -I would not throw upon the fame of such men as Stewart, and Blair, -and Robertson, and McKenzie, the imputation of design, or even of -imprudence, in thus being accessory to the melancholy ruin, which -followed the victim's acceptance of their kind, and really benevolent -patronage. It is only to be lamented that upon his arrival at -Edinburgh, he was not introduced <i>at once, and alone</i>, into that -circle, which might reasonably have been designated as the only one, -in which such a genius and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page243"><small><small>[p. 243]</small></small></a></span> -character as Burns's could be duly -appreciated and cultivated. But the secret is, he was regarded by -them, <i>not</i> as a being for their <i>sympathy</i>, but a thing for the -indulgence of their <i>curiosity</i>. In the language of another, "By the -great he was treated in the customary fashion; entertained at their -tables and dismissed: certain modica of pudding and praise are, from -time to time, gladly exchanged for the fascination of his presence; -which exchange once effected, the bargain is finished, and each party -goes his several way."</p> - -<p>Instead of treating with him, as a man, whose genius entitled him to -a stand upon their own proud and distinguished level, all -uncultivated and unpolished as that genius was—they universally -spoke <i>to</i> him, and <i>of</i> him, as an object of patronage—as something -that was to become valuable to the world, only through <i>their</i> -instrumentality. This feeling, this mode of treatment, are not to be -objected to, in themselves considered: their existence was natural, -and, rightly conducted, might have been made productive of much good, -and lasting happiness to him, who was their subject. But Burns was -not the man to rest quietly under the most oppressive burthen that a -proud man can ever feel—<i>Patronage</i>. And thus his relative situation -to his literary friends could not but be viewed by a mind so -sensitive as his own, in its true character. And we find (as soon as -the novelty of a "ploughman-poet" had worn off—as every fashionable -novelty <i>will</i> wear off in time,) that our poet began to remember -that "a life of pleasure and praise would not support his family," -and having experienced a portion of these reverses, which they, who -depend on popular favor and flattery, must ever find inseparable -therefrom—we see him stocking his little farm, and soon after adding -the emoluments of the office of exciseman for the district of Ayr, to -his scanty income. And here he might have been</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem15"> - <tr><td><small>"Content to breathe his native air,<br> - On his own ground,"</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>but for his kind yet misjudging friends, "the patrons," as they were -called, "of his genius." Unfortunately for his future peace, each new -arrival at his little home of Ellisland, of those who had known him -at Edinborough, furnished proof that his old habits of conviviality -were only interrupted, but by no means broken: And it was only by the -frequency of these opportunities of good cheer in the society of the -gay companions of his city life, that he became inattentive to his -agricultural concerns, and that he finally lost the composure and -happiness, which were the attendants of his new situation, and with -these was lost his inclination to temperate and assiduous exertion.</p> - -<p>I would not be understood as denying, in this argument, a previous, -perhaps a <i>natural</i> tendency in the character of Burns, to undue and -intemperate excitement: but the impression upon my own mind is -strong, that this bias might have been checked and regulated, and -turned to good account by the noble and learned patrons of his -genius. Tried by the statutes of strict morality, a man like Burns -has many things to plead in his own defence, which those of less mind -and dimmer intellect cannot justly claim as their own: and it is in -the unwillingness to make this distinction, that the world are, too -often, unfair judges in cases of character. A distinguished writer -thus elegantly remarks, upon a similar subject.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The world is habitually unjust in its judgments: It is not the few -inches of deflection from the mathematical orbit, which are so -<i>easily</i> measured, but the <i>ratio</i> of these to the <i>whole</i> diameter, -which constitutes the <i>real</i> aberration. With the world, this orbit -may be a planet's, its diameter the breadth of the solar system: or -it may be a city hippodrome, nay, the circle of a mill-course, its -diameter a score of feet or paces—but the inches of <i>deflection</i>, -<i>only</i>, are measured; and it is assumed that the diameter of the -mill-course, and that of the planet, will yield the same ratio when -compared with them. Here, then, lies the root of the blind, cruel -condemnation of such men as Robert Burns, which one never listens to -with approval. Granted—the ship comes into harbor with her shrouds -and tackle damaged, and is the pilot therefore blame-worthy, because -he has not been <i>all</i>-wise and <i>all</i>-powerful? For us to know <i>how</i> -blame-worthy he is, tell us how long and how arduous his voyage has -been."</small></blockquote> - -<p>But, after all, it is chiefly with Burns as a <i>poet</i> that we have to -do—it is in <i>this</i> light that <i>posterity</i> will regard him, and it is -into the hands of this tribunal that he must, finally, be resigned. I -would that time had allowed me to refer more particularly to the -works of this delightful bard, than I have been enabled to do on the -present occasion. They began with his earliest, and were continued -until his latest years. Scattered along his devious, and often -<i>gloomy</i> path, they seem like beautiful wild flowers, which he threw -there to cheer and animate the passer-by, with their undying bloom -and sweet fragrance. "In the changes of language his songs may, no -doubt, suffer change—but the associated strain of sentiment and of -music will perhaps survive, while the clear stream sweeps down the -Vale of Yarrow, or the yellow broom waves on the Cowdenknowes."</p> - -<p>I have had occasion, in the course of this essay, to remark, that the -<i>songs</i> of Burns are, by far, the most finished productions of his -muse: and his admirers may safely rest his fame upon them alone, even -if his longer and more elaborate poems should fail to secure him the -immortality he deserves. The celebrated Fletcher somewhere says, -"Give me the making of a people's <i>songs</i>, and let who will make -their laws!" And Burns has, in the composition of <i>his</i> songs, placed -himself on an equality with the legislators of the <i>world!</i> for -where, in the cottage or the palace, are they unsung? Whose blood has -not thrilled, and whose lip has not been compressed, as the noble air -of "Scots! wha hae wi' Wallace bled!" has swelled upon his ear? Who -cannot join in the touching and beautiful chorus of his "Auld lang -syne?" Who has not laughed over his "Willie brewed a peck o' maut," -nor felt the rising tear of sympathetic sadness whilst listening to -his "Farewell to Ayr!" and his celebrated "Mary in Heaven?" In all -these, and many more, which are familiar as <i>very proverbs</i> in our -mouths, the poet has shown such a versatility, and yet such an -entireness of talent—such tenderness and delicacy in his sorrow—yet -withal, so pure and delightful a rapture in his mirth; he weeps with -so true and feeling a heart, and laughs with such loud, and at the -same time such unaffected mirth, that he finds sympathy wherever his -harp is strung. The subjects he chose, and the free, natural style in -which he treated them, have won him this praise—and it shall endure, -the constant and lasting tribute of generation after generation.</p> - -<p>But it has been beautifully said, (and who will not agree in the -sentiment?) that "in the hearts of men of right feelings, there -exists no consciousness of need to plead for Burns. In pitying -admiration, he lies <span class="pagenum"><a name="page244"><small><small>[p. 244]</small></small></a></span> -enshrined in all our hearts, in a far -nobler mausoleum than one of marble: neither will his works, even as -they are, pass away from the memory of men. While the Shakspeares and -Miltons roll on like mighty rivers through the country of thought, -bearing fleets of traffickers and assiduous pearl-fishers on their -waves, this little Vauclusa Fountain will also arrest the eye: For -this also is of nature's own and most cunning workmanship, and bursts -from the depths of the earth with a full, gushing current, into the -light of day. And often will the traveller turn aside to drink of its -clear waters, and muse among its rocks and pines."</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem16"> - <tr><td><small>For Heaven, sweet bard! on thee bestowed<br> - A boon, beyond all name:<br> - And, bounteous, lighted up thy soul<br> - With its own native flame.<br> -<br> - Soft may thy gentle spirit rest,<br> - Sweet poet of the plain!<br> - Light lay the green turf on thy breast,<br> - Till it's illum'd again!</small></td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect11"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>CHANGE.</h4> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem17"> - <tr><td>If by my childhood's humble home<br> - I chance to wander now,<br> - Or through the grove with brambles grown,<br> - Where cedars used to bow,<br> - In search of something that I loved—<br> - Some little trifling thing<br> - To mind me of my early days,<br> - When life was in its spring,—<br> - I find on every thing I see<br> - A something new and strange;<br> - Time's iron hand on them and me<br> - Hath plainly written—<i>Change</i>.<br> -<br> - My pulse beats slower than it did<br> - When childhood's glow was on<br> - My cheek, and colder, calmer now<br> - Doth life's red current run.<br> -<br> - The stars I gaz'd with rapture on,<br> - When youthful hopes were high,<br> - With sterner years have seem'd to change<br> - Their places in the sky.<br> -<br> - And moonlit nights are plenty now—<br> - How few they used to be!<br> - When, with my little urchin crew,<br> - I shouted o'er the lea.<br> -<br> - I've sought the places where we play'd<br> - Our boyish "<i>hide and call;</i>"<br> - Alas! the tyrant Change has made<br> - A common stock of all—<br> - And bartered for a place of graves<br> - That lea and all its bloom:<br> - O, how upon the walls I wept,<br> - To think of Change and Doom!<br> -<br> - The lovely lawn where roses grew,<br> - Is strewn with gravestones o'er;<br> - And half my little playmate crew<br> - Have slept to wake no more<br> - Till Change itself shall cease to be,<br> - And one successive scene<br> - Of stedfastness immutable<br> - Remain where Change hath been.<br> -<br> - It may sometimes make old men glad<br> - To see the young at play;<br> - But always doth my soul grow sad<br> - When thoughts of their decay<br> - Come rushing with the memories<br> - Of what my own hopes were—<br> - When Hudson's waters and my youth<br> - Did mutual friendship share.</td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect12"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS.</h4> -<center><small>[Their importance as connected with Literary -Institutions.<small><sup>1</sup></small>]</small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> This Address was delivered by the Rev. E. F. Stanton, -before the "Literary Institute" of Hampden Sidney College, at its -annual commencement in September last, and is now published, for the -first time, at the request of the Institute.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p>The proper connection of physical, moral, and intellectual culture, -in a course of education, is a subject which, judging from the -defective systems that have almost universally prevailed, has -hitherto been but imperfectly understood, and whose importance has -been but superficially estimated. Man is a being possessed of a -compound nature, which consists of body, mind and spirit. In other -words, he has animal, intellectual, and moral powers. He is destined -for existence and action in two worlds—in this, and in that <i>which -is to come</i>. He is formed for an earthly, and an immortal state. Any -system of education, therefore, which restricts attention to either -of these constituent portions of his nature, is necessarily and -essentially defective. It is the cultivation which assigns to each -its appropriate share, that constitutes the perfection of education. -But few appear to admit, at least <i>practically</i>, the importance of -improving the mind to any great extent by the aids which Literature -and Science bestow. Fewer still are in favor of making religious -instruction a distinct and indispensable part of their plan. Yet -smaller is the number of those who would allow any suitable -prominence to be given to the cultivation of the physical powers: and -probably by far the most diminutive of all is the proportion of those -who would contend for a just and equable combination in the -improvement of <i>the whole man</i>, body, mind, and spirit.</p> - -<p>The monitory experience of past ages, which, if duly heeded, might -prevent a recurrence of serious disasters that have befallen other -generations, is overlooked or disregarded, as the devotees of a -worldly pleasure discredit the assurance of the sage, that "all is -vanity and vexation of spirit," and each in its turn, and for itself, -must try the experiment which wisdom had beforehand decided to be -folly. Vanity seeks the preferment arising from novel discoveries; -and inflated with an apprehension of superior knowledge, disdains to -receive the instructions of former ages, and in spite of experience, -gives an unrestrained indulgence to wild and hurtful extravagances. -Enough has long since been disclosed in the history of mankind, if -they were sufficiently docile and apt, to have demonstrated, to the -satisfaction of all, that on the early and assiduous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245"><small><small>[p. 245]</small></small></a></span> -inculcation of <i>religious principle</i>, depend the temporal, to say -nothing of the eternal welfare of individuals, and the peace and -prosperity of nations. The world, by this time, ought to have known, -even if Revelation had not proclaimed it, that <i>righteousness</i>, by -which I mean <i>religion</i>, is the stability and safeguard of -nations—that it cannot be dispensed with—that no substitute can be -made for it—and that no government can be prosperous or lasting -without it. Devoid of religious principle, the educated are but -madmen; and the more extensive and brilliant their talents, whether -natural or acquired, the more completely are they accoutred for the -work of mischief. Within the recollection of the present generation, -South America, and Greece, and France, where Romish corruptions and -infidel perfidy have obtained the ascendancy, and rooted out a pure -Christianity, have alternately struggled for the establishment of -freedom. Our own nation, so deeply enamored of the "fair goddess," -have looked on with an intensity of interest that bordered on -inebriation, and have hailed them as brethren of <i>the republican -fraternity</i>. But how soon have our hopes been disappointed, and our -exultation proved to be premature. The despotism which has been -thrown off, has been speedily succeeded by another which was scarcely -less odious and intolerable. Their temple of freedom was not reared -on <i>the rock of religious principle</i>, but on <i>the sand</i>. The tempest -of ungoverned passions, which righteousness only has the power to -allay, <i>beat vehemently upon it, and it fell;</i> and great has been the -fall of it. Better that a population deficient in virtue, (the virtue -which a pure religion only can impart,) be also deficient in -knowledge. There is no regenerating or transforming influence in -literature and science. The reverse of this, however, is the -practical creed of most politicians. Religion with them, if not an -odious and obsolete affair, is regarded as of secondary or -inconsiderable importance; and all the attention which, in their -estimation, it deserves, is to leave it for a spontaneous -development. But the issue of such an experiment is sure to result in -an absence of the fear of God, and an exuberant growth of noxious and -destructive passions. If no plan can be devised, which in its -operation shall secure an inseparable connection between literature -and religion in our American academies and colleges, their demolition -were devoutly to be desired, and our youth might better be reared in -ignorance and barbarism.</p> - -<p>These observations are made in passing, to anticipate an impression -which might arise in the minds of some who may accompany us in the -sequel of this discussion, that we are for giving to the <i>physical</i> -an importance over every other department of education. So far from -admitting that this is the position which we intend to assume, we -would here be distinctly understood to allow, if you please, that it -is the least important of all, and sinks as far in comparison with -the cultivation of the mind and the heart, as the body is inferior to -the soul, or as the interests of time are transcended by those of -eternity. But the body, though comparatively insignificant, is still -deserving of special regard. The corporeal is a part of the nature -which the infinite Creator has bestowed on us—a piece of mechanism -"curiously wrought," and "fearfully and wonderfully made." The body -is the casement of the mind—the tenement in which the soul -resides—the "outer" in which dwells the "inner man." With the nature -of this union we are mostly unacquainted. We know, however, that it -is close, and that the influences which body and mind exert on each -other are reciprocal and powerful.</p> - -<p>A gentleman of our own country, who has been at great pains to -investigate this subject himself, and to collect the opinions of -others on it, has embodied in a pamphlet, which has been published, a -mass of information of the most valuable kind; but the production to -which I refer has been only partially circulated in this region, and -therefore has probably attracted less notice here than almost any -where else in the Union. And since I have ample evidence to believe -that his observations, and those of others which accompany them, are -better suited to subserve the purpose which I have in view, than any -of my own which I might hope to offer, I shall indulge myself on this -occasion in the liberty of making somewhat copious extracts from his labors.</p> - -<p>The individual to whom I allude, was appointed the General Agent of -"the Society for promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions," -which was formed in the city of New York in July of 1831, "under the -conviction," as their committee remark, "that a reform in our -seminaries of learning was greatly needed, both for the preservation -of health, and for giving energy to the character by habits of useful -and vigorous exercise." Shortly after entering upon the prosecution -of his object, in an extensive tour of observation in the northern -and western states, the journey of the agent,<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> as his employers -relate, was interrupted by serious accidents which befel him, one of -which (and we notice the narrative as an apt and striking -illustration of the excellency of that system of training to which he -had been accustomed, and which it was the design of his agency to -recommend,) was the carrying away of the stage in Alum Creek, near -Columbus, in the state of Ohio. "The creek," as they inform us, -"being swollen by the great flood, in crossing, at midnight, the -swiftness of the current forced the whole down the stream, till the -stage-wagon came to pieces, and the Agent was thrown directly among -the horses. After being repeatedly struck down by their struggles, he -became entangled in the harness, and hurried with them along the -current. At length, released from this peril, he reached the shore, -and grasped a root in the bank; but it broke, and again the stream -bore him on to the middle of the channel. At length he espied a tree -which had fallen so that its top lay in the water, and by the most -desperate efforts, all encumbered as he was with his travelling -garments, he succeeded in reaching a branch; but his benumbed hands -refused their grasp, and slipped, and then he was swept among some -bushes in an eddy, where his feet rested on the ground. Here in the -dead of night, in the forest, ignorant whether there was a house or a -human being within many miles, bruised and chilled in the wintry -stream, he seems calmly to have made up his mind to die, sustained by -the hopes of the religion which he professed. But Providence had -determined otherwise, and reserved him for farther usefulness. His -cries were heard by a kind hearted woman on the opposite side of the -stream, who wakened her husband; and, after a few days detention, he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246"><small><small>[p. 246]</small></small></a></span> -proceeded on his journey. From the accounts (the committee -continue,) which are already before the public, it seems plain that -<i>nothing but a constitution invigorated by manual labor</i>, and a soul -sustained by the grace of God, could have survived the hardships of -that night."</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Mr. Weld.</small></blockquote> - -<p>There are probably but few who will dissent from this decision; and -we will add, that in our opinion, a preservation so extraordinary, -exclusive of a Providential interposition which some will think they -discern in it, affords an argument for manual labor schools, or -physical education, more pointed, and perhaps conclusive, than all -which this indefatigable agent has said himself, or gleaned from the -testimony of others, although this composes an amount of evidence of -the most convincing kind.</p> - -<p>In the report alluded to, the Agent himself observes that "God has -revealed his will to man upon the subject of education. It is written -in the language of nature, and can be understood without a -commentary. This revelation consists in the universal consciousness -of those influences which body and mind exert upon each -other—influences innumerable, incessant, and all-controlling; the -body continually modifying the state of the mind, and the mind ever -varying the condition of the body.</p> - -<p>"Every man who has marked the reciprocal action of body and mind, -surely need not be told that mental and physical training should go -together. Even the slightest change in the condition of the body -often produces an effect upon the mind so sudden and universal, as to -seem almost miraculous. The body is the mind's palace; but darken its -windows, and it is a prison. It is the mind's instrument; sharpened, -it cuts keenly—blunted, it can only bruise and disfigure. It is the -mind's reflector; if bright, it flashes day—if dull, it diffuses -twilight. It is the mind's servant; if robust, it moves with swift -pace upon its errands—if a cripple, it hobbles on crutches. We -attach infinite value to the mind, and justly; but in this world, it -is good for nothing without the body. Can a man think without the -brain?—can he feel without nerves?—can he move without muscles? The -ancients were right in the supposition that an unsound body is -incompatible with a sound mind. [They looked only for the <i>mens sana -in corpore sano</i>.] He who attempts mental effort during a fit of -indigestion, will cease to wonder that Plato located the soul in the -stomach. A few drops of water upon the face, or a feather burnt under -the nostril of one in a swoon, awakens the mind from its deep sleep -of unconsciousness. A slight impression made upon a nerve often -breaks the chain of thought, and the mind tosses in tumult. Let a -peculiar vibration quiver upon the nerve of hearing, and a tide of -wild emotion rushes over the soul. The man who can think with a gnat -in his eye, or reason while the nerve of a tooth is twinging, or when -his stomach is nauseated, or when his lungs are oppressed and -laboring; he who can give wing to his imagination when shivering with -cold, or fainting with heat, or worn down with toil, can claim -exemption from the common lot of humanity.</p> - -<p>"In different periods of life, the mind waxes and wanes with the -body; in youth, cheerful, full of daring, quick to see, and keen to -feel; in old age, desponding, timid, perception dim, and emotion -languid. When the blood circulates with unusual energy, the coward -rises into a hero; when it creeps feebly, the hero sinks into a -coward. The effects produced by the different states of the mind upon -the body, are equally sudden and powerful. Plato used to say that all -the diseases of the body proceed from the soul. [With more of -propriety, we think, it may be said, that at least three-fourths of -the diseases that afflict humanity, arise from an injudicious -treatment of the body. But be this as it may, the fact is too obvious -to be disputed, that the mind acts powerfully upon the animal frame.] -The expression of the countenance <i>is mind visible</i>. <i>Bad news</i> -weaken the action of the heart, oppress the lungs, destroy appetite, -stop digestion, and partially suspend all the functions of the animal -system. An emotion of shame flushes the face; fear blanches it; joy -illuminates it; and an instant thrill electrifies a million of -nerves. Powerful emotion often kills the body at a stroke. Chilo, -Diagoras, and Sophocles died of joy at the Elean games. The news of a -defeat killed Philip V. One of the Popes died of an emotion of the -ludicrous, on seeing his pet monkey robed in pontificals, and -occupying the chair of state. The door-keeper of Congress expired -upon hearing of the surrender of Cornwallis. Pinckney, Emmet, and -Webster are recent instances of individuals who have died either in -the midst of an impassioned burst of eloquence, or when the deep -emotion that had produced it had suddenly subsided. Indeed, the -experience of every day demonstrates that the body and mind are -endowed with such mutual susceptibilities, that each is alive to the -slightest influence of the other. What is the common-sense inference -from this fact? Manifestly this—that the body and the mind <i>should -be educated together</i>.</p> - -<p>"The states of the body are infinitely various. All these different -states differently affect the mind. They are causes, and their -effects have all the variety which mark the causes that produce them. -If then different conditions of the body differently affect the mind, -some electrifying, and others paralyzing its energies, what duty can -be plainer than <i>to preserve the body in that condition which will -most favorably affect the mind?</i> If the Maker of both was infinitely -wise, then the highest <i>permanent</i> perfection of the mind can be found -only in connection with the most healthful state of the body. Has -infinite wisdom established laws by which the best condition of the -mind is <i>permanently</i> connected with any other than the best -condition of the body? When all the bodily functions are perfectly -performed, the mind must be in a better state than when these -functions are imperfectly performed. And now I ask, is not that -system of education fundamentally defective, which makes no provision -for putting the body in its best condition, and for keeping it in -that condition? A system which expends its energies upon the mind -alone, and surrenders the body either to the irregular promptings of -perverted instinct, or to the hap-hazard impulses of chance or -necessity? A system which aims solely at the development of mind, and -yet overlooks those very principles which are indispensable to -produce that development, and transgresses those very laws which -constitute the only ground-work of rational education? Such a system -sunders what God has joined together, and impeaches the wisdom which -pronounced that union good. It destroys the symmetry of human -proportion, and makes man a monster. It reverses the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247"><small><small>[p. 247]</small></small></a></span> order of -the constitution; commits outrage upon its principles; breaks up its -reciprocities; makes war alike upon physical health and intellectual -energy, dividing man against himself; arming body and mind in mutual -hostility, and prolonging the conflict until each falls a prey to the -other, and both surrender to ruin.</p> - -<p>"The system of education which is generally pursued in the United -States, is unphilosophical in its elementary principles; ill adapted -to the condition of man; practically mocks his necessities, and is -intrinsically absurd. The high excellences of the system in other -respects are readily admitted and fully appreciated. Modern education -has indeed achieved wonders. But what has been done meanwhile for the -body? [Nothing—comparatively nothing.] The prevailing neglect of the -body in the present system of education, is a defect for which no -excellence can atone. Nor is this a recent discovery. Two centuries -ago Milton wrote a pamphlet upon this subject, in which he eloquently -urged the connection of physical with mental education in literary -institutions. Locke inveighs against it in no measured terms. Since -that time, Jahn, Ackerman, Salzman, and Franck, in Germany; Tissot, -Rousseau, and Londe, in France; and Fellenberg, in Switzerland, have -all written largely upon the subject."</p> - -<p>In addition to what this individual has himself said, he has -exhibited in the pamphlet referred to, an amount of testimony derived -from a number of the most distinguished literary men in our country, -to the imperfections of the existing system of education which is -truly overwhelming, and enough, we should think, could it be -universally disseminated, to arouse and restore to reason the whole -civilized world. Indeed, we indulge the hope that it has planted the -seeds of a revolution in our literary institutions; and our only -surprise is, that it should advance with no greater celerity. The -following important positions, however, in regard to the subject, may -now be considered as established. Constant habits of exercise are -indispensable to a healthful state of the body. A healthful state of -body is essential to a vigorous and active state of mind. The habit -of exercise should commence with the ability to take it, and should -be continued with that ability through life. Of the different kinds -of exercise, as a general rule, agricultural, being the most natural, -and to which the human constitution is best adapted, is the most -unobjectionable; <i>mechanical</i> is the next; and walking and riding are -the employments which follow in the rear. The exercise most -profitable, for the most part will be that which is most useful. The -neglect of exercise, with sedentary men, has occasioned fearful havoc -of health and life; and the wilful neglect of it, with those who have -had an opportunity to be enlightened with respect to its necessity -and value, is a species of suicide, and, therefore, <i>an immorality</i>. -The connection of <i>manual labor establishments with literary -institutions</i>, has been found to be greatly conducive to health and -morals, as also to proficiency in the various departments of human -learning; and as far as experience has gone, the promise which they -give of success is all that their most sanguine projectors had -anticipated.</p> - -<p>On the subject of <i>manual labor schools</i>, a deep interest has within -a few years been excited in various parts of the Union. Like all -other enterprises which aim at the accomplishment of extensive good, -it has met with opposition and discouragements; but originating in -the principles of true wisdom, and supported by arguments and facts -which none can gainsay or resist, its ultimate triumph may safely be -predicted, and confidently anticipated.</p> - -<p>Whether the system of physical education shall receive the -countenance, or is suited to the peculiar circumstances of the -southern country, may with some be made a question; but we are ready -to hazard the assertion, that whatever obstacles of a peculiar nature -may here lie in the way of reducing it to practice, if properly -considered, they must be seen to be in truth the most powerful -inducements that can be urged for its adoption.</p> - -<p>The country in which physical education cannot prevail, in the onward -march of improvements for which the present age is distinguished, -must necessarily be destined to be outstripped in the pursuit of -those objects which constitute the felicity and the glory of a -people. That this country is to fall behind, and to be contented to -remain there, is to suppose an event too disreputable for tolerance, -and too much opposed to a laudable spirit of emulation to be -cheerfully acquiesced in. The south needs men of vigorous -constitutions for professional avocations and other purposes, as well -as the rest of the world, and if she has them, must obtain them by -the same process. Trained on a different plan, her sons, in -comparison with others, will be effeminate and inefficient. Many of -them, as has happened with others in past times, would become the -prey of incurable disease, or fall the victims of an untimely grave. -According to the most accurate investigations that have been made, at -least <i>one-fourth</i> of the individuals who, for several years past, -have been educated in our American colleges, have been completely -prostrated in their course, or have survived only to drag out an -existence rendered burdensome to themselves and unprofitable to -others. The voice of warning on this topic, while mournful and -alarming, is as "<i>the voice of many waters</i>."</p> - -<p>Distinguished intellectual excellence depends, we believe, to a -greater extent than almost any have imagined, on a robust frame of -the body; and in farther corroboration of the views that have already -been expressed on this subject, I would request the privilege of -subjoining a few passages of striking originality, from the pen of -the powerful and popular author of the essay "On Decision of -Character."</p> - -<p>"As a previous observation," he remarks, "it is beyond all doubt that -very much of the principles that appear to produce, or to constitute -this commanding distinction, (of decision of character) depends on -the constitution of the body. It is for physiologists to explain the -<i>manner</i> in which corporeal organization affects the mind; I only -assert the fact, that there is in the material construction of some -persons, much more than of others, some quality which augments, if it -does not create, both the stability of their resolution, and the -energy of their active tendencies. There is something that, like the -ligatures which one class of Olympic combatants bound on their hands -and wrists, braces round, if I may so describe it, and compresses the -powers of the mind, giving them a steady and forcible spring and -reaction, which they would presently lose, if they could be -transferred into a constitution of soft, yielding, treacherous -debility. The action of strong <span class="pagenum"><a name="page248"><small><small>[p. 248]</small></small></a></span> -character seems to demand -something firm in its corporeal basis, as massive engines require for -their weight and for their working, to be fixed on a solid -foundation. Accordingly I believe it would be found, that a majority -of the persons most remarkable for decisive character, have possessed -great constitutional firmness. I do not mean an exemption from -disease and pain, nor any certain measure of mechanical strength, but -a tone of vigor, the opposite to lassitude, and adapted to great -exertion and endurance. This is clearly evinced in respect to many of -them, by the prodigious labors and deprivations which they have borne -in prosecuting their designs. The physical nature has seemed a proud -ally of the moral one, and with a hardness that would never shrink, -has sustained the energy that could never remit.</p> - -<p>"A view of the disparities between the different races of animals -inferior to man, will show the effect of organization on disposition. -Compare, for instance, a lion with the common beasts of our fields, -many of them composed of a larger bulk of animated substance. What a -vast superiority of courage, impetuous movement, and determined -action; and we attribute this difference to some great dissimilarity -of modification in the composition of the animated material. Now it -is probable that some difference, partly analogous, subsists between -human bodies, and that this is no small part of the cause of the -striking inequalities in respect of decisive character. A very -decisive man has probably more of the physical quality of a <i>lion</i> in -his composition than other men.</p> - -<p>"It is observable that women in general have less inflexibility of -character than men; and though many moral influences contribute to -this difference, the principal cause is, probably, something less -firm in the corporeal texture. Now, one may have in his constitution -a firmness of texture, exceeding that of other men, in a much greater -degree than that by which men in general exceed women.</p> - -<p>"If there have been found some resolute spirits powerfully asserting -themselves in feeble vehicles, it is so much the better; since this -would authorize a hope, that if all other grand requisites can be -combined, they may form a strong character, in spite of the -counteraction of an unadapted constitution. And on the other hand, no -constitutional hardness will form the true character without those -grand principles; though it may produce that false and contemptible -kind of decision which we term <i>obstinacy;</i> a mere stubbornness of -temper, which can assign no reason but its will, for a constancy -which acts in the nature of dead weight rather than of strength; -resembling less the reaction of a powerful spring than the -gravitation of a big stone."</p> - -<p>In opposition to the system of education which we would defend, a -voice of objection has been raised, to which it may not be improper -to pay a passing regard.</p> - -<p>It has been preferred as an objection to manual labor schools, which -we shall assume, are, on the whole, the most unexceptionably -expedient that has been proposed for connecting exercise with a -course of literary training,<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> that <i>youth who have been -unaccustomed to manual labor, and who have been permitted to indulge -in idleness and sportive amusements for the purpose of recreation, -will feel an insuperable aversion to the toils and restraints which -such a revolution in their habits, as the one contemplated, will -impose on them</i>.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> Gymnastic exercises are both dangerous -and frivolous.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The process of <i>taming</i>, though quite essential to the unruly, to -"flesh and blood" is never "joyous, but rather grievous." The -objection started is something like that which the celebrated Rush, -in some of his original effusions, has observed is met with in the -case of certain morbid patients, whose <i>weak stomachs refuse milk as -a diet</i>. The food itself, in the judgment of the acute physician, is -of the most simple, inoffensive, and invigorating character; and <i>the -fact that it is rejected is the proof that it is needed</i>. The -intemperate can ill brook the privation of <i>alcohol;</i> the epicure and -debauché will not relinquish with good will the gratification of -inordinate appetites; nor will the <i>slothful</i>, who <i>turns himself in -his bed as the door on the hinges</i>, give up with cheerfulness <i>the -luxury of laziness</i>. But the true and proper question for -determination is, would it not be doing to loungers and profligates -themselves, as well as to others, a kindness, to put them upon a -course of <i>regimen</i>, (provided it can be done without too great an -exertion of violence,) which should bring them back to nature, and -constrain them to a just and proper observance of the salutary laws -of industry, sobriety, and temperance? With such an authority we -think that the parents and guardians of youth every where should be -invested; and those who should manifest a spirit of insubordination -against its exercise, if that spirit could not be quelled by a -temperate yet firm resistance, would exhibit the proof of a temper -that ought to be regarded in a young man <i>as a positive -disqualification for receiving an education</i>.</p> - -<p>In our apprehension it is by no means among the most trivial -considerations that recommend the manual labor feature in a system of -education, that it furnishes an admirable <i>test</i> by which to try the -spirit of a pupil, as well as a choice expedient to invigorate his -health and inure him to habits of diligence and sobriety. A young man -whose aversion to a manual labor school is so strong that it cannot -be overcome, when the subject has been fairly presented to his mind, -it may safely be taken for granted, is not worth educating. The -community would lose nothing by the operation of a system which -should exclude him from the ranks of its <i>literati</i>. Especially would -the test in question operate favorably in the education of the -<i>beneficiaries</i> of the church, whom she is at present somewhat -extensively engaged in patronizing and preparing for her future -ministry. Great as we conceive it, and great as the history of past -ages has proved it to be, is the hazard which the church runs of -rearing an impure priesthood, by proposing the <i>gratuitous education</i> -of all the professedly "indigent and pious" who will apply for her -bounty. The temptation to insincerity which is thus held out is too -powerful to be resisted by depraved human nature. The church for -safety in this respect must raise munitions and throw up her -ramparts, to guard against the admission of unhallowed intruders. And -what better defence, we would ask, could the ingenuity of man have -devised for the prevention of the evils adverted to, than that <i>the -entire amount of contributions which are made for the education of -candidates for the ministry, should flow to them exclusively through -the manual labor channel?</i> An inspired Apostle has said, that <i>if any -man will not work, neither shall he eat:</i> and in perfect accordance, -as we think, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page249"><small><small>[p. 249]</small></small></a></span> -with the spirit of this declaration, we would -unhesitatingly affirm, that if any man, who has the ministry in view, -when the opportunity is fully presented, will not enter a manual -labor school, <i>and labor, working with his own hands</i>, for at least a -part of his support, <i>neither should he eat the bread of the church</i>, -nor be fostered by her charities to minister at her altars.</p> - -<p>To say that students for their recreation need something more amusing -and sportive than the useful and sober exercises of agricultural and -mechanical employment, is to say that the propensity of young men to -levity and frivolity is so powerful that it cannot be, and ought not -to be, controlled; that to aim to instil into them the habits and -sentiments of gravity and sobriety is an unnatural and impracticable -undertaking; and that it is more advisable to treat them as <i>merry -Andrews</i> than as possessing the dignity of rational, immortal and -accountable creatures.</p> - -<p>Let a system of education make provision for nothing but what is -elevated and useful, and still space enough will be left for all the -frivolity and sporting which any can deem to be absolutely essential. -These things will take care of themselves, and will inevitably come -in, on any plan that may be adopted, to secure all the advantages -which they are capable of affording.</p> - -<p>Another objection which has been preferred to manual labor schools -is, <i>that they contribute but little or nothing to the support of the -student</i>.</p> - -<p>The truth on this subject, as could be satisfactorily shown is, that, -as might naturally be expected, manual labor schools, being a novel -experiment in this country, have had to struggle, as do all similar -enterprises of benevolence at the outset, with formidable obstacles; -and in some instances, through injudiciousness in their location, or -mismanagement in their arrangements, have either been abandoned, or -have failed to fulfil the expectations of their projectors. -Mercantile and other adventurers often fail in their plans. At the -same time it is undeniable, that some institutions of this sort have -succeeded beyond all previous calculations, and the students that -composed them have not only enjoyed better health than others, and -made more rapid advances in knowledge, but a portion of them have, by -the avails of their labors, defrayed <i>the whole</i> of their expenses; a -few have done <i>more;</i> and a majority have diminished them about -<i>one-half</i>. Manual labor establishments, therefore, will do -<i>something</i> (we ought not to expect them to do <i>every thing</i>,) -towards <i>cheapening</i> education, even in the infancy of their -existence; and the thought can hardly fail to be cheering to American -republicans and patriots, that in the full tide of successful -operation which we believe will attend their maturer age, "full many -a flower" which but for them would be "born to bloom and blush -unseen," will shed its "sweetness on" Columbia's "air."</p> - -<p>But admit for a moment that manual labor schools are an utter failure -as regards <i>the pecuniary advantages which they afford</i>. Admit, if -you please, that the manual labor feature is an expensive part of -education, and that to comply with it an education will cost more -than on any other plan. The argument for their utility remains alike -unanswered and unshaken. Is not the education thus obtained a more -perfect one? Is it not immensely more valuable? Are health, morals, -useful habits, vigorous intellects, and life, worth nothing? Is money -expended for the improvement and preservation of these thrown away?</p> - -<p>If manual labor schools increased the expenses of education -<i>fourfold</i>, they would still deserve the warm patronage of the -public, and all who have the ability should send their sons to them -to be educated, in preference to any other institutions, even should -they have as many of them as the Patriarch, or be endowed with the -riches of Crœsus.