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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Hayti - Or the black republic. - -Author: Spenser St. John - -Release Date: July 23, 2022 [eBook #68592] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Peter Becker, Thomas Frost and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAYTI *** - - - Ballantyne Press - BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. - EDINBURGH AND LONDON - -[Illustration: - - A MAP OF - HAYTI - 1884] - - - - - HAYTI - OR - THE BLACK REPUBLIC. - - BY - SIR SPENSER ST. JOHN, K.C.M.G. - FORMERLY HER MAJESTY’S MINISTER RESIDENT AND CONSUL-GENERAL - IN HAYTI, NOW HER MAJESTY’S SPECIAL ENVOY TO MEXICO. - - “Haïti, Haïti, pays de barbares.” - NAPOLEON III. - - LONDON: - SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15 WATERLOO PLACE. - 1884. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Whilst in Port-au-Prince, a Spanish colleague once remarked to -me, “_Mon ami_, if we could return to Hayti fifty years hence, we -should find the negresses cooking their bananas on the site of -these warehouses.” Although this judgment is severe, yet from what -we have seen passing under the present Administration, it is more -than probable--unless in the meantime influenced by some higher -civilisation--that this prophecy will come true. The negresses are -in fact already cooking their bananas amid the ruins of the best -houses of the capital. My own impression, after personally knowing -the country above twenty years, is, that it is a country in a state -of rapid decadence. The revolution of 1843 that upset President Boyer -commenced the era of troubles which have continued to the present day. -The country has since been steadily falling to the rear in the race of -civilisation. - -The long civil war (1868-1869) under President Salnave destroyed a -vast amount of property, and rendered living in the country districts -less secure, so that there has been ever since a tendency for the -more civilised inhabitants to agglomerate in the towns, and leave the -rural districts to fetish worship and cannibalism. Fires, most of them -incendiary, have swept over the cities; in the commercial quarters of -Port-au-Prince, it would be difficult to find any houses which existed -in 1863, and the fortunes of all have naturally greatly suffered. - -When I reached Hayti in January 1863, the capital possessed several -respectable public buildings. The palace, without any architectural -beauty, was large and commodious, and well suited to the climate; the -Senate, the House of Representatives, the dwellings occupied by several -of the Ministers, the pretty little theatre, were all features which -have now entirely disappeared. - -The town of Pétionville or La Coupe, the summer and health resort of -the capital, where the best families sought a little country life -during the great heats, was almost entirely destroyed during the -revolution of 1868, and nothing has taken its place. People are still -too poor to afford to rebuild. - -Society also has completely changed. I saw at balls given in the palace -in 1863 a hundred well-dressed prosperous families of all colours; now -political dissensions would prevent such gatherings, even if there were -a building in the city which could receive them, and poverty has laid -its heavy hand more or less on all. It is the same in a greater or -lesser degree in every other town of the republic. - -Agriculture in the plains is also deteriorating, and the estates -produce much less than formerly, though their staple produce is rum, -to stupefy and brutalise the barbarous lower orders. - -Foreigners, nearly ruined by their losses during the constant civil -disturbances, are withdrawing from the republic, and capital is -following them; and with their withdrawal the country must sink still -lower. The best of the coloured people are also leaving, as they shun -the fate reserved for them by those who have already slaughtered the -most prominent mulattoes. - -In fact, the mulatto element, which is the civilising element in Hayti, -is daily becoming of less importance; internal party strife has injured -their political standing, and constant intermarriage is causing the -race to breed back to the more numerous type, and in a few years the -mulatto element will have made disastrous approaches to the negro. -The only thing which could have saved the mulatto would have been to -encourage the whites to settle in their country; yet this step the -coloured men have blindly resisted. - -In spite of all the civilising elements around them, there is a -distinct tendency to sink into the state of an African tribe. It is -naturally impossible to foretell the effect of all the influences -which are now at work in the world, and which seem to foreshadow many -changes. We appear standing on the threshold of a period of great -discoveries, which may modify many things, but not man’s nature. The -mass of the negroes of Hayti live in the country districts, which are -rarely or ever visited by civilised people; there are few Christian -priests to give them a notion of true religion; no superior local -officers to prevent them practising their worst fetish ceremonies. - -In treating of the Black and the Mulatto as they appeared to me during -my residence among them, I fear that I shall be considered by some to -judge harshly. Such, however, is not my intention. Brought up under Sir -James Brooke, whose enlarged sympathies could endure no prejudice of -race or colour, I do not remember ever to have felt any repugnance to -my fellow-creatures on account of a difference of complexion. - -I have dwelt above thirty-five years among coloured people of various -races, and am sensible of no prejudice against them. For twelve years I -lived in familiar and kindly intercourse with Haytians of all ranks and -shades of colour, and the most frequent and not least-honoured guests -at my table were of the black and coloured races. - -All who knew me in Hayti know that I had no prejudice of colour; and -if I place the Haytian in general in an unenviable light, it is from -a strong conviction that it is necessary to describe the people as -they are, and not as one would wish them to be. The band of black -and coloured friends who gathered round me during my long residence -in Port-au-Prince were not free from many of the faults which I have -been obliged to censure in describing these different sections of the -population, but they had them in a lesser degree, or, as I was really -attached to them, I perhaps saw them in a dimmer light. - -The most difficult chapter to write was that on “Vaudoux Worship -and Cannibalism.” I have endeavoured to paint it in the least -sombre colours, and none who know the country will think that I -have exaggerated; in fact, had I listened to the testimony of many -experienced residents, I should have described rites at which dozens -of human victims were sacrificed at a time. Everything I have related -has been founded on evidence collected in Hayti, from Haytian official -documents, from trustworthy officers of the Haytian Government, my -foreign colleagues, and from respectable residents--principally, -however, from Haytian sources. - -It may be suggested that I am referring to the past. On the contrary, -I am informed that at present cannibalism is more rampant than ever. A -black Government dares not greatly interfere, as its power is founded -on the good-will of the masses, ignorant and deeply tainted with -fetish worship. A Haytian writer recently remarked in print, “On se -plaisit beaucoup de ce que le Vaudoux a reparu grandiose et sérieux.” -The fetish dances were forbidden by decree under the Government of -President Boisrond-Canal. That decree has been since repealed, and high -officers now attend these meetings, and distribute money and applaud -the most frantic excesses. - -President Salomon, who is now in power, lived for eighteen years in -Europe, married a white, and knows what civilisation is. He probably, -on his first advent to the Presidency, possessed sufficient influence -in the country to have checked the open manifestations of this -barbarous worship; but the fate of those of his predecessors who -attempted to grapple with the evil was not encouraging. It was hoped, -however, that he would make the attempt, and that, grasping the nettle -with resolution, he might suffer no evil results; but many doubted not -only his courage to undertake the task, but even the will; and they, I -fear, have judged correctly. Whenever all the documents which exist on -this subject are published, my chapter on Cannibalism will be looked -upon but as a pale reflection of the reality. - -With regard to the history of the country, materials abound for writing -a very full one, but I do not think it would prove interesting to the -general reader. It is but a series of plots and revolutions, followed -by barbarous military executions. A destructive and exhausting war -with Santo Domingo, and civil strife during the Presidency of General -Salnave, did more to ruin the resources of the country than any amount -of bad government. The enforced abandonment of work by the people -called to arms by the contending parties, introduced habits of idleness -and rapine which have continued to the present day; and the material -losses, by the destruction of the best estates and the burning of towns -and villages, have never been fully repaired. - -From the overthrow of President Geffrard in 1867 the country has been -more rapidly going to ruin. The fall was slightly checked during the -quiet Presidency of Nissage-Saget; but the Government of General -Domingue amply made up for lost time, and was one of the worst, if not -the worst, that Hayti has ever seen. With the sectaries of the Vaudoux -in power, nothing else could have been expected. - -I have brought my sketch of the history of Hayti down to the fall -of President Boisrond-Canal in 1879, and shall not touch on the -rule of the present President of Hayti, General Salomon. I may say, -however, that he is the determined enemy of the coloured section of -the community; is credited with having been the chief adviser of the -Emperor Soulouque in all his most disastrous measures; and the country -is said to have sunk into the lowest depths of misery. The civil war, -which by last accounts was still raging in Hayti, has been marked by -more savage excesses than any previously known in Haytian history, the -black authorities, hesitating at no step to gain their object, which is -utterly to destroy the educated coloured class. They care not for the -others; as they say, “Mulatte pauvre, li negue.” - -A few words as to the origin of this book. In 1867 I was living in -the country near Port-au-Prince, and having some leisure, I began to -collect materials and write rough drafts of the principal chapters. -I was interrupted by the civil war, and did not resume work until -after I had left the country. It may be the modifying effect of -time, but on looking over the chapters as I originally wrote them, I -thought that I had been too severe in my judgments on whole classes, -and have therefore somewhat softened the opinions I then expressed; -and the greater experience which a further residence of seven years -gave me enabled me to study the people more and avoid too sweeping -condemnations. - -I have not attempted to describe the present condition of the republic -of Santo Domingo, but from all I can hear it is making progress. The -Dominicans have few prejudices of colour, and eagerly welcome foreign -capitalists who arrive to develop the resources of their country. -Already there are numerous sugar estates in operation, as well as -manufactories of dyes, and efforts are being successfully made to -rework the old gold-mines. The tobacco cultivation is already large, -and only requires hands to develop it to meet any demand. I hear of a -railway having been commenced, to traverse the magnificent plain which -stretches from the Bay of Samana almost to the frontiers of Hayti. - - * * * * * - -After having written the chapter on Vaudoux Worship, my attention was -called to a communication which appeared in _Vanity Fair_ of August 13, -1881, by a reply published in a Haytian journal. It is evident that -the writer in _Vanity Fair_ was a naval officer or a passing traveller -in the West Indies, and he probably carefully noted the information -given him. He was, however, too inclined to believe what he heard, as -he gravely states that a Haytian told him that the kidneys of a child -were first-rate eating, adding that he had tried them himself; and -the writer remarks that the Haytian did not seem to think it strange -or out of the way that he had done so. No Haytian would have ever -stated seriously that he had eaten human flesh. Probably, amused by -the eagerness of the inquirer, he told the story to test his powers of -belief, and must have been diverted when he found his statement was -credited. Cannibalism is the one thing of which Haytians are thoroughly -ashamed. - -This communication makes mention of the herb-poisonings and their -antidotes; of the midwives who render new born-babes insensible, -that are buried, dug up, restored to life, and then eaten. In May -1879 a midwife and another were caught near Port-au-Prince eating a -female baby that had been thus treated; he adds that a Haytian of -good position was discovered with his family eating a child. In the -former case the criminals were condemned to six weeks’ imprisonment, -in the latter to one month. (I may notice that I never heard of a -respectable Haytian being connected with the cannibals.) The light -punishments inflicted were due to the fear inspired by the Vaudoux -priests. In January 1881 eight people were fined for disinterring and -eating corpses. An English medical man purchased and identified the -neck and shoulders of a human being in the market at Port-au-Prince. -In February 1881, at St. Marc, a cask of so-called pork was sold to -a foreign ship. In it were discovered fingers and finger-nails, and -all the flesh proved to be that of human beings. An English coloured -clergyman at Cap Haïtien said that the Vaudoux did away with all the -effect of his ministry; and that his wife was nearly purchasing in the -market human flesh instead of pork. Four people were fined in that town -for eating corpses. When the writer arrived at Jacmel he found two men -in prison for eating corpses, and on the day of his arrival a man was -caught eating a child. Near the same town nine thousand people met at -Christmas to celebrate Vaudoux rites. At Les Cayes a child of English -parents was stolen, and on the thieves being pursued, they threw it -into a well and killed it. - -These are the statements made by the writer in _Vanity Fair_, and -nearly all are probable. If correct, the open practice of Vaudoux -worship and cannibalism must have made great strides since I left -Hayti, and shows how little a black Government can do, or will do, -to suppress them. The digging up and eating of corpses was not known -during my residence there. - -This communication to _Vanity Fair_ provoked a reply in a journal -published at Port-au-Prince called _L’Œil_, October 1, 1881. It denies -everything, even to the serious existence and power of the Vaudoux -priests, and spends all its energies in abuse. The article is quite -worthy of the editor,[1] who was one of the most active supporters of -President Salnave, whose connection with the Vaudoux was notorious. It -is in this angry spirit that the Haytians generally treat any public -reference to their peculiar institution. - - - MEXICO, _January 1884_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAP. PAGE - - I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF HAYTI 1 - - II. HISTORY BEFORE INDEPENDENCE 26 - - III. HISTORY SINCE INDEPENDENCE 74 - - IV. THE POPULATION OF HAYTI 127 - - V. VAUDOUX WORSHIP AND CANNIBALISM 182 - - VI. THE GOVERNMENT 229 - - VII. RELIGION, EDUCATION, AND JUSTICE 247 - - VIII. ARMY AND POLICE 276 - - IX. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 299 - - X. AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND FINANCE 315 - - - - -HAYTI; - -OR, - -THE BLACK REPUBLIC. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF HAYTI. - - -Standing on one of the lofty mountains of Hayti, and looking towards -the interior, I was struck with the pertinence of the saying of the -Admiral, who, crumpling a sheet of paper in his hand, threw it on the -table before George III., saying, “Sire, Hayti looks like that.” The -country appears a confused agglomeration of mountain, hill, and valley, -most irregular in form; precipices, deep hollows, vales apparently -without an outlet; water occasionally glistening far below; cottages -scattered here and there, with groves of fruit-trees and bananas -clustering round the rude dwellings. Gradually, however, the eye -becomes accustomed to the scene; the mountains separate into distinct -ranges, the hills are but the attendant buttresses, and the valleys -assume their regular forms as the watersheds of the system, and the -streams can be traced meandering gradually towards the ocean. - -If you then turn towards the sea, you notice that the valleys have -expanded into plains, and the rushing torrents have become broad though -shallow rivers, and the mountains that bound the flat, open country -push their buttresses almost into the sea. This grand variety of -magnificent scenery can be well observed from a point near Kenskoff, -about ten miles in the interior from the capital, as well as from -the great citadel built on the summit of La Ferrière in the northern -province. Before entering into particulars, however, let me give a -general idea of the country. - -The island of Santo Domingo is situated in the West Indies between -18° and 20° north latitude and 68° 20’ and 74° 30’ west longitude. -Its greatest length is four hundred miles, its greatest breadth one -hundred and thirty-five miles, and is calculated to be about the size -of Ireland. Hayti occupies about a third of the island--the western -portion--and, pushing two great promontories into the sea, it has a -very large extent of coast-line. It is bounded on the north by the -Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the republic of Santo Domingo, on the -south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the passage which -separates it from Cuba and Jamaica. - -Its most noted mountain-ranges are La Selle, which lies on the -south-eastern frontier of Hayti; La Hotte, near Les Cayes; and -the Black Mountains in the northern province; but throughout the -whole extent of the republic the open valleys are bounded by lofty -elevations. In fact, on approaching the island from any direction, it -appears so mountainous that it is difficult to imagine that so many -smiling, fertile plains are to be met with in every department. They -are, however, numerous. The most extensive are the Cul-de-Sac, near -Port-au-Prince, the plains of Gonaives, the Artibonite, Arcahaye, Port -Margot, Leogâne, that of Les Cayes, and those that follow the northern -coast. - -Hayti has the advantage of being well watered, though this source of -riches is greatly neglected. The principal river is the Artibonite, -which is navigable for small craft for a short distance; the other -streams have more the character of mountain torrents, full to -overflowing during the rainy season, whilst during the dry they are but -rivulets running over broad pebbly beds. - -The lakes lying at the head of the plain of Cul-de-Sac are a marked -feature in the landscape as viewed from the neighbouring hills. They -are but little visited, as their shores are marshy, very unhealthy, and -uninhabitable on that account, while the swarms of mosquitoes render -even a temporary stay highly disagreeable. The waters of one of them -are brackish, which would appear to indicate more salt deposits in the -neighbourhood. - -There are a few islands attached to Hayti, the principal, La Tortue, on -the north, Gonaives on the west, and L’Isle-à-Vache on the south coast. -Some attempts have been made to develop their natural riches, but as -yet with but slight success. The first two named are famous for their -mahogany trees. - -The principal towns of the republic are Port-au-Prince, the capital, -Cap Haïtien in the north, and Les Cayes in the south. Jacmel, Jérémie, -Miragoâne, St. Marc, and Gonaives are also commercial ports. - -Port-au-Prince is situated at the bottom of a deep bay, which runs -so far into the western coast as almost to divide Hayti in two. It -contains about 20,000 inhabitants, and was carefully laid out by the -French. It possesses every natural advantage that a capital could -require. Little use, however, is made of these advantages, and the -place is one of the most unpleasant residences imaginable. I was one -day talking to a French naval officer, and he observed, “I was here as -a midshipman forty years ago.” “Do you notice any change?” I asked. -“Well, it is perhaps dirtier than before.” Its dirt is its great -drawback, and appears ever to have been so, as Moreau de St. Méry -complained of the same thing during the last century. However, there -are degrees of dirt, and he would probably be astonished to see it at -the present day. The above paragraph was first written in 1867; since -that it has become worse, and when I last landed (1877), I found the -streets heaped up with filth. - -The capital is well laid out, with lines of streets running parallel -to the sea, whilst others cross at right angles, dividing the town -into numerous islets or blocks. The streets are broad, but utterly -neglected. Every one throws out his refuse before his door, so that -heaps of manure, broken bottles, crockery, and every species of -rubbish encumber the way, and render both riding and walking dangerous. -Building materials are permitted occasionally to accumulate to so -great an extent as completely to block up the streets and seriously -impede the traffic. Mackenzie, in his notes on Hayti, remarks on the -impassable state of the streets in 1826; torn up by tropical rains, -they were mended with refuse (generally stable dung to fill up the -holes, and a thin layer of earth thrown over), only to be again -destroyed by the first storm. Ask Haytians why they do not mend their -streets and roads, they answer, “Bon Dieu, gâté li; bon Dieu, paré li” -(God spoilt them, and God will mend them). Then, as now, the roads were -in such a state in wet weather that only a waggon with a team of oxen -could get through the muddy slough. - -On first entering the town, you are struck with the utter shabbiness of -the buildings, mean cottages and grovelling huts by the side of the few -decent-looking dwellings. Most of the houses are constructed of wood, -badly built with very perishable materials, imported from the United -States or our Northern colonies. The idea that originally prevailed -in the construction of the private houses was admirable; before each -was a broad verandah, open to all passers, so that from one end of the -town to the other it was intended that there should be cool, shady -walks. But the intolerable stupidity of the inhabitants has spoilt -this plan; in most streets the level of the verandahs of each house -is of a different height, and frequently separated by a marshy spot, -the receptacle of every species of filth; so that you must either walk -in the sun or perform in the shade a series of gymnastic exercises -exceedingly inconvenient in a tropical climate. - -On either side of the street was a paved gutter, but now, instead of -aiding the drainage, it is another cause of the accumulation of filth. -The stones which formerly rendered the watercourses even are either -removed or displaced, and the rains collecting before the houses form -fetid pools, into which the servants pour all that in other countries -is carried off by the sewers. In a few of the more commercial streets, -where foreigners reside, more attention is paid to cleanliness, -but still Port-au-Prince may bear the palm away of being the most -foul-smelling, dirty, and consequently fever-stricken city in the world. - -The port is well protected, but is gradually filling up, as the rains -wash into it not only the silt from the mountains, but the refuse of -the city, and no effort is made to keep it open. As there is but little -tide, the accumulations of every species of vegetable and animal matter -render the water fetid, and when the sea-breeze blows gently over these -turbid waves, an effluvia is borne into the town sickening to all but -native nostrils. - -The most remarkable edifice of Port-au-Prince was the palace, a -long, low, wooden building of one storey, supported on brick walls: -it contained several fine rooms, and two halls which might have -been rendered admirable for receptions; but everything around it -was shabby--the stables, the guard-houses, the untended garden, the -courtyard overrun with grass and weeds, and the surrounding walls -partially in ruins. This spacious presidential residence was burnt down -during the revolutionary attack on Port-au-Prince in December 1869, and -no attempt has been made to rebuild it. - -The church is a large wooden building, an overgrown shed, disfigured by -numerous wretched paintings which cover its walls; and, as an unworthy -concession to local prejudice, our Saviour is occasionally represented -by an ill-drawn negro. - -The senate-house was the building with the most architectural -pretensions, but its outer walls only remained when I last saw it, fire -having destroyed the roof and the interior wood-work. There is no other -edifice worthy of remark; and the private houses, with perhaps a score -of exceptions, are of the commonest order. - -The market-places are large and well situated, but ill-tended and -dirty, and in the wet season muddy in the extreme. They are fairly -supplied with provisions. I may notice that in those of Port-au-Prince -very superior meat is often met with, and good supplies of vegetables, -including excellent European kinds, brought from the mountain gardens -near Fort Jaques. - -The supply of water is very defective. During the reign of the Emperor -Soulouque a luminous idea occurred to some one, that instead of -repairing the old French aqueduct, iron pipes should be laid down. The -Emperor had the sagacity to see the advantage of the plan, and gave -orders for the work to be done. As an exception to the general rule, -the idea was to a certain extent well carried out, and remains the only -durable monument of a most inglorious reign. Had the iron pipes been -entirely substituted for the old French work, the inhabitants would -have enjoyed the benefit of pure water; but when I left in 1877, the -people in the suburbs were still breaking open the old stone-work to -obtain a source of supply near their dwellings; and pigs, children, and -washerwomen congregated round these spots and defiled the stream. - -The amount of water introduced into the town is still most inadequate; -and though numerous springs, and one delightful stream, La Rivière -Froide, are within easy distance of the port, no effort has been made -to increase the supply. La Rivière Froide--name redolent of pleasant -reminiscences in a tropical climate--could easily fill a canal, which -would not only afford an inexhaustible supply for the wants of the town -and shipping, but, by creating an outward current, would carry off -the floating matter which pollutes the port. Since my departure a Mr. -Stephens commenced some works to afford the town a constant supply of -water, but these, I understand, have as yet only been partially carried -out. If ever finished, they will afford to the inhabitants a great boon. - -The cemetery is situated outside the town. I never entered it except -when compelled to attend a funeral, and hastened to leave it as soon -as possible, on account of an unpleasant odour which pervades it. It -is not kept in good order, though many families carefully attend to -the graves of their relatives, and there are several striking tombs. -People of all religions are buried here; but it is on record that a -brawling Irish priest once attempted to disinter a Protestant child. -His brawling subsequently led to his banishment. - -I noticed on my first arrival in Port-au-Prince two marble coffins, -very handsome, lying neglected on the ground outside the palace. I was -told they had been brought from abroad in order that the remains of -Pétion and Boyer, two of their best Presidents, should repose in them; -but for many years I saw them lying empty on the same spot, and I never -heard what became of them. - -The curse of Port-au-Prince is fire. Every few years immense -conflagrations consume whole quarters of the town. Nothing can stop the -flames but one of the few brick-houses, against which the quick-burning -fire is powerless. During my residence in Port-au-Prince five awful -fires devastated the town. On each occasion from two to five hundred -houses were destroyed. And yet the inhabitants go on building wretched -wooden match-boxes, and even elaborate houses of the most inflammable -materials. Companies should be careful how they insure property in -Port-au-Prince, as there are some very well-authenticated stories of -frauds practised on them both by Europeans and natives. - -Port-au-Prince, on my first arrival in 1863, was governed by a -municipality, over which presided a very honest man, a Monsieur -Rivière, one of those Protestants to whom I have referred in my -chapter on religion. As a new arrival, I thought the town sufficiently -neglected, but I had reason to change my opinion. It was a pattern of -cleanliness to what it subsequently became. The municipality, when one -exists, has for its principal duties the performance or neglect of the -registration of all acts relating to the “état civil,” and to divide -among its members and friends, for work never carried out, whatever -funds they can collect from the city. - -At the back of the capital, at a distance of about five miles, was the -village of La Coupe, the summer residence of the wealthier families. As -it was situated about 1200 feet above the level of the sea and was open -to every breeze, it afforded a delightful change from the hot, damp -town; but during the civil war of 1868 the best houses were destroyed -and never reconstructed. There is a natural bath there, the most -picturesque feature of the place; it is situated under lofty trees, -that cast a deep shade over the spot, and during the hottest day it is -charmingly cool. - -Cap Haïtien is the most picturesque town in Hayti; it is beautifully -situated on a most commodious harbour. As you enter it, passing Fort -Picolet, you are struck by its safe position--a narrow entrance so -easily defended. My first visit was in H.M.S. “Galatea,” Captain -Macguire; and as we expected that we might very possibly be received -by the fire of all the batteries, our own crew were at their guns, -keeping them steadily trained on Fort Picolet, whose artillery was -distant about a couple of hundred yards. Having slowly steamed past -forts and sunken batteries, we found ourselves in front of the town, -with its ruins overgrown with creepers, and in the background the rich -vegetation sweeping gracefully up to the summit of the beautiful hill -which overshadows Cap Haïtien. - -Cap Haïtien never recovered from the effects of the fearful earthquake -of 1842, when several thousands of its inhabitants perished. To this -day they talk of that awful event, and never forget to relate how the -country-people rushed in to plunder the place, and how none lent a -helping-hand to aid their half-buried countrymen. Captain Macguire -and myself used to wander about the ruins, and we could not but feel -how little energy remained in a people who could leave their property -in such a state. It was perhaps cheaper to build a trumpery house -elsewhere. - -One of those who suffered the most during that visitation wrote before -the earth had ceased trembling, “Against the acts of God Almighty no -one complains,” and then proceeded to relate how the dread earthquake -shook down or seriously injured almost every house; how two-thirds -of the inhabitants were buried beneath the fallen masonry; how the -bands of blacks rushed in from mountain and plain, not to aid in -saving their wretched countrymen, whose cries and groans could be -heard for two or three days, but to plunder the stores replete with -goods; and--what he did complain of--how the officers and men of the -garrison, instead of attempting to keep order, joined in plundering the -small remnants of what the rest of the inhabitants could save from the -tottering ruins. What a people! - -The most striking objects near Cap Haïtien are the remains of -the palace of Sans Souci, and of the citadel constructed by King -Christophe, called La Ferrière. It requires a visit to induce one to -believe that so elaborate, and, I may add, so handsome a structure, -could exist in such a place as Hayti, or that a fortification such -as the citadel could ever have been constructed on the summit of a -lofty mountain, five thousand feet, I believe, above the level of the -sea. Some of the walls are eighty feet in height, and sixteen feet in -thickness, where the heavy batteries of English guns still remain in -position. All is of the most solid masonry, and covering the whole peak -of the mountain. - -We were really lost in amazement as we threaded gallery after gallery -where heavy fifty-six and thirty-two pounders guarded every approach to -what was intended to be the last asylum of Haytian independence. Years -of the labour of toiling thousands were spent to prepare this citadel, -which the trembling earth laid in ruins in a few minutes. What energy -did this black king possess to rear so great a monument? but the -reverse of the medal states that every stone in that wonderful building -cost a human life. - -It is a popular idea in Hayti that the superiority of the northern -department, and the greater industry of its inhabitants, date from the -time of Christophe, and some express a belief that his iron system -was suitable to the country; but the fact is that Moreau de St. Méry, -writing in the last century, insists on the superior advantages of the -northern province, its greater fertility, the abundance of rain, and -consequently the number of rivers, as well as the superior intelligence -and industry of the inhabitants, and their greater sociability and -polish. They are certainly more sociable than in the capital, and -people still seek northern men to work on their estates. As for -Christophe’s system, no amount of increase in produce could compensate -for its brutality. - -Gonaives is a poor-looking town, constantly devastated by revolutions -and fires, with a few broad, unfinished streets, and some good houses -among the crowds of poor-looking buildings. This neighbourhood is -famous for what are called white truffles. They are dried and sent to -the different parts of the republic. - -St. Marc, though not so scattered as Gonaives, is a small place. It was -formerly built of stone; a few specimens of this kind of building still -remain. Jacmel has a very unsafe harbour, but possesses importance as -one of the ports at which the royal mail steamers call, and has a large -export trade in coffee. Les Cayes, Jérémie, and other smaller ports I -have only seen at a distance, but I hear they are much like the other -cities and towns of the republic. Mackenzie says that the city and -environs of Les Cayes are described as “très riante,” and that in his -time it was kept in better order than the capital. This is said still -to be the case. - -My last long ride in Hayti was from Cap Haïtien to Gonaives, and -nestling in the hills I found some very pretty villages, planted in -lovely sites, with fresh, babbling streams, and fruit groves hiding the -inferior-looking houses. The place I most admired was, I think, called -Plaisance. There was a freshness, a brightness, a repose about the -village that made me regret it was situated so far from the capital. - -Wherever you may ride in the mountains, you cannot fail to remark that -there is scarcely a decent-looking house out of the towns. The whole -of the country is abandoned to the small cultivators, whose inferior -cottages are met with at every turn, and, as might be expected from -such a population, very dirty and devoid of every comfort, rarely any -furniture beyond an old chair, a rickety table, a few sleeping-mats, -and some cooking utensils. There is no rule, however, without an -exception, and I remember being much struck by seeing at Kenskoff, a -small hamlet about ten or twelve miles direct from Port-au-Prince, a -good house, where there were some chairs, tables, and bedsteads, and -around this dwelling several huts, in which the wives of our host lived -separately. - -Now and then a peasant will build a larger house than usual; we met -with one, the last we slept in on our ride to the mountain, La Selle, -whose proprietor had really some ideas of comfort, and before whose -dwelling coffee-plants were growing, trimmed to the height of six feet, -planted separate from one another, perfectly clean, and covered with -indications of an abundant crop. They had been planted there in former -days by an intelligent proprietor, and the peasant had the merit of not -neglecting them. - -The plain of Cul-de-Sac, adjoining the north side of Port-au-Prince, -was one of the richest and most cultivated during the time of the -French; and as all regular cultivation depends on the amount of water, -their engineers had constructed the most careful system for the storage -and distribution of the supplies. Properly managed, all the large -estates could receive the quantity necessary for their lands, but -for many years the stone-work was neglected, and the grand barrage -was becoming useless, when President Geffrard placed the affair in -the hands of an able French engineer, Mons. Ricard, who efficiently -restored the main work, but had not funds to complete the canals for -distributing the waters. As usual in all enterprises in that country, -the money voted had to pass through so many hands, that before it -reached the engineer it had diminished to less than half. - -The soil of the plain is most fertile, and only appears to require -water to give the most promising crops of sugar-cane. There are some -very extensive estates that could afford work for a large population, -but the ever-increasing disturbances in the country render Capital shy -of venturing there. - -As might readily be supposed, the roads are greatly neglected, and -during the rainy season are almost impassable. They are composed simply -of the surrounding soil, with a few branches thrown into the most -dangerous holes. The bridges are generally avoided; it is a saying in -Hayti, that you should go round a bridge, but never cross it, and the -advice is generally to be followed. For the main streams there are -fords. An attempt was once made to bridge over La Grande Rivière du Cul -de Sac, but the first freshet washed away all the preliminary work. - -In the mountains there are only bridle-paths, though occasionally I -came across the remains of old French roads and good paths. On the -way to Kenskoff there is a place called L’Escalier, to escalade the -steepest side of the mountain. The horses that are used to it manage -well, but those from the plains find the steps awkward. On the road -from Gonaives to the northern province there is a very remarkable -paved way, the work so well done that it has resisted the rain during -a hundred years of neglect. Some of the bridle-paths in the north are -exceedingly good, and are admirably carried up the sides of hills, so -as to avoid the most difficult spots. - -In the range above Tourjeau I came across a very pretty grassy -bridle-path, and near I found the remains of a large French -country-house, evidently the residence of some great proprietor. The -tradition in the neighbourhood is that there was an indigo factory -adjoining, but I could scarcely imagine the site suitable. Wherever you -may go in Hayti you come across signs of decadence, not only from the -exceptional prosperity of the French period, but even of comparatively -recent years. After the plundering and destruction of 1868 and 1869, -few care to keep up or restore their devastated houses, and it is now a -hand-to-mouth system. - -Cul-de-Sac is a glorious plain, and in good hands would be a fountain -of riches; and the same may be said of the other splendid plains that -abound throughout the island. Every tropical production grows freely, -so that there would be no limit to production should the country -ever abandon revolutions to turn its attention to industry. About -three-fourths of the surface of the plains are occupied by wood or -prickly acacia, that invades every uncultivated spot. - -The mountains that bound these plains and extend to the far interior -present magnificent sites for pleasant residences; but no civilised -being could occupy them on account of the difficulty of communication -and the doubtful character of the population. Up to the time of the -fall of President Geffrard it was possible; now it would be highly -imprudent. In one of the most smiling valleys that I have ever seen, -lying to the left whilst riding to the east of Kenskoff, a friend of -mine possessed a very extensive property. The place looked so beautiful -that I proposed to him a lengthened visit, to which he acceded. Delay -after delay occurred, and then the civil war of 1865 prevented our -leaving Port-au-Prince. In 1869 there were arrested in that valley -a dozen of the worst cannibals of the Vaudoux sect, and the police -declared that the whole population of that lovely garden of the country -was given up to fetish worship. It was probably a knowledge of this -that made my friend so long defer our proposed visit, as the residence -of a white man among them might have been looked upon with an evil eye. - -I have travelled in almost every quarter of the globe, and I may -say that, taken as a whole, there is not a finer island than that -of Santo Domingo. No country possesses greater capabilities, or a -better geographical position, or more variety of soil, of climate, -or of production; with magnificent scenery of every description, -and hill-sides where the pleasantest of health-resorts might be -established. And yet it is now the country to be most avoided, ruined -as it has been by a succession of self-seeking politicians, without -honesty or patriotism, content to let the people sink to the condition -of an African tribe, that their own selfish passions may be gratified. - -The climate of Hayti is of the ordinary tropical character, and -the temperature naturally varies according to the position of the -towns. Cap Haïtien, being exposed to the cooling influence of the -breezes from the north, is much more agreeable as a residence than -Port-au-Prince, which is situated at the bottom of a deep bay. - -In summer, that is, during the months of June, July, August, and -September, the heat is very oppressive. The registered degrees give -one an idea of the disagreeableness of the climate. In my house at -Tourjeau, near Port-au-Prince, 600 feet above the level of the sea, I -have noted a registering thermometer marking 97° in the drawing-room -at 2 P.M. in July, and 95° in the dining-room on the ground-floor; and -in a room off a court in the town I have heard of 103°--no doubt from -refraction.[2] At the Petit Séminaire the priests keep a register, and -I notice that rarely is the heat marked as 95°, generally 93.2° is the -maximum; but the thermometer must be kept in the coolest part of the -college, and is no criterion of what is felt in ordinary rooms. The -nights also are oppressively warm, and for days I have noticed the -thermometer seldom marking less than 80° during the night. In August -the heat is even greater than in July, rising to 97° at the Petit -Séminaire, whilst in September the maximum is registered as 91.5°; and -this heat continues well on into November, the maximum being the same. -I have not the complete returns, but generally the heats of September -are nearly equal to those of August. In what may be called winter, -the thermometer rarely marks over 84°, and the nights are cool and -pleasant. In fact, I have been assured of the thermometer having fallen -as low as 58° during the night, but I never saw it myself below 60°. It -is a curious fact that foreigners generally suffer from the heat, and -get ill in consequence, whilst the natives complain of the bitter cold -of the winter, and have their season of illness then. - -Port-au-Prince is essentially unhealthy, and yellow fever too often -decimates the crews of the ships of war that visit its harbour. In -1869, on account of the civil convulsion, French and English ships -remained months in harbour. The former suffered dreadfully; the -“Limier,” out of a crew of 106 men and eight officers, lost fifty-four -men and four officers, whilst the “D’Estrés” and another had to -mourn their captains and many of their crew. Who that ever knew him -can forget and not cherish the memory of Captain De Varannes of the -“D’Estrés,” one of the most sympathetic of men, a brilliant officer, -and a steady upholder of the French and English alliance? De Varannes -was an Imperialist, an aide-de-camp of the Empress, and thoroughly -devoted to the family that had made his fortune. When the medical men -announced to him that he had not above two hours to live, he asked the -French agent if he had any portraits of the Imperial family; they were -brought and placed at the foot of the bed where he could see them. He -asked then to be left alone, and an hour after, when a friend crept -in, he found poor De Varannes dead, with his eyes open, and apparently -fixed on the portraits before him. I should add that both these vessels -brought the fever to Port-au-Prince from Havana and Martinique. - -The English ships suffered less, as our officers are not bound by the -rigid rules that regulate the French commanders, who would not leave -the harbour without express orders from their Admiral, though their men -were dying by dozens. Captain Hunter of the “Vestal” and Captain Salmon -of the “Defence” knew their duty to their crews too well to keep them -in the pestilential harbour, and as soon as yellow fever appeared on -board, steamed away; and the latter went five hundred miles due north -till he fell in with cool weather, and thus only lost three men. A -French officer told me that when the sailors on board the “Limier” saw -the “Defence” steam out of harbour, they were depressed even to tears, -and said, “See how the English officers are mindful of the health of -their men, whilst ours let us die like flies.” Captain Hunter of the -“Vestal” never had due credit given him for his devotion to his crew -whilst suffering from yellow fever. He made a hospital of his cabin, -and knew no rest till he had reached the cool harbours of the north. - -Merchant seamen in certain years have suffered dreadfully from this -scourge, both in Port-au-Prince and in the neighbouring port of -Miragoâne. Two-thirds of the crews have often died, and every now and -then there is a season in which few ships escape without loss. - -Yellow fever rarely appears on shore, as the natives do not take it, -and the foreign population is small and mostly acclimatised. The -other diseases from which people suffer are ordinary tropical fevers, -agues, small-pox, and the other ills to which humanity is subject; but -although Port-au-Prince is the filthiest town I have ever seen, it has -not yet been visited by cholera. In the spring of 1882 small-pox broke -out in so virulent a form that the deaths rose to a hundred a day. This -dreadful visitation continued several months, and it is calculated -carried off above 5000 people in the city and its neighbourhood. - -If Hayti ever becomes civilised, and if ever roads are made, there -are near Port-au-Prince summer health-resorts which are perfectly -European in their climate. Even La Coupe, or, as it is officially -called, Pétionville, about five miles from the capital, at an altitude -of 1200 feet, is from ten to twelve degrees cooler during the day, and -the nights are delicious; and if you advance to Kenskoff or Furcy, you -have the thermometer marking during the greatest heat of the day 75° -to 77°, whilst the mornings and evenings are delightfully fresh, with -the thermometer at from 57° to 68°, and the nights cold. On several -occasions I passed some months at Pétionville, and found the climate -most refreshing after the burning heats of the sea-coast. - -The regular rainy season commences about Port-au-Prince during the -month of April, and continues to the month of September, with rain -again in November under the name of “les pluies de la Toussaint.” -After several months of dry weather one breathes again as the easterly -wind brings the welcome rain, which comes with a rush and a force that -bends the tallest palm-tree till its branches almost sweep the ground. -Sometimes, whilst dried up in the town, we could see for weeks the -rain-clouds gathering on the Morne de l’Hôpital within a few miles, and -yet not a drop would come to refresh our parched-up gardens. - -During the great heats the rain is not only welcome as cooling the -atmosphere, but as it comes in torrents, it rushes down the streets and -sweeps clean all those that lead to the harbour, and carries before it -the accumulated filth of the dry season. In very heavy rains the cross -streets are flooded; and one year the water came down so heavily and -suddenly that the brooks became rushing rivers. The flood surprised a -priest whilst bathing, swept him down to the Champs de Mars, and threw -his mangled body by the side of a house I was at that moment visiting. - -That evening, as I was already wet, I rode home during the tempest, -and never did I see more vivid lightning, hear louder thunder, or feel -heavier rain. As we headed the hill, the water rushing down the path -appeared almost knee-deep; and to add to the terror of my animal, -a white horse, maddened by fear, came rushing down the hill with -flowing mane and tail, and swept past us. Seen only during a flash of -lightning, it was a most picturesque sight, and I had much difficulty -in preventing my frightened horse joining in his wild career. - -The rainy season varies in different parts of the island, particularly -in the north. I am surprised to observe that the priests have found -the annual fall of rain to be only 117 inches. I had thought it more. -Perhaps, however, that was during an exceptionally dry year. - -The great plain of Cul-de-Sac is considered healthy, although -occasionally intensely warm. It is, however, freely exposed not only -to the refreshing sea-breezes, but to the cooling land-winds that come -down from the mountains that surround it. There is but little marsh, -except near La Rivière Blanche, which runs near the mountains to the -north and is lost in the sands. - -On the sugar-cane plantations, where much irrigation takes place, the -negro workmen suffer somewhat from fever and ague, but probably more -from the copious libations of new rum, which they assert are rendered -necessary by the thirsty nature of the climate. - -I had often read of a clap of thunder in a clear sky, but never heard -anything like the one that shook our house near Port-au-Prince. We -were sitting, a large party, in our broad verandah, about eight in the -evening, with a beautiful starlight night,--the stars, in fact, shining -so brightly that you could almost read by their light,--when a clap of -thunder, which appeared to burst just over our roof, took our breath -away. It was awful in its suddenness and in its strength. No one spoke -for a minute or two, when, by a common impulse, we left the house and -looked up into a perfectly clear sky. At a distance, however, on the -summits of the mountains, was a gathering of black clouds, which warned -my friends to mount their horses, and they could scarcely have reached -the town when one of the heaviest storms I have known commenced, with -thunder worthy of the clap that had startled us. Though all of us were -seasoned to the tropics, we had never been so impressed before. - -In the wet season the rain, as a rule, comes on at regular hours and -lasts a given time, though occasionally it will continue through a -night and longer, though rarely does it last above twenty-four hours -without a gleam of sunshine intervening. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -HISTORY BEFORE INDEPENDENCE. - - -I do not doubt but the discovery of America by Columbus was good in -its results to mankind; but when we read the history of early Spanish -colonisation, the predominant feeling is disgust at the barbarities and -fanaticism recorded in almost every page. We generally overlook much of -this, being dazzled by pictures of heroic deeds, as set forth in the -works of Prescott and Robertson--heroic deeds of steel-clad warriors -massacring crowds of gentle, almost unresisting natives, until despair, -lending energy to their timid natures, forced them occasionally to turn -on their savage persecutors. - -In no country were the Spaniards more notorious for their cruelty -than in the first land in America on which Columbus established a -settlement. The population was then variously estimated, the numbers -given varying between 800,000 and 2,000,000, the former calculation -being the more probable. They were indeed a primitive people, the men -moving about entirely naked, the women wearing a short petticoat. They -are said to have been good-looking, which, if true, would mark them as -a people distinct from any other in America, as the Indians, who still -remain by millions in South America and Mexico, are as a race the most -ill-favoured natives I have seen in any portion of the globe. That was -my impression when I travelled among them, though I have seen among -the young women who followed the Indian regiments to Lima a few who -might almost be considered handsome, but these by their appearance were -probably of mixed breed. - -Columbus only stayed two months in Santo Domingo, but left behind him -forty of his companions in an entrenched position. They now began to -commit excesses; and hearing that a cacique in the interior had a -large store of gold, they penetrated to his town and robbed him of his -riches. This roused the population against them; they were pursued and -killed in detail. - -In the meantime Columbus had revisited Spain, been received with -honour, and seventeen vessels, laden with every kind of store and -domestic animal, as well as a large force, were placed at his disposal. -On his arrival his first thoughts were for gold, and he marched in -search of the mines, which, being pointed out to him, were soon in full -work, the Indians by force being compelled to this task. The conduct -of these white men appears to have been so wantonly cruel, that the -population rose _en masse_, and a hundred thousand Indians are said -to have marched to attack the Spaniards, two hundred and twenty of -whom put this crowd to flight without the loss of a single man. These -are the heroic deeds we are called upon to admire. It has often been -declared impossible that such, on one side, bloodless encounters -could take place; but I am well assured that two hundred well-armed -Englishmen could in the present day march through any number of the -Land Dyaks of Borneo, and defeat them without loss. - -It is not necessary to trace in detail the history of the island; but I -may notice that in 1507 the population was estimated at 60,000, which -shows that the original reckoning must have been greatly exaggerated, -as not even these early apostles of the religion of charity could -have thus wiped out the population by millions. The story of what one -called the early exploits of the Spaniards in Santo Domingo has been -so often related that it is useless to tell it over again, especially -as it would present but a sequence of sickening events, of murders, -executions, robbery, and lust, with but few traits of generosity and -virtue to record. - -These foreign settlers soon saw that the island would be useless to -them without population, so they early began to introduce negroes from -Africa, as well as families from the neighbouring isles. The Coral -Indians were not spared, and the Spanish historians themselves are the -chroniclers of this record of infamy. Now not a descendant of an Indian -remains. - -Santo Domingo, deprived of population, with its mineral wealth, for -want of hands, no longer available, and agriculture neglected, rapidly -degenerated, and little was left but the city of Santo Domingo and -in the interior a population of herdsmen. Then the famous buccaneers -appeared to inflict on the Spaniards some of the misery they had -worked on the Indians. Notwithstanding every effort to prevent them, -the French adventurers gradually spread through the western end of the -island, and began to form towns and settlements. - -In 1640 Levasseur was sent from France as Governor of these -irregularly-acquired possessions, and from that time the French may -be said to have established themselves firmly in the western part of -Santo Domingo--which hereafter I may call by its present name, Hayti, -to simplify the narrative--but their rule was not recognised by Spain -until the year 1697. - -From this date to the breaking out of the French Revolution the colony -increased in prosperity, until it became, for its extent, probably the -richest in the world. Negroes were imported by thousands from the coast -of Africa, and were subjected to as harsh a slavery as ever disgraced -the worst system of servitude. - -Two events occurred during this period of prosperity which were -worthy of being noted: First, the fearful earthquake which destroyed -Port-au-Prince in 1770, when for fifteen days the earth trembled under -repeated shocks, and left the city a heap of ruins.[3] The second was -the war in which France engaged to aid our colonists to acquire their -independence. To increase their forces the French commanders permitted -the free blacks and mulattoes to enlist, and they did good service; and -when they returned to their country, they spread widely a spirit of -disaffection, which no ordinances could destroy. - -When England in 1785 was forced to acknowledge the independence of the -United States, how despotic France and Spain rejoiced over the downfall -of the only country where liberty was known! The results were, for -France, the Revolution, which, with all its crimes, did unspeakable -good, and deprived her of the finest colony that any country ever -possessed. To Spain it brought the loss of world-wide possessions, and -a fall in power and prestige which to this day she shows but few signs -of recovering. - -On the eve of the great Revolution, France possessed, as I have said, -the finest colony in the world. Her historians are never weary of -enumerating the amount of its products, the great trade, the warehouses -full of sugar, cotton, coffee, indigo, and cocoa; its plains covered -with splendid estates, its hill-sides dotted with noble houses; a white -population, rich, refined, enjoying life as only a luxurious colonial -society can enjoy it; the only dark spot, then scarcely noticed, the -ignorant, discontented mass of black slavery, and the more enlightened -disaffection of the free mulattoes and negroes. - -It has often been a subject of inquiry how it was that the Spaniards, -who were the cruellest of the cruel towards the Indians, should have -established negro slavery in a form which robbed it of half its -terrors, whilst the French, usually less severe than their southern -neighbours, should have founded a system of servitude unsurpassed for -severity, cruelty, nay, ferocity. - -To this day the barbarous conduct of the Marquis of Caradeux is -cited as a justification for the savage retaliation of the insurgent -negroes. I think that the explanation of the different conduct of the -Spanish and French slave-owner may be, that the former is indolent and -satisfied with less, whilst the latter, in his fierce struggle to be -rich, cared not how he became so, and worked his negroes beyond human -endurance, and then, to keep down the inevitable discontent, sought to -terrorise his slaves by barbarous punishments. - -The true history of Hayti commences with the French Revolution, -when, amid the flood of impracticable and practicable schemes, a few -statesmen turned their generous thoughts towards the down-trodden -African, and firing assembled France with their enthusiasm, passed laws -and issued decrees granting freedom to the black; but before these had -any practical effect, Hayti had to pass through scenes which have left -blood-stains that nothing can wash away. - -When reading the different accounts which have been written of the -state of Hayti when France was upsetting the accumulated wrongs of -ages, I have often desired to disbelieve them, and place to exaggerated -feelings of sympathy the descriptions of the prejudices of the planters -and the atrocities committed under their influence. But I have lived -long in the West Indies, and know that there are many whites born -in our colonies, who not only look upon the negro as of an inferior -species--which he may be--but as fit only for servitude, and quite -unworthy of freedom, and on an alliance with a coloured person as a -disgrace which affects a whole family. They speak of a mulatto as they -would of one affected with leprosy. If in these days such sentiments -exist, we can readily believe that they existed even in a greater -degree before, awakened to a feeling of justice, most European nations -formally abolished slavery, and let the black and the coloured man have -an equal chance in the struggle of life. - -For some years before the meeting of the States-General, -philanthropists who had inquired into the condition of the slave had -had their compassion aroused, and to give direction to their efforts to -ameliorate it, had founded in Paris a society called “The Friends of -the Blacks.” - -The summoning of the States-General in France created much enthusiasm -throughout Hayti; the planters now reckoned that justice would be -done, and that a share would be accorded them in the government of -the colony; the lower class of whites had a vague idea that their -position must be improved, and hailed the movement as the promise of -better times--though in truth these two classes had little of which -to complain; the former were rolling in wealth, and the latter were -never in want of high-paid employment. Another class felt even greater -interest--that of the free black and coloured men; they thought that -no change could occur which would not better their condition, which -was one of simple toleration; they might work and get rich, have their -children educated in France, but they had no political rights, and the -meanest white considered himself, and was treated, as their superior. -The slaves, although discontented, were only formidable from their -numbers. - -Exaggerated expectations were naturally followed by disappointment. -The planters, finding that the French Government had no intention -of employing them to administer the colony, began to think of -independence; whilst the lower whites, passionately attached to -the dream of equality, thought that that should commence by an -apportionment among them of the estates of the rich. A third party -consisted of the Government employés, whose chiefs were Royalists under -the leadership of Penier, the Governor-General, and Mauduit, colonel of -the regiment of Port-au-Prince. - -The Colonial party, or rather that of the planters, in order to -increase their power, which had hitherto been disseminated in local -assemblies, determined to have the law carried out which authorised -a General Assembly. This was elected, and held its first meetings in -St. Marc in March 1790. The leaders soon commenced to quarrel with the -Government authorities, and dissensions rose to such a height that both -parties began to arm; and on the Assembly decreeing the substitution -of another Governor for Penier, he was roused to resistance, and in a -brief struggle he forced the General Assembly to dissolve, a portion of -the members seeking refuge on board of a ship of war, whose crew they -had induced to mutiny and sail with them to France. - -The white population thus set the example of internal strife, and in -their struggle for mastery called in the aid of the freedmen, and -then after victory insulted them. These, however, began gradually to -understand the advantages they possessed in being able to support the -climate, and the persecutions and cruelties of the French made them -feel that those who would be free themselves must strike the blow. - -Among the educated and intelligent mulattoes who had gone to France -to urge on the National Assembly the rights of their colour was -Ogé. He naturally thought that the time had arrived for justice to -be done, when the President of the “Constituant” had declared that -“aucune partie de la nation ne réclamera vainement ses droits auprès -de l’assemblée des représentants du peuple français.” He visited the -Club Massiac, where the planters held supreme sway, and endeavoured to -enlist their sympathy, but he was coldly received. He then determined -to return to Hayti to support the rights of his caste, which, though -ambiguously, had been recognised by the legislature; but unexpected -obstacles were thrown in his way by the Colonial party, and an order -to arrest him was issued should he venture to embark for his native -land. By passing through England and the United States he eluded these -precautions, and landed privately at Cap Haïtien. When the news of -his arrival on his property at Dondon reached the authorities, they -endeavoured to capture him; then he, with a few hundreds of his colour, -rose in arms, but after a few skirmishes they dispersed, and Ogé was -forced to seek refuge in the Spanish settlement of Santo Domingo. There -he was arrested, and, on the demand of the Governor of the French -colony, handed over to his enemies. He was tried as a rebel and broken -on the wheel, together with three companions; others were hung, the -rest sent to the galleys. - -Ogé’s armed resistance had encouraged the men of colour in the south -to demand their rights; but they were easily dispersed, and their -chief, Rigaud, taken prisoner. These isolated and irresolute outbreaks -rendered the division between the coloured and the white population -more marked than ever; the latter despised the former for their -wretched resistance, while the coloured men were indignant at the -cruel and unsparing executions which marked the close of Ogé’s career. - -Monsieur Blanchelande was then Governor, a weak man at the head of -the Royalist party, who had not the courage to follow the energetic -counsels of Colonel Mauduit. By his vacillation all discipline was lost -both in the army and in the fleet, and the revolutionary party rose -in arms in Port-au-Prince, murdered Colonel Mauduit, and drove the -pusillanimous Governor to seek refuge in the plain of Cul-de-Sac. Thus -the whites were everywhere divided, but were still strong enough to -disperse any assembly of the freedmen. - -The news of the troubles in Hayti produced a great effect in Paris, -and the Constituent Assembly determined to send three commissioners to -restore tranquillity; but they prefaced this measure by decreeing (May -15, 1791) that every man of colour born of free parents should enjoy -equal political rights with the whites. On the planters declaring that -this would bring about civil war and the loss of the colony, the famous -phrase was uttered, “Perish the colonies rather than a principle,” -which phrase has not been forgotten by those amongst us who would -sacrifice India to the perverse idea of abandoning our high political -status in the world. - -When the substance of this decree reached Hayti, it roused to fury -the passions of the whites; all sections united in declaring that -they would oppose its execution even by force of arms, and a strong -party was formed either to declare the independence of the colony, or, -if that were not possible, to invite England to take possession. The -coloured men, on the other hand, determined to assert their rights, and -held secret meetings to bring about an accord among all the members -of their party; and when they heard that Governor Blanchelande had -declared he would not execute the decree, they summoned their followers -to meet at Mirebalais in the western department. - -The whites in the meantime determined that the second Colonial Assembly -should be elected before the official text of the dreaded decree of -the 15th May should arrive; and so rapidly did they act, that on the -1st August 1791 the Assembly met at Leogâne, and was opened under the -presidency of the Marquis de Cadusch, a Royalist. They called Governor -Blanchelande to the bar of the House, and made him swear that he would -not carry into effect the law giving equal rights to the freedmen. As -Cap Haïtien had become in reality the capital of the colony, both the -Governor and the Assembly soon removed there. - -The Royalist party, headed by the Governor, found their influence -gradually declining, and, to strengthen their hands against both the -Colonial Assembly with its traitorous projects and the violence of the -lower part of the white population, are accused of having first thought -of enlisting the blacks to further their schemes and to strengthen -their party. It is said that they proposed to Toussaint, a slave on -the Breda estates, to raise the negroes in revolt in the name of the -King. This account I believe to be a pure invention of the coloured -historians, and the conduct of the blacks clearly proved that they -were not moved by French officers. Whoever was the instigator, it is -certain that the negroes in the northern province rose in insurrection, -put to death every white that fell into their hands, began to burn -the factories, and then rushed _en masse_ to pillage the town of Cap -Haïtien. Here, however, their numbers availed them little against the -arms and discipline of the French troops, and they were driven back -with great slaughter, and many then retired to the mountains. It would -naturally be suspected that the coloured people were the instigators of -this movement, were it not certain that they were as much opposed to -the freedom of the blacks as the most impassioned white planter. - -The insurgent slaves called themselves “Les Gens du Roi,” declaring -that he was their friend, and was persecuted for their sake; they -hoisted the white flag, and placed an ignorant negro, Jean François, -at their head. The second in command was a Papaloi or priest of the -Vaudoux, named Biassou. He encouraged his followers to carry on the -rites of their African religion, and when under its wildest influence, -he dashed his bands to the attack of their civilised enemies, to meet -their death in Hayti, but to rise again free in their beloved Africa. -The ferocity of the negro nature had now full swing, and the whites -who fell into their hands felt its effects. Prisoners were placed -between planks and sawn in two, or were skinned alive and slowly -roasted, the girls violated and then murdered. Unhappily some of these -blacks had seen their companions thus tortured, though probably in very -exceptional cases. Descriptions of these horrors fill pages in every -Haytian history, but it is needless to dwell on them. On either side -there was but little mercy. - -The Governor at length collected 3000 white troops, who, after various -skirmishes, dispersed these bands with much slaughter; but as this -success was not followed up, Jean François and Biassou soon rallied -their followers. - -In the meantime the coloured men at Mirebalais, under the leadership -of Pinchinat, began to arouse their brethren; and having freed nine -hundred slaves, commenced forming the nucleus of an army, that, under -the leadership of a very intelligent mulatto named Bauvais, gained some -successes over the undisciplined forces in Port-au-Prince, commanded -by an Italian adventurer, Praloto. The Royalists, who had been driven -from the city by the mob, had assembled at “La Croix des Bouquets” in -the plains, and to strengthen, their party entered into an alliance -with the freedmen. This alarmed the inhabitants of Port-au-Prince, -and they also recognised the existence of Pinchinat and his party by -entering into a regular treaty with them. The Haytians, as I may call -the coloured races, began now to understand that their position must -depend on their own courage and conduct. - -When everything had been settled between the chiefs of the two parties, -the Haytians returned to Port-au-Prince, and were received with every -demonstration of joy; they then agreed to a plan which showed how -little they cared for the liberty of others, so that they themselves -obtained their rights. Among those who had fought valiantly at their -side were the freed slaves previously referred to. For fear these -men should incite ideas of liberty among those blacks who were still -working on the estates, the coloured officers consented that they -should be deported from the country. In the end they were placed as -prisoners on board a pontoon in Mole St. Nicolas, and at night were -for the most part butchered by unknown assassins. And Bauvais and -Pinchinat, the leaders and the most intelligent of the freedmen, were -those that agreed to this deportation of their brethren-in-arms who had -the misfortune to be lately slaves! I doubt if the blacks ever forgot -this incident. - -The coloured men gained little by this breach of faith, as shortly -after news arrived that the French Assembly had reversed the decree of -May 15, which gave equal rights to the freedmen; and then dissensions -broke out, and the coloured men were again driven from Port-au-Prince -with heavy loss. This was the signal for disorders throughout the whole -country, and the whites and the freedmen were skirmishing in every -district. Praloto and the rabble reigned supreme in Port-au-Prince, -and soon made the rich merchants and shopkeepers feel the effects of -their internal divisions. They set fire to the town, and during the -confusion plundered the stores, and exercised their private vengeance -on their enemies. - -The whole country was in the greatest disorder when the three -commissioners sent by the French Government arrived in Hayti. The -Colonial Assembly was still sitting at Cap Haïtien, and the insurgent -negroes were encamped at no great distance. They immediately -endeavoured to enter into negotiations with them, which had little -result, on account of the obstinacy of the planters. The three -commissioners were Mirbeck, St. Leger, and Roume. Finding that their -influence was as nought, the former two returned to France, whilst -Roume went ultimately to Santo Domingo. - -The state of the colony may be imagined when it is remembered that -the whites were divided into three distinct sections. The coloured -men, jealous of each other, did not combine, but were ready to come to -blows on the least pretext; while the blacks, under Jean François, were -massacring every white that fell into their hands, and selling to the -Spaniard every negro or coloured man accused of siding with the French. -The planters wanted independence or subjection to England; the poorer -whites anything which would give them the property of others; the -coloured were still faithful to France; whilst the blacks cared only -to be free from work; yet among them was Toussaint, who already had -fermenting in his brain the project of a free black State. - -It would interest few to enter into the details of this history -of horrors, where it is difficult to feel sympathy for any party. -They were alike steeped in blood, and ready to commit any crime to -further their ends. Murder, torture, violation, pillage, bad faith, -and treachery meet you on all sides; and although a few names arise -occasionally in whom you feel a momentary interest, they are sure soon -to disgust you by their utter incapacity or besotted personal ambition. - -The National Assembly in Paris, finding that their first commissioners -had accomplished nothing, sent three others, two of whom, Sonthonax and -Polvérel, are well known in Haytian history. They had full powers, and -even secret instructions, to do all they could to give freedom to the -slaves. - -These two commissioners were of the very worst kind of revolutionists, -talked of little but guillotining the aristocrats, and were in every -way unsuited to their task; they dissolved the Colonial Assembly, and -substituted for it a commission, consisting of six whites of the stamp -suited to them, and six freedmen. They decided to crush the respectable -classes, whom they called Royalists, because they would not join in -revolutionary excesses, and the massacre commenced at the Cape. - -Polvérel appears to have had some idea of the responsibility of his -position, though both cruel and faithless; but Sonthonax was but a -blatant babbler, with some talent, but overwhelmed by vanity. He caused -more bloodshed than any other man, first setting the lower white -against the rich, then the mulatto against the white, and then the -black against both. Well might the French orator declare on Sonthonax’s -return to France that “il puait de sang.” The third commissioner, -Aillaud, thinking, very justly, that his companions were a couple -of scoundrels whom he could not control, embarked secretly and left -for home. Whilst these commissioners were employed in destroying the -fairest colony in the world, France, in a moment of excited fury, -declared war against the rest of Europe, and a new era opened for Hayti. - -Many of the more influential and respectable inhabitants of all -colours, utterly disgusted by the conduct of the different parties, -thought that the war between England and France would give them some -chance of rest from the excesses of the insurgent blacks; and the -factious freedmen, supported by that _fou furieux_, Sonthonax, sent to -Jamaica to invite the Governor to interfere and take possession of the -colony. - -England did interfere, but in her usual way, with small expeditions, -and thus frittered away her strength; but the resistance made was -in general so contemptible, that with little effort we succeeded in -taking Jérémie in the south, and then St. Marc, and subsequently -Port-au-Prince. Had we sent a large army, it is equally possible that -we should not have succeeded, as the intention was to reimpose slavery. -As the garrison of Jamaica could only furnish detachments, the British -authorities began to enlist all who wished to serve irrespective of -colour, and being supported by those who were weary of anarchy and -revolutionary fury, were soon able to present a very respectable force -in the field. The Spaniards, aided by the bands of revolted negroes, -overran most of the northern province; in this they were greatly -aided by Toussaint L’Ouverture, who now began to come to the front. -Sonthonax, whose idea of energy was simply to massacre and destroy, -ordered that every place his partisans were forced to evacuate should -be burnt. At the same time he thought that a little terror might be -of service, so he erected a guillotine in Port-au-Prince; and having -at hand a Frenchman accused of being a Royalist, he thought he would -try the experiment on him. An immense crowd of Haytians assembled to -witness the execution; but when they saw the bright blade descend and -the head roll at their feet, they were horror-stricken, and rushing on -the guillotine, tore it to pieces, and no other has ever again been -erected in Hayti. - -Curious people! they who never hesitated to destroy the whites, guilty -or innocent, or massacre, simply because they were white, women and -children, down to the very babe at the breast, who invented every -species of torture to render death more hideous, were horrified because -a man’s head was chopped off, instead of his being destroyed in a -fashion to which they were accustomed, and this at a time when white, -coloured, and black were vying with each other in arts of bloodthirsty -cruelty! - -The whole country was in terrible confusion; the French had not one man -who had the talent or influence to dominate their divided factions; -the coloured were represented by such respectabilities as Pinchinat, -Bauvais, and Rigaud, but without one of incontestable superiority; the -blacks were as yet led by such men as Jean François and Biassou, who -must even make the respectable negroes blush to acknowledge that they -were of the same race; yet, as I have said, there was one man coming to -the front who was to dominate all. - -Amid the many heroes whose actions the Haytians love to commemorate, -Toussaint L’Ouverture does not hold a high rank. And yet the conduct of -this black was so remarkable as almost to confound those who declare -the negro an inferior creature incapable of rising to genius. History, -wearied with dwelling on the petty passions of the other founders of -Haytian independence, may well turn to the one grand figure of this -cruel war. Toussaint was born on the Breda estate in the northern -department, and was a slave from birth; it has been doubted whether he -was of pure negro race. His grandfather was an African prince, but if -we may judge from the portraits, he was not of the pure negro type. -Whether pure negro or not, there is no doubt of the intelligence and -energy of the man. Though but a puny child, by constant exercise and -a vigorous will he became as wiry and active as any of his companions, -and, moreover, gave up much of his leisure time to study. He learnt to -read French, and, it is said, in order to understand the Prayer-Book, -a little Latin; but he never quite mastered the art of writing. He -was evidently trusted and kindly treated by his master’s agent, who -gave him charge of the sugar-mills. There is an accusation constantly -brought against Toussaint, that of being a religious hypocrite, but -his early life shows that it is unfounded. Whilst still a slave, his -principles would not allow him to follow the custom of his companions -and live in concubinage; he determined to marry, though the woman he -chose had already an illegitimate son named Placide, whom he adopted. -It is pleasing to read of the happy domestic life of Toussaint, and it -is another proof of that affectionate disposition which made those who -served him devoted to him. - -When the insurrection broke out in the northern province, Toussaint -remained faithful to his master, and prevented any destruction on the -estate; but finding ultimately that he could not stem the tide, he -sent his master’s family for safety into Cap Haïtien, and joined the -insurgents. He was at first appointed surgeon to the army, as among his -other accomplishments was a knowledge of _simples_, which had given him -great influence on the estate, and was now to do so in the insurgent -forces. He liked this employment, as it kept him free from the savage -excesses of his companions, who were acting with more than ordinary -barbarity. - -The three leaders of the insurgents were then Jean François, a negro, -about whom opinions differ. St. Remy says he was intellectual, though -the general idea is more probable, that he was an energetic savage. -Biassou was sensual and violent, as cruel as man could be and an avowed -leader of the Vaudoux sect, and apparently a Papaloi; but the vilest -of the three was Jeannot. He loved to torture his white prisoners, and -drank their blood mixed with rum; but he was as cowardly as he was -cruel, and the scene at his execution, when he clung to the priest in -frantic terror, must have afforded satisfaction to the friends of those -whom he had pitilessly murdered. Jeannot was also a great proficient -in Vaudoux practices, and thus gained much influence with the ignorant -slaves; it was this influence, not his cruelties, which roused the -anger of Jean François, who seized and summarily shot him. - -It is curious to read of the projects of these negro leaders. They had -no idea of demanding liberty for the slaves; they only wanted liberty -for themselves. In some abortive negotiations with the French, Jean -François demanded that 300 of the leaders should be declared free, -whilst Toussaint would only have bargained for fifty. The mulatto -leaders, however, were most anxious to preserve their own slaves, and, -as I have related, gave up to death those blacks who had aided them in -supporting their position; and a French writer records that up to Le -Clerc’s expedition, the mulattoes had fought against the blacks with -all the zeal that the interests of property could inspire. - -The blind infatuation of the planters prevented their accepting Jean -François’ proposition; they even rejected it with insult, and savagely -persecuted the negroes who were living in Cap Haïtien. Biassou then -ordered all his white prisoners to be put to death; but Toussaint, -by his eloquent remonstrances, saved them. Other negotiations having -failed, Biassou attacked the French lines, and carried them as far -as the ramparts of the town. The planters had brave words, but not -brave deeds, with which to meet their revolted bondsmen. All the black -prisoners taken by the insurgents were sent over the frontiers and sold -as slaves to the Spaniards. Toussaint remonstrated against this vile -traffic, but never shared in it. The new Governor, Laveaux, at this -time nearly stifled the insurrection, dispersing all the insurgent -forces; but, as usual, not following up his successes, allowed the -negroes again to concentrate. No strength of position as yet enabled -the blacks successfully to resist the white troops. - -When the negro chiefs heard of the death of Louis XVI., they thought -they had lost a friend, and openly joined the Spaniards in their war on -the French Republic. - -At this time Sonthonax and Polvérel acted as if they intended to betray -their own country, by removing the chief white officers from command -and entrusting these important posts to mulattoes. It was not, however, -treachery, but jealousy, as such a man as General Galbaud could not be -made a docile instrument in their hands. Then finding that power was -slipping from them, they proclaimed (1793) the liberty of all those -slaves who would fight for the Republic. - -In the meantime Toussaint was steadily gaining influence among his -troops, and gradually freeing himself from the control of Biassou, -whose proceedings had always shocked him; and some successful -expeditions, as the taking of Dondon, added to his prestige. Whilst -fighting was going on throughout the northern provinces, Sonthonax and -Polvérel were solemnising pompous _fêtes_ to celebrate the anniversary -of the taking of the Bastile. It is singular what a passion they had -for these childish amusements. - -Rigaud, a mulatto, in future days the rival of Toussaint, now appears -prominently upon the scene, being appointed by the commissioners as -chief of the northern department. - -Toussaint continued his successes, and finding that nothing could be -done with the estates without the whites, appeared anxious to induce -them to return to superintend their cultivation, and he succeeded in -inducing many hundreds to reside in their devastated homes. - -Alarmed by the continued successes of Toussaint, Sonthonax -proclaimed in August 29, 1793, the liberty of all, which, under -the circumstances, may be considered the only wise act of his -administration. - -The people of the north-west, however, were weary of the tyranny -of the commissioners, and, being probably privately informed of -Toussaint’s intentions, surrendered Gonaives to him, and the rest of -the neighbouring districts followed. A new enemy, however, now appeared -in the shape of the English, who took possession of St. Marc with -seventy-five men,--so like our system! In June 1794 Port-au-Prince -surrendered to the English after a faint resistance, the commissioners -retiring to Jacmel, from whence they embarked for France, to answer -for their conduct. At that time Port-au-Prince was in a fair state for -defence; but Captain Daniel of the 41st took the famous fort of Bizoton -by storm with sixty men, and then the English advanced on the town. The -effect of having replaced the French officers by untrained mulattoes -was here apparent: though everything had been prepared to blow up -the forts, nothing was done; the garrison fled, leaving 131 cannon, -twenty-two laden vessels, with 7000 tons more in ballast, and all their -stores and ammunition. - -At this time Jean François became suspicious of Toussaint and arrested -him, but he was delivered by Biassou. Toussaint had for some time been -meditating a bold stroke. The proclamation by Sonthonax of the freedom -of the blacks probably worked on him, and he determined to abandon the -party of the king of Spain, which was that of slavery, and join the -French Republic. He did so, proclaiming at the same time the freedom of -the slaves. His soldiers sullied the change by massacring two hundred -white planters, who, confiding in the word of Toussaint, had returned -to their estates. - -The new General of the republic now acted with energy against Jean -François, drove him from the plains, and forced him to take refuge with -his followers in the Black Mountains. Success followed success, until -Toussaint found himself opposite St. Marc; but his attack on that town -was easily repulsed by its garrison in English pay. His activity was -incessant, and he kept up constant skirmishes with all his enemies. -He appeared ever unwearied, whatever might be the fatigue of his -companions. - -Toussaint had naturally observed, that however his men might succeed -against the undisciplined hordes of Jean François, they could do -nothing against a disciplined force. He therefore, in 1795, formed -four regiments of 2000 men each, whom he had daily drilled by French -soldiers, his former prisoners; and, I may notice here, with such -success, that English officers were subsequently surprised at their -proficiency. - -Rigaud had, in the meantime, with his usual jactancy, marched on -Port-au-Prince to expel the English, but was repulsed. Toussaint -assembled all his army for another attack on St. Marc, and for three -days, from the 25th to 27th July 1795, tried by repeated assaults -to capture the town; but English discipline prevailed, and the small -garrison foiled every attempt. - -It is noticed by St. Remy that Toussaint, when once he gave his word, -never broke it, which was a new experience among these unprincipled -leaders; and it is added, that he never had any prejudice of colour. - -An important event for the French in 1795 was the peace made between -France and Spain, by which Santo Domingo was ceded to the former. - -The year 1796 was ushered in by various English expeditions and -skirmishes, and their failure to take Leogâne. Some of the Haytian -accounts are amusing. Pétion defended the fort of Ça-ira against the -whole English fleet until the fortifications were demolished. Fifteen -thousand English bullets were showered into the place, and yet only -seven Haytians were killed. It looks as if the garrison had quietly -retired and left us to batter away at the earthworks. - -One is often surprised, in reading Haytian accounts of the war, at the -defeats of the English, which make one wonder what could have become -of the proverbial courage and steadiness of our men; but a little -closer inquiry shows that in most of these instances there were few -or no English present, only black and coloured men in our pay, or -planters who had taken our side in the war, none of whom were more than -half-hearted in our cause. - -The French were also weakened by internal dissensions. General -Vilatte, a mulatto, incited a revolt in the town of Cap Haïtien, -arrested the French governor, Laveaux, and threw him into prison. The -latter called on Toussaint to aid him, and the black general had the -supreme satisfaction of marching into the town and freeing the white -governor. With what curious sensations must Toussaint have performed -this act of authority in a place that had only known him as a slave! -Laveaux received him with enthusiasm, and promoted him from the grade -of General of Brigade, in which the French Government had confirmed -him, to be Lieutenant-General of the Government, April 1, 1796. This -successful movement confirmed the ascendancy of the blacks in the -north, and Vilatte had shortly to sail for France, from whence he -returned with the expedition sent to enslave his countrymen. - -Sonthonax and a new commission now arrived at Cap Haïtien, to find -Rigaud almost independent in the south, and Toussaint master in the -north. Both Laveaux and Sonthonax are accused of endeavouring to set -the blacks against the mulattoes. Laveaux having returned to France as -deputy for the colony, Sonthonax remained at the head of affairs, and -one of his first acts was to name Toussaint General of Division. - -Toussaint was in the meantime organising his army and working hard at -its drill; he then started to the attack of Mirebalais, a port occupied -by a French planter in our service, the Count de Bruges, who appears -to have retired, with numerous forces, without much resistance. He -probably could scarcely trust his raw levies. Sonthonax was so pleased -with this important success that he named Toussaint Commander-in-Chief -of the army in Santo Domingo, which step displeased Rigaud, who was -thus placed under the orders of a black general. - -Toussaint appears to have felt a justifiable distrust of Sonthonax. -He saw that he desired to set black against coloured, that he was -even talking of the independence of the island, perhaps only to test -Toussaint’s fidelity; but he had no difficulty in assuring himself that -wherever Sonthonax was, mischief was sure to be brewing. He therefore -had him elected deputy, and sent him to follow Laveaux. Sonthonax did -not like this step, and made some show of opposition, but Toussaint -informed him that if he did not embark immediately he would fall on -Cap Haïtien with 20,000 men. This irresistible argument made Sonthonax -give way. As he went down to the boat that was to take him on board, -the streets were lined by crowds of all colours; but not one said, “God -bless him,” as he had betrayed every party in turn; and his one wise -act of proclaiming the liberty of the slaves was simply a political -expedient, wrung from him by the circumstances of the hour. He was a -boasting, bad man, whose history is written in the blood of thousands -of every colour. - -The Directory, alarmed at the growing influence of Toussaint, -sent out General Hédouville as pacificator of the island, and, to -produce harmony, gave him power to defeat Rigaud. On his arrival at -Cap Haïtien he summoned the rivals to confer with him, and Rigaud -and Toussaint, meeting at Gonaives, went together to the capital. -Hédouville, jealous of the power of the latter, gave all his attention -to the former, whilst the newly-arrived French officers laughed at the -negro and his surroundings. Toussaint, suspecting a plot to arrest him -and send him off to France, and probably very jealous of the superior -treatment of his rival, withdrew from the city and returned to his army. - -The English had now become convinced that it was useless to attempt -to conquer the island; their losses from sickness were enormous, -and the influence of the planters was of no avail. Their black and -coloured mercenaries were faithless, and ready to betray them, as -at St. Marc, where the English governor had to shoot a number of -traitorous mulattoes who would have betrayed the town into the hands -of the blacks. They therefore determined to treat with Toussaint, and -evacuated St. Marc, Port-au-Prince, and L’Arcahaye. He thus gained at -one stroke what no amount of force could have procured for him. - -Toussaint, with a greatness of mind which was really remarkable, agreed -to allow those French colonists who had sided with us to remain, and -promised to respect their properties; and as it was known that this -magnanimous black ever kept his word, no important exodus followed our -retreat. Admiral Maitland had arranged for the surrender of the mole -with General Hédouville, but on finding his hostility to the French -planters, whom he insisted on Toussaint expelling the country, our -naval chief made a new settlement with the black general and handed the -mole over to him. Maitland invited Toussaint to visit him, and reviewed -before him the English army collected from the rest of the country. He -was exceedingly pleased by the treatment he received from our people, -and ever after showed a kindly feeling towards them. - -One can scarcely understand why the English gave up the mole, which a -small garrison could have defended, and the importance of the position -in naval warfare is indisputable. If we wanted to gain Toussaint and -induce him to declare the island independent, we should have held it -until that desirable event had happened.[4] - -Toussaint treated the old colonists with distinction, and left many -of them in the commands they had held under the English. Hédouville -protested against this good treatment of his own countrymen, and -annoyed Toussaint so much that he began to consider whether it would -not be prudent to send Hédouville to follow Sonthonax. - -Hédouville was not the only one who objected to the good treatment -of the planters; his opinion was shared by the black general, Moïse, -then commanding in the northern department. To show his displeasure at -Toussaint’s humanity, he caused some white colonists to be murdered in -the plains near Cap Haïtien. Hédouville, frightened by the practical -result of his teaching, summoned Toussaint to his aid; but doubtful of -his general, he escaped on board a vessel in harbour. In order to do -all the mischief he could before leaving, he wrote to Rigaud, saying he -was no longer to obey Toussaint, but consider himself the governor of -the southern department, adding that Toussaint was sold to the English -and the _émigrés_. - -It was Hédouville who thus laid the foundation of that civil war which -degenerated into a struggle of caste. The agents sent by France proved -each worse than the other. Rigaud, with the true spirit of a mulatto, -also wrote to Toussaint to drive out the white planters. When his -teaching had incited his soldiers to murder his white countrymen, all -Rigaud could say was, “Mon Dieu, qu’est que le peuple en fureur?” - -On the departure of Hédouville, Toussaint invited Roume to leave -Santo Domingo and come and reside at Port-au-Prince, where they met -in January 1799. Roume appears to have had a profound admiration for -Toussaint. We find him writing to General Kerverseau as early as -February 1795, and describing the negro chief as a philosopher, a -legislator, a general, and a good citizen. - -Roume had a difficult part to play. He was most anxious to bring about -concord among the different generals, and therefore invited Rigaud -and Bauvais to meet Toussaint on the _fête_ of the 4th of February to -commemorate the memorable day when the National Convention proclaimed -full liberty to the slaves. A little outward concord was obtained, but -soon after, Toussaint, suspecting a plot, arrested some mulattoes. A -slight disturbance among the negroes taking place at Corail, thirty -were captured and died in prison, from “the effect of the gas created -by white-washing the prison.” This remarkable excuse did not satisfy -Toussaint, who believed the men to have been assassinated by Rigaud’s -officers. - -Toussaint and Roume had in the meantime left for Cap Haïtien, where -they appear to have negotiated a commercial treaty with the Americans, -and some arrangement was also, it is said, made with Admiral Maitland. - -It was during this year that Captain Rainsford visited Cap Haïtien. -As we were at war with France, our officer passed as an American, and -soon after landing was met by Toussaint in the street, who came up to -him to ask the news. He next saw him at a restaurant where all classes -dined, and he sat down at a long table with a drummer-boy next him and -the general not far off. The latter used to say that except on service -he did not see the necessity of making distinctions. In the evening -Captain Rainsford played billiards with Toussaint at the public tables. - -Rainsford appears to have been as much struck with Toussaint as Roume. -He says he was constrained to admire him as a man, a governor, and a -general. He describes him as a perfect black, then about fifty-five -years of age, of a venerable appearance, and possessed of uncommon -discernment and great suavity of manners. He enters fully into a -description of his dress. The general wore as a uniform a kind of blue -spencer, with a large red cape falling over his shoulders, and red -cuffs, with eight rows of lace on the arms, and a pair of huge gold -epaulettes, a scarlet waistcoat, pantaloons and half-boots, a round hat -with red feather and national cockade, and an extremely large sword -was suspended from his side. Rainsford adds: “He receives a voluntary -respect from every description of his countrymen, which is more than -returned by the affability of his behaviour and the goodness of his -heart.” The vessel in which Rainsford was a passenger was next driven -by stress of weather into Fort Liberté. Arrested as a spy, he was -condemned to death; but Toussaint would not permit the sentence to be -carried out. He dismissed him with a caution not to return without -passports. - -There is much exaggeration in the account given by Rainsford of what he -saw and heard at Cap Haïtien. He talks of 62,000 inhabitants leaving -the city after the great fire, and of Toussaint reviewing his army of -60,000 men and 2000 officers. He was a better judge probably of their -manœuvres. He says that the soldiers went through their exercises with -a degree of expertness he had seldom before witnessed. At the signal of -a whistle, a whole brigade ran three or four hundred yards, and then -separating, threw themselves on the ground, keeping up a heavy fire -from every kind of position. The complete subordination and discipline -astonished him. - -Rigaud having evidently decided to carry out General Hédouville’s -instructions and defy both Toussaint and Roume, it became necessary to -subdue him. Ten thousand men were collected at Port-au-Prince, whilst -Rigaud concentrated his army at Miragoâne, and commenced the war by -seizing Petit Goave, and there, without the slightest excuse, murdered -all the white inhabitants. It is singular to contrast the conduct of -the two generals: Toussaint, without the slightest prejudice of colour, -and Rigaud, the mulatto, the son of a Frenchman, showing “how he -hated his father and despised his mother” by murdering the whites and -refusing to obey a black. - -Roume published a proclamation, calling on the north and west to march -against the south to restore unity of command; but before entering on -the campaign, Toussaint had to return to the north to repress some -movements, and on his journey back almost fell into two ambuscades, -from which he was saved by the fleetness of his horse. Toussaint -shot those who were concerned in these conspiracies, whether black -or coloured; but the stories told by St. Remy of his ordering 180 -young mulatto children to be drowned at L’Arcahaye, is so contrary to -everything we know of his character, that we may set this fable down to -caste hatred. That he was severe with his enemies is no doubt true. - -Then began the wearisome civil war in the south by Dessalines driving -back Rigaud’s army, and by the siege of Jacmel, which lasted four -months. Pétion greatly distinguished himself in the defence, and -conducted the evacuation. It appears unaccountable that while the main -body of Toussaint’s army was thus engaged, Rigaud remained passive; it -can only be explained by mean jealousy, which was his characteristic to -the last year of his life. But his principal fault was jactancy, shown -by his proclamation, saying, “Let the enemy appear and I’ll slay them,” -which was answered by another from Toussaint offering pardon and peace. - -Toussaint’s army in the south was commanded by Dessalines and -Christophe, or, in other words, by two ferocious blacks, to whom pity -was unknown. Dessalines soon forced the strong position near Miragoâne, -and defeated Rigaud and Pétion, driving them before him towards Les -Cayes. Rigaud ordered his officers to burn and destroy everything in -their retreat, which naturally roused the inhabitants against these -measures of defence, and they became clamorous for peace. - -In the meantime the Consular Government at Paris sent out officers -to Hayti, among whom was Colonel Vincent. Toussaint was confirmed -in his position as General-in-Chief, but the war in the south was -disapproved. Colonel Vincent was enabled to tell him of all the changes -that had taken place in France, but the black chief could readily -see that he was suspected by the French Government. He, however, -sent Vincent and other officers to Les Cayes to offer peace. It is -amusing to read the account given of Rigaud. He went to see the French -officers, a blunderbuss on his shoulder, pistols in his belt, a sword -on one side and a dagger on the other. On hearing that his conduct did -not meet with the support of the French Government, he drew his dagger -as if to stab himself, but did not do so: he preferred making a truce -and embarking for France, together with his principal officers. - -Toussaint entered Les Cayes on the 1st August 1800, and showed the -grandeur of his character by implicitly carrying out his original -proclamation. He again proclaimed union and peace, and pardoned -all those who had been led into rebellion against him; and, to the -astonishment of his enemies, he kept his word and behaved with great -magnanimity. Even his worst opponents were then constrained to allow -that, when once given, he never broke his word. - -If Toussaint was clement, Dessalines was the reverse; and the mulattoes -declare that he killed upwards of ten thousand of their caste, which is -probably more of that colour than the southern province ever contained. - -Whilst this campaign was at its height, Roume committed the -indiscretion of trying to raise a revolt in Jamaica. His agents -were taken and hung; and as a punishment the English captured one of -Toussaint’s convoys destined for Jacmel. The General, very angry with -Roume, sent for him; he refused to come, upon which Toussaint went to -Cap Haïtien, and after reproaching him, insisted on his giving him an -order to invade the eastern end of the island. He refused at first, but -ultimately yielded to the menaces of General Moïse. - -When the southern campaign was over, Toussaint began to prepare for -the occupation of Santo Domingo, but finding that Roume was inclined -to withdraw his permission, he arrested him and sent him back to -France. Toussaint’s prestige was now so great in the island, that -little resistance was made, and he occupied the city of Santo Domingo -almost without a shot being fired, and established his brother Paul as -governor. - -The whole of the island being now under one chief, Toussaint decided -to put into execution a constitution which he had already promulgated. -It was certainly a model of liberality. It placed all colours equal -before the law; employments might be held by black, white, or coloured; -as much freedom of trade as possible; a governor to be named for five -years, but on account of the eminent services of Toussaint, he was to -occupy that post for life, with power to name his successor. He sent -this constitution to Buonaparte for approval; but evidently it was too -much or too little. Had he boldly proclaimed the independence of the -island, he might have saved the country from great misfortunes. - -Peace being now re-established over all the island, Toussaint began his -civil administration. All accounts are unanimous in declaring that he -himself governed admirably, but the instruments he had to employ were -too often utterly unworthy. He organised the country into districts, -and appointed inspectors to see that all returned to their work, and -decreed that a fifth of the produce should be given to the labourers. -Dessalines was appointed inspector-in-chief; and if a man without any -sentiment of humanity was required for that post, surely Dessalines -was a good choice, as he was ready to beat to death any man, woman, -or child whom he chose to accuse of idleness. Toussaint, looking to -difficulties ahead, continued to pay the greatest attention to his -army, organised it with care, and preserved the strictest discipline. -The stick appears to have been as popular in that day as it is now. - -Toussaint was very friendly to the whites, and was most anxious to -encourage them to aid in developing the country. This excited the -jealousy of some of his generals; among others, of Moïse, his nephew, -who to thwart his uncle’s projects incited a movement in the north -to massacre the French. Several having fallen victims, Toussaint -hastened to the spot, and finding that Moïse was the real instigator -of the murders, sent him before a court-martial. He was sentenced to -death, and very properly shot on the 26th November 1800. Had Toussaint -connived at these crimes, he would have upset all confidence in his -trusted word. - -All was now progressing on the island; the government was regularly -administered, the finances were getting into order, and agriculture -was beginning to raise its head, when Buonaparte, having secured peace -in Europe, determined to recover the Queen of the Antilles and restore -slavery. The story of this attempt may be told in a few words. General -Leclerc started with 30,000 men to subdue the island, and although the -evident intention of the French Government was to restore slavery, -the principal mulatto officers accompanied him, chief among whom were -Rigaud, Pétion, and Vilatte. It is true the mulattoes had not yet -frankly accepted the full freedom of the blacks. - -General Leclerc did all he could to cause an armed resistance, as a -peaceful solution would have given him no military glory; therefore, -instead of sending Toussaint his children and the letter he bore from -Buonaparte, he tried to surprise Cap Haïtien. But General Christophe, -before retiring with its garrison, set fire to the town and almost -destroyed it; and Toussaint sent instructions to his other generals -to follow this example. Leclerc, mortified by the result of his first -attempt, now thought of writing to Toussaint, and sent him his two -boys. Toussaint behaved with great nobility of character, and asked -naturally, “Why words of peace but acts of war?” Finding that he could -not circumvent his black opponent, Leclerc published a decree in -February 1802 placing both Toussaint and Christophe “hors la loi.” This -was followed by the burning of the towns of St. Marc and Gonaives, and -a retreat of the black troops towards the interior. - -Whenever you see a fortress in Hayti, you are sure to be told that -it was built by the English; among others thus known was La Crête à -Pierrot. The French general Debelle, treating with contempt these negro -troops, attacked this fort with an inefficient force and was beaten; -then Leclerc made an assault in person, but he also was beaten, and was -forced to lay siege to it. The attack and defence were conducted with -singular courage, particularly the latter, considering the quality of -the men, who had never before been measured with real white troops: -however, after having repulsed several assaults, the garrison evacuated -the forts. Pétion commanded a portion of the French artillery in this -attack on his countrymen struggling for freedom. If he loved France but -little, he hated Toussaint more. - -Even the enemies of the great black general are full of admiration of -the courage displayed by him during all this important struggle, and -especially dwell on his devotion to his wounded officers. I may here -remark that the French general Rochambeau distinguished himself for -his cruelties, and shot every prisoner that fell into his hands; which -fully justified the retaliation of the Haytians. - -Discouraged by a series of reverses which followed the loss of La Crête -à Pierrot, where it was amply proved that the negro soldiers, even -among their mountains, were no match for the disciplined troops of -France, some of the black generals, as Christophe, began to make terms -with the French; and Toussaint, finding himself thus abandoned, wrote -to Leclerc offering submission. As it was accepted, he went to Cap -Haïtien to meet the commander-in-chief, and was received and treated -with much distinction. He then returned to the village of Marmalade, -and there issued orders to all his officers to cease opposition -and acknowledge the French authorities, and peace was established -throughout the island. - -General Leclerc was but temporising with these black leaders; his -secret orders were, not only to arrest Toussaint, Dessalines, and -Christophe, but to re-establish slavery. He found, however, the -last two so zealous in carrying out his instructions to disarm the -population, that he preserved them in their commands. - -Toussaint himself, having ever kept his word, could not believe that -the French commander-in-chief would not keep his, and therefore, in -spite of all warnings that treachery was meditated, stayed quietly on -his estate at Ennery. He there received a letter from General Brunet, -asking for an interview at a certain spot; Toussaint went, and was -immediately arrested under circumstances of the greatest treachery. He -was bound with ropes and embarked on board the French ship “Creole;” -then put on board the “Héros” with all his family and sent to France. -When received on board by Savary, Chef de Division, he said to him, “En -me renversant on n’a abattu à Saint Domingue que le tronc de l’arbre -de la liberté des noirs; il repoussera, parceque les racines en sont -profondes et nombreuses.” When reading this account of the capture of -Toussaint, we can scarcely credit that we are recording the acts of -French officers, whose plighted word was thus broken.