</p> - -<p>It is an ill-judged economy which saves money at the sacrifice of -life, health, and morals. Let this subject be <i>understood</i> by an -intelligent and Christian community, and manual labor schools will -not be left to languish and die without endowments, while on other -institutions of less substantial claims, they are lavished with a -princely munificence.</p> - -<p>In this place, it may not be amiss to attend for a short time, to the -testimony of some of the pupils and superintendants of manual labor -schools, who have detailed the results of their observation and -experience, and which is strong and decided in their favor.</p> - -<p>In one instance the pupils say, that "believing the results of -experiment weightier than theory, we beg leave respectfully to -express those convictions respecting the plan of our institution, -which have been created solely by our own experience in its details. -1. We are convinced that the general plan is practicable. 2. That the -amount of labor required (three hours per day) does not exceed the -actual demands of the human system. 3. That this amount of labor does -not retard the progress of the student, but by preserving and -augmenting his physical energies, does eventually facilitate it. 4. -That the legitimate effect of such a system upon body and mind, is -calculated to make men hardy, enterprising and independent; and to -wake up within them a spirit perseveringly to do, and endure, and -dare. 5. Though the experiment at every step of its progress has been -seriously embarrassed with difficulties, neither few in number nor -inconsiderable in magnitude, as those know full well who have -experienced them, yet it has held on its way till the entire -practicability of the plan stands embodied in actual demonstration. -In conclusion, (they add,) we deem it a privilege, while tendering -this testimony of our experience, to enter upon the record our -unwavering conviction, that the principle which has been settled by -this experiment involves in its practical developments an immense -amount of good to our world; it is demanded by the exigences of this -age of action, when ardor is breathing for higher attempt, and energy -wakes to mightier accomplishment."</p> - -<p>On a subsequent occasion another set of pupils belonging to the same -institution, express their convictions in a similar tone of -approbation.</p> - -<p>"The influence of the system," they say, "on health, is decidedly -beneficial, as all of us can testify who have pursued it for any -length of time. We can pursue our studies not only without injury, -but with essential advantage. Not only is our bodily power increased -instead of being diminished on this plan, but the powers of the mind -are augmented, while moral sensibility is not blunted by hours of -idleness and dissipation. We suffer no loss of time, as no more is -spent in labor than is usually spent by students in recreation; and -we are taught to improve every hour. Our opinion is, that -intellectual progress is accelerated rather than retarded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250"><small><small>[p. 250]</small></small></a></span> by -this system. In its success, we are convinced, is deeply involved the -prosperity of education, and the great work of evangelizing the world."</p> - -<p>The students of Cumberland College in the State of Kentucky, say, "we -beg leave to state the results of our own experience. Having been for -a considerable time, members of a manual labor institution, we have -had an exhibition of its principles and efficacy continually before -us; and we are convinced that labor, for two hours or more each day, -is essential to the health of all close students, and equally -necessary for the development of the mind."</p> - -<p>The young men in the theological institution at Hamilton, in the -State of New York, say, "we feel the fullest conviction that every -student who neglects systematic exercise, is effecting the ruin of -his physical and moral powers. Nor is the influence of this -unpardonable neglect less perceptible or deleterious, as it regards -his moral feelings. Without it, however pure his motives, or ardent -his desire to do good, we have but faint hopes of his success. Such -habits as he would inevitably form, we believe, would ruin all the -nobler energies of his nature. We think three hours appropriate -exercise each day will not eventually retard progress in study. We -must say, from five or six years experience in the institution, we -have not learned that any close student has ever completed an entire -course of study without serious detriment to health. We hope, -however, our present system of exercise will soon enable us to -exhibit a different statement. In the preservation and improvement of -health, we have found an unspeakable benefit arising from systematic -exercise. Without it, we deem it impossible for the close student to -preserve his health."</p> - -<p>The superintendants of a kindred institution, in a document which -they have laid before the public, declare, that they "have great -satisfaction in being able to state that a strong conviction pervades -the minds of the <i>young men</i> generally, as well as their own, that -laborious exercise for three hours per day does not occupy more time -than is necessary for the highest corporeal and mental energy; that -so far from retarding literary progress, it greatly accelerates it; -that instead of finding labor to encroach upon their regular hours of -study, they find themselves able, with a vigorous mind, to devote -from eight to ten hours per day to intellectual pursuits; that under -the influence of this system, mental lassitude is seldom if ever -known; that good health and a good constitution are rarely if ever -injured; that constitutions rendered delicate, and prostrated by hard -study without exercise, have been built up and established; that this -system with temperance is a sovereign antidote against dyspepsia and -hypochondria, with all their innumerable and indescribable woes; that -it annihilates the dread of future toil, self-denial, and dependence; -secures to them the practical knowledge and benefits of agricultural -and mechanical employments; gives them familiar access to, and -important influence over that great class of business men, of which -the world is principally composed; equalizes and extends the -advantages of education; and lays deep and broad the foundations of -republicanism; promotes the advancement of consistent piety, by -connecting <i>diligence in business</i> with <i>fervency of spirit</i>, and -will bless the church with such increasing numbers of ministers of -such spirit and physical energy, as will fit them to <i>endure hardness -as good soldiers of Jesus Christ</i>."</p> - -<p>We are every day more and more impressed with the importance and -practicability of the manual labor system, as the only one by which -the increasing hundreds and thousands of the pious and talented sons -of the church can be raised up with the enterprise, and activity, and -power of endurance, which are indispensable for the conversion of the -world to God.</p> - -<p>To these statements the individual who has collected them, adds his -own testimony in the following language: "I have been for three years -and a half a member of a manual labor school. The whole number of my -fellow students during that period was about two hundred. I was -personally acquainted with every individual, and merely 'speak what I -know,' and 'testify what I have seen,' when I state that every -<i>student</i> who acquired a reputation for sound scholarship during this -time, was a <i>fast friend</i> of the manual labor system. The most -intelligent, without a single exception, were not only thoroughly -convinced of the importance of the system, but <i>they loved it with -all their hearts</i>. They counted it a privilege and a delight to give -their testimony in its favor, and they <i>did it</i> in good earnest. -Their approval of the system rose into an intelligent and abiding -passion; and it is no marvel that it was so; for they had within them -a permanent, living consciousness of its benefits and blessings. They -felt it in their <i>bodies</i>, knitting their muscles into firmness, -compacting their limbs, consolidating their frame work, and thrilling -with fresh life the very marrow of their bones. They felt it in their -<i>minds</i>, giving tenacity to memory, stability to judgment, acuteness -to discrimination, multiform analogy to the suggestive faculty, and -daylight to perception. They felt it in their <i>hearts</i>, renovating -every susceptibility, and swelling the tide of emotion. It is true, -with a few, a very few of the students, the system was unpopular, and -so were languages and mathematics, philosophy and rhetoric, and every -thing else in the daily routine, <i>save the bed and the dinner table</i>. -Such students were snails in the field, drones in the workshop, dumb -in debate, pigmies in the recitation room, and cyphers at the black board.</p> - -<p>"In every manual labor school which I visited in my tour," he -continues, "it was the invariable testimony of trustees and teachers, -that the talent, the scholarship, the manliness, the high promise of -all such institutions, were found among the pupils who gave the -manual labor system their hearty approval; whereas if there were -among the students brainless coxcombs, sighing sentimentalists, -languishing effeminates, and other nameless things of equivocal -gender; to prostitute <i>their</i> delicate persons to the vile outrage of -manual labor, was indeed a <i>sore affliction!</i>"</p> - -<p>We shall close these selections by adding to them the testimony of an -individual<small><small><sup>4</sup></small></small> of distinguished literary attainments, whose advantages -for obtaining correct information on this topic, as well as many -others, have been of the most favorable kind.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> Professor Stuart.</small></blockquote> - -<p>"The God of nature," he observes, "has designed the body for action; -and all efforts to counteract this design, end of course in -disappointment, sooner or later. The same God has designed that men -should <i>cultivate</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page251"><small><small>[p. 251]</small></small></a></span> -<i>their minds;</i> and I never can believe that -this is deleterious in itself; it is so only when we neglect what he -has bidden us to observe, i.e. daily discipline and effort to -preserve health.</p> - -<p>"Students want vacations, journeys, remission from employment, &c. -&c. and this at a great expense of time and money. Why? Because they -will not be faithful, <i>every day</i>, to watch over their health, and to -use all the requisite means for its preservation. Why should the -farmer, the mechanic, the merchant, the physician, the lawyer, -support a never ceasing round of employment, and the student not? Is -there any curse laid by heaven upon study? No; it is -inaction—laziness—that makes all the mischief, and occasions all -the expense. This is my full persuasion from thirty years experience, -and somewhat extensive observation."</p> - -<p>To these selections others of similar interest and importance might -be added from the <i>Report</i> from which they have been derived, -particularly the numerous and harmonious opinions of literary men, -<i>on the necessity and utility of regular systematic exercise to the -student;</i> but our time forbids the indulgence, and the maxim of -<i>Festina ad finem</i> admonishes us to cut short this address.</p> - -<p>From the view that has been taken, we perceive then, with a clearness -which cannot be mistaken, that the manual labor system of education -is applauded by "a cloud of witnesses," and commended to our -patronage and attention by arguments and facts innumerable, palpable, -and unanswerable. Will the inquiry be misplaced, when we ask, Shall -it <i>here</i>, (on this consecrated ground, this literary <i>high place</i>, -which is destined to send forth a mighty stream of influence for good -or ill, to an extent which no arithmetic can calculate,) shall it -<i>here</i> receive the countenance and patronage which it so richly -deserves? Manual labor schools are already in successful operation in -this southern country, and the prosperity that has attended them has -been such as to silence the cavils of opposers, and remove the -apprehensions of the distrustful. With all enlightened and candid -persons there can be but <i>one mind</i> respecting their practicability -and their <i>peculiar</i> importance in this southern region. It is the -very section perhaps, of all others, within the limits of our -republic, that is best adapted to their growth, both on account of -its soil and climate, and in which, from its peculiar situation, -their influence is most imperiously demanded.</p> - -<p>Again, then, I ask, will "the ancient and honorable Dominion" consent -to be outstripped by her neighbors in an enterprise of so much -grandeur and promise? Will parents, instructors, and pupils, repose -in inglorious ease, and cry <i>a little more sleep, a little more -folding of the hands to sleep</i>, while others in the race of -competition press forward and bear off the prize? Will the young men -of Hampden Sidney and Union Seminary sit still; or will they "awake, -arise, and put on their strength?" Interests that are dear as honor -and life, are suspended on the <i>practical</i> reply which this inquiry receives.</p> - -<p>It is stated, as is probable on good authority, that in years that -have gone by, "some of the Virginian philanthropists offered to -educate some of the Indians, and that they received from the shrewd -savages the following reply." (He that hath ears to hear, let him -hear what the <i>savages</i> have said to the <i>civilized!</i>)</p> - -<p>"Brothers of the white skin! You must know that all people do not -have the same ideas upon the same subjects; and you must not take it -ill that our manner of thinking in regard to the kind of education -which you offer us does not agree with yours. We have had in this -particular some experience. Several of our young men were some time -since educated at the Northern Colleges, and learned there all the -sciences. But when they returned to us, we found they were spoiled. -They were <i>miserable runners</i>. They did not know how to live in the -woods. They could not bear hunger and cold. They could not build a -cabin, nor kill a deer, nor conquer an enemy. They had even forgotten -our language; so that not being able to serve us as warriors, or -hunters, or counsellors, they were absolutely good for nothing."</p> - -<p>The calamities which are here set forth in such graphic terms have by -no means been confined to the fathers and the sons of the forest. The -<i>white</i> young men of Virginia, in great numbers, have since been -educated in like manner "at Northern Colleges," or nearer home: and -when restored to their parents and guardians have been found, for the -most part, like the sons of the <i>red men</i>, to be "<i>absolutely good -for nothing</i>." They have proved to be "miserable runners." Not one in -twenty of them has risen to eminence in professional life. They could -"bear neither hunger nor cold." They were practically ignorant of -mechanical and agricultural employments, and strongly averse to them; -too high minded and indolent to labor, and too weak and effeminate to -"serve as warriors, and hunters, and counsellors." Will Virginian -parents learn a lesson from their own past experience and that of -their savage predecessors? The corrective which we propose for the -evil complained of, (and it is too serious for merriment,) is the -immediate introduction of the manual labor system into all our -institutions of learning. If this feature is introduced and kept up -in them, with a prominence proportioned to its importance, our youth, -who are educated in them, if not fitted for usefulness and -distinction in the departments of law, medicine and theology, will -not be utterly "spoiled" as the sons of the <i>red men</i> were; but will -be good "runners," useful and respectable laborers, mechanics, -planters, and farmers. This, after all, is the population, of which, -more than any other, Virginia needs an increase. The low state of -mechanic arts and of agriculture among us, or rather the prevailing -vice of <i>indolence</i>, is the true source of the present disasters -which are so often made the theme of popular declamation by stump -orators and upstart politicians. It is <i>indolence</i>, more than any or -every thing else, that checks the spirit of enterprise; that covers -this fairest portion of our continent with <i>sackcloth</i>, and spreads -over it the sable shroud of desolation. Let then a revolution be -effected in our system of education. Let our youth be trained for the -duties of practical life. Let them be instructed in what is useful, -as well as ornamental; and let them bring minds stored with the -riches of learning and science, to bear and act on <i>the subject of -most absorbing temporal interest to the American people</i>, I mean the -neglected subject of <i>agriculture</i>, and all will yet be well. The -citizens of the South will then be independent indeed, and not in -boast. Labor, like "marriage," will be "honorable in all." The work -which misguided abolitionists are laboring, with a zeal that would be -becoming in a better cause, to perform -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252"><small><small>[p. 252]</small></small></a></span> by a meddlesome and -violent interference, will be effected by the gradual and voluntary -agency of her own inhabitants. Her population will multiply. Commerce -will thrive. Barren fields will be clothed with verdure. The -productions of the earth will be increased. Crowded cities and -smiling villages will spring up. The halls of legislation will be -occupied by the hardy and virtuous cultivators of the soil, the men -of all others the most safe to be entrusted with the enactment and -administration of laws. Colleges, academies, and schools, will prove -the nurseries of enlightened, healthful, industrious, and happy -freemen; and Christianity, untrammelled by the obstacles that now so -powerfully impede its progress, with a field wide and waving with a -luxuriant harvest open and inviting before her, will send abroad her -genial and regenerating influences, and render this the Paradise of lands.</p> - -<p>We will conclude this, perhaps too protracted performance, in the -language of an Indian Cazique.</p> - -<p>"Would you know," he asked, "how I would have my children instructed -in the ways of men? Look at this handful of dust gathered from the -golden bed of the silver-flowing Aracara. What an infinite number of -particles—yet how few the grains of ore which we prize; how great -the toil which is necessary to sift out and separate them from the -worthless heap in which they are concealed; even so it is with the -history of the generations of men, from the creation downwards. -Events have passed which no tongue can number; but the events which -mark the character of human nature, and which are worthy of being -treasured up in our memories, are but few, and only by the eye of -wisdom to be distinguished.</p> - -<p>"Let my children then be taught what these few events are; let them -be spared the life's labor of turning over the mountain of dross -which time has heaped up, in search of the scattered gems which are -to lighten their path through the world; conduct them at once into -the only treasury of true knowledge—that treasury which Philosophy -has gleaned from the experience of thousands of generations."</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect13"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>SONG OF LEE'S LEGION.</h4> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem18"> - <tr><td>Our chargers are plunging and pawing the ground,<br> - And champing and tossing the white foam around—<br> - So fleet to pursue, and so mighty to crush,<br> - No foe will remain in the path where they rush.<br> - Away, then, my heroes—away, then, away!<br> - Let "Freedom or Death!" be the watchword to-day.<br> -<br> - Remember the burnings we witnessed last night;<br> - The fair and the feeble we passed in their flight;<br> - The wail of the wounded, the red blood that flowed,<br> - Still warm in the path, where by moonlight we rode.<br> - Away, then, &c.<br> -<br> - The marauder is nigh—he is hurrying back;<br> - The sand, as we gallop, still falls in his track.<br> - On! on! then, our swords for the battle are rife,<br> - And soon they shall drink at the fountain of life.<br> - Away, then, &c.</td></tr> -</table> -<blockquote><small><i>Prince Edward</i>.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect14"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>NATURAL BRIDGE OF PANDI,</h4> -<h5>IN COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA.</h5> -<br> -<p>The Bridge of Pandi is distant two days journey from Bogotá. We made -it less toilsome by remaining several days at Fusugazugá—an -intermediate village, which possesses the advantage of a fine climate -and refreshing verdure, unknown to the plain upon which this city -stands. The bridge is situated considerably lower—almost in the -<i>tierra caliente</i> hot country—where the thermometer rose to 86°, but -still the heat was not very oppressive.</p> - -<p>Our first view of the bridge was just at the moment when such a scene -is most impressive. The sun had sunk behind the mountains. We were -without a guide, nor did we need one. We had merely to follow the -high road—a mule path—down into a deep ravine, near the bottom of -which we heard the sound of rushing waters. On reaching the bridge, -this sound and the dismal shrieks of numerous birds of night—the -sole occupants of this gloomy region—called our attention to the -scene below us. We then first knew we were upon the bridge of Pandi. -Three hundred and fifty-eight feet beneath, rushes a stream, called -Suma Paz, which fills the entire chasm—being, if we can trust our -sight under circumstances so deceptive, about thirty or forty feet -wide. We could see the deep chasm and the dark waters of the -stream—but where was the bridge which Nature built? We were standing -upon a rude structure of logs with railings so frail as almost to -dismay the most daring; but upon closer examination we discovered -that it rested upon several huge fragments which had fallen and -lodged so as to form the bridge for which we were searching. The -edges of the largest rock rest upon other rocks on one side, and on -the other upon the sloping face of the severed mountain. Upon this we -descended, and enjoyed a better view of what the imagination is so -readily inclined to paint as infernal regions. The cries of the birds -echo from the depths below, like the shrieks of troubled souls -destined to the sad fate of never leaving the abodes to which their -sins had driven them. Night was rapidly approaching; and with the -feelings which the scene had inspired, we retraced our steps to the -little village of Pandi or <i>El Mercadillo</i>, to which we had to -clamber nearly half a league. Our hamacs welcomed us to rest, and -after the fatigues of the day, sleep soon robbed us of our wandering thoughts.</p> - -<p>On the following morning, we repeated our visit to the bridge, and -reviewed the whole more leisurely. Although the awe of the preceding -evening had subsided, our admiration was undiminished. The same Great -Being which had ruptured the mountain asunder and opened a fearful -fissure, had thrown down the loose fragments, and so lodged them as -to contribute to the convenience as well as to arouse the -astonishment and wonder of all who crossed. The natives of the -country have destroyed much of the effect by the rude logs which they -have laid upon the rocks across the chasm. It is also remarkable, -that this fissure could not be passed elsewhere for many leagues in -either direction.</p> - -<p>How will the Natural Bridge of Pandi compare with that of Rockbridge -County in Virginia? The beauty of this must sink before the awful and -grand sublimity of the other. In that you would look in vain for the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253"><small><small>[p. 253]</small></small></a></span> -well turned arch of this, while the latter is deficient in the -almost unfathomable abyss and in the surrounding scenery and in the -roaring waters of that of Pandi. I should have observed, that no -means exist of reaching the bottom—nor is it desirable, as the -bridge in itself, seen from below, cannot be imposing.</p> - -<p>The birds which occupy the ledges and caverns formed by the ruptured -rock, are called "<i>Pajaros del Puente</i>"—Birds of the Bridge—and are -not known elsewhere. They are birds of night, and sally out only -after it is dark into the neighboring dense forests, in search of the -fruit with which they maintain themselves. If perchance the light of -day overtake them before they regain their dark abodes, it is so -noxious to them that they cannot survive it. Thus say the -natives—and that this is shown by their being many times found dead -in the paths of the mountains. They are equal in size to a -pheasant—their color is a reddish brown, and their beaks square and -very hard.</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect15"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>LINES</h4> -<center><small>On the Statue of Washington in the Capitol.</small></center> -<br> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem19"> - <tr><td> It is our W<small>ASHINGTON</small> that you behold,<br> - Whom Nature fashioned in her grandest mould,<br> - To be the leader of a noble band,<br> - The friends of freedom, and their native land:<br> - A perfect hero, free from all excess;<br> - Above Napoleon, though he dazzled less:<br> - Not quite so great for what he did, 'tis true,<br> - But greater far for what he did not do:<br> - And, nought he ought not, all he ought, to be,<br> - He made his country, and he left her, free.</td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect16"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>EPIGRAM.</h4> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem20"> - <tr><td>"A party, you tell me," says Dick, not invited,<br> - But who would not believe such a beau could be slighted;<br> - "A party at Modeley's?—can't possibly be;<br> - For how could he have such a thing <i>without me?</i>"</td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect17"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>FALL OF TEQUENDÁMA,</h4> -<h5>IN COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA.</h5> -<br> -<p>The <i>Salto de Tequendama</i>, a remarkable cascade, of which we had -heard much, and which has been described in most glowing language, is -distant to the southwest of Bogotá about fifteen miles. We had made -arrangements to visit it a fortnight ago, but the illness of one of -our party caused us to defer it. We now determined to see the fall, -and return to the city on the same day. To accomplish our design, we -set out before day (about 5 o'clock) this morning. A rapid ride of an -hour and a half brought us to the small village of Suácha, situated -upon the plain of Bogotá, near its southern border. The last -earthquake, from which Bogotá suffered so severely, was felt with the -utmost violence at Suácha, and prostrated entirely the church, which -is again rising from its ruins. Our route continued a league further -over the plain, and we crossed the river Funza, whose course has been -very circuitous through the plain, but is particularly devious where -we passed over it, upon an uncouth and not very safe bridge, to the -Hacienda de Canoas. The river winds sluggishly to our left towards -the fall. Our path led over the high hills which appear to have been -once the banks of the great lake which must have covered the plain -which the view from these heights embraces. To eminences which are -wholly devoid of trees succeed others which are well wooded, where we -enter a more picturesque region, worthy of the fine scene which we -were now eager to witness. We were convinced that we were near it, -and listened for the deafening roar which we expected would betray -the rush of the waters into the tremendous gulf that receives them. -The path was steep, and shortly before we arrived at the spot where -it was necessary to alight from our horses, the sounds of the fall -reached us; but we were distant from it a few hundred yards only. My -first sensation was disappointment, when I stood upon the brink of -the chasm into which a stream whose greatest width is estimated at -forty feet, is precipitated to a depth which did not seem to exceed -three hundred feet, but which is estimated to be more than six -hundred. The river being now uncommonly low, a sheet of water about -fourteen or fifteen feet in width, is tossed about thirty feet upon a -ledge of rocks, from which it dashes in foam to the bottom of the -deep abyss, a large proportion of it dissipating in spray. The foot -of man has never trodden the bottom of this chasm. Its sides are -perpendicular to a considerable distance below, and the strata of -rock are exactly horizontal, so that no means of descending have yet -been discovered within the curvilinear aperture, where the mountain -seems to have parted and given passage to the Funza.</p> - -<p>Attempts have been made repeatedly to reach the foot of the cataract -by ascending the bed of the river, into which it is easy to enter at -some distance below. A fall of about twenty feet had resisted -heretofore the efforts of every adventurer. A party of Americans -preceded us to-day, provided with ladders and ropes, with a -determination to surmount this obstacle. In this they succeeded, but -another yet more difficult presented itself—this they also -surmounted with the strengthened hope of having then overcome every -obstruction which resisted the accomplishment of their wishes. They -were too sanguine. On ascending further, a fall of about forty feet -now stared them in the face, and resisted all their efforts. -Perpendicular rocks enclosed the narrow chasm. The only possible -ascent was through the dashing torrent—with this they struggled -nobly, but they had not the means of resisting it. The abode of -innumerable parrots, whose screams, heard faintly at the height on -which we stood, warned us of the exertions made to encroach upon -their domain, that continues unmolested and untrodden by man. We -spent more than two hours at the fall, hoping to witness the success -of the enterprising adventurers. Although disappointed in this -respect, we were amply compensated by the increased admiration with -which we viewed this beautiful fall, notwithstanding it is seen so -imperfectly. There are two spots from which good views may be -obtained. We must leave to the fancy to imagine the grand effect of a -sight from beneath it. It is to be hoped that ladders will be placed -or that some means will be discovered to gratify the ardent desire -one naturally feels of seeing to the best advantage this admirable -work of nature.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254"><small><small>[p. 254]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The Fall of Tequendáma has been compared with the cataract of -Niagara. Such a comparison cannot be instituted fairly. In the one, -nature has been most lavish with her grandeur and sublimity: the -other she has endowed liberally with the beautiful and the -picturesque. The height of Tequendáma may be four times greater than -that of Niagara; its width not the thirtieth part: and to judge the -comparative volume of the waters of both, it suffices to reflect, -that Tequendáma drains the river Funza; Niagara the waters of four -inland seas, which united, are not exceeded in size by the Gulf of Mexico.</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect18"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>LIONEL GRANBY.</h4> -<center>CHAP. IX.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem21"> - <tr><td><small> - The proudest land of all,<br> - That circling seas admire—<br> - The Land where Power delights to dwell,<br> - And War his mightiest feats can tell,<br> - And Poesy to sweetest swell,<br> - Attunes her voice and lyre.<br> - - - <i>Aristophanes</i>.</small></td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> - -<p>The ship in which I had embarked soon fell down the river, and, aided -by a favorable breeze, we quickly shot by the massy and motionless -scenery of the majestic Rappahannock. Changing our course we entered -one of the beautiful and tributary waters of the Chesapeake, and -dropped anchor directly in front of an antique mansion, the stately -residence of a proud and well known name. An extensive garden, which -declared the taste and pedantry of its owner, for its chaste and -beautiful model was drawn from the pages of the Odyssey, stretched -its broad walks to the margin of the river. A throng of merry girls -and romping boys poured down from the porch of the house, welcoming -with glad voices that, happiest of all Virginian visiters, an -importing ship. Disguising myself I leaped into the boat which left -the vessel, and ere its keel had grated on the sand, many negroes had -rushed into the water, and were dragging it to the shore with songs -of triumph and congratulation. An elderly gentleman, grave, dignified -and thoughtful—peace to his fair-top boots and glittering -buckles!—now appeared and commenced the usual ledger conversation -with Captain Z. about the quality and price of his tobacco, and in a -whisper he told him on no account to sacrifice his "new ground sweet -scented." Holding a paper in his hand he called aloud to his family -to enter their wishes on that magic tablet, which he was about to -send <i>home</i>. No commercial newspaper ever declared a more incongruous -catalogue of the comforts of life and the luxuries of opulence: lace -and iron, silk and spades, wine and jesuit's bark, all figured in the -same column; and when the negroes were called on to declare what they -wanted, they filled the mystic page with calico, fiddle strings and -bottles. Many a bronzed and ebon colored child was led up to old -massa by its mother, and each lisping petition for a hat or a fishing -hook, was sacredly entered on the list.</p> - -<p>I returned to the ship, and dropping a hasty line to my uncle, -informing him of the reasons which compelled me to leave Virginia, -despatched it by the last canoe which quitted our side, and retiring -to sleep I did not awake until the ship was dancing gaily over the -broad waters of the Atlantic. I looked on the furrowed track behind -me—and, far in the amber west, the lessening glory of the Virginian -coast was sinking in the wilderness of waters. With a fixed and -quenchless eye I watched its expiring outline, and when it had sunk -down into a wavy and shadowy mist, I felt as the exile whose -pulseless heart has heard the requiem of hope and the knell of love. -Young, inexperienced, and ignorant of the world, I was launched like -a rotten barque in the tempestuous ocean of man, while home, love, -hope and all the primal sympathies of the human heart, were to me, -sealed, buried, and forever annihilated. I had fled!—leaving a name -associated with the scorn of honor and the vengeance of society. Who -that heard of me would believe me innocent in the duel with Ludwell, -or who would believe that self-defence prompted my attack on the life -of Pilton? God in his goodness gave us tears! I had them not, and -from a tearless eye I became sullen and satisfied, with no human -passion but an increased affection for Ellen Pilton, which streamed -through my heart like phosphoric words on the dark walls of a cavern. -I was proud to be the victim of wayward and adverse circumstances, -and yielding to their mystic control, I found that destiny weaves an -argument which philosophy cannot unravel.</p> - -<p>On the second day of our voyage, Scipio presented himself, telling me -that he was sent from Chalgrave with letters for the ship, that he -had discovered me through my disguise, that he had secreted himself -on board of the vessel, and that he was determined to follow me to -the end of the world. I soon settled the manner and purpose of his -appearance with the captain, and found in the priceless fidelity of -my servant, a green spot on which my heart might rest from its storm -of revenge and misanthropy.</p> - -<p>Cheered by the balmy spirit of the western gale our gallant ship sped -her onward course, and the glad cry of land which echoed through the -vessel as we approached the beetling coast of England fell on my ear -like words of mercy to the prisoned captive. Standing on the quarter -deck, I saw before me the bustle, hurry and turmoil of commerce. The -surface of the water was chequered with a dense throng of vessels, -while, broadly floating in the breeze, appeared that proud flag on -whose glory the sun rises, and over whose empire he sets. As a -Virginian! as one whom early education and childish associations had -inspired, I gazed with a hallowed enthusiasm on that rugged land, -which looked down from its iron-bound eyre, the eagle of the -deep—that land which my boyish feelings had made the seat of -intellect and the dwelling place of genius. The early colonists had -called it by the tender name of Home; and the mellow tales of its -glory, which had been poured into my infant ear, were now started -into life and freshness. It was the land of Sir Philip Sydney, -Hampden and Pope, and on each spot of its classic earth Poetry had -raised her hallowed memorials, and Patriotism its stirring examples. -From the frozen sea to the burning tropics her name is respected, her -influence felt, her example imitated, her kindness cherished, her -resentment dreaded, while a radiant wake of glory streams behind the -path of her march. Far in the forests of the western world, the names -of her gifted sons who have asserted the triumphs of virtue or the -dignity of man, are heard, and are re-echoed back from the Thames to -the Ganges, and from the Volga to the Mississippi. In the solitude of -power she stands alone, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page255"><small><small>[p. 255]</small></small></a></span> -a massy trunk, resisting anarchy and -bending to every storm of revolution, yet rising from each assault in -more verdant and luxuriant foliage. Philosophy may claim the gigantic -birth of Printing—Religion the Reformation, and Science the -discovery of Gunpowder, as the great engines which opened the path of -civilization. The mind of England seized these mighty levers, her -hand perfected them, and achieved for herself that towering fame -which pours its lustre from the table-land of the world. This picture -was the dream of ignorance. Alas! how soon was its frost-work melted -before the light of truth! Unconscious of the hideous vice which -lurked beneath the gorgeous fabric, I saw only its glowing outline—I -was ignorant of its rapine, fraud and avarice—its selfishness of -motive and act—its singleness of empire and power, and of that -universal corruption which yields power to wealth, and honors to -knavery. The demon of gain is abroad throughout England—a pestilence -which walketh in the darkness of the human heart, expanding its -ravenous arms in her cities, or secretly hugging its penny in her -lowliest cottages. Her metropolis is the shamble of the universe—a -capacious reservoir, where vice elbows virtue, and where selfishness -festers itself into the loathsome obesity of the toad. Every thing is -on sale, and in the "mixed assortment" of her merchandise, even -learning, genius and wit, succumb to the secret spirit of her ledger.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem22"> - <tr><td><small>"E'en the learned pate<br> - Ducks to the golden fool."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Without her Christianity, which often blooms in guileless and -untainted simplicity, her blood-stained empire would tumble to the -earth. It is the influence of this holy faith which neutralizes the -excess of profligacy, and stimulates her expanded philanthropy. -Excited by its spirit, benevolence becomes religion, patriotism -springs into virtue, and in the remotest corners of the earth we see -the charity of the Christian opening the purse and heart of the -Englishman.</p> - -<p>I leave the narrative of sights and curiosities to the guide book. -Born in the wilderness, my mind was as rugged as the grandeur of the -forest, and like the native Indian I had naught to admire but the -still and noiseless majesty of my own beautiful land. The stately -palaces—the lofty towers and all the fantastic pageantry which -opulence engenders, were but the moral to the fine sarcasm which -antiquity has fabled in the bridge of Salmoneus. Man's "brief -authority" decorates folly with a pyramid or a cathedral, and -succeeding ages call it glory. What son of Virginia would barter her -broad rivers—her sunny sky—her fertile plains, and her snow-capped -mountains, for the crumbling monuments of tyranny and superstition, -or the fœtid marts of gain? Who would exchange the infant purity of -the western world for the hoary vice and aged rottenness of Europe? -Uncontaminated by the example of England, we have yet seized from her -the sacred flame of freedom—her <i>habeas corpus</i> without the act of -impressment—her <i>bill of rights</i> without a borough representation, -and the rose of civil liberty transplanted to the west has bloomed -without a thorn.</p> - -<p>I was soon in London, and received many marks of attention and -kindness from the representatives of an old commercial house, which -for years had sold every hogshead of tobacco from the Granby -plantations. My bills were honored, and at the instance of Scipio I -took a suite of rooms in the most fashionable street of the city. -Without letters of introduction, and too proud to search for my many -noble relatives, (my uncle had drugged me with their amors, duels and -honors!) I succumbed in silence to that cheerless solitude which -flaps its funeral wing around the indurated selfishness of a crowded -city. At the Virginia Coffee House, I frequently found many of my own -countrymen, who were making the tour of Europe only because their -fathers had done it. An utter contempt of money—a carelessness of -air and manner—a generous and open hearted confidence in every -one—a familiarity with the Doncaster and Epsom turf—an anxious zeal -in attending the courts of Westminster, and the gallery of the House -of Commons, with a thorough knowledge of the literary history of -England, and the places hallowed by Shakspeare and the Spectator, -were their striking and changeless characteristics.</p> - -<p>Shortly after my permanent and fixed residence had been made, I was -lounging, as was my wont, in the crowded walks of the Exchange—the -only idle being in that heated and feverish walk of gain, when a loud -cry broke through the multitude and a horse dashed near me, the foot -of his rider hanging in the stirrup. I instantly sprang forward, -caught the bridle, leaped on his back, and leaning down I rescued the -unfortunate rider from his perilous situation. From this event an -intimacy commenced between Col. R—— and myself. His history was -brief. High birth and fortune smiled on his cradle. Entering into -manhood he had purchased a commission in the army, and had lived out -Swift's spirited description of the man of fashion, "in dancing, -fighting, gaming, making the circle of Italy, riding the great horse -and speaking French." Satiated with the world, he had left it without -being either a churl or a misanthrope. He resided in a costly villa -near London, which his taste had decorated with elegance and -refinement. The massy richness of an aged grove, soothed, without -chilling the fancy, and through its broad vista the glimmering light -lent itself to diversify uniformity without diminishing grandeur. -Consistency towered above vanity, for there were no glades rolled -into gravelled plains, nor trees sheared into fantastic foliage—that -sickly taste which finds honor in the sacrifice of simplicity, and -pride in its outrage on nature. The walls of his house were hung with -rare and deeply mellowed paintings, and his capacious library was -stocked with the heavy tomes of ancient lore. Gone are those good old -books!—their spirit has been turned into a tincture!—their life and -soul have been abridged—the stern Clitus has been disgraced by a -Persian dress—the march of mind cannot brook a folio! The education -of Col. R—— was deeply tainted with the forgotten glory of his -library—a wild flower blooming amid the silence of a neglected ruin. -He had literature without pedantry, learning without arrogance; and -being neither author nor compiler, he yet mingled on equal terms of -compliment and civility with the gifted names of his land. Proud -pre-eminence of genius! respected even in its slumbers. Though its -possessor be unknown to print, though his pen sleep in idleness, like -the prophet, the sacred flame plays around his brow and lightens up -his onward course.</p> - -<p>In his society I drank from a deep stream of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256"><small><small>[p. 256]</small></small></a></span> intellect pure and -unalloyed happiness—yet dashed into bitterness by the remembrance -that under his protection I had first visited a gaming table—though -he had carried me thither more for the purpose of portraying human -character than of making me either the proselyte or victim of its -insidious vice.</p> - -<p>Come Lionel! said he, gently touching my shoulder, as I was deeply -absorbed in the unhallowed rites of the blind goddess—leave this -dangerous place! Your warm blood and ardent temperament cannot -withstand its harlotry. Crush in its infancy that juggling fiend, -which martyrs the pride of mind—the dignities of virtue, the -immunities of education, and the consolations of religion.</p> - -<p>His warning voice fell on a sodden ear. Seated at a long table, in a -magnificent saloon blazing with lights and ornamented with costly -curtains of damask, whose billowy drapery dropped over grotesque and -luxurious furniture, I bowed with prostrate devotion to the idol of -Chance. I was in the temple of suicide—the hell of earth; and -inebriated with its deadly vapor, I saw not the thronging crowd, -whose passion-stricken countenances alternately displayed the rapid -transitions from joy to sadness, from successful cupidity to luckless -despair. I went through the usual vicissitudes of the game. I won. -Success made me bold, failure excited me to more and more dangerous -enterprise. I had drawn on our tobacco merchant until my bills were -protested, nor could I ask from Col. R—— the wages of humanity. I -paid a heavy premium to one of the loungers of the table, to teach me -a system by which I might always win. Duped by its deceitful -sophistry, I risked my all—my watch, breast-pin, and all the jewelry -of my dress were successively staked and lost. My hand was on the -golden locket consecrated as the gift of Isa Gordon. With a painful -struggle I preserved it from the gripe of despair, and quitted the -accursed table a bankrupt and a beggar!