[5] - -On Toussaint’s arrival in France he wrote to the French Chief Consul; -but he might as well have written to Dessalines as expect either mercy -or justice from the despot who then ruled France. He was separated -from his family and hurried off to the Château de Joux in the Alps, -where his rival Rigaud was already confined. Here he died from cold -and neglect, under circumstances which raised the suspicion that the -close of this illustrious life was hastened by unfair means. It is -some satisfaction to think that his executioner died also a prisoner -in exile, though surrounded by every comfort that the generous English -Government could afford him. - -We have all heard or read something of Toussaint L’Ouverture, and been -taught to think well of him: I was therefore the more surprised, on -my arrival at Port-au-Prince, to hear his memory so depreciated. I -do not remember any Haytian having voluntarily spoken of him, though -they never wearied of talking of Dessalines, Christophe, and Rigaud. I -at first thought that Toussaint never having unnecessarily shed white -blood, whilst the others may be said to have rejoiced at the sight of -it, was one of the chief causes; but the real reason why the historians -and biographers of Hayti would lower Toussaint’s memory is the energy -with which he acted against the rebellious mulattoes, and his firm -determination that all colours should be equally respected by the law, -and that all should have equal rights. - -It is impossible not to be struck with almost the unanimous opinion -favourable to Toussaint which has been recorded by all parties, even by -his enemies. The Marquis d’Hermonas says that “God in this terrestrial -globe could not commune with a purer spirit;” the French general -Pamphile Lacroix records that “Nul n’osait l’aborder sans crainte, et -nul ne le quittait sans respect.” We have seen the opinion of Roume and -Rainsford, that Toussaint was “a philosopher, a legislator, a general, -and a good citizen,” and that the latter was compelled to admire him as -“a man, a governor, and a general.” - -He was personally brave, and being a splendid rider, loving from his -earliest childhood to be on horseback, he never appeared fatigued -even after the greatest exertions. As a general he is thought to have -shown much skill; and, what proves his sense, but does not add to his -popularity among Haytians, he did not believe that his men were fitted -to cope with the trained bands of France. He constantly said that they -must trust to climate and yellow fever as their best allies. As an -administrator he had much capacity, and his influence being unbounded, -he would probably have restored its old prosperity to Hayti, had not -Leclerc’s expedition arrived to throw the whole island into confusion. - -Toussaint’s personal qualities appear to have been equal to his -public: his word was sacred, he was humane on most occasions, yet with -a firmness and decision which astonished his enemies. In his family -relations he showed the most tender affection for wife and children; -his fine nature was apparent on all occasions in his solicitude for his -wounded officers and soldiers, and the thoughtful care of the prisoners -that fell into his hands. His affectionate treatment of animals was -also greatly noticed, and whenever he came upon fugitive women and -children of any colour, his first thought was for their comfort. - -Our Consul-General Mackenzie (1827) often talked to the black officers -of Toussaint; they described him as stern and unbending, but just, -and intimately acquainted with the habits of the people and the best -interests of his country. - -The one mistake of his life appears to have been his refusal, when -urged to do so by England, to declare the independence of Hayti. Had -he accepted the English proposals and entered into a treaty with us and -with the Americans, it is not likely that Buonaparte would have ever -attempted an expedition against him, and the history of Hayti might -have been happier. - -There is one fact which strikes the reader of the histories of -these times, and that is, the soldiers are described as veritable -_sans-culottes_, without pay and without proper uniforms, and yet all -the chiefs, as Toussaint, Dessalines, and Christophe, were living in -splendid houses in the greatest luxury. Toussaint is recorded to have -lent the French Treasury 600,000 livres, an enormous sum for a slave to -possess after a few years of freedom. Gragnon-Lacoste, who published -a Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture in 1877, founded on family papers, -says that this general had a marble house in Cap Haïtien, elegantly -furnished, and that he kept up the same style in all his plantations. -His descendants in late years claimed about the fourth of Hayti as the -estates of the black general.[6] - -Toussaint was also a fervent Roman Catholic, and was greatly attached -to the priesthood; he did all he could to repress the Vaudoux, and he -published a strong proclamation forbidding all fetish rites.[7] - -The treachery of Leclerc towards Toussaint had its reward; it could -not but excite suspicion among the black leaders, as the previous -deportation of Rigaud had done among the mulattoes. And now the most -fearful epidemic of yellow fever fell upon the French army, and -almost annihilated it. Forty thousand are reported to have been lost -during the years 1802 and 1803: among the victims were Leclerc and -twenty other French generals. The Haytians saw their opportunity, and -Dessalines, Christophe, and Pétion abandoned the invaders, and roused -their countrymen to expel the weak remnants of the French army. War had -now been declared between France and England, and our fleets were soon -off the coasts. The French were driven from every point, and forced to -concentrate in Cap Haïtien. Rochambeau, who had succeeded Leclerc, did -all that man could do to save his army; but besieged by the blacks to -the number of 30,000, and blockaded by our fleet, pinched by hunger, -and seeing no hopes of reinforcements, he surrendered to the English -and embarked for Europe. - -Thus ended one of the most disastrous expeditions ever undertaken by -France, and ended as it deserved to end. Its history was sullied by -every species of treachery, cruelty, and crime; but we cannot but -admire the splendid bravery of the troops under every discouragement, -in a tropical climate, where the heat is so great that the European -is unfitted for continued exertion, but where yellow fever and death -follow constant exposure. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -HISTORY SINCE INDEPENDENCE. - - -“Que deviendra notre pays quand il sera livré à la vanité et à -l’ignorance,” exclaimed Bauvais, one of the leaders of the mulatto -party. I am afraid this sketch of the history of Hayti since the war of -independence will show what are the results to a country when governed -by vanity and ignorance. - -Having driven out the French by deeds of unquestioned valour and -energy, and with a cruelty which the infamous conduct of Rochambeau -could palliate, if not justify, the Haytians determined to throw off -all allegiance to France and establish an independent government. - -At Gonaives, on the 1st January 1804, General Dessalines assembled -all his military chiefs around him and had read to them the Act -of Independence, which terminated with the words, “for ever to -renounce France, and to die rather than live under her dominion.” In -a proclamation, Dessalines was careful to declare that it was not -their mission to disturb the tranquillity of neighbouring islands, -but in unmistakable language he called upon them to put to death -every Frenchman who remained in the island. This was followed by -a declaration signed by the chief generals choosing Dessalines as -Governor-General of Hayti for life, with power to name his successor, -and to make peace or war. He was thus invested with arbitrary power, -and proceeded to exercise it. - -His first act was the one on which his fame rests, and which endears -his memory to the Haytians. He in fact decreed that all the French -who were convicted or suspected of having connived at the acts of -the expelled army, with the exception of certain classes, as priests -and doctors, should be massacred; and this applied not only to those -suspected of guilt, but to all their wives and children. Fearing that -some of his generals, from interest or humanity, might not fully carry -out his decree, he made a _tournée_ through the different departments, -and pitilessly massacred every French man, woman, or child that -fell in his way. One can imagine the saturnalia of these liberated -slaves enjoying the luxury of shedding the blood of those in whose -presence they had formerly trembled; and this without danger; for what -resistance could those helpless men, women, and children offer to their -savage executioners? Even now one cannot read unmoved the records of -those days of horror. - -Dessalines, like most of those who surrounded him, was in every way -corrupt; he is said to have spared no man in his anger or woman in his -lust. He was avaricious, but at the same time he permitted his friends -to share in the public income by every illicit means. His government -was indeed so corrupt, that even the native historians allow that the -administration was distinguished “for plunder, theft, cheating, and -smuggling.” Dessalines, when he appointed an employé, used to say, -“Plumez la poule, mais prenez garde qu’elle ne crie,”--the rule by -which the Government service is still regulated. - -The tyranny exercised by Dessalines and his generals on all classes -made even the former slaves feel that they had changed for the worse. -There were no courts to mitigate the cruelty of the hard taskmasters, -who on the slightest pretext would order a man or woman to be beaten to -death. - -In the month of August 1804 news arrived that Buonaparte had raised -himself to the imperial throne; Dessalines determined not to be -behindhand, and immediately had himself crowned Emperor. His generals -were eager that a nobility should be created, but he answered, “I am -the only noble in Hayti.” As the eastern portion of the island was -still occupied by the French, he determined to drive them out; but he -was unable to take the city of Santo Domingo, and retired again to the -west. - -In June 1805 he published a constitution, which was worked out -without consulting his generals, and created discontent among them. A -conspiracy was organised; a rising in the south followed a visit from -Dessalines, where he had given full scope to his brutality, and the -insurgents marched forward and seized Port-au-Prince. When the Emperor -heard of this movement, he hastened to the capital, fell into an -ambuscade, and was shot at Pont Rouge, about half a mile from the city. - -The only good quality that Dessalines possessed was a sort of brute -courage: in all else he was but an African savage, distinguished even -among his countrymen for his superior ferocity and perfidy. He was -incapable as an administrator, and treated the public revenue as his -own private income. He had concubines in every city, who were entitled -to draw on the treasury to meet their extravagance; in fact, the native -historians are in truth utterly ashamed of the conduct and civil -administration of their national hero. - -The death of Dessalines proved the signal of a long civil war. A -National Assembly met at Port-au-Prince, voted a constitution prepared -by General Pétion, by which the power of the chief of the state was -reduced to a minimum, and then elected Christophe as first President of -the republic. He in some respects was another Dessalines, and resented -this effort to restrain his authority. He marched on the capital of -the west with twelve thousand men, but after various combats failed -to capture the city; then retired to Cap Haïtien, and there had a -constitution voted which proclaimed him President of Hayti. - -The Senate again met in Port-au-Prince in 1806 to elect a President, -and their choice fell on Pétion, who, of all the influential men in -the west and south, certainly appeared the most deserving. He had -scarcely been installed, when his generals began to conspire against -him, and the war with Christophe absorbed most of the resources of the -country. No event, however, of any great importance occurred till the -year 1810, when Rigaud, having escaped from France, arrived in Hayti, -and was received with much enthusiasm. Pétion apparently shared this -feeling for his old chief, and imprudently gave him the command of the -southern department. Rigaud was too vain to remain under the authority -of Pétion, his former subordinate, and therefore separated the south -from the west. The President would not attempt to prevent this by war, -and accepted the situation, so that the island was divided into five -states,--Christophe in the north, the old Spanish colony in the east, -Pétion in the west, Rigaud in the south, and Goman, a petty African -chief, in the extreme west of the southern department. - -Christophe in 1811 proclaimed himself King and created a nobility. -Rigaud died, and soon after the south rejoined the west, which was -menaced by a new invasion from the north. In 1812 Christopher’s -army advanced to besiege Port-au-Prince; but finding their attacks -frustrated, the soldiers, weary of the war, began to desert to Pétion, -and had not the King hastened to raise the siege, it is probable his -army would have gone over to the enemy. - -King Henry I., as he was called, appears then to have abandoned himself -to his savage temper, and his cruelties might be compared to those of -Dessalines, and prepared the way for that union of the whole island -which followed. Pétion, though rather an incapable ruler, was not -cruel, and attached the people to his government. - -In 1814, the fall of Napoleon brought about peace in Europe, and -the French Government hastened to send agents to Hayti to claim -submission to the mother country. Pétion refused, whilst offering an -indemnity to the colonists; but Christophe, having secured the secret -instructions of the French agent, did not hesitate to execute them. -These proceedings of the French made the rival chiefs forget their own -dissensions and prepare to receive another French expedition. Orders -were given that on its appearance off the coast every town and village -should be burnt down, and that the inhabitants should retire to the -mountains. The old planters were urging their Government to destroy all -the inhabitants of Hayti and repeople it from Africa; but a discovery -of their projects produced so great an effect in England, that public -opinion forced the Congress of Vienna to declare that the slave-trade -was for ever abolished. - -In 1816 Pétion named a commission to revise the constitution; the -principal alterations were to elect a President for life and to add to -the Senate a Chamber of Deputies. Pétion, however, did not long enjoy -his new dignity; he died in 1818, at the early age of forty-eight, it -is said of fever, but the opinion is still prevalent in Hayti that he -died of weariness of life, brought on by the loss of all his illusions -and the constant public and private annoyances to which he was subject. -During his illness he is said to have refused all restoratives, and -even to have rejected food. Pétion, though not a great man, sincerely -loved his country, and devoted his energies to govern it well; but he -was feeble in his measures, and from love of popularity allowed every -kind of abuse to flourish in the financial administration. M. Robin, -however, says truly that he was “the most popular and humane chief that -Hayti ever possessed.” - -Boyer, through the energetic intervention of the military, was -unanimously chosen by the Senate President of the republic, and -commenced his long career as chief of the state in March 1818. Though -he committed many faults, he appears to have been the most energetic -and honest of the series of Haytian rulers. His first care was to -establish order in the finances; and if his only errors were not to -have erected a statue to his predecessor or founded an hospital for -beggars, with which M. Robin appears to reproach him, his friends -may still be permitted to admire him. Fortune, or rather his energy, -everywhere favoured him. In 1819 he put down the long-neglected -insurrection of Goman in the far west, and then prepared to move -against King Henry, whose savage rule had alienated the affection even -of his own guards. Struck down by apoplexy, the chief of the northern -department was deserted by all, and sought refuge from anticipated -indignities in suicide. - -The north almost unanimously determined to rejoin the rest of the -republic, and Boyer marched on Cap Haïtien, to be received there with -enthusiasm as the first President of United Hayti. - -Christophe was no doubt a very remarkable man, with indomitable energy, -who saw the necessity of developing his country, but whose despotic -nature cared not for the means, so that the end were attained. In spite -of many admitted atrocities, however, there is no doubt he acquired -a marked ascendancy over the minds of the people, which even to this -day is not completely lost. Discussions still continue as to the -rival systems of Pétion and Christophe, but if to secure the greatest -happiness to the greatest number be the object of government, the -_laisser-aller_ system of the former was more suited to Haytian nature -than the severity of the latter. As far as material prosperity was -concerned, there was no comparison between the two departments, though -the productiveness of the north was founded on the liberal application -of the stick. On many of the large estates, a certain number of lashes -was served out every morning as regularly as the rations. - -Boyer’s fortune continued. In 1822 Santo Domingo separated from Spain -and placed herself under the command of the President of Hayti, who was -welcomed in the Dominican capital with every demonstration of joy. - -In the next important event of his Presidency, Boyer was not so -fortunate. From the year 1814 France had been continually tormenting -the Governments of Hayti with the claims of her colonists, and -negotiations were carried on by the two parties without much success -till 1825, when Baron de Mackau was sent with a fleet to enforce the -acceptance of French terms. Though the wording of the royal ordinance -was mortifying to the Haytians, and the indemnity demanded (£6,000,000) -out of the power of that little country to pay, yet Boyer and the -senate thought it better to acquiesce, to avoid the evils of a blockade -which would have followed refusal. The indemnity was so enormous, that -although it was subsequently reduced to £3,600,000, it has not yet -been completely discharged. The terms of the royal ordinance created -great indignation amongst the people, and the French Government acting -evasively added to the excitement, and a plot was formed to overthrow -Boyer. But he showed his usual energy; arrested four conspirators -and sent them before a court-martial, which, with thorough Haytian -disregard of justice, allowed no defence, as a pure waste of time, and -condemned them to death. They were shot under circumstances of even -unusual barbarity. - -These negotiations with France continued to unsettle the country -until 1838. M. Dupetit Thomars had come to Port-au-Prince, and being -convinced that Hayti was really unable to pay this great indemnity, -induced his Government to reconsider the matter; and a fresh mission -was sent, consisting of Baron de Lascases and Captain Baudin. Two -treaties were negotiated--one political, by which France acknowledged -the complete independence of the republic; the second financial, -by which the balance to be paid of the indemnity was reduced to -£2,400,000. As thirty years were allowed for this payment, in annual -instalments on an average of £80,000, no doubt Hayti could have paid -it had the country remained quiet. The acknowledgment of this debt, -however, was seized on by the political enemies of Boyer to undermine -his position, and the cry was raised that he had sold the country to -the whites. The continued necessity of sending French naval expeditions -to enforce the payment of the arrears of this debt has been injurious -to the interests of all Europeans, has increased the unpopularity of -foreigners, and helped to support the policy of those who wish to keep -the white man out of the country. Among the people, the popular song - - “Blancs français viennent demander l’argent” - -implies that they have unfairly made use of their naval power in order -to extract money which was not due to them from a people incapable of -effectual resistance. This wretched debt to France has been the cause -of half the misfortunes of Hayti. - -The Government of General Boyer had certainly the merit of preserving -tranquillity, and if ever population should have increased in Hayti, -it was during this tranquil epoch, when for above twenty years no -blood was shed in warlike operations, and very little in repressing -conspiracies. In 1825 England formally acknowledged the republic of -Hayti by entering into relations with her, sending Mr. Mackenzie as -Consul-General. His reports and writings drew considerable attention to -the country. - -In March 1836 Dr. England negotiated a concordat by which the Pope was -acknowledged head of the Haytian Church, with the power of confirming -the nomination of bishops. However, this arrangement had little -practical effect, as the clergy remained without control, and were a -scandal to every true Catholic. - -I am quite unable to reconcile the reports made of the state of affairs -in Hayti at this time. After a twenty years’ peace, the country is -described as in a state of ruin, without trade or resources of any -kind; with peculation and jobbery paramount in all the public offices; -an army supposed to consist of 45,000 men, according to the budget; in -reality few soldiers, but many officers, among whom the appropriations -were divided. I feel as if I were reading of more modern times instead -of the halcyon days of Haytian history. - -Another of the evils which arose from the indemnity question was the -special position which it gave to French agents, who, even after the -independence of the republic had been recognised, affected to treat -Hayti as a dependency until all the debt should have been paid. The -most pretentious of these agents at this time threw the whole country -into commotion on account of an article in a newspaper, and continued -to harass the Government on every possible occasion with his absurd -pretensions. - -The close of Boyer’s career was as unfortunate as its commencement -had been the reverse. To the humiliations inflicted by the French -Consul-General was now added the necessity of saluting the Spanish -flag under threat of bombardment. Throughout Haytian history these -affairs are continually recurring; no people are more ready to insult -foreigners, nor more humiliated by the necessary reparation. - -The greatest calamity, however, was the earthquake of 1842, which -injured every city in the northern department, and almost annihilated -Cap Haïtien. I have referred to this event in a previous chapter, when -the peasantry from the plains and mountains, and the officers and -soldiers of the garrison, vied with each other in plundering the city, -whilst 5000 of their countrymen were buried in the ruins, the cries of -many of whom could for days be heard imploring that help which could -readily have been afforded, but whose supplications were unheeded by -the brutal populace. - -This calamity in the north was followed by another in Port-au-Prince, -where a large portion of the city was burnt down. These extensive fires -appear to be incendiary, as they almost always occur at moments of -political disturbance. - -The humiliations inflicted on President Boyer by the French and -Spaniards, and the discontent that followed the great losses in the -northern department, encouraged the ill-affected, and early in 1843 -an insurrection broke out under Hérard-Rivière, a fair mulatto. After -a brief show of resistance, Boyer abdicated in March, thus closing a -Presidency of twenty-five years. - -General Boyer showed considerable talent during his administration, -but he was essentially narrow-minded, and full of prejudice against -foreigners. During the last ten years of his rule he had conceived the -project of expelling them from Hayti in a legal manner by refusing -any fresh licenses to trade; but though he in some measure succeeded, -he increased the discontent against him, as his countrymen are only -capable of conducting with success a retail business, and require -foreigners for the larger operations of commerce. Boyer had the rare -quality of being honest, and left in the treasury, on his departure, -the sum of £200,000, the first and last chief who was ever guilty of -so unaccountable a weakness. His time is still remembered as one of -repose, and the troubles which followed his departure soon made even -his enemies regret his fall. Her Majesty’s corvette “Scylla” had the -honour of conducting General Boyer and his family to Jamaica. It will -be noticed hereafter that almost every President has died prematurely, -or claimed the hospitality of a foreign ship of war to bear him into -exile. - -When the popular army entered Port-au-Prince, it was hailed as the -precursor of better days, but scarcely had a Provisional Government -been organised than the blacks began to conspire, as they wanted a -President of their own colour. General Dalzon went so far as to propose -that they should put to death every mulatto. However, the latter had -now the upper hand, and the general was taken, and disappeared from the -scene. - -The most serious result of the overthrow of General Boyer was the -separation of the eastern end of the island and its formation into a -distinct republic. The brutality of the Haytian officers and soldiers -who garrisoned that part of the country no doubt hastened this -secession. I have often listened to President Geffrard when he was -describing his own conduct and that of others towards the Dominicans, -and my only wonder is that they did not separate before. - -On December 30, 1843, the Constituent Assembly finished their new -constitution, and then elected General Hérard-Rivière President of -Hayti; contemporary accounts say “with much enthusiasm.” He soon -found it was not a bed of roses. M. Barrot arrived with the object of -obtaining a monopoly of the Haytian trade for France, by relieving -the Government of the immediate payment of the instalments due on the -indemnity. But the President was more anxious to subdue the Dominicans -than to negotiate, and on their proclaiming their independence in -February 1844, he collected an army, it is said of from 24,000 to -30,000 men, and marched to attack them. The numbers must be greatly -exaggerated; but whatever they were, they did nothing, and after many -skirmishes they only penetrated as far as Azua, and there the President -halted, complaining that he was harassed by French intrigues in favour -of the Dominicans. - -How Boyer must have smiled when he heard, within a twelvemonth of his -departure, that the Government of his successor was considered more -arbitrary and was more unpopular than his own. In April, after four -short months of power, Hérard-Rivière was deposed, amidst even greater -enthusiasm than marked his accession, and banished. General Guerrier -was elected in his place, and died after a twelvemonth of debauchery. -In his political acts he appears to have managed fairly well, and he -had to contend against the French agents, who were working for either a -protectorate, or, if that were not possible, commercial advantages for -their country. They made themselves so unpopular that their officers -and men were insulted in the streets, and their almost open support of -the Dominican revolt rendered them obnoxious to the Government. - -As the popular wish for a black President had been unmistakably -expressed at the election of Guerrier, an incapable black of the name -of Pierrot was chosen to succeed him; but his Government was upset -in less than a twelvemonth, and President Riché, another black, was -chosen by the troops at St. Marc, who did not wish to march against -the Dominicans (March 1, 1846). In almost every encounter the Haytian -troops were defeated by a handful of their enemies; they had no heart -in the war, and the exaggerated stories of the peculiarly objectionable -mutilations from which their prisoners suffered, and the arrival of -some of these unfortunates, spread a panic in the Haytian army, and -they would not march! - -Riché has left a very good reputation as a President, which may -partly be accounted for by his judicious choice of ministers. He -had Celigny-Ardruin and Dupuy among them, and both these men were -considered capable administrators, and both will again appear upon the -scene. - -The black mob in the south rose in arms against Riché, but after some -resistance the movement was suppressed. Unfortunately for the country, -this Presidency did not last a twelvemonth, as Riché died on the 27th -February 1847. He was sincerely regretted, as, although an ignorant -man, he was capable of choosing good advisers. He left the country -perfectly tranquil, with reduced expenditure, order in the finances, -and his firm hand had been felt throughout the republic. He protected -foreigners, without whom he saw there was no prosperity possible. -During the time of Guerrier and Pierrot there was a perfect mania for -public employment, and every officer appeared to wish to live in luxury -at the expense of the state; but Riché’s prudent management checked -this infatuation. His Government restored the constitution of 1816, -which, though it included Article 7, directed against foreigners -acquiring real property, yet assured freedom of worship. He too is said -to have died at an advanced age from the effects of debauchery. - -On March 2 the enlightened Ministers of the late General Riché chose -as President of the republic a black captain of the guards of the name -of Soulouque. He was an ignorant, stupid man, completely unfit for any -public employment, but it is said that he was chosen as an instrument -that could be easily handled by his Ministers. He was known to be given -up to fetish worship, and soon after his election he began to fear -that some _wanga_ or poison might be given him. He put aside Riché’s -Ministers, to supply their place with nonentities, and advanced to the -first rank the most ignorant blacks of the army. He excited hatred -against the men of colour, whom he feared for their intelligence; but, -alarmed by his growing unpopularity, he dismissed his incapables and -restored Dupuy and others to power. - -Soulouque had placed in command of his guards a general of the name -of Similien, who was the black the most notorious for his hatred of -the mulattoes that he could find. During the absence of the President -in the north, this man refused to obey the orders of the Government, -seized the palace, and threatened to massacre the mulattoes, but this -result was deferred for a short time. - -A curious affair occurred towards the end of 1847. A senator of the -name of Courtois had written an article in a newspaper at which the -President took offence; though Courtois was a scurrilous writer who -had been previously tried for an insolent article, but who had been -triumphantly acquitted when it was found he only insulted the foreign -community, and had on this last occasion written some reasonable -comments on the attitude assumed by General Similien and his followers. -The Senate, to please the President, sentenced Courtois to a month’s -imprisonment. But when Soulouque heard of this, he went into one of his -ungovernable passions, assembled his generals, called out his troops, -and condemned Courtois to death, and ordered the immediate execution of -the culprit. The sentence would certainly have been carried into effect -had not our agents, Consul Ussher, Vice-Consul Wyke, and the French -Consul-General Raybaud interfered, and persuaded Soulouque to pardon -him; he was, however, banished. And Senator Courtois, who owed his life -to foreigners, had spent his best energies in abusing them! - -Throughout the spring of 1848 an uneasy feeling appears to have -pervaded the country that some calamity was about to take place. On -the 9th April the rabble assembled round the palace and demanded that -the respectable Ministry then in power should be dismissed. As this -movement was evidently encouraged by Soulouque, they resigned; but -all were assembled at the palace on the 16th April, when suddenly the -guards, who had been drawn up before it, opened fire upon the crowd -in the galleries and rooms, and a _sauve qui peut_ followed. General -Dupuy told me that in a moment he comprehended that a massacre of the -mulattoes was meant; he sprang on a horse, and dashed for the high iron -railings that surrounded the palace gardens, jumped down, and although -closely pursued, managed to get over these high rails, how he knew not, -and escaped. Celigny-Ardruin, less fortunate, was severely wounded, and -as he lay on a sofa was reviled by the President, who said he should be -shot. Consul Ussher was present in the palace during this scene, and -acted admirably, with his colleague of France, in trying to save those -who had not been able to put themselves under their direct protection. -He ran the greatest personal dangers, and narrowly escaped being shot -by the excited soldiery. - -From the palace the massacring passed on to the town, where every -mulatto who showed himself was shot; many assembled in groups to defend -themselves, but only hastened their fate, whilst hundreds ran for -refuge to the Consulates. The news spread to the southern department, -and murder and plunder followed in every district, and the property -of the mulattoes was given to the flames. A few black generals who -tried to preserve order were shot as accomplices of the mulattoes in -their supposed conspiracy. The President was delighted with the energy -of his supporters in the south, and went in person to thank them. On -his return he pardoned six innocent men, and thus gained a little -popularity among his cowed adversaries. It is pleasant to know how our -acting Consul Wyke worked to save those menaced with death. But even -he had little influence over the faithless President, who would grant -a pardon at his intercession, and then shoot the pardoned prisoner. -After General Desmaril and Edmond Felix had been executed in 1849 in -the market-place, and died after receiving twenty discharges, Soulouque -went with his staff to inspect their mangled bodies and gloat over the -scene. Naturally Celigny-Ardruin did not escape; he was shot, but Wyke -was enabled to save many others and send them out of the country. In -fact, the chiefs of the mulatto party who escaped death had all to go -into exile. - -In January 1849, I may notice, Soulouque had abolished the Ministry -and named as Secretary-General Dufrène, and as Minister of Finance -Salomon, the present President of Hayti; and in April, invigorated by -his massacre of the mulattoes, invaded Santo Domingo with a numerous -army. He had some success at Azua and St. Jean, but he was surprised -at Ocoa by General Santana, and the whole Haytian army fled before 500 -Dominicans. And these were the descendants of the men who fought so -bravely against the French. It was after this defeat that Soulouque -returned to his capital, and, full of anger at his discomfiture, -committed the judicial murders previously recorded. - -All black chiefs have a hankering after the forms as well as the -substance of despotic power, and Soulouque was no exception to the -rule. He therefore decided to follow in the footsteps of Dessalines, -and was elected Emperor, August 26, 1849. A fresh constitution was -naturally required, and this was a strange medley of republican and -aristocratic institutions. Soulouque did not disappoint his generals, -and created a nobility: four princes and fifty-nine dukes headed the -list, to be followed by innumerable marquises, counts, and barons. This -contented the chiefs, and quiet reigned for a short time. - -In 1850, England, France, and the United States united to oppose -diplomatically the war with Santo Domingo; during these long -negotiations the Haytian Government appeared influenced by the -conviction that to concede independence to Santo Domingo would -introduce the foreign element into the island, and, by the development -of the eastern province, end in robbing Hayti of its independence. A -year’s truce was obtained, however, in October 1851. The negotiations -were admirably conducted by our agent, Consul-General Ussher. One of -the difficulties against which the diplomatists had to contend was -the personal feelings of the Emperor, which had been outraged by the -Dominicans calling him a _rey de farsa_, an _opera bouffé_ king. There -is no doubt but that they really did look for assistance abroad, owing -to the poverty of the country arising from their eight years’ war -with Hayti, and the internal dissensions which always follow national -financial pressure. - -On the 18th April 1852 Soulouque was crowned Emperor under the -title of Faustin I. He had no fear of exciting discontent by lavish -expenditure. He paid £2000 for his crown, and spent £30,000 for the -rest of the paraphernalia. He was liberal to his nobility, and had few -internal troubles after he shot his Grand Judge Francisque and four -companions for supposed conspiracy, and had condemned Prince Bobo for -some imprudent words. - -Soulouque, it is fair to say, gained the good opinion of many of our -countrymen on account of the protection which he generally accorded -to foreigners, and a supposed predilection for the English, which the -manly and conciliatory conduct of our agents had greatly fostered, -and which contrasted with that of the French agents, who brought a -fleet to Port-au-Prince under Admiral Duquesne to threaten to bombard -the capital (1853). No events occurred worthy of record, except the -interminable negotiations to induce the Emperor to conclude peace with -Santo Domingo, which occupied 1853 and 1854. - -The year 1855 was enlivened by a very comic quarrel between the Haytian -Government and the Spanish agent. The Emperor had decided that every -one that passed the palace should show his respect for his office by -raising his hat. It appears that a Spanish employé did not observe this -formality, and was stopped by the guard, who insisted on his complying -with it. The Emperor, attracted by the altercation, put his head out of -a window of the palace and cried, “Qui moun-ça sacré f---- blanc qui -veut pas saluer mon palais, f----?” The Spaniard had a long discussion -with the Haytian Foreign Office, and would not accept the denial by the -Emperor of his having used these words--in fact, there was much ado -about nothing. - -In spite of all the efforts of the foreign agents, Soulouque -in December 1855 marched with all his forces to attack the -Dominicans--those under his personal command numbering, it is said, -15,000 men. But in January 1856 he was disgracefully beaten by the -enemy. His troops fled at the first volley, and losing their way in the -woods, fell into the hands of their enemies, who did not spare them. -The Emperor, furious at his defeat, shot several superior officers for -treachery or cowardice, and then returned with the remains of his army -to his capital, where he was received in mournful silence, amid the -scarcely-concealed murmurs of the people; the muttered curses of the -women at the loss of their relatives being particularly remarked. - -This dissatisfaction could not escape the notice of the Emperor, and to -assuage his outraged feelings he shot sixteen men in Les Cayes, amid -such circumstances of barbarity that even Haytians of all classes were -moved by feelings of indignation and disgust. But Soulouque cared not; -he shot three more and condemned above fifty to his dungeons, where -little more was heard of them; in fact, they are said to have been -beaten or starved to death. - -After renewed efforts on the part of foreign agents, a truce of two -years was negotiated with Santo Domingo. The fall of the empire was -now a mere matter of time. The people were disgusted with the losses -incurred during the last invasion of the eastern province, which had -been more disastrous than all the former attacks; the finances were in -the greatest disorder; peculation and pillage were the order of the -day; a great incendiary fire in Port-au-Prince occurred in 1857, and -in 1858 heavy commercial failures followed a wild speculation in bills -and coffee. Discontent was rife, and all turned their eyes to General -Geffrard as the only man that could rescue them from this disastrous -condition of affairs. He had gained great popularity in the army -during the last invasion, when he commanded the rear-guard, and it was -acknowledged that his bravery and devotion had saved the remnants of -the troops from destruction. The Haytians had had four black rulers in -succession, and thought they could not be less prosperous under the -rule of an intelligent mulatto. - -The Emperor kept a watch on Geffrard, but he behaved with so much -prudence that there was no excuse to imprison him. At last, in December -1858, the order for his arrest was given; but warned by a friend, he -embarked during the night in an open boat with a few followers, and on -his arrival at the town of Gonaives proclaimed the deposition of the -Emperor and the re-establishment of the republic. He was received “with -enthusiasm,” and in a few days all the north and north-west adhered to -the revolution, and he began his march on Port-au-Prince with an army -of about 6000 men. - -On hearing of this insurrection, the Emperor moved out to meet his -opponent, but with only 3000 discontented men, who, after a skirmish -with the insurgents, retreated, and Soulouque re-entered Port-au-Prince -with his forces reduced by desertion to 1500. Finding that the whole -country had declared against him, the Emperor abdicated on the 15th -January 1859, and retired for safety to the French Legation. - -On his first arrival on the 10th, Soulouque, furious with his rival, -ordered Madame Geffrard and her daughters to be put to death, but -yielded to the intercession of our agents. However, the populace of all -colours were so united against the ex-Emperor and some of his chiefs, -that fears were entertained that they would break into the French -Legation and kill all the refugees. The attitude of the tumultuous -crowd became so menacing, and the indifference of the Haytian guard so -marked, that M. Mellines appealed to our acting Consul-General Byron -for protection. - -Hearing of the danger to which all foreigners were exposed in -Port-au-Prince, the captain of an English transport, the “Melbourne,” -with the consent of Captain M’Crea, who commanded a detachment of -artillery on board, steered for the capital and arrived at a critical -moment. Seeing that the French Legation was about to be invaded, Byron -took the bold resolution of calling on Captain M’Crea to land his -artillerymen and protect the refugees. This they did, and, strange -to say, the mob, instead of resenting this armed interference, were -delighted at the magnificent appearance of the men and their perfect -discipline, and cheered them more than ever they cheered one of their -own regiments. This movement saved the Emperor; he and his followers -were subsequently embarked on board the “Melbourne,” and followed Boyer -and Hérard-Rivière to Jamaica. - -Too much credit cannot be given to this bold proceeding of Mr. Byron -and of Captain M’Crea; it had an admirable effect, and for years after, -the landing of these fine men was a subject of conversation among the -people. All felt that more had been saved than the French Legation and -the lives of the refugees, as once pillage had commenced it would have -been difficult to prevent it spreading through the town. - -Thus closed the ignoble reign of Soulouque, one of the most -contemptible that ever existed even in Hayti. Peculation on the one -hand, and cruelty and cowardice on the other, marked almost every event -of these disastrous twelve years of misgovernment. - -When ignorance ceased to govern, vanity appeared to follow. Judging -after the events, it seems clear that General Geffrard might have -avoided many of the difficulties of his Presidency, had he called good -men to his councils and listened to their advice. He, however, would do -all himself, and treated his Ministers as if they were but head clerks. -He really thought he knew more than any of those who surrounded him, -and perhaps he did. - -The revolution was conducted with exemplary moderation, and the great -and small plunderers of the preceding reign succeeded in securing their -ill-gotten wealth; for though the properties of certain persons were -sequestrated, it had little practical effect. I have seen a trustworthy -paper of the amounts taken by the Emperor and his followers, and they -were so enormous as to surpass belief. - -Geffrard’s difficulties were great, as he had to conciliate the black -party and appoint as Ministers certain foremost generals of that -colour, and their ignorance and stupidity were almost beyond anything -that can be conceived; and this is the President’s best excuse for -having tried to govern himself. And yet the extreme section of the -party was not satisfied, and soon after Geffrard’s advent to power -began to conspire against him, and to raise the cry that he was about -to sell the country to the whites. As soon as a coloured chief shows -the slightest desire to modify any legislation hostile to foreigners, -this cry is raised, and prevents many improvements. - -To show of what a negro conspirator is capable, I must enter into a few -particulars of what was called the conspiracy of General Prophète. In -September of 1859, the year of Geffrard’s advent to power, a section -of the blacks determined to murder him. They knew that he was a most -affectionate father, and accustomed to visit every evening Madame -Blanfort, his newly-married daughter; they therefore laid an ambush -for him behind a ruined wall that skirted the street that led to -her house. The usual hour having passed for the evening visit, the -conspirators began to fear that their project might fail that night -and be discovered, so they moved quietly towards Madame Blanfort’s -residence, and looking through the window, saw the young bride seated -reading, evidently awaiting her father’s arrival. The conspirators held -a hurried consultation, and decided to murder the daughter, in the -expectation that Geffrard, on hearing what had occurred, would rush -out. They therefore returned to the window, and a negro named Sarron -raised his blunderbuss, fired at the girl, and killed her on the spot. -Geffrard heard the shot, and rushing to the palace door, would have -fallen into the ambush had not some friends seized and detained him. - -Fortunately these conspirators were as stupid as they were brutal, and -the whole of them were taken. The chief of the political conspiracy -was allowed to depart, whilst the others, to the number of sixteen, -were shot. It was stated at the time that too many suffered, but they -were all equally guilty, for although all had not been consulted as -to murdering the daughter, all meant to assassinate the father. These -conspirators were most of them aides-de-camp to the President, and -belonged to what are called the best families of the capital. What is a -President to do with such people? - -In March 1860 a concordat was signed with the See of Rome, an account -of which as amended is given in another chapter. In September there was -a fresh conspiracy to murder Geffrard, in which a man named Florosin -was implicated, and therefore the plot was called after him. In the -following year Hayti reaped the fruit of her obstinacy in refusing -to acknowledge the independence of the eastern province. Discouraged -by the continual state of tension in