</p> - -<p>When I reached my lodgings, Scipio met me with his usual kindness, -which I repelled with a severity and harshness that called a tear to -his eye. Go! cried I, leave me, I am a broken man and a friendless -beggar, I give you your freedom. Go! and for God's sake do not longer -tempt my avarice! An unusual cheerfulness spread itself over his -countenance—the convincing indication of my fallen fortune. The idea -was no sooner conceived, than my despair gave it certainty, and -rising I drove my servant from the room with a blow and a curse.</p> - -<p>I sold all the furniture with which I had supplied my rooms, and -again rushed to the gaming table. The fickle goddess had forever -deserted me, and, lost to all sense of shame, I hung around the -table, a silent spectator of the deep, passionate, and thrilling drama.</p> - -<p>About a week after Scipio's departure, a gentleman accosted me at the -table, and delivered a letter which he informed me he had brought -from Liverpool. It was written in the sententious style of a -merchant, and enclosed a draft in my favor on an eminent banker for -fifty pounds.</p> - -<p>The writer informed me that Scipio had sold himself for this sum to a -Liverpool trader—that he had requested that the money should be sent -to me, and that on the day after the purchase he had shipped the -servant, with his own free consent, to the West Indies.</p> - -<p>I waited on the banker, received the sacrifice of my slave's -short-lived freedom; and as I looked on the tear-stained money, I -learned from that generous and affectionate fidelity, a lesson which -made me loathe with horror the moral prostitution of the gaming table.</p> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect19"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>THE PATRIARCH'S INHERITANCE.</h4> - -<blockquote><small>The following is an extract from an unfinished MS. and occurs at the -close of an interview between the Almighty and Abraham, in the course -of which is introduced the promise thus stated in Genesis: "And the -Lord said unto Abram, after that Lot was separated from him, Lift up -now thine eyes, and look from the place where thou art, northward, -and southward, and eastward, and westward: For all the land which -thou seest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed forever," &c.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem23"> - <tr><td> - - ———This pronounced,<br> - The Radiant Form withdraws. And now return<br> - Sunshine and shade, and cool, delicious airs,<br> - Restoring common joys. The saintly chief,<br> - Reviving, stands erect; and still his robes,<br> - With lingering glory, make the moon-beams pale.<br> - Soon all his senses feel the flowing soul,<br> - Quick with new life and thrilling power intense.<br> - His eyes, undazzled, drink the pouring sun,<br> - And sweep entranced the swelling scene below—<br> - Mountains, and hills, and plains, and lakes, and streams.<br> -<br> - O, blest, enchanting vision! All around,<br> - Enrich'd with purest green, and all remote<br> - Adorn'd with deepest blue; the bending sky<br> - And farthest summits mingling fainter hues,<br> - Walling the world with sapphire. All he sees,<br> - He hails his own; and burns with lordly flame.<br> - His the down-rushing torrents; his the brooks,<br> - Flashing from every vale; and his the lakes,<br> - Wide sparkling bright, as though a shower of gems<br> - On silver falling scattered countless lights.<br> - His too the rolling woods, the laughing meads,<br> - And rocks of waving grapes—his every wind,<br> - Stirring the world with life and breathing far<br> - Fragrance and music—his the silent cloud,<br> - That fleetly glides along the soft mid-air,<br> - Reflecting, moon-like, from its upper plain<br> - Of snowy beauty, every ray from heaven;<br> - And o'er the under landscape leading on<br> - Its shadowy darkness, running up and down<br> - The ever-changing mountains. Who may tell<br> - The many sources of his gushing joy?<br> - Not only Jordan, and its palmy plains;<br> - Lot's Citied Garden; and the orient heights<br> - Of fruitful Gilead, sweeping to the marge<br> - Of Bashan's mellow pastures: not alone<br> - The visual charms delight his ardent soul,<br> - Around, though fair, and fairer still remote;<br> - But wider regions—lost in distant haze,<br> - Or shut from sight by intercepting bounds—<br> - Fairest of all. Far flies his circling thought<br> - From Edom's southern plains to Hermon's brow,<br> - Frost-wreath'd, and lowlands steep'd in streaming dew;<br> - And on to snow-crown'd Lebanon, with slopes<br> - Of fadeless verdure nursed by living founts,<br> - And glorious cedars swayed by balmy winds,<br> - In whose high boughs the eagle builds her nest,<br> - And on whose roots the fearful lion sleeps;<br> - And thence to Tabor's central cone, and fields<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257"><small><small>[p. 257]</small></small></a></span> - Of Eden, like Esdrelon; and the oaks<br> - Of flowery Carmel, waving o'er the sea;<br> - And Sharon's rosy bloom; and Eshcol's vale,<br> - Purple with vines from Hebron to the coast.<br> - O'er all the range his ravished mind expands,<br> - Warm with high hopes of wondrous days to come.<br> - The promise—like a meteor—how it lights<br> - The gloom of future ages! Lonely there<br> - The childless stranger stands—sublime in faith:<br> - Sure that the ten throned nations reigning round,<br> - In stately power, with pomp of idol shrines,<br> - Shall yield to his descendants; shall behold<br> - His mightier seed—thick as the seashore sands—<br> - Countless as stars that crowd the clearest sky,—<br> - Pouring their myriads over hill and dale,<br> - Casting the champion pride of princes down,<br> - Dashing the templed monsters in the dust,<br> - Sounding the trump of triumph through the land,<br> - Thronging the scene with holier, happier homes,<br> - And rearing high, to flame with heavenly fire,<br> - Earth's only altars to the Only God!</td></tr> -</table> -<div align="right"><small>T. H. S. </small></div> - -<blockquote><small><i>Washington, March 17, 1836</i>.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect20"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>AMERICANISMS.</h4> -<br> -<p>The <i>Americanisms</i> of our language have been a prolific source of -ridicule and reproach for the British critics. When a word in an -American publication has fallen upon the eyes of these literary -lynxes, which they have thought an innovation, they have fiercely -denounced it as Yankee slang—as a proof of our uneducated ignorance; -they have even denied that we understand the English language, or can -speak or write it intelligibly. In most of the cases it turned out -and was demonstrated, that the poor words thus assailed were true and -genuine English, used by their best writers and speakers; found in -their best dictionaries; but unhappily for the poor things, unknown -to these erudite and conceited knights of the pen, either too -careless to turn to their books for information, or having none to -turn to. In a few instances in which we have taken a little license -with the language, we have seen that after overloading us with abuse -for the birth of the child, they have taken it to themselves, and put -it into the service of writers and orators of the highest rank. Such -was the fate of our Americanisms—<i>to advocate</i>, <i>influential</i>, in -the sense in which we use it, and several others. They found the -brats really not such deformities as they supposed, and were willing -to adopt and use them; but this did not abate their contempt of the -parents. Englishmen residing in England, seem to claim an exclusive -right in the invention of English words. In Bulwer's character of -<i>Rienzi</i>, this hero is said to have been <i>avid</i> of personal power. -This is the coinage of the ingenious author; at least I find no -authority for it even in the latest dictionaries, nor in any other -writer of reputation. Now I have no objection to the introduction of -a new word into our language by Mr. Bulwer or any body else, provided -that it be done with due discretion, and subject to some just -regulation and principle. In the first place, it should be necessary, -supplying a want, or at least obviously convenient in the expression -of some idea with more precision than it can be done by any existing -word. In the second place, it should be in full consistence and -harmony with the idiom of the language. Lord Kames, on using a word -of his own making, gives this note. "This word, hitherto not in use, -seems to fulfil all that is required by Demetrius Phalereus in -coining a new word—first, that it be perspicuous; and next, that it -be in the tone of the language."</p> - -<p>I find no fault with Mr. Bulwer for the production of his mint, but I -will not acknowledge that he, or any other English author, has a -better right than an American to take this license. We understand the -language as well as they do; we derive our knowledge from the same -sources, and we shall use the liberty with as much caution, propriety -and discrimination. If this monopolizing, exclusive people, could -have their way, they would not suffer us to spin a pound of cotton, -or hammer out a bar of iron; and now, forsooth, we must not presume -to turn a noun into a verb, or add a monosyllable to the stock of -English words.</p> -<div align="right"><small>H. </small></div> -<br> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect21"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>TO RANDOLPH OF ROANOKE.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small></h4> -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Written soon after his death.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem24"> - <tr><td>Start not, great spirit of the mighty dead!<br> - No sneering cynic comes with fiendish tread,<br> - To mock the laurels of thy honored brow,<br> - And ask,—where lies thy strength or glory now?<br> -<br> - No snarling critic, jackal-like, to brave<br> - The fearful lion, nerveless in his grave,<br> - Whose living look had shrunk his trembling form,<br> - As craven creatures crouch before the storm:<br> -<br> - No saintly, sinning bigot vents his spite<br> - For crimes exposed, or horrors brought to light;<br> - No puppy-patriot, peculator bold,<br> - Would bark at thee, for sneering at his gold:<br> -<br> - No spaniel dog, to gain a master's smile,<br> - Would crunch thy bones, thy hallowed grave defile;<br> - No smiling sycophant, or grovelling hind,<br> - Whose soul succumbs beneath a mastermind:<br> -<br> - No little gatherer of great men's words,<br> - No album-filling fool of flowers and birds,<br> - Or autographic-maniac now weeps<br> - In sickly sympathy, where Randolph sleeps.<br> -<br> - Bereaved Virginia's voice majestic calls<br> - In mournful wailings from her fun'ral halls,<br> - "Whose strength shall terror strike? Whose voice shall charm?<br> - Who wound, or win, the wretch who wills me harm?<br> -<br> - Since thy great soul hath left its feeble frame,<br> - My only pride is thy undying name;<br> - My sun hath set in parting glory bright,<br> - My Randolph's dead, my shores are wrapt in night.<br> -<br> - Oh choose,—great spirit, from my blood alone,<br> - Some worthy one, with genius like thine own;<br> - Lest prophets false, my gallant sons deceive,—<br> - To him, Elisha-like, thy mantle leave."</td></tr> -</table> -<div align="right"><small>HESPERUS. </small></div> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258"><small><small>[p. 258]</small></small></a></span> -<hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect22"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>ADDRESS</h4> -<blockquote><small>Delivered by the Hon. Henry St. George Tucker, before the Virginia -Historical and Philosophical Society.<small><sup>1</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> The anniversary meeting of this Society was held at the -Capitol in Richmond, on the second of March, in presence of a -numerous auditory of both sexes. There was much disappointment at the -absence of Professor Dew, who was expected to deliver the annual -Address, but whose attendance was prevented by ill health. The Hon. -Henry St. Geo. Tucker was unanimously appointed President in the room -of Chief Justice Marshall, and the address which we now have the -pleasure of publishing was delivered by the new President upon taking -the chair. It was listened to with profound attention and pleasure. -So, also, was a speech to be found on <a href="#page260">page 260</a> of Mr. Maxwell on -presenting a resolution commemorative of the services and virtues of -the late Chief Justice.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>During the meeting, Mr. Winder, the Clerk of Northampton, presented a -collection of MSS. found in some of the dark corners of the clerk's -office of that ancient county. These papers, we are informed, are -highly valuable, and shed new and interesting light upon an early -period of Virginia History. They were the papers, it appears, of a -Mr. Godfrey Poole, who early in the eighteenth century, was the clerk -of Northampton court—was also a lawyer of considerable practice, and -for many years clerk of the committee of Propositions and Grievances, -an office, we suppose, of much higher relative grade then than at -present. The MSS. are various in their character—consisting for the -most part, of addresses by the then governors Spotswood and Dugsdale -to the House of Burgesses—answers to those addresses, by the House, -and copies of various acts of Assembly and Reports of Committees, not -found in any printed record extant. There is also an undoubted copy -of the Colonial Charter which received the signet of King Charles, -and was stopped in the Hamper office upon that monarch's receiving -intelligence of Bacon's rebellion. This charter, we believe, is not -to be found in any of the printed collections of State papers or -Historical Records in this country, having eluded the researches of -Mr. Burke, and of the indefatigable Mr. Hening, the compiler of the -Statutes at Large.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It appears also that Mr. Poole contrived to enliven the barren paths -of Law and Legislation by an occasional intercourse with the Muses. -We find among his papers two Poems—one is brief, of an amatory -character, and addressed to Chloe—that much besonnetted name. The -other, containing about one hundred and ninety lines is thus entitled</small></blockquote> - -<center><small>The Expedition oe'r the mountain's:<br> - Being Mr. Blackmore's Latin Poem, entitled,<br> - Expeditio Ultra-Montana:<br> - Rendered into English verse and inscribed<br> - To the Honourable the Governour. (A. O. Spotswood.)</small></center> - -<blockquote><small>The "Expedition &c" is remarkable for three things—its antiquity -(Virginian antiquity)—its mediocrity—and for one or two lines in -which (singularly enough) direct reference is made to the discovery -of a gold region in Virginia. The lines run thus—</small></blockquote> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem25"> - <tr><td><small>Here taught to dig by his auspicious hand,<br> - They prov'd the growing Pregnance of the land;<br> - For, being search'd, the fertile earth gave signs<br> - That her womb teem'd with gold and silver mines.<br> - This ground, if faithful, may in time outdo<br> - The soils of Mexico, and of fam'd Peru.</small></td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> - -<p><i>Gentlemen</i>,—In accepting, with the profoundest sense of my own -unworthiness, the station you have been pleased to confer upon me, my -mind very naturally reverts to the distinguished individual who has -heretofore presided over your deliberations, and has added to the -interest of your proceedings by the lustre of his own reputation, and -the mild dignity of his exalted character. Since the days of General -Washington, no man has lived more beloved and respected, or died more -universally regretted, than the late venerable Chief Justice. -Throughout this widely extended republic, our fellow citizens have -vied in the distinguished honors which have been paid to his memory. -Those honors have not been confined to the state which gave him -birth, to the city in which he dwelt, to the supreme tribunal of his -native state, which owes so much of its former reputation to the -efficient aid he brought to their deliberations in the flower of his -age. They have not been confined to any political party, or denied by -those who have honestly and widely differed from him in their views -of the construction of the great charter of our government. No, -gentlemen, his character and life have been the themes of universal -eulogy. The meditations of the wise have dwelt upon his virtues, and -the lips of the eloquent have poured forth his praises throughout the -Union. It is right that it should be so. As Chief Justice of the -United States, his fame was the common property of that Union, which -he so truly loved, and which he so long and so faithfully has served. -For five and thirty years he presided over the first judicial -tribunal of the United States; a tribunal which he elevated by his -dignity, which he illustrated by his abilities, and instructed by his -wisdom; a tribunal which was not only enlightened by the splendor of -his meridian greatness, but was illumined by the last rays of his -departing genius, and beheld with admiration its broad and spotless -disc as it descended to the horizon. Even the hand of time seems to -have dealt gently with his noble mind; and, like Mansfield and -Pendleton, he too sunk into the grave full indeed of years as well as -honors, but with unfading powers: thus affording another illustrious -instance of the preservation of the undying intellect amid the ruins -of a decaying frame.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem26"> - <tr><td><small>Orbis illabetur ævo, vires hominumque tabescent,<br> - Mens sola cælestis in œvum intacta manebit.</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>But, gentlemen, it has been the good fortune of some among us to have -known our venerated countryman, not only in the elevated station to -which his abilities had exalted him, but also in the not less -interesting relations of private life.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem27"> - <tr><td><small>Seen him we have, and in the happier hour,<br> - Of social ease but ill exchanged for power;</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>And in that delightful intercourse who has not remarked how -beautifully the amiable urbanity and simplicity of his manners, -commingled with the unpretending dignity which was inseparable from -the elevation of his character and his station? Who has not witnessed -the purity of his feelings, the warmth of his benevolence, and the -fervor of his zeal, in lending the support and countenance of his -great name and influence to every enterprise which was calculated to -promote the public good; to every scheme which promised to assist the -march of intellect; to every association which had for its object the -advancement of his countrymen in wisdom and virtue, and to every plan -which philanthropy could plausibly suggest, for the amelioration of -the condition of the humblest of our species? His heart and his hand -were equally open, and his purse and his services were always freely -commanded where they were called for by any object of public utility -or private beneficence. It is not then surprising, gentlemen, that -such a man should have been found at the head of this Society; that -you should have selected him to grace your laudable enterprise, or -that he should have lent his ready aid to an institution, which, -however humble in its beginnings, gives the promise of important aid -to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page259"><small><small>[p. 259]</small></small></a></span> -knowledge and literature of our country. But it is a -matter of the most painful regret, that the light of his countenance -will shine no more upon us here, and that the influence of his -counsels and the inspiration of his wisdom are withdrawn from us -forever. Those cannot be replaced; and we may say of him as was said -of the great father of his country more than forty years ago,</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem28"> - <tr><td><small>Successors we may find, but tell us where,<br> - Of all thy virtues we shall find the heir.</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>For myself, gentlemen, I can bring to the discharge of the duties of -this station nothing but the most earnest wishes for the success of -your institution; an institution, whose laudable design is to save -from oblivion whatever is interesting in the natural, civil and -literary history of our country; to rescue from unmerited obscurity -the many interesting papers which may throw light upon our annals; -and to concentrate in its "transactions" the materials now scattered -through the land, which at some future day may assist the researches -of the historian or the speculations of the philosopher. It is -neither my purpose nor my province here to dilate upon the benefits -of such an institution. That duty was performed on a former occasion, -by one who is now no more, with distinguished ability. Yet I trust I -may be excused for a very cursory allusion to this interesting topic. -It is not required to whet your purpose or to stimulate your -exertions. But it is not amiss that we should occasionally advert to -the powerful motives which impel us to sustain this infant -institution. Do we look to the reputation of our ancient and beloved -commonwealth; to her progress in the arts and in the cultivation of -that literature which softens the manners and gives its finest polish -to society? How then can we hear unmoved the taunts of others at her -supineness? How can we listen without an ingenuous blush, to the -reproaches of those who are ever ready to cast into our teeth our -inglorious neglect of the noble cause of literature? Throughout the -civilized world, the lovers of learning and of science are on the -alert. Academies and societies for their promotion are no longer -confined to Europe. They have long since found their way across the -Atlantic, and have been growing and extending in our sister states -for half a century. Some of them have grown to maturity and no longer -totter in a state of infantile weakness. Those of Pennsylvania and -Massachusetts particularly rest upon a basis stable and enduring, and -have attained a noble elevation that does honor to their founders. -And what has Virginia done? Absolutely nothing, until the spirited -efforts of a few individuals first gave existence to this -institution. She has aroused indeed from her slumbers at the voice of -internal improvements, and has caught the enthusiasm with which they -seem to have inspired the world. Her canals and her rail roads are -sustained with all the zeal of patriotic feeling, backed by the less -meritorious, but more steady influences of pecuniary profit. In every -direction those arts and enterprises which promise to pour their -rapid returns of wealth into the lap of the adventurer, are pursued -with an eye that never winks, and a step that never tires. <i>Their</i> -progress is as rapid as the speed of a locomotive. But -literature—neglected literature, still lags at a sightless distance -behind. While companies spring up in a day for the excavation of a -canal or the construction of a rail road, for the working of a coal -mine or the search after gold. Behold what a little band has -associated here, to redeem our state from the disgrace of a Bœotian -neglect of literature—and to pluck up drowning honor by the locks, -without other reward than the participation with our great corrivals -in all the dignities of science. But let us not despair because we -are but a handful. Our little society is but the germ of better -things. This little seedling will, if properly nourished, become like -a spreading and majestic oak. Then indeed, will it be an enduring -monument to your memory, and posterity will look upon the noble -object which has been planted by your hands and watered by your care, -with respect and veneration for the authors of so great a -benefaction. But remember it will wither when so young, unless -sedulously fostered. An annual meeting at the seat of government and -a discourse from a learned academician once a year, however -interesting, will effect but little without the zealous and personal -co-operation of us all. Wherever we go, we may be of use to the -institution. The sagacious and observing will every where meet with -interesting matter to be communicated and collected into this common -reservoir. In the library of almost every man of ordinary diligence -in the collection of what is curious and interesting, there are -materials which by themselves are of little worth, but united with -others here would become valuable and important—like the jewel, -which shows to little advantage until it is surrounded by other -brilliants, and is set by the hands of a master workman. So too, in -our intercourse with society, we daily meet with the men of other -days—those living depositaries of the transactions of early times; -of transactions which live only in tradition and must be buried in -the grave with the venerable patriarch or interesting matron, unless -rescued from oblivion by the present generation. These evanescing -fragments of our history should be gathered together with the most -diligent care, like the flowers of an herbarium or the minerals of a -geologist, and prepared for the historical department in this cabinet -of literature. In short, gentlemen, go where we will, the most humble -among us may still advance the great cause in which we are engaged. -And while the learning and ability of some may contribute the rich -treasures of their own minds, and the valuable results of their own -profound lucubrations, there is not one among us who cannot in some -way or other add his mite to the general stock. This is indeed no -small consolation to myself; for I would not be a drone in such a -hive; and yet my professional pursuits have been too exclusive to -permit me to hope that I can ever be of other service than as an -humble gleaner in the great field which lies before us.</p> - -<p>It now only remains for me, gentlemen, to offer my most respectful -acknowledgments for the honor you have conferred upon me, accompanied -by the assurance that I shall discharge the duties assigned me with -alacrity, and contribute to the success of your laudable views, as -far as my humble abilities and my very limited acquirements in these -walks of literature will permit.</p> -<br> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect23"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>AUTHORS.</h4> -<br> -<p>Adam Smith has decided that authors are "manufacturers of certain -wares for a very paltry recompense."</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260"><small><small>[p. 260]</small></small></a></span> -<hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect24"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>MR. MAXWELL'S SPEECH,</h4> -<p>Before the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society, at its late -annual meeting, held in the Hall of the House of Delegates, on the -evening of the 2d March, on moving the following resolution:</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Resolved</i>, That the Society most truly laments the loss which it has -sustained in the common calamity, the death of its illustrious -President, the late John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United -States, whose name, associated with our Institution in its origin, -will grace its annals, while his life and character shall adorn the -history of our State and country to the end of time.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p>Mr. President,—In the report of the Executive Committee, which has -just been read, we are officially informed of what we knew but too -well before, the loss which our Society has sustained in the death of -our late venerable and illustrious President. Yes, Sir, the man whom -Virginia—whom his country—whom all his fellows-citizens in all -parts of the United States, admired, and loved, and delighted to -honor—the man whom we, Sir, who knew him, fondly and affectionately -called "<small>THE CHIEF</small>," (as he was indeed in almost every sense of the -word,) our M<small>ARSHALL</small> is no more. We shall see him no more in the midst -of us—we shall see him no more in this very Hall, where his wisdom -and eloquence have so often enlightened and convinced the listening -assemblies of the State—we shall see his face, we shall hear his -voice no more, forever. But we do not, we cannot forget him; but the -remembrance of his transcendant abilities, his spotless integrity, -his pure patriotism, his eminent public services, and his most -amiable private virtues, is embalmed in all our hearts.</p> - -<p>With these sentiments, Sir, which I am persuaded are the sentiments -of all our members, I have felt it to be a duty which I owe not only -to the memory of the deceased, but to the honor of our Society, to -offer the resolution which the announcement suggests. In doing so, -however, I shall not deem it either necessary or proper to detain you -with many words, when I feel, most unaffectedly, that any which I -could use would be entirely inadequate, and almost injurious, to the -fame of such a man. I will not, therefore, Sir, enlarge upon the -particulars of his life, which are already familiar to you. I will -not tell you of the brilliancy of his first entrance upon the stage -of action, when the voice of our Commonwealth, rising in arms to -defend her constitutional rights against the tyranny of Britain, -called him from his native forest, and from the studies in which he -had just engaged, to join her army hurrying to the rescue of my own -native town from the grasp of her insolent invader: nor of his -following campaigns under Washington himself, and his gallant bearing -on the memorable plains of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth: nor -of his subsequent stand at the bar of this city, (then, as it is now, -one of the most distinguished in the country,) where he was <i>primus -inter pares</i>, the first amongst his fellows—the brightest star in -the constellation which shed its radiance over our state: nor of his -appearances in the House of Delegates, and in the Convention for the -ratification of the constitution: nor of his conduct at the court of -revolutionary France, where (with his worthy associates) he baffled -all the arts and stratagems of the wily Proteus of Politics himself, -and maintained the honor of his country to the admiration of all her -citizens: nor of his reappearance in this place: nor of his -translation to the floor of the House of Representatives, where he -stood, spoke, and conquered: nor of his short but substantial service -as Secretary of State: nor, above all, of his crowning elevation to -that chair of judicial supremacy for which he seemed to have been -made; and where he sat for so many years, like incarnate Justice—not -blind, indeed, like that fabled divinity, but seeing all things with -that quick, clear, and penetrating eye, which pierced at once through -all the intricacies and involutions of law and fact, to discover the -latent truth, or detect the lurking fallacy, as by the glance of -intuition. No wonder, Sir, that with such admirable faculties, -combined with such perfect pureness of purpose, such entire -singleness and simplicity of heart, he shed a lustre around that seat -which it never had before, and which I greatly fear it will never -have again. No wonder, Sir, that he appeared to the eyes of many in -all parts of our land, and even of some who could not exactly agree -with him in all his views of our federal compact, as the very Atlas -of the Constitution, supporting the starry firmament of our Union -upon his single shoulder, which bowed not, bent not beneath its -weight; and that when he died, there was something like a feeling of -apprehension (for an instant at least) as if the fabric which he had -so long sustained must fall along with him to the dust, and become -the fit monument of the man.</p> - -<p>But I will not dwell, nor even touch any longer, Sir, on these -things, which indeed hardly belong to us, or belong to us only in -common with all our fellow-citizens. <i>Vix ea nostra voco</i>. I can -hardly call them our own. But I must just glance for a single moment, -Sir, at the connection of the illustrious deceased with our Society. -Sir, when we were about to form our institution, conscious as we were -of the mortifying fact, that from the unfortunate passion of our -people for politics, so called, (mere party politics) the more calm -and rational pursuits of science and letters to which we were about -to invite their attention, could hardly hope to find favor in their -eyes, we were naturally desirous to call some person to that chair -whose character, whose very name, might give the public an assurance -of the utility of our labors; and we turned instinctively to <i>him</i>. -We saw him, Sir, with all the honors of a long, laborious, and useful -life clustered upon him; enjoying the respect and confidence of -honorable men of all parties alike; maintaining his official -neutrality with a meek and modest dignity that nothing could disturb, -or ruffle for a moment; and soothing his old age with Christian -philosophy, and polite letters, and the "sweetly-uttered wisdom" of -poesy, which he had always loved from his youth—and we tendered him -the office. He accepted it, Sir, at once, with that gracious -condescension which belonged to him—expressed his cordial -concurrence in our views—presented us with his own immortal work, -the Life of the Father of his Country—and stamped our enterprise -with the seal of his decisive approbation.</p> - -<p>After this, Sir, we naturally felt a new interest in him; and you -remember Sir, I dare say, how our hearts flowed out to him with a -sort of filial reverence and affection, as he came about amongst us, -like a father amongst his children, like a patriarch amongst his -people—like that patriarch whom the sacred Scriptures have canonized -for our admiration—"when the eye saw him, it blessed him: when the -ear heard him, it gave witness to him; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261"><small><small>[p. 261]</small></small></a></span> <i>and after his words men -spake not again</i>." For his words, indeed, even in his most familiar -conversation, fell upon us with a sort of judicial weight; and from -his private opinions, as from his public decisions, there was no -appeal. Happy, thrice happy old man! How we wished and prayed for the -continuance of his days, and of all the happiness and honor which he -had so fairly won, and which he seemed to enjoy still more for our -sakes than for his own! We gazed upon him indeed, Sir, as upon the -setting sun, whilst, his long circuit of glory almost finished, he -sank slowly to his rest; admiring the increased grandeur of his orb, -and the graciousness with which he suffered us to view the softened -splendors of his face; but with a mournful interest, too, which -sprang from the reflection that we should soon lose his light. And we -have lost it indeed. He has left us now—and we mourn for his -departure. But we are consoled, Sir, by the transporting assurance -which we feel, that the splendid luminary which the benificent -Creator had kindled up for the blessing and ornament of our native -land, and of the world, is not gone out in darkness, but shines still -with inextinguishable lustre in the firmament of Heaven.</p> -<br> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="100"><a name="sect25"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>AN ADDRESS,</h4> - -<h5>ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE FEDERATIVE REPUBLICAN SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT -UPON LITERATURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER.</h5> - -<blockquote><small>Prepared to be delivered before the Historical and Philosophical -Society of Virginia, at their annual meeting in 1836, by T<small>HOMAS</small> R. -D<small>EW</small>, Professor of History, Metaphysics and Political Law, in the -College of William and Mary. Published by request of the Society,<small><sup>1</sup></small> -March 20, 1836.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> "It being understood that Professor Dew has been -prevented by delicate health and the inclemency of the season, from -attending the present meeting—</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Resolved</i>, That he be requested to furnish the Recording Secretary -of this Society with a copy of his intended address, for insertion in -the Southern Literary Messenger."</small></blockquote> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="signature"> - <tr><td><small> Extract from the minutes.<br> - - G. A. M<small>YERS</small>, <i>Recording Secretary<br> - - Of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society</i>.</small></td></tr> -</table><br> -<br> - -<p><small>Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Society,</small></p> - -<p>I have consented to appear before you this evening with feelings of -the deepest solicitude—a solicitude which has been increased by my -knowledge of the ability and eloquence of the gentleman who was first -chosen by you to perform this task, and by the fact that this is the -first time that circumstances have permitted my attendance on your -sessions, though early admitted by the kindness of your body to the -honor of membership.</p> - -<p>The subject upon which I propose to address you is one which I hope -will not be considered as inappropriate to the occasion. I shall -endeavor to present to your view some of the most important effects -which the Federative Republican System of government is calculated to -produce on the progress of literature and on the development of -individual and national character.</p> - -<p>When we cast a glance at the nations of the earth and contemplate -their character, and that of the individuals who compose them, we are -amazed at the almost endless variety which such a prospect presents -to our view. We perceive the most marked differences, not only -between the savage and civilized nations, but between the civilized -themselves—not only between different races of different physical -organization, but between the same races—not only between nations -situated at immense distances from each other, but among those -enjoying the same climate, and inhabiting the same region. How marked -the difference, for example, between the nations of India and those -of Europe—how different the citizen who merely vegetates under the -still silent crushing despotisms of the East, from that restless, -bustling, energetic being who lives under the limited monarchies and -republics of the West! And again, what great differences do we find -among the latter themselves! What differences do we observe between -the French and the English, the Germans and the Spaniards, the Swiss -and the Italians! How often does the whole moral nature of man seem -to change, by crossing a range of mountains, passing a frontier -stream, or even an imaginary line! "The Languedocians and Gascons," -says Hume, "are the gayest people in France; but whenever you pass -the Pyrenees you are among Spaniards." "Athens and Thebes were but a -short day's journey from each other; though the Athenians were as -remarkable for ingenuity, politeness and gaiety, as the Thebans for -dulness, rusticity, and a phlegmatic temper."</p> - -<p>There is no subject more worthy the attention of the philosopher and -the historian, than a consideration of the causes which thus -influence the moral destiny, and determine the character of nations -and individuals. Among the generating causes of national differences, -none exert so powerful, so irresistible an influence as Religion and -Government; and of these two potent engines in the formation of -character, it may be affirmed, that if the former be sometimes, under -the operation of peculiar circumstances, more powerful and -overwhelming, directing for a season the spirit of the age and -overcoming every resistance to its progress, the latter is much more -constant and universal in its action, and mainly contributes to the -formation of that permanent national character which lasts through ages.</p> - -<p>Of all the governments which have ever been established, it may -perhaps be affirmed, that ours, if the most complicate in structure, -is certainly the most beautiful in theory, correcting by the -principle of representation, and a proper system of responsibility, -the wild extravagances and the capricious levities of the unbalanced -democracies of antiquity. Ours is surely the system, which, if -administered in the pure spirit of that patriotism and freedom which -erected it, holds out to the philanthropists and the friends of -liberty throughout the world, the fairest promise of a successful -solution of the great problem of free government. Ours is indeed the -great experiment of the eighteenth century—to it the eyes of all, -friends and foes, are now directed, and upon its result depends -perhaps the cause of liberty throughout the civilized world. In the -meantime it well behooves us all to hope for the best, and never to -despair of the republic. Let me then proceed to inquire into some of -the most marked effects which our peculiar system of government is -likely to produce, in the progress of time, upon literature and the -development of character.</p> - -<p>Some have maintained the opinion that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262"><small><small>[p. 262]</small></small></a></span> monarchical form of -government is better calculated to foster and encourage every species -of literature than the republican, and consequently that the -institutions of the United States would prove unfavorable to the -growth and progress of literature. This opinion seems to be based -upon the supposition that a king and aristocracy are necessary for -the support and patronage of a literary class. I will briefly explain -my views on this point, and then proceed to the consideration of that -peculiar influence which our state or federative system of government -will, in all probability, exert over the character and literature of -our inhabitants. It is this latter view which I wish mainly to -present this evening—it is this view which has been neglected or -misunderstood in almost all the speculations which I have seen upon -the character and influence of our institutions.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it has been affirmed that republics are too -economical—too niggardly in their expenditures, to afford that -salutary and efficient patronage necessary to the growth of -literature. To this I would answer, first, that this argument takes -for granted that the literature of a nation advances or recedes in -proportion to the pecuniary wages which it earns. Now, although I do -not say with Dr. Goldsmith, that the man who draws his pen to take a -purse, no more deserves to have it, than the man who draws his pistol -for the same purpose, yet I may safely assert, that of the motives -which operate on the literary man—the love of fame, the desire to be -useful, and the love of money—the former, in the great majority of -cases, exerts an infinitely more powerful influence than the latter. -And if I shall be able to show, as I hope to do in the sequel, that -the republican form of government is the one which is best calculated -to stimulate these great passions of our nature and throw into action -all the energies of man, then must we acknowledge its superiority, -even in a literary point of view.</p> - -<p>But even supposing that the progress of literature depends directly -upon the amount of pecuniary patronage which it can command, it by no -means follows that it will flourish most under a monarchical -government. For granting that this kind of government may have the -ability to patronise, it is by no means certain that it will always -possess the will to do so. Augustus and his Mecænas may lavish to day -the imperial treasures upon literature, but Tiberius and Sejanus may -starve and proscribe it to-morrow. That which depends upon the will -of one man must ever be unsteady and uncertain. It is much easier to -predict the conduct of a multitude—of a whole nation—than of one -individual. The support then which monarchs can be expected to yield -to learning, must necessarily be extremely capricious and -fluctuating. It is not however by sudden starts and violent impulses, -that a sound, solid, wholesome literature can be created. Ages must -conspire to the formation of such a literature. Constantine the -Great, seated on the throne of the Eastern Empire, with all the -resources of the Roman world at his command, could not awaken the -slumbering genius of a degenerate race, nor revive the decaying arts -of the ancient empire. The literature of his reign, with all the -patronage he could bestow upon it, did but too nearly resemble those -gorgeous piles, which his pride and vanity caused to be erected in -his <i>own</i> imperial city, composed of the ruins of so many of the -splendid monuments of antiquity.</p> - -<p>Not only, however, is the support a capricious and uncertain one -which a monarchy is calculated to yield to literature, but there are -only certain departments of learning, and those by no means the most -important, which such a government can ever be expected cordially to -foster. Monarchs may patronise the fine arts and light -literature—they may encourage the mathematical and physical -sciences, but they can rarely feel a deep interest in the promotion -of correct and orthodox moral, political and theological knowledge, -which is, at the same time, much the most important and most -difficult department of literature. The great law of -self-preservation prompts us to war on every thing which threatens -our interest and happiness. Moral and political philosophy has too -often aimed its logic at the throne, and questioned the title of the -monarch, ever to be a favorite with rulers. Hence, while even the -absolute despot may encourage the arts, light literature and the -physical and mathematical sciences, he dares not unbind the fetters -of the mind in the region of politics, morals and religion. He can -but tremble at that bold spirit of inquiry which may be aroused on -those subjects—which dares to advance to the throne itself and -loosen even the foundations on which it is erected. Napoleon -Bonaparte, in the plenitude of his power, could give the utmost -encouragement to all those departments of learning, whose principles -could not be arrayed against despotism. In these departments he -delighted to behold the genius and talent of the country. In the -provinces and in the capital he called to the physical and -mathematical chairs of his colleges, his universities and his -polytechnic schools, some of the most splendid lecturers of the age; -but selfishness forbade him to tolerate a free and manly spirit of -inquiry in morals and politics, and he whose armies had deluged -Europe with blood, whose name was a terror and whose word was a law -unto nations, could not feel secure upon his throne while such men as -Cousin were illustrating the nineteenth century by the splendor of -their professorial eloquence, before the youth of France, or such -writers as De Stael were making their animated appeals to the nation, -in behalf of liberty of thought, and freedom of action. It is -impossible, without full freedom of thought, and a single eye to -truth and usefulness, that the scientific investigator, no matter how -great his genius may be, can unravel the difficulties of moral and -political philosophy. The very patronage of the throne enthrals his -intellect, and his fears or his avarice tempt him to desert the cause -of truth and humanity.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem29"> - <tr><td><small>"Thus trammell'd, thus condemn'd to flattery's trebles,<br> - He toils through all, still trembling to be wrong:<br> - For fear some noble thoughts like heavenly rebels<br> - Should rise up in high treason to his brain,<br> - He sings as the Athenean spoke, with pebbles<br> - In 's mouth, lest truth should stammer through his strain."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>If we look even to those epochs under monarchical governments, which -have been designated by the high sounding title of the golden ages of -literature, we shall observe a full exemplification of the remarks -which I have made on this subject. Let us take the Augustan age -itself. Under the patronage of the first of the Roman Emperors we -find, it is true, the arts and light literature rising to a pitch -which perhaps they had not reached under the republic. After the -death of Brutus the world of letters experienced a revolution almost -as <span class="pagenum"><a name="page263"><small><small>[p. 263]</small></small></a></span> -great as that of the political world. The literature of the -Augustan age is distinguished by that tone and spirit which mark the -downfall of liberty, and the consequent thraldom of the mind. The -bold and manly voice of eloquence was hushed. The high and lofty -spirit of the republic was tamed down to a sickly and disgusting -servility. The age of poetry came when that of eloquence and -philosophy was past; and Virgil and Horace and Propertius, flattered, -courted and enriched by an artful prince and an elegant courtier, -could consent to sing the sycophantic praises of the monarch who had -signed the proscriptions of the triumvirate, and rivetted a despotism -on his country.</p> - -<p>But the men who most adorned the various departments of learning -during the long reign of Augustus, were born in the last days of the -republic. They saw what the glory of the commonwealth had been—they -beheld with their own eyes the greatness of their country, and they -had inhaled in their youth the breath of freedom. No Roman writer, -for example, excels the Lyric Bard in true feeling and sympathy for -heroic greatness. We ever behold through the medium of his -writings—even the gayest—a deep rooted sorrow locked up in his -bosom, for the subversion of the liberties of the commonwealth. "On -every occasion we can see the inspiring flame of patriotism and -freedom breaking through that mist of levity in which his poetry is -involved." "He constrained his inclinations," says Schlegel, "and -endeavored to write like a royalist, but in spite of himself he is -still manifestly a republican and a Roman."<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Horace fought under Brutus and Cassius, on the side of -the Republic, at the battle of Philippi, and he was after the battle -saved from the wreck of the republican army, and treated with great -respect and kindness by Augustus and his minister Mecænas.</small></blockquote> - -<p>"In the last years of Augustus," says the same writer, "the younger -generation who were born, or at least grew up to manhood, after the -commencement of the monarchy, were altogether different. We can -already perceive the symptoms of declining taste—in Ovid -particularly, who is overrun with an unhealthy superfluity of fancy, -and a sentimental effeminacy of expression." Even History itself, in -which the Romans so far excelled, yielded to the corrupting influence -of the Cæsars. Tacitus concluded the long series of splendid and -vigorous writers, and he grew up and was educated under the -comparatively happy reigns of Vespasian and Titus, and wrote under -the mild government of Nerva. Unnatural pomp and extravagance of -expression seem, strange as it may appear, to be the necessary -results of social and political degradation. And it is curious indeed -to behold among the writers under the first Cæsars, the extraordinary -compounds which genius can produce, when impelled on the one hand by -the all-powerful and stimulating love of liberty, and vivid glimpses -of the real dignity of human nature, while checked and subdued on the -other by the fear of arbitrary power. Take Lucan for an example. "In -him we find the most outrageously republican feelings making their -chosen abode in the breast of a wealthy and luxurious courtier of -Nero. It excites surprise and even disgust, to observe how he stoops -to flatter that disgusting tyrant, in expressions the meanness of -which amounts to a crime, and then in the next page, exalts Cato -above the Gods themselves, and speaks of all the enemies of the first -Cæsar with an admiration that approaches to idolatry."</p> - -<p>Let us now look for an exemplification of the same great truths, to -the reign of Louis the fourteenth, a reign which has been celebrated -as the zenith of warlike and literary splendor—and here I borrow the -language of Macintosh. "Talent seemed robbed of the conscious -elevation, of the erect and manly port, which is its noblest -associate and its surest indication. The mild purity of Fenelon, the -lofty spirit of Bossuet, the masculine mind of Boileau, the sublime -fervor of Corneille, were confounded by the contagion of ignominious -and indiscriminate servility." Purity, propriety and beauty of style, -were indeed carried during this reign to a high pitch of perfection. -The literature of this period was "the highest attainment of the -imagination." An aristocratic society, such as that which adorned the -court of Louis XIV, is particularly favorable to the delicacy and -polish of style, the fascinations of wit and gaiety, and to all the -decorations of an elegant imagination. No one has ever surpassed -Racine, Fenelon, and Bossuet, in purity of style and elegance of language.</p> - -<p>The literature of this age, however, as well asserted by Madame de -Stael, was not a "philosophic power." "Sometimes indeed, authors were -seen, like Achilles, to take up warlike weapons in the midst of -frivolous employments, but, in general, books at that time did not -treat upon subjects of <i>real</i> importance. Literary men retired to a -distance from the active interests of life. An analysis of the -principles of government, an examination into religious opinions, a -just appreciation of men in power, every thing in short that could -lead to any applicable result, was strictly forbidden them." Hence, -however perfect the compositions of this age in mere style and -ornament, we find them sadly deficient in profundity of reflection -and utility of purpose. The human mind during this period had not yet -reached its proper elevation, because it was enthralled by arbitrary -power. The succeeding, was one of more grandeur of thought, and -consequently of a more bold, daring, and profound philosophy. In vain -would we look over the annals of the age of Louis XIV, to find a -parallel to Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and Raynal. And what, let -me ask, had so soon produced this mighty difference in the philosophy -of France? It surely could not be the patronage of that base, -profligate, licentious libertine, who during the period of his -unfortunate regency, loosened the very foundation of human virtue, -polluted the morals of his country, and weakened or destroyed those -dearest of ties which bind together in harmony, in happiness and in -love, the whole social fabric. It could not surely be the patronage -of a monarch who had been reared and educated in such a school as -this. No! it was the new spirit which animated the age—the spirit of -liberty—the spirit of free inquiry—the spirit of utility. It was -this spirit which quickened and aroused the stagnant genius of the -nation, and filled the soul with the "<i>aliquid immensum -infinitumque</i>," which had in the days of antiquity inspired the -eloquence of a Tully and the sublime vehemence of Demosthenes. It was -this new spirit, and not the puny patronage of a monarch, that called -forth <span class="pagenum"><a name="page264"><small><small>[p. 264]</small></small></a></span> -those intellectual giants of their age, Voltaire, -Montesquieu and Rousseau, who have traced out three different periods -in the progress of reflection—and if I may borrow the language of De -Stael, like the Gods of Olympus, have gone over the ground in three -steps. It was this new spirit in fine, which in spite of the -influence of the monarch and his nobility, sapped the foundation of -the throne and hastened on the awful crisis of revolution in that -devoted country.</p> - -<p>Thus do we see that it is only the lighter kinds of literature, and -the physical and mathematical sciences, which the patronage of a -monarch can be expected to foster. In those nobler and more useful -branches of knowledge—moral, mental, religious, and political,—the -patronage of the throne clips the wings of philosophy and arrests the -growth of science and the progress of truth.<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> In the great Austrian University established at Vienna, -the Professor of Statistics is strictly forbidden to present to the -view of his class any other Statistics than those of Austria, lest -this country should suffer by comparison with others. How limited -must be the range of intellect on political subjects under such fatal -restrictions as this, imposed by the narrow jealousy of arbitrary power!</small></blockquote> - -<p>So far from this particular species of literature flourishing most -under the bounty and patronage of a monarch, we find, in almost every -monarchy, the party arrayed against the government, at the same time -the most talented and the most philosophical party. The remark is -susceptible of still greater generalization. I may, perhaps, with -truth assert that in every age and in every nation, the men who have -arrayed themselves against the usurpations of government, whether -monarchical or republican—the men who have arrayed themselves on the -side of liberty, who have led on the forlorn hope against the -aggressions of despotism, have been the men who against the patronage -of power and wealth, have reared up those systems of philosophy that -time cannot destroy—they are the men who have performed those noble -achievements which most illustrate their country, and weave for it -the chaplet of its glory—these are the men whose eloquence has -shaken senates and animated nations. These are the men, who, whatever -may be their destiny whilst they live, will ever be remembered and -honored by a grateful posterity. Where now are those writings which -contend for <i>jure divino</i> rights and patriarchal power?—past and -gone! The Filmers are forgotten, the Hobbes are despised—while the -writings of Locke will live forever, and the memory of Sidney and -Russell and Hampden will be cherished through all ages. What were the -Grenvilles and the Norths in more recent times, when compared with -Chatham, Burke, Fox and Sheridan, in England, or with the -Washingtons, Franklins, Henrys, Jeffersons and Adamses of our own -revolutionary crisis. And thus would a review of the history of the -world bear me out in the assertion, that in almost every age and -country since the annals of history have become authentic, the -opposition literature, in moral, political and religious philosophy -has been purer, deeper, more vivifying and useful, than that sickly -literature which has grown up under the shadow of the throne, though -encouraged and stimulated by the smiles of power, and sustained and -fostered by the lavish expenditure of exhaustless treasures.</p> - -<p>The only additional remark which I shall make upon the general -question of the relative influences exerted upon the progress of -literature and the development of character, by the monarchical and -republican forms of government is, that in the former the aspirants -to office and honors look upwards to the throne and the nobility, in -the latter they look downwards to the people. This simple difference -between the two governments is calculated to produce the most -extensive and material consequences. In the first place, the kind of -talent requisite for success under the two governments, is very -different. Even Mr. Hume himself acknowledges, that, to be successful -with the people, it is generally necessary for a man to make himself -<i>useful</i> by his industry, capacity, or knowledge; to be prosperous -under a monarchy, it is requisite to render himself <i>agreeable</i> by -his wit, complaisance, or civility. "A strong genius succeeds best in -republics: a refined taste in monarchies. And consequently the -sciences are the more natural growth of the one, and the polite arts -of the other." We are told, that in France under the old monarchy, -men did not expect to reach the elevated offices of government either -by hard labor, close study, or real efficiency of character. A <i>bon -mot</i>, some peculiar gracefulness, was frequently the occasion of the -most rapid promotions; and these frequent examples, we are told, -inspired a sort of careless philosophy, a confidence in fortune, and -a contempt for studious exertions, which could only end in a -sacrifice of utility to mere pleasure and elegance.</p> - -<p>The fate of individuals under those circumstances is determined, not -by their intrinsic worth or real talents, but by their capacity to -please the monarch and his court. Poor Racine, we are told by St. -Çimon, was banished forever from the royal sunshine in which he had -so long basked, because in a moment of that absence of mind for which -he was remarkable, he made an unlucky observation upon the writings -of Scarron in presence of the king and Madame de Maintenon, which -could never be forgotten or forgiven. We all know that the Raleighs, -Leicesters, Essexes, &c. under the energetic reign of Elizabeth, were -much more indebted to their personal accomplishments and devoted and -adulatory gallantries, for their rapid promotions, than to any real -services which they had rendered, or extraordinary talents which they -had displayed. And in the time of Queen Anne, it has been said that -the scale was turned in favor of passive obedience and nonresistance, -by the Duchess of Marlborough's gloves; and the ill humor of the -Duchess caused the recall of Marlborough, which alone could have -saved the kingdom of France from almost certain conquest at that -eventful crisis.</p> - -<p>Another consequence which almost necessarily follows from the -difference just pointed out between the monarchical and republican -forms of government, is, that the stimulus furnished by the former, -both to thought and action, is much less universal in its operation -than that furnished by the latter. In the republican form of -government, the sovereignty of the people is the mainspring—the -moving power of the whole political engine. This sovereignty pervades -the whole nation, like the very atmosphere we breath—it reaches to -the farthest, and binds the most distant together. In a well -administered and well balanced republic, it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265"><small><small>[p. 265]</small></small></a></span> matters not where -our lot may be cast, whether in the north or the south, at the centre -or on the confines, the action of the political machine is still made -to reach us—to stimulate our energies and waken up our ambition. The -people under this system become more enlightened and more energetic, -because the exercise of sovereignty leads to reflection, and creates -a demand for knowledge. Aspirants to office must study to become -useful, intelligent and efficient, for by these attributes they will -be the better enabled to win that popularity which may ensure the -suffrages of those around them, so necessary to their attainment of -political elevation—and thus does the republican system operate on -all, and call into action the latent talent and energy of the -country, no matter where they may exist.</p> - -<p>In the monarchy, on the contrary, the moving spring of the whole -machinery lies at the centre—the virtual sovereignty of the nation -reposes in the capital. The want of political rights and powers sinks -the dignity of the people, stagnates the public mind, and torpifies -all the energies of man. In such a body politic you may have action -and life, and even greatness at the centre, whilst you have the -torpor and lethargy of death itself at the extremities. The man who -is born at a distance from the capital has no chance for elevation -there. If he aspires to political distinction he must make a -pilgrimage to the seat of government. He must travel up to court, -where alone he can bask in the beams of the royal sunshine. How -partial is the operation of such a system as this! How many noble -intellects may pass undiscovered and undeveloped under its sway! How -many noble achievements may be lost, for the want of a proper -opportunity to display them! And all this may happen while the -monarch and his court are disposed to foster literature, to encourage -talent, and to stimulate into action all the energies of the -nation.<small><small><sup>4</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> Hence we see at once the error committed by the great -author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in the assertion, -that the absolute monarchy would be the most desirable form of -government in the world, if such men as Nerva, Trajan, and the -Antonines could always be upon the throne.</small></blockquote> - -<p>But how debasing does this form of government become, when the -monarch, either from policy or inclination, shuns the talent and -virtue of the country, addresses himself to the lowest, the most -vulgar and most selfish passions of man, and draws around him into -the high places of the government men taken from the lowest and most -despised functions of life. "Kings," says Burke, "are naturally -lovers of low company; they are so elevated above all the rest of -mankind that they must look upon all their subjects as on a level." -They are apt, unless they be wise men, to hate the talent and virtue -of the country, and attach themselves to those vile instruments who -will consent to flatter their caprices, pander to their low and -grovelling pleasures, and offer up to them the disgusting incense of -sycophantic fawning adulation. Every man of talent and virtue is an -obstacle in the path of such a monarch as this—he holds up to his -view a most hateful mirror. When such monarchs as these are on the -throne, the government exercises the most withering influence on the -intellect and virtue of the country. Science is dishonored and -persecuted because she is virtuous, because she will consent to -flatter neither the monarch on his throne nor his sycophantic -courtier—she will consent to mingle in no degrading strife, nor does -she bring up any reserve to the dishonest minister, either to swell -his triumph or to break his fall. When men of rank thus sacrifice all -ideas of dignity to an ambition without a useful and noble object, -and work with low instruments and for low ends, the whole composition -becomes low and base. Whilst Tiberius surrenders himself into the -keeping of so vile a being as Sejanus—whilst Nero is fiddling and -dancing, and Commodus in the arena with the gladiators—all that is -noble and great in the empire must retire into the shade and seek for -safety in solitude and obscurity.</p> - -<p>When Louis XI dismissed from the court those faithful nobles and -distinguished citizens, who had stood by his father and saved the -monarch and his throne in the hour of adversity, and filled their -places with men taken from the lowest and meanest condition of life, -with no other merit than that possessed by the eunuch guard of the -Medio-Persian monarch, of adhering to the king, because despised by -all the world besides, he conquered, for the time at least, the -virtue, the chivalry, the real greatness of France. Well, then, may -we say, in the emphatic language of England's most philosophic -statesman, "Woe to the country which would madly and impiously reject -the service of the talents and virtues, civil, military or religious, -that are given to grace and to serve it; and would condemn to -obscurity every thing formed to diffuse lustre and glory around a -state. Woe to that country too, that considers a low education, a -mean contracted view of things, a sordid, mercenary occupation, as a -preferable title to command."</p> - -<p>But it may be asked, may not some of the effects which I have just -described as flowing from monarchy, be produced under the republican -form of government? To this I answer that almost all of them may be -expected to be the result of one homogeneous republic, stretching -over a great extent of territory, including a numerous population and -a great diversity of interest; but, as such a government as this has -been wisely provided against in our country at least, by a system of -confederated republics, I will now proceed to the main object of my -discourse this evening—to point out the peculiar influence which our -federative system of government is calculated to produce upon -literature and character.</p> - -<p>And in the first place, supposing our system to continue as perfect -in practice as it undoubtedly is in theory, a mere statistical exposé -of its future condition in regard to numbers and wealth at no very -distant period, is of itself sufficient to present to our view -prospects of the most cheering and animating character. We have a -territory extending over three millions of square miles, composed of -soils of every variety and every degree of fertility, stretching -almost from the tropics to the poles in one direction, and from the -Atlantic to the Pacific in the other. We have spread sparsely over a -portion of this immense territorial expanse, a population of fifteen -millions, principally descended from that nation in Europe, which is -at the same time the most wealthy, the most powerful, the most -enterprising, the most free, the most civilized, and perhaps the most -moral, purely religious and intellectual nation, among all the great -powers of Europe. This population, which has, so far, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266"><small><small>[p. 266]</small></small></a></span> shown -itself worthy of the immortal stock of ancestors from which it is -descended, is rapidly advancing in numbers and in wealth. Our -censuses have hitherto shown a duplication of our population, in -periods of less time than twenty-five years. We will assume, however, -this period in our calculation, and we shall find this elastic spring -of population, (if we can only bind down the movements of the -governments of our system within their prescribed orbits,) of itself, -like the magic wand of the enchanter, or the marvellous lamp of -Aladdin, capable of achieving all which may confer glory and power -and distinction on nations. In a period of seventy-five years, which -is but a short time in a nation's history, we shall have a population -of one hundred and twenty millions of souls, and yet not so dense as -the population of many of the states of Europe. We shall then have an -empire, formed by mere internal development, as populous as that of -Rome and much more wealthy, speaking all the same language, and -living under the same or similar institutions.</p> - -<p>Let us then for a moment contemplate the inspiring influence which -the mere grandeur of such a theatre is calculated to produce on -literature and character. Whether the author write for wealth or for -fame, or for usefulness, he will have the most unbounded field open -to his exertions. The law which secures the property in his -productions throughout such an immense empire, will ensure the most -unlimited pecuniary patronage to all that is valuable and great, a -patronage beyond what kings and princes can furnish. And the most -powerful stimulus will be applied to every noble and generous -principle of his nature, by the simple reflection that complete -success in his literary efforts will introduce him to the knowledge -of millions, all of whom may be edified by his instruction, or made -more happy by the enjoyment of that literary repast which he may -spread before them.</p> - -<p>Do we not read of the mighty influence produced upon mind and body in -ancient Greece, by the assemblages at the Olympic games? It was the -hope of winning the prizes before these assemblages which called -forth energy and awakened genius. It was under the thrilling -applauses of these bodies that Herodotus recited his prose, and -Pindar his poetry. And what, let me ask, was the great idea which -animated every Roman writer? It was the idea of <i>Rome</i> herself—of -Rome so wonderful in her ancient manners and laws—so great even in -her errors and crimes. It was this idea which was breathed from the -lips of her orators and embalmed in her literature—it is this idea -which stamps the character of independent dignity and grandeur on the -page of her philosophy, her history and her poetry.</p> - -<p>But what were the multitudes that could be assembled together in -Elis, or the heterogeneous half civilized polyglot people of the -Roman Empire, bound together by the strong arm of power and overawed -by the presence of the legions, in comparison with the millions that -will ere long spring up within the limits of our wide spread -territory,—speaking the same language,—formed under similar -institutions,—and impelled by the same inspiring spirit of independence?</p> - -<p>Another advantage which it is proper to present, as growing out of -that condition of our people, which a mere statistical exposé will -exhibit, is the security furnished by the magnitude and resources of -our country, and by the immense distance of all bodies politic of -great power and ambition, from our borders, against foreign invasion, -or foreign interference in domestic concerns. I shall not here dwell -upon the consequent exemption of our country from those mighty -engines of despotism, overgrown navies and armies, and the -deleterious influence which these essentially anti-literary -establishments exercise over the genius and energy of man. I shall -merely briefly advert to some of the effects which this security of -individuals and states against foreign aggression is calculated to -produce on individual enterprise and state exertion.</p> - -<p>Since the governments of the world have become more regular and -stable, and the great expense of war has made even victory and -conquest ruinous to nations, rulers are beginning to look to the -development of the internal resources of their countries, more than -to foreign conquest and national spoliations. The great system of -internal improvement in all its branches, is without doubt one of the -most powerfully efficient means which can be devised to hurry forward -the accumulation of wealth, and speed on the progress of -civilization. The canal and the rail road, the steam boat and the -steam car, the water power and steam power, constitute in fact the -great and characteristic powers of the nineteenth century—they are -the mighty civilizers of the age in which we live. They bind together -in harmony and concord the discordant interests of nations, and like -the vascular system of the human frame, they produce a wholesome -circulation, and a vivifying and stimulating action throughout the -whole body politic.</p> - -<p>These great improvements in our own country, with but few exceptions, -and those well defined, ought to be executed solely by states and -individuals. But neither states nor individuals would execute those -necessary works, without security from interruption and invasion, and -consequent security in the enjoyment of the profits which they might -yield. What wealthy individual in our own state, for example, would -erect a costly bridge across one of our rivers, or embark his capital -in the construction of a canal or rail road, if foe or friend might -blow up his bridge during the next year, or a war might interrupt -trade, and perhaps a treaty of peace might cede the canal or rail way -to a different state?</p> - -<p>Of all the nations in Europe, England is the one which has been most -exempt from foreign invasion, and we find in that country that -individual enterprise has achieved more in the cause of internal -improvement than in any other nation in Europe; and the prosperity -and real greatness of England are no doubt due in a great measure to -the energy and enterprise of her citizens. In the continental nations -we find this constant liability to invasion every where paralyzing -the enterprise of both individuals and states. One of the most -skilful engineers of France tells us that in passing through some of -the frontier provinces of that country, he every where beheld the -most mournful evidences of the want of both national and individual -enterprise, in miserable roads, in decayed or fallen bridges, in the -absence of canals and turnpikes, of manufactures, commerce, and even -of agriculture itself, in many almost deserted regions. Paris, the -second city in Europe in point of numbers and wealth, and the capital -of the nation hitherto most powerful on the continent, has not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267"><small><small>[p. 267]</small></small></a></span> -yet in this age of ardor and enterprise, constructed either a canal -or rail road to the ocean, or even to any intermediate point. If our -federative system contained within its borders a city thus wealthy -and populous, and so well situated, can there be a doubt that it -would long ere this have sent its rail roads and canals not only to -the ocean, but in all probability to the Rhine and the Danube, to the -Rhone, the Garonne, and the Mediterranean.</p> - -<p>This spirit of improvement, under the hitherto benign protection of -our government, is already abroad in the land. New York and -Pennsylvania have already executed works which rival in splendor and -grandeur the boasted monuments of Egypt, Rome or China, and far excel -them in usefulness and profit. The states of the south and west too -are moving on in the same noble career. And our own Virginia, the -<i>Old Dominion</i>, has at last awakened from her inglorious repose, and -is pushing forward with vigor her great central improvement, destined -soon to pass the Blue Ridge and Alleghany ranges of mountains, and -thus to realize the fable of antiquity, which represented the -sea-gods as driving their herds to pasture on the mountains.</p> - -<center><small>"Omne cum Proteus pecus egit altos<br> - - Visere montes."</small></center> - -<p>One certain effect of our great systems of improvement must be the -rearing up of large towns throughout our country. I know full well -that great cities are cursed with great vices. The worst specimens of -the human character, squalid poverty, gorgeous, thoughtless luxury, -misery and anxiety, are all to be found in them. But we find, at the -same time, the noblest and most virtuous specimens of our race on the -same busy, bustling theatre. Mind is here brought into collision with -mind—intellect whets up intellect—the energy of one stimulates the -energy of another—and thus we find all the great improvements -originate here. It is the cities which constitute the great moving -power of society; the country population is much more tardy in its -action, and thus becomes the regulator to the machinery. It is the -cities which have hurried forward the great revolutions of modern -times, "whether for weal or woe." It is the cities which have made -the great improvements and inventions in mechanics and the arts. It -is the great cities which have pushed every department of literature -to the highest pitch of perfection. It is the great cities alone -which can build up and sustain hospitals, asylums, -dispensaries—which can gather together large and splendid libraries, -form literary and philosophical associations, assemble together bands -of literati, who stimulate and encourage each other. In fine, it is -the large cities alone which can rear up and sustain a mere literary -class. When there shall arise in this country, as there surely will, -some eight or ten cities of the first magnitude, we shall then find -the opprobrium which now attaches to us, of having no national -literature, wiped away; and there are no doubt some branches of -science which we are destined to carry to a pitch of perfection which -can be reached no where else. Where, for example, can the great -moral, political, and economical sciences be studied so successfully -as here? And this leads me at once to the consideration of the -operation of the state or federative system of government, which I -regard as the most beautiful feature in our political system, and -that which is calculated to produce the most beneficial influence -both on the progress of science, and on the development of character.</p> - -<p>It has been observed, under all great governments acting over wide -spread empires, that both the arts and literature quickly come to a -stand, and most generally begin to decline afterwards. In fact, Mr. -Hume makes the bold assertion in his Essays, "that when the arts and -sciences come to perfection in any state, from that moment they -naturally or rather necessarily decline, and seldom or never revive -in that nation where they formerly flourished." His remark is -certainly much more applicable to large monarchical governments than -to such a system as ours. In large countries, with great national -governments, there will be quickly formed in literature as perfect a -despotism as exists in politics. Some few great geniuses will arise, -explore certain departments of literature, earn an imperishable -reputation, die, and bequeath to posterity in their writings a model -ever after to be imitated, and for that very reason never to be -excelled. And thus it is that certain standard authors establish -their dominion in the world of letters, and impose a binding law on -their successors, who, it has been well said, do nothing more than -transpose the incidents, new-name the characters, and paraphrase the -sentiments of their great prototypes. It is known that under the -Roman emperors, even as late as the time of Justinian, Virgil was -called <i>the poet</i>, by way of distinction, throughout the western -empire, while Homer received the same appellation in the eastern -empire. These two poets were of undisputed authority to all their -successors in epic poetry.</p> - -<p>We are told that in the vast empire of China, speaking but one -language, governed by one law, and consequently moulded into one dull -homogeneous character, this literary despotism is still more marked. -When the authority of a great teacher, like that of Confucius, is -once established, the doctrine of passive obedience to such authority -is just as certainly enforced upon succeeding literati as the same -doctrine towards the monarch is enforced on the subject. Now all this -has a tendency to cramp genius, and paralyze literary effort.</p> - -<p>The developing genius of the modern world was arrested in the career -of invention at least, and the imagination was tamed down by the -servile imitation of the ancients immediately after the revival of -letters. And perhaps one of the greatest benefits conferred on -learning by the reformation, consisted of the new impulse that was -suddenly communicated to the human mind—an impulse that at once -broke asunder the bonds which the literature of the ancient world had -rivetted—set free the mind after directing it into a new career of -inquiry and investigation, unshackled even by the Latin language, -which had so long robbed the vernacular tongues of Europe of the -honors justly due to them from the literati of the age.<small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> I would not by any means be understood as advancing the -opinion that the language and literature of the ancients have been -always an impediment to the progress of modern literature. On the -contrary, at the revival of letters, the moderns were an almost -immeasurable distance in the rear of the ancients. Ancient literature -then became a power, by which the moderns were at once elevated to -the literary level of antiquity; but when once we had reached that -point, all farther <i>exclusive</i> devotion to the learning and the -language of antiquity became hurtful to the mind by the trammels -which it imposed. The study of the classics will forever be useful -and interesting to him who aspires to be a scholar. But it becomes -injurious when we make it our exclusive study, and substitute the -undefined and loose system of morality—the high sounding and empty -philosophy of the ancients, for the purer morals and deeper learning -of the moderns.</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268"><small><small>[p. 268]</small></small></a></span> -<p>But not only do great writers in large nations establish their -authority over their successors, and thus set bounds to the progress -of literature, but they repress the genius of the country by -discouraging those first intellectual efforts of young aspirants for -fame, which appear insignificant by comparison with established -models. Now in literature, as well as in the accumulation of wealth, -the proverb is strictly true, that it is the first step which is the -most difficult, "<i>c'est le premier pas qui coute</i>." The timid and the -modest, (and real genius is always modest,) are frequently deterred -from appearing in a particular department of literature, because of -the great distance at which their first efforts must fall in the rear -of the standard authors who have preceded them. They are overawed and -alarmed at the first step which it is necessary to take, and -frequently recoil from the task, sinking back into the quiet -obscurity of listlessness and mental inactivity—whereas, if a proper -encouragement could have been furnished to their incipient labors, it -would have cheered and animated them in their literary career, and -finally conducted them to proud and exalted rank in the world of letters.</p> - -<p>The splendor, profundity, and irresistible fascination of -Shakspeare's plays, have perhaps deterred many a genius in England -from writing plays. So Corneille and Racine have no doubt produced -similar effects in France. Even the great names which I have -mentioned, would have been overawed, if in the commencement of their -career, they had been obliged to contend with their own more splendid -productions. "If Moliere and Corneille," said Hume, "were to bring -upon the stage at present their early productions which were formerly -so well received, it would discourage the young poets to see the -indifference and disdain of the public. The ignorance of the age -alone could have given admission to the '<i>Prince of Tyre;</i>' but it is -to that we owe '<i>The Moor</i>.' Had '<i>Every Man in his Humor</i>' been -rejected, we had never seen '<i>Volpone</i>.'"</p> - -<p>Now there is no system of government which has ever been devised by -man, better calculated to remove the withering and blighting -influence of great names in literature, and at the same time to -insure the full possession of all the great benefits which their -labors can confer, than the federal system of republics—a system -which, at the same time that it binds the states together in peace -and harmony, leaves each one in the possession of a government of its -own, with its sovereignty and liberty unimpaired. In such a condition -as this, there is a wholesome circulation of literature from one -state to another, without establishing, however, any thing like a -dictatorship in the republic of letters. A salutary rivalry is -generated; and a true and genuine patriotism, I must be allowed to -assert, will always lead us to foster and stimulate genius, wherever -we may perceive symptoms of its development, throughout the limits of -that commonwealth to which we are attached. The soldier in the field -may love the marshal, and feel an attachment to the grand army which -has been so often led to conquest and glory; but I must confess that -I admire more that warm, generous, and sympathetic attachment, which -his heart feels for that small division and its officer with which he -has been connected—for that little platoon in which his own name has -been enrolled, and where his own little share of glory has been won.</p> - -<p>The history of antiquity, and the history of the modern world, alike -show that small independent contiguous states, speaking the same -language, living under similar governments, actuated by similar -impulses, and bound together by the ties of cordial sympathy and -mutual welfare, are the most favorable for the promotion of -literature and science—in fine, for the development of every thing -that is great, noble, and useful. On such a theatre, the candidate -for literary honor is not overawed by the fame of those who have won -trophies in adjoining states. He looks to the commonwealth to which -he is attached, for support and applause; and when his name begins to -be known abroad, and his fame to spread, his horizon expands with the -increasing elevation of his station, until it comprehends the whole -system of homogeneous republics. In such a system as this, the -literature of each state will be aided and stimulated by that of all -the rest—it will draw from all the pure fountains in every quarter -of the world, without being manacled and stifled by the absolute -authority of any. In such a system as this, there is no <i>jure divino</i> -right in science—there is no national prejudice fostered in a -national literature; respect, and even veneration, will be paid in -such a system to all true learning, wherever it may be found; but -there will be no worship, no abject submission to literary dictators. -And if such a people may fail to form a regular homogeneous national -literature, they will perhaps for that very reason be enabled to -carry each art and science, in the end, to a higher pitch of -perfection than it could reach if trammelled by the binding laws -imposed by an organized national literature.</p> - -<p>Among the nations of the earth which have made any progress in -civilization, we find from the operation of causes which it would be -foreign from my object to explain, that Asia most abounds in great -and populous empires. And it is precisely in this quarter of the -globe that we find a most irresistible despotism in both government -and literature. Europe is divided into smaller states, and in them we -find more popular governments, and more profound literature. Of all -the portions of Europe, Greece was anciently the most divided; but as -long as those little states could preserve their freedom, they were -by far the most successful cultivators, in the ancient world, of -every art and every science. The literature of the little republics -of Italy, during the middle ages, illustrates the same great -principles; and the rapid progress of the little states of Germany, -since the general pacification of Europe in 1815, in literary and -philosophical research of every kind, proves likewise the truth of -the remarks made above.</p> - -<p>Germany was accused by Madame de Stael of having no national -literature: but the German state system of government, though by no -means equal to ours, bids fair to carry German literature beyond that -of any other nation in Europe. Although the literati of these small -states are not trammelled either by their own or foreign literature, -yet there is no body of learned men -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269"><small><small>[p. 269]</small></small></a></span> in the world who profit -more by all that is really good and great in the learning of their -neighbors. Without any narrow prejudices, they go with eagerness in -search of truth and beauty wherever they are to be found. Every -literature in the world has been cultivated by the Germans. We are -told that "Shakspeare and Homer occupy the loftiest station in the -poetical Olympus, but there is space in it for all true singers out -of every age and clime. Ferdusi, and the primeval mythologists of -Hindostan, live in brotherly union with the troubadours and ancient -story-tellers of the west. The wayward, mystic gloom of Calderon—the -lurid fire of Dante—the auroral light of Tasso—the clear, icy -glitter of Racine, all are acknowledged and reverenced."</p> - -<p>Of all modern literature, the German has the best, as well as the -most translations. In 1827, there were three entire versions of -Shakspeare, all admitted to be good, besides many that were partial, -or considered inferior. How soon, let me ask, would the literature of -Germany wane away, if all her little independent states were moulded -into one consolidated empire, with a great central government in the capital?</p> - -<p>But the most beneficial influence produced upon literature and -character under the federative system of government, springs from the -operation of the state governments themselves. We have seen that the -monarchical government, in a large state, fails to stimulate learning -and elicit great activity of character, because its influence does -not pervade the whole body politic—while the centre may be properly -acted on, the confines are in a state of inextricable languor. A -great consolidated republican government, if such an one could exist, -would be little better than a monarchy. The aspirants for the high -offices in such a nation, would all look up to the government as the -centre for promotion, and not to the people. The talent and ambition -of the country would have to make the same weary pilgrimage here as -in the monarchies—to travel up to court—to fawn upon and flatter -the men whom fortune had thrown into the high places of the -government. The stimulus which such a government could afford, must -necessarily be of the most partial and capricious character. A system -of state governments preserves the sovereignty unimpaired in every -portion of the country; it carries the beneficial stimulus, which -government itself is capable of applying to literature and character, -to every division of the people. Under such governments as these, if -properly regulated, and not overawed or corrupted by central -power—it matters very little where a man's destiny may place him, -whether he may be born on the borders of the Lakes, on the banks of -the Mississippi, or even in future times on the distant shores of the -Pacific—the sovereignty is with him—the action of the state and -federal governments reaches him in his distant home as effectually as -if he had been born in the federal metropolis, or on the banks of the -Potomac, or the waters of the Chesapeake.