their relations with the black -republic, the Dominicans decided to return to their allegiance to -Spain, and in March 1861 Santo Domingo was declared a Spanish colony, -with the Dominican General Santana as first Governor-General. Geffrard -thus found himself face to face with a new danger, as every question -remained unsettled, including the important one of boundaries. - -The annexation to Spain had been brought about by Santana and his -party, but was opposed by another faction, who crossed over into -Hayti, and there being secretly furnished with arms and money by the -authorities, invaded the Spanish colony and commenced a guerilla -warfare. They were beaten, and twenty-one being taken, were summarily -shot by Santana. - -Proofs having then been obtained of the complicity of the Haytian -Government in this movement, Spain determined to punish these -intermeddlers. A fleet was sent to Port-au-Prince, with orders to -demand an indemnity of £40,000, to be paid in forty-eight hours, and a -salute which was not to be returned. The money was not to be had at -so short a notice, and the discontented blacks threatened to upset the -Government and massacre the whites if a salute were fired first. - -At that time the chief representative of the foreign powers was -Mr. Byron, our acting Consul-General, and on him fell the sole -responsibility of effecting an amicable arrangement and preventing -the threatened bombardment. He saw the Spanish admiral Rubalcava, of -whom he ever spoke in the highest terms, explained the difficulties of -Geffrard’s position, and obtained important concessions--first, as to -the payment of the indemnity, which was ultimately reduced to £5000, -and, second, that the Haytian salute should be returned. He then went -to the palace, smiled at the fears of the rabble, and gave the resolute -advice to brave them and fire the salute. This was done, and all passed -off as well as he had predicted. Throughout their history, the Haytians -have been thus beholden to the agents of England and France. - -In November 1861, General Legros _père_ conspired to upset the -Government, but these mild plotters were only banished or imprisoned. -This abortive movement was followed (1862) by an attempted insurrection -of the Salomon family in the south. This conspiracy, the third in which -they were accused of being engaged, was a complete fiasco, but it cost -the lives of fourteen of their members. - -One of the promises made by the new Government was a reform in the -finances and a reduction of useless expenditure; but Geffrard’s -incapable or corrupt Ministers had not fulfilled that promise. The -Chambers were naturally curious as to the disappearance of millions -of dollars without any explanation being forthcoming, and forced two -incapables to resign, and General Dupuy, the Minister of Riché, was -summoned from London to take charge of the finances. He was a very -intelligent man, quite worthy of the post, and his appointment inspired -confidence; but the Opposition in the Chambers continued their attacks -on the Government, and at last Geffrard was forced to dissolve and -order fresh elections. There can be no doubt that so many abuses were -protected as to justify much discontent, but the Opposition might have -been more moderate considering the difficulties of the situation, the -insurrection in the east against the Spaniards, and the continued -conspiracies of the blacks. - -Geffrard and Dupuy were both anxious to modify Article 7 of the -constitution, aimed against foreigners, but the proposition was so -badly received that it was withdrawn. - -Another rising (May 1863) of the Legros family followed in Gonaives. -As they had been the principal instruments of the revolution in favour -of Geffrard, their defection can only be accounted for by unsatisfied -ambition and the desire to secure the spoils of office. It failed, and -eight were shot. - -In September 1863 Monseigneur Testard de Cosquer was named Archbishop -of Port-au-Prince. He was one of the most agreeable men I have ever -met, remarkably eloquent, and of fine presence; he did not, however, -arrive at the capital until June of the following year. Disgusted with -what was passing in his country, General Dupuy resigned his position -as Minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs, and was succeeded by M. -Auguste Elie, than whom a better choice could not have been made. - -The year 1864 was distinguished for its conspiracies. In May a Colonel -Narcisse denounced four coloured men of the best position in the -capital as being engaged in a plot. The proofs of an active conspiracy -were wanting. As I have given details of the trial in another chapter, -I need only say that they were condemned to death, but their sentence -was commuted at the intercession of the diplomatic corps. In July there -was a conspiracy at Cap Haïtien by General Longuefosse, but the people -not joining, he was taken and shot, with three of his companions. This -was followed by another, in which Salnave, afterwards a revolutionary -President of Hayti, first made his appearance in rather an interesting -manner. General Philippeaux, Minister of War, had been sent by Geffrard -to Cap Haïtien to restore order after Longuefosse’s abortive plot, when -a conspiracy was formed in an artillery corps to murder Philippeaux, -and Salnave was chosen to carry it into execution. One evening the -Minister of War was sitting playing cards in a verandah, when Salnave, -ensconced behind a neighbouring tree, raised his carbine and fired at -him; the ball struck Philippeaux above the temple and glanced off. Not -even the solid skull of a black could have resisted the bullet, had not -the Minister, at the moment when Salnave fired, slightly turned his -head. - -I may notice that in 1865 Spain abandoned Santo Domingo, and the -Dominican republic was restored. If ever the true history be written of -that temporary resuscitation of a colony, Spaniards themselves will be -astonished at the revelations of iniquity and fraud that brought about -the revolution against them. - -The year 1865 was an unfortunate one for Hayti. First a great fire -burnt down three hundred and fifty houses in the best part of the -capital; then there was a movement in the south; then one in the -north, where Salnave, invading that department from Santo Domingo, -found all ready to receive him. The regiments joined him or dispersed; -but the rapid movement of Geffrard’s troops under Generals Morisset -and Barthélemy, both of whom were killed fighting, disconcerted the -conspirators, and they were soon driven from the country districts -and forced to take refuge in Cap Haïtien. Had not many of the chiefs -of Geffrard’s army been traitors to his cause, the whole affair might -have been over in a month. A siege commenced, which appeared likely -to endure long, when an incident occurred which forced on foreign -intervention. - -Salnave was a bold, unscrupulous man, who had been put forward by -some discontented deputies and others to do their work; but his main -reliance was on the mob. Those of Geffrard’s friends who could not -escape from the town took refuge with the Consuls, and the English and -American naval officers had constantly to interfere, even by landing -men, to prevent the violation of the Consulates. Captain Heneage, of -H.M.S. “Lily,” conspicuously distinguished himself. At last Geffrard -left the capital to command the army, but he found he could do little -among his intriguing officers: he, however, certainly showed want of -dash on this occasion. - -Then came the “Bulldog” incident. Captain Wake had excited the ire -of the insurgents by protecting a British vessel; and to show their -anger, under the direction of Delorme, Salnave’s principal adviser, -they rushed down to our Consulate, and took by force certain persons -who were under the protection of our flag. The “Bulldog” steamed into -harbour to obtain redress, and ran aground. A combat ensued, and -finding he could not get his vessel off, Captain Wake blew her up, and -retired with the crew in his boats. - -All the persons taken from our Consulate had in the meantime been -murdered. On hearing of these transactions, I went up in H.M.S. -“Galatea” with the “Lily,” and being unable to obtain any adequate -satisfaction, the outer forts were bombarded. Geffrard’s army rushed -in, and the insurrection was at an end. Salnave and followers escaped -in the United States ship “Desoto,” after leaving orders to burn down -the town, which his men only partly effected. - -I may notice that the right of asylum under foreign flags is considered -so sacred in Hayti, that it was once introduced as an article of the -constitution. All parties are equally interested in its observance, as -only thus can they hope to escape the first fury of their adversaries, -and give time for passions to cool. - -If 1865 was a disastrous year for Hayti, 1866 was worse. A great fire -broke out in Port-au-Prince, and eight hundred houses are said to have -been destroyed. I again noticed the apathy of the negroes, whether -official or otherwise. They came and looked on, but did nothing either -to check the flames or arrest the incendiaries. Whilst we were working -to save our Legation from the fire, which was already scorching its -walls, my servant called my attention to some negroes that had entered -with torches ill concealed under their coats. I had to seize a revolver -and hold it to a man’s head before I could force them to retire. Had -our brick house taken fire, they knew the rest of the town must go. Few -except the Europeans cared to exert themselves, and when they brought -out a fire-engine the mob instantly cut the hose and gave themselves up -to pillage. The French _chargé d’affaires_ asked a man why he did not -assist in putting out a fire burning before him? His answer was, “My -house is already burned: why should I aid others?” - -Geffrard could not but notice, in his opening speech to the Chambers, -that the northern insurrection had created so great an expenditure -that all progress was checked; but it had no effect. Another effort -at revolution was made at Gonaives, where the mob plundered and burnt -about fifty houses, to be followed by further troubles and incendiary -fires at Cap Haïtien, Port-au-Prince, and St. Marc. The arsenal -in the capital was blown up in September; two hundred houses were -overthrown, and the guard killed, besides many of the inhabitants. -One little boy whom I knew had his ear taken off by a piece of shell -without further injury. During these occurrences, bands of negroes -were wandering through the south burning and pillaging, unchecked by -the local authorities. It was asked, how could a people exist under -such circumstances? But people must eat; the majority do not join in -these disorders, and all the women and children work. The following -years showed to what a country can submit from the perverse conduct of -interested politicians. - -It was now evident that Geffrard must give up power, as, rightly or -wrongly, people were dissatisfied with him, find wanted a change. -In February 1867 there was a hostile movement on the part of some -companies of Geffrard’s favourite troops, the tirailleurs, the only -disciplined battalions that I ever saw in Hayti; and though this was -suppressed by their companions, the Government was irretrievably -shaken. The comparatively bad crops of 1865 and 1866 were said to -be the fault of the authorities, and no amnesties or changes in the -Ministry could satisfy the discontented. Geffrard determined therefore -to abdicate, and on March 13, 1867, he embarked for Jamaica. He had -convoked the Senate for the 16th in order to give over the reins of -power to them, but his timid friends persuaded him to go at once, as -the north was in insurrection. The Spanish _chargé d’affaires_ was with -him throughout these scenes, and Geffrard’s last words were, “Poor -country! what a state of anarchy will follow my departure!” - -In my chapter on the Mulattoes, I have given a sketch of Geffrard, and -I need not repeat it here. I was not blind to his faults, but of all -the rulers of Hayti he was certainly the most enlightened, and the most -thoroughly devoted to his country. Had he been as perfect a ruler as -the world could produce, he would never have satisfied his countrymen. -The blacks wanted a black, the mulattoes wanted any one else, so that -there was a change. And yet I believe the mass of the people cared -little except for tranquillity. - -A committee was formed to revise the constitution, but Salnave had -landed in Cap Haïtien, assumed power, and proceeded to exercise it. He -arrested some chiefs of the negroes dwelling in the Black Mountains, -and instantly shot them; their friends took up arms, and, under the -name of the “Cacos,” were a thorn in the side of the new _régime_. He -then marched on Port-au-Prince, seized the Government, and arrested -General Montas, who had commanded in the north under Geffrard. Tired of -the delays of a Constituent Assembly, he sent a mob to frighten them. -They took the hint, voted the constitution the next day, and, _l’epée à -la gorge_, elected Salnave President of Hayti, June 16, 1867. In July a -treaty was signed between Hayti and Santo Domingo, thus ending the long -war. - -The Chambers met in the autumn, and Madame Montas presented a petition -on the subject of the imprisonment of her husband. On some deputies -insisting on an explanation, Delorme, the Chief Minister of Salnave, -sprang on the table and denounced these deputies as enemies of -Government. Pistol-shots were fired; Salnave advanced at the head of -his guards, and the Assembly dispersed. Riots followed. The Government -attempted to arrest five prominent members of the Opposition, but they -escaped and returned home to their constituents, and constitutional -government ceased to exist. - -The movement of the Cacos in the Black Mountains now began to alarm -the Government, and Salnave started for the north to put himself at -the head of the army operating against the insurgents. There were many -skirmishes, that at Mombin Crochu being the most important, where -Salnave lost heavily. - -I do not think it necessary to do more than briefly notice the events -of Salnave’s Presidency of thirty months. It was one long civil war. -Disgusted at the treatment of their deputies, the towns began to -declare against the Government. The uprising was accelerated by the -meeting of the Chambers being postponed and Salnave being declared -Dictator. In April 1868, Nissage-Saget took up arms in St. Marc; the -south was in movement and the insurgents marching towards the capital, -where a crowd of young men armed with swordsticks and pocket-pistols -made a feeble attempt at insurrection, but dispersed at the first fire. -In the midst of this commotion Salnave came into the harbour with -five hundred men, to whom he gave permission to plunder the Rue de -Frentfort, where the principal retail dealers live. The phrase of their -colonel on this occasion has become a proverb: “Mes enfans, pillez en -bon ordre.” Only the vigorous remonstrances of the diplomatic corps -prevented further outrages. Delorme, accused by Salnave of having shown -weakness whilst in charge of the Government during his absence, retired -from office and left the country. - -The insurgent armies closed in round Port-au-Prince, but as the town -did not capitulate at their martial aspect, they did nothing, whilst -the garrison was only waiting for the excuse of an attack in order to -disperse. This delay was fatal; the chiefs, instead of confronting -the common enemy, were quarrelling as to the choice of the future -President, each thinking himself the most worthy, when the negroes -of the mountains, encouraged by the Government, rose in arms to -attack the towns, and forced the besieging army to retire to protect -their own families and property. These bands of negroes, under the -name of “Piquets,” were only formidable from their numbers, but the -injuries they did in the south have not been repaired to this day. The -insurgents raised the siege of the capital in August; and in September, -to prevent further dissensions, Nissage-Saget was chosen President for -the north at St. Marc, and Domingue at Les Cayes for the south. - -The year 1869 was the most disastrous I have known in Haytian history. -Fighting was going on in every district. In the north the insurgents -were besieging Cap Haïtien; in the south the Government was vainly -attacking Jacmel, Jérémie, and Les Cayes. In the beginning of the -year President Salnave had the advantage of commanding the seas with -his steamers, and surrounding Les Cayes on every side, he vigorously -pressed the siege. When it was about to fall, General Monplaisir-Pierre -assembled a small army around him, cut his way through the besieging -forces, and arrived just in time to save Domingue and his Government, -who were preparing to embark for Jamaica. This was one of the few -gallant actions of the war. - -Another was General Brice’s splendid defence of Jérémie when attacked -by superior forces and bombarded by vessels purchased by Salnave in -America. - -In July 1869 the insurgents obtained a couple of steamers, and the -aspect of the war changed. They were enabled thus to relieve the south -by capturing the vessels that blockaded Les Cayes; and then, returning -north, excited the fears of the Government partisans. Gonaives -surrendered to the insurgents under conditions, and General Chevalier -arrived with the garrison to increase the confusion at the capital. The -Ministry resigned under his threats, and only the sudden arrival of -Salnave from the south prevented Chevalier from usurping his place. - -From this time forward the fortunes of Salnave paled. Cap Haïtien -surrendered to the insurgents; the President’s army under Chevalier -besieging Jacmel went over to the enemy; and suddenly, on the 18th -December 1870, the insurgents made the most gallant dash of the whole -war. Before daylight, two vessels laden with troops steamed quietly -into the harbour, surprised a new gunboat belonging to the Government, -and then immediately landed about a thousand men. The leaders of this -expedition were Generals Brice and Boisrond-Canal. It was a splendid -_coup_, as Salnave’s garrison consisted of over three thousand men. -Some sharp fighting occurred, and the insurgents could just hold -their own, when General Turenne-Carrié arrived by land with strong -reinforcements, and rendered the combat more equal. - -Whilst the fighting was going on, a strong appeal was made by chiefs -of both parties to the diplomatic corps to interfere and try to save -the town, which was menaced with destruction. The representatives of -France, England, and the United States therefore went to the palace, -but could do no more than effect a truce till the next morning. - -Salnave, however, hoping to surprise his enemies during this truce, -made a sudden onslaught on them; but after about two hours’ fighting, -his men were repulsed with heavy loss. Early in the morning, the -gunboat that had been surprised in harbour opened fire upon the palace -under the direction of the insurgents, and its heavy shell falling in -the courtyard began to disperse the garrison, when another pitched on -the palace ignited a small powder-magazine, and a severe explosion took -place. As great stores of powder existed there, every one near fled. -Salnave and his troops retired to the mountains _viâ_ La Coupe, and -soon after another terrific explosion took place that shook the town, -followed by one still more severe. Fortunately the fire did not reach -the great magazine, or few houses would have resisted the concussion. - -Before leaving, Salnave ordered fire to be set to the town to retard -pursuit. Our men were disembarked from H.M.S. “Defence” under the -present admiral, Noel Salmon, and greatly contributed to prevent the -spread of the flames; but it was calculated that at least a thousand -houses and huts were destroyed. - -I have passed rapidly over the events of this year, but it was -certainly the most trying I have ever known. The diplomatic corps was -continually forced to interfere to check the arbitrary conduct of the -authorities, who seized our ships, arrested our subjects, insulted us -in the streets, and to awe the disaffected employed bands of villanous -negroes and negresses to parade the town, who murdered those selected -by their enemies, wantonly killing a young Frenchman and many others. - -Nothing was saved from them, neither our mail-bags nor our property. -Fortunately we were well supported by our naval officers, and we were -thoroughly well backed by the French marine. Admiral Mequet and Captain -De Varannes of the “D’Estrés” were conspicuous by their friendly -feeling; and as Admiral Phillimore was at that time commodore in -Jamaica, the English were sure of receiving all the support that it was -in his power to give. I think we owed our lives to the aid we received -from the presence of our ships, commanded by Captains Kelly, M’Crea, -Glynn, Murray Aynesley, Carnegie, Lowther, Allington, and many others. - -I may conclude my account of Salnave by saying that he attempted to -reach Santo Domingo city, but was stopped on the frontiers by the -Dominican insurgent Cabral, who took him and his followers prisoners, -and sent them to Port-au-Prince. Six chiefs were shot as insurgents -taken with arms in their hands, whilst Salnave was brought into -the capital, tried by a military commission under General Lorquet, -condemned to death for incendiarism and murder, and shot that same -evening at sunset. He behaved with considerable coolness and calmness, -and when he heard the sentence pronounced, asked for a quarter of an -hour’s respite, and then wrote his wishes as to the disposition of his -property, and a few words to his family. - -Salnave was in every respect unfitted to be a ruler; he was ignorant, -debauched, and cruel; loved to be surrounded by the lowest of the low, -who turned the palace into a rendezvous where the scum of the negresses -assembled to dance and drink, so that no respectable person ever -willingly entered it. He attended the meetings of the Vaudoux, and is -accused of joining in their greatest excesses. He first brought himself -prominently forward by attempting to murder General Philippeaux, -and during his Presidency shot his enemies without mercy. I do not -think that he had a redeeming quality, except a certain amount of -determination, and perhaps bravery, though he was never known to expose -himself to personal danger. - -General Nissage-Saget was elected President of Hayti on the 19th March -1870, and four years of peace followed. The country was so exhausted -by the long civil war, that although there was some discontent among -the followers of Salnave and the extreme black party, no movement had -a chance of success. The Chambers occasionally quarrelled with the -executive, but their title to esteem rests on their efforts to restore -the currency. They decided to withdraw the depreciated paper notes -and introduce silver dollars, and in this they completely succeeded. -It caused some suffering at first, but on the whole it was a sound -measure, wisely carried out. - -Nissage-Saget, though incapable in many respects, generally adhered -to the constitution. However, in 1872 he created some commotion by -pardoning all political prisoners at the demand of the army, though -legally such a measure required the previous assent of the Chambers. -But Haytians like their Presidents to show authority. - -In 1873 there was a formal quarrel in the Chambers which led to all -the subsequent disasters. A question arose as to the validity of the -election of Boyer-Bazelais, deputy for Port-au-Prince. It was decided -in his favour by forty-four to twenty-one, upon which the minority -retired, and left the House without a quorum. As the Government sided -with the minority, no steps were taken to fill vacancies, but a session -was called for the month of July. - -The real question at issue was a serious one. The Opposition wished to -elect as the next President General Monplaisir-Pierre, a respectable -black, whilst the Government favoured General Domingue, an ignorant -and ferocious negro born in Africa, whose party had rendered itself -notorious by the massacre of all the prisoners confined in the jail in -Les Cayes in 1869. - -The Senate and Chambers met in July, and it was evident that a great -majority were hostile to the Government. Boyer-Bazelais, rendered -imprudent by the strong party he led, passed a vote of want of -confidence in two Ministers, and refused to receive their budgets, upon -which the President adjourned the session to April 1874. He did this -to prevent the public discussion of the scandalous jobbery of his -Ministers and to aid Domingue in his candidature. - -When the Congress met in April 1874, there was no doubt as to the -feeling of the people being hostile to Domingue and his nephew, -Septimus Rameau, the most grasping and unpopular jobber that the -country had ever seen. The Government had used all its influence and -had employed the military to support Domingue candidates, but in spite -of this pressure his opponents had been returned. But the Government -persevered, and Nissage retired May 15, handing over power to a Council -of Ministers that named Domingue commander-in-chief. A Constituent -Assembly was called for June 10, which was quite unconstitutional, and -under violent military pressure Government nominees were chosen, who -unanimously elected General Domingue President of Hayti. - -As soon as this Government was in power, it was clearly seen that all -the constitutional leaders had better go into exile, as their death was -certain if they remained. Many prudently retired to the neighbouring -colonies, but the three gallant leaders of the war against Salnave, -Monplaisir-Pierre, Brice, and Boisrond-Canal, remained, and turned -their attention to industrial pursuits. I could not but warn Brice that -I knew for certain that if they remained they would fall victims, but -they had a better opinion of their rulers than I had. - -Naturally a new constitution was voted, by which the President was -chosen for eight years; the Senate was to be selected from a list sent -in to Government; the executive had power to dissolve the Chambers and -to establish a Council of State to aid the Government. Power was also -given for one year to change the judges and magistrates, thus to fill -the bench with their own creatures. - -The Government was not slow to show its intentions. The first was -to render the residence of foreigners impossible by passing a law -of license to trade which would have been prohibitive; but through -the interference of the diplomatic corps the application of this law -was postponed. At the head of the Ministry was Domingue’s nephew, -Septimus Rameau, who considered that “the whites had no rights which -the blacks were bound to respect.” His own friends had foretold an age -of peace and enlightenment when Septimus came to power, but of all -the narrow-minded negroes with vast pretensions to superiority, none -equalled this man. As a rule, the abler a negro is, the more wicked -and corrupt he appears. But we could never discover this much-vaunted -ability, though the wickedness and corruption were manifest to all. - -The only wise act by which Domingue’s Government will be known was -the signing of a treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce with Santo -Domingo; and this was brought about by foreign aid, which smoothed down -the difficulties raised by the intolerable pretensions of the Haytian -Ministers. - -As usual, when there was political discontent, the year 1875 was -ushered in by a great fire in Port-au-Prince. On May 1, taking -advantage of an assembly of troops to celebrate the “_Fête de -l’Agriculture_,” Rameau ordered an attack to be made on the three -rivals he most feared. General Brice was sitting writing in his office -when the soldiers sent to murder him appeared; his bravery, however, -was so well known, that they dreaded to approach him, but firing at -a distance, gave him time to seize his arms and defend himself. But -having only revolvers, he thought it prudent to endeavour to take -refuge in the English Legation. He was wounded fatally in doing so, and -died, notwithstanding the care bestowed upon him by the Spanish Consul -Lopez and his wife, who were then residing there. - -Monplaisir-Pierre was also attacked in his own house, but being -better armed, he made a long defence; he killed seventeen soldiers, -wounded thirty-two, mostly mortally, and could only be subdued by the -employment of artillery. Then finding he could do no more, as, severely -wounded, he could not escape, he put an end to his existence. General -Lorquet commanded this attack of the garrison of Port-au-Prince on two -veritable heroes. - -The third destined to death by the Government was Boisrond-Canal. -Whilst defending himself Brice had thought of his friend, and had sent -his clerk to warn him of his danger. On the approach of the soldiers -he and his friends readily put them to flight, but then were forced to -disperse, Canal taking refuge with the American Minister, who, after -five months of tedious correspondence, was enabled to embark him in -safety. - -Decrees followed banishing forty-three eminent citizens, and later on -seventeen were condemned to death for a pretended conspiracy. Thus -Rameau thought to clear the country of his enemies or rivals. - -The Government finding that the amount received in taxes would not -satisfy their cupidity, decided to raise a loan in Paris of about -£2,500,000. The history of this scandalous transaction is about the -worst of its kind. A portion of the money was raised and divided among -the friends of the Government; but the details are not worth recording. - -The murder of Brice and Monplaisir-Pierre made a profound impression -on the country, as it justified all previous apprehensions; and the -conduct of the Government was such, that it appeared as if it were -guided by a madman. Decrees against the trade carried on by foreigners, -hatred of the whites shown by Domingue, Rameau, and Boco, then insults -in the official journal, in which even foreign agents were not spared, -followed by the illegal expulsion of Cuban refugees, at length roused -the country, and a general movement commenced. - -Domingue and Rameau were furious: an order was given to murder all the -political prisoners confined in the jail, but the chief jailer escaped -with them to a Legation, and leaving the gates open, three hundred -and fifty malefactors got away at the same time. Then the Government -tried to rouse the masses, and issued orders to fire the town and -pillage it, and murder the whites and coloured; but even the lowest -negroes felt that these were the decrees of a madman. Finding that the -Government could not hold its own in Port-au-Prince, Rameau determined -to retire to Les Cayes; but being unwilling to leave behind him the -money destined to form the capital of a National Bank, he sent it down -to the wharf to be embarked. This at length roused the population, and -a tumult ensued. Abandoned by all, Domingue abdicated, and the French -Minister De Vorges and the Spanish Consul Lopez went to the palace to -try and save the President and his Chief Minister. The crowd was large -and threatening, but the two brave diplomats took these despicable -chiefs under their protection and endeavoured to escort them to the -French Legation; but the crowd was so excited against these murderers, -that Rameau was killed in the streets and Domingue was seriously -wounded. - -General Lorquet had been sent at the head of a force to check the -advance of the northern insurgents; but, as might be expected, he -joined them and marched at their head to take possession of the -Government. But no sooner had he entered the town than a murmur arose. -The friends of those he had murdered, as Monplaisir-Pierre, Brice, and -Chevalier, began to collect. Lorquet fled to his house, but was pursued -and attacked, and killed whilst trying to hide in a cupboard. - -Thus fell the very worst Government that even Hayti had ever seen. -Cruel and dishonest, it had not a redeeming quality. Domingue, brutal -and ignorant, was entirely dominated by his nephew, Septimus Rameau, -whose conduct has been only excused by his friends on the ground of -insanity. There was too much method in his madness for that plea to -be accepted. His hatred of foreigners may be partly accounted for by -his being a member of the Vaudoux; it is even asserted that he was a -Papaloi or priest of the sect. - -When Domingue fell there was a struggle for the succession between -Boisrond-Canal and Boyer-Bazelais, but the former was preferred on -account of his energy and courage. He had a difficult task, as the -dilapidations of the late Government had ruined the finances, and -France insisted that the Domingue loan should be recognised before she -would acknowledge the new President. - -Boyer-Bazelais, although, like Boisrond-Canal, a man of colour, -bitterly resented his rival being chosen President, and created every -difficulty possible for the new Government. These events, however, are -too recent for me to dwell on them. I may, however, notice that the -principal attention of both Government and Opposition was directed to -the finances, and that in 1879 the French Government forced Hayti to -acknowledge the Domingue loan. - -In July 1879 a disturbance took place in the House of Representatives, -and it was adjourned amidst much tumult. Boyer-Bazelais and his party -retired to his house and took up arms, they said, to defend themselves. -Their opponents attacked them, and a desperate fight ensued. Fire was -put to the adjoining houses, and amidst this fierce conflict our acting -Consul-General Byron and the French Chancellor Hullinot intervened, -and at the greatest personal risk rescued the ladies from the burning -houses and took them to a place of safety. A _sauve qui peut_ soon -followed, and Boyer-Bazelais’ party was dispersed with heavy loss, two -of his brothers being killed in the fight. - -The insane ambition of what was called the Liberal party thus ruined -the most honest Government that Hayti had seen since the days of -Boyer. These disorders in the capital were followed by others in the -provinces; and Boisrond-Canal, disgusted with the treatment he had -received from those who should have supported him, resigned, and left -the country with his chief Ministers, July 17, 1879. Great sympathy -was shown him by the people, who cheered him as he left the wharf. -As usual, he was embarked by a foreign officer, Commander Allington -of H.M.S. “Boxer.” What would these exiled Presidents do without the -foreign element? - -Boisrond-Canal, though not a brilliant ruler, was thoroughly honest, -and if he had been supported instead of being opposed by the Liberal -party, his four years’ Presidency would have been a happy one. His -coloured opponents used to call him a _putate_ or sweet potato--in -fact, a King Log. They soon had a chance of comparing his Government -with that of a King Stork. - -Boyer-Bazelais’ party now thought that they would have all their own -way, but they soon found that the country would have none of them. The -blacks were again in the ascendant, and after some feeble attempts at -revolution, the Liberal chiefs had to take the path of exile, and be -thankful that it was no worse. - -The mob of Port-au-Prince, wearied by the long debates, forced the -Assembly to close its discussions, and General Salomon was elected -President of Hayti, October 23, 1879, and in December of the same year -a twelfth constitution was promulgated, by which the chief of the state -was chosen for seven years. - -Illegal military executions, murder, and pillage, encouraged by the -authorities, have been the principal episodes of the history of the -last four years. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE POPULATION OF HAYTI. - - -The amount of the population in Hayti is not accurately known, as no -census has been taken since the country became independent. At the -close of the last century the population was found to consist of-- - - Whites 46,000 - Freed men, black and coloured 56,666 - Slaves of both colours 509,642 - ------- - 602,308 - -In giving these figures, Mr. Madion adds (“Histoire d’Haïti,” vol. -i. p. 29) that the planters, in order not to have to pay the full -capitation-tax, omitted from their return of slaves all the children, -as well as those over forty-five years of age, so that at least 200,000 -should be added to those in servitude, among whom were 15,000 coloured -of both sexes. Up to 1847 Mr. Madion considered that the population -had neither increased nor decreased. Deducting the whites, there would -remain about 750,000. - -Mr. Mackenzie, in his “Notes on Hayti,” vol. ii., discusses the -question of population, but the tables he inserts in his work vary so -greatly that no reliance can be placed on them. In one, the population -in 1824 of the French portion of the island is stated to be 351,716; -in another, given in full detail as to each district, it is put at -873,867, whilst he adds that Placide Justin had previously estimated -the population at 700,000, and General Borgella, a good authority, -stated it at a million. It is evident that no one had very precise data -on which to found an estimate. - -During the struggle between the French and the coloured races, the -whole of the whites were either driven out of the country or killed, -and some slaves were exported to Cuba and the United States. What -remained, therefore, of the two other sections constituted the -population of the empire of Dessalines. - -During the Presidency of General Geffrard (1863), I heard him remark, -that from the best official information he could get, the population -had increased to over 900,000. This estimate must be largely founded on -conjecture. The negro race is undoubtedly prolific, and in a hundred -years ought to have more than doubled--nay, in so fertile a country, -with unlimited supplies of food, more than quadrupled its population. -The losses during the war of independence were considerable, as there -was no mercy shown by either side, and the sanguinary strife lasted -many years. The long civil war between Pétion and Christophe was kept -up during the whole reign of the latter, but probably did not cost the -country so many lives as the building of the great mountain-fortress -of La Ferrière and the handsome palace of Sans Souci. During the -Presidency of Boyer, lasting twenty-five years, there was peace, and -ample time was given, for the population to make up for all previous -losses; but after his departure came the wars with Santo Domingo and -civil strife. - -All these causes, however, would only have slightly checked population. -If you ask a Haytian how it is that his country remains comparatively -so thinly peopled, he will answer that the negresses take but little -care of their children, and that at least two-thirds die in infancy. -After reading the chapter on Vaudoux worship and cannibalism, I fear -some of my readers may come to another conclusion. I cannot, however, -think that these fearful excesses can be carried to the extent of -greatly checking the increase of population. That the negresses are -careless mothers is highly possible, and in the interior there are few, -if any, medical men to whom they can apply in case of need. - -After carefully examining every document on the subject which came -before me, and noting the state of those portions of the country -through which I have passed, and comparing all the information I -received during my twelve years’ stay, I have come to the conclusion -that the population has greatly increased, probably doubled, since -1825. All the old residents appear to be of the opinion that the -Haytian is lazier than ever, and many intelligent natives decidedly -hold that view; and yet we find that the exports and imports have -doubled in quantity during this period, which can only be accounted for -by a very great increase in the population. It is possible, however, -that the augmentation is much less than it should have been. - -Either on account of losses from warlike operations, or more probably -by diseases produced from the greater excesses of the men, the female -population is much larger than that of the male. Some go so far as -to say there are three women to one man; others, two-thirds females. -I am myself inclined to fix it at about three-fifths. The great -disproportion in the amount of the women has often been observed -among the negro tribes on the coast of Guinea. In Hayti there is no -emigration to account for the disproportion; in fact, the movement of -population has been the other way, and many recruits arrive from the -United States and the European colonies in the West Indies. - -The population is generally supposed to consist of at least nine-tenths -black to one-tenth coloured, and that the coloured is decidedly more -and more approaching the black type. It is natural that, continually -breeding in and in, they should gradually assimilate to the more -numerous race. As a rule, the coloured population may be said to reside -chiefly in the towns and villages. - -Mackenzie speaks of some Maroon negroes who lived in the mountains -near La Selle in the north-eastern district of Hayti, and held no -intercourse with the other inhabitants, but fled at their approach. -They were doubtless the descendants of fugitive slaves. When we paid -a visit to the mountain above referred to, we heard the peasantry -speaking of these people, but it appeared more of a tradition than an -ascertained fact. They call them the _Vien-viennent_, from their cry -on seeing strangers. From what is told of their being seen in the deep -woods at midnight dancing and going through certain ceremonies, it is -probable that these strange people were only sectaries of the Vaudoux -worship practising their African rites. - -The vexed question as to the position held by the negroes in the great -scheme of nature was continually brought before us whilst I lived -in Hayti, and I could not but regret to find that the greater my -experience the less I thought of the capacity of the negro to hold an -independent position. As long as he is influenced by contact with the -white man, as in the southern portion of the United States, he gets on -very well. But place him free from all such influence, as in Hayti, -and he shows no signs of improvement; on the contrary, he is gradually -retrograding to the African tribal customs, and without exterior -pressure will fall into the state of the inhabitants on the Congo. -If this were only my own opinion, I should hesitate to express it so -positively, but I have found no dissident voice amongst experienced -residents since I first went to Hayti in January 1863. - -I now agree with those who deny that the negro could ever originate -a civilisation, and that with the best of educations he remains an -inferior type of man. He has as yet shown himself totally unfitted -for self-government, and incapable as a people to make any progress -whatever. To judge the negroes fairly, one must live a considerable -time in their midst, and not be led away by the theory that all races -are capable of equal advance in civilisation. - -The mulattoes have no doubt far superior intelligence, and show greater -capacity for government, but as yet they have had no marked success. -It is pitiable to read their history, and see how they are almost ever -swayed by the meanest impulses of personal interest and ambition, and -how seldom they act from patriotic motives. During the twenty years -which have elapsed since I first became acquainted with the country, -what a dreary succession of meaningless conspiracies, from the abortive -attempt of General Legros in 1863, to the disastrous civil strife -between two sections of the mulatto party, led by Boisrond-Canal and -Boyer-Bazelais, when the latter completed the ruin of those of his own -colour, and let in their worst enemies, the blacks, who had dreamed for -twenty years of their extermination (1879). - -Scarcely one of these plots and insurrections, by which the country has -been bathed in blood, but was founded on the hope of office and the -consequent spoils. The thoughts of the conspirators are concentrated on -the treasury and the division of its contents. “Prendre l’argent de -l’état ce n’est pas volé,” is the motto of all parties, of every shade -of colour. - -Politically speaking, the Haytians are a hopeless people, and the most -intelligent and best educated among them are more and more inclined to -despair of the future of their country when they see the wreck that -follows each wave of barbarism which every few years passes over their -republic. President Geffrard, on going into exile in 1867, remarked to -my Spanish colleague, that, putting aside all personal feelings and -regrets, he could only foresee for his country a disastrous series of -convulsions. He spoke prophetically; for Hayti has never recovered from -the effects of the civil war which followed his expulsion, and he must -have observed, from his secure retreat in Jamaica, how the leaders of -every section of his enemies were, one by one, executed, killed in -battle, or sent into exile. - -I will now attempt to examine some characteristic traits of the Haytian -negro and mulatto. - - -THE NEGRO. - -A French admiral once asked me, “Est-ce que vous prenez ces gens au -sérieux?” And at first sight it is impossible to do so in Hayti; but -after the eye becomes used to the grotesque, the study of the people is -both interesting and instructive. To a foreigner accustomed to regard -the negro as he is depicted by our latest travellers, a half-naked -savage, brutal and brute-like, it is not possible to contemplate as -otherwise than incongruous a black general with heavy gold epaulettes -and gorgeous uniform galloping on a bedizened steed, surrounded by a -staff as richly apparelled, and followed by an escort of as ragged -a soldiery as ever Falstaff was ashamed to march with. The awkward -figure, the heavy face, the bullet head, the uncouth features, the -cunning bloodshot eyes, seen under the shade of a French officer’s -cocked hat, raise the hilarity of the newcomer, which is not lessened -when he discovers that this wretched imitation of a soldier declares -himself the most warlike of a warlike race. But putting aside the -absurdities which appear inherent to the blacks, you soon discover that -there is something sympathetic in that stolid being. - -In treating of the Haytians, one must carefully separate the -lower-class negro as he appears in a large commercial town from the -black who lives in the plains or mountains. The former, brought into -constant contact with the roughest of the white race, as represented -by an inferior class of merchant seamen, is too often insolent and -dishonest, whilst the countryman, who only sees a select few of the -whites, appears to have an innate idea of their superiority, and almost -always treats them with respect and deference, and with a hospitality -and kindness which is not found in the cities. - -Whilst the civilised Haytian is essentially inhospitable towards -foreigners, the contrary is the case among the country population. -They have the virtues as well as the vices of wild races; and although -their long intercourse with their more civilised compatriots has given -them a species of French varnish, yet they are essentially an African -people removed from their parent country. - -Circumstances, however, have naturally modified their character. After -the departure of the French, their estates ultimately fell into the -hands of the coloured freedmen and enfranchised slaves. Many of the -latter squatted among the coffee plantations, regardless of the nominal -proprietor, and there gathered and sold the crops without paying much -attention to the rights of the owner. With the thirst, however, to be -the real possessor of land, so characteristic of all peasantry, as soon -as the negro acquired a little capital from savings, his first thought -was turned to secure the tenure of his household, and in many parts the -land has been morselled out among them. President Pétion encouraged -this system by the action of Government. - -The popular stories current in Hayti of the difference between the -races that inhabit it are rather characteristic. It is said that a -white man, a mulatto, and a negro were once admitted into the presence -of the Giver of all good gifts, and were asked what they wished to -possess. The first-named desired to acquire a knowledge of the arts -and sciences; the second limited his pretensions to fine horses and -beautiful women; the third, on being asked, shuffled about and said -that he had been brought there by the mulatto, but being pressed to -answer, replied he should like a bit of gold lace. - -They say again, Mark the difference of the three when arrested and -thrown into prison: the white man demands paper and ink in order to -draw up a protest; the second looks about for the means of escape; -whilst the third lies down and sleeps twenty-four hours at a stretch; -then waking up, he grumbles a little, but soon turns on the other side -and sleeps a second twenty-four hours. - -Another curious saying among them is:-- - - “Nègue riche li mulatte, - Mulatte pauvre li nègue.” - -These trifles indicate the opinion the different sections of the people -have of each other, and there is much truth in the estimation. - -The politeness of the country negro is very remarkable, and you hear -one ragged fellow addressing another as monsieur, frère, or confrère; -and this civility is very pleasing, as it gives promise of better -things whenever education shall be extended to the country population. - -The town negro rarely, however, equals the peasant in manners, though -among each other there is not much left to be desired. Both classes, at -the same time, are infinitely superior to our colonial negroes, who are -in Port-au-Prince proverbial for their insolence. - -Every one who mixes in Haytian society is struck by the paucity of -black gentlemen to be met with at balls, concerts, or the theatre, -and the almost total absence of black ladies. At some of the largest -parties given by the late President Geffrard, I have counted but three -black ladies to perhaps a hundred coloured; and although the gentlemen -were more numerous, it was evident that their presence arose from their -official positions, and not from a desire to mix with the society. - -There is a marked line drawn between the black and the mulatto, which -is probably the most disastrous circumstance for the future prosperity -of the country. A faithful historian, after carefully studying past -events, can come to no other conclusion than that the low state of -civilisation which still obtains in the island arises principally -from this unmeaning quarrel. The black hates the mulatto, the mulatto -despises the black; proscriptions, judicial murders, massacres have -arisen, and will continue to arise as long as this deplorable feeling -prevails. There is no sign of its abatement; on the contrary, never was -it so marked as at the present day. A black Minister once said to me, -“We blacks and whites like and respect each other, because we are of -pure race, but as for those mulattoes”---- - -I remember, on my arrival in Port-au-Prince in 1863, having a -conversation with a young mulatto lady, no longer in the freshness of -youth, on the subject of intermarriage; and having faintly indicated -that I thought she had been unwise in refusing the hand of one of the -best-mannered, best-educated, and richest blacks in the country, I -received a reply which completely surprised me, “Sir, you insult me to -imagine I would marry a black. No, I will never marry any one but a -white.” I soothed her as well as I could, but on looking at her faded -charms, her unhealthy-looking skin, and her heavy under-jaw, I thought -with reason that she might wait long; and, poor girl, she waited in -vain till death released her. - -This contempt of the black is felt by nearly every coloured girl, and -is bitterly resented. I have seen young mulatto women refusing to dance -with blacks at a ball, and the latter, in fury, threatening to call out -the father or brother of the offending beauty. Yet what can be more -absurd than such a pretension or prejudice, when, but two generations -removed, their mothers were African slaves! I have heard coloured women -talking about their families and their aristocratic connections, when -I have known that in a back-room, slowly fading away, was some black -“mamselle,” the grandmother of the proud beauties. - -The blacks naturally feel and resent this childish insolence, and when -they get the upper hand, as in the time of Soulouque and since, they -unfortunately quench in blood their outraged feelings. - -Towards the white man, whatever jealousy he may feel on account of -former political questions, the black is usually both respectful and -cordial, and in return is liked by them. I heard a black magistrate -say, “My father came from Africa. He was apparently a respectable -man in the kingdom of Congo, because he was not only treated with -distinction by his countrymen on board the slaver, but on landing was -taken into confidence by a white planter, who ultimately made him his -partner. That is the history of my family.” Certainly as respectable as -any other in Hayti. - -Notwithstanding all the interested denials of the mulattoes, there is -no doubt but that the lower-class negro, in particular, respects the -white man as a superior being, and therefore respects his religion -as superior to his own; but, as I shall show in my chapter on the -Vaudoux, although he follows the white man’s religion to a certain -extent, he does not in consequence forsake his serpent-worship, which -appeals to his traditions, to the Africa of his nursery tales, and, -above all, to his pleasures and his passions. The Vaudoux priest -encourages lascivious dancing, copious drinking, and the indiscriminate -intercourse of the sexes, but he at the same time inculcates the -burning of candles in the Roman Catholic churches. He keeps a serpent -in a box in his temple, whilst the walls are covered with the pictures -of the Virgin Mary and the saints. No other brain but that of a negro -could accept such a juxtaposition of opposing beliefs. - -Occasionally a negro will say to a white in an insolent manner, “Nous -sommes tous égaux içi;” but he does not believe it, and shows he does -not believe it by soon sneaking away with his invariable oath, “F----.” -The crowd may grunt acquiescence, and though they may appear amused -by the fellow’s insolence, they are still more amused by his slinking -off. Burton, speaking of the people on the coast of Africa, says that a -negro will obey a white man more readily than a mulatto, and a mulatto -more so than one of his own colour. - -Among the black gentlemen you find some of polished manners and -cultivated minds, as my friend Alexander Delva and the late M. Paul, -or a genial companion like Lubin, the son-in-law of the late Emperor -Soulouque. Yet, notwithstanding these exceptions, and the more -remarkable ones I have noticed in my historical chapter, there can -be no doubt that the blacks have not yet arrived at that state of -civilisation which would enable one to compare them favourably with any -other civilised race, or to say that they are competent to govern a -country. - -During the reign of Soulouque, Chancellor Delva and General Salomon -were considered great statesmen, but between them they managed to -exhaust the country, and no monument remains of their rule. But when an -example is required of a man who applies his official position to his -own benefit, it is said, “He will become as rich as Chancellor Delva.” - -Another negro who was expected by his own party to show himself a great -statesman was Septimus Rameau, of Les Cayes. When, however, he obtained -unlimited power under his doting uncle, President Domingue, he proved -himself a mere visionary, incapable of a single sensible measure, and -turning every project into a fresh means of plundering the State. -Whilst the people were sinking daily into greater poverty, and the -public service was starved for want of funds, he ordered an expensive -Pantheon to be constructed, in which should be erected statues to -Hayti’s famous men; and for fear posterity should be oblivious of his -own merits, he ordered a statue of himself, which, however, was never -erected, as before it arrived he had, by a violent death, paid the -penalty of his crimes. - -During my twelve years’ residence in Hayti, no black statesman appeared -who was capable of managing with credit any important official -position, with the exception of General Lamothe, a talented and -agreeable man; but I fear that the charity which begins at home so -predominated in him, that the interests of his country were sometimes -forgotten. - -Though very unwilling to meet death on the field of battle when a -loophole to escape is at hand, yet no one faces it more courageously -than the Haytian, both black and coloured, when on the place of -execution. He stands dauntless before the trembling soldiers, who, -shutting their eyes or turning away their heads, fire at random, and -who too often only wound, and have to charge and recharge their muskets -before their prisoner dies. The soldiers have a superstitious dread of -shooting any particular man in cold blood, and fancy that his spirit -will haunt that individual whose bullet has sent him into the other -world. - -The black in his family relations is in general kindly, though few of -the lower orders go through any civil or religious marriage ceremony; -in fact, it was at one time the custom of all classes to be “_placé_,” -and only since the priests have regained some of their ancient -influence have those who are considered respectable consented to go to -church. The first daring innovators were almost stoned by the people, -and even such men as Presidents Pétion and Boyer were only “placed,” -the latter succeeding to the authority and “_placée_” of the former. -Yet the children of these unions are by Haytian law legitimate, as the -agreement to live together, as in our old common law, was considered -equivalent to marriage. - -In the interior a well-to-do black lives openly with several women as -wives, and I have seen the patriarch sitting at the door of the central -house, with huts all around in which his younger wives lived, as they -could not be made to dwell under the same roof. On Friday evenings he -descends to market on a horse or mule, perhaps holding in his arms -the latest born, while following in his train are a dozen women and -sturdy children either carrying loads or driving beasts of burden. No -one is mounted but himself. The French priests attempted to alter this -state of things, but they did not succeed, as the wives, surrounding -the intruder, asked him what was to be their position if the husband -selected one among them and abandoned the rest. The priests have for -the most part wisely decided not to meddle with the present, but -rather endeavour to act upon the minds of the younger generation. They -can hardly expect success as long as the numbers of women greatly -exceed those of the men. - -The blacks, though in general kind to their children, neglect them, and -the mortality is said to be great. They are, however, very passionate, -and in their anger they use in correction the first thing that comes -to hand. A Spanish friend with a tender heart was riding one day in -the country when his attention was drawn by the piercing shrieks of a -child. He turned his head, and saw a black woman holding a little boy -by the arm and beating him with the handle of a broom. He rode up, -and catching the next blow on the handle of his whip, said, “Don’t -beat the child in that manner.” The woman looked up surprised at the -interference, and coolly replied in their patois, “Consite, li nègue; -li pas fait li mal.”