</p> - -<p>Under such a system as this, there is no one part more favored than -the rest; but all are subjected to similar governments, and operated -on by similar stimulants. In all other countries the term province is -a term of reproach. Niebuhr tells us that in France the best book -published in Marseilles or Bordeaux is hardly mentioned. <i>C'est -publie dans la province</i> is enough to consign the book at once to -oblivion—so complete is the literary dictatorship of Paris over all -France. In such a system as ours, we have no provinces; if the -governments shall only move in their prescribed orbits, all will be -principals, all will be heads—each member of the confederacy will -stand on the same summit level with every other. While this condition -of things exists, the institutions of one state will not be -disparaged or overshadowed by those of another—not even by those of -the central department. A great and flourishing university for -example, established in one state, will but encourage the -establishment of another in an adjoining state. The literary efforts -of one will not damp or impede those of another, but will stimulate -it to enter on the same career.</p> - -<p>Where, in all Europe for example, can be found so large a number of -good universities for the same amount of population as in the states -of Germany. The number, it is said, has reached thirty-six—nineteen -Protestant, and seventeen Catholic; and nearly all of them, -particularly the Protestant, are in a flourishing condition. Even as -early as 1826 there were twenty-two universities in Germany, not one -of which numbered less than two hundred students. And Villers tells -us that there is more real knowledge in one single university, as -that of Gottingen, Halle, or Jena, than in all the eight universities -of San Jago de Compostella, Alcala, Orihuela, &c. of the consolidated -monarchy of Spain.<small><small><sup>6</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>6</sup></small> The literature of Spain has never revived since the -consolidation of her government under Charles and Philip. It -flourished most, strange as it may appear, when the Spanish peninsula -was divided among several independent governments, and when the -spirit of independence and individuality was excited to the highest -pitch by that spirit of honor, love of adventure, and of individual -notoriety, infused into the nations of Europe by the Institution of -Chivalry. "The literature of Spain," says Sismondi, (Literature of -South Europe) "has, strictly speaking, only one period, that of -Chivalry. Its sole riches consist in its ancient honor and frankness -of character. The poem of the Cid first presented itself to us among -the Spanish works, as the Cid himself among the heroes of Spain; and -after him, we find nothing in any degree equalling either the noble -simplicity of his real character, or the charm of the brilliant -fictions of which he is the subject. Nothing that has since appeared -can justly demand our unqualified admiration. In the midst of the -most brilliant efforts of Spanish genius, our taste has been -continually wounded by extravagance and affectation, or our reason -has been offended by an eccentricity often bordering on folly." Spain -then furnishes a most convincing illustration of the melancholy -influence of great consolidated governments on mind and literature. -The poem of the Cid, so highly eulogized by Sismondi, is supposed to -have been written about the middle of the twelfth century.</small></blockquote> - -<p>If we look to that period of greatest glory in the history of modern -Italy, when her little states with all their bustle and faction were -still free—still unawed by the great powers of Europe, we shall -behold in her universities a beautiful exemplification of the truth -of the same principles. Almost every independent state had its -university or its college; and no matter how limited its territory, -or small its population, the spirit of the state system—the spirit -of liberty itself, breathed into these institutions the breath of -life, and made them the nurseries of genius and independence, of -science and literature.</p> - -<p>How soon was the whole character of Holland -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270"><small><small>[p. 270]</small></small></a></span> changed by the -benign operation of the federative system, after she had thrown off -the odious yoke of the Spanish monarchy! Soon did the spirit of -freedom give rise to five universities in this small but interesting -country. "When the city of Leyden, in common with all the lower -countries, had fought through the bloodiest and perhaps the noblest -struggle for liberty on record, the great and good William of Orange -offered her immunities from taxes, that she might recover from her -bitter sufferings, and be rewarded for the important services which -she had rendered to the sacred cause. Leyden however declined the -offer, and asked for nothing but the privilege of erecting a -university within her walls, as the best reward for more than human -endurance and perseverance." This simple fact, says the writer from -whom I have obtained this anecdote, is a precious gem to the student -of history; for if the protection of the arts and sciences reflects -great honor upon a monarch, though it be for vanity's sake, the -fostering care with which communities or republics watch over the -cultivation of knowledge, and the other ennobling pursuits of man, -sheds a still greater lustre upon themselves.</p> - -<p>In our own country, it is true that we have not yet passed into the -gristle and bone of literary manhood. But we have already established -more colleges and universities than exist perhaps in any other -country on the face of the globe. We have already about seventy-six -in operation, and some of them even now, whether we consider the -munificence of their endowments, or the learning which they can boast -of, would do credit to any age or country. If the time shall ever -come when our state governments shall be broken down, and the power -shall be concentrated in one great national system, then will the era -of state universities be past, and a few bloated, corrupt, <i>jure -divino</i> establishments will be reared in their stead, more interested -in the support of absolute power, and the suppression of truth, than -in the cause of liberty and freedom of investigation.<small><small><sup>7</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>7</sup></small> Perhaps in our country we have multiplied colleges to -too great an extent, and consequently have lessened their usefulness -by too great a division of the funds destined for their support. The -spirit of sectarianism co-operating with the system of state -governments, has produced this result. The college and university -ought, to some extent, to partake of the nature of a monopoly. There -should be some concentration of funds, or you will fail to obtain -adequate talents for your professorships. In our country -particularly, professors should be paid high, or they cannot be -induced to relinquish the more brilliant prospects which the learned -professions hold out to them. But the evil of too great a number of -colleges and universities, is one which will correct itself in the -course of time, by the ultimate failure of those not properly -endowed.</small></blockquote> - -<p>But it is said by some that the state system tinges all literature -with a political hue—that under this system politics becomes the -great, the engrossing study of the mind—that the lighter kinds of -literature and the fine arts will be neglected—that the mathematical -and physical sciences will be uncultivated—in fine, that the -literature of such a people will be purely utilitarian. This -objection is perhaps, founded principally upon too exclusive a view -of the past literary history of our own country. Up to this time -there has, if I may use the phraseology of political economy, been a -greater demand for political knowledge in this country than for any -other species of literature. The new political condition into which -we entered at the revolution—the formation of our state and federal -governments—the jarring and grating almost necessarily incident to -new political machinery just started into action—severely tested too -as ours has been, and is still, by the inharmonious and too often -selfish action of heterogeneous interests on each other—the -formation of new states, and the rapid development of new interests -and unforeseen powers, together with the great sparseness of our -population, have all contributed to turn the public mind of this -country principally to the field of politics and morals—and surely -we have arrived at an eminency on these subjects not surpassed in any -other country.</p> - -<p>One of the most distinguished writers on the continent of Europe, -even before the close of the eighteenth century, says most justly, -"the American literature, indeed, is not yet formed, but when their -magistrates are called upon to address themselves on any subject to -the public opinion, they are eminently gifted with the power of -touching all the affections of the heart, by expressing simple truths -and pure sentiments; and to do this, is already to be acquainted with -the most useful secret of elegant style." The Declaration of American -Independence, the Constitution of the United States, the speeches -delivered on it in the conventions of the states, particularly in -Virginia—the collection of essays known by the name of The -Federalist—the resolutions on the Alien and Sedition Laws, and the -report thereon in the Virginia Legislature of '98 and '99—with the -messages of our Presidents, documents from the Cabinets, speeches of -our congressmen,<small><small><sup>8</sup></small></small> and political -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271"><small><small>[p. 271]</small></small></a></span> expositions of our -distinguished statesmen, form altogether a mass of political learning -not to be surpassed in any other country. We are not to wonder then -that a German writer of much celebrity, and a defender too of the -Holy Alliance, in full view of the nascent literature of our country, -should have proclaimed the 4th of July, '76, as the commencement of a -new era in the history of the world; nor that that eloquent royalist -of France, the Vicompte de Chateaubriand, should assert that the -representative republic, which has been first reduced to practice in -the United States, is the most splendid discovery of modern times.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>8</sup></small> There is no species of talent which republican -institutions are better calculated to foster and perfect than that of -public speaking. Wherever the sovereignty resides with the people, -this talent becomes an engine of real power, and one of the surest -means of political advancement to the individual who possesses it. -Mr. Dunlop remarks, in his Roman Literature, that Cicero's treatise -<i>De Claris Oratoribus</i>, makes mention of scarcely one single orator -of any distinction in the Roman Republic, who did not rise to the -highest dignities of the state. We may certainly expect then, in the -progress of time, if our institutions shall endure, that the great -art of oratory will be carried to perhaps greater perfection here than -in any other country. Our federal system is particularly favorable to -the encouragement of this art. Had we but one great legislature in -this country, very few could ever be expected to figure in it, and -those would be the more elderly and sober. Under these circumstances, -the more ardent eloquence of the youthful aspirant might fail to be -developed, in consequence of the want of a proper stimulus. The state -governments now supply that stimulus in full force, and furnish the -first preparatory theatres for oratorical display. When in addition -to all this, we take into consideration the training which our public -men receive during the canvass, at the elections, in public meetings, -and even at the festive board, we must acknowledge that our system is -admirably calculated for the development of the talent for public -speaking. Perhaps I would not go beyond the truth in making the -assertion, that we have now in this country more and better trained -public speakers than are to be found in any other. Judging from our -own legislature and congress, I would say, without hesitation, that -our public men are generally the most efficient speakers in the -world, in comparison with their general ability and the learning -which they possess. In the latter, unfortunately, they are too often -very deficient.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It is very true that our style of speaking is too diffusive. Our -orators too often seem to be speaking against time, and to be utterly -incapable of condensation. It has been observed, that it would take -three or four of the great speeches of Demosthenes to equal in length -a speech which a second rate member of Congress would deliver <i>de -Lana Caprina</i>. I am well aware that this style is frequently the -result of confused ideas, and an indistinct conception of the subject -under discussion. But it arises in part from the nature of our -republican institutions. Most of the speeches delivered in Congress -are really intended for the constituency of those who deliver them, -and not to produce an effect in Washington. They are consequently of -an elementary character, long and labored too, to suit the pleasure -and the capacity of the people. From this cause, combined with -others, it has happened that the division of labor in our -deliberative bodies has never been so complete as in the British -Parliament. When particular subjects are brought up in that body, -particular men are immediately looked to for information, and for the -discussion of them. Men who are not supposed to be qualified on them, -are coughed down when they interrupt the body with their crude -remarks. But in our own country, particular subjects have not been -thus appropriated to particular individuals; and when a matter of -importance is brought up for discussion, all are anxious to speak on -it, and it is not to be wondered at that the clouded intellect of -some of the speakers, together with the great courtesy of the body, -should sometimes lead on to long-winded and tiresome effusions.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>No body in ancient times displayed so much patience and courtesy -towards its speakers as the Senate of Rome, and we are told that the -speeches delivered before the Roman Senate were much longer than -those delivered before the <i>Comitia</i>.—There is no body in modern -times which displays more impatience than the French Chambers, and -accordingly you find generally that the speeches delivered before -them are very short. But whatever may be the cause of this tendency -to prolixity in many of our speakers, we may console ourselves with -the reflection that it is not the fault of all—that there are some -now in the United States who can compare with any in the world—that -the eloquence of our country is decidedly advancing, and will no doubt -shed a much brighter lustre over our future history, if we can only -preserve our federal system in all its original purity and -perfection.</small></blockquote> - -<p>May we not then, judging even from the past, form the most brilliant -conceptions of the future? When our wide spread territory shall be -filled up with a denser population—when larger cities shall be -erected within our borders, the necessary nurseries of a literary -class—when physical and mental labor shall be more subdivided, then -will the intellectual level of our country begin to rise; the -increasing competition in every department of industry will call for -greater labor, greater energy, and more learning on the part of the -successful candidates for distinction. And then may we expect that -every branch of literature will be cultivated, and every art be -practiced by the matured and invigorated genius of the country.</p> - -<p>But although in the progress of time we may expect that literature in -all its forms and varieties will be successfully cultivated here, yet -we must still acknowledge that the character of our political system -will give a most decided bias towards moral and political science. -Under a system of republics like ours, where the sovereignty resides -<i>de jure</i> and <i>de facto</i> in the people, the business of politics is -the business of every man. Men in power, in every age and country, -are disposed to grasp at more than has been confided to them; they -have always developed wolfish propensities. To guard against these -dangerous propensities in a republic, it is necessary that the people -in whom the sovereignty resides, should always be on the watch-tower; -they should never be caught slumbering at their posts; they should -take the alarm not only against the palpable and open usurpations of -power, but against those gradual, secret, imperceptible changes, -which silently dig away the very foundations of our constitution, and -create no alarm until they are ready to shake down the whole fabric -of our liberties. Under these circumstances, it is the business of -every man—it is more, it is the duty of every man—to think, to -reflect, to instruct himself, that he may be prepared to perform that -part at least which must necessarily devolve on each freeman in the -great political drama of our country. He must recollect that the -great experiment of a free government depends upon the intelligence -and the virtue of the people. It is this knowledge and this virtue -which constitute at once their power and their safety. It is in the -reliance on this power, resulting from the intelligence and virtue of -the people alone, that the honest patriot may well exclaim in the -glowing language of Sheridan on a different subject, "I will give to -the minister a venal house of peers—I will give him a corrupt and -servile house of commons—I will give him the full swing of the -patronage of his office—I will give him all the power that place can -confer, to overawe resistance and purchase up submission; and yet -armed, with this mighty power of the people, I will shake down from -its height corruption, and bury it beneath the ruins of the abuse it -was meant to shelter."</p> - -<p>Surely then it can be no disadvantage to a country to direct the -virtue and talents of its citizens principally to that science whose -principles, when well understood and practiced on, will secure the -liberty and happiness of the people, but when mistaken by ignorance, -or perverted by corruption, will subvert the one, and dissipate the -other. Look to the past history of the world, from the days of the -Patriarchs to the days of our Presidents, and we are at a loss, after -the review, to determine whether the world has been injured more by -the unwise and unskilful efforts of statesmen and philanthropists to -benefit, or by the nefarious attempts of wicked men and tyrants to -injure it. We shall find from this review, that where a Hampden, a -Sidney, and a Russell have been crushed by the tyrannous exercise of -power, and been wept over by posterity after they had fallen, -thousands have been reduced to misery, or sent untimely out of the -world, unpitied and unmourned, by the stupid legislation of ignorant -statesmen. Of such bodies of functionaries, we may well exclaim, in -the language of England's bard,</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem30"> - <tr><td><small>"How much more happy were good Æsop's frogs<br> - Than we?—for ours are animated logs,<br> - With ponderous malice swaying to and fro,<br> - And crushing nations with a stupid blow."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The statistics of the densely populated countries of Europe and Asia -inform us, that there are large masses of population in those -countries constantly vacillating, if I may use the expression, -between life and death; a feather may decide the preponderance of the -scales, in favor of one or the other. In view of such a pregnant fact -as this, how awfully responsible becomes the duty -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272"><small><small>[p. 272]</small></small></a></span> of the -legislator! Suppose, whilst he is endeavoring to organize the labor -and capital of the country, he should unfortunately tamper with the -sources of production, and, if I may use the beautiful simile of -Fenelon, like him who endeavors to enlarge the native springs of the -rock, should suddenly find that his labors had but served to dry them -up,—what calamities would not such legislative blunders at once -inflict upon that lowest and most destitute class, which is already -holding on upon life, with so frail a tenure! How many would be -hastened prematurely out of existence! And these are the melancholy -every-day consequences, too often misunderstood or unnoticed, of -ignorant legislation. How vastly different is the benign influence of -that wise legislator, whose laws, in the language of Bacon, "are -deep, not vulgar; not made on the spur of a particular occasion for -the present, but out of Providence for the future, to make the estate -of the people still more and more happy!"</p> - -<p>But not only should political science be a prominent study in every -republic, in consequence of its immense importance and universal -application, but it demands the most assiduous cultivation, because -of the intrinsic difficulties which belong to it. There is no science -in which we are more likely to ascribe effects to wrong causes than -in politics—there is none which demands a more constant exercise of -reason and observation, and in which first impressions are so likely -to be false. The moral and political sciences, particularly the -latter, are much more difficult than the physical and mathematical. -There is scarcely any intellect, no matter how common, which may not, -by severe study and close application, be brought at last to master -mere physical and mathematical science. Eminence here is rather a -proof of labor than of genius.<small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>9</sup></small> A very able reviewer in Blackwood, of Allison's History -of the French Revolution, says of Napoleon, in attempting to disprove -his precocious greatness, "even his faculty for mathematics, which -has been frequently adduced as one of the most sufficient proofs of -his future fame as a soldier, fails; perhaps no faculty of the human -mind is less successful in promoting those enlarged views, or that -rapid and vigorous comprehension of the necessities of the moment, -which form the essentials of the great statesman or soldier. The -mathematician is generally the last man equal to the sudden -difficulties of situation, or even to the ordinary problems of human -life. Skill in the science of equations might draw up a clear system -of tactics on paper. But it must be a mental operation, not merely of -a more active, but of a totally different kind, which constructed the -recovery of the battle at Marengo, or led the march to Ulm."</small></blockquote> - -<p>But in matters of morals and politics how many must turn their -attention to them, and how few become eminent! Suppose that the -exalted talents which have been turned into a political career in -this country, had been employed with the same assiduity in physics or -mathematics—to what perfection might they not have attained in those -sciences? If the genius and study which have been expended upon one -great subject in political economy, the Banks for example, could have -been directed with equal ardor to mathematics and physics, with what -complete success would they have been crowned? And yet this whole -subject of Banking is far, very far from being thoroughly -comprehended by the most expanded intellects of the age. Thus do we -find the moral and political departments of literature the most -useful,<small><small><sup>10</sup></small></small> and at the same time much the most difficult to cultivate -with success. They require too a concurrence of every other species -of knowledge to their perfection, and hence the literature of that -country may always be expected to be most perfect and most useful, in -which these branches are made the centre, the great nucleus around -which the others are formed.<small><small><sup>11</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>10</sup></small> Dr. Johnson in his Life of Milton, has given us his -opinion on these subjects, and as it is perfectly coincident with my -own, I cannot forbear to add it in a note. "The truth is," says the -Doctor, "that the knowledge of external nature and the sciences which -that knowledge requires or includes, are not the great nor frequent -business of the human mind. Whether we provide for action or -conversation—whether we wish to be useful or pleasing, the first -requisite is the religious and moral knowledge of right and wrong; -the next is an acquaintance with the history of mankind, and with -those examples which may be said to embody truth, and prove by events -the reasonableness of opinions. Prudence and justice are virtues and -excellences of all times and of all places. We are perpetually -moralists, but we are geometricians only by chance. Our intercourse -with intellectual nature is necessary; our speculations upon matter -are voluntary, and at leisure. Physical learning is of such rare -emergence, that one may know another half his life, without being -able to estimate his skill in hydrostatics or astronomy; but his -moral and prudential character immediately appears. Those authors, -therefore, are to be read at schools that supply most axioms of -prudence, most principles of moral truth, and most materials for -conversation."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>11</sup></small> Although our political institutions have the effect of -directing the matured minds of the country into the field of politics -and morals, yet we are not to suppose, on that account, that the -mathematical and physical sciences will be neglected here. In almost -all our colleges, particular attention is paid to these latter -branches. In fact, so far as I have been enabled to examine into the -condition of our colleges and universities, I would say the moral and -political sciences are almost always too much neglected. It is easy -generally to fill the mathematical and physical departments with able -professors, because those who are well qualified to fill those -departments, can find no other employments so lucrative and -honorable. But those who would make eminent moral and political -lecturers, would be generally well qualified, with but little -additional study, to enter into the learned professions, or into the -still more enticing field of politics, with the most unlimited -prospects before them. Hence, whilst in many of our colleges the -physical and mathematical chairs are most ably filled, you find the -moral and political professors but second rate men. Now talent and -real comprehension of mind are particularly required on the subjects -of morals and politics. In the mathematics and physics, the merest -dunce, if he teaches at all, must teach correctly. He may not give -the most concise, or the most beautiful, or the most recent -demonstration; but if he gives any demonstration at all, his -reasoning is irrefutable, and his conclusions undeniably true. How -vastly different are our speculations in politics and morals! What -fatal principles may ignorance or dishonesty inculcate here! In our -colleges, then the fixed sciences do now, and are likely in future to -receive most attention; and consequently, we need not fear that they -will be neglected. On the contrary, the danger seems to be, that they -may be studied too exclusively.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Again, the wide extent of our country, the variety of our soils, our -immense mineralogical resources, our mountains and rivers, our -diversified geological phenomena, our canals, our rail roads, our -immense improvements of all descriptions, open a wide and unlimited -range for the research and practical skill of the physical and -mathematical student, which will always stimulate the talent of the -country sufficiently in this direction. Our past history too, -confirms my remarks; and the great names in mathematics and physics, -and the great and useful inventions in the arts, which have already -shed a halo of glory around our infant institutions, point us to that -brilliant prospect in the vista of the future, when our mathematical -and natural philosophers, if not the very first, will certainly rank -among the greatest of the world.</small></blockquote> - -<p>But again, the state system of government, in all its details, -awakens the genius and elicits the energies of the citizens, by the -high inducement to exertion held out to all,—from the stimulating -hope of influencing the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page273"><small><small>[p. 273]</small></small></a></span> -destinies of others, and becoming -useful to mankind and an ornament to our country. Under the benign -operation of the federative system, the hope of rising to some -distinction in the commonwealth, is breathed into us all. From the -highest to the lowest, we stand ready and anxious to step forth into -the service of our country. This universal desire to be useful—this -constant hope of rising to distinction—this longing after -immortality, arouses the spirit of emulation, excites all the powers -of reflection, calls forth all the energies of mind and body, and -makes man a greater, nobler, and more efficient being, than when he -moves on sluggishly in the dull routine of life, through the -unvarying, noiseless calm of despotism. All the rewards, all the -distinctions of arbitrary power, can never inspire that energy which -arises from the patriotic hope of being useful, and weaving our name -with the history of our country.</p> - -<p>Philosophy is the most frivolous and shallow of employments in a -country where it dares not penetrate into the institutions which -surround it. When reflection durst not attempt to amend or soften the -lot of mankind, it becomes unmanly and puerile. Look to the -literature of those deluded beings, who immured within the walls of -their monasteries, separated themselves from the great society of -their country, and vainly imagined that they were doing service to -their God, by running counter to those great laws which he has -impressed upon his creatures, and by violating those principles which -he has breathed into us all. What a melancholy picture is presented -to our view—what waste of time, of intellect, and of labor, on -subjects which true philosophy is almost ashamed to name! What -endless discussions, what pointless wit, what inconsequential -conclusions—in fine, what empty, useless nonsense, do we find in -that absurd philosophy reared up in seclusion, and entirely -unconnected with man and the institutions by which he is -governed!<small><small><sup>12</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>12</sup></small> As a specimen, let us take the work of the celebrated -St. Thomas Aquinas, with the lofty title of Summa Totius Theologiæ, -1250 pages folio. In this work there are 168 articles on Love, 358 on -Angels, 200 on the Soul, 85 on Demons, 151 on Intellect, 134 on Law, -3 on the Catamenia, 237 on Sins, and 17 on Virginity. He treats of -Angels, says D'Israeli, their substances, orders, offices, natures, -habits, &c. as if he himself had been an old experienced Angel. When -men are thus cut off from the active pursuits of life, it is curious -to contemplate the very trifling character of their discussions and -labors. D'Israeli tells us that the following question was a favorite -topic for discussion, and thousands of the acutest logicians through -more than one century, never resolved it. "When a hog is carried to -market with a rope tied about its neck, which is held at the other -end by a man, whether is the <i>hog</i> carried to market by the <i>rope</i> or -the <i>man?</i>" The same writer too, tells us of a monk who was -sedulously employed through a long life, in discovering more than -30,000 new questions concerning the Virgin Mary, with appropriate -answers. And it was the same useless industry which induced the monks -often to employ their time in writing very <i>minutely</i>, until they -brought this worthless art to such perfection, as to write down the -whole Iliad on parchment that might be enclosed in a nutshell. In the -Imperial Library of Vienna, there is still preserved an extraordinary -specimen of chirography by a Jew, who had no doubt imbibed the -<i>in</i>-utilitarian spirit of the monks. On a single page, eight inches -long by six and a half broad, are written without abbreviations and -very legible to the naked eye, the Pentateuch and book of Ruth in -German; Ecclesiasticus in Hebrew; the Canticles in Latin; Esther in -Syriac; and Deuteronomy in French.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Nothing so much animates and cheers the literary man in his -intellectual labors, as the hope of being able to promote the -happiness of the human race. Hence the custom among the ancients of -blending together military, legislative, and philosophic pursuits, -contributed greatly to the progress of mental activity and -improvement. When thought may be the forerunner of action—when a -happy reflection may be instantaneously transformed into a beneficent -institution, then do the contemplations and reflections of a man of -genius ennoble and exalt philosophy. He no longer fears that the -torch of his reason will be extinguished without shedding a light -along the path of active life. He no longer experiences that -embarrassing timidity, that crushing shame, which genius, condemned -to mere speculation, must ever feel in the presence of even an -inferior being, when that being is invested with a power which may -influence the destiny of those around him—which may enable him to -render the smallest service to his country, or even to wipe away one -tear from affliction's cheek.</p> - -<p>I am not now dealing in vague conjecture; the history of the past -will bear me out in the assertions which I have made. In casting a -glance over the nations of antiquity, our attention is arrested by -none so forcibly as by the little Democracies of Greece. I will not -occupy the attention of this society by the details of that history -which is graven upon the memory of us all. I will not stop here to -relate the warlike achievements of that extraordinary system of -governments which, covering an extent of territory not greater than -that of our own state, even with division among themselves, was yet -enabled to meet, with their small but devoted bands, the countless -hosts of Persia, led on by their proud and vain-glorious monarch, and -to roll back in disgrace and defeat, the mighty tide upon the East. -Nor will I recount the trophies which they won in philosophy, or -describe their beautiful and sublime productions in the arts, which -they at once created and perfected. Nor will I detain you with an -account of that matchless eloquence displayed in their popular -assemblies, which the historian tells us drew together eager, gazing, -listening crowds from all Greece, as if about to behold the most -splendid spectacle which the imagination of man could conceive, or -even the universe could present. The history of Greece is too well -known to us all to require these details. A people with such -historians as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon, acquires a strange -pre-eminence—a wonderful notoriety among the nations of the earth. -The extraordinary power of this cluster of little states, the -superiority of their literature, the resistless energy of the minds -and bodies of their citizens, whether for weal or woe—in short, -their real greatness, are acknowledged by all.</p> - -<p>What then, we may well be permitted to ask, could have generated so -much greatness of mind, so much energy and loftiness of character in -this apparently secluded corner of Europe, scarcely visible on the -world's map? It was not the superiority of her climate and soil. -Spain—worn out and degenerate Spain, enjoys the genial climate of -the Athenian, and possesses a soil more fertile. It was not the -superior protection which her governments afforded to persons and -property, which generated this wonderful character. Property was -almost as unsafe amid the turbulent factions of Greece, as under the -despotisms of the East; and the stroke of tyranny was as often -inflicted upon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page274"><small><small>[p. 274]</small></small></a></span> -patriots and statesmen, by the ungrateful hand -of a capricious and unbalanced democracy, as by the great monarchs of -Persia, or by the barbarian kings of Scythia. No!—it was the system -of independent state governments, which, badly organized as they -were, without a proper system of representation and responsibility, -and often shaken by faction and torn to pieces by discord, -nevertheless extended their inspiring, animating influence over all, -and drew forth from the shade of retirement or solitude the talent -and energy of the people, wherever they existed. It was this system -of state government which so completely identified each citizen of -Greece with that little body politic with which his destiny was -connected—which breathed into his soul that ardent patriotism which -can sacrifice self upon the altar of our country's happiness, and -which could make even an Alcibiades, or a Themistocles, whilst -laboring under the bitter curse of their country, stop short in their -vindictive career, amid their meditations of mischief and vengeance, -and cast many a longing, lingering, pitying look back upon the -distresses of that ungrateful city that had driven them forth from -its walls.</p> - -<p>The great moral which may be drawn from the history of Greece, is one -which the patriot in no age or clime should ever forget. In looking -over this little system of states, we find uniformly that each -displayed genius, energy, and patriotism, while really free and -independent; but the moment one was overawed and conquered by its -neighbor, it lost its greatness, its patriotism—even its virtue. And -when, at last, a great state arose in the north of Greece, and placed -a monarch upon its throne, who substituted the obedient spirit of the -mercenary soldier and crouching courtier, for the independent genius -of liberty and patriotism—who overawed Greece by his armies, and -silenced the Council of Amphictyon by his presence—then was it found -that the days of Grecian greatness had been numbered, and that the -glory of these republics was destroyed forever; then was it seen that -the Spartan lost his patriotism, and the Athenian that energy of mind -almost creative, which could lead armies and navies to battle and to -victory, adorn and enrich the stores of philosophy and literature, -agitate the public assemblies from the <i>Bema</i>, or make the marble and -the canvass breathe. The battle of Cheronea overthrew at the same -time the state governments, the liberties, the prosperity, and, worst -of all, the virtue and the towering intellect of Greece.</p> - -<p>With the destruction of the governments of her independent states, -Greece lost the great animating principle of her system. Forming but -an insignificant subject province of the great Macedonian kingdom, -and afterwards of the still greater empire of Rome, her sons -preserved for a time the books and the mere learning of their -renowned ancestors; but the spirit, the energy, the principle of -thought and reflection,—the mind,—were all gone. "For more than ten -centuries, (says an eloquent historian) the Greeks of Byzantium -possessed models of every kind, yet they did not suggest to them one -original idea; they did not give birth to a copy worthy of coming -after these masterpieces. Thirty millions of Greeks, the surviving -depositaries of ancient wisdom, made not a single step, during twelve -centuries, in any one of the social sciences. There was not a citizen -of free Athens who was not better skilled in the science of politics -than the most erudite scholar of Byzantium; their morality was far -inferior to that of Socrates—their philosophy to that of Plato and -Aristotle, upon whom they were continually commenting. They made not -a single discovery in any one of the physical sciences, unless we -except the lucky accident which produced the Greek fire. They loaded -the ancient poets with annotations, but they were incapable of -treading in their footsteps; not a comedy or a tragedy was written at -the foot of the ruins of the theatres of Greece; no epic poem was -produced by the worshippers of Homer; not an ode by those of Pindar. -Their highest literary efforts do not go beyond a few epigrams -collected in the Greek Anthology, and a few romances. Such is the -unworthy use which the depositaries of every treasure of human wit -and genius make of their wealth, during an uninterrupted course of -transmission for more than a thousand years." And such will always be -the destiny of states as soon as they are moulded into one -consolidated empire, with a controlling despotism at the centre.</p> - -<p>But while the states of Greece were thus sinking into insignificance, -under the crushing weight of one great consolidated government,—in -another part of Europe, almost as small and secluded as Greece, -little confederacies or associations of independent states were -rapidly developing a literature and a character equal to those of the -ancient Greek, and affording perhaps a still more striking and -beautiful illustration of the truth of the principles for which I -have contended this night. It was Italy that first restored -intellectual light to Europe, after the long and gloomy night of -ignorance and barbarism, which the Goth, the Vandal and the Hun had -shed over the western half of the Roman world. It was Italy which -recalled youth to the study of laws and philosophy—created the taste -for poetry and the fine arts—revived the science and literature of -antiquity, and gave prosperity to commerce, manufactures and -agriculture. And what was it, let me ask, which made this small -peninsula the cradle of commerce, of the arts, sciences and -literature—in one word, of the civilization of modern Europe? It was -because the whole of this beautiful and interesting country was -dotted over with little republics or democracies, which, like those -of Greece, applied their stimulating power to every portion of the -soil of Italy. These little states, it is true, were factious, -turbulent and revolutionary, but they awakened the genius and -stimulated the energies of the whole people.</p> - -<p>The exertions of this people were truly wonderful. No nation in any -age of the world has ever raised up in its cities, and even in its -villages, so many magnificent temples,—which even now attract the -stranger from every country and clime to the classic soil of Italy. -We find throughout this land, whether on the extensive plains of -Lombardy, or on the fertile hills of Tuscany and Romagna, or on the -now deserted <i>campania</i> of the Patrimony of St. Peter, towns of the -most splendid character, reared during the palmy days of modern -Italy; and in those cities we find long lines of once stately palaces -now tumbling into ruins. Their gates, their columns, their -architraves, says the eloquent historian of Italy, remain, but the -wood is worm-eaten and decayed, the crystal glasses have been broken, -the lead has been taken from the roofs, and the stranger from one end -to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page275"><small><small>[p. 275]</small></small></a></span> -other of this <i>monumental</i> land, asks in mournful -sadness in each town through which he passes,—Where now is the -population which could have required so many habitations? Where is -the commerce which could have filled so many magazines? Where are -those opulent citizens who could have lived in so many palaces? Where -now are those numerous crowds that bowed in reverential awe and -devotion before the altars of Christ, of the Virgin and the Saints? -Where now are the grandeur and magnificence of the living, which -should have replaced that grandeur and magnificence of the dead, of -which their monuments so eloquently tell? All are gone. While other -nations have been growing in importance and multiplying the materials -of their history as they approach the age in which we live, how -different has been the mournful destiny of Italy! The present has -well been called the epoch of death in that lovely land. When we -observe, says the historian, the whole of Italy, whether we examine -the physiognomy of the soil, or the works of man, or man himself, we -always regard ourselves as being in the land of the dead; every where -we are struck by the feebleness and degeneracy of the race that now -is, compared with that which has been. The sun of Italy now sheds as -warm and vivifying rays over the land as before—the earth remains as -fertile—the Appenines present to our view the same varient smiling -aspect—the fields are as abundantly watered by the genial showers of -heaven, and all the lower animals of nature preserve here their -pristine beauty and habits. Man too, at birth, seems in this -delightful climate, to be endowed still with the same quick creative -imagination, with the same susceptibility of deep, passionate -feeling—with the same wonderful aptitude of mind—and yet man alone -has changed here! In contrast with his fathers—</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem31"> - <tr><td><small> - - "As the slime,<br> - The dull green ooze of the receding deep,<br> - Is with the dashing of the spring-tide foam,<br> - That drives the sailor shipless to his home."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>It is the change in government—the fatal change in the political -destiny of the Italian, which has wrought this melancholy change in -his whole nature. When this beautiful land was covered with leagues -of independent states, inspired with the genius of liberty and -political independence,—the stimulating influence of the government -was felt every where—it animated and aroused all—it communicated -the spirit of activity and enterprise, the love of home and the -ardent love of country to all the citizens alike—from the proud lord -of Venice, whose stately palace was lashed by the wave of the -Adriatic, to the poor peasant whose thatched and humble cottage lay -in some secluded solitary hollow of the Alps or the Appenines. Under -this system of government there was no favored spot upon which the -treasures of the nation were expended; there was no Thebes, no -Babylon, no imperial Rome built up, adorned and beautified by the -degradation and utter prostration of all the rest. We might almost -say of Italy what has been affirmed of Omnipotence itself—its centre -was every where, its circumference no where. Every little independent -state, no matter how limited its area or small its population, had -its great men, its thriving cities, its noble monuments. The little -Florentine democracy with but eighty thousand souls, had more great -men within its limits than any of the great kingdoms of Europe; and -all were animated with the spirit of patriotism, of -industry,<small><small><sup>13</sup></small></small> of learning.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>13</sup></small> "The habit of industry," says Sismondi, "was the -distinctive characteristic of the Italians even to the middle of the -15th century. The first rank at Florence, Venice, and Genoa, was -occupied by merchants; and the families who possessed the offices of -the state, of the church or the army, did not for that reason give up -their business. Philip Strozzi, brother-in-law of Leo X, the father -of Mareschal Strozzi, and the grandfather of Capua, the friend of -several sovereigns, and the first citizen of Italy, remained even to -the end of his life chief of a banking house. He had seven sons, but -in spite of his immense fortune, he suffered none of them to be -brought up in idleness."</small></blockquote> - -<p>No wonder then that the citizens of Italy should have prospered amid -their domestic broils, their factions, their revolutions—even amid -the sanguinary conflicts of the Guelph and the Ghibeline. If the -energy and elasticity of the mind be not destroyed by the pressure of -despotism, it is curious to contemplate the wonderfully recuperative -powers of man, and to behold the appalling difficulties which he can -surmount, undismayed and unscathed. You may prostrate him to day, but -the energy and vitality that is within him will raise him up on the -morrow.<small><small><sup>14</sup></small></small> Of all sorts of destruction, of every kind of death, that -is the worst, because the most productive of melancholy consequences, -which reaches the mind itself. That system of government which slays -the mind, is the system which, at the same time reaches the sanctuary -of the heart, overthrows the purity of morals, and forges the fetters -for the slave. And such a government as this have the Spaniard the -Frenchman and the German rivetted but too fatally upon Italy. The day -that saw those modern Goths and Vandals pouring their mercenary -hordes over the Alps to rob and plunder, was a black day for Italy, -and well might the friend of that lovely land have then exclaimed in -the language of the poet,</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem32"> - <tr><td><small>"Oh! Rome, the spoiler or the spoil of France,<br> - From Brennus to the Bourbon, never, never<br> - Shall foreign standard to thy walls advance,<br> - But Tiber shall become a mournful river."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>14</sup></small> Whilst Italy was free, there was no country which could -repair its losses with so much despatch; the town that was sacked and -burnt to-day, would be built up and stored with wealth on the morrow, -and the losses of one excited the sympathies and support of all those -engaged in the same cause. When the Emperor Frederic carried fire and -sword through the Milanese territory, and left the treasury of that -state completely exhausted, we are told that the rich citizens soon -replenished it from their private purses, contenting themselves in -the mean time with coarse bread, and cloaks of black stuff. And at -the command of their consuls they left Milan to join their fellow -citizens in rebuilding <i>with their own hands</i> the walls and houses of -Tortona, Rosata, Tricate, Galiate, and other towns, which had -suffered in the contest for the common cause.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The independence of the little states of Italy is now gone, and with -it all the real greatness of that country. The power that now sways -the Italian, emanates from a nation situated afar off on the banks of -the Danube. And can we wonder while the Austrian soldier stands -sentinel in the Italian cities, that their citizens should</p> - -<center><small> - - "Creep,<br> - Crouching and crab-like, through their sapping streets."</small></center> - -<p>But enough of a spectacle so sad as this!<small><small><sup>15</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>15</sup></small> Small states, if truly independent, are very favorable -to the production of great characters, and even great virtues. "The -regeneration of liberty in Italy," says Sismondi, "was signalized -still more, if it were possible, by the development of the moral, -than by that of the intellectual character of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276"><small>[p. 276]</small></a></span> -Italians. The -sympathy existing among fellow-citizens, from the habit of living for -each other, and by each other—of connecting every thing with the -good of all, produced in those republics virtues which despotic -states cannot even imagine." But the moment the independence of the -small states is destroyed by the overshadowing and overawing -influence of larger ones, then does the system work the most -disastrous consequences upon the political, moral, and literary -character of the citizens. A little state overawed by a large one, -instantly has recourse to cunning, intrigue, and duplicity, to -accomplish its ends. Cæsar Borgia in Italy, says Mr. Hume, had -recourse to more villainy, hypocrisy, and meanness, to get possession -of a few miles of territory, than was practised by Julius Cæsar, -Zenghis, or Tamerlane for the conquest of a large portion of the -world. Hence we are not to wonder that Italy should become the most -infamous of all schools, in the production of subtile, intriguing, -hypocritical politicians, and that the literature should soon become -as corrupt as the political morals of the country. The Marini, the -Achillini in poetry, and the Bernini in the arts, had a reputation -similar to that of Concini, Mazarini, Catherine, and Mary di Medici -in politics.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Did the limits which I have prescribed to myself in this -address allow it, I could easily adduce the history of the Swiss -Cantons, the Netherlands and Holland, the Hanseatic League, the -little states formerly around the Baltic, and even the Germanic -Confederation, as confirmation strong of the truth of the positions -which I have taken in favor of the federative system. Indeed I might -go farther than this, and show that the feudal aristocracy of the -middle ages, horrible as was its oppression, calamitous as were its -petty wars, and feuds, and dissensions, intolerable as was that -anarchical confusion which it generated in Europe towards the close -of the tenth century, was nevertheless the instrument which kept -alive the mind of man in the great nations of Christendom, by -splitting up the powers of government among the Baronial Lords, and -thereby preventing that fatal tendency to centralism and -consolidation, which would inevitably have shrouded the mind of -Europe in inextricable darkness. Far be from me that vain presumption -which would dare to scan the mysterious plans of Providence; but I -have always thought that the regeneration of the mind of Europe -required that the barbarian should come from the North and the -East—that an Alaric, a Genseric and an Attila, should pour out the -vials of their wrath upon the Roman's head—that the monstrous, -corrupt and gigantic fabric of his power might be broken to pieces by -barbarian hordes, who had not the genius and political skill -requisite to establish another great military despotism on its ruins.</p> - -<p>After this review I turn with pleasure again to our own system of -government. We have seen how stimulating were the little republics of -Greece and of Italy, to the genius of those countries. But their -systems were not made for peaceable endurance—they were too -disunited, too turbulent, too prone to civil wars; hence they either -fell a prey to some ambitious state in their own system, or invited -by their reckless internal dissensions the foreigner into their land, -who broke down their institutions, overthrew their liberty, and -imposed upon their submissive necks the galling yoke of military -despotism. But those venerated fathers of our republics, who framed -the federal constitution, came forward to their task in full view of -the history of the republics of the ancient and modern world, with -that almost holy spirit of freedom and patriotism which gave them -that undaunted courage and unremitting perseverance that enabled them -to wade through the blood and turmoil of the revolution. They -completed their task, and the wisdom and virtue of our confederacy -did sanction their work, and long may that work endure if -administered in that spirit of purity and virtue which inspired those -who framed it.</p> - -<p>Our states are much larger than the little democracies of ancient -Greece or of modern Italy—the new and improved principle of -representation, combined with the modern improvements in the whole -machinery of government, have rendered the republican form much -better suited to large states than formerly. Some of our states may -perhaps be too large, and others too small. But our ancestors very -wisely avoided that geometrical policy, which would have divided our -country into equal squares, like France in the dark days of her -revolution. "No man ever was attached," says Burke, "by a sense of -pride, partiality, or real affection, to a description of square -measurement. He never will glory in belonging to the chequer No. 71, -or to any other badge ticket. We begin our public affections in our -families. No cold relation is a zealous citizen. We pass on to our -neighborhoods and our habitual provincial connections;" and these -ties and habits were respected by our forefathers. No sovereign -state, no matter how small, was disfranchised—the giant and the -dwarf had their rights and liberties alike respected and secured in -this new system, and all were bound together by a wise and beneficent -plan of government, based upon the mutual interests and sympathies of -all the members of the confederacy—a plan which was wisely framed to -give lasting peace to our country, and to demonstrate the -inapplicability to our portion of the western hemisphere at least, of -the gloomy philosophy of the European statesman, that the natural -condition of man is war. Thus organized, our system was calculated to -apply the beneficial stimulus of government to every portion of our -soil and every division of our population, and at the same time in -the midst of profound peace and freedom of intercourse, both social -and commercial, among the states, to secure that enlarged and -extended theatre for action, which may stimulate and reward the -exalted genius and talent of the country, and crown the pyramid of -our greatness.</p> - -<p>But I must turn from this view of my subject, which has ever been so -delightful to my mind, to the contemplation always gloomy, of the -dangerous evils which may beset us in our progress onwards. It is too -true that there can be nothing pure in this world; good and evil are -always intertwined. It has well been said that the wave which wafts -to our shore the genial seed that may spring up and gladden our land -with luxuriant vegetation, may unfold the deadly crocodile.</p> - -<p>One of the most fatal evils with which the republican system of -government is liable to be assailed, is the diffusion of a spirit of -agrarianism among the indigent classes of society. This spirit is now -abroad in the world—it is fearfully developing itself in the -insurrectionary heavings and tumults of continental Europe, which, -however ineffectual now, do nevertheless mark the great internal -conflagration—"the march of that mighty burning, which however -intangible by human vigilance, is yet hollowing the ground under -every community of the civilized world." England's most eloquent and -learned divine, tells us but too truly that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277"><small><small>[p. 277]</small></small></a></span> "there now sits an -unnatural scowl on the aspect of the population, a resolved -sturdiness in their attitude and gait; and whether we look to the -profane recklessness of their habits, or to the deep and settled -hatred which rankles in their hearts, we cannot but read in these -moral characteristics of this land, the omens of some great and -impending overthrow."</p> - -<p>In our own more happy country, the almost unlimited extension of -suffrage in the most populous states, the frequent appeals made to -the indigent and the destitute by demagogues for the purpose of -inflaming their passions, and of exciting that most blighting and -deadly hostility of all, the hostility of the poor against the -rich—the tumults and riots at the elections in our great cities—the -lawless mobs of the north which have already set the civil authority -at defiance, and have pulled down and destroyed the property of the -citizen—all are but premonitory symptoms of the approaching -calamity—they are but the rumbling sound which precedes the mighty -shock of the terrible earthquake. If these things happen now, what -may we not expect hereafter? At present the great territorial -resources of our country offer the most stimulating reward to labor -and enterprise. The laborer of to-day looks forward, and hopes, yes, -knows, that by his industry he is to be the capitalist of to-morrow. -He feels a prospective interest in the defence of property. The -little German farmer with a hundred acres of poor land in the Key -Stone State, clad in the coarsest raiment, contented with the -simplest food, and saving from his hard earnings the small sum of one -hundred dollars a year, would not wish the property of the country to -be thrown in jeopardy—he would shudder at the idea of a general -scramble, lest he might lose that little patrimony around which the -very affections of his heart have been twined.</p> - -<p>But the time must come when the powerfully elastic spring of our -rapidly increasing numbers shall fill up our wide spread territory -with a dense population—when the great safety valve of the west will -be closed against us—when millions shall be crowded into our -manufactories and commercial cities—then will come the great and -fearful pressure upon the engine—then will the line of demarkation -stand most palpably drawn between the rich and the poor, the -capitalist and the laborer—then will thousands, yea, millions arise, -whose hard lot it may be to labor from morn till eve through a long -life, without the cheering hope of passing from that toilsome -condition in which the first years of their manhood found them, or -even of accumulating in advance that small fund which may release the -old and infirm from labor and toil, and mitigate the sorrows of -declining years. Many there will be even, who may go to and fro and -be able to say in the melancholy language of Holy Writ, "the foxes -have holes, and the birds of the air their nest, but the son of man -has not where to lay his head." When these things shall come—when -the millions, who are always under the pressure of poverty, and -sometimes on the verge of starvation, shall form your numerical -majority, (as is the case now in the old countries of the world) and -universal suffrage shall throw the political power into their hands, -can you expect that they will regard as sacred the tenure by which -you hold your property? I almost fear the frailties and weakness of -human nature too much, to anticipate confidently such justice. When -hunger is in the land, we can scarcely expect, by any species of -legerdemain, to turn the eyes and thoughts of the sufferers from the -flesh pots of Egypt. The old Roman populace demanded a regular -distribution of corn from the public granaries; the Grecian populace -received bribes, fined and imprisoned their wealthy men, or made them -build galleys, equip soldiers, give public feasts, and furnish the -victims for the sacrifices at their own expense.<small><small><sup>16</sup></small></small> The mode of -action in modern times may be changed, but the result will be the -same if the spirit of agrarianism shall once get abroad in our land. -France has already furnished us with the great moral. First comes -disorganization and legislative plunder, then the struggle of -factions and civil war, and lastly a military despotism, into whose -arms all will be driven by the intolerable evils of anarchy and -rapine. I fondly hope that the future may bring along with it a -sovereign remedy for these evils, but what that remedy may be, it is -past perhaps the sagacity of man now to determine. We can only say in -the language of Kepler upon a far different subject,—"Hæc et cetera -hujusmodi latent in pandectis œvi sequentis, non antea discenda, -quam librum hunc deus arbiter seculorum recluserit mortalibus."</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>16</sup></small> When an individual was tried before an Athenian -tribunal, his wealth was generally a serious disadvantage to his -cause, and there was nothing which the defence labored harder to -establish than the poverty of the accused. "I know," says the orator -Lisias, in his defence of Nicophemus, "how difficult it will be -effectually to refute the report of the great riches of Nicophemus. -The present scarcity of money in the city, and the wants of the -treasury which the forfeiture has been calculated upon to supply, -will operate against me." In the celebrated dialogue of Xenophon, -called the Banquet, he makes a rich man who has suddenly become poor, -congratulate himself upon his poverty; "inasmuch," he says, "as -cheerfulness and confidence are preferable to constant apprehension, -freedom to slavery, being waited upon, to waiting upon others. When I -was a rich man in this city, I was under the necessity of courting -the sycophants, knowing it was in their power to do me mischief which -I could little return. Nevertheless, I was continually receiving -orders from the people, to undertake some expenses for the -commonwealth, and I was not allowed to go any where out of Attica. -But now I have lost all my foreign property, and nothing accrues from -my Attic estate, and all my goods are sold, I sleep any where -fearless; I am considered as faithful to the government; I am never -threatened with prosecutions, but I have it in my power to make -others fear; as a freeman I may stay in the country or go out of it -as I please; the rich rise from their seats for me as I approach, and -make way for me as I walk; I am now like a tyrant, whereas I was -before an absolute slave; and whereas before I paid tribute to the -people, now a tribute from the public maintains me." This picture, -though perhaps overwrought, marks still but too conclusively the -agrarian spirit in Greece.</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the mean time I may boldly assert that the frame work of our -southern society is better calculated to ward off the evils of this -agrarian spirit, which is so destructive to morals, to mind and to -liberty, than any other mentioned in the annals of history. Domestic -slavery, such as ours, is the only institution which I know of, that -can secure that spirit of equality among freemen, so necessary to the -true and genuine feeling of republicanism, without propelling the -body politic at the same time into the dangerous vices of -agrarianism, and legislative intermeddling between the laborer and -the capitalist. The occupations which we follow, necessarily and -unavoidably create distinctions in society. It is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278"><small><small>[p. 278]</small></small></a></span> said that all -occupations are honorable. This is certainly true, if you mean that -no honest employment is disgraceful. But to say that all confer equal -honor, if well followed even, is not true. Such an assertion -militates alike against the whole nature of man and the voice of -reason. But whatever may be the vain deductions of mere theorists -upon this subject, one thing is certain—Reason informed me of its -truth long before experience had shown it to me in actual life—The -hirelings who perform all the menial offices of life, will not and -cannot be treated as equals by their employers. And those who stand -ready to execute all our commands, no matter what they may be, for -mere pecuniary reward, cannot feel themselves equal to us in reality, -however much their reason may be bewildered by the voice of sophistry.</p> - -<p>Now, let us see what is likely to be the effect of universal suffrage -in a state where there are no slaves. Either the dependant classes, -the laborers and menial servants, will be driven forward by the -dictation of their employers and the bribery of the man of property, -thus giving the government a proclivity towards an aristocracy of -wealth;<small><small><sup>17</sup></small></small> or they become discontented with their condition, and ask -why these differences among beings pronounced equal—they look with -eyes of cupidity upon the fortunes of the rich. The demagogue -perceives their ominous sullenness, and marks the hatred which is -rankling in their hearts—then the parties of the rich and the poor -are formed—then come the legislative plunder and the dark train of -evils consequent on the spirit of equality, which is in fact, in such -a community, the spirit of agrarianism.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>17</sup></small> Men whose impulses are all communicated by the -expectation of small pecuniary rewards, quickly acquire that -suppleness of conscience, which renders them peculiarly liable to -bribery. Take, for example, the waiter in an hotel—it is the hope of -little gains that moves him in any direction which you may dictate, -and which makes him a ready tool for the execution of any project -whatever. His motto is, <i>I take the money and my employer the -responsibility</i>. Bring this man to the polls, and offer him money for -his vote, and the probability is that he would not refuse that which -the whole education and training of his life would impel him to -receive.</small></blockquote> - -<p>But in our slaveholding country the case is far different. Our -laboring classes and menials are all slaves of a different color from -their masters—the source of greatest distinction among the freemen -is taken away; and the spirit of equality, the true spirit of genuine -republicanism may exist here,—without leading on to corruption on -the one side or agrarianism on the other.<small><small><sup>18</sup></small></small> Political power is thus -taken from the hands of those who might abuse it, and placed in the -hands of those who are most interested in its judicious exercise. Our -law most wisely ordains that the slaves "shall not be sought for in -public council, nor sit high in the congregation: they shall not sit -high on the judges' seats nor understand the sentence of judgment; -they cannot declare justice and judgment; and they shall not be found -where parables are spoken. How can he get wisdom that holdeth the -plough, that glorieth in the goad, that driveth oxen and is occupied -in their labors, and whose talk is of bullocks?" Lycurgus, more than -two thousand years ago, in his celebrated system of laws, was so well -aware of the aristocratic feeling generated by diversity of -occupation, that he decreed in order that a perfect spirit of -equality might reign among the Spartans, that slaves alone should -practice the most laborious arts, or fill the menial stations. And in -this particular he showed perhaps as much sagacity as in any other -law of the whole system. We want no legislation in the south to -secure this effect—it flows spontaneously from our social system.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>18</sup></small> I will take leave here to introduce a short extract -from my Essay on Slavery, in corroboration of the assertions which I -have made. "The citizen of the north will not shake hands familiarly -with his servant, and converse, and laugh, and dine with him, no -matter how honest and respectable he may be. But go to the south, and -you will find that no white man feels such inferiority of rank as to -be unworthy of association with those around him. Color alone is here -the badge of distinction, the true mark of aristocracy; and all who -are white are equal, in spite of the variety of occupation. The same -thing is observed in the West Indies. 'Of the character common to the -white resident of the West Indies,' says B. Edwards, 'it appears to -me that the leading feature is an independent spirit, and a display -of <i>conscious equality</i> throughout all ranks and conditions. The -poorest white person seems to consider himself nearly on a level with -the condition of the richest; and emboldened by this idea, he -approaches his employer with extended hand, and a freedom which, in -the countries of Europe, is seldom displayed by men in the lower -orders of life towards their superiors.'"</small></blockquote> - -<p>But whilst the political effects of our social system are so -peculiarly beneficial, the moral effects are no less striking and -advantageous. I have no hesitation in affirming that the relation -between capitalist and laborer in the south is kinder, and more -productive of genuine attachment, than exists between the same -classes any where else on the face of the globe. The slave is happy -and contented with his lot, unless indeed the very demons of -Pandemonium shall be suffered to come among us and destroy his -happiness by their calumnious falsehoods and hypocritical promises. -He compares himself with his own race and his own color alone, and he -sees that all are alike—he does not covet the wealth of the rich -man, nor envy that happiness which liberty imparts to the patriot, -but he identifies all his interests with those of his master—free -from care—free from that constant feeling of insecurity which -continually haunts the poor man of other countries, he moves on in -the round of his existence, cheerful, contented and grateful.<small><small><sup>19</sup></small></small> We -have no Manchester and Smithfield riots here—no breaking of -machinery—no scowl of discontent or sullenness hovering over the -brow—no midnight murders for the money which we have in our -houses—no melancholy forebodings of that agrarian spirit which calls -up the very demon of wrath to apply the torch to the political -edifice. The statistics of the slaveholding population prove that it -is the most quiet and secure population in the world—there are fewer -great crimes and murders among them than in any other form in which -society can exist. I defy the world too, to produce a parallel to the -rapid improvement of the slave on our continent since the period of -his landing from the shores of his forefathers. And when the -philanthropist tells us to plant our colonies on the coast of that -benighted region, that the tide of civilization may be rolled back on -Africa, the very enthusiasm of his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279"><small><small>[p. 279]</small></small></a></span> language marks the -inappreciable improvement which slavery has here wrought upon the -character of the negro. On the other hand the master is attached to -his slaves by every tie of interest and sympathy, generated by a -connection that sometimes lasts for life. He does not work them -to-day for sixteen hours, reducing them to mere bread and water, and -capriciously discharge them to-morrow from his employment, and turn -them adrift without money or resource, upon a cold and inhospitable -world. When their labor will not support themselves, the master is -bound to consume his capital for their sustenance. There are evils, -no doubt, incidental to this relation—but where is the relation of -life exempt from them?<small><small><sup>20</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>19</sup></small> Any one who has ever seen the negro at hard labor by -the side of the white man, or who has noticed him while performing -menial services along with his white associate, has marked no doubt -the striking difference. The negro is all gaiety and -cheerfulness—his occupation seems to ennoble him. His companion, on -the contrary, whom the world calls a freeman, but really treats as a -slave, is seen sullen and discontented, and feels himself degraded -for the very reason that he is called a freeman.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>20</sup></small> Whatever philanthropists may say upon the subject, I -believe the history of the world will bear me out in the assertion -that slavery is certainly the most efficient and perhaps the only -means by which the contact of the civilized man with the barbarian -can contribute to the advantage and civilization of the latter. The -relation of master and slave is the only means which has ever yet -been devised by the wisdom of man, capable of bringing the element of -civilization into close union with that of barbarism, without either -dragging down the civilized man to a level with the barbarian, or -corrupting and then exterminating the latter in the attempt to -elevate him. Every one who is acquainted with the condition of -society in our southern country, will bear witness to the truth of -the assertion, that whilst slavery by producing the closest and most -constant intercourse between the whites and blacks, elevates the -character, purifies the morals, and speeds on the civilization of the -latter, it has not the slightest tendency to introduce their -barbarism or their vices among the former. It is for this very -reason, while virtue and knowledge may travel downwards, and vice and -barbarism cannot move upwards, that the institution of such slavery -as ours becomes the greatest security for virtue, and the most -certain preservative of morals. It is this inestimable feature in -this most slandered institution, which keeps the upper stratum of the -social fabric in the healthiest and soundest state, which makes the -character of the slaveholder so lofty, generous, chivalrous, and -sternly incorruptible wherever we find him. It is this same feature -too which contributes most to elevate and adorn the character of the -mistress of slaves—which enshrines her heart in the very purity and -constancy of the affections, and makes her the ornament and -immaculate blessing of that delightful domestic sanctuary, which is -never to be polluted by the vile and wicked arts of the base -designing corrupter of the female heart.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>What then, in presence of these facts, must we think of the -slanderous tongues that would dare asperse the character of southern -females—that would endeavor to blacken that almost spotless purity -of heart, which I hope will forever remain the proud characteristic -of southern women? Ignorance does not excuse such calumniators. The -men who can attack, without having taken even the trouble to -ascertain the facts, that class whose virtue constitutes their -greatest ornament, and whom the usages and customs of the world have -driven from the active bustling arena of life into the shade of -retirement, there to be loved, honored, and protected by all who are -noble and generous, show to the world the real hollowness of their -hearts and the reckless impurity of their intentions. But when they -cannot even plead such ignorance, their past lives should not be -suffered to shield them from the imputation of crime, and the mantle -of that pure and beautiful religion, preached by the meek Saviour of -mankind, was never designed to cover the canting hypocrisy of the -insidious calumnious slanderer. It is Sterne who says that the man -who is capable of doing <i>one dirty trick</i> can do another—he thus at -once unmasks his real character, and stands forth confessed in all -his naked deformity before the world. And we may perhaps but too -truly assert, that those whose minds are incapable of comprehending -the purity, whilst they maliciously asperse the innocence of female -character, are the beings who are most apt at last to be displayed as -the true Tartuffes of the world.</small></blockquote> - -<p>I would say then, let us cherish this institution which has been -built up by no sin of ours—let us cleave to it as the ark of our -safety. Expediency, morality and religion, alike demand its -continuance; and perhaps I would not hazard too much in the -prediction, that the day will come when the whole confederacy will -regard it as the sheet anchor of our country's liberty.</p> - -<p>I will now conclude my long address, by a brief notice of two results -which may happen to our system of government, either of which would -be fatal to the system—dismemberment on the one side, or -consolidation, on the other. The evils of dismemberment may be -quickly told. Separate governments, or confederacies, would of course -have rivalries and jealousies and wars. Our militia would be found -inadequate to our defence; standing armies and navies would be -established: and all history has shown that these will trample upon -the civil authority. War with their concomitant establishments, -navies and armies, entail the heaviest expense on nations.<small><small><sup>21</sup></small></small> These -expenditures require taxation; and heavy taxation in an extensive -range of country, whether levied on imports or on native productions, -would be sure to lead on to partial and vicious legislation, to the -intolerable oppression of one part for the benefit of another. And -all the guards and checks which constitutional charters would impose -on government, could not prevent the rapid concentration of power -into the hands of the executive, in most of our independent states, -amid wars, armies, navies, taxation, expenditures and increasing -patronage of the governments. We should, I fear, exhibit the picture -of Europe to the world, with governments perhaps less balanced<small><small><sup>22</sup></small></small> -and more sanguinary in their wars. It is more than probable, then, -that if ever disunion shall come, as has been said by a distinguished -statesman,—we shall close the book of the republics, and open that -of the kings, not in name perhaps—but in reality.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>21</sup></small> It may perhaps be affirmed with truth, that there is -scarcely a nation in Europe, with a population equal to that of the -United States, whose army does not cost more than the whole expenses -of our federal government. The military statistics of Europe are -truly formidable. Great Britain keeps at home an army of 100,000 men, -and 250,000 in India. France has a standing army of 280,000; Austria -271,000; Prussia 162,000; and Russia 800,000. The United States have -6,000, with a population more than the half of Austria, and greater -than that of Prussia. Even the kingdom of Sardinia, with a population -of a little more than one-fourth of ours, has an army more than seven -times as great; and Spain, with a population not so great as ours, -has an army fifteen times as great. Comment is unnecessary.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>22</sup></small> If a nation must have monarchy, I have no hesitation in -saying that it should not be isolated. It should be "buttressed by -establishments." If we must have Kings, it would be better that the -Lords and Commons should follow. Kings, Lords, and Commons are -perhaps the nearest approach which the monarchical form of government -can make towards liberty. When there is no intermediate power between -the king and the people, every dispute between the parties, for want -of a conciliatory compromise, brings the nation at once to blows; and -the immediate issue is necessarily either a despotism established, or -a dynasty overthrown. The chances against a perfect balance are -infinite. But in our country we can never have a regular nobility. -Antiquity is absolutely necessary to such an establishment. Bonaparte -tried the experiment of a suddenly created nobility, and it entirely -failed; although his nobles were much more talented and efficient -than the ancient noblesse. Bonaparte's nobles besides were the most -unprincipled, and the most remorselessly rapacious of modern Europe; -and this perhaps is the almost necessary character of an upstart nobility.</small></blockquote> - -<p>This would certainly be the result in the non-slaveholding states, -where the agrarian spirit, co-operating -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280"><small><small>[p. 280]</small></small></a></span> with executive -usurpation, would inevitably overthrow the balance of the government, -and lead on eventually to military despotism. But such is my -confidence in the influence of slavery on the slaveholder—so certain -am I, judging from all fair reasoning on the subject, and from the -past history of the world, that the spirit of liberty and of -equality, glows with the most unqualified intensity in the bosoms of -the masters of slaves, that I believe the slaveholding states, with -all the horrors of disunion against them, would nevertheless, under -the impulse of this spirit, so ineradicable among <i>them</i>, be enabled -to preserve their liberties, and arrest their governments in their -dangerous proclivity towards monarchy. It is true, circumstances -might often even here concentrate too much power in the executive -department; but the owners of slaves, with a spirit like that of the -Barons at Runnimede, would embrace the first opportunity to take back -the power that had slipt from their hands; and the absence of any -thing like a formidable agrarian party, would deprive the executive -of that infallible resource to which, under other circumstances, it -might resort, to obtain the power necessary to break through the -trammels of constitutions, and finally to entrench itself safely -behind military power. Where has a greater love for liberty been -shown, or a more noble struggle made for its preservation than in -Poland? And in our own country, it is a matter of history, that in no -portion of it has the spirit of freedom so fervently developed itself -as in the Southern States, nor has any portion been found more -constantly and effectually battling against power. Two -administrations have been overthrown since the constitution went into -operation, and it has been Southern talent, and Southern energy, -which have accomplished it. Whenever the South shall present a solid -unbroken phalanx against usurpation, I hazard little in the -prediction, that it will generally accomplish its ends.</p> - -<p>But disunion, with all its attendant evils, would not so completely -prostrate the mind, and relax all the energies of man, as the other -more dangerous result which may happen—I mean consolidation! A -number of independent governments, no matter how bad, no matter how -despotic, must to some extent at least, exert a stimulating -influence, each over a portion of its own territory. The greater the -number of governments therefore, the greater the number of -stimulants, as long as each one remains independent. And the -probability is, that a sort of political equilibrium would be formed -very soon on our continent, which would, as in Europe, preserve the -territorial integrity of the smaller states, and prevent the larger -from a dangerous accumulation of power.<small><small><sup>23</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>23</sup></small> It is curious to look now to the condition of Europe, -and compare it with the same quarter of the world three hundred years -ago, and to see how small the change in the division of countries -after all the wars, bloodshed, and expense which have been inflicted -on it. And some of the greatest gainers too have been the small -states. The Duke of Savoy, for example, now takes honorable rank -among the second rate monarchs, under the more imposing title of King -of Sardinia, and with a territory more than doubled in extent. The -Marquis of Brandenburg now hails as King of Prussia, and takes his -station among the great powers in Europe with a greatly augmented -dominion. It is the system of the political equilibrium in Europe -which has bridled the great nations, and prevented them from -swallowing up the smaller. "Consider," says Sir James Macintosh, in -one of his ablest speeches, "the Republic of Geneva—think of her -defenceless position, in the very jaws of France; but think also of -her undisturbed security, of her profound quiet, of the brilliant -success with which she applied herself to industry and literature, -while Louis XIV was pouring his myriads into Italy before her gates. -Call to mind that happy period, when we scarcely dreamed more of the -subjugation of the feeblest republic of Europe, than of the conquest -of her mightiest empire—and say, whether any spectacle can be -imagined more beautiful to the moral eye, or which affords a more -striking proof of progress in the noblest principles of true -civilization."</small></blockquote> - -<p>But if ever our state institutions shall be overthrown, and the -concentration of all the powers into one great central government -shall mould this system of republics into one grand consolidated -empire, then will the last and greatest evil which can befal our -country have arrived. The wide extent of our territory, and the -numbers of our population, which under a system of confederated -republics, would awaken the genius and patriotism of the country, and -call forth an almost resistless energy and enterprise in our -citizens, would then be a blighting curse—the bane of our land. All -eyes would be turned to that great and fearful engine at the centre, -whose oppressive action would paralyze all the parts, whilst it would -bind them together in indissoluble union—in the numbness and torpor -of death itself.</p> - -<p>Could it be possible for our government, after such consolidation, to -retain its democratic form, then would it become the most corrupt, -the most demoralizing, the most intolerably oppressive government -which the annals of history could furnish. That diversity of climate, -of soil, of character, and of interest—that great difference of -condition springing from the existence or non-existence of slavery, -all of which, under a mild, federative system, would increase the -general happiness and add to the blessings of union, by interlocking, -in the harmony of free trade, all the interests of the parts, would -then lead on to vicious combinations in our national legislature, for -the purpose of robbing one portion of the union for the benefit of -another—then would be formed our fixed and sectional majorities, who -by their unprincipled and irresponsible legislation, would prostrate -the rights and suck out the very substance from the minority. The -history of past ages informs us that physical force has hitherto been -the great engine which has distributed the wealth and overthrown the -liberties of nations. But the system would be changed here. -Governmental action and legislative jugglery would accomplish more -effectually what the sword has done elsewhere. And to the oppressed -there would be but one right left—the right that belongs to the worm -when trodden on—the right of turning upon the oppressor and shaking -off his iron grasp, if possible. This is the most valuable of all -rights to the European citizen—because there the few, the units, are -the oppressors, and the millions are the oppressed; and when tyranny -has passed beyond the point of endurance, and the people are at last -roused to a sense of the injustice and wrongs which they are -suffering, they rise in their might and pull down the pillars of the -political edifice.</p> - -<p>But in our own country, if the state governments shall ever be broken -down, and state marks obliterated, what will the right of resistance -be worth to us? When the oppression comes from the greedy many, and -is exerted over the proscribed few, is it not worse than -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281"><small><small>[p. 281]</small></small></a></span> -mockery to tell them they may resist in the last resort—that the -minority, enfeebled and impoverished by legislative plunder, without -army, navy, or treasury, disorganized, unsteady, and vacillating in -its plans, may rise against the many who possess the advantages of -physical force, wealth, organization, together with the whole power -of an energetic government, which can break the ranks of the -minority, and sow the seeds of dissension among them, by the -corrupting influence of its mighty patronage, or attack and conquer -by its force those who shall first have the temerity to take the -field against its oppression? Resistance is worth but little, when -the strong man, armed and resolute, has pushed me, feeble and -unarmed, to the wall.<small><small><sup>24</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>24</sup></small> The principle of the <i>absolute majority</i> claimed by a -great central government, would make the republican form of -government more intolerable than any other, for the following -reasons: 1st. The parties may be permanent, and consequently the -oppression may be permanent likewise. 2d. An individual with power to -oppress may or may not do it. Even Nero or Caligula may refrain from -exactions—but a multitude being <i>always</i> governed by the selfish -principle, will be <i>sure</i> to oppress if they have the power; the -operation of the selfish principle on <i>one</i> man is a matter of -chance,—on a <i>multitude</i>, it is a certainty. 3d. In such a -government, the influence of the public opinion of the oppressed -produces the <i>least possible</i> influence on the oppressors, first, -because the majorities and minorities being almost always sectional, -the opinions of the latter are not likely to be known to the former; -and secondly, if they were known they would produce little effect, -because the former have on their side the majority of public opinion, -and therefore would generally disregard that of the minority. 