--“Consul, it is a negro; it will do him no harm.” - -Another day he saw a gigantic black beating with his club an -interesting-looking young negress, giving blows that only a black could -stand without being maimed. Again he interfered, but both set upon him, -first with foul words, and then with such menacing gestures, that he -was too glad to put spurs to his horse and gallop away. He found he had -been interfering in a domestic quarrel. - -The brutal use of the cocomacaque or club is universal, as I shall -have to notice when describing the police. Under Toussaint’s -regulations the use of the whip, as an unpleasant memento of -slavery, was abolished, but the club was introduced. Dessalines, -as Inspector-General of Agriculture, brought it into vogue. At Les -Cayes he one day ordered a woman to be beaten for neglecting some -agricultural work; she was far advanced in pregnancy, and her child was -prematurely born whilst the punishment was being inflicted. Whenever -Dessalines’ name is mentioned, it is associated with some act of -fiendish cruelty. - -As might be expected, few marriages take place between the whites and -blacks; the only instance of which I heard was a German clerk who -married the daughter of a Minister in the hope of making his fortune -through the contracts he expected to obtain from his unscrupulous -father-in-law; but within a fortnight of the marriage the Minister -was expelled from office. Contrary to general expectation, the German -boldly faced his altered prospects, and the marriage appeared to have -turned out more happily than could have been anticipated from so -ill-assorted a union. - -Whilst travelling in Hayti one is often surprised at the extraordinary -difference in the appearance of the population, many being tall, fine -men with open countenances, whilst others are the meanest-looking -gorillas imaginable. Then their colour: some have shiny skins, that -look as if blacking and the blacking-brush had been conscientiously -applied, whilst others have the skin completely without lustre, looking -almost as if disease were there. Again, others are of the deepest -black, whilst their next neighbours may be of a reddish tinge. - -During my residence in Hayti I only saw one handsome negress, and she -was a peasant girl of La Coupe near Port-au-Prince: her features were -almost perfect, and she might well have said-- - - “Mislike me not for my complexion, - The shadowed livery of the burnished sun, - To whom I am a neighbour and nigh bred.” - -She was not misliked, but she apparently stood the test of every -temptation that her white admirers could offer. She had soft pleasant -ways and a sweet voice, and talked her jargon of a language in so -pretty a manner as almost to make one inclined to admit the Creole into -the list of things civilised. But such a girl must be rare indeed, -for I saw no other. In general they are very ugly, having no point of -beauty. The marked difference in the appearance of the negroes in Hayti -doubtless arises from their origin, as they were brought from every -tribe in Africa, not only from those frequenting the coast, but also as -prisoners from the interior. From all I have read of the African negro, -the Haytian must be far advanced from that low type. - -It is a curious trait that the negro has a shy dislike of monkeys; -he has an uneasy feeling that the whites imagine that there is no -great difference between a very ugly negro (and there are ugly ones) -and a handsome gorilla. The first evening I went to the theatre in -Port-au-Prince, I was started by the exclamation of my companion, “Qui -est ce monstre africain?” I turned, and saw in the President’s box a -perfect horror; but use reconciled me even to this man. An Italian -once came to the capital with a dancing-monkey. Crowds followed him -everywhere. One day he stopped before a German merchant’s, and a -fair little girl came out. The monkey would not dance, whereon the -disappointed child said to her father in Creole, “Faut-il batte petit -nègue là.” The mob were furious at the mistake, and the father was too -glad to hurry in with his child to escape a shower of stones. - -There are still many negroes in Hayti who were born in Africa, being -principally the remains of certain cargoes of slaves which the English -cruisers captured and landed among their free brethren. One whom I knew -had been taken, then freed by an English officer, sent to England, and -educated at the expense of Government. When of age he was asked what he -would desire to do. He replied, “I should wish to go to Hayti.” When -I knew him he was an old man, and had risen to occupy the position of -Minister of Justice. - -The principal trouble to the female negro mind is her unfortunate -wool. How she envies her more favoured sisters their long tresses! how -she tries to draw out each fibre, and endeavours to make something of -it by carefully platting it with false hair! Even the smallest negro -servant will spend hours in oiling, brushing, and tending this poor -crop, whose greatest length will only compass three or four inches. -It is only when women are more than half white that the wool turns -into hair, and even then it has sometimes a suspicious crispy wave, -which, however, looks well. Of late years chignons have been a regular -importation from France, and the little negresses are delighted with -them. - -The negroes have a very curious habit of talking aloud to themselves. -You will hear them in the streets or in the country roads carrying -on apparently a long conversation, repeating all they have said or -intended to say on a certain occasion, and in a very loud voice; every -other sentence is varied by a grunt or guttural ejaculation. Sometimes -they are evidently excited, and are enacting a violent quarrel. They -are apparently oblivious that all their remarks are heard, or may be; -they are delighted to take so many people into their confidence. It -is a general observation that in nine cases out of ten the subject of -which they are treating is money. - -It has often been remarked what curious names are affixed to negroes, -as Cæsar, Lord Byron, Je-crois-en-Dieu. This doubtless arose from a -rule which existed during the French occupation, that no slave could -be given a name which was used by their masters, so that the latter -were driven to very curious expedients to find appellations for their -bondsmen; this rule applied in a lesser degree to the freedmen. - -_Blanc pas trompé nègue_ is the name given by the Haytians to common -blue shirting. - -I may notice another peculiarity of the negresses. They object to -carrying anything in their hands--they will invariably poise it on -their heads. I have often seen them carrying a bottle thus, talking, -laughing, running, without having the slightest fear of its falling. - -The negroes have very singular words of insult, and I remember seeing -a man roused to fury by a little black servant of mine, who, after -exhausting every offensive word in her vocabulary, suddenly said in -Creole-negro, “Mangé chien.” The black fellow darted at her, and had -she not made a precipitate retreat into the house, she would have felt -his club on her shoulders. - -It is an offensive custom among people of all classes in Hayti to -repeat, as a sort of ejaculatory oath, a rather dirty Creole word. -Men educated in a former generation cannot get rid of the habit, -and many of the lower orders appear to use it at the close of every -sentence. When Soulouque was Emperor he often consulted our Acting -Consul-General, the present Sir Charles Wyke, now our Minister in -Lisbon, as to the usages of the Courts of St. James’s and Hanover, -and it is said that our agent gave him a hint that habitual swearing -was certainly contrary to courtly usages. Soulouque took this hint in -good part, and thought that he would try his hand on an old general -notorious for this habit. So the Emperor watched his opportunity, and -the first time his victim swore, he called him up and said, “General, -I have decided that no one who comes to court can be permitted to use -that offensive word with which you interlard your conversation.” The -general looked surprised, and answered, “Emperor, f----, of course I -will obey, f----, your commands, f----.” “There, you see,” replied his -“Altesse,” “you have used the forbidden word three times.” The poor -general now completely lost his head, and answered, “F----, Emperor, -f----, if, f----, I am not allowed, f----, to use the word f----, I -will cease, f----, from coming to court, f----.” The Emperor could not -but laugh, and troubled the general no more, for the habit was too -engrained. I should have treated this story as an exaggeration had not -I myself heard an old officer equally profuse in his ejaculations. - -The Emperor Soulouque was a very ignorant man, and a good story is told -in illustration. The French Consul-General, Raybaud, I believe, went -once to plead some cause before his Majesty, and wound up by saying -that if he did what was required, he would be considered “plus grand -qu’Annibal.” “Comment, Consite,” replied the startled Emperor, “moué -cannibal!” And it required all the Frenchman’s tact to explain his -reference. As Soulouque was known to be affiliated to the Vaudoux sect, -the illustration was not happy in its sound. - -The negroes and mulattoes are very fond of queer expressions, and -their odd noises in conversation quite disconcert a stranger. Assent, -dissent, anger, playful acquiescence, are all expressed by the variety -in which _’ng-’ng_ are sounded, though a modified or even a musical -grunt can scarcely be expressed on paper. The untravelled ladies in -Hayti are very proud of thus being able to express their sentiments -without having recourse to words. - -The negroes of the lower orders are, like all other inhabitants of -hot countries, very fond of bathing, but they are careless as to the -cleanliness of their clothes. This I also noticed among the Malays and -Dyaks of Borneo; they would bathe several times a day, and then return -to their dirty garments. The dress of the peasantry in Hayti is often -but an imitation of their European neighbours, though the females -generally keep to a long white chemise, covered over with a blue cotton -dress that reaches to their bare feet, and is drawn in round the waist. -They wear a coloured handkerchief on their heads. On feast days and -other gala occasions the young negresses dress in white, which makes a -pleasant contrast of colour. - -Markets used formerly to be held on Sundays. When this custom was -abolished the female peasantry began to frequent the churches, and the -comparison between their blue cotton gowns and the silk dresses of the -ladies created envy. But when, in 1863, the price of cotton trebled, -the peasantry had the means placed at their disposal to vie with the -rich in Gonaives and St. Marc, and many availed themselves of it to go -to church richly dressed. This fashion, however, lasted but a short -time, and certainly did not survive the great fall in prices which -followed the conclusion of the civil war in the United States. - -The upper classes dress exactly like European ladies, but they never -look well in fashionable Parisian hats, while their tignon, or -handkerchief, tied gracefully round the head, is most becoming. A white -tignon is a sign of mourning. There is nothing of which a Haytian lady -is more proud than the amount of her personal and household linen. Her -_armoires_ are generally full of every kind, and the finer they are in -quality the more they are esteemed; and the blacks are, if anything, -more particular than the coloured in securing the most expensive -underclothing. How they plume themselves on the condition of their best -bedroom! It is fitted up expensively, in order that people may see it, -but it is very seldom used, except to receive their lady friends in. -Then they bring out with great pride the treasures of their _armoires_, -and show how well supplied they are with what they do not make a -general use of. - -There is one thing for which all Haytians are equally remarkable--their -love of “_remèdes_.” For everything, from a toothache to yellow fever, -they have a variety of prescriptions, which are probably well suited -to the country, but which a foreigner should be wary in taking. I have -not yet forgotten a _remède_, consisting partly of the juice of the -sour orange, which a good old lady gave me on my first arrival in the -country. It was my first and my last experience. The natives like -being physicked, and apothecary shops appear to thrive in every town -and village. I remember a Haytian doctor, educated in Paris, telling me -how he lost his patients when he first commenced practice by not dosing -them enough. - -The lower orders in Hayti have been accused of great incontinence, and -the higher classes have not escaped the same accusation; but in no -tropical country are the lower orders continent. People affect to say -that it is the effect of climate, but I have never thought so. You have -but to put your hand on the skin of a negro or of any tropical race, -to find it as cold as that of a fish, and their blood is but little -warmer. Their food of vegetables would alone prevent their having the -fiery blood of a well-fed people. - -The fact is, that continence is not considered a virtue by the lower -orders in the tropics, and love-stories are told by mothers before -their young daughters in all their crudest details, and no effort -whatever is made to keep the minds or bodies of the young girls chaste. -The consequence is that in early life, particularly among relatives, -intercourse is almost promiscuous. As amusements are very scarce, young -and old give themselves up to gallantry; but it is constant opportunity -and the want of occupation and amusement which are the causes of -incontinence, not their warm blood. - -There are two things on which both negroes and mulattoes pride -themselves: their fine ear for music, and their proficiency in -dancing. A talented French bandmaster told me, that, if taken young, he -thought he could train his Haytian pupils to be excellent musicians; -and as they are fond of the study and practice, he had no difficulty -whatever in keeping them to their classes; and many of the military -band in Port-au-Prince played fairly well, though, from inefficient -and irregular instruction under native teachers, much was still to -be desired. The drum, however, was a very favourite instrument, and -the noise produced was sometimes startling. The travelled wife of a -President used to say that she thought no music in Paris equal to the -Haytian, _especially the drums._ - -The dancing of the upper classes is much the same in all countries, -though in Hayti the favourite dance is a special one, called -“Carabinier.” Among the people, however, are still to be observed the -old dances they brought from Africa. - -Moreau St. Mèry, in his admirable work on Santo Domingo during the -French colonial days (new edition, p. 52), has described the dances of -the slaves as he saw them previous to 1790, and his words might be used -to depict what occurs at the present day. - -With the negroes dancing is a passion, and no fatigue stands in the -way of their indulging in it. The announcement that a dance will take -place brings people from surprising distances, and the sound of the -drums acts like a charm, and all fatigue is forgotten. Young and old, -although they may have walked twenty miles, with heavy burdens for the -next day’s market, join in it with enthusiasm. - -But the most interesting dances are those performed by the -professionals. Generally they consist of a couple of men to beat the -drums, a very fat woman as treasurer, and three or four younger woman -famous for their skill. Soon after President Salnave came into power -I was a guest at a picnic at a place where some famous dancers had -invited the young men of the district to come and meet them. - -Our hosts had heard of this affair, and invited us to go down to the -spot, where a large space was covered in with the leaves of the palm -tree, as even there seasoned performers could not stand the burning -mid-day sun. The two men with the drums were there, coarse instruments -made out of a hollowed piece of wood, one end open, the other closed -with the skin of a goat or sheep, on which the men play with their -knuckles, one slowly and the other faster; calabashes with pebbles or -Indian corn in them are shaken or stricken against the hand, and the -spectators intone a chant. Then the master of the ceremonies and the -chief of the band calls out a name, and one of the professionals stands -forth and begins to perform. Any man from the crowd may come and dance -with her, holding his hand raised over his head with a small sum in -paper money, worth perhaps a penny. When she wishes a change she takes -this money in her hand, and one of the impatient lookers-on cuts in -and supplies the place of the first; other performers arise, until -the whole shed is full. As the excitement grows, some of the young -girls of the neighbourhood also join in. I noticed that every note -collected was religiously handed to the treasurer, to be employed in -supporting the band and paying for the dresses, which, however, did not -appear expensive, as the women were clothed in white gowns, coloured -headdresses, and handkerchiefs always carried in their right hands. -I noticed, however, that what could be seen of their under-linen was -remarkably fine. - -The dance itself is not striking or interesting, but they keep time -very exactly. To show how African it is, I may mention that an officer -from our West Coast squadron was one day passing near these performers, -when he was suddenly seized with a desire to dance, and struck in -before the prettiest negress of the band. His dancing was so good that -gradually all the blacks sat down, and left these two performers in the -midst of an interested crowd, who by shouting, clapping their hands, -and singing urged on the pair to renewed exertions; and I have heard -several who were present say that never had they seen anything equal to -this dancing in Hayti. Our friend had learnt the art on the coast of -Africa, and was as strong as a lion and as active as a gazelle; he was -called “the pocket Hercules.” - -To return to our party. After some very insignificant dancing, a new -tune was struck up, and the performers began to go through something -more attractive to the crowd. This dance was called _chica_, but -popularly I have heard it named _bamboula_, from the drum, which often -consists of a hollow bamboo: so it is said. This lascivious dance is -difficult to describe. I think I will let Moreau St. Méry do it for -me:-- - -“Cette danse a un air qui lui est spécialement consacré et où la -mesure est fortement marquée. Le talent pour la danseuse est dans -la perfection avec laquelle elle peut faire mouvoir ses hanches et -la partie inférieure de ses reins, en conservant tout le reste du -corps dans une espèce d’immobilité, que ne lui font même pas perdre -les faibles agitations de ses bras qui balancent les deux extrémités -d’un mouchoir ou de son jupon. Un danseur s’approche d’elle, s’élance -tout-à-coup, et tombe en mesure presque à la toucher. Il recule, il -s’élance encore, et la provoque à la lutte la plus séduisante. La -danse s’anime, et bientôt elle offre un tableau dont tous les traits -d’abord voluptueux, deviennent ensuite lascifs. Il serait impossible -de peindre le chica avec son véritable caractère, et je me bornerai -à dire que l’impression qu’il cause est si puissante que l’Africain -ou le Créole de n’importe quelle nuance, qui le verrait danser sans -émotion, passerait pour avoir perdu jusqu’aux dernières étin celles de -la sensibilité.” - -I watched its effect on the bystanders of all colours, and St. Méry -has not exaggerated: the flushed faces, the excited eyes, the eager -expression, the looks of ill-concealed passion, were fully shared by -all. No modest woman would be present at such a scene; but the young -females of the neighbourhood were delighted. Drink was flying freely -about, and all the performers appeared half-intoxicated: the dance grew -fast and furious; as night came on a few candles were lit, and then all -are said to give themselves up to the most unreserved debauchery. I -ought to add that few respectable girls of the peasant class would care -to be seen at one of these dances, where the professionals, without -shame, perform regardless of appearances. The _bamboula_, as practised -among the peasantry, is more quiet, but sufficiently lascivious. - -I was once witness of a rather curious scene. A French opera company -arrived at Port-au-Prince with a couple of ballet-girls. On the opening -night of the theatre they commenced dancing; the pit, crowded with -negroes, was at first quiet. The untravelled Haytian could not at first -understand it; but shortly the applause became uproarious; shouts -filled the house; the unaccustomed sight of two _white_ girls thus -exhibiting themselves provoked the sensuality of the negro nature to -such a degree that it was almost impossible to keep them quiet, and -their admiration was so warmly expressed as even to frighten the girls, -who turned pale with astonishment mingled with fear. This kind of -applause made the foreigners feel uncomfortable, and we were not sorry -when the ballet ceased. - -I have not noticed any particular ceremonies at the birth of children, -nor at marriages. In the latter some are striving to imitate the upper -classes, and marry in church, but the mass of the people are still not -regularly married. I have noticed, however, their great fondness for -a display of jewellery on these occasions, and if they do not possess -enough themselves, they borrow among their friends, and every one who -lends is sure to attend the wedding, as much to keep an eye on their -cherished property as to join in the amusements inherent to these -occasions. - -Though I have attended many funerals of the upper classes, I have had -no occasion to be present at one of the peasantry, though I have seen -the body being carried at night from the town to the house of the -deceased in the hills. One evening, at about ten, we heard a roar of -voices in the distance; presently we saw torches flashing in the road, -and soon after a crowd, perhaps of a hundred people, swept by at a -running pace, all screaming, yelling, or shrieking at the top of their -voices. Those who led this awful din were hired mourners, who pass -the night near the corpse, making it hideous with their professional -lamentations. There are regular wakes, at which eating and drinking -are permitted, and drunkenness not prohibited. All classes in Hayti, -like their brethren on the Guinea coast, love pompous funerals, and it -is quite a passion among the female portion of the community to attend -them, as it is only at funerals and at church that the ladies can see -and be seen in their most careful toilettes. - -The most curious wake I ever saw was at Santo Domingo city. I was -walking about after dark, when my attention was drawn to a house where -music and dancing were going on. I approached, and looking through a -window, saw a most singular sight. In a high chair was placed in a -sitting position the corpse of a child, dressed up in its very best -clothes, as if a spectator of the scene. The music was playing briskly, -and a regular ball appeared to be going on, in which the mother of the -child took the principal part. I inquired of my companion what this -meant, and he said that the people explained it thus:--The priests had -taught them not to weep, but rather rejoice, at the death of a child, -as it passed directly to heaven. They took this teaching literally, and -danced and made merry. - - “Whom the gods love, die young.” - -The negroes, as a rule, live to a good old age, and bear their age -well; they also keep their magnificent white teeth to the last, which -they ascribe to diligent cleanliness and the crushing of the sugar-cane -under their strong grinders: their hair also preserves its colour much -later than that of the white. In fact, it is difficult to guess the age -of a negro. - -The negro is rarely seriously ill, though he often fancies himself -so; he suffers most from his indulgences and the indifferent skill -of those who undertake his cure. He bears pain exceedingly well, -which may partly arise from his nerves not being highly strung. The -negro is distinguished for his (for want of a better word I may call) -_insouciance_. It is a most provoking characteristic, and one of the -causes of his want of progress. - -The general impression is that serious crime is rare in Hayti, except -that which is connected with the Vaudoux worship. This, however, -is a mistake; crime is treated with too much indifference, and the -professional poisoners are well known to the police. Before the civil -war of 1868 and 1869 crimes of violence were more rare; that civil -strife, however, demoralised the population. Pilfering is their great -failing, and it is said a negro never leaves a room without looking -round to see that he has not forgotten something. - -They have much superstition with regard to _zombis_, _revenants_, or -ghosts, and many will not leave the house after dark; yet the love of -pleasure often overcomes this, and the negro will pass half the night -hieing to his lusting-place. - -Of their pleasures, smoking is one equally enjoyed by every class, -and quietly by most women after a certain age. The cheapness of tafia -or white rum has an evil effect on the male population, who as a rule -drink to excess. - -The black Haytians resent being spoken of by foreigners as negroes, -though they use the word freely among themselves. They prefer being -called _gens de couleur_, as both the expressions _nègres_ and -_mulâtres_ are considered as implying contempt. During the tiresome -quarter of an hour before dinner, my friend Villevalein (coloured) -turned round to a Minister of State (black) and said, “What do you -think the French _chargé d’affaires_ remarked when he first saw -you?--‘Quel beau nègre!’” The blood rushed to the face of the Haytian, -and his cheeks became of a deeper black; and we were all thankful that -at the moment dinner was announced. I doubt whether the Minister ever -forgave the author or the repeater of the remark. - -The negro has the greatest, in fact, an almost superstitious, reverence -for the flags of foreign nations. A well-known partisan chief, Acaau, -came once to the English Consulate at Les Cayes, and demanded that -all the refugees there should be given up to him to be shot. Our -Acting Vice-Consul, Charles Smith, refused, and as Acaau insisted, the -Vice-Consul took up the Union Jack, and placing it on the staircase, -said to the chief, “If any of you dare to tread on that flag, he may go -upstairs and seize the refugees.” Acaau looked at the flag a moment, -and then said, “Not I,” and walked away, followed by his men. This was -not from fear of material consequences, although there were two English -ships of war in harbour, as, when one of the captains threatened to -bombard the town if foreigners were troubled, Acaau answered, “Tell me -which end you will begin with, and I will commence to burn the other -end.” He was a mountaineer, who would have been delighted to burn and -destroy the whole place. Many years afterwards, to avoid being shot by -the Government, he perished by his own hand. - -I must add an anecdote to mark the respect shown by the negro to -the white. In April 1866, on account of a quarrel between an officer -on board a steamer and some blacks, the mob determined to revenge -themselves. Watching their opportunity, they seized an English sailor -belonging to the ship and bound him to a log. Hundreds of excited -negroes surrounded him with drawn razors and knives, threatening to cut -him to pieces; when Mr. Savage, an English merchant, happening to be -passing by, inquired the cause of the disturbance, and hearing what had -happened to his countryman, forced his way through the mob, and when -he reached the sailor, drew a penknife from his pocket, and, despising -the yells and threats of the crowd, cut the cords, freed the man, and -walked him down to the steamer’s boat. The cool courage shown by Mr. -Savage perfectly awed the mob. As the Haytian police who were present -had not interfered to prevent this outrage on the sailor, a hundred -pounds indemnity was demanded of the Haytian Government, which was -paid, and subsequently transmitted to the sailor. - -I will conclude with noticing that the apathy and listlessness of the -Haytians, mentioned by Mackenzie in 1826, might apply to the present -day, as well as his reference to the lean dogs and leaner pigs which -infest the capital. He heard an Englishman say one day, “D---- these -Haytians; they can’t even fatten a pig.” - - -THE MULATTOES. - -“They hate their fathers and despise their mothers,” is a saying which -is a key to the character of the mulatto. They hate the whites and -despise the blacks, hence their false position. That they are looked -down upon by the whites and hated by the blacks is the converse truth, -which produces an unfortunate effect upon their character. They have -many of the defects of the two races, and few of their good qualities. -Those who have never left their country are too often conceited, and -presumptuous to a degree which is scarcely credible; whilst many -who have travelled appear but little influenced by bright examples -of civilisation, or by their intercourse with civilised nations, -retaining but the outward polish of a superficial French education. -Foreigners who casually meet Haytians are often only struck by their -agreeable manners, but to understand their real character one must live -among them, hear their talk among themselves, or read the newspapers -published for local circulation. - -Travel, indeed, has little outward effect on the majority; and they -return to their own country more presumptuous than ever. It has struck -many attentive observers that this outward parade of conceit is but a -species of protest against the inferior position they occupy in the -world’s estimation, and that with their advance in civilisation and -education they will rise in the opinion of others, and thus lose the -necessity for so much self-assertion. I believe this to be highly -probable, but until the mulattoes are convinced of their present -inferiority, the improvement must be slow indeed. - -It may be remarked, however, that those who have been educated in -Europe from their earliest years show few or none of those defects -which are implanted in them by their early associations. I have -known coloured men whose first real knowledge of their own country -was acquired in manhood, who were in every respect equal to their -white companions, as manly and as free from absurd pretensions, and -naturally without that dislike of foreigners which is instilled into -home-educated mulattoes. These men, knowing the consideration in which -they were held by all, had no necessity for any self-assertion. - -The early training in Hayti is much at fault; their mothers, generally -uninstructed, have themselves but few principles of delicacy to instil -into their children’s minds. I will mention a case in illustration. -A lady was asked to procure some article for a foreign visitor. She -readily undertook the commission, and sent her son, a boy of ten, -to seek the article. He returned shortly afterwards and said to his -mother, “Our neighbour has what you want, but asks twenty-seven paper -dollars for it.” “Go and tell our friend that you have found it -for forty, and we will divide the difference between us.” A mutual -acquaintance heard of this transaction, and subsequently reproached the -lady for the lesson of deceit and swindling she had taught her child; -she only laughed, and appeared to think she had done a very clever -thing. The subsequent career of that boy was indeed a thorn in her side. - -Their financial morality is very low indeed. A friend of mine -expressing his surprise to one of the prettiest and most respectable -girls in Port-au-Prince that such open robbery of the receipts of the -custom-house was permitted, received for answer, “Prendre l’argent -de l’état, ce n’est pas volé.”--“To take Government money is not -robbery.” With such ideas instilled into the minds of all from their -earliest youth, it is scarcely to be wondered at that the Haytians -grow up to be completely without financial honour. Truth is another -virtue which appears to be rarely inculcated by parents, and this -perhaps may be accounted for by their origin. Slaves are notoriously -given to falsehood, and this defect has been inherited by succeeding -generations, and can scarcely be eradicated until a higher moral -teaching prevails. - -I was struck by an anecdote told me by a French gentleman at -Port-au-Prince: it is a trifle, but it shows the spirit of the Haytian -youth. A trader, in very moderate circumstances, sent a half-grown -son to be educated in Paris, and as the father had no friends there, -he said to my informant, “Will you ask your family to pay my son a -little attention?” In consequence, a lady called at the school and -took the youth for a walk in the Luxembourg Gardens. Approaching the -basins, she said, “I suppose you have none like these in Hayti?” “Oh,” -was his reply, “my father has finer ones in his private grounds;” the -fact being, that he had nothing there but a bath a few feet square. -This miserable pretence is one of the causes of the slow improvement -in Hayti; they cannot or they will not see the superiority of foreign -countries. - -A late Secretary of State was present at a review in Paris, when ten -thousand splendid cavalry charged up towards the Emperors of France and -Russia. “It is very fine,” he said; “but how much better our Haytian -soldiers ride!” Another gentleman, long employed as a representative at -a foreign court, returning home, could find nothing better to say to -President Geffrard than, “Ah! President, you should send some of our -officers to Paris, that their superiority of _tenue_ may be known in -Europe.” I wish I could present some photographic illustrations of a -Haytian regiment in support of this assertion. - -I am, in fact, doubtful whether travel as yet has done much good to the -general public, as they see their young men returning from Europe and -America, after having witnessed the best of our modern civilisation, -who assure them that things are much better managed in Hayti. - -Their self-importance may be illustrated by the following anecdote of -another ex-Secretary of State. He went with a friend to see the races -at Longchamps. They had their cabriolet drawn up at a good spot, -when presently an acquaintance of the driver got up on the box-seat -to have a better view. “I must tell that man to get down,” said the -ex-Minister. “Leave him alone,” answered his French friend. “It is all -very well for you, a private individual, to say that; but I, a former -Secretary of State, what will the people say to my permitting such -familiarity?” and he looked uneasily around, thinking that the eyes of -the whole Parisian world were bent on their distinguished visitor. I -once saw some boxes addressed thus:--“Les demoiselles ----, enfants de -M. ----, _ex-Secrétaire d’Etat_.” - -Of the profound dislike of the genuine coloured Haytian for the whites -I will give an instance. We were invited to a school examination given -by the Sisters of Cluny, and naturally the official guests were put -in the front rank, with the officers of a French gunboat, from which -position we assisted at a distribution of prizes, and some little -scenes acted by the pupils. The next day a Haytian gentleman, one -who was an ornament to his country for his extensive knowledge and -legal erudition, made this remark--“When I saw those whites put into -the front row, it reminded me of the time when the ancient colonists -sat arms akimbo watching the dances of their slaves.” As he said -this before a party of white gentlemen, we may imagine what were his -utterances before his own countrymen. - -Moreau de St. Méry gives a table of the different combinations of -colour among the mixed race, amounting to one hundred and twenty, -which produce thirteen distinct shades between the pure white and the -pure black. Each has a name, the most common of which are: Quateron, -white and mulatto; mulatto, white and black; griffe, black and mulatto. -These were the original combinations, but constant intermarriages have -produced a great variety of colour, even in the same families, some -breeding back to their white, others to their black forefathers. It -appears as if the lighter shades of mulatto would die out, as many of -this class marry Europeans, and leave the country with their children, -and the others marry Haytians more or less dark, and the tendency is -to breeding back to their black ancestors. There are too few whites -settled in the country to arrest this backward movement. In Santo -Domingo, however, the stay for a few years (1859-64) of a large Spanish -army had a very appreciable effect on the population. - -The personal appearance of the coloured Haytians is not striking. Being -in general a mixture of rather a plain race in Europe with the plainest -in Africa, it is not surprising that the men should be ugly and the -women far from handsome. Of course there is a marked distinction -between the men who have more dark blood in their veins and those who -approach the white; in fact, those who are less than half-European have -in general the hair frizzled like a negro’s, the forehead low, the eyes -dark in a yellow setting, the nose flat, the mouth large, the teeth -perfect, the jaw heavy; whilst as they approach the white type they -greatly improve in appearance, until they can scarcely be distinguished -from the foreigner, except by the dead colour of the skin and some -trifling peculiarities. - -Of the women it is more difficult to speak; they are rarely -good-looking, never beautiful. As they approach the white type, they -have long, rather coarse hair, beautiful teeth, small fleshless -hands and feet, delicate forms, and sometimes graceful movements, -due apparently to the length of the lower limbs. Their principal -defects are their voices, their noses, their skins, and sometimes the -inordinate size of the lower jaw. Their voices are harsh, their skins -blotchy or of a dirty brown, their noses flat or too fleshy, and the -jaw, as I have said, heavy. Occasionally you see a girl decidedly -pretty, who would pass in any society, but these are rare. In general -they are very plain, particularly when you approach the black type, -when the frizzled hair begins to appear. - -There is one subject necessary to mention, though it is a delicate -one. Like the negroes, the mulattoes have often a decided odour, and -this is particularly observable after dancing or any violent exercise -which provokes perspiration, and then no amount of _eau de cologne_ or -other scents will completely conceal the native perfume. The griffes, -however, are decidedly the most subject to this inconvenience, and I -met one well-dressed woman who positively tainted the air. - -With the exception of those who have been sent abroad, the Haïtiennes -have had until lately but few chances of education, and are therefore -little to be blamed for their ignorance. This want of instruction, -however, has an ill effect, as the time necessarily hangs heavy on -their hands, and they can neither give those first teachings to -their children which are never forgotten, nor amuse themselves with -literature or good music. - -It is the fashion in Hayti to vaunt the goodness and tenderness of -their women in sickness; but what women are not good and tender under -similar circumstances? I have received as much kindness in suffering -from the Malays when wandering in Borneo as any one has perhaps ever -received elsewhere. The fact is, that these qualities are inherent -to women in general. Perhaps the greatest praise that can be given -to the Haytian ladies is, that they do not appear inferior to others -who reside in the tropics in the care of their children, or in the -management of their households, or in their conduct towards their -husbands. - -They have their ways in public and their ways in private, but their -greatest defect is their want of cleanliness, which is observable in -their houses, their children, and their own clothes. Without going so -far as to say, with the naval officer, that “their customs are dirty, -and manners they have none,” I may say that they have habits which are -simply indescribable; and when not dressed to receive company they -are veritable slatterns, sauntering about their houses all day in -dirty dressing-gowns, and too often in unchanged linen. Their bedrooms -have a close, stuffy smell, the consequence of the above referred -to indescribable habits, which is highly displeasing to a stranger, -and induced an American gentleman to remark that their rooms had the -smell of a stable. They are also very careless in another way, and -will go into their kitchens even in their silks, and aid in preparing -sweetmeats; and the stains on their clothes from this cause reminded me -of a young Malay lady cooking a greasy curry whilst dressed in a rich -gold brocade, and upsetting half of it over her dress in an endeavour -to conceal herself or her work. - -The conduct of the Haytian ladies who are married to foreigners is much -to their credit, as rarely a case occurs to draw the attention of the -public to their private life; and almost the same may be said of their -married life in general, and this in defiance of the debauchery of -their Haytian husbands. This virtue was, perhaps, unfairly ascribed by -a French diplomatist to their sluggish temperaments and their want of -imagination. But, whatever may be the cause, it appears to exist to a -considerable extent. - -The habit of having no fixed hours for meals appears to prevail in most -tropical countries; and in Hayti, though there are fixed times for -the husband and the other males of a family, who can only return from -business at certain hours, yet the ladies of the family prefer cakes, -sweetmeats, and dreadful messes at all hours, and only sit down to -the family meal _pro formâ_. No wonder they are ever complaining of -indigestion, and taking their wonderful _remèdes_. - -From my own observation, and that of many of my friends, I may assert -with confidence as a general proposition, that the Haytian black or -mulatto is more given to drink, and to a forgetfulness of his duty to -his family, than any other people with whom we were acquainted. With -some marked, and I should add numerous exceptions, after his early -coffee the Haytian begins the day with a grog or cocktail, and these -grogs and cocktails continue until at mid-day many of the young men are -slightly intoxicated, and by night a large minority at least are either -in an excited, a sullen, or a maudlin state. - -It appears also to be a rule among them, that, whether married or not, -a Haytian must have as many mistresses as his purse will permit him; -these are principally drawn from the lower classes. This practice is -not confined to any particular rank; from the Presidents downwards -all are tainted with the same evil. The mistresses of the first-named -are always known, as they are visited publicly, often accompanied by -a staff or a few select officers. I have met them even at dinner in -respectable houses, and have been asked to trace a resemblance between -their children and the reputed father. No one seeks to conceal it, and -the conversation of married ladies continually turns on this subject. -One excuse for it is that many of the ladies whom you meet in society -were only married after the birth of their first children. However, -according to French law, that ceremony renders them all legitimate. - -Some of those admitted into society are not married at all, but their -daughters’ being married prevents notice being taken of the false -position of the mother. - -An excuse has been made for the debauchery of the Haytians. It is said -that there are three women to every two men, which is probably true, -and that therefore the latter are exposed to every kind of temptation, -which is also true. - -I have already referred to the want of financial honour observable in -Hayti; but what is equally pernicious is their utter forgetfulness -of what is due to their military oath. As I shall have to notice in -my remarks on the army, scarcely a single name can be cited of a -superior officer who under President Geffrard did not forget his duty, -and either conspire against him or betray him to the enemy. This was -particularly observable during the siege of Cap Haïtien in 1865. And -yet were these officers who were false to their military honour looked -down upon by their countrymen? On the contrary, their only title to -consideration was their treachery to their former superior, who in turn -is said to have betrayed every Government he had served. - -A Frenchman once wittily said, that when Geffrard was made President, -being no longer able to conspire against the Government, he conspired -against his own Ministers. It is the whole truth in a few words. No -encouragement is given to those who hold firmly to their duty; and an -officer who did not desert a tottering Government would be sure to be -neglected, perhaps even punished, by those who succeeded to power. - -One reason for the dislike entertained by the mulatto for the white -man is the evident partiality of their fair countrywomen for the -latter. It is well known that the first dream or _beau ideal_ of the -young Haïtienne is a rich, and if possible a good-looking European, -who can place her in a respectable position, give her the prospect -of occasional visits to Europe, with the ultimate expectation of -entirely residing there. Few young girls lose the hope of securing this -desirable husband, particularly among those who have received their -education in Europe, until their charms begin slightly to fade, when -they content themselves with the least dark among their countrymen. -It is unfortunate that this should be the case, as those who are -most enlightened among the Haytian ladies are thus withdrawn from -the civilising influence they would otherwise naturally exert. This -preference for the white to the coloured man was also very conspicuous -during the French occupation; and all things considered, it is not to -be wondered at, as the whites make much better husbands. - -The young mulatto, seeing this evident partiality for the foreigner, -naturally resents it, but instead of trying to put himself on an -equality of position with his rival by the exercise of industry and by -good conduct, expends his energies in furious tirades in the _cafés_ or -by low debauchery. - -The Haytians are distinguished for what the French call _jactance_, -a better word than boasting. Mackenzie tells the story of a mulatto -colonel saying to him, “Je vous assure, monsieur, que je suis le plus -brave de tous les mulâtres de ce pays-ci.” He was lost in admiration -of his own noble qualities. At the fortress of La Ferrière, during -Mackenzie’s visit, a Captain Elliot said about some trifle, “N’ayez pas -peur?” Immediately the officers of the garrison clapped their hands to -their swords and talked five minutes of inflated nonsense. - -I remember a Haytian general once calling upon me, and asking me to get -inserted in the daily London papers a long account of the battles in -which he had been engaged, and of his personal exploits. He was anxious -that the English people should know what a hero they had among them. -As he was really a brave fellow, and a man whom I liked, I was anxious -that he should not make himself ridiculous by publishing a pompous -account of battles which were but skirmishes among the peasantry. -I therefore gave him a letter of introduction to an editor, who, I -was sure, would explain to him that the English public would not be -interested in the affair. I heard no more of it, but my friend was -persuaded that since Napoleon no greater general than he had arisen. - -As an ideal type of the better class of mulatto, I would take the -late President Geffrard; he had all the qualities and defects of the -race, and was one whom I had