4th. -The rapacity of such a government would be increased, from the -necessity of procuring a large <i>dividend</i> for so great a number of -<i>divisors</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>But let not the many console themselves with the vain belief that -democracy would long survive the consolidation of our -government—that very power which they would endeavor so sedulously -to concentrate in the hands of one great central government, would be -quickly made to recoil upon their own heads. The executive -department, which would be built up and established by the dominant -majority, the better to accomplish its own selfish purposes, would -quickly become omnipotent; and when once safely entrenched in the -impregnable bulwarks of its power, like Athens enclosed in the walls -of Themistocles, it would bid defiance to all assaults, and all would -then be ground down to the same ignominious common level. The -Executive, in such a system, would be all—the People, nothing! We -should then be reduced to the condition of the silent crushing -despotisms of Asia—with every principle of improvement gone, and the -whole elasticity of mind destroyed. Soon would we, then, hug the -chains which bound us; and bend the knee in degrading servility -before him who had rivetted them on us. Soon would we be ready to use -the idolatrous language of the Roman bard,</p> - -<center><small> "Erit ille mihi semper Deus: illius aram<br> - Sœpe tener nostris ab ovilibus imbuet agnus."</small></center> - -<p>A great empire speedily assimilates every thing to its own genius. No -long season is requisite to generate the spirit of submission. The -monarch that first mounts the throne is often the most worshipped. -The first emperor of Rome had not descended to his grave before the -servility of his subjects had become so disgusting as to call forth -censure from even the monarch himself.<small><small><sup>25</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>25</sup></small> Augustus, at the expiration of his third term in the -imperial office, was accosted by the people at a public entertainment -with the title of "Lord," or "Master," which so much disgusted him, -that he published a serious edict on the following day, forbidding -such a title, and saying,</small></blockquote> - -<center><small>"<i>My name is Cæsar, and not Master.</i>"</small></center> - -<p>These great despotisms too, when once established, are likely long to -endure. Great empires have an extraordinary vitality—a wonderful -tenacity of existence; they but too closely resemble that fabled -serpent whose parts when forced asunder were quickly drawn together -again and united into a living body. There has always been something -painfully revolting to my mind in the contemplation of the history of -great empires. From our boyhood we contract a horror of eastern -despotisms, with their great monarchs, their satraps and tyrants; and -who that has read the <i>luminous page</i> of Gibbon and contemplated the -imperial despot with his</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem32"> - <tr><td><small>Prætors, pro-consuls to their provinces<br> - Hasting, or on return, in robes of state,<br> - Lictors and rods the ensigns of their power,<br> - Legions and cohorts, turms of horse and wings,</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>but sickens at the bare contemplation of such despotic machinery. And -whilst we peruse the eloquent recital of these internal throes and -convulsions, which to-day would seem to break the empire into -fragments and scatter them to the very winds of heaven,—but would -cease on the morrow, by the elevation to the throne of perhaps some -barbarian military chieftain from the banks of the Rhine or the -Danube, binding again together in the rude embrace of military power -the conquered parts of the empire,—we cannot but weep over the -fearful immortality with which such a nation seems almost to be -endowed. It reminds us but too strongly of that persecuted being, -gifted with a cursed immortality, whom the fables of antiquity -reported to have been bound down upon the mountain, with a vulture -forever lacerating his liver, which grew as fast as it was destroyed. -When contemplating the horrors of such a government, we almost hail -with pleasure the advent of the Goth and the Vandal, whose barbarian -power alone could break it into fragments. The death of such an -empire is always hard—painfully, fearfully hard! Unless its -destruction is prepared from without, there are no elements within -that can achieve it. The gravity of the parts too towards the centre, -is so wonderfully great, that disunion can never be effected.</p> - -<p>It is mournful to behold how the rights of man, and of nations, may -be destroyed by the mere magnitude of empire. Humanity now weeps when -wronged and injured Poland shows symptoms of a revolt,—we know that -the blood of the patriotic Pole will be shed in vain, and that the -Russian and the Cossack soldier will soon come to place the galling -yoke again upon his neck; and yet if Poland were united to a nation -no larger than herself—Poland would have rights, and what is better -still, Poland would have the power to defend them. And when she -should send her petitions to the throne and demand redress, the -Autocrat would dare not answer her deputies by pointing them to his -Marshal, and telling them that <i>he</i> had his orders and would execute them.</p> - -<p>Let us then forever guard against the dangerous evil of -consolidation. Let us foster and cherish and love our State -institutions as the palladium of our liberties and the nursery of our -real greatness. Let the motto <span class="pagenum"><a name="page282"><small><small>[p. 282]</small></small></a></span> -inscribed upon the banner of each -patriot, in regard to his state, be that which was placed upon the -urn that enclosed the heart of the philosopher of Ferney, "<i>Mon cœur -est ici, mon esprit est partout;</i>" and sure we may be, that this -elementary training of the affections will not destroy a proper love -for the whole, but is absolutely necessary, to keep the State and -Federal governments moving, in those distinct orbits which have been -prescribed to them by the wisdom of our ancestors.</p> - -<p>But, whatever may be the course of other states,—I hope our own -Virginia,—so rich in soil, but so much richer in her noble sons who -have grown up on that soil and illustrated her history, will ever -cherish with becoming affection her own institutions—for certain she -may be, when a great consolidated central government shall have fixed -its embrace on the Union—the sun of her glory will have set -forever—certain she may be, that in the awful silence of central -despotism, no such statesmen as Washington, Jefferson or Madison, -will ever again arise upon her soil—no such men as Wythe, Pendleton -and Roane, will grace her benches—nor will the thrilling eloquence -of the Henrys, the Masons and the Randolphs, be ever again heard -within her borders. The power that then reposes at the centre, may, -after the example of the most wily and politic of Roman emperors, -suffer the mere state forms to remain, but the spirit, the energetic -life, the independence that once animated them, will all be gone. -They will then obey an impulse that comes from without; and like the -consuls, the senate, and the tribunes of imperial Rome, they will but -speak the will and execute the commands of the Cæsar upon the throne. -Then indeed may the passing stranger, when he beholds this capital, -once the proud theatre for the exhibition of the conflicts of mind -and talents, exclaim—Poor Virginia! how art thou fallen!</p> - -<p>But I sincerely hope, that the patriotism and the intelligence of the -people of this country, will be sufficient to keep our state and -federal governments moving on harmoniously in their legitimate -spheres,—avoiding at the same time dismemberment on the one side, or -the more dangerous tendency of consolidation on the other. All, -however, depends on the virtue, the intelligence, and the vigilance -of the People. Power to be restrained must always be watched with -Argus eyes—the people must always be on the alert—they must never -slacken their vigilance. If they have succeeded to-day in stripping -the usurper of his assumed powers—let them not remit their exertions -on the morrow, but let them remember that power after "these gentle -prunings" does sometimes vegetate but the more luxuriantly. If we -shall wisely avoid the evils with which we are beset in our onward -progress, then I would boldly assert, that never since the foundation -of the world has the eye of the philanthropist rested on a country -which has furnished so grand, so magnificent a theatre for the -creation and the display of arts, science and literature, and for the -production of all those virtues and high intellectual energies, which -so ennoble and adorn the human being and render him the true image of -his Maker, as our own most beautiful system of Confederated Republics -will then present.</p> - -<p>Mr. President, I have done. The great importance and interest of the -topic I have so unworthily discussed, must be my apology for having -detained you so long.</p> -<br> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="100"> -<br> -<br><a name="sect26"></a> -<h4>CRITICAL NOTICES.</h4> -<hr align="center" width="25"> -<br> -<center>EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN VIRGINIA.</center> - -<p><i>Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States of -America—Virginia. A Narrative of Events connected with the Rise and -Progress of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. To which is -added an Appendix, containing the Journals of the Conventions in -Virginia, from the Commencement to the Present Time. By the Reverend -Francis L. Hawks, D.D. Rector of St. Thomas's Church, New York. New -York: Published by Harper and Brothers.</i></p> - -<p>This is a large and handsome octavo of 620 pages. The very cursory -examination which we have as yet been able to give it, will not -warrant us in speaking of the work in other than general terms. A -word or two, however, we may say in relation to the plan, the object, -and circumstances of publication, with some few observations upon -points which have attracted our especial attention.</p> - -<p>From the Preface we learn that, more than five years ago, the author, -in conjunction with the Rev. Edward Rutledge, of South Carolina, -first conceived the idea of gathering together such materials for the -History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, as -might still exist either in tradition or in the manuscripts of the -earlier clergy. That these materials were abundant might rationally -be supposed—still they were to be collected, if collected at all, at -the expense of much patience, time, and labor, from a wide diversity -of sources. Dr. Hawks and his associate, however, were stimulated to -exertion by many of the bishops and clergy of the church. The plan -originally proposed was merely, if we understand it, the compilation -of an annalistic journal—a record of naked facts, to be subsequently -arranged and shaped into narrative by the pen of the historiographer. -In the prosecution of the plan thus designed, our author and his -coadjutor were successful beyond expectation, and a rich variety of -matter was collected. Death, at this period, deprived Dr. Hawks of -his friend's assistance, and left him to pursue his labor alone. He -now, very properly, determined upon attempting, himself, the -execution of the work for which his Annals were intended as -<i>materiel</i>. He began with Virginia—selecting it as the oldest State. -The present volume is simply an experiment. Should it succeed, of -which there can be no doubt whatever, we shall have other volumes in -turn—and that, we suppose, speedily, for there are already on hand -sufficient <i>data</i> to furnish a history of "each of the older diocesses."</p> - -<p>For the design of this work—if even not for the manner of its -execution—Dr. Hawks is entitled to the thanks of the community at -large. He has taken nearly the first step (a step, too, of great -decision, interest and importance) in the field of American -Ecclesiastical History. To that church, especially, of which he is so -worthy a member, he has rendered a service not to be lightly -appreciated in the extraordinary dearth of materials for its story. -In regard to Protestant Episcopalism in America it may be safely said -that, prior to this publication of Dr. Hawks, there were no written -memorials extant, with the exception of the Archives of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283"><small><small>[p. 283]</small></small></a></span> the -General and Diocesan Meetings, and the Journal of Bishop White. For -other religious denominations the <i>materiel</i> of history is more -abundant, and it would be well, if following the suggestions and -example of our author, Christians of all sects would exert themselves -for the collection and preservation of what is so important to the -cause of our National Ecclesiastical Literature.</p> - -<p>The History of any Religion is necessarily a very large portion of -the History of the people who profess it. And regarded in this point -of view the "<i>Narrative</i>" of Dr. Hawks will prove of inestimable -value to Virginia. It commences with the first settlement of the -colony—with the days when the first church was erected in -Virginia—that very church whose hoary ruins stand so tranquilly -to-day in the briar-encumbered graveyard at Jamestown—with the -memorable epoch when Smith, being received into the council, partook, -with his rival, the President, of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, -and Virginia "commenced its career of civilization" with the most -impressive of Christian solemnities. Bringing down the affairs of the -church to the appointment of the Reverend William Meade, D.D. as -Assistant Bishop of Virginia, the narration concludes with a highly -gratifying account of present prosperity. The diocess is said to -possess more than one hundred churches, "some of them the fruit of -reviving zeal in parishes which once flourished, but have long been -almost dead." Above seventy clergymen are in actual service. There is -a large missionary fund, a part of which lies idle, because -missionaries are not to be had. Much reliance is placed, however, -upon the Seminary at Alexandria. This institution has afforded -instruction, during the last three years, to sixty candidates for -orders, and has given no less than thirty-six ministers to the -Episcopalty.</p> - -<p>We will mention, briefly, a few of the most striking points of the -History before us. At page 48, are some remarks in reply to Burk's -insinuation of a persecuting and intolerant spirit in the early -colonial religion of the State—an insinuation based on no better -authority than a statement in "certain ancient records of the -province" concerning the trial, condemnation, and execution by fire, -of a woman, for the crime of witchcraft. Dr. Hawks very justly -observes, that even if the supposed execution did actually take -place, it cannot sanction the inferences which are deduced from it. -Evidence is wanting that the judgment was rendered by an -ecclesiastical power. Witchcraft was an offence cognizable by the -common courts of law, having been made a felony, without benefit of -clergy, by the twelfth chapter of the first statute of James I, -enacted in 1603. So that, allowing the prisoner to have suffered, her -death, says our author, cannot more properly be charged to the -ecclesiastical, than to the civil, authority. But in point of fact, -the trial alluded to by Burk, (see Appendix xxxi,) can be no other -than that of the once notorious Grace Sherwood. And this trial, we -are quite certain, took place before a civil tribunal. Besides, (what -is most especially to the purpose) the accused though found guilty, -and condemned, was <i>never executed</i>.</p> - -<p>Some observations of our author upon a circumstance which History has -connected with the secular feelings of the colony, will be read with -pleasure by all men of liberal opinions. We allude to the fact that -when one of the colony's agents in England (George Sandys, we -believe) took it upon himself to petition Parliament, <i>in the name of -his constituents</i>, for the restoration of the old company, the colony -formally disavowed the act and begged permission to remain under the -royal government. Now, Burk insists that this disavowal was induced -solely by attachment to the Church of England, for whose overthrow -the Puritans were imagined to be particularly zealous. With Dr. Hawks -we protest against the decision of the historian. It can be viewed in -no other light than that of an effort (brought about, perhaps, by -love of our political institutions, yet still exceedingly -disingenuous) to <i>apologise</i> for the loyalty of Virginia—to -apologise for our forefathers having felt what not to have felt would -have required an apology indeed! By faith, by situation, by habits -and by education they had been taught to be loyal—and with them, -consequently, loyalty was a virtue. But if it was indeed a crime—if -Virginia has committed an inexpiable offence in resisting the -encroachments of the Dictator, (we shall not say of the Commonwealth) -let not the Church—in the name of every thing reasonable—let not -the Church be saddled with her iniquity—let not political -prejudices, always too readily excited, be now enlisted against the -religion we cherish, by insinuations artfully introduced, that the -loyalty of the State was involved in its creed—that through faith -alone it remained a slave—and that its love of monarchy was a mere -necessary consequence of its attachment to the Church of England.</p> - -<p>While upon this subject we beg leave to refer our readers to some -remarks, (from the pen of Judge Beverley Tucker) which appeared under -the Critical head of our Messenger before the writer of this article -assumed the Editorial duties. The remarks of which we speak, are in -reply to the aspersions of Mr. George Bancroft, who, in his late -History of the United States, with every intention of paying Virginia -a compliment, accuses her of disloyalty, immediately before, and -during the Protectorate. Of such an accusation, (for Hening's -suggestions, upon pages 513 and 526, of the Statutes at Large cannot -be considered as such) we had never seriously dreamed prior to the -publication of Mr. Bancroft's work, and that Mr. Bancroft himself -should never have dreamed of it, we were sufficiently convinced by -the arguments of Judge Tucker. We allude to these arguments now, with -the view of apprizing such of our readers as may remember them, that -the author of the History in question, in a late interview with Dr. -Hawks, has "disclaimed the intention of representing Virginia as -wanting in loyalty." All parties would have been better pleased with -Mr. B. had he worded his disclaimer so as merely to assure us that in -representing Virginia as disloyal he has found himself in error.</p> - -<p>We will take the liberty of condensing here such of the leading -points on both sides of the debated question as may either occur to -us personally or be suggested by those who have written on the -subject. In proof of Virginia's <i>disloyalty</i> it is said:</p> - -<blockquote>1. There is a deficiency of evidence to establish the fact, (a fact -much insisted upon) that on the death of the governor, Matthews, in -the beginning of 1659, a tumultuous assemblage resolved to throw off -the government of the Protectorate, and repairing to the residence of -Sir William Berkeley, then living in retirement, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284"><small><small>[p. 284]</small></small></a></span> requested him -to resume the direction of the colony. If such had been the fact, -existing records would have shown it—but they do not. Moreover, -these records show that Berkeley was elected precisely as the other -governors had been, in Virginia, during the Protectorate.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>2. After the battle of Dunbar, and the fall of Montrose Virginia -passed an act of surrender—she was therefore in favor of the -Parliament.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>3. The Colonial Legislature claimed the supreme power as residing -within itself. In this it evinced a wish to copy the Parliament—to -which it was therefore favorable.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>4. Cromwell acted magnanimously towards Virginia. The terms of the -article in the Treaty of Surrender by which Virginia stipulated for a -trade free as that of England, were faithfully observed till the -Restoration. The Protector's Navigation Act was not enforced in -Virginia. Cromwell being thus lenient, Virginia must have been -satisfied.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>5. Virginia elected her own governors. Bennett, Digges, and Matthews, -were commonwealth's men. Therefore Virginia was republican.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>6. Virginia was infected with republicanism. She wished to set up for -herself. Thus intent, she demands of Berkeley a distinct -acknowledgement of her assembly's supremacy. His reply was "I am but -the servant of the assembly." Berkeley, therefore, was republican, -and his tumultuous election proves nothing but the republicanism of -Virginia.</blockquote> - -<p>These arguments are answered in order, thus:</p> - -<blockquote>1. The fact of the "tumultuous assemblage," &c. might have existed -without such fact appearing in the records spoken of. For these -records are manifestly incomplete. Some whole documents are lost, and -parts of many. Granting that Berkeley was <i>elected</i> precisely in the -usual way, it does not disprove that a multitude urged him to resume -his old office. The election is all of which these records would -speak. But <i>the call to office</i> might have been a popular -movement—the election quite as usual. This latter was left to go on -in the old mode, probably because it was well known "that those who -were to make it were cavaliers."</blockquote> - -<blockquote>Moreover—Beverley, Burk, Chalmers and Holmes are all direct -testimony in favor of the "tumultuous assemblage."</blockquote> - -<blockquote>2. The act of surrender was in self-defence, when resistance would -have availed nothing. Its terms evince no acknowledgment of -authority, but mere submission to force. They contain <i>not one word</i> -recognizing the rightful power of Parliament, nor impeaching that of -the king.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>3. The "claiming the supreme power," &c. proves any thing but the -fealty of the Colonial Legislature to the Commonwealth. According to -Mr. Bancroft himself, Virginians in 1619 "first set the world the -example of equal representation." "From that time" (we here quote the -words of Judge Tucker,) "they held that the supreme power was in the -hands of the Colonial Parliament, then established, and of the king -as king of Virginia. Now the authority of the king being at an end, -and no successor being acknowledged, it followed, as a corollary from -their principles, that no power remained but that of the -assembly,"—and this is precisely what they mean by claiming the -supreme power as residing in the Colonial Legislature.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>4. Chalmers, Beverley, Holmes, Marshall and Robertson speak, -positively, of great discontents occasioned by restrictions and -oppressions upon Virginian commerce: and a Memorial in behalf of the -trade of the State presented to the Protector, mentions "<i>the poor -planters' general complaints that they are the merchant's slaves</i>," -as a consequence of "<i>that Act of Navigation</i>."</blockquote> - -<blockquote>5. It is probable that Bennett, Digges, and Matthews, (granting -Bennett to have been disloyal) were forced upon the colony by -Cromwell, whom Robertson (on the authority of Beverley and Chalmers,) -asserts to have named the governors during the Protectorate. The -election was possibly a mere form. The use of the equivocal word -<i>named</i>, is, as Judge Tucker remarks, a proof that the historian was -not speaking at random. He does not say <i>appointed</i>. They were -<i>named</i>—with no possibility of their nomination being rejected—as -the speaker of the House of Commons was frequently named in England. -But Bennett was a staunch loyalist—a fact too well known in Virginia -to need proof.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>6. The reasoning here is reasoning in a circle. Virginia is first -declared republican. From this assumed fact, deductions are made -which prove Berkeley so—and Berkeley's republicanism, thus proved, -is made to establish that of Virginia. But Berkeley's answer (from -which Mr. Bancroft has extracted the words "I am but the servant of -the Assembly") runs thus.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"You desire me to do that concerning your titles and claims to land -in this northern part of America, which I am in no capacity to do; -for I am but the servant of the Assembly: <i>neither do they arrogate -to themselves any power farther than the miserable distractions in -England force them to</i>. For when God shall be pleased to take away -and dissipate the unnatural divisions of their native country, <i>they -will immediately return to their professed obedience</i>." Smith's New -York. It will be seen that Mr. Bancroft has been disingenuous in -quoting only a portion of this sentence. <i>The whole</i> proves -incontestibly that neither Berkeley nor the Assembly <i>arrogated to -themselves any power beyond what they were forced to assume by -circumstances</i>—in a word, it proves their loyalty. But Berkeley was -loyal beyond dispute. <i>Norwood</i>, in his "Journal of a Voyage to -Virginia," states that "Berkeley showed great respect to all the -royal party who made that colony their refuge. His house and purse -were open to all so qualified." The same journalist was "sent over, -at Berkeley's expense, to find out the King in Holland, and have an -interview with him."</blockquote> - -<p>To these arguments in favor of Virginia's loyalty may be added the -following.</p> - -<blockquote>1. Contemporaries of Cromwell—men who were busy in the great actions -of the day—have left descendants in Virginia—descendants in whose -families the loyalty of Virginia is a cherished <i>tradition</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>2. The question, being one of <i>fact</i>, a mistake could hardly have -been made originally—or, if so made, could not have been -perpetuated. Now all the early historians call Virginia loyal.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>3. The cavaliers in England (as we learn from British authorities) -looked upon Virginia as a place of refuge.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>4. Holmes' Annals make the population of the state, at the -commencement of the civil wars in England, about 20,000. Of these let -us suppose only 10,000 loyal. At the Restoration the same Annals make -the population 30,000. Here is an increase of 10,000, which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285"><small><small>[p. 285]</small></small></a></span> -increase consisted altogether, or nearly so, of loyalists, <i>for few -others had reason for coming over</i>. The loyalists are now therefore -double the republicans, and Virginia must be loyal.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>5. Cromwell was always suspicious of Virginia. Of this there are many -proofs. One of them may be found in the fact that when the state, -sympathizing with the victims of Claiborne's oppression, (a felon -employed by Cromwell to "root out popery in Maryland") afforded them -a refuge, she was sternly reprimanded by the Protector, and -admonished to keep a guard on her actions.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>6. A pamphlet called "Virginia's Cure, an Advisive Narrative -concerning Virginia," printed in 1661, speaks of the people as "men -which generally bear a great love to the stated constitutions of the -Church of England in her government and public worship; which gave us -the advantage of liberty to use it constantly among them, after the -naval force had reduced the colony under the power (<i>but never to the -obedience</i>) of the usurpers."</blockquote> - -<blockquote>7. John Hammond, in a book entitled "Leah and Rachell, or the two -fruitful Sisters of Virginia and Maryland," printed in 1656, speaking -of the State during the Protectorate, has the words "<i>Virginia being -whole for monarchy</i>."</blockquote> - -<blockquote>8. Immediately after the fall of Charles I, Virginia passed an Act -making it <i>high treason</i> to justify his murder, or to acknowledge the -Parliament. The Act is not so much as the terms of the Act.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>Lastly. The distinguishing features of Virginian character at -present—features of a marked nature—not elsewhere to be met with in -America—and evidently akin to that chivalry which denoted the -Cavalier—can be in no manner so well accounted for as by considering -them the <i>debris</i> of a devoted loyalty.</blockquote> - -<p>At page 122 of the work before us, Dr. Hawks has entered into a -somewhat detailed statement (involving much information to us -entirely new) concerning the celebrated "Parson's cause"—the -church's controversy with the laity on the subject of payments in -money substituted for payments in tobacco. It was this controversy -which first elicited the oratorical powers of Patrick Henry, and our -author dwells with much emphasis, and no little candor, upon the -fascinating abilities which proved so unexpectedly fatal to the -clerical interest.</p> - -<p>On page 160 are some farther highly interesting reminiscences of Mr. -Henry. The opinion of Wirt is considered unfounded, that the great -orator was a believer in Christianity without having a preference for -any of the forms in which it is presented. We are glad to find that -Mr. Wirt was in error. The Christian religion, it has been justly -remarked, must assume <i>a distinct form of profession</i>—or it is worth -little. An avowal of a merely general Christianity is little better -than an avowal of none at all. Patrick Henry, according to Dr. Hawks, -was of the Episcopalian faith. That at any period of his life he was -an unbeliever is explicitly denied, on the authority of a MS. letter, -in possession of our author, containing information of Mr. H. derived -from his widow and descendants.</p> - -<p>It is with no little astonishment that we have seen Dr. Hawks accused -of illiberality in his few remarks upon "that noble monument of -liberty," the <i>Act for the Establishment of Religious Freedom</i>. If -there is any thing beyond simple justice in his observations we, for -our own parts, cannot perceive it. No respect for the civil services, -or the unquestionable mental powers of Jefferson, shall blind us to -his iniquities. That our readers may judge for themselves we quote in -full the sentences which have been considered as objectionable.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"We are informed by him (Jefferson) that an amendment was proposed to -the Preamble, by the insertion of the name of our Saviour before the -words 'The Holy Author of our Religion.' This could at most have had -no other effect upon the enacting clause, but that of granting the -utmost freedom to all denominations <i>professing to own and worship -Christ</i>, without affording undue preference to any; and against this, -it would be unreasonable to object. Certain it is, that more than -this had never been asked by any religious denomination in Virginia, -in any petition presented against the Church; the public, therefore, -would have been satisfied with such an amendment. The proposed -alteration, however, was rejected, and it is made the subject of -triumph that the law was left, in the words of its author, 'to -comprehend within the mantle of its protection the Jew and the -Gentile, the Christian and Mohammedan, the Hindoo, and Infidel of -every denomination.' That these various classes should have been -protected both in person and property, is obviously the dictate of -justice, of humanity, and of enlightened policy. But it surely was -not necessary, in securing to them such protection, to degrade, not -the establishment, but Christianity itself to a level with the -voluptuousness of Mahomet, or the worship of Juggernaut; and if it be -true that there is danger in an established alliance between -Christianity and the civil power, let it be remembered that there is -another alliance not less fatal to the happiness and subversive of -the intellectual freedom of man—it is an alliance between the civil -authority and infidelity; which, whether formally recognized or not, -if permitted to exert its influence, direct or indirect, will be -found to be equally ruinous in its results. On this subject, -Revolutionary France has once read to the world an impressive lesson, -which it is to be hoped will not speedily be forgotten."</small></blockquote> - -<p>In Chapter xii, the whole history of the Glebe Law of 1802—a law the -question of whose constitutionality is still undetermined—is -detailed with much candor, and in a spirit of calm inquiry. A vivid -picture is exhibited of some desecrations which have been consequent -upon the sale.</p> - -<p>In Chapter xiii, is an exceedingly well-written memoir of our -patriarchal bishop the Right Reverend Richard Channing Moore. From -this memoir we must be permitted to extract a single passage of -peculiar interest.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"It was at one of his stated lectures in the church, (St. Andrew's in -Staten Island) that after the usual services had concluded, and the -benediction been pronounced, he sat down in his pulpit waiting for -the people to retire. To his great surprise, he soon observed that -not an individual present seemed disposed to leave the Church; and -after the interval of a few minutes, during which a perfect silence -was maintained, one of the members of the congregation arose, and -respectfully requested him to address those present a second time. -After singing a hymn, the bishop delivered to them a second -discourse, and once more dismissed the people with the blessing. But -the same state of feeling which had before kept them in their seats, -still existed, and once more did they solicit the preacher to address -them. Accordingly he delivered to them a third sermon, and at its -close, exhausted by the labor in which he had been engaged, he -informed them of the impossibility of continuing the services on his -part, once more blessed <span class="pagenum"><a name="page286"><small><small>[p. 286]</small></small></a></span> -them and affectionately entreated them -to retire to their homes. It was within the space of six weeks, after -the scene above described, that more than sixty members of the -congregation became communicants; and in the course of the year more -than one hundred knelt around the chancel of St. Andrew's who had -never knelt there before as partakers of the sacrament of the Lord's -Supper."</small></blockquote> - -<p>The historical portion of the work before us occupies about one half -of its pages. The other half embraces "Journals of the Conventions of -the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocess of Virginia—from 1785 -to 1835, inclusive." It is, of course, unnecessary to dwell upon the -great value to the church of such a compilation. Very few, if any, -complete sets of diocesan Journals of Conventions are in existence. -We will conclude our notice, by heartily recommending the entire -volume, as an important addition to our Civil as well as -Ecclesiastical History.</p> -<hr align="center" width="25"><a name="sect27"></a> -<br> -<center>PHRENOLOGY.</center> - -<p><i>Phrenology, and the Moral Influence of Phrenology: Arranged for -General Study, and the Purposes of Education, from the first -published works of Gall and Spurzheim, to the latest discoveries of -the present period. By Mrs. L. Miles. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, and -Blanchard.</i></p> - -<p>Phrenology is no longer to be laughed at. It <i>is</i> no longer laughed -at by men of common understanding. It has assumed the majesty of a -science; and, as a science, ranks among the most important which can -engage the attention of thinking beings—this too, whether we -consider it merely as an object of speculative inquiry, or as -involving consequences of the highest practical magnitude. As a study -it is very extensively accredited in Germany, in France, in Scotland, -and in both Americas. Some of its earliest and most violent opposers -have been converted to its doctrines. We may instance George Combe -who wrote the "Phrenology." Nearly all Edinburgh has been brought -over to belief—in spite of the Review and its ill sustained -opinions. Yet these latter were considered of so great weight that -Dr. Spurzheim was induced to visit Scotland for the purpose of -refuting them. There, with the Edinburgh Review in one hand, and a -brain in the other, he delivered a lecture before a numerous -assembly, among whom was the author of the most virulent attack which -perhaps the science has ever received. At this single lecture he is -said to have gained five hundred converts to Phrenology, and the -Northern Athens is now the strong hold of the faith.</p> - -<p>In regard to the <i>uses</i> of Phrenology—its most direct, and, perhaps, -most salutary, is that of <i>self-examination and self-knowledge</i>. It -is contended that, with proper caution, and well-directed inquiry, -individuals may obtain, through the science, a perfectly accurate -estimate of their own moral capabilities—and, thus instructed, will -be the better fitted for decision in regard to a choice of offices -and duties in life. But there are other and scarcely less important -uses too numerous to mention—at least here.</p> - -<p>The beautiful little work now before us was originally printed in -London in a manner sufficiently quaint. The publication consisted of -forty cards contained in a box resembling a small pocket volume. An -embossed head accompanied the cards, giving at a glance the relative -situations and proportions of each organ, and superseding altogether -the necessity of a bust. This head served as an Index to the -explanations of the system. The whole formed a lucid, compact, and -portable compend of Phrenology. The present edition of the work, -however, is preferable in many respects, and is indeed exceedingly -neat and convenient—we presume that it pretends to be nothing more.</p> - -<p>The Faculties are divided into <i>Instinctive Propensities and -Sentiments</i> and <i>Intellectual Faculties</i>. The Instinctive -Propensities and Sentiments are subdivided into <i>Domestic -Affections</i>, embracing Amativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, -Inhabitiveness, and Attachment—<i>Preservative Faculties</i>, embracing -Combativeness, Destructiveness, and Gustativeness—<i>Prudential -Sentiments</i>, embracing Acquisitiveness, Secretiveness, and -Cautionness—<i>Regulating Powers</i>, including Self-Esteem, Love of -Approbation, Conscientiousness, and Firmness—<i>Imaginative -Faculties</i>, containing Hope, Ideality, and Marvellousness—and <i>Moral -Sentiments</i>, under which head come Benevolence, Veneration, and -Imitation. The <i>Intellectual Faculties</i> are divided into <i>Observing -Faculties</i>, viz: Individuality, Form, Size, Weight, Color, Order, and -Number—<i>Scientific Faculties</i>, viz: Constructiveness, Locality, -Time, and Tune—<i>Reflecting Faculties</i>, viz: Eventuality, Comparison, -Casuality and Wit—and lastly, the <i>Subservient Faculty</i>, which is -Language. This classification is arranged with sufficient clearness, -but it would require no great degree of acumen to show that to mere -perspicuity points of vital importance to the science have been -sacrificed.</p> - -<p>At page 17 is a brief chapter entitled a <i>Survey of Contour</i>, well -conceived and well adapted to its purpose which is—to convey by a -casual or superficial view of any head, an idea of what propensities, -sentiments, or faculties, most distinguish the individual. It is here -remarked that "any faculty may be possessed in perfection without -showing itself in a prominence or bump," (a fact not often attended -to) "it is only where <i>one</i> organ predominates above those nearest to -it, that it becomes singly perceptible. Where a number of contiguous -organs are large, there will be a general fulness of that part of the -head."</p> - -<p>Some passages in Mrs. Miles' little book have a very peculiar -interest. At page 26 we find what follows.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The cerebral organs are double, and inhabit both sides of the head, -from the root of the nose to the middle of the neck at the nape. They -act in unison, and produce a single impression, as from the double -organs of sight and hearing. The loss of one eye does not destroy -vision. The deafness of one ear does not wholly deprive us of -hearing. In the same manner Tiedman reports the case of a madman, -whose disease was confined to one side of his head, the patient -having the power to perceive his own malady, with the unimpaired -faculties of the other side. It is no uncommon thing to find persons -acute on all subjects save <i>one</i>—thus proving the possibility of a -partial injury of the brain, or the hypothesis of a plurality of -organs."</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the chapter on <i>Combativeness</i>, we meet with the very sensible and -necessary observation that we must not consider the possession of -particular and instinctive propensities, as acquitting us of -responsibility in the indulgence of culpable actions. On the contrary -it is the perversion of our faculties which causes the greatest -misery we endure, and for which (having the free exercise of -<i>reason</i>) we are accountable to God.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287"><small><small>[p. 287]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The following is quoted from <i>Edinensis, vol. iv.</i></p> - -<blockquote><small>"All the faculties are considered capable of producing actions which -are good, and it is not to be admitted that any one of them is -essentially, and in itself <i>evil</i>—but if given way to beyond a -certain degree, all of them (with the sole exception of -<i>Conscientiousness</i>) may lead to results which are improper, -injurious, or culpable."</small></blockquote> - -<p>The words annexed occur at page 102.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Anatomy decides that the brain, notwithstanding the softness of its -consistence, <i>gives shape to the cranium</i>, as the crustaceous -tenement of the crab is adjusted to the animal that inhabits it. An -exception is made to this rule when disease or ill-treatment injure -the skull."</small></blockquote> - -<p>And again at page 159.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"By appealing to Nature herself, it can scarcely be doubted that -certain forms of the head denote particular talents or dispositions; -and anatomists find that <i>the surface of the brain</i> presents the same -appearance in shape which the skull exhibits during life. Idiocy is -invariably the consequence of the brain being too small, while in -such heads the animal propensities are generally very full."</small></blockquote> - -<p>To this may be added the opinion of Gall, that a skull which is -large, which is elevated or high above the ears, and in which the -head is well developed and thrown forward, so as to be nearly -perpendicular with its base, may be presumed to lodge a brain of -greater power (whatever may be its propensities) than a skull -deficient in such proportion.</p> -<hr align="center" width="25"><a name="sect28"></a> -<br> -<center>MAHMOUD.</center> - -<p><i>Mahmoud. New-York. Published by Harper and Brothers.</i></p> - -<p>Of this book—its parentage or birth-place—we know nothing beyond -the scanty and equivocal information derivable from the title-page, -and from the brief Advertisement prefixed to the narrative itself. -From the title-page we learn, or rather we do <i>not</i> learn that Harper -and Brothers are the publishers—for although we are informed, in so -many direct words that such is the fact, still we are taught by -experience that, in the bookselling vocabulary of the day, the word -<i>published</i> has too expansive, too variable, and altogether too -convenient a meaning to be worthy of very serious attention. The -volumes before us are, we imagine, (although really without any good -reason for so imagining,) a reprint from a London publication. It is -quite possible, however, that the work is by an American writer, and -now, as it professes to be, for the first time actually published. -From the Advertisement we understand that the book is a combination -of <i>facts</i> derived from private sources; or from personal -observation. We are told that "with the exception of a few of the -inferior characters, and the trifling accessories necessary to blend -the materials, and impart a unity to the rather complex web of the -narrative, the whole may be relied upon as perfectly true."</p> - -<p>Be this as it may, we should have read "<i>Mahmoud</i>" with far greater -pleasure had we never seen the Anastasius of Mr. Hope. That most -excellent and vivid, (although somewhat immoral) series of Turkish -paintings is still nearly as fresh within our memory as in the days -of perusal. The work left nothing farther to be expected, or even to -be desired, in rich, bold, vigorous, and accurate delineation of the -scenery, characters, manners, and peculiarities of the region to -which its pages were devoted. Nothing less than the consciousness of -superior power could have justified any one in treading in the steps -of Mr. Hope. And, certainly, nothing at all, under any circumstances -whatsoever, could have justified a direct and palpable copy of -Anastasius. Yet Mahmoud is no better.</p> -<hr align="center" width="25"><a name="sect29"></a> -<br> -<center>GEORGIA SCENES.</center> - -<p><i>Georgia Scenes, Characters, Incidents, &c. in the First Half Century -of the Republic. By a Native Georgian. Augusta, Georgia.</i></p> - -<p>This book has reached us anonymously—not to say anomalously—yet it -is most heartily welcome. The author, whoever he is, is a clever -fellow, imbued with a spirit of the truest humor, and endowed, -moreover, with an exquisitely discriminative and penetrating -understanding of <i>character</i> in general, and of Southern character in -particular. And we do not mean to speak of <i>human</i> character -exclusively. To be sure, our Georgian is <i>au fait</i> here too—he is -learned in all things appertaining to the biped without feathers. In -regard, especially, to that class of southwestern mammalia who come -under the generic appellation of "savagerous wild cats," he is a very -Theophrastus in duodecimo. But he is not the less at home in other -matters. Of geese and ganders he is the La Bruyere, and of -good-for-nothing horses the Rochefoucault.</p> - -<p>Seriously—if this book were printed in England it would make the -fortune of its author. We positively mean what we say—and are quite -sure of being sustained in our opinion by all proper judges who may -be so fortunate as to obtain a copy of the "<i>Georgia Scenes</i>," and -who will be at the trouble of sifting their peculiar merits from amid -the <i>gaucheries</i> of a Southern publication. Seldom—perhaps never in -our lives—have we laughed as immoderately over any book as over the -one now before us. If these <i>scenes</i> have produced such effects upon -<i>our</i> cachinnatory nerves—upon <i>us</i> who are not "of the merry mood," -and, moreover, have not been unused to the perusal of somewhat -similar things—we are at no loss to imagine what a hubbub they would -occasion in the uninitiated regions of Cockaigne. And what would -Christopher North say to them?—ah, what would Christopher North say? -that is the question. Certainly not a word. But we can fancy the -pursing up of his lips, and the long, loud, and jovial resonnation of -his wicked, and uproarious ha! ha's!</p> - -<p>From the Preface to the Sketches before us we learn that although -they are, generally, nothing more than fanciful combinations of real -incidents and characters, still, in some instances, the narratives -are literally true. We are told also that the publication of these -pieces was commenced, rather more than a year ago, in one of the -Gazettes of the State, and that they were favorably received. "For -the last six months," says the author, "I have been importuned by -persons from all quarters of the State to give them to the public in -the present form." This speaks well for the Georgian taste. But that -the publication will <i>succeed</i>, in the bookselling sense of the word, -is problematical. Thanks to the long indulged literary supineness of -the South, her presses are not as apt in putting forth a <i>saleable</i> -book as her sons are in concocting a wise one.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288"><small><small>[p. 288]</small></small></a></span> -<p>From a desire of concealing the author's name, two different -signatures, Baldwin and Hall, were used in the original <i>Sketches</i>, -and, to save trouble, are preserved in the present volume. With the -exception, however, of one scene, "The Company Drill," all the book -is the production of the same pen. The first article in the list is -"Georgia Theatrics." Our friend <i>Hall</i>, in this piece, represents -himself as ascending, about eleven o'clock in the forenoon of a June -day, "a long and gentle slope in what was called the Dark Corner of -Lincoln County, Georgia." Suddenly his ears are assailed by loud, -profane, and boisterous voices, proceeding, apparently, from a large -company of raggamuffins, concealed in a thick covert of undergrowth -about a hundred yards from the road.</p> - -<p>"You kin, kin you?</p> - -<p>"Yes I kin, and am able to do it! Boo-oo-oo-oo! Oh wake snakes and -walk your chalks! Brimstone and fire! Dont hold me Nick Stoval! The -fight's made up, and lets go at it—my soul if I dont jump down his -throat, and gallop every chitterling out of him before you can say -'quit!'</p> - -<p>"Now Nick, dont hold him! Jist let the wild cat come, and I'll tame -him. Ned'll see me a fair fight—wont you Ned?</p> - -<p>"Oh yes; I'll see you a fair fight, my old shoes if I dont.</p> - -<p>"That's sufficient, as Tom Haynes said when he saw the Elephant. Now -let him come!" &c. &c. &c.</p> - -<p>And now the sounds assume all the discordant intonations inseparable -from a Georgia "rough and tumble" fight. Our traveller listens in -dismay to the indications of a quick, violent, and deadly struggle. -With the intention of acting as pacificator, he dismounts in haste, -and hurries to the scene of action. Presently, through a gap in the -thicket, he obtains a glimpse of one, at least, of the combatants. -This one appears to have his antagonist beneath him on the ground, -and to be dealing on the prostrate wretch the most unmerciful blows. -Having overcome about half the space which separated him from the -combatants, our friend Hall is horror-stricken at seeing "the -uppermost make a heavy plunge with both his thumbs, and hearing, at -the same instant, a cry in the accent of keenest torture, 'Enough! My -eye's out!'"</p> - -<p>Rushing to the rescue of the mutilated wretch the traveller is -surprised at finding that all the accomplices in the hellish deed -have fled at his approach—at least so he supposes, for none of them -are to be seen.</p> - -<p>"At this moment," says the narrator, "the victor saw me for the first -time. He looked excessively embarrassed, and was moving off, when I -called to him in a tone emboldened by the sacredness of my office, -and the iniquity of his crime, 'come back, you brute! and assist me -in relieving your fellow mortal, whom you have ruined forever!' My -rudeness subdued his embarrassment in an instant; and with a taunting -curl of the nose, he replied; you need'nt kick before you're spurred. -There 'ant nobody there, nor ha'nt been nother. I was jist seein how -I could 'a' <i>fout!</i> So saying, he bounded to his plow, which stood in -the corner of the fence about fifty yards beyond the battle ground."</p> - -<p>All that had been seen or heard was nothing more nor less than a -Lincoln rehearsal; in which all the parts of all the characters, of a -Georgian Court-House fight had been sustained by the youth of the -plough <i>solus</i>. The whole anecdote is told with a raciness and vigor -which would do honor to the pages of Blackwood.</p> - -<p>The second Article is "The Dance, a Personal Adventure of the Author" -in which the oddities of a backwood reel are depicted with -inimitable force, fidelity and picturesque effect. "The Horse-swap" -is a vivid narration of an encounter between the wits of two Georgian -horse-jockies. This is most excellent in every respect—but -especially so in its delineations of Southern bravado, and the keen -sense of the ludicrous evinced in the portraiture of the steeds. We -think the following free and easy sketch of a <i>hoss</i> superior, in -joint humor and verisimilitude, to any thing of the kind we have ever seen.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"During this harangue, little Bullet looked as if he understood it -all, believed it, and was ready at any moment to verify it. He was a -horse of goodly countenance, rather expressive of vigilance than -fire; though an unnatural appearance of fierceness was thrown into -it, by the loss of his ears, which had been cropped pretty close to -his head. Nature had done but little for Bullet's head and neck, but -he managed in a great measure to hide their defects by bowing -perpetually. He had obviously suffered severely for corn; but if his -ribs and hip bones had not disclosed the fact he never would have -done it; for he was in all respects as cheerful and happy as if he -commanded all the corn cribs and fodder stacks in Georgia. His height -was about twelve hands; but as his shape partook somewhat of that of -the giraffe his haunches stood much lower. They were short, straight, -peaked, and concave. Bullet's tail, however, made amends for all his -defects. All that the artist could do to beautify it had been done; -and all that horse could do to compliment the artist, Bullet did. His -tail was nicked in superior style, and exhibited the line of beauty -in so many directions, that it could not fail to hit the most -fastidious taste in some of them. From the root it dropped into a -graceful festoon; then rose in a handsome curve; then resumed its -first direction; and then mounted suddenly upwards like a cypress -knee to a perpendicular of about two and a half inches. The whole had -a careless and bewitching inclination to the right. Bullet obviously -knew where his beauty lay, and took all occasions to display it to -the best advantage. If a stick cracked, or if any one moved suddenly -about him or coughed, or hawked, or spoke a little louder than -common, up went Bullet's tail like lightning; and if the <i>going up</i> -did not please, the <i>coming down</i> must of necessity, for it was as -different from the other movement as was its direction. The first was -a bold and rapid flight upwards usually to an angle of forty five -degrees. In this position he kept his interesting appendage until he -satisfied himself that nothing in particular was to be done; when he -commenced dropping it by half inches, in second beats—then in triple -time—then faster and shorter, and faster and shorter still, until it -finally died away imperceptibly into its natural position. If I might -compare sights to sounds, I should say its <i>settling</i> was more like -the note of a locust than any thing else in nature."</small></blockquote> - -<p>"The character of a Native Georgian" is amusing, but not so good as -the scenes which precede and succeed it. Moreover the character -described (a practical humorist) is neither very original, nor -appertaining exclusively to Georgia.</p> - -<p>"The Fight" although involving some horrible and disgusting details -of southern barbarity is a sketch unsurpassed in dramatic vigor, and -in the vivid truth to nature of one or two of the personages -introduced. <i>Uncle Tommy Loggins</i>, in particular, an oracle in "rough -and tumbles," and Ransy Sniffle, a misshapen urchin "who in his -earlier days had fed copiously upon red clay and blackberries," and -all the pleasures of whose life concentre in a love of -fisticuffs—are both forcible, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289"><small><small>[p. 289]</small></small></a></span> accurate and original generic -delineations of real existences to be found sparsely in Georgia, -Mississippi and Louisiana, and very plentifully in our more remote -settlements and territories. This article would positively make the -fortune of any British periodical.</p> - -<p>"The Song" is a burlesque somewhat overdone, but upon the whole a -good caricature of Italian bravura singing. The following account of -Miss Aurelia Emma Theodosia Augusta Crump's execution on the piano is -inimitable.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Miss Crump was educated at Philadelphia; she had been taught to sing -by Madam Piggisqueaki, who was a pupil of Ma'm'selle Crokifroggietta, -who had sung with Madam Catalani; and she had taken lessons on the -piano, from Signor Buzzifuzzi, who had played with Paganini.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"She seated herself at the piano, rocked to the right, then to the -left,—leaned forward, then backward, and began. She placed her right -hand about midway the keys, and her left about two octaves below it. -She now put off the right in a brisk canter up the treble notes, and -the left after it. The left then led the way back, and the right -pursued it in like manner. The right turned, and repeated its first -movement; but the left outrun it this time, hopt over it, and flung -it entirely off the track. It came in again, however, behind the left -on its return, and passed it in the same style. They now became -highly incensed at each other, and met furiously on the middle -ground. Here a most awful conflict ensued, for about the space of ten -seconds, when the right whipped off, all of a sudden, as I thought, -fairly vanquished. But I was in the error, against which Jack -Randolph cautions us—'It had only fallen back to a stronger -position.' It mounted upon two black keys, and commenced the note of -a rattle-snake. This had a wonderful effect upon the left, and placed -the doctrine of snake charming beyond dispute. The left rushed -furiously towards it repeatedly, but seemed invariably panic struck, -when it came within six keys of it, and as invariably retired with a -tremendous roaring down the bass keys. It continued its assaults, -sometimes by the way of the naturals, sometimes by the way of the -sharps, and sometimes by a zigzag, through both; but all its attempts -to dislodge the right from its strong hold proving ineffectual, it -came close up to its adversary and expired."</small></blockquote> - -<p>The "<i>Turn Out</i>" is excellent—a second edition of Miss Edgeworth's -"Barring Out," and full of fine touches of the truest humor. The -scene is laid in Georgia, and in the good old days of <i>fescues</i>, -<i>abbiselfas</i>, and <i>anpersants</i>—terms in very common use, but whose -derivation we have always been at a loss to understand. Our author -thus learnedly explains the riddle.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The <i>fescue</i> was a sharpened wire, or other instrument, used by the -preceptor, to point out the letters to the children. <i>Abbiselfa</i> is a -contraction of the words 'a, by itself, a.' It was usual, when either -of the vowels constituted a syllable of a word, to pronounce it, and -denote its independent character, by the words just mentioned, thus: -'a by itself <i>a</i>, c-o-r-n corn, <i>acorn</i>'—e by itself <i>e</i>, v-i-l vil, -evil. The character which stands for the word '<i>and</i>' (&) was -probably pronounced with the same accompaniment, but in terms -borrowed from the Latin language, thus: '& <i>per se</i> (by itself) &.' -'Hence anpersant.'"</small></blockquote> - -<p>This whole story forms an admirable picture of school-boy democracy -in the woods. The <i>master</i> refuses his pupils an Easter holiday; and -upon repairing, at the usual hour of the fatal day, to his school -house, "a log pen about twenty feet square," finds every avenue to -his ingress fortified and barricadoed. He advances, and is assailed -by a whole wilderness of sticks from the cracks. Growing desperate, -he seizes a fence rail, and finally succeeds in effecting an entrance -by demolishing the door. He is soundly flogged however for his pains, -and the triumphant urchins suffer him to escape with his life, solely -upon condition of their being allowed to do what they please as long -as they shall think proper.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Charming Creature as a Wife</i>," is a very striking narrative of -the evils attendant upon an ill-arranged marriage—but as it has -nothing about it peculiarly Georgian, we pass it over without further -comment.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Gander Pulling</i>" is a gem worthy, in every respect, of the -writer of "The Fight," and "The Horse Swap." What a "<i>Gander -Pulling</i>" is, however, may probably not be known by a great majority -of our readers. We will therefore tell them. It is a piece of -unprincipled barbarity not unfrequently practised in the South and -West. A circular horse path is formed of about forty or fifty yards -in diameter. Over this path, and between two posts about ten feet -apart, is extended a rope which, swinging loosely, vibrates in an arc -of five or six feet. From the middle of this rope, lying directly -over the middle of the path, a gander, whose neck and head are well -greased, is suspended by the feet. The distance of the fowl from the -ground is generally about ten feet—and its neck is consequently just -within reach of a man on horseback. Matters being thus arranged, and -the mob of vagabonds assembled, who are desirous of entering the -chivalrous lists of the "Gander Pulling," a hat is handed round, into -which a quarter or half dollar, as the case may be, is thrown by each -competitor. The money thus collected is the prize of the victor in -the game—and the game is thus conducted. The ragamuffins mounted on -horseback, gallop round the circle in Indian file. At a word of -command, given by the proprietor of the gander, the pulling, properly -so called, commences. Each villain as he passes under the rope, makes -a grab at the throat of the devoted bird—the end and object of the -tourney being to pull off his head. This of course is an end not -easily accomplished. The fowl is obstinately bent upon retaining his -caput if possible—in which determination he finds a powerful adjunct -in the grease. The rope, moreover, by the efforts of the human -devils, is kept in a troublesome and tantalizing state of vibration, -while two assistants of the proprietor, one at each pole, are -provided with a tough cowhide, for the purpose of preventing any -horse from making too long a sojourn beneath the gander. Many hours, -therefore, not unfrequently elapse before the contest is decided.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Ball</i>"—a Georgia ball—is done to the life. Some passages, in -a certain species of sly humor, wherein intense observation of -character is disguised by simplicity of relation, put us forcibly in -mind of the Spectator. For example.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"When De Bathle and I reached the ball room, a large number of -gentlemen had already assembled. They all seemed cheerful and happy. -Some walked in couples up and down the ball room, and talked with -great volubility; but none of them understood a word that himself or -his companion said.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Ah, sir, how do you know that?</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Because the speakers showed plainly by their looks and actions, that -their thoughts were running upon their own personal appearance, and -upon the figure they would cut before the ladies, when they should -arrive; and not upon the subject of the discourse. And furthermore, -their conversation was like that of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290"><small>[p. 290]</small></a></span> -one talking in his -sleep—without order, sense, or connexion. The hearer always made the -speaker repeat in sentences and half sentences; often interrupting -him with 'what?' before he had proceeded three words in a remark; and -then laughed affectedly, as though he saw in the senseless unfinished -sentence, a most excellent joke. Then would come his reply, which -could not be forced into connexion with a word that he had heard; and -in the course of which he was treated with precisely the civility -which he had received. And yet they kept up the conversation with -lively interest as long as I listened to them."</small></blockquote> - -<p>"<i>The Mother and her Child</i>," we have seen before—but read it a -second time with zest. It is a laughable burlesque of the baby -'gibberish' so frequently made use of by mothers in speaking to their -children. This sketch evinces, like all the rest of the Georgia -scenes—a fine dramatic talent.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Debating Society</i>" is the best thing in the book—and indeed -one among the best things of the kind we have ever read. It has all -the force and freedom of some similar articles in the Diary of a -Physician—without the evident straining for effect which so -disfigures that otherwise admirable series. We will need no apology -for copying <i>The Debating Society</i> entire.</p> - -<blockquote><small>About three and twenty years ago, at the celebrated school in -W———n, was formed a Debating Society, composed of young gentlemen -between the ages of seventeen and twenty-two. Of the number were two, -who, rather from an uncommon volubility, than from any superior gifts -or acquirements, which they possessed over their associates, were by -common consent, placed at the head of the fraternity.—At least this -was true of one of them: the other certainly had higher claims to his -distinction. He was a man of the highest order of intellect, who, -though he has since been known throughout the Union, as one of the -ablest speakers in the country, seems to me to have added but little -to his powers in debate, since he passed his twenty-second year. The -name of the first, was Longworth; and McDermot was the name of the -last. They were congenial spirits, warm friends, and classmates, at -the time of which I am speaking.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It was a rule of the Society, that every member should speak upon the -subjects chosen for discussion, or pay a fine; and as all the members -valued the little stock of change, with which they were furnished, -more than they did their reputation for oratory, not a fine had been -imposed for a breach of this rule, from the organization of the -society to this time.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The subjects for discussion were proposed by the members, and -selected by the President, whose prerogative it was also to arrange -the speakers on either side, at his pleasure; though in selecting the -subjects, he was influenced not a little by the members who gave -their opinions freely of those which were offered.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It was just as the time was approaching, when most of the members -were to leave the society, some for college, and some for the busy -scenes of life, that McDermot went to share his classmate's bed for a -night. In the course of the evening's conversation, the society came -upon the tapis. "Mac," said Longworth, "would'nt we have rare sport, -if we could impose a subject upon the society, which has no sense in -it, and hear the members speak upon it?"</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Zounds," said McDermot, "it would be the finest fun in the world. -Let's try it at all events—we can lose nothing by the experiment."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>A sheet of foolscap was immediately divided between them, and they -industriously commenced the difficult task of framing sentences, -which should possess the <i>form</i> of a debateable question, without a -particle of the <i>substance</i>.—After an hour's toil, they at length -exhibited the fruits of their labor, and after some reflection, and -much laughing, they selected, from about thirty subjects proposed, -the following, as most likely to be received by the society:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Whether at public elections, should the votes of faction -predominate by internal suggestions or the bias of jurisprudence?</i>"</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Longworth was to propose it to the society, and McDermot was to -advocate its adoption.—As they had every reason to suppose, from the -practice of the past, that they would be placed at the head of the -list of disputants, and on opposite sides, it was agreed between -them, in case the experiment should succeed, that they would write -off, and interchange their speeches, in order that each might quote -literally from the other, and thus <i>seem</i> at least, to understand -each other.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The day at length came for the triumph or defeat of the project; and -several accidental circumstances conspired to crown it with success. -The society had entirely exhausted their subjects; the discussion of -the day had been protracted to an unusual length, and the horns of -the several boarding-houses began to sound, just as it ended. It was -at this auspicious moment, that Longworth rose, and proposed his -subject. It was caught at with rapture by McDermot, as being -decidedly the best that had ever been submitted; and he wondered that -none of the members had ever thought of it before.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It was no sooner proposed, than several members exclaimed, that they -did not understand it; and demanded an explanation from the mover. -Longworth replied, that there was no time then for explanations, but -that either himself or Mr. McDermot would explain it, at any other -time.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Upon the credit of the <i>maker</i> and <i>endorser</i>, the subject was -accepted; and under pretence of economising time, (but really to -avoid a repetition of the question,) Longworth kindly offered to -record it, for the Secretary. This labor ended, he announced that he -was prepared for the arrangement of the disputants.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Put yourself," said the President, "on the affirmative, and Mr. -McDermot on the negative."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The subject," said Longworth "cannot well be resolved into an -affirmative and negative. It consists more properly, of two -conflicting affirmatives: I have therefore drawn out the heads, under -which the speakers are to be arranged thus:</small></blockquote> - -<center><small><i>Internal Suggestions</i>. <i>Bias of -Jurisprudence</i>.</small></center> - -<blockquote><small>Then put yourself Internal Suggestions—Mr. McDermot the other side, -Mr. Craig on your side—Mr. Pentigall the other side," and so on.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>McDermot and Longworth now determined that they would not be seen by -any other member of the society during the succeeding week, except at -times when explanations could not be asked, or when they were too -busy to give them. Consequently, the week passed away, without any -explanations; and the members were summoned to dispose of the -important subject, with no other lights upon it than those which they -could collect from its terms. When they assembled, there was manifest -alarm on the countenances of all but two of them.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The Society was opened in due form, and Mr. Longworth was called on -to open the debate. He rose and proceeded as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Mr. President</i>—The subject selected for this day's discussion, is -one of vast importance, pervading the profound depths of psychology, -and embracing within its comprehensive range, all that is interesting -in morals, government, law and politics. But, sir, I shall not follow -it through all its interesting and diversified ramifications; but -endeavor to deduce from it those great and fundamental principles, -which have direct bearing, upon the antagonist positions of the -disputants; confining myself more immediately to its psychological -influence when exerted, especially upon the <i>votes of faction:</i> for -here is the point upon which the question mainly turns. In the next -place, I shall consider the effects of those 'suggestions' -emphatically termed '<i>internal</i>' when applied to the same subject. -And in the third place, I shall compare these effects, with 'the bias -of jurisprudence,' considered as the only resort in times of popular -excitement—for these are supposed to exist by the very terms of the -question.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The first head of this arrangement, and indeed the whole subject of -dispute, has already been disposed of by this society. We have -discussed the question, 'are there any innate maxims?' and with that -subject and this, there is such an intimate affinity, that it is -impossible to disunite them, without prostrating the vital energies -of both, and introducing the wildest disorder and confusion, where, -by the very nature of things, there exist the most harmonious -coincidences, and the most happy and euphonic congenialities. Here -then might I rest, Mr. President, upon the decision of this society, -with perfect confidence. But, sir, I am not forced to rely upon the -inseparable affinities of the two questions, for success in this -dispute, obvious as they must be to every reflecting mind. All -history, ancient and modern, furnish examples corroborative of the -views which I have taken of this deeply interesting subject. By what -means did the renowned poets, philosophers, orators and statesmen of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291"><small>[p. 291]</small></a></span> -antiquity, gain their immortality? Whence did Milton, -Shakspeare, Newton, Locke, Watts, Paley, Burke, Chatham, Pitt, Fox, -and a host of others whom I might name, pluck their never-fading -laurels? I answer boldly, and without the fear of contradiction, -that, though they all reached the temple of fame by different routes, -they all passed through the broad vista of '<i>internal suggestions</i>.' -The same may be said of Jefferson, Madison, and many other -distinguished personages of our own country.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"I challenge the gentlemen on the other side to produce examples like -these in support of their cause."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Mr. Longworth pressed these profound and logical views to a length to -which our limits will not permit us to follow him, and which the -reader's patience would hardly bear, if they would. Perhaps, however, -he will bear with us, while we give the conclusion of Mr. Longworth's -remarks: as it was here, that he put forth all his strength:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Mr. President</i>,—Let the bias of jurisprudence predominate, and how -is it possible, (considering it merely as extending to those impulses -which may with propriety be termed a <i>bias</i>,) how is it possible, for -a government to exist, whose object is the public good? The marble -hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil authority, and hurl -into thraldom the votaries of rational liberty. Virtue, justice and -all the nobler principles of human nature, would wither away under -the pestilential breath of political faction, and an unnerved -constitution be left to the sport of demagogue and parasite. Crash -after crash would be heard in quick succession, as the strong pillars -of the republic give way, and Despotism would shout in hellish -triumph amidst the crumbling ruins—Anarchy would wave her bloody -sceptre over the devoted land, and the blood-hounds of civil war, -would lap the crimson gore of our most worthy citizens. The shrieks -of women, and the screams of children, would be drowned amidst the -clash of swords, and the cannon's peal: and Liberty, mantling her -face from the horrid scene, would spread her golden-tinted pinions, -and wing her flight to some far distant land, never again to re-visit -our peaceful shores. In vain should we then sigh for the beatific -reign of those 'suggestions' which I am proud to acknowledge as -peculiarly and exclusively 'internal.'"</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Mr. McDermot rose promptly at the call of the President, and -proceeded as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Mr. President</i>,—If I listened unmoved to the very labored appeal -to the passions, which has just been made, it was not because I am -insensible to the powers of eloquence; but because I happen to be -blessed with the small measure of sense, which is necessary to -distinguish true eloquence from the wild ravings of an unbridled -imagination. Grave and solemn appeals, when ill-timed and misplaced, -are apt to excite ridicule; hence it was, that I detected myself more -than once, in open laughter, during the most pathetic parts of Mr. -Longworth's argument, if so it can be called.<small><sup>1</sup></small> In the midst of -'crashing pillars,' 'crumbling ruins,' 'shouting despotism,' -'screaming women,' and 'flying Liberty,' the question was perpetually -recurring to me, 'what has all this to do with the subject of -dispute?' I will not follow the example of that gentleman—It shall -be my endeavor to clear away the mist which he has thrown around the -subject, and to place it before the society, in a clear, intelligible -point of view: for I must say, that though his speech '<i>bears strong -marks of the pen</i>,' (sarcastically,) it has but few marks of sober -reflection. Some of it, I confess, is very intelligible and very -plausible; but most of it, I boldly assert, no man living can -comprehend. I mention this, for the edification of that gentleman, -(who is usually clear and forcible,) to teach him, that he is most -successful when he labors least.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> This was extemporaneous, and well conceived; for Mr. -McDermot had not played his part with becoming gravity.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Mr. President: The gentleman, in opening the debate, stated that the -question was one of vast importance; pervading the profound depths of -<i>psychology</i>, and embracing, within its ample range, the whole circle -of arts and sciences. And really, sir, he has verified his statement; -for he has extended it over the whole moral and physical world. But, -Mr. President, I take leave to differ from the gentleman, at the very -threshhold of his remarks. The subject is one which is confined -within very narrow limits. It extends no further than to the elective -franchise, and is not even commensurate with this important -privilege; for it stops short at the <i>vote of faction</i>. In this point -of light, the subject comes within the grasp of the most common -intellect; it is plain, simple, natural and intelligible. Thus -viewing it, Mr. President, where does the gentleman find in it, or in -all nature besides, the original of the dismal picture which he has -presented to the society? It loses all its interest, and becomes -supremely ridiculous. Having thus, Mr. President, divested the -subject of all obscurity—having reduced it to those few elements, -with which we are all familiar; I proceed to make a few deductions -from the premises, which seem to me inevitable, and decisive of the -question. I lay it down as a self-evident proposition, that faction -in all its forms, is hideous; and I maintain, with equal confidence, -that it never has been, nor ever will be, restrained by those -suggestions, which the gentleman '<i>emphatically terms internal</i>.' No, -sir, nothing short of the bias, and the very strong bias too, of -jurisprudence or the potent energies of the sword, can restrain it. -But, sir, I shall here, perhaps, be asked, whether there is not a -very wide difference between a turbulent, lawless faction, and the -<i>vote</i> of faction? Most unquestionably there is; and to this -distinction I shall presently advert and demonstrably prove that it -is a distinction, which makes altogether in our favor."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Thus did Mr. McDermot continue to dissect and expose his adversary's -argument, in the most clear, conclusive and masterly manner, at -considerable length. But we cannot deal more favorably by him, than -we have dealt by Mr. Longworth. We must, therefore, dismiss him, -after we shall have given the reader his concluding remarks. They -were as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Let us now suppose Mr. Longworth's principles brought to the test of -experiment. Let us suppose his language addressed to all mankind—We -close the temples of justice as useless; we burn our codes of laws as -worthless; and we substitute in their places, the more valuable -restraints of <i>internal suggestions</i>. Thieves, invade not your -neighbor's property: if you do, you will be arraigned before the -august tribunal of <i>conscience</i>. Robbers, stay your lawless hand; or -you will be visited with the tremendous penalties of <i>psychology</i>. -Murderers, spare the blood of your fellow creatures; you will be -exposed to the excruciating tortures of <i>innate maxims</i>—<i>when it -shall be discovered that there are any</i>. Mr. President, could there -be a broader license to crime than this? Could a better plan be -devised for dissolving the bands of civil society? It requires not -the gift of prophecy, to foresee the consequences of these novel and -monstrous principles. The strong would tyrannize over the weak; the -poor would plunder the rich; the servant would rise above the master; -the drones of society would fatten upon the hard earnings of the -industrious. Indeed, sir, industry would soon desert the land; for it -would have neither reward nor encouragement. Commerce would cease; -the arts and sciences would languish; all the sacred relations would -be dissolved, and scenes of havoc, dissolution and death ensue, such -as never before visited the world, and such as never will visit it, -until mankind learn to repose their destinies upon 'those -suggestions, <i>emphatically termed internal</i>.' From all these evils -there is a secure retreat behind the brazen wall of the 'bias of -jurisprudence.'"</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The gentleman who was next called on to engage in the debate, was -John Craig; a gentleman of good hard sense, but who was utterly -incompetent to say a word upon a subject which he did not understand. -He proceeded thus:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Mr. President</i>,—When this subject was proposed, I candidly -confessed I did not understand it, and I was informed by Mr. -Longworth and Mr. McDermot, that either of them would explain it, at -any leisure moment. But, sir, they seem to have taken very good care, -from that time to this, to have no leisure moment. I have inquired of -both of them, repeatedly for an explanation; but they were always too -busy to talk about it. Well, sir, as it was proposed by Mr. -Longworth, I thought he would certainly explain it in his speech; but -I understood no more of his speech than I did of the subject. Well, -sir, I thought I should certainly learn something from Mr. McDermot; -especially as he promised at the commencement of his speech to clear -away the mist that Mr. Longworth had thrown about the subject, and to -place it in a clear, intelligible point of light. But, sir, the only -difference between his speech and Mr. Longworth's is, that it was not -quite as flighty as Mr. Longworth's. I could n't understand head nor -tail of it. At one time they seemed to argue the question, as if it -were this: 'Is it better to have law or no law?' At another, as -though it was, 'should factions be governed by law, or be left to -their own consciences?' But most of the time they argued it, as if it -were just what it seems to be—a sentence without sense or meaning. -But, sir, I suppose its <span class="pagenum"><a name="page292"><small>[p. 292]</small></a></span> -obscurity is owing to my dullness of -apprehension, for they appeared to argue it with great earnestness -and feeling, as if they understood it.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"I shall put my interpretation upon it, Mr. President, and argue it -accordingly.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"'<i>Whether at public elections</i>'—that is, for members of Congress, -members of the Legislature, &c. '<i>should the votes of faction</i>'—I -don't know what 'faction' has got to do with it; and therefore I -shall throw it out. '<i>Should the votes predominate, by internal -suggestions or the bias</i>,' I don't know what the <i>article</i> is put in -here for. It seems to me, it ought to be, <i>be biased by</i> -'jurisprudence' or law. In short, Mr. President, I understand the -question to be, should a man vote as he pleases, or should the law -say how he should vote?"</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Here Mr. Longworth rose and observed, that though Mr. Craig was on -his side, he felt it due to their adversaries, to state, that this -was not a true exposition of the subject. This exposition settled the -question at once on his side; for nobody would, for a moment contend, -that <i>the law</i> should declare how men should vote. Unless it be -confined to the vote <i>of faction</i> and <i>the</i> bias of jurisprudence, it -was no subject at all. To all this Mr. McDermot signified his -unqualified approbation; and seemed pleased with the candor of his -opponent.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Well," said Mr. Craig, "I thought it was impossible that any one -should propose such a question as that to the society; but will Mr. -Longworth tell us, if it does not mean that, what does it mean? for I -don't see what great change is made in it by his explanation."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Mr. Longworth replied, that if the remarks which he had just made, -and his argument, had not fully explained the subject to Mr. Craig, -he feared it would be out of his power to explain it.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Then," said Mr. Craig, "I'll pay my fine, for I don't understand a -word of it."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The next one summoned to the debate was Mr. Pentigall. Mr. Pentigall -was one of those who would never acknowledge his ignorance of any -thing, which any person else understood; and that Longworth and -McDermot were both masters of the subject, was clear, both from their -fluency and seriousness. He therefore determined to understand it, at -all hazards. Consequently he rose at the President's command, with -considerable self-confidence. I regret, however, that it is -impossible to commit Mr. Pentigall's <i>manner</i> to paper, without -which, his remarks lose nearly all their interest. He was a tall, -handsome man; a little theatric in his manner, rapid in his delivery, -and singular in his pronunciation. He gave to the <i>e</i> and <i>i</i>, of our -language, the sound of <i>u</i>—at least his peculiar intonations of -voice, seemed to give them that sound; and his rapidity of utterance -seemed to change the termination, "<i>tion</i>" into "<i>ah</i>." With all his -peculiarities, however, he was a fine fellow. If he was ambitious, he -was not invidious, and he possessed an amicable disposition. He -proceeded as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"<i>Mr. President</i>,—This internal suggestion which has been so -eloquently discussed by Mr. Longworth, and the bias of jurisprudence -which has been so ably advocated by Mr. McDermot—hem! Mr. President, -in order to fix the line of demarkation between—ah—the internal -suggestion and the bias of jurisprudence—Mr. President, I think, -sir, that—ah—the subject must be confined to the <i>vote of faction</i>, -and <i>the</i> bias of jurisprudence"——</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Here Mr. Pentigall clapt his right hand to his forehead, as though he -had that moment heard some overpowering news; and after maintaining -this position for about the space of ten seconds, he slowly withdrew -his hand, gave his head a slight inclination to the right, raised his -eyes to the President as if just awakening from a trance, and with a -voice of the most hopeless despair, concluded with "I don't -understand the subject, Muster Prusidunt."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The rest of the members on both sides submitted to be fined rather -than attempt the knotty subject; but by common consent, the penal -rule was dispensed with. Nothing now remained to close the exercises, -but the decision of the Chair.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The President, John Nuble, was a young man, not unlike Craig in his -turn of mind; though he possessed an intellect a little more -sprightly than Craig's. His decision was short.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Gentlemen," said he, "I do not understand the subject. This," -continued he, (pulling out his knife, and pointing to the silvered or -<i>cross</i> side of it,) "is 'Internal Suggestions.' And this" (pointing -to the other, or <i>pile</i> side,) "is 'Bias of Jurisprudence:'" so -saying, he threw up his knife, and upon its fall, determined that -'Internal Suggestions' had got it; and ordered the decision to be -registered accordingly.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It is worthy of note, that in their zeal to accomplish their purpose, -Longworth and McDermot forgot to destroy the lists of subjects, from -which they had selected the one so often mentioned; and one of these -lists containing the subject discussed, with a number more like it, -was picked up by Mr. Craig, who made a public exhibition of it, -threatening to arraign the conspirators before the society, for a -contempt. But, as the parting hour was at hand, he overlooked it with -the rest of the brotherhood, and often laughed heartily at the trick.</small></blockquote> - -<p>"<i>The Militia Company Drill</i>," is not by the author of the other -pieces but has a strong family resemblance, and is very well -executed. Among the innumerable descriptions of Militia musters which -are so rife in the land, we have met with nothing at all equal to -this in the matter of broad farce.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Turf</i>" is also capital, and bears with it a kind of dry and -sarcastic morality which will recommend it to many readers.</p> - -<p>"<i>An Interesting Interview</i>" is another specimen of exquisite -dramatic talent. It consists of nothing more than a fac-simile of the -speech, actions, and <i>thoughts</i> of two drunken old men—but its air -of truth is perfectly inimitable.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Fox-Hunt</i>," "<i>The Wax Works</i>," and "<i>A Sage Conversation</i>," are -all good—but neither <i>as</i> good as many other articles in the book.</p> - -<p>"<i>The Shooting Match</i>," which concludes the volume, may rank with the -best of the Tales which precede it. As a portraiture of the manners -of our South-Western peasantry, in especial, it is perhaps better -than any.</p> - -<p>Altogether this very humorous, and very clever book forms an æra in -our reading. It has reached us per mail, and without a cover. We will -have it bound forthwith, and give it a niche in our library as a sure -omen of better days for the literature of the South.</p> -<hr align="center" width="25"><a name="sect30"></a> -<br> -<center>THE TEA PARTY.</center> - -<p><i>Traits of the Tea Party: Published by Harper & Brothers.</i></p> - -<p>This is a neat little duodecimo of 265 pages, including an Appendix, -and is full of rich interest over and above what the subject of the -volume is capable of exciting. In Boston it is very natural that the -veteran Hewes should be regarded with the highest sentiments of -veneration and affection. He is too intimately and conspicuously -connected with that city's chivalric records not to be esteemed a -hero—and such indeed he is—a veritable hero. Of the Tea Party he is -the oldest—but <i>not</i> the only survivor. From the book before us we -learn the names of nine others, still living, who bore a part in the -drama. They are as follows—Henry Purkitt, Peter Slater, Isaac -Simpson, Jonathan Hunnewell, John Hooton, William Pierce, —— -Mcintosh, Samuel Sprague, and John Prince.</p> - -<p>Reminiscences such as the present cannot be too frequently laid -before the public. <i>More than any thing else</i> do they illustrate that -which can be properly called the History of our Revolution—and in so -doing how vastly important do they appear to the entire cause of -civil liberty? As the worthies of those great days are sinking, one -by one, from among us, the value of what is known about them, and -especially of what may be known through their memories, is increasing -in a rapidly augmenting ratio. Let us treasure up while we may, the -recollections which are so valuable now, and which will be more than -invaluable hereafter.</p> - -<div lang='en' xml:lang='en'> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK <span lang='' xml:lang=''>THE SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER, VOL. 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