the best opportunity of studying. In a -report which for some reason I never forwarded, I find myself thus -sketching his portrait when almost in daily intercourse with him -(1866):--“I am loth to analyse the character of President Geffrard, -but as he is the Government itself, it is necessary to know him. In -manner he is polished and gentle, almost feminine in his gentleness, -with a most agreeable expression, a winning smile, and much fluency -in conversation. But the impression soon gains possession of the -listener that, with all his amiable qualities, the President is vain -and presumptuous, absorbed in himself and in his own superiority to the -rest of mankind. He imagines himself a proficient in every science, -although he is as ignorant as he is untravelled. There is not a subject -on which he does not pretend to know more even than those whose studies -have been special, as lawyers, doctors, architects, and engineers. -He seriously assures you that he discovered the use of steam by -independent inquiries, and that he is prepared to construct a machine -which shall solve the problem of perpetual motion; and he who has not -ridden anything larger than a middle-sized pony imagines he could give -hints in riding to our Newmarket jockeys.” - -Geffrard, like many other coloured men, was much distressed by the -crispness of his hair and his dark colour, and having a half-brother -very fair, he persisted in assuring us that he had been born nearly -white, with straight hair, but that having unfortunately bathed in -the streams of Sal Tron during many months, the water, being deeply -impregnated with iron, had curled his hair and darkened his skin. In -any other man I should have suspected a jest. - -One of the things which contributed to the unpopularity of the Emperor -Soulouque was the waste of the public finances and the extravagance -of his court. General Geffrard, who lived in penury before becoming -President, promised to reform this; but instead of doing so, he -gradually raised his own allowance to £10,000 a year; he also had the -sole control of £4000 a year for secret service, and another £4000 -a year for the encouragement of the arts and sciences. The grateful -country had also presented him with two large estates, the expenses -of which were largely borne by the State, whilst the profits were -Geffrard’s. - -As nearly every one of his countrymen would have acted in the same -manner if he had had the opportunity, Geffrard’s conduct excited envy -rather than blame. Even in the smallest details of the household there -was a mean spirit; the expenses of the meat of the family were put down -to the _tirailleurs_, whilst some exquisite champagne purchased of a -colleague was charged to the hospital. Geffrard was certainly one of -the most distinguished of his race, yet he sullied his good name by -all these petty meannesses. I once asked a Haytian friend why she and -others were always running down Geffrard and his family. She answered, -“Because when I knew them intimately, they were as poor as myself, but -now Madame Geffrard insults me by calling on me in a carriage. What -right has she to a carriage more than I?” - -Geffrard was personally brave, which quality is not too common among -his countrymen, who are rather wanting in martial qualities. He had -no idea of true liberty, nor of freedom of discussion. A son of a -black Minister wrote a pamphlet in favour of strict protection for -the manufactures of Hayti, in order to encourage native industry. A -young mulatto replied, demolishing with ease the absurd idea that -manufactures could be readily established in a tropical country, which -could only be made to prosper by encouraging agriculture. The father -was offended by this liberty, and, to soothe his wounded feelings, -Geffrard had the young mulatto arrested, put as a common soldier into a -regiment, and set to work to carry on his head barrels of powder to a -village five miles in the mountains. The argument was unanswerable, and -it is no wonder that the pamphleteer became a protectionist, though I -believe that subsequently, when he was made a senator, he was inclined -to return to his primitive views. - -If I wished to describe a mulatto of the most unscrupulous type, I -should have selected the late General Lorquet, but I have already -referred to him. - -There are among the mulattoes men eminently agreeable, and perhaps the -one who best pleased me was Auguste Elie, at one time Minister for -Foreign Affairs. He had been brought up in France, was highly educated, -and had an astonishing memory. My Spanish colleague and myself used -to visit him almost every evening, and pass a pleasant hour in varied -conversation. One day my friend remarked, “I am often surprised at the -knowledge shown by Auguste Elie, and the elegance of the language in -which it is expressed.” I replied, “This evening turn the conversation -on agriculture in the South of France.” He did so, and he was again -struck by the minute knowledge shown and the manner in which it was -conveyed. On our return home, I opened the last number of “La Revue des -Deux Mondes,” and showed him paragraph after paragraph which Auguste -Elie had repeated almost word for word. I knew that he read the review -regularly, and was persuaded he had not missed reading the article on -the agriculture of that part of France which interested him most, and -his memory was so exact that he had forgotten nothing. I had often -remarked his quotations, but he could digest what he read as well as -remember. A few men like Auguste Elie would have given a better tone to -Haytian society. - -A strong desire to appear what they are not is a defect from which the -best-known Haytians are not free. A French colleague once called upon -a Secretary of State, whose _writings have been compared to those of -Plato_, and found him, book in hand, walking up and down his verandah. -“Ah! my friend, you see how I employ my leisure hours. I am reading -Demosthenes in the original.” But the sharp Frenchman kept his eye on -the volume, and soon found that it was an interlinear translation. - -Every Haytian appears fully persuaded that his countrymen never seek -office except for the purpose of improving their private fortunes, and -the most precise stories of official robbery were falsely made against -Auguste Elie and M. Bauce, both Secretaries of State. At Auguste Elie’s -death there was little left for the family, and Madame Bauce declined -the succession to her husband’s effects, as the debts were not covered -by the inheritance. Liaulaud Ethéart and M. Darius Denis, though long -Secretaries of State, afterwards honourably supported their families, -the one in retail trade, the other by keeping a school. - -Perhaps, as a rule, the accusation is well founded, and nearly all, -black and coloured, believe in the saying, “Prendre l’argent de l’état, -ce n’est pas volé.” - -When I first arrived in Port-au-Prince a small club was formed among -the foreigners, and one of the first rules was, “No Haytian to be -admitted.” I asked why, and was answered, that they introduced politics -into every place they entered. I soon found, however, that the real -reason was that their society was disliked; and one day, after -listening for an hour or two to the criticism on the people--and be it -remembered that half those present were married to Haytian ladies--I -could not help remarking, “If I had such an opinion of this race, I -would not have sought my wife among them.” The married men looked -foolish, the bachelors laughed, and one of the former observed, “The -women are so superior to the men.” - -The following story shows some delicacy of feeling; it is told by -Mackenzie, and I have heard it repeated. When the decree was issued -by Dessalines that mulatto children should inherit the estates of -their white fathers, two young men met, and one said to the other, -“You kill my father and I will kill yours;” which they accordingly -did, and took possession of their estates. On another occasion, the -Emperor Dessalines said to a young man who claimed to be a mulatto, “I -don’t believe it, but you can prove it by going and poniarding your -French friend.” The man did not hesitate, and was accepted as a Haytian -citizen. A negro general, grandfather of a lady I knew in Hayti, went -to Dessalines after the appearance of the decree to murder all the -white French left in the island and said, “Emperor, I have obeyed -your decree: I have put my white wife to death.” “Excellent Haytian,” -answered he, “but an infernal scoundrel. If ever again you present -yourself before me I will have you shot,”--the only saying of his that -I have seen recorded showing any humane feeling. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -VAUDOUX WORSHIP AND CANNIBALISM. - - -When the news reached Paris of the massacres in Port-au-Prince of the -mulattoes by orders of the black President Soulouque in April 1849, it -is said that Louis Napoleon took the opportunity of saying at a public -reception, in presence of the sable representative of Hayti, “Haïti, -Haïti! pays de barbares.” Had he known all the particulars relating -to Vaudoux worship and cannibalism, he would have been still more -justified in so expressing himself. - -There is no subject of which it is more difficult to treat than Vaudoux -worship and the cannibalism that too often accompanies its rites. Few -living out of the Black Republic are aware of the extent to which it -is carried, and if I insist at length upon the subject, it is in order -to endeavour to fix attention on this frightful blot, and thus induce -enlightened Haytians to take measures for its extirpation, if that be -possible.[8] - -It is certain that no people are more sensitive to foreign public -opinion than the Haytians, and they therefore endeavour to conceal by -every means this evidence of the barbarism of their fellow-countrymen. -It is, however, but the story of the foolish ostrich over again; every -foreigner in Hayti knows that cannibalism exists, and that the educated -classes endeavour to ignore it instead of devising means to eradicate -it. - -The only Governments that endeavoured to grapple with the evil were -those of President Geffrard and President Boisrond-Canal, and probably -they in some measure owe their fall to this action on their part. - -The first question naturally asked is, “Who is tainted by the Vaudoux -worship?” I fear the answer must be, “Who is not?” This does not -necessarily imply that they are tainted with cannibalism, as I shall -hereafter explain. It is notorious that the Emperor Soulouque was a -firm believer, and that the mulatto general Therlonge was one of its -high priests, and in his younger days used to appear in a scarlet robe -performing antics in the trees. A late Prime Minister, whose bloody -deeds will be an everlasting reproach to his memory, was said to be a -chief priest of the sect, and many others whom I will not at present -indicate. - -If persons so high placed can be counted among its votaries, it may -be readily believed that the masses are given up to this brutalising -worship. During the reign of Soulouque, a priestess was arrested for -having performed a sacrifice too openly; when about to be conducted to -prison, a foreign bystander remarked aloud that probably she would be -shot. She laughed and said, “If I were to beat the sacred drum, and -march through the city, not one, from the Emperor downwards, but would -humbly follow me.” She was sent to jail, but no one ever heard that she -was punished. - -President Salnave (1867), inclined at first to court the support of -the educated classes, kept clear of the Vaudoux. But when he found his -advances repulsed, for the gross debauchery at the palace prevented -any respectable person from ever willingly entering it, and when the -fortunes of the civil war that then raged began to turn against him -(1869), he, from some motive or other, whether superstition or the -desire to conciliate the mass of his ignorant troops, went to consult -a well-known priest living near Marquissant, in the neighbourhood of -Port-au-Prince, and there went through all the ceremonies that were -required. He bathed in the blood of goats, made considerable presents -to the priests and priestesses, and then feasted with the assembly, -who all gave themselves up to the lowest debauchery, and kept up these -festivities so long that even the iron frame of the President gave way, -and he was confined to his bed for many days after. - -The fortunes of war still continuing adverse, he again consulted the -Papaloi or priest, who insisted that he must now go through the highest -ceremony; that the “goat without horns” must be slain, and that he -must be anointed with its blood. If he agreed to this, then the priest -assured him of certain victory over his enemies. - -Whether Salnave gave in or not I cannot say positively. His enemies -of all classes declared he did; his friends among the lower orders -confirmed the story; but the few respectable people who adhered to his -cause naturally denied the truth of the accusation. I think the weight -of evidence was more against him than for him. - -To explain the phrase of “the goat without horns,” I must notice that -there are two sects which follow the Vaudoux worship--those who only -delight in the blood and flesh of white cocks and spotless white goats -at their ceremonies, and those who are not only devoted to these, but -on great occasions call for the flesh and blood of the “goat without -horns,” or human victims. - -When Hayti was still a French colony Vaudoux worship flourished, but -there is no distinct mention of human sacrifices in the accounts -transmitted to us. In Moreau de St. Méry’s excellent description of -the colony, from whose truthful pages it is a pleasure to seek for -information, he gives a very graphic account of fetishism as it existed -in his day, that is, towards the close of the last century. - -After describing certain dances, he remarks that the Calinda and -the Chica are not the only ones brought from Africa to the colony. -There is another which has been known for a long time, principally -in the western part of the island (Hayti), and which has the name of -Vaudoux.[9] But it is not merely as a dance that the Vaudoux merits -consideration; at least it is accompanied by circumstances that give it -a rank among those institutions in which superstition and ridiculous -practices have a principal part. - -According to the Arada negroes, who are the true sectaries of the -Vaudoux in the colony, who maintain its principles and its rules, -Vaudoux signifies an all-powerful and supernatural being, on whom -depend all the events which take place in the world. This being is -the non-venomous serpent, and it is under its auspices that all those -assemble who profess this doctrine. Acquaintance with the past, -knowledge of the present, prescience of the future, all appertain to -this serpent, that only consents, however, to communicate his power -and prescribe his will through the organ of a grand priest, whom the -sectaries select, and still more by that of the negress whom the love -of the latter has raised to the rank of high priestess. - -These two delegates, who declare themselves inspired by their god, or -in whom the gift of inspiration is really manifested in the opinion -of their followers, bear the pompous names of King and Queen, or the -despotic ones of Master and Mistress, or the touching titles of Papa -and Mama. They are during their whole life the chiefs of the great -family of the Vaudoux, and they have a right to the unlimited respect -of those that compose it. It is they who decide if the serpent agrees -to admit a candidate into the society, who prescribe the obligations -and the duties he is to fulfil; it is they who receive the gifts and -presents which the god expects as a just homage to him. To disobey -them, to resist them, is to disobey God himself, and to expose oneself -to the greatest misfortunes. - -This system of domination on the one hand, and of blind obedience on -the other, being well established, they at fixed dates meet together, -and the King and Queen of the Vaudoux preside, following the forms -which they probably brought from Africa, and to which Creole customs -have added many variations, and some traits which betray European -ideas; as, for instance, the scarf, or rich belt, which the Queen wears -at these assemblies, and which she occasionally varies. - -The reunion for the true Vaudoux worship, for that which has least -lost its primitive purity, never takes place except secretly, in -the dead of night, and in a secure place safe from any profane eye. -There each initiated puts on a pair of sandals and fastens around -his body a number, more or less considerable, of red handkerchiefs, -or of handkerchiefs in which that colour predominates. The King of -the Vaudoux has finer handkerchiefs and in greater number, and one -that is entirely red, with which he binds his forehead as a diadem. A -girdle, generally blue, gives the finishing-stroke to the tokens of his -resplendent dignity. - -The Queen, dressed with simple luxury, also shows her predilection for -the red colour,[10] which is generally that of her sash or belt. - -The King and Queen place themselves at one end of the room, near a kind -of altar, on which is a box where the serpent is kept, and where each -adept can see it through the bars of its cage. - -When they have verified that no curious stranger has penetrated -into the place, they commence the ceremony by the adoration of the -serpent, by protestations of being faithful to its worship and -entirely submissive to its commands. They renew, holding the hands of -the King and Queen, the oath of secrecy, which is the foundation of -the association, and it is accompanied by everything horrible which -delirium could imagine to render it more imposing. - -When the followers of the Vaudoux are thus prepared to receive the -impressions which the King and Queen desire them to feel, they take the -affectionate tone of a tender father or mother; vaunt the happiness -which is the appanage of those who are devoted to the Vaudoux; they -exhort them to have confidence in him, and to give him the proofs of it -by taking his counsel in all the most important circumstances of their -lives. - -Then the crowd separates, and each one who may desire it, and according -to his seniority in the sect, approaches to implore the aid of the -Vaudoux. Most of them ask for the talent to be able to direct the -conduct of their masters. But this is not enough: one wants more money; -another the gift of being able to please an unfeeling one; another -desires to reattach an unfaithful lover; this one wishes for a prompt -cure or long life; an elderly female comes to conjure the god to end -the disdain with which she is treated by the youth whose love she -would captivate; a young one solicits eternal love, or she repeats the -maledictions that hate dictates to her against a preferred rival. There -is not a passion which does not give vent to its vow, and crime itself -does not always disguise those which have for object its success. At -each of these invocations the King of the Vaudoux appears absorbed in -thought. The spirit seizes him; suddenly he takes hold of the box in -which the serpent is confined, places it on the ground, and commands -the Queen to get on it. As soon as the sacred ark is beneath her feet, -the new Pythoness is filled by the spirit of their god; she trembles, -all her body is in a state of convulsion, and the oracle speaks by her -mouth. Now she flatters and promises happiness, now she bursts into -reproaches; and according to her wishes, her interest, or her caprice, -she dictates as decrees without appeal everything which she is pleased -to prescribe, in the name of the serpent, to this imbecile crowd, that -never expresses the slightest doubt of the most monstrous absurdity, -and that only knows how to obey what is despotically dictated to it. - -After all these questions have received some kind of an answer from the -oracle, many of which are not without ambiguity, they form a circle, -and the serpent is again placed on the altar. Then his followers bring -as tribute the objects they think most worthy, and that no jealous -curiosity shall raise a blush, the offerings are placed in a covered -hat. The King and Queen then promise that the offerings shall be -accepted by their god. It is from this collection that the expenses -of the meetings are paid, that aid is afforded to absent members, -or to those present who may be in want, or to others from whom the -society may expect something in favour of its glory or renown. They -now propose and settle their future plans, they consider what is to be -done, and all this is declared by the Queen the will of the god; often -enough these plans have not for object either good order or public -tranquillity. A fresh oath, as execrable as the first, engages each one -to be silent as to what has passed, to aid in what has been settled; -and sometimes a vase, in which there is the blood of a goat, still -warm, seals on the lips of those present the promise to suffer death -rather than reveal anything, and even to inflict it on any one who may -forget that he is thus so solemnly bound to secrecy. - -After these ceremonies commences the dance of the Vaudoux. - -If there should be a new candidate, it is by his admission that the -_fête_ commences. The King of the Vaudoux, with some black substance, -traces a large circle, and in this the novice is placed; and in his -hand he puts a packet of herbs, horsehair, pieces of horn, and other -trifling objects. Then lightly touching him on the head with a slight -wooden wand, he thunders forth an African song, which is repeated in -chorus by those who stand around the circle; then the new member begins -to tremble and to dance, which is called to practise Vaudoux. If, -unhappily, excess of excitement makes him leave the circle, the song -immediately ceases, the King and Queen turn their backs to avert the -evil omen. The dancer recollects himself, re-enters the circle, again -trembles, drinks, and arrives at length at so convulsive a state, that -the King orders him to stop, by striking him lightly on the head with -his wand, or, should he think it necessary, with a heavy _kurbash_. He -is taken to the altar to swear, and from that moment he belongs to the -sect. - -This ceremony over, the King places his hand or his foot on the -box in which the serpent is confined, and soon becomes agitated. -This impression he communicates to the Queen, and from her it gains -the whole circle, and every one commences certain movements, in -which the upper part of the body, the head and shoulders, appear to -be dislocated. The Queen above all is a prey to the most violent -agitation. From time to time she approaches the serpent in order to -add to her frenzy; she shakes the box, and the hawkbells attached to -it sound like a fool’s bauble, and the excitement goes on increasing. -This is augmented by the use of spirituous liquors, which the adepts -do not spare. With some, fainting fits follow, with others a species of -fury; but a nervous trembling seizes them all, which they appear unable -to master. They go on spinning round, and in their excitement some tear -their clothes, others bite their own flesh; then again many fall to the -ground utterly deprived of sense, and are dragged into a neighbouring -dark apartment. Here in the obscurity is too often a scene of the most -disgusting prostitution. - -At length lassitude puts an end to these demoralising scenes, to be -renewed again at a date which is carefully settled beforehand. - -In reading this account, freely given from Moreau de St. Méry, I have -been struck how little change, except for the worse, has taken place -during the last century. Though the sect continues to meet in secret, -they do not appear to object to the presence of their countrymen who -are not yet initiated. In fact, the necessity of so much mystery is not -recognised, when there are no longer any French magistrates to send -these assassins to the stake. - -Notwithstanding their efforts to keep strangers far from their -sacrifices, two Frenchmen succeeded in being present on different -occasions. - -At a dinner at which I was present, I heard the Archbishop of -Port-au-Prince give the following account of what had occurred the -preceding week (in 1869). A French priest who had charge of the -district of Arcahaye, had the curiosity to witness the Vaudoux -ceremonies, and he persuaded some of his parishioners to take him to -the forest, where a meeting of the sect was to be held. They were very -unwilling, saying that, if discovered, he and they would be killed; -but he promised faithfully that, whatever happened, he would not -speak a word. They blacked his hands and face, and disguising him as -a peasant, took him with them. In Salnave’s time the Vaudoux priests -were so seldom interrupted, that few precautions were taken against -surprise, and the neighbouring villagers flocked to the ceremony. -With these the Catholic priest mixed, and saw all that went on. As in -the previous description, the people came to ask that their wishes -should be gratified, and the priestess stood on the box containing -the serpent. At first she went into a violent paroxysm, then, in a -sort of half-trance, she promised all that they could desire. A white -cock and then a white goat were killed, and those present were marked -with their blood. Up to this point, it appeared as if Monseigneur were -repeating some pages from Moreau de St. Méry, but it soon changed. He -continued:--Presently an athletic young negro came and knelt before the -priestess and said, “O Maman, I have a favour to ask.” “What is it, my -son?” “Give us, to complete the sacrifice, the goat without horns.” She -gave a sign of assent; the crowd in the shed separated, and there was a -child sitting with its feet bound. In an instant a rope already passed -through a block was tightened, the child’s feet flew up towards the -roof, and the priest approached it with a knife. The loud shriek given -by the victim aroused the Frenchman to the truth of what was really -going on. He shouted, “Oh, spare the child!” and would have darted -forward, but he was seized by his friends around him, and literally -carried from the spot. There was a short pursuit, but the priest got -safely back to the town. He tried to rouse the police to hasten to the -spot, but they would do nothing. In the morning they accompanied him to -the scene of the sacrifice. They found the remains of the feast, and -near the shed the boiled skull of the child. - -The authorities at Arcahaye were exceedingly incensed with the priest -for his interference, and, under pretence that they could not answer -for his safety, shipped him off to Port-au-Prince, where he made his -report to the Archbishop. - -Another Frenchman, who resided in a village in the southern department, -witnessed the whole ceremony, and, as he remained silent, was -undiscovered; but on its being rumoured that he had been present, his -wife’s Haytian family insisted on his leaving the district, as his life -was in danger. - -I have frequently heard similar details from educated Haytians, and a -proof will presently be given. - -I may notice that the Haytians have corrupted the compounds Papa Roi -and Maman Roi into Papaloi and Mamanloi. - -The temples of the Vaudoux, called Humfort, are to be found in every -district of the country. They are in general small, though one I -visited in the interior was spacious, and was papered with engravings -from the _Illustrated London News_, and the walls were hung with the -pictures of the Virgin Mary and of various saints. I may notice that -in every one I entered I found similar pictures. In the largest one, a -Catholic priest had often said mass during his inland tours. Though he -could not prove it, he shrewdly suspected that the Vaudoux worship was -carried on there during his frequent absences. He showed me some very -curious polished stones of various forms, which he had induced some of -his disciples to give up. One was a stone axe in shape of a crescent; -and the negroes said that they had been brought from Africa, and formed -part of the relics they worshipped. I believe my informant obtained -these stones from a young negress during the absence of her husband, -who was very indignant on discovering their loss. The French priest -destroyed them, to prevent their falling again into the hands of his -congregation. - -Beside various Christian emblems, I found in one of the temples a flag -of red silk, on which was worked the following inscription:--“Société -des Fleurs za Dahomïan,” whatever that may refer to. This flag was -said to have been the gift of the Empress, the consort of the Emperor -Soulouque. - -Once whilst strolling with a friend in the mountains at the back of -La Coupé, about six miles from Port-au-Prince, I was shown another -small temple. As the guardian was a sort of dependant of the Haytian -gentleman who was with me, we were allowed to enter, and were shown -a box under a kind of altar, in which we were told the serpent was -confined, but we could not induce the man to let us see it, as he -feared the anger of the Papaloi. - -I have remarked that the temples are generally small. To accommodate -the crowd, however, permanent or temporary sheds are erected near, -and there is generally the guardian’s house besides, in which to take -shelter or carry on their debauch. - -The Papalois may generally be distinguished by the peculiar knotting of -their curly wool, which must be a work of considerable labour, and by -their profusion of ornaments. We noticed the former peculiarity at the -trial of some sorcerers, whilst the jailers probably had relieved them -of the latter. I have frequently remarked these knotted-headed negroes, -and the attention they received from their sable countrymen. - -In general, when incidents are spoken of in society in Hayti relating -to the Vaudoux worship, Haytian gentlemen endeavour to turn the -conversation, or they say you have been imposed upon, or the events -have been exaggerated. But the incidents I am about to relate formed -the subject of a trial before a criminal court, and are to be found -detailed in the official journal of the period, and I was present -during the two days that the inquiry lasted. - -It occurred during the Presidency of General Geffrard, the most -enlightened ruler that that unfortunate country possessed since the -time of President Boyer; it too plainly proved that the fetish worship -of the negroes of Africa had not been forgotten by their descendants, -nor to be denied by any one, and the attention of the whole country was -drawn to the subject of cannibalism. As the case greatly interested -me, I made the most careful inquiries and followed it in its most -minute particulars. It is worth while relating the whole story in its -disgusting details, as it is one of the truth of which there is not a -shadow of a doubt. - -A couple of miles to the west of Port-au-Prince lies the village of -Bizoton, in which there lived a man named Congo Pellé. He had been a -labourer, a gentleman’s servant, an idler, who was anxious to improve -his position without any exertion on his own part. In this dilemma he -addressed himself to his sister Jeanne, who had long been connected -with the Vaudoux--was, in fact, the daughter of a priestess, and -herself a well-known Mamanloi--and it was settled between them that -about the new year some sacrifice should be offered to propitiate the -serpent. A more modest man would have been satisfied with a white cock -or a white goat, but on this solemn occasion it was thought better to -offer a more important sacrifice. A consultation was held with two -Papalois, Julien Nicolas and Floréal Apollon, and it was decided that a -female child should be offered as a sacrifice, and the choice fell on -Claircine, the niece of Jeanne and Congo. - -This was the account given in court; but it appears also to be an -undoubted fact that human sacrifices are offered at Easter, Christmas -Eve, New Year’s Eve, and more particularly on Twelfth Night, or _Les -Fêtes des Rois_. - -On the 27th December 1863, Jeanne invited her sister, the mother of -Claircine, to accompany her to Port-au-Prince, and the child, a girl -of about twelve years of age, was left at home with Congo. Immediate -advantage was taken of the mother’s absence, and Claircine was -conducted to the house of Julien, and from thence to that of Floréal, -where she was bound, and hidden under the altar in a neighbouring -temple. In the evening, the mother, returning home, asked for her -child, when her brother Congo told her it had strayed away; a pretended -search was made by those in the plot, and another Papaloi was -consulted. This man told the mother not to be uneasy, as the Maître -d’Eau, or the spirit of the water, had taken her daughter, but that in -a short time her child would be restored to her. The woman believed, or -pretended to believe, this story, and, by the papa’s recommendation, -burnt candles before the altar of the Virgin Mary for the prompt return -of her offspring,--another proof of the strange mingling of Catholicism -and Vaudoux worship. - -On the evening of the 31st of December a large party assembled at the -house of Jeanne to await the arrival of the child, who had remained for -four days bound under the altar. When the chief members of the plot -came to the temple to bring her out, she, guessing the fate reserved -for her, gave two or three piercing shrieks, which were soon stifled, -and, gagged and bound, she was carried to Jeanne’s house, where -preparations were made for the human sacrifice. She was thrown on the -ground, her aunt holding her by the waist, whilst the Papaloi pressed -her throat, and the others held her legs and arms; her struggles -soon ceased, as Floréal had succeeded in strangling her. Then Jeanne -handed him a large knife, with which he cut off Claircine’s head, the -assistants catching the blood in a jar; then Floréal is said to have -inserted an instrument under the child’s skin, and detached it from -the body. Having succeeded in flaying their victim, the flesh was cut -from the bones, and placed in large wooden dishes; the entrails and -skin being buried near to the cottage. The whole party then started for -Floréal’s house, carrying the remains of their victim with them. On -their arrival Jeanne rang a little bell, and a procession was formed, -the head borne aloft, and a sacred song sung. Then preparations were -made for a feast. - -Roused by the noise caused by the arrival, a woman and girl sleeping in -another chamber looked through some chinks in the wall and saw all that -passed,--Jeanne cooking the flesh with Congo beans, small and rather -bitter (_pois congo_), whilst Floréal put the head into a pot with yams -to make some soup. Whilst the others were engaged in the kitchen, one -of the women present, Roséide Sumera, urged by the fearful appetite of -a cannibal, cut from the child’s palm a piece of flesh and ate it raw -(this I heard her avow in open court). - -The cooking over, portions of the prepared dish were handed round, of -which all present partook; and the soup being ready, it was divided -among the assistants, who deliberately drank it. The night was passed -in dancing, drinking, and debauchery. In the morning the remains -of the flesh were warmed up, and the two witnesses who had watched -the proceedings were invited to join in the repast: the young woman -confessed that she had accepted the invitation, but the girl did not. - -Not satisfied with this taste of human flesh, the priests now put the -young girl, who had watched their proceedings from a neighbouring room, -in the place of Claircine, and she was bound in the temple, to be -sacrificed on Twelfth Night. It came out in evidence that she had been -decoyed to the house for that purpose, and that the young woman who was -sleeping in the same room was in reality in charge of her. - -Fortunately for her, the inquiries which Claircine’s mother had made -on her first arrival home and the disappearance of the second girl -had roused the attention of an officer of police, and a search being -made, the freshly-boiled skull of the murdered girl was found among the -bushes near Floréal’s house, where careless impunity had induced the -assassins to throw it. A further search led to the discovery of the -girl bound under the altar and the other remains of Claircine. - -Fourteen persons were arrested, against eight of whom sufficient -evidence could be obtained, and these were sent to prison to answer for -their crime before a criminal court. The trial commenced on the 4th -of February 1864, and lasted two days. Incidents were related in the -course of the evidence which showed how the lower classes are sunk in -ignorance and barbarity, and renewed the proofs, if any fresh proofs -were required, that the Vaudoux worship is associated by them with the -ceremonies of the Catholic religion, even the Papalois recommending the -burning of tapers in the Christian churches, and the having crosses and -pictures of the Virgin Mary strangely mingled on their altars with the -objects of their superstition. - -In the dock we saw the eight prisoners, four men and four women, with -faces of the ordinary Haytian type, neither better nor worse. Their -names were: men--Julian Nicholas, a Papaloi; Floréal Apollon, another -Papaloi; Guerrier François and Congo Pellé: the women--Jeanne Pellé, -a Mamanloi, Roséide Sumera, Neréide François, and Beyard Prosper. -Some had been servants to foreigners, others had been gardeners and -washerwomen. The French procedure is observed in all trials in Hayti, -and to an Englishman the procedure, as practised in that republic, -is contrary to the first principles of justice. The prisoners were -bullied, cajoled, cross-questioned, in order to force avowals, in fact, -to make them state in open court what they were said to have confessed -in their preliminary examinations. I can never forget the manner in -which the youngest female prisoner turned to the public prosecutor and -said, “Yes, I did confess what you assert, but remember how cruelly I -was beaten before I said a word;” and it was well known that all the -prisoners had at first refused to speak, thinking that the Vaudoux -would protect them, and it required the frequent application of the -club to drive this belief out of their heads. That prisoners are -tortured to make them confess is known to be a common practice in Hayti. - -However this may have been in the present case, there, on a table -before the judge, was the skull of the murdered girl, and in a jar the -remains of the soup and the calcined bones; and the avowals of the -prisoners in court and the testimony of the witnesses were too clear -and circumstantial to leave a doubt as to their criminality. - -As I have remarked, I was in court during the two days’ trial, and I -never was present at one where the judge conducted himself with greater -dignity. His name was Lallemand, and he was one of the few magistrates -who had the courage to do justice, even when political passion would -have condemned victims unheard. - -Among those who gave their evidence was the young girl who witnessed -the ceremonies, and for whom was reserved the fate of Claircine. The -judge called her up to his side, and gently asked her to tell the court -what she had seen; but, with a frightened look, she started and burst -into tears, and the judge, looking up sharply, saw the prisoners making -the most diabolical grimaces at the poor child. He then turned round -to the jury and said, in view of the intimidation attempted, he would -do what was not strictly regular; the child should whisper the story to -him, and he would repeat it to the court. He placed her with her back -to the prisoners, and putting his arm round her, drew her gently to -him, and said in a soft voice, “Tell me, _chère_, what occurred.” The -girl, in a very low tone, began her testimony, but the silence in court -was so profound, that not a word she uttered was lost, and, almost -without faltering, she told her story in all its horrible details; but -her nerves then gave way so completely, that she had to be taken out -of court, and could not be again produced to answer some questions the -jury wished to ask. - -Then the young woman, her companion of that night, was called, and -she confirmed the account, and confessed that in the morning she had -joined in the feast; the mother’s testimony followed, and that of -numerous other witnesses. The guilt of the prisoners was thus fully -established, when one of the female prisoners, Roséide, in the hopes -perhaps of pardon, entered into every particular of the whole affair, -to the evident annoyance of the others, who tried in vain to keep her -silent. Her testimony was the most complete, and left not a doubt of -the culpability of the whole of the prisoners. I did in consequence -suggest that her life should be spared, but President Geffrard reminded -me that it was she who had confessed, in open court, that she had eaten -the palms of the victim’s hands as a favourite morsel. - -Jeanne, the old woman, though she showed the utmost coolness during -the trial, did at length appeal for mercy, saying she had only been -practising what had been taught her by her mother as the religion of -her ancestors. “Why should I be put to death for observing our ancient -customs?” - -They were all found guilty of sorcery, torture, and murder, and -condemned to death. - -I asked the public prosecutor if he thought that the mother had been -really ignorant of the fate reserved for her child. He replied, “We -have not thought proper to press the inquiry too closely, for fear -that we should discover that she partook of the feast; we required her -testimony at the trial.” After a pause, he added, “If full justice were -done, there would be fifty on those benches instead of eight.” - -The execution took place on Saturday, February 13, 1864, the -authorities wisely selecting a market-day, in order that the example -might have the greater effect. The following particulars relating to -it I received from the American Commissioner, Mr. Whiddon, who was -present at this last scene. The prisoners, men and women, were all -clothed in white robes and white headdresses, the garments reserved for -parricides, and were drawn in carts to the place of execution, and all -but one had a sullen look of resignation, and neither uttered a word -nor a complaint, whilst the eighth, the young woman Roséide, kept up a -continued conversation with the crowd around her. - -Every effort was made by the Government to give solemnity to the -occasion; the troops and National Guard were summoned, for even the -word “rescue” had been pronounced; the principal authorities attended; -and thousands of spectators gathered round the spot. The prisoners, -tied in pairs, were placed in a line, and faced by five soldiers to -each pair; they fired with such inaccuracy, that only six fell wounded -on the first discharge. It took these untrained men fully half an -hour to complete their work, and the incidents were so painful, that -the horror at the prisoners’ crimes was almost turned into pity at -witnessing their unnecessary sufferings. As usual, the prisoners -behaved with great courage, even the women standing up unflinchingly -before their executioners, and receiving their fire without quailing, -and when at last they fell wounded, no cry was heard, but they were -seen beckoning the soldiers to approach, and Roséide held the muzzle of -a musket to her bosom and called on the man to fire. - -The Vaudoux priests gave out, that although the deity would permit the -execution, he would only do it to prove to his votaries his power by -raising them all again from the dead. To prevent their bodies being -carried away during the night (they had been buried near the place -of execution), picquets of troops were placed round the spot; but in -the morning three of the graves were found empty, and the bodies of -the two priests and the priestess had disappeared. Superstitious fear -had probably prevented the soldiers from staying where they had been -posted, and as most of the troops belonged to the sect of the Vaudoux, -they probably connived at, rather than prevented, the exhumation. - -Among those who attended the trial were the Spanish _chargé -d’affaires_, Don Mariano Alvarez, and the Admiral, Mendez Nuñez, but -they were so horrified by the sight of the child’s remains on the -judge’s table and the disgusting evidence, that they had precipitately -to leave the court. For years Congo beans were forbidden at our table. - -Mr. Alvarez had a great liking for Haytian society, and lived much with -certain families, and was very familiar with what was occurring in the -country. I therefore asked him if he had any objection to give me some -extracts from his official reports on the subject of the Vaudoux; he -freely consented, and authorised me to publish the same in any way I -pleased. I propose to insert some extracts in this chapter, as they -confirm my own inquiries. - -I have elsewhere remarked, but I may repeat it, that all prisoners -condemned to death in Hayti, whether their crimes be political or -otherwise, are shot, and as but two or three soldiers are told off to -each prisoner, the consequence is that almost every execution that -takes place resembles, instead of a solemn warning, a frightful and -pitiable butchery. - -President Geffrard behaved with great courage on this occasion, for -though continued appeals were made for pardon, he remained firm. He -was warned that such an execution would sap the attachment of the -masses, but he insisted that the condemned should be put to death. The -example probably deterred others from openly committing such crimes, or -from committing them near civilised centres; but when Geffrard quitted -power, the sect again raised its head, and human sacrifices became -common. We, however, heard little of these dreadful rites after the -fall of Salnave. It can scarcely be said that civilisation is making -progress; it is more probable that the authorities, absorbed in their -petty intrigues to maintain power, did not care to inquire too closely -into the disappearance of children. - -I believe that the latter is the true explanation, and that instead -of there having been any amelioration, the subject is only ignored, -as one likely to give trouble. Instead of the country advancing in -civilisation since the fall of Geffrard, it has retrograded. Civil -wars and the imbecile Government of Nissage-Saget followed, and then -again insurrections and civil war. It cannot be supposed that under the -Government of General Domingue (1874 and 1875) the Vaudoux worship was -discouraged, when it was openly stated and believed that one of his -Ministers was a Papaloi, and head of the sect in the southern province. -His brutal character and love of bloodshed would add to the suspicion. -Under the next President (1876-78), Boisrond-Canal, a decree was issued -forbidding any Vaudoux dances, as, under cover of these, other rites -were carried on; but that decree has, I hear, been since repealed. Who -is to think of the improvement of the masses whilst struggling to -maintain a precarious tenure of power? - -Mr. Alvarez’s account of the Claircine incident differs only in a few -trifles from mine, but he had not the opportunities I had fully to -investigate it. He says:--“I have previously reported on the subject -of the fetish sect of Vaudoux, imported into Hayti by the slaves -coming from the tribes on the western coast of Africa, and mentioning -the crimes of these cannibals. To-day I enclose an extract from the -official _Moniteur_, in which they have commenced to publish the -process against four men and four women, who were shot near this -capital on the 13th instant, convicted on their own confession of -having eaten, in Bizoton, near Port-au-Prince, on the night of the 10th -of December last, a young child of six years old, called Claircine, -whose own aunt delivered her to these anthropophagi, and for having -another child that they were feeding up to sacrifice and eat on the -first days of January, in commemoration of the feast of the King of -Africa. I assisted at the trial, and there appeared to have been no -doubt that if the public prosecutor had desired to verify the case -minutely, not only the witnesses, but even the mother of the victim, -merited the same fate as the cannibals who were proved to have eaten -her.” - -“President Geffrard, who is not afraid of the Vaudoux, although all the -mountains and plains of the republic are full of these anthropophagi, -with an energy which does him honour has caused the authorities -to throw down the altars, collect the drums, timbrels, and other -ridiculous instruments which the Papalois use in their diabolical -ceremonies, and in the district of Port-au-Prince has imprisoned many -individuals of both sexes, who, on being interrogated, confessed what -had been the fate of other children who had disappeared from their -homes, and whose whereabouts were unknown.” - -As an instance of what occurred in the time of the Emperor Soulouque, -I may again seek the testimony of Mr. Alvarez. In 1852, in consequence -of a denunciation, Vil Lubin, governor of Port-au-Prince, arrested in -the neighbourhood of that city about fifty individuals of both sexes. -On examining the house in which human sacrifices were offered, packages -of salted human flesh were found rolled up in leaves. These were thrown -into the sea. During the examination of the prisoners, they declared -that among the members of the best families of the city were many -associates of the society of the Vaudoux, and that if the authorities -desired to be satisfied of this assertion, let them be permitted to -beat the little drum. They would present themselves even to the Emperor -Soulouque himself, for among the Vaudoux worshippers no one under peril -of his life would be wanting to his engagements. This case was allowed -to drop. - -In part proof of the above statement, Mr. Alvarez tells the following -story:--One of the principal ladies of Port-au-Prince, rich, and of -good family, was found late at night by General Vil Lubin stretched -out at the door of the Catholic cathedral, wearing only the blue dress -of the country negresses, without shoes, and going through certain -incantations called _wanga_. The governor accompanied this lady to her -house. I knew the person to whom Mr. Alvarez alludes, and certainly she -was one of the last women whom I should have suspected to have belonged -to the Vaudoux. - -I add some further observations of Mr. Alvarez, as they give the view -held by a Catholic who represented a Catholic power:--“1862.--The -delegate of his Holiness, Monseigneur Testard du Cocquer, has left, -much disgusted with this country on account of the corruption of its -customs, the dearth of religion among the sectaries of the Vaudoux, -and the opposition and want of confidence with which he met in what is -called in Hayti civilised society. In order that you may appreciate -the accuracy of the incidents which pass here, a simple narration of -some of a very recent epoch will be sufficient to show the powerful -influence exercised on the inhabitants by the sect or the society of -the Vaudoux, so spread throughout the country; this, with other causes -inherent in the race, to which it would be tiresome to refer, prove -that Hayti is, of all the republics in America, the most backward and -the most pernicious in every point of view. From the same motive, I -will not stop to speak of the origin of the fetish religion of the -Vaudoux, or the worship of the serpent, imported from the tribes of the -west coast of Africa by the slaves coming from that country, and I now -pass to facts. - -“In the month of August past (1862) there died, in the section called -Belair, a negro, and his body was taken to the Catholic church. -The defunct belonged to the society of the Vaudoux. The men and -women who accompanied the corpse began in the temple to scream like -those possessed, and they commenced a scene such as might occur in -Mid-Africa. The Abbé Pascal tried to re-establish order; his requests -that they should respect the sacred precincts were useless; and -the Abbé having refused, on account of this scandalous conduct, to -accompany the body to the cemetery, the mourners fell upon him, seized -him by the collar, and he had to fly to the sacristy, the interference -of a foreigner alone saving him from further ill-treatment; but the -tumult was so great that even the cross which is used at funerals was -broken to pieces. Two women were taken out fainting, and the rabble -marched off to the cemetery to bury the body; some arrests were made, -but it is not known what punishment was inflicted, as the tribunals -always leave unpunished the misdemeanours of the sectaries of the -Vaudoux, as I am going to prove.” - -Mr. Alvarez then tells a horrible story, to which I shall refer farther -on, as it belongs to a different section of this chapter. - -“In February 1862 a negro was taken prisoner at Ouanaminthe for having -assassinated his father. He was condemned to death by the tribunals; -but he defended himself by saying that he had done no more than follow -the orders of the serpent. In a few months he was set at liberty. - -“It is not long since that in one of the streets of Port-au-Prince -was found at early morn the body of an unknown youth, of about twenty -years of age, who had a weapon piercing his heart, and attached to -that a thin hollow cane. It was supposed that he was assassinated in -order to suck his blood. I might cite many other facts of which I have -taken note, but what I have related appear sufficient for the object I -have proposed to myself. The disappearance of children is frequent at -certain epochs or seasons, and it is supposed that they are eaten by -the cannibals of this society. - -“In the secret ceremonies of the Vaudoux the drink in use is the -blood of animals mixed with white rum, and the Papaloi, either from -the immoderate use they make of alcohol mixed with blood, or from the -handling of the poisons they use in their devil craft, die in general, -although at an advanced age, covered with leprosy and incurable sores.” -I myself heard this stated whilst in Hayti, but I fear that a few -exceptions have in this case made the rule. - -“The people endure every possible oppression from the Papaloi, and if -you ask them why they permit these vexations and the abuses which are -committed against one another, they answer, ‘We are indeed obliged, -unhappy that we are: if we denounced our neighbours, certainly we -should quickly die.’ From which it may be inferred that they tolerate -this conduct because they fear, and they fear because they know each -other.” This fear of one another is noticed by all foreign residents -in Hayti: it extends to the higher classes. - -“The society of the Vaudoux, although now (1862, time of Geffrard) not -so preponderant as in the time of Soulouque, who was one of its most -believing followers, is very extended in all the republic, but there -are few initiated into the secrets; they have their signs and symbols, -and the society meddles in the politics of every Government which has -existed in Hayti; they sometimes sustain them, as in certain cases they -will act as a secret police, and the Vaudoux is looked on as one of the -firmest props of the independence of the country.” - -I may notice that the Papaloi lead the most depraved lives. They are -feared by all, and the fear inspired is so great, that few women among -the lower orders would resist their advances. It may probably be looked -upon as an honour. Unlimited drink is the next idea of happiness to a -negro, and in this the offerings of their followers enable the priests -to indulge to their hearts’ content. - -After studying the history of Hayti, one is not astonished that the -fetish worship continues to flourish. The negroes imported from the -west coast of Africa naturally brought their religion with them, -and the worship of the serpent was one of its most distinguishing -features. St. Méry speaks of the slaves arriving with a strange -mixture of Mohammedanism and idolatry, to which they soon added a -little Catholicism. Of Mohammedanism I have not myself observed -a trace. When they found the large, almost harmless, serpent in -Hayti, they welcomed it as their god, and their fetish priests soon -collected their followers around them. The French authorities tried -to put down all meetings of the Vaudoux, partly because they looked -upon them as political, but they did not succeed in their object. -Many of the tribes in Africa are to this day cannibals, and their -ancestors imported probably this taste into the French colony. It was -difficult at that epoch to indulge in it, as all the children of the -slaves were carefully registered, and their disappearance would have -been immediately remarked; they may, however, have made use of the -expedients for producing apparent death, to which I will presently -refer. - -Many persons appear to think that cannibalism is a later importation, -and came with the Africans freed by our cruisers. If it were so, the -seed fell on good ground, as the practice has spread to every district -of the island. This opinion, however, can scarcely be correct, as -Moreau de St. Méry, in naming the different tribes imported into -Hayti, says:--“Never had any a disposition more hideous than the last -(the Mondongues), whose depravity has reached the most execrable of -excesses, that of eating their fellow-creatures. They bring also to -Santo Domingo those butchers of human flesh (for in their country there -are butcheries where they sell slaves as they would calves), and they -are here, as in Africa, the horror of the other negroes.” - -This is a fitting introduction to the second part of this chapter, -in which I must refer to the great knowledge of herbs as poisons and -antidotes shown by the Papaloi--which, though possibly exaggerated -by some inquirers, is no doubt very great--and to cannibalism as not -connected with religious rites. - -In the following passages from Mr. Alvarez’s notes, the first -impression will be that there must be gross exaggeration. I thought so -when I first read them, but the more my inquiries extended, the less I -was inclined to doubt them. If not exactly true, it is the firm belief -of all classes of society that they are so. During thirteen years, -I had the best opportunities of hearing the opinion of Presidents, -intelligent Secretaries of State, the principal members of the medical -profession, lawyers, merchants, both foreign and native, as well as -other residents, who had passed a lifetime in the republic, and the -testimony was more or less unanimous as to the profound knowledge of -the use of herbs possessed by the Papaloi. - -“The human imagination cannot conceive anything more absurd, more -barbarous, or more ridiculous than the acts committed by these -ferocious sectaries, who are called Papaloi, Papa Boco, or other names -as stupid as they are ill-sounding. They produce death--apparent, slow, -or instantaneous--madness, paralysis, impotence, idiocy, _riches or -poverty_, according to their will. - -“It has happened on occasions that persons have retired to bed in -the possession of their senses to awaken idiots, and remain in -that state in spite of the aid of science, and in a few days to be -completely cured, when the causes which have produced the alienation -have ceased. One individual struck another; the latter threatened him -with impotency. At the end of fifteen days he was paralytic in all -his members.[11] Following the counsels of a friend, he consulted a -Papaloi, who had the coolness to confess that he had himself sold to -his enemy the philter that had reduced him to that state, but for the -sum of about £20 he would cure him. In fact, in a few days, by means -of the remedies of the Papa, he was completely restored to health. -And if it be doubted that these individuals, without even common -sense, can understand so thoroughly the properties of herbs and their -combinations, so as to be able to apply them to the injury of their -fellow-creatures, I can only say that tradition is a great book, and -that they receive these instructions as a sacred deposit from one -generation to another, with the further advantage that in the hills and -mountains of this island grow in abundance similar herbs to those which -in Africa they employ in their incantations.” - -One case occurred in 1860, which was really so remarkable, and drew so -much attention at the time, that there was no possibility of doubting -it. It was supported by ample testimony. It was first told me by one -of the most eminent medical men in Port-au-Prince, and confirmed by -another, who had been an eyewitness of some of the details, and pledged -his word as to its truth. I one day mentioned the story in the French -Legation, as I was still somewhat sceptical, when, to my surprise, I -found that it had been made the subject of an official report. Count -Mégan, at that time _chargé d’affaires_ (1867), offered to give me an -extract relating to that crime, with permission to publish it in any -book I might write. - -The following are the particulars:--“The police having been informed -that some shrieks had been heard at night in the cemetery of -Port-au-Prince, went there in the morning, and found a grave disturbed, -and near it an open coffin, and lying at the side the body of a lady -that had been buried on the previous day. A dagger had been thrust into -her bosom, and as blood covered her burial clothes, it was evident that -she had been buried alive. Many arrests took place, but the affair -was hushed up. It was currently reported, however, that the husband -had a mistress, whom he neglected after marriage, and that this woman -applied to a Mamanloi for aid. She received a sleeping potion which she -contrived to give to the lady during her first confinement, and she -was hurriedly buried, to be restored to consciousness in the graveyard -at dead of night, with her rival armed with a dagger before her. Her -shrieks drew the attention of some Jamaica negroes, who ran towards -the spot shouting, but whom superstition prevented from entering the -cemetery. Their shouts, however, caused the murderers to fly, and leave -the corpse where it was found next morning.” This is the story as told -me by my medical friends, and it was universally believed to be true, -and in fact was true, and was never denied by those in authority with -whom I conversed on the subject. - -The accounts given by my French and Spanish colleagues were more -complete, and probably more exact, as they were both in Port-au-Prince -when this tragedy occurred. My previous French colleague (the Marquis -de Forbin Janson) wrote, 2d August 1860:-- - -“Deux jours après mon arrivé à Port-au-Prince, une femme endormie au -moyen d’un narcotique et enterrée le soir au cimetière de la ville, fut -exhumée dans la nuit; elle respirait encore, on la tua, puis on enleva -la cervelle, le cœur et la foi de la victime, dont on retrouva de -débris près de la tombe: le lendemain matin une enquête fut ordonnée, -on fit plusieurs arrestations, entre autres celle d’une prêtresse du -Vaudoux (Mamanloi). Cette femme fit des révélations y, offrit même de -livrer à la justice les auteurs du meurtre et de la profanation en -les attirant à la prison par une puissance irresistible ou ballant -de son tambour d’une manière particulière. La justice et la police, -déjà effrayées du nombre et de l’importance des personnes compromises, -reculèrent devant cette nouvelle épreuve. On ordonna aux journaux de -se taire et l’affaire fut étouffée. On croit que la principale mobile -du crime fut un sentiment de vengeance, mais on tient pour certain -que les parties mutilées ont été destinées à la célébration de quelque -mystère Vaudoux du fetichisme africain encore pratiqué, quoiqu’on dise, -par la grande majorité des Haïtiens.” - -I think this case of so much importance, that, at the risk of -repetition, I will give the report made by Mr. Alvarez:-- - -“In July of 1860 there was committed in Port-au-Prince a horrible, -almost an incredible crime. A young woman died suddenly, and was buried -on the following day. At night several individuals of both sexes went -to the cemetery, dug up the coffin, and opened it. What they actually -did is not known, but what is positive is that the unburied began to -shriek and shout for help. The guard near the cemetery, composed of -Jamaicans, Louisianians, and Creoles, approached, and saw the woman -sitting in the coffin, and various persons--a torch in one hand and a -dagger in the other--vociferating words they could not understand. The -Creole soldiers of the country fled dismayed, but the Louisianians, -as soon as they had overcome the first feeling of terror, ran to the -succour of the unburied; already it was too late, they found her dead -from the stroke of a dagger, and her heart and lungs torn from her -bosom. The assassins escaped, but subsequently some prisoners were -made. In a few days the prisoners were at liberty; and it is related -that the lungs and the heart had been cooked and eaten in one of the -country-houses in Bizoton.” - -My friend, Auguste Elie, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, -deplored but could not deny the truth of this story; and having no -Vaudoux prejudices himself, having been born and bred in France, -conversed freely on the subject, and told us many particulars that had -come to his knowledge. - -Of the truth of the following story I had the testimony of ocular -witnesses. A lady hearing that a child near her house was ill, went -down to see it. She found it lying stupefied in the mother’s lap. Her -suspicions were aroused, and she sharply questioned the mother as to -what had been done to the child. Her answers were so unsatisfactory, -yet mournful, that the lady determined to keep a watch on the case. She -called in the evening, and was told the child was dead. She insisted -on seeing the corpse, and found that though the heart was still and -the pulse had ceased to beat, yet that the child did not look dead, -and made the remark to the bystanders, but they answered, “Yes, it is -dead.” She told the mother she was not satisfied, and that she would -return in the morning with her husband, and that in the meantime the -body must not be buried. Next day she and her husband walked down to -the house, and asked to see the body. The mother replied that the -neighbours having insisted, she had allowed them to bury her child, -and pointed out the grave. The French gentleman called to some of his -labourers, and had the grave opened. There they found the coffin, but -the child’s body was absent. Arrests were made, but nothing came of -it. It is supposed that it was by this means that the Papalois were -enabled to obtain victims during the French colonial period. - -It is useless to multiply instances of these horrors; but that they are -practised all over the island more or less under every government that -has existed in Hayti is certain. - -You often hear the expression used in Hayti, “Li gagné chagrin,” which, -though, referring occasionally to a known cause, often applies to a -sort of anæmia of the mind, when a person appears to care for nothing, -or for what becomes of him. I have inquired as to what had been done to -the man, and the answer, if in company, was, “We don’t know;” if you -asked a person privately, he would probably reply that somebody had -given him _wanga_, a generic word for poisons, philters, and charms. - -The remark I made when I first began to inquire into this subject may -naturally be repeated by others. If the majority of Haytians be tainted -by the Vaudoux, who is it that denounces these horrible crimes, and how -could a remedy be found? The answer is, that there are in Hayti, as I -have before noticed, two sects of Vaudoux worshippers; one, perhaps -the least numerous, that indulges in human sacrifices, the other that -holds such practices in horror, and is content with the blood of the -white goat and the white cock. At one time the police took no notice -of the latter, and permitted them to carry on their ceremonies in -Port-au-Prince in a large courtyard adjoining a house in which a -friend of mine lived. To preserve as much secrecy as possible, the -courtyard was hung round with cloth hangings, and watchmen placed to -keep prying eyes at a distance; but my friend, though not curious, -occasionally got a glimpse of the proceedings. They were much as those -described by Moreau de St. Méry. In the country districts the Catholic -priests say this sect calls themselves, “Les Mystères,” and that they -mingle Christian and Vaudoux ceremonies in a singular manner. The name -probably refers to the rites they practise. I have been assured by many -gentlemen connected with the Haytian police, that if the followers of -this sect did not secretly denounce to them the crimes committed by the -others, it would be almost impossible for them to keep the assassin -sect in check. It is probable that, acting with these comparatively -harmless savages, the Haytian Government might be able to do much, if -ever it seriously desires to put an end to the shedding of human blood. - -I have been told that, besides the goat and cock, the Vaudoux -occasionally sacrifice a lamb; this idea they have probably taken from -the Catholic Church--the paschal lamb; it is carefully washed, combed, -and ornamented before being sacrificed. - -All that I have hitherto related refers more or less to human -sacrifices as connected with religion; but there is another -phase--cannibalism as practised for the sake of the food which the -slaughtering of human beings affords to a vile section of the community. - -In Mr. Consul Hutchinson’s paper on the traits of African tribes, -published in the “Transactions of the Ethnological Society,” New -Series, vol. i. p. 338, he states: “I have during the last year seen -it stated in a Sierra Leone newspaper, on the authority of Mr. Priddy, -a missionary of the Countess of Huntingdon’s Connection in that -colony, not that _he had heard of_, but _that he had seen_ hampers of -dried human flesh carried about on men’s backs, to be sold for eating -purposes, in the progress of a recent civil war between the Soosoo and -Tisnney tribes.”[12] This is very similar to what was seen by a lady of -my acquaintance in Hayti. - -A lady, the widow of a missionary, was forced to stay in the interior -of Hayti (north-east of Gonaives), after the death of her husband, on -account of the civil war in the surrounding districts in the years 1868 -and 1869, and she related some horrible incidents which were of her own -knowledge. She declared that human sacrifices were constant, that human -flesh was openly sold in the market. One would willingly have believed -in exaggeration; but similar incidents, which occurred during the reign -of Soulouque, related to me by one so intelligent and truthful as -Auguste Elie, compelled me to accept as veritable the horrible stories -she told in full detail. - -Monsieur Desjardins, an eminent French merchant in Port-au-Prince, -remarked to me that, walking near Cap Haïtien, he met a party of -soldiers beating a man with their clubs; he inquired the reason, and -they told their prisoner to open his basket, and there he saw the body -of a child cut up into regular joints. - -Auguste Elie told me he knew the following incident as a fact, -which occurred during the reign of Soulouque. A man with whom he -was acquainted was visiting in the plains with his wife, when she -complained of feeling unwell, and they mounted their horses to return -to town. At sunset, a violent storm coming on, they determined to halt -at a cottage they saw near. They entered, and found two men and a woman -there; his wife becoming worse, he determined to seek help, but was a -long time before he could find any one to accompany him. On his return -to the house, he inquired for his wife, and the people said that, -becoming uneasy at his long absence, she had followed him. He rode away -without saying a word, and calling at the next police station, induced -the men to follow him; they surrounded the cottage, arrested the three -inmates, and on searching the premises, found the body of the woman, -already dismembered, in a cask in an outhouse. A thick layer of salt -had been thrown over the remains. The only punishment these assassins -received was that administered by the clubs of the police whilst -conducting them to prison. - -The Haytians occasionally publish accounts of these crimes. I read the -following in one of their local papers. At Jacmel, on the southern -coast, an old woman, a midwife, was lying on her death-bed surrounded -by her neighbours, and they were somewhat surprised at her long -struggles and loud groaning. At last she said, “I cannot die in peace; -put aside the bed and dig underneath;” and on doing so, great was their -astonishment to come on numerous small skeletons, which the old fiend -acknowledged were the remains of children she had eaten. After this -confession they say she died quietly. One cannot but be reminded of -the horrible picture in the Wiertz Gallery in Brussels of the woman -cutting up and cooking the infant. It must have been painted under the -influence of nightmare. - -That the practice of midwives slaying children for the purpose of -eating them is an old one in Hayti is proved by the following story, -related by Moreau de St. Méry:-- - -“On a eu à Saint Domingue (Haïti) des preuves que les Mondongues y -avait gardé leur odieuse inclination, notamment en 1786, dans une -negresse accoucheuse et hospitalière sur une habitation aux environs de -Jérémie. Le propriétaire ayant remarqué que la plupart des negrillons -périssait dans les huit premiers jours de leur naissance, fit épier la -matrone; on l’a surpris mangeant un de ces enfans récemment inhumé, et -elle avoua qu’elle les faisait périr dans ce dessin.” - -As late as 1878, the last year of which I propose to treat, two women -were arrested in a hut near Port-au-Prince. They were caught in the -act of eating the flesh of a child raw. On further examination it was -found that all the blood had been sucked from the body, and that -part of the flesh had been salted for later use. In 1869 the police -arrested, in that beautiful valley to which I have referred in my first -chapter, about a dozen cannibals, and brought them bound to La Coupe. -They had been denounced by the opposing sectaries of the Vaudoux. From -the time they were taken from their houses they were beaten in the -most unmerciful manner, and when thrown into prison they were tortured -by the thumbscrew and by tightened cords round their foreheads, and -under the influence of these they made some fearful avowals, in which, -however, little confidence could be placed. A French priest, with whom -I was on intimate terms, hearing of their arrest, had the curiosity -to go and see them. At first they would not converse with him, but -when they found him protesting against the inhumanity with which they -had been treated, and threatening the jailer that he would officially -report him should such conduct continue, they placed more confidence -in him. He visited them nearly every day, and had many conversations -with them in private. They confessed to him that their avowals under -torture were true; and when the priest, horrified by the details, said -to a mother, “How could you eat the flesh of your own children?” she -answered coolly, “And who had a better right,--est-ce que ce n’est pas -moi qui les ai fait?”[13] - -One of these prisoners died under the torture of the cord tightened -round his forehead. - -Though the Haytians believe in the mythical “_loup garou_,” -they have also the fullest faith in his counterpart among their -fellow-countrymen. It is the _loup garou_ who is employed by the -Papaloi to secure a child for sacrifice in case the neighbourhood does -not furnish a suitable subject; and they are supposed to hang about -lonely houses at night to carry off the children. I have often heard -my young Haytian servants rush into my country-house laughingly saying -that they had seen a _loup garou_--their laugh, however, tinged with -a sort of dread. They have often said that these human monsters prowl -about the house at night, and that nothing but the presence of my dogs -kept them in respect. I have occasionally seen the object of their fear -in an ill-looking negro hanging about the gate, but the sight of my -dogs was enough to induce him to move on. The negroes have fortunately -an almost superstitious terror of dogs. - -There is no doubt that these _loup garous_ do carry off many children, -not only for the priests, but for cannibals. They generally look only -for native children, and I have only heard of one instance in which -they attempted to carry off a white girl. She was snatched from the -arms of her nurse, whilst walking on the Champs de Mars, by a huge -negro, who ran off with her towards the woods, but being pursued by two -mounted gentlemen who accidentally witnessed the occurrence, he dropped -the child to save himself. - -One of my Haytian friends who had studied botany informed me that the -number of poisonous plants to be found on the island is very great, -and that it was absolutely certain that the Papalois made use of them -in their practices. I believe in some French botanical works lists of -these plants have been published, and their medical value would appear -to merit further study. It is not more remarkable that the Papalois -should know the properties of the plants in Hayti than that the Indians -of Peru and Bolivia should have discovered the properties of the -cinchona bark and the coca-leaf. - -If it be remembered that the republic of Hayti is not a God-forsaken -region in Central Africa, but an island surrounded by civilised -communities; that it possesses a Government modelled on that of France, -with President, Senate, and House of Representatives; with Secretaries -of State, prefects, judges, and all the paraphernalia of courts of -justice and of police; with a press more or less free; and, let me add, -an archbishop, bishops, and clergy, nearly all Frenchmen,--it appears -incredible that sorcery, poisonings for a fee by recognised poisoners, -and cannibalism, should continue to pervade the island. The truth is, -that except during one year of Geffrard’s Presidency, no Government -has ever cared resolutely to grapple with the evil. If they have not -encouraged it, they have ignored it, in order not to lose the favour of -the masses. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE GOVERNMENT. - - -The government of Hayti[14] is in form republican, but is in fact -a military despotism, all power being concentrated in the hands of -the President, who carries out or ignores the laws according to his -pleasure. There are Secretaries of State, a Senate, and House of -Representatives; but in General Geffrard’s time the Ministers had -no power in their respective departments, but were simply clerks to -register the will of the chief of the state. The Senate was very -humble, whilst the House of Representatives, when it showed any signs -of independence, as in the memorable session of 1863, was summarily -dismissed, and a packed Chamber substituted. - -During the time of the next President, General Salnave, the civil war -prevented the Congress meeting regularly. The Chambers met once; but -drawn swords, pistol-shots, and yelling mobs caused the deputies to -understand that with Salnave as chief of the State constitutional -government had disappeared. “In revolutionary times, revolutionary -measures,” said Salnave’s Chief Minister; “we must return to the -immortal principles of 1793.” He talked much of cutting off heads, -but, to his credit be it said, whilst Minister he never shed a drop of -blood. Enough had been done of that during the revolution of 1865. - -The presidency of Nissage-Saget followed. Though the shooting of -General Chevalier showed that he could act as illegally as any of -his predecessors, yet he was a quiet man, who would have worked with -the House of Representatives if they had connived at some of his -peccadilloes, and been blind to those of his Ministers, who were often -most unhappily chosen. But they were of more than Roman sternness -with their friends in power. However, both the Senate and the Chamber -of Deputies certainly influenced the Government; but as the majority -was generally in opposition, quarrels with the executive followed, -and Nissage-Saget, in revenge, connived at the illegal appointment of -General Domingue to the presidentship in the spring of 1874. From this -time forward Hayti has been going from bad to worse, until revolution -after revolution has brought the old Finance Minister of Soulouque into -the Government, and General Salomon is now President of Hayti. - -It may be seen from the above sketch that constitutional government -is not likely to be favourably developed in such a soil as that of -Hayti. The mass of the population, being ignorant Africans, wish to -be governed by a despotic chief, and not by what they irreverently -call a “tas de voleurs.” No constitutional checks are sufficiently -strong to overcome the popular will, and as yet few Presidents have -been able to resist the desire of the people for personal government. -They themselves seldom show any disposition to thwart this national -predilection. - -I have known Hayti for upwards of twenty years, and I must confess that -one by one my illusions have passed away, and my opinions are very -changed indeed from what they were during my first year’s residence in -that country. I then knew a number of enthusiastic young lawyers and -others, deputies and government employés, who talked admirably of their -projects of reform, and of their desire to see the country advance in -civilisation. I believed in this party, and was eager to see it arrive -at power; but when it did have a chance of having a Government united -with the Legislature in carrying out judicious reforms, it proved a -most lamentable failure. Boisrond-Canal was President, a man full of -good intentions, honest, who had fought gallantly against the savage -tyranny of Salnave, and whose conduct then had merited the eulogium -passed on him of a man “sans peur et sans reproche.” No sooner was this -chief in power, than his former friends, jealous of his advancement, -fell away from him, raised opposition in the Chambers, thwarted every -project of Government, and at last, by their plots and an appeal to -arms, brought on a revolution, which ultimately swept Boisrond-Canal -and all his mean plotting and scheming opponents out of the country, -and brought in General Salomon. The question of “What will he do with -it?” is anxiously watched; and there are many who believe that a -paternal despotism is the best solution, and may give the country some -years of comparative peace. - -The Government of General Salomon has had its baptism of blood, and -dozens of those whom I well knew have been shot since its advent. -The Government accuse these gentlemen of having conspired. Their -friends declare that General Salomon wished to revenge private wrongs -of old standing, and imitate General Soulouque in terrifying the -coloured population by wholesale massacres. Septimus Rameau, under -President Domingue, followed this policy. He selected three of his -most formidable adversaries to murder; succeeded with two, and drove -many of the coloured population into exile. This is what is termed -energetic action. It appears the starting-point for black Presidents, -who know that no sooner are they installed in power than the coloured -population begin to conspire. How far there is any truth in the charge -of conspiracy against those gentlemen who were then residing in Hayti, -I will not at this distance of time attempt to determine; but it is -probable that their deaths may be somewhat laid at the door of those -who, from their secure retreat in Jamaica, launched their pamphlets -against the new Government. - -Constitution-making is almost the necessary result of any change of -government in Hayti. In 1805 Dessalines issued the first constitution, -which was revised next year by President Pétion. In the northern -province Christophe had his own constitution as President, which he -also had to revise in 1811 when he became King. In the western and -northern provinces under Pétion, the constitution was also changed in -1816, and had a long life, as it lasted till the expulsion of President -Boyer in 1843, when the successful insurgents determined to have a -fresh constitution, which, however, did not last long, as President -Riché returned in 1846 to that of Pétion of 1816, only somewhat -revised. In 1849 Soulouque, becoming Emperor, had a new constitution -to suit the occasion, which lasted till his expulsion. Geffrard did -not attempt to construct a new social pact; but the revolution under -Salnave voted one in 1867, which was set aside in 1874 by Domingue. -The last constitution is that which was voted in 1879 under General -Salomon, and is the one now in force in Hayti. - -On the 23d October 1879, General Salomon was elected President for -seven years, and the constitution is dated 18th December 1879. It -consists of 205 Articles. - -Article 1. “The republic of Hayti is one and indivisible; its territory -and the dependent islands are inviolable, and cannot be alienated by -any treaty or convention.” This is a very favourite formula in America, -and was the pretext for continuing a useless war on the Pacific coast, -as both Peru and Bolivia declared that their constitutions forbid a -cession of territory. That its territory should remain inviolable -depends on its own conduct and the will of others, and is therefore -rather superfluous. - -The articles relating to Haytians and their rights have been somewhat -modified, and are more liberal than in former constitutions. Article -4 declares that every African or Indian and their descendants are -capable of becoming Haytians; and a concession is added, that, on the -proposition of the President of Hayti, any foreigner fulfilling certain -conditions may became a citizen. - -Article 6 declares that only a Haytian can become the possessor -of real property. This is less offensive than the form of the old -article:--“Aucun blanc quelque soit sa nation ne pourra mettre le pied -sur ce territoire à titre de maître ou de propriétaire.” It would be -better for their prosperity to allow every one to acquire property -in their country, but one is not surprised that their fear of the -interference of foreign Governments should make them exclusive. - -Articles 8 to 13 contain the civil and political rights of the -citizens. Article 8 in the constitution of 1874 is omitted. It declared -the right of asylum (in legations and consulates) to be sacred and -inviolable, a curious subject to mention in a constitution. - -Articles 14 to 40 are devoted to public right. - -Article 14. Haytians are equal before the law, but a naturalised -foreigner is not admissible to legislative and executive functions. - -Article 16. “Individual liberty is guaranteed.” This article has never -been attended to by any Government. Every petty official thinks he -has a right to “flanqué en prison” any one he pleases; and the next -article, Art. 17, that he must be sent before the judge named by the -constitution is also forgotten, and people have been kept years in -prison without redress. Art. 18. Every house in Hayti is an inviolable -asylum. - -Article 24 declares “en matière politique elle (la peine de mort) est -abolie, et remplacée par la détention perpétuelle dans une prison.” -Nothing could better illustrate the absurdity of Haytian laws and -Haytian constitutions. The pen was scarcely dry that signed this -constitution than political proscriptions commenced, and there is -scarcely a city in Hayti that is not red with the blood of men accused -or suspected of conspiring against the Government of General Salomon. - -Article 25. “Every one has the right to express his opinions on every -subject, and to write, print, and publish his thoughts,” &c. &c.,--full -liberty of the press. This is on a par with Article 24. - -Article 26. Liberty of worship. This is carried to its full extent, and -every religion, African and Christian, is free. - -Article 30. “Instruction is free. Public instruction is free and -gratuitous. Primary instruction is obligatory and gratuitous.” This is -for the future. In Hayti to decree the establishment of anything is -supposed to be sufficient for its fulfilment. - -Article 31. Trial by jury is established in all criminal and political -cases. - -Article 35. “The secrecy of letters is inviolable.” In President -Salnave’s time, the letters were taken to the Prefect of Police, opened -and read, and then delivered without any attempt to close them; the -letters addressed to foreigners were not respected. - -Article 40. “Public debts are guaranteed and placed under the safeguard -of the loyalty of the nation.” When General ---- went to a famous -banker in Paris to contract a debt for Hayti, the capitalist asked -him what security he proposed to offer. The Minister replied, “La -constitution place les dettes publiques sous la sauvegarde de la -loyauté de la nation.” The banker looked fixedly at him for a moment -and then coolly said, “I have _business_ to attend to,--good morning.” - -Articles 41 to 49 are on the sovereignty and the exercise of the powers -therefrom derived. Art. 41. The national sovereignty resides in the -universality of the citizens. Art. 42. The exercise of that sovereignty -is delegated to three powers. The three powers are the legislative, -the executive, and the judicial. They form the government of the -republic, which is essentially democratic and representative. Art. 44. -The legislative power is exercised by two representative chambers,--a -chamber of deputies and a senate. Art. 45. These two can be united in a -National Assembly according to the constitution. - -Article 46. The executive power is delegated to a citizen, who takes -the title of President of the republic. - -Article 47. Affairs which exclusively relate to the communes are -regulated by the communal councils, under the control of the executive -power. - -Article 48. The judicial power is exercised by a court of cassation, -civil courts, courts of appeal, of commerce and of police. - -Article 49. Individual responsibility is distinctly attached to every -public function. - -Articles 50 to 56. Representatives are elected by the primary -assemblies of each commune. Representatives must be twenty-five years -of age, and are elected for five years, and are paid £60 a month, -during the duration of the session. - -Articles 57 to 66 treat of the Senate: it consists of thirty members -elected for six years. The senators are elected by the Chamber of -Deputies from two lists of candidates, one presented by the electoral -assemblies, and the other by the executive power. A senator must -be thirty years of age; the Senate is renewed by thirds every two -years. The Senate can only meet during the legislative session, save -in exceptional cases: on adjournment it leaves a standing committee -composed of five members. The salary of each senator is £360 a year. - -Articles 67 to 69 refer to the National Assembly, or union of the -Senate and House of Representatives in one chamber. The National -Assembly meets at the opening of every session. The prerogatives of -the National Assembly are:--To elect a president, to declare war, -to approve treaties, which will have no effect until so approved, -to authorise the contraction of loans, the establishment of a -national bank, to change the capital of the republic, to revise the -constitution, to give letters of naturalisation. - -Articles 70 to 100 refer to the exercise of the legislative power. - -Article 71. The Legislature meets by full right on the first Monday in -April of each year. - -Article 73. The President, with the consent of two-thirds of the -Senate, can dissolve the Chambers. - -Article 77. Every member takes an oath to maintain the rights of the -people, and to be faithful to the constitution. - -Article 79. Money bills must originate in the Commons. The rest of the -articles refer to the duties and the rights of the members. - -Articles 101 to 123 refer to the President. He is elected for seven -years, and not immediately re-eligible--must be forty years of age and -proprietor of real estate. The President is called upon to swear the -following oath:--“Je jure devant Dieu, devant la nation, d’observer, -de faire observer fidèlement la constitution, et les lois du peuple -Haïtien, de respecter ses droits, de maintenir nationale et l’intégrité -du territoire.” I wonder whether any President, when he took that oath, -really intended to observe it. For example-- - -Article 24. On the non-punishment with death of political offences. -General Salomon must have suffered greatly on this account. - -Articles 110 and 111. The President commands the forces by sea and -land, and confers rank in the army according to law, and appoints as -well all civil functionaries. - -Article 112. He makes treaties. - -Article 114. He has the right of amnesty and pardon. - -Article 115. Every measure must be submitted to a council of -Secretaries of State, and (Art. 116) every act countersigned by one of -them. - -Article 120. The Chamber can impeach the President before the Senate. - -Article 122. Salary of President, £5000 a year. - -Articles 124 to 131 treat of the Secretaries of State, who must -be thirty years of age; they form a council presided over by the -President; they have free entry into both Chambers, to institute -measures or to oppose others; they can be called before the Chambers -to answer interpellations, which they must answer in public or in -secret session; they are responsible for all acts they may sign or -countersign; their pay is £1200 a year. - -Articles 132 to 135 relate to communal institutions. Each commune -has an elective council, of which the paid head, under the title of -communal magistrate, is named by the President of the republic. - -Articles 136 to 158 refer to the judicial authority. - -Article 138 is especially important in Hayti: “No extraordinary -tribunals can be created under any denomination whatever, particularly -under the name of courts-martial.” A court of cassation is established -in the capital; five courts of appeal are established, one for each -of the departments. Each commune has at least a justice of the peace; -civil courts are established for one or more arrondissements. All -judges are appointed by the President; they are immovable, and cannot -be transferred without their own consent. Tribunals of commerce are -also established. No political or press offences can be judged in -secret session. The other articles relate to the usual functions of -judges. - -Articles 159 to 165 treat of primary and electoral assemblies. Every -citizen over twenty-one has the right to vote, voting being by ballot. -At one election at Port-au-Prince, the Government were very desirous -to defeat the popular candidate, and therefore placed soldiers round -the polling-booth armed with clubs, who demanded from each elector for -whom he was going to vote. Whenever a known supporter of the candidate -approached, he was beaten or hustled away by the soldiers; the -Government finding that, in spite of these precautions, the election -was going against them, occupied the booth and stopped the voting, -under the plea of disturbance of the peace. - -Articles 166 to 178 refer to the finances. No imports can be levied -except according to law; taxes are voted yearly; no emissions of money -without legal sanction; no pensions, gratifications, &c., except -according to law; no plurality of functions; every minute precaution is -taken to ensure the most careful management of the finances, including -audit of accounts; no money can be coined abroad or bear any effigy but -that of the republic. I understand, however, that all the new dollars -were coined abroad. - -Articles 179 to 188 relate to the armed forces. The army must not -deliberate; no privileged corps; no one but a soldier can be promoted -to a military grade. In my time the majority of officers had never been -soldiers. The National Guard is composed of those citizens who are not -in the active army. - -Articles 189 to 205 refer to miscellaneous subjects. The national -colours are blue and red, placed horizontally. The white was long ago -banished from the flag. The arms of the republic are the palm-tree -surmounted by the cap of liberty and adorned by a trophy of arms, with -the motto, “L’union fait la force.” - -Article 192. “_No Haytian or foreigner can claim damages for losses -incurred during civil troubles._” A most ridiculous article, to which -no foreign Government would pay the slightest attention. - -Article 194. The national _fêtes_ are those of the independence of -Hayti and its heroes, the great hero being Dessalines, who decreed -the massacre of every defenceless man, woman, or child of white -French parentage to be found in the republic, and who was perhaps, -without exception, one of the vilest of men. January 1st is given up -to his memory, and the Haytians glory in his bloodthirsty deeds. The -second national _fête_ is to agriculture--May 1st, which is one of -the most ludicrous imaginable in its surroundings. A few cultivators -are collected with bunches of bananas and other products, and -prizes are distributed by the President, surrounded by hundreds of -sneering officers. Even they can but smile at the absurdity called -“encouragement to agriculture.” - -Article 197. No state of siege can be declared except during times of -civil trouble, and then the decree must be signed by the President and -all the Secretaries of State. - -Article 200. The constitution cannot be suspended, in whole or in part, -on any excuse whatever. It can, however, be revised under certain -conditions. - -Article 204. This is a very remarkable article. It suspends those -articles for a year which proclaim the immovability of the judges, in -order that the President may raise the magistracy to the height of its -mission. - -Although this constitution appears very elaborate and proclaims great -principles, it leaves all details to be settled by special laws, which -are seldom passed, and never acted on unless it may suit the pleasure -of the chief of the State. - -With the habits of the country, the framers of this constitution must -have known that, in making the President of Hayti swear to observe it, -they were forcing him to commit perjury by anticipation. The President -swore to it, but has not kept it, and probably never intended to keep -it. Article 24, which abolishes the punishment of death in political -cases, has been completely set aside, and dozens of coloured men of -mark have been sentenced to death and shot. - -As the Russian Government is said to be a despotism tempered by -assassination, so the Haytian Government may be called a despotism -tempered by revolution and exile, and occasionally by death. - -Their first ruler, Dessalines, was shot. Christophe committed suicide -to escape a worse fate. Pétion died President after twelve years of -power. Boyer was exiled after a Presidency that lasted for twenty-five -years. Hérard-Rivière was proclaimed President on December 30, 1843, -amid much enthusiasm, but on May 7, 1844, following he was deposed -amid greater enthusiasm, and exiled, and General Guerrier was named -President. Within less than a year he died, April 15, 1845, and General -Pierrot was elected by the Council of State, March 1, 1846. The -troops at St. Marc proclaimed Riché President, and Pierrot abdicated. -On the 27th February following (1847) Riché died, and on the 2d -March Soulouque was elected President. He soon tired of this form of -government, and proclaimed himself Emperor in August 1849, and held -that position till January 1859, when he was upset by General Geffrard -and exiled. - -Geffrard restored the republic, and held the Presidency till February -1867, when he also went into exile, to be succeeded by General Salnave -in April 1867. In January 1870 the latter was overthrown and shot. - -The only President who carried through his term of office, and was -neither exiled nor shot, was Nissage-Saget. At the completion of -his four years, he retired on a pension to his native city, and I -believe still lives. After Saget, General Domingue seized the reins -of government, but was expelled in 1876, and sent wounded into exile. -Boisrond-Canal followed. In the third year of his Presidency he was -overthrown and banished, and in October of the same year (1879) General -Salomon was elected for seven years. - -It will thus be seen that two only of all these rulers completed their -terms of office. - -As was natural in an old French colony, the divisions of the country -are French. It is divided into departments, arrondissements, and -communes, and the governing machinery is most elaborate. There are no -lack of candidates for every post. The general of the department and -the general of the arrondissement are the officers in whom all power is -really delegated, and they are generally absolute in their districts. -The Government often, however, trust more to their general of -arrondissement than to that of the department, as they fear to render -the latter too powerful. They are veritable despots as a rule, and ride -roughshod over every law at their pleasure, and are seldom called to -account by the supreme authority. - -The republic of Hayti is divided as follows:-- - - Departments. Chief Cities. Arrondissements. Communes. - - North Cap Haïtien 7 18 - North-West Port de Paix 2 5 - Artibonite Gonaives 3 9 - West Port-au-Prince 5 14 - South Les Cayes 6 21 - -- -- - 23 67 - -The department of the north is generally the most troublesome, from the -separatist ideas of the inhabitants. King Christophe carried out that -idea, and kept them independent for many years; and in 1865 Salnave -tried the same project, but failed. They are, however, always restless, -and dislike the other departments of the republic. - -The department of the south is, on the whole, the most backward of all, -and has been generally neglected, but the present holder of power, -being a native of Les Cayes, may aid its progress. - -All the other departments are jealous of that of the west, as in it -are the capital, the seat of Government, and the Treasury, to which -contributions flow from the other departments. Their object is always -to divert to local wants as much of the general revenue as possible, -and they think that if they could form separate republics, they would -have their whole income to spend. - -To sum up: At the head of the Government is a President chosen for -seven years. He is supported by four or five Secretaries of State, -who, when the chief is strong, are but his head clerks. A legislative -body exists, consisting of a Senate of thirty paid members, generally -very tractable; of a Chamber of Representatives of sixty members, also -paid, who, under a chief who has the power of life and death, give -him but little trouble. His main reliance, however, as also his main -danger, is the army. General Salomon pays particular attention to that -institution; has it strongly recruited, and, as long as its chiefs are -satisfied, may defy the isolated revolutionary attempts of his enemies. -The army is generally composed of blacks, and they look on a black -President as their rightful head. They obey a coloured chief, but it is -not willingly, and murmur at his punishments, whilst a black general -might have a man beaten to death without exciting any dissatisfaction -among his comrades. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -RELIGION, EDUCATION, AND JUSTICE. - - -RELIGION. - -During the long Presidency of General Geffrard, the concordat with -Rome was carried out in some of its most essential points. Until then -the Roman Catholic clergy in Hayti were a byword and a reproach to -every one who respected religion. There were few priests who were not -the expelled of other countries, and even adventurers had assumed the -clerical garb to obtain an easy and lucrative living. There was one -priest in the south, who was considered a _bon enfant_ and inclined to -luxurious cheer, who turned his attention to money-making, and every -week he sallied forth from the town of Les Cayes to forage in the -country districts. So that he was paid his fees, it was immaterial to -him what he was called upon to bless; he would indifferently sprinkle -holy water on a new house or a freshly built temple dedicated to the -Vaudoux worship. The simple inhabitants would bring out their stone -implements, imported in former days from Africa and used in their -fetish rites, and the priest would bless them; then he would return to -town in a jovial mood and chuckle over his gains. In comparatively a -few years that man remitted to Europe through an English house the sum -of twelve thousand pounds sterling. - -Another, whom I knew personally, lived in a town not far from the -capital, and his amours somewhat scandalised the Archbishop. He tried -in vain to have him removed from his parish. The priest was popular, -had influence in Government circles, and defied his superior. He might -have defied him to the end had he not mixed in politics; but having -embraced the losing side, he was ultimately banished.[15] - -In the same neighbourhood there lived another priest whom the -Archbishop had dismissed for living in the same house with his large -family, and for engaging in commerce; and Monseigneur also applied -to the Government to have him expelled from the republic. The curé -appealed for protection to the French Legation, saying that he should -be completely ruined if forced suddenly to abandon the country. The -representative of France, thinking he ought to have time granted him to -settle his affairs, stated the case to the Haytian Minister of Public -Worship, who agreeing with him, remarked, “Il est peut-être mauvais -prêtre, mais bon père de famille.” - -There was a priest who formerly lived at La Coupe, the summer resort -of the inhabitants of Port-au-Prince--a dapper Parisian--who was -perfectly astonished by the accounts the peasantry gave of one of his -predecessors; and I could gather from him that, short of being present -at human sacrifices, the man would join in any feast given by the -negroes in a district as full of Vaudoux worshippers as any in the -island, and his immorality equalled his other qualities.[16] - -Several of these ignoble priests were Corsicans who had been driven -from their country on account of crime. For fear, however, any one -should consider these statements to be exaggerated, I will add to the -testimony given by the Archbishop an extract from a speech of M. Valmy -Lizaire, Minister of Public Worship (1863):-- - -“N’éprouve-t-on pas un sentiment pénible et douloureux en contemplant -l’état de notre église depuis sa naissance jusqu’à ce jour, en -voyant la dignité du saint ministère souvent menacée et compromise -par des inconnus sans qualités, par quelque moines la plus part du -temps échappés de leur convents et venant offrir jusqu’à chez nous -le dangereux spectacle de leurs dérèglements? Je ne ferai point -l’horreur à plaisir en essayant de retracer içi tout ce que nos annales -religieuses renferment de désordres et d’excès. Il suffit de dire que -nulle part, peut-être dans la chrétienté, le clergé n’a profané autant -qu’en Haïti le sacerdoce dont il est revêtu.” - -At length the scandal became so intolerable that the Government of -Hayti determined to negotiate a concordat at Rome, and after many -difficulties had been overcome, it was signed in 1860, and the Pope -sent as his delegate Monseigneur Testard de Cosquer to bring it into -practice. He was one of the most pleasing of men, handsome, eloquent, -and the romantic but terrible episode related of him as the cause of -his leaving the army and entering into holy orders rendered him an -object of great interest to the fair sex. He brought with him a body of -French clergy, whom he gradually installed in the different parishes of -the republic, not, however, without a difficult struggle with those who -formerly held possession and disgraced the Church. - -The concordat consisted of seventeen articles and two additions, which -provided first for the special protection of the Catholic religion; -the establishment of an archbishopric at Port-au-Prince, and as soon -as possible other dependent bishoprics, paid by the State; nomination -by the President of three bishops subject to the approval of the -Holy See,--the clergy to take an oath of fidelity to the Government; -establishment of seminaries and chapters; nomination of priests by -the bishops of persons approved of by the Government, and a few other -arrangements of lesser importance. - -The Roman Catholic Church, however, although the religion of the -State, has never been popular in Hayti. Amongst the upper classes, -disbelief, among the lower the influence of the Vaudoux, and the -fanatical opposition of the Catholic priesthood to Freemasonry, have -combined to prevent the Church from gaining either the confidence or -the affection of the nation. Even over the women the priests exercise -less influence than in other countries. - -Although the Roman Catholic religion is that of the State, all others -are tolerated, and many Haytian Ministers have felt inclined to -encourage the Protestants, not only to counterbalance any political -influence of the priests, but with the object of creating a rivalry -in the performance of their missionary duties. These passing fits of -enlightenment, however, have been but of short duration, and little has -been done to encourage any form of religion. - -At present Hayti is divided into five dioceses; but at the time of -the last report I have seen, there were only one archbishop and two -bishops; these were aided by four vicars-generals. - -Port-au-Prince, being the capital, is the seat of the archbishopric, -where Monseigneur Guilloux still worthily holds sway, and he is aided -in his duties by a vicar and chapter. He has always had a difficult -part to play, and during the civil war of 1869 ran many risks, and was -nearly expelled the country. - -The budget makes allowance for one archbishop at £800 a year; two -bishops at £480 a year; the vicar of Port-au-Prince at £160 a year; -three other vicars at £120 a year; and sixty-seven parish priests at -£48 a year. - -Besides this regular pay, the Government is bound to furnish the clergy -with suitable residences. The Archbishop has a very comfortable and -spacious house, sufficiently furnished for the climate, and situated in -the healthiest quarter of the town. The clergy receive also many fees, -the amount for baptisms, marriages, and funerals having been fixed by -arrangement with the Government. When I was in Port-au-Prince there -was a very warm discussion as to whether the fees were to be employed -towards the payment of salary, each party accusing the other of wishing -to violate the concordat. - -After the expulsion of President Geffrard, the revolutionary party -desired to upset all his arrangements, even to the concordat. -Monseigneur Guilloux published a strong defence of that treaty, taking -very high ground, and claiming a great deal for the Church. - -This pamphlet called forth the following epigram from General Alibé -Féry:-- - - -LES DEUX ENCLOS. - - César ne doit au Christ rien soustraire à la vigne - Dit notre bon prélat plus absolu qu’un czar. - D’accord; mais ce gardien d’un végétal insigne - Doit-il parfois glaner dans le champ de César? - -This was a much-admired specimen of Haytian wit. - -As I have previously observed, Hayti has never quite reconciled -herself to the clergy, and therefore the influence exercised by the -priest is less than in other Catholic countries. There are two patent -causes: first, the hold that the Vaudoux worship has on the mass of -the people, and, second, the pertinacious opposition of the Church to -Freemasonry. - -It is the fashion to extol the intelligence and far-sightedness of the -Church of Rome, but certainly the opposition shown to Freemasonry, that -harmless institution in Hayti, has done more to injure the influence -of the Catholic clergy among the educated classes than any other -cause. All who know what Freemasonry is, know that its objects are to -promote good-fellowship, with a modicum of charity and mutual aid. The -exercise of ancient rites, which, though a mystery, are as harmless, -and perhaps as childish, as the scenes of a pantomime, never deserved -the opposition of a serious clergy. - -The Haytians are devoted to Freemasonry, and love to surround the -funerals of their brethren with all the pomp of the order. I was once -invited to a masonic funeral, and we marched through the town with -banners displayed, each member wearing the insignia of his rank; -but I noticed that as soon as the church was reached, everything -pertaining to the order was removed from the coffin, and the members -pocketed their insignia. We then entered the sacred building. The -funeral was one that greatly touched us all, as it was that of a young -officer who had that morning been killed in a duel, under peculiarly -unfortunate circumstances. The priests came forward,--suddenly they -stopped, and with signs of anger retreated up the church. A gentleman -followed to inquire the cause. The abbé answered that until all signs -of Freemasonry were removed he would not perform the ceremony. What -signs? He replied that all the mourners had little sprigs in their -button-holes, which was a masonic sign. We had all to conceal the -sprigs until the ceremony was over. It was a trifle, but it excited the -utmost anger among the mourners present. - -My deceased friend, Seguy-Villevalien, wrote me an account of what -occurred on another occasion. A general and high officer in the -brotherhood died, and the Freemasons determined to give him a grand -funeral, and President Domingue signified his intention to be present. -A great procession was organised, and was preparing to start for the -cathedral, when a messenger arrived from the vicar to say that he would -not allow the funeral to enter the church unless the masonic procession -was given up. The President was furious, and being a very violent man, -was ready to order a battalion to force a way for the funeral, when a -prudent adviser said to Domingue, “The Protestants do not object to -Freemasonry; let us send for Bishop Holly, and ask him to perform the -service for us.” - -Bishop Holly willingly consented, and the procession started for the -Protestant cathedral, where the funeral service was performed, with -banners displayed, and every other masonic sign in full view. Nearly -every man present was a Roman Catholic, and probably for the first -time in Hayti had a President, his ministers, his aides-de-camp and -followers been present in a Protestant church. - -The strongest feeling, however, against the Church arises from the -prevalence, not only of the Vaudoux worship, but of its influence. -There are thousands who would never think of attending one of its -ceremonies who yet believe in and fear the priests of this fetish -worship. The Papalois, however, as I have stated in Chapter V., do -not disdain to direct their followers to mix up with their own the -ceremonies of the Christians. They will burn candles before the church -doors; will place on the cathedral steps all the rubbish of hair and -bone which are religious emblems with them; and will have in their -temples pictures of the Virgin Mary and of Jesus Christ. In former -times they would gladly pay heavily to the degenerate priests of the -ante-concordat days to sprinkle with holy water the altars of the -temples under which their slimy god was held confined. - -When it is remembered how imbued Haytian society has been with this -degrading worship, it is perhaps not a matter of surprise how small is -the influence of the clergy among the rural population. The Catholic -priests are also comparatively few in number, dislike heartily the -life in the interior, and are paid by the State. There is also little -enthusiasm awakened by that rivalry which a successful Protestant -Church would have brought forth. - -There is no doubt but that the conduct of the clergy has been very -much criticised in Hayti, and none, from the Archbishop downwards, -have escaped the attention of the teller of merry anecdotes; but, as -far as I could myself observe, their moral conduct, with very few -exceptions indeed, was all that could be desired. At the same time they -showed little enthusiasm, cared little for their congregations, were -inclined to domineer, and preferred the comfort of their town-houses -to missionary toils in the interior, and were persistently opposed to -every liberal measure. Whilst I was in Port-au-Prince, a priest slapped -a lady’s face in church for some error in ceremonial. - -The priests of the ante-concordat period no doubt rendered the task -of the new clergy as difficult as possible, first by their pernicious -example, and then by their opposition; but Archbishop Guilloux has -now completely cleared the island of them, and has established a -respectable clergy in their place. His friends say that their influence -is daily increasing throughout the republic. - -The Protestants have not had much success in Hayti. The Episcopalians -are represented by a bishop. Mr. Holly, a convert from Romanism and -a black, was the first representative of that Church whom I met -with in Port-au-Prince. He had many of the qualities which ensure a -good reception. He had pleasant manners, was well educated, and was -thoroughly in earnest; but the pecuniary support he received was so -slight that he never could carry out his views. I believe that those -who attend the Anglican services in the whole of Hayti number less than -a thousand, and the majority of these are probably American and English -coloured immigrants. - -The Wesleyans had for their chief pastor Mr. Bird, who was an -institution in Hayti. He had a very good school, and was highly -respected. There are several chapels in different parts of the island, -and I notice, in a recent consular return, that as many as 1400 attend -the services. With other denominations combined, the Protestant -population may be considered to amount to between 3000 and 4000. - -When I first arrived in Hayti, and was curious as to the character -of certain individuals, I was often struck by the reply, “Oh! he is -an honest man, but then he is a Protestant,”--and this from Roman -Catholics! - -The Protestants are not yet in any way sufficiently numerous or -influential to be a counterpoise to the Catholic clergy, and do not, -therefore, incite the latter to exertion. I did suggest that the -Protestant clergy should all join the Freemasons’ lodges, and be ready -to perform the religious ceremonies required at funerals. It would have -greatly increased their popularity and influence in the country; but I -believe my advice was considered too worldly. - -Divorce is another bone of contention between the Catholic clergy and -the people. By the civil law divorce is recognised, and cases occur -every year. The clergy denounce those who re-marry civilly as living in -a state of concubinage, and much ill-feeling is the result. - -Although, as I have before remarked, the Catholic clergy have greatly -improved in conduct since the concordat, yet, in popular estimation, -there is still something wanting. I have not forgotten the excitement -caused by a song which a young Haytian (black) wrote on the subject. -A very good-looking priest had at all events been indiscreet, and the -Archbishop decided to banish him from the capital to a rural district. -A deputation of females, early one morning, waited on Monseigneur to -remonstrate, but he was firm, and then the song declared:-- - - “Il fallait voir pleurer les mulâtresses, - En beaux peignoirs et les cheveux au vent; - Il fallait voir sangloter les négresses - Tout ce tableau par un soleil levant. - Bon voyage, - Cher petit blanc! - Tu vas troubler l’église et le ménage. - Bon voyage, - Saint petit blanc! - Que de regrets, O mon sacré galant!” - -As there was a certain amount of truth in the scandalous stories -afloat, Monseigneur was very irritated with the author, and imprudently -applied to Government to have him arrested. He was arrested, but -his influential relatives soon procured his release, but under the -condition of suppressing the song. Of course he was the hero of the -hour, and his verses had a greater success than ever. - -Although “the complete ascendancy of the Church of Rome is incompatible -with liberty and good government,” yet it is a matter of regret that -in Hayti the Roman Catholic priests have had so little success. Their -task is no doubt difficult, and, under present circumstances, almost a -hopeless one. They cannot cope with so vast a mass of brutal ignorance -and gross superstition, and one of the best men among them used often -to complain of the little assistance they received from what might be -considered the enlightened classes. My friend Alvarez, the Spanish -_chargé d’affaires_, was very indignant at the idea presented by a -French author, Monsieur Bonneau, that Catholicism was incapable of -contending with the Vaudoux worship; but there is no doubt that as yet -nothing has had much influence in suppressing it. - -The Roman Catholic Church, however, has been greatly reinforced since I -left Hayti in 1877. It now counts as many as seventy priests, and had -above 64,000 Easter communicants in 1863. How many of these were in -secret followers of the Vaudoux? - -To afford a special supply of priests for Hayti, the Archbishop Testard -de Cosquer established in 1864 a Haytian seminary in Paris, to the -support of which the Chambers in Port-au-Prince voted 20,000 francs a -year. This allowance being irregularly paid, the seminary was closed, -but was reopened by Monseigneur Guilloux, who obtained a yearly sum of -10,000 francs from the Haytian Government. It is perhaps needless to -say that even this small amount is generally greatly in arrear. - -There can be no doubt that Monseigneur Guilloux and his clergy are -fighting a good fight in the cause of civilisation, but with such a -Government and such a people their progress must be slow. - - -EDUCATION. - -The following anecdote aptly illustrates the saying, Who shall teach -the teachers? It is a custom in Hayti that in all schools, public as -well as private, there shall be once a year a solemn examination in the -presence of a commission appointed by Government. M. Seguy-Villevalien -kept the best private school or college that Port-au-Prince had -ever seen, and on the appointed day for the public examination the -official commission arrived, and having been duly installed in the -seats of honour, teachers and pupils presented themselves, and the -work commenced. All went well till the exercises in orthography were -nearly over, when unfortunately M. Villevalien turned to the president -of the commission, a negro of the deepest dye, but a high Government -functionary, and said, “Would you like to try the boys yourself?” -“Certainly;” and various words were given, which were written down -on the black-board to the satisfaction of all. At last the president -gave the word “Pantalon,” and a smart boy carefully chalked it up. -“Stop!” cried the sable chief, “there is a mistake in that spelling.” -The master, the teachers, and the boys carefully scanned the word, and -could detect no mistake. The black had a smile of conscious superiority -on his lips. At length the master said, “I see no mistake, president.” -“You don’t! Do you not know that it is spelt with an _e_--‘pentalon’?” -After a severe glance at his pupils to prevent an explosion of -laughter, my friend, perfectly equal to the occasion, answered, “It -used to be spelt so, president, but the Academy has lately changed the -mode, and it is now spelt with an _a_.” The courtesy and gravity of M. -Villevalien’s manner was such that the president of the commission was -quite satisfied and pleased with himself. He wrote a favourable report -on the condition of the school. Had the almost uncontrollable laughter -of the boys burst forth, what would have been the report? And yet -this man was a leading spirit in his country, and thought fit for the -highest offices, though he was as stupid as he was ignorant. - -I arrived at the college just too late for this scene, but in time to -hear the cheerful laughter of the boys, who, after the departure of the -commission, made the playground ring with their merry jokes. - -President Geffrard, whose term of office extended from January 1859 to -February 1867, did more than any other chief to encourage education, -and yet, even in his time, not more than one in ten of the children of -school-age attended the educational establishments. - -Major Stuart, in his report on Hayti for the year 1876, gives some -statistical tables which show the state of these establishments in -the year 1875, and little has changed since, so that his figures will -sufficiently serve the purpose required. There were-- - - 4 lyceums with 543 pupils. - 6 superior girl schools ” 563 ” - 5 secondary schools ” 350 ” - 165 primary schools ” 11,784 ” - 200 rural schools ” 5,939 ” - 1 school of medicine ” 25 ” - 1 school of music ” 46 ” - ------ - 19,250 ” - -To these may be added the pupils in the private schools and in those of -the Christian Brothers and the Sisters of Cluny. - -It is very difficult to test the results attained at the official -schools, but I think, judging from my own experience in Hayti, that -they are small indeed. Some of the commissions appointed to examine -the scholars report favourably, but, after the example of Monsieur -Pentalon, I put but little faith in these judgments. - -In the official report for the year 1878 there is much shortcoming -confessed, and the feeling after reading it is, that the majority of -the teachers are incompetent, as all negligently-paid service must -be. Good teachers will not remain in employment with salaries often -six months in arrear, and only those who can find nothing else to do -will carry on the schools. Negligence is the result, and negligence in -the masters acts on the scholars, and their attendance is irregular; -and the means of teaching are often wanting, as the money voted for -the purchase of books goes in this revolutionary country for arms and -powder. Parents, particularly negro parents, rarely appreciate the -value of the knowledge to be acquired in schools, and are apt to send -their children late and take them away early, in order to aid in the -family’s support. - -The best school in the country is the Petit Séminaire, conducted -by priests--Jesuits, it is said, under another name. The head of -the college in my time, and, I believe, to the present day, was -Père Simonet, a very superior man, quite capable of directing the -institution aright; and I have been informed that the favourable -results of their system of education have been very marked. In -September 1883 this establishment was directed by fifteen priests of -the Congregation of the Holy Spirit, and contained as many as 300 -pupils. - -The Sisters of Cluny have also an establishment near Port-au-Prince, -where the daughters of the chief families of the capital receive -their education, and their institution is well spoken of. I attended -one of their examinations and school exhibitions, when recitals and -acting by the young girls were the amusements afforded us. Some of the -pupils appeared to be remarkably bright, and they acquitted themselves -of their tasks in a very pleasing manner. Since I left Hayti, these -establishments for girls have greatly increased in importance. There -are now as many as sixty sisters, and twenty others called “Filles de -la Sagesse,” who have established schools throughout the country, which -in 1883 were attended by about 3000 pupils. - -The Christian Brothers have also many schools dispersed throughout the -country, principally, however, in the larger towns, which are fairly -well attended. They are reported to have had also in 1883 as many as -3000 boys under tuition. - -It is generally thought that the teaching in all these schools is not -such as to develop the intellect of the pupils. As might have been -expected, too much time is given to trifling with religious subjects, -as teaching the girls an infinity of hymns to Mary, and to the study -of the lives of the saints. Such, at least, was the complaint made to -me by the relatives of the girls. Nothing appears to be able to avert -the evil influence of the immodest surroundings of these schools. A -gentleman told me that, entering a room where his nieces were sitting -sewing, he heard them singing a most indecent song in Creole, probably -quite innocent of the real meaning, and they told him that they had -learnt it from the native servants at the school; whilst the pupils at -the Petit Séminaire have often suffered from the utter depravity of -some of the lower portion of the population. - -In one of the official reports on the principal lyceum, the Minister of -Public Instruction remarks:--“As regards studies, discipline of pupils -and teachers, the national lyceum has fallen into a shameful state. -It is to the superior direction that this abasement of the lyceum is -in part to be attributed. It so far forgets itself, as to give to -professors and pupils scandalous spectacles, which attest the disregard -of propriety and of the most ordinary reserve that a teacher ought to -observe in presence of early age and youth.” - -By this account it would appear that the pupils have often but a poor -example to imitate. I should have set down to political feeling this -strong censure had I not known the lyceum in my time to have fallen -very low indeed in public estimation. - -Poor, however, as the education is that is given in Hayti, it is -nevertheless an advance; and if ever revolutions cease and peace be -kept for a few years, the Government may yet turn its attention to -founding educational establishments on a solid basis. Of this, however, -there is very little hope. - -There are several private schools in Hayti. The best, as I have -previously observed, was kept by the late M. Seguy-Villevalien. He had -a very high opinion of the capacity of Haytian boys to learn, and he -turned out some excellent scholars. His school, however, deteriorated -in late years from his inability to secure superior teachers, arising -first from parents not paying their school-bills, and secondly from -the Government omitting to settle their accounts with him for the -bursars. I mention this to show what a people the Haytians are. During -the civil war in 1868 and 1869, M. Villevalien spent all his capital -in supporting some dozens of boarders, whose parents were among the -insurgents, and by his energy saved them from being drafted into the -army. Yet when the war was over, few, if any, paid him what was due, or -did it in depreciated paper, which was almost equivalent to not paying -at all. - -Education in Hayti is too often sacrificed to political exigencies, and -a master of a high school is not chosen for his capacity, but for his -political leanings. - -We all noticed what has often been remarked in Africa, that negro -boys, up to the age of puberty, were often as sharp as their coloured -fellow-pupils; and there can be no doubt that the coloured boys of -Hayti have proved, at least in the case of one of their number, that -they could hold their ground with the best of the whites. Young Fénélon -Faubert obtained the “prix d’honneur au grand concours” at Paris -in rhetoric, “discours latin,” and only missed it the next year by -unpardonable carelessness. - -Some of the Haytian lads have the most extraordinary memories. M. -Villevalien mentioned one to me who came to his school rather over the -usual age. My friend took up a book on rhetoric and asked him a few -questions, which were answered in the words of the author without an -error; curious as to the extent of his proficiency, the schoolmaster -kept turning page after page, and found, to his surprise, that the boy -knew nearly the whole volume by heart. He then began to converse with -him, and found, that although he could repeat his lesson perfectly, he -did not really understand the sense of what he was repeating. - -Whilst I was at Port-au-Prince the following affecting incident -occurred:--Many families who have accumulated a certain amount of -wealth by retail trade are desirous of having their children well -educated, and therefore send them to France. A Haïtienne of this -description placed her daughter at the Convent of the Sacré Cœur in -Paris. After seven years’ residence there, she passed a few months -with a French family, and saw a little society in the capital. She -then returned to Port-au-Prince, was received at the wharf by a rather -coarse-looking fat woman, whom her affectionate heart told her was -her mother, and accompanied her home. Here she found a shop near the -market-place, where her mother sold salt pork and rum by retail; the -place was full of black men and women of the labouring class, who were, -as usual, using the coarsest language, and who pressed round to greet -her as an old acquaintance. Traversing the shop, she found herself in a -small parlour, and here she was destined to live. Her mother was doing -a thriving trade, and was always in the shop, which was a receptacle -of every strong-smelling food, whose odours penetrated to the parlour. -There the young girl sat within earshot of the coarse language of the -customers. What a contrast to the severe simplicity of the convent, -the kindness of the nuns, the perfect propriety! and add to this the -recollection of the society she had seen in Paris! She was but a tender -plant, and could not stand this rude trial, and sickened and died -within the first two months. At her funeral many speeches were made, -and the doctor who had attended her, whilst declaring that she died of -no special malady, counselled parents not to send their children to -be educated in Europe, unless, on their return, they could offer them -a suitable home. No wonder, under these circumstances, that every -educated Haytian girl desires to marry a foreigner and quit the country. - -The well-known lawyer, Deslandes, objected to Haytian children being -sent to Paris for their education, as likely to introduce into -the country French ideas and sympathies, and thus imperil their -independence. - -At the present time education must be completely neglected, as the -whole attention of the country is devoted to mutual destruction. - - -JUSTICE. - -My first experience of a court of justice in Hayti was a political -trial. Four of the most respectable and respected inhabitants of -Port-au-Prince were to be tried for their lives on a charge of -conspiracy against the government of President Geffrard. My colleagues -and I decided to be present. On approaching the courthouse, we saw -a considerable crowd collected and some military precautions taken. -Forcing our way through to some reserved seats, we found ourselves in a -perfectly plain room,--a dock on the left for the prisoners, opposite -to them the jury seats, behind a table for three judges, and a tribune -for the public prosecutor. - -After a few preliminaries, the trial began with a violent denunciation -of the accused by the public prosecutor--a stuggy, fierce-looking negro -with bloodshot eyes, named Bazin, who thought he best performed his -duty by abuse. As one of the prisoners was a lawyer, all the bar had -inscribed their names as his defenders, and they showed considerable -courage in the task they had undertaken. On the least sign of -independence on their part, one after the other was ordered to prison, -and the accused remained without a defender. - -The principal judge was Lallemand, of whom I have elsewhere spoken -as combining gentleness with firmness; but he could scarcely make -his authority respected by Bazin, the military termagant who led the -prosecution. He browbeat the witnesses, bullied the jury, thundered at -the lawyers, and insulted the prisoners. He looked like a black Judge -Jeffreys. At last his language became so violent towards the audience, -of whom we formed a part, that the diplomatic and consular corps rose -in a body and left the court. I never witnessed a more disgraceful -scene. - -I may add that the prisoners were condemned to death; but we -interfered, and had their sentence commuted to imprisonment, which did -not last long; whilst their black persecutor, seized by some insurgents -the following year, was summarily shot.[17] - -This experience of the working of the trial-by-jury system did not -encourage frequent visits to the tribunals, and afterwards I rarely -went, except when some British subject was interested. - -In the capital are the court of cassation, the civil and commercial -courts, and the tribuneaux de paix; and in the chief towns of the -departments similar ones, minus the court of cassation. In fact, as far -as possible, the French system has been taken as a model. The form is -there, but not the spirit. - -The statistical tables connected with this subject have been very -fully worked out in Major Stuart’s very interesting Consular Reports -for 1876 and 1877. Here I am more concerned in describing how justice -is administered. I may at once say that few have any faith in the -decisions of the courts; the judges, with some bright exceptions, are -too often influenced by pecuniary or political considerations, and -the white foreigner, unless he pay heavily, has but slight chance of -justice being done him. - -In the police courts they know their fate beforehand. During my stay -in Port-au-Prince foreigners avoided them, but sometimes they had -unavoidably to appear. An elderly Frenchman was summoned before a -_juge de paix_ for an assault upon a black. The evidence was so much -in favour of the white that even the Haytian magistrate was about to -acquit him, when shouts arose in different parts of the court, “What! -are you going to take part with the white?” and the Frenchman was -condemned. So flagrant an abuse of justice could not be passed over, -and the authorities, afraid to have the sentence quashed by a superior -tribunal, allowed the affair to drop without demanding the fine. - -An American black came one day to Mr. Byron, our Vice-Consul, and said -he had been accused of stealing a box of dominoes from his landlady, -and asked him to accompany him to court to see justice done him. Mr. -Byron, knowing the man to be respectable, did so. The accuser stated -that whilst sitting at her door talking to a neighbour, she saw her -lodger put the box of dominoes into his pocket and walk off with it. -She made no remark at the time, but next day accused him. The man -denied having touched the box. The magistrate, however, observed, “She -says she saw you; you can’t get over that,”--and had not Mr. Byron -remarked that the prisoner’s word was as good as the accuser’s, being -at least as respectable a person, he would instantly have been sent to -prison. - -A remarkable trial was that of two brothers, who were accused of having -murdered a Frenchman, their benefactor. The evidence against them -appeared overwhelming, and their advocate, a thorough ruffian, was at -a loss for arguments to sustain the defence. At last he glanced round -the crowded court, and then turned to the jury with a broad grin and -said, “Après tout, ce n’est qu’un blanc de moins.” The sally produced a -roar of laughter, and the prisoners were triumphantly acquitted by the -tribunal, but not by public opinion; and the people still sing a ditty -of which the refrain is, I think, “Moué pas tué p’tit blanc-là,”--“I -did not kill that little white man.” - -In 1869, among about fifty political refugees that lived for months -in the Legation was one of the accused. I was standing watching him -play draughts with another refugee, who did not know the name of his -opponent, and he kept humming the song about the murder, and every time -he made a move he repeated the refrain, “Moué pas tué p’tit blanc-là.” -I noticed his opponent getting paler and paler. At last he pushed aside -the board, started to his feet, and said, “Do you wish to insult me?” -We were all surprised, when a friend called me aside and told me the -story of the trial. - -Though more attention has since been paid to words, the spirit of the -old saying remains--that the whites possess no rights in Hayti which -the blacks are bound to respect. - -In civil cases bribery of the judges is notorious, and the largest or -the most liberal purse wins. Most persons carefully avoid a lawsuit, -and prefer submitting to injustice. - -The judges, curiously enough, are rarely selected from among the -lawyers. The Government can appoint any one it pleases, and as these -posts are awarded for political services, those selected consider that -the appointments are given to enable them to make their fortunes as -rapidly as possible. As the pay is small, their wives often make it an -excuse to keep shops and carry on a retail trade; but the fact is that -the Haïtienne is never so happy as when behind a counter. - -The active bar of Port-au-Prince is composed of very inferior men. -I often heard my friend Deslandes address the courts. He was at the -summit of his profession, and to have him for your advocate was -popularly supposed to secure the success of your cause. And yet I heard -this eloquent and able advocate, as he was called, whilst defending an -Englishman charged with having criminally slain an American negro, drop -the legitimate argument of self-defence, and weary his audience for a -couple of hours trying to prove that the Englishman was an instrument -of Divine Providence to rid the world of a ruffian. Naturally the -Englishman was condemned. - -Whilst in court the lawyers surround themselves with heaps of books, -and continually read long extracts from the laws of the country, -or--what they greatly prefer--passages from the speeches of the most -celebrated French advocates; whether they explain or not the subject -in hand is immaterial. I have often heard my French colleagues say -that they have tried in vain to discover what these extracts had to do -with the case in point. Few of these lawyers bear a high character, -and they are freely accused of collusion, and of other dishonest -practices. Unhappy is the widow, the orphan, or the friendless that -falls into their hands. Many of my Haytian friends have assured me -that, though they had studied for the bar, they found it impossible to -practise with any hope of preserving their self-respect. No doubt the -bar of Hayti contains some honest men, but the majority have an evil -reputation. - -The laws of Hayti are not in fault, as they are as minutely elaborate -as those of any other country, and the shelves of a library would groan -beneath their weight. Had M. Linstant Pradine been able to continue the -useful publication he commenced--a collection of the laws of Hayti--it -was his design to have united in a regular series all the laws and -decrees by which his country was supposed to be governed. - -Though a few young men of good position have studied for the legal -profession in France, yet the majority of the members of the bar are -chosen among the lawyers, clerks, and others who have studied at home. -A board is appointed to examine young aspirants. It consists of two -judges and three lawyers; and if the young men pass, they each receive -a certificate of qualification, countersigned by the Minister of -Justice. After this simple process they can open an _étude_ on their -own account. - -One of the greatest difficulties of the diplomatic and consular -officers in all these American republics is to obtain prompt and legal -justice for their countrymen. Although the _juge d’instruction_ ought -to finish his work at the utmost in two months, prisoners’ cases drag -on, and as the law of bail is unknown, they may be, and have been, -confined for years before being brought to trial. - -The President of the republic names the justices of the peace and -their deputies, the judges of the civil and criminal courts, the -courts of appeal, and the members of the court of cassation. All but -the first-named judges are irremovable according to the constitution; -but revolutionary leaders are not apt to respect constitutions, and -during President Domingue’s time his Ministers upset all the old -legal settlements. The last constitution, that of 1879, permitted the -President to remove judges for the space of one year, in order that the -friends of the Administration should be appointed to carry out their -destined work. - -It would be perhaps useless to describe in detail the other legal -arrangements in Hayti, as they are founded on French precedents. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -ARMY AND POLICE. - - -THE ARMY. - -A large portion of the revenues is spent in keeping up a nominally -numerous army, but in reality the most undisciplined rabble that -ever were assembled under arms. With the exception of a few hundred -tirailleurs, who were, in the time of President Geffrard, disciplined -by an intelligent officer, Pétion Faubert, a man who had seen service -in the French army, the regiments have been always composed of the -peasantry, without any discipline, and officered by men as ignorant -as themselves. I have seen a battalion on parade numbering thirteen -privates, ten officers, and six drummers--the rest of the men thinking -it unnecessary to present themselves except on pay-day. - -A French admiral asked permission to see a Sunday morning’s review. -On approaching a cavalry regiment equally low in numbers with the -battalion mentioned above, the President gravely turned to the -Frenchman and said, “Beaucoup souffert dans la dernière guerre.” - -A more motley sight can scarcely be imagined than a full regiment -marching past. Half the men are in coats wanting an arm, a tail, or -a collar, with a broken shako, a straw or round hat, a wide-awake, or -merely a handkerchief tied round the head; officers carrying their -swords in their right or their left hands according to caprice; the -men marching in waving lines, holding their muskets in every variety -of position; whilst a brilliant staff, in all the uniforms known to -the French army, gallops by. President Geffrard used to look on with a -smile of satisfaction on his face, and gravely ask you whether there -were any finer troops in the world. As I have elsewhere related, the -Treasurer-in-chief, who had passed some time in Paris, assured him -that although the soldiers there were more numerous, they had not the -_tenue_ of the Haytian, and suggested that it would be as well for the -President to send some of his officers to France as models for the -French army to imitate. This is no exaggeration. I have myself heard -similar observations. The negro is generally an ill-made shambling -fellow, who rarely looks well in uniform and detests the service; but -in order to render the work less fatiguing for the poor fellows, the -sentries are provided with chairs! - -It was after watching such a march-past as I have described above that -a French naval officer asked me, “Est-ce que vous prenez ces gens au -serieux?” And yet they look upon themselves as a military nation, and -constantly boast that they drove the English and French out of the -island; forgetting the part taken by their most potent allies, climate -and yellow fever; and until disease had carried off the mass of their -oppressors, and the renewal of the war in Europe enabled the English to -lend their aid, they were crushed under the heel of the French. - -The Haytian army has greatly varied in numbers. In the early years -(1825 to 1830) of General Boyer’s Presidency it was calculated at -30,000 men, with only a fair proportion of officers. Some months after -the fall of General Geffrard (1867) an account was published stating -that the army in round numbers consisted as follows:-- - - General officers and staff 6500 - Regimental officers 7000 - Soldiers 6500 - ------ - 20,000 - -It is never possible to say what is the exact force of the army; in a -late return it is stated at 16,000, and among the non-effectives are -about 1500 generals of division. However, the old system continues, -and to most of the battalions the President’s observation, “Beaucoup -souffert dans la dernière guerre,” could be aptly applied. As Gustave -d’Alaux somewhere remarks, “Tout Haïtien qui n’était pas général de -division était au moins soldat.” - -The cause of the great superabundance of general officers arises from -nomination to a superior grade being a form of reward for political -services which costs little. Every successful revolution brings with -it a fresh crop of generals and colonels, as a lesser rank would be -despised. I know a general who kept a small provision shop, and have -seen him selling candles in full uniform. A counter-revolution made him -fly the country, and for some time after he was acting as groom in some -French seaport.[18] A Minister of War wishing to please a courtesan, -gave her a commission in blank, which she sold for about five pounds. - -President Salnave raised a common workman to the rank of general of -brigade. As he had no money to buy a uniform, he began by stealing a -pair of gold-laced trousers from a tailor’s shop, but did not do it -unobserved. Chase was given, and the culprit fled to the palace, and -took refuge in Salnave’s own room, who, however, handed him over to the -police. The stolen trousers were then fastened round his neck and a -rope secured to one ankle, and in this manner the new general was led -round the town, receiving every now and then blows from the clubs of -the soldiers. When he was quite exhausted, they mounted him on a donkey -with his face to the tail, a placard with the word “Thief” fixed on his -breast, and the gold-laced trousers still tied round his neck. - -The great majority of the officers are in reality civilians, without -any military training whatever, but they have a hankering for wearing a -uniform, which is partly excusable on account of the respect with which -the lower classes regard an officer. - -The blacks laugh a little at their own love of gold lace. One day, -whilst entering the cathedral with the diplomatic and consular corps -in full uniform, I heard a negro say to his companions, “Gardé donc, -blancs là aimé galon too!” (“Look, the whites also like gold lace!”), -and a grunt of acquiescence showed that they were not a little pleased -to find that the whites shared their weakness. “Too,” by the way, is -almost the only English word which remains to testify to our former -presence in the island. - -Military honour has never been a distinguished feature in the Haytian -army,--I mean that military honour which implies fidelity to the -Government that they have sworn to serve. This was most marked in -the revolution which broke out at Cap Haïtien in 1865 under Salnave -and Delorme. Nearly every superior officer appeared more or less to -have betrayed General Geffrard; but as they hated Salnave more, their -treachery consisted in plots, in preventing successes, but not in -aiding the enemy. Geffrard knew this, and so put over the army General -Nissage-Saget, an ex-tailor, I believe, who was utterly incapable and -as unsuccessful as the rest. Salnave could not have held his position -a week had the officers done their duty; but they appeared to think -only of how their personal interests could be best served, and never of -the honour or dignity of the Government and country. Some entered into -a conspiracy to murder the President, but being discovered, the most -compromised fell on his knees before Geffrard and pleaded for mercy, -which was somewhat contemptuously granted, with the remark, “You are -not of the stuff of which conspirators should be made.” - -There was no want of personal courage shown by the chiefs during the -long civil war between civilisation and barbarism in 1868 and 1869, and -some officers showed conspicuous dash and bravery, as Monplaisir-Pierre -(negro) and Brice (coloured), (who subsequently were foully murdered by -order of their then ally, Septimus Rameau), and Boisrond (coloured), -who really merited the epithet of _sans peur et sans reproche_ which -was given him at a banquet at Port-au-Prince. - -Traits of individual courage were constantly occurring, as during the -defence of the town of Les Cayes, when young Colonel Lys distinguished -himself. He, as all the bravest and best, has lately fallen a victim -to the ferocity of the negro authorities; The Haytian, however, is -not a fighting animal. Roused to fury by the excesses of his French -masters, the negro of the time of the Revolution fought well, but -since then many of his military qualities have departed. He is still a -good marcher, is patient and abstemious; but Soulouque’s ignominious -campaigns in Santo Domingo showed that the Haytian soldier will not -fight. There has been little or no real fighting since; overwhelming -numbers would sometimes endeavour to capture a post, but no battle -took place during the civil war of 1869. The only really daring act -performed by numbers was the surprise of Port-au-Prince in December -of that year, and the chiefs of the expedition were Brice and -Boisrond-Canal, supported by a land force under General Carrié. - -The ignorance of the officers often leads them into ludicrous mistakes. -A general commanding at Port-au-Prince saw a boat entering the harbour -with the Spanish flag flying, and he instantly went down to the -wharf. “Who are you?” said he to the officers. “Spaniards,” was the -reply. “Paniols!” exclaimed he, “then you are enemies!” and proceeded -to arrest them, under the mistaken idea that all Spaniards must be -Dominicans, with whom Hayti was at war. It required the most vigorous -language, and some emphatic gestures with his foot on the part of the -French Consul-General, to prevent the Spanish officers being thrust -into the common jail. The negro had never heard of Spain, although Cuba -is within sight of Haytian shores. - -An English admiral came into the harbour of the capital, and President -Salnave sent an officer on board to welcome our naval chief. This -was a black general, who, when he got on board, was so tipsy that he -commenced making formal bows to the mainmast, under the mistaken idea -that it was the admiral, who, hearing of his maudlin state, came to -receive him on deck, and soon dismissed him. I heard that he afterwards -declared he had seen two admirals on board. I knew this man well, and -though a tipsy savage, was intrusted with a most important military -command. - -The army is legally recruited by conscription, the term of service -being seven years, though volunteers serve only four; this, however, -is purely nominal. During my stay, the invariable practice was for -a colonel of a regiment to send out parties of soldiers, who seized -in the streets any man whom they thought would suit. As this only -occurred in times of danger, or when the President’s body-guard had to -be completed, these captured volunteers had the greatest difficulty in -getting free from the clutches of the recruiting sergeant. I have seen -even deputies and senators walked off to the barracks. - -As soon as it is known that the recruiting parties are about, men -begin to stay at home, and only women come in from the country. This -brutal system of enlistment was one of the causes of the fall of -President Geffrard. To punish the inhabitants of Cap Haïtien for their -unsuccessful insurrection in 1865, the President had recruiting parties -sent out into that town, and the respectable young men were captured by -dozens, transferred to Port-au-Prince, and forcibly incorporated into -the battalions of tirailleurs. It was they who in 1867 gave the signal -for those revolutionary movements which finally upset the President. -The brutality shown by these recruiting parties is revolting, as the -men are armed with clubs, and permitted to use them at discretion. - -General Geffrard used to harangue these unhappy volunteers as if they -were burning with enthusiasm to join the army, whilst, bleeding, -tattered, and torn, they listened sulkily to his words, all the time -carefully guarded by their brutal captors. Their chief pretended not to -see their state. - -This reminds me of an incident which occurred during the late war -between Chili and Peru. Some hundreds of Indians had been lassoed -in the interior, and brought down to Lima to fill up the regiments. -President Prado was urged to address them, and they were collected -under one of the windows of the palace. The general approached with -his staff, and leaning out of window began--“Noble volunteers,” when -he perceived that the men were tied together, and that a dozen pairs -were secured by a long rope. He drew back hastily and said, “Noble -volunteers indeed. I cannot lend myself to such a farce;” and no -persuasion would induce him to return to continue his speech. President -Prado has been deservedly criticised for his conduct during this war; -but had his countrymen listened to his advice, there would have been no -war between Chili and Peru. - -The pay of the Haytian army is nominally as follows:-- - - General of division £140 a year. - General of brigade 105 ” - Adjutant-general 75 ” - Colonel 40 ” - Commandant or major 20 ” - Captain 12 ” - Lieutenant 10 ” - Sub-lieutenant 7 ” - Non-commissioned from £3 to £5 ” - Private £2 10 ” - -The rations of a foot-soldier on duty are about two shillings a week, -whilst that of a cavalry-man are three shillings. As the soldiers not -on duty are allowed to work, they receive no rations. The President’s -guard, consisting of several battalions, was composed principally of -the mechanics and respectable labourers of the town and neighbourhood, -who often paid the colonels so much per week to be exempt from active -service. - -The ordinary battalions are recruited among the country people, and -these rarely present themselves except on pay-day. Even for this there -is little encouragement, as if they do not present themselves at the -appointed time, the officers divide the balance of the pay amongst -themselves. If any man persistently comes to receive his dues, he is -detained to do active duty for a month or two, which effectually checks -his zeal and his love of dollars. - -When the pay of officers is so trifling, it is to be supposed that the -better classes do not enter the army as a profession. The higher grades -are generally named for political services, whilst the lower are filled -by men raised from the ranks. Except in a few special cases, it is rare -for a man to have gone through all the grades of officer. - -The generals are a power in the State, and have to be conciliated. The -most ignorant blacks, as I have mentioned, are given the most important -commands, from their supposed influence among the lower orders, whom -they perfectly resemble in everything but uniform. They supplement -their inadequate pay by every illegitimate means. - -President Geffrard had really a desire to form an army, but the -materials at hand were poor. His lower officers were as usual taken -from the ranks, and inclined to pilfering. A captain was detected in -the act of robbing the custom-house. As he had charge of the guard, the -President determined to make an example. I find the incident recounted -in my journal written at the time, and as the incidents are very -characteristic of the people, I will tell the whole story. The danger -of not knowing the connections of those to whom you are speaking may be -exemplified by the following:--During the inevitable quarter of an hour -before dinner, I was sitting next a charming Haytian lady, educated in -England and married to an Englishman, when she began to tell me the -news of the day. At the parade that morning the President had ordered -the epaulettes of an officer to be torn off his coat on account of a -petty theft he had committed at the custom-house. After he had given -the order, the President turned away his head, but presently remarked, -“Is he dead yet?” “Dead! your Excellency,” exclaimed an aide-de-camp. -“Yes, dead. I thought that an officer of my army so publicly disgraced -would instantly have put an end to his existence.” The lady’s anecdote -produced a hearty laugh, first at the acting of the President, and then -at the idea of any Haytian officer having a notion of such delicate -honour. I remarked to my companion that the President would have done -better, instead of only punishing the petty thieves, to lay a heavy -hand on the great robbers, as for instance Mr. ----. The lady quietly -turned to me and said, “I am sure you do not know that Mr. ---- is my -brother.” The start I gave convinced her that I did not; but I felt -uncomfortable until, during dinner, with a nod and a smile, she asked -me to take wine with her. Mr. ---- had been engaged with some others -in a _détournement_, as it was delicately called, of about seventy -thousand dollars, but when I knew him afterwards, he was Secretary of -State for Foreign Affairs, and a more unworthy man it would have been -difficult even for Hayti to produce. - -President Salnave had a favourite regiment that he kept up to its full -strength, and the men were fairly well disciplined. They were the only -men in his pay who really looked like soldiers, but they were most -insolent and overbearing. In order to strike terror into the town, -Salnave ordered their colonel to march them down to the “Rue des Fronts -Forts,” where the retail shopkeepers live, and there gave them leave -to plunder. His little speech on this occasion has become a proverb -in Hayti--“Mes enfans, pillez en bon ordre.” Whenever there were any -political executions, the shooting squad was chosen from among them, -and they have the discredit of having been employed to murder all the -political prisoners confined in the jail at Port-au-Prince in December -1869. - -The only battalions which, in time of peace, are kept up to their full -strength, are those which are sent from their own districts to garrison -distant towns, where those not actually on duty are allowed to look for -work. - - -THE POLICE. - -Of all the institutions in Hayti, the police is certainly the -worst conducted. There are regular commissaries employed under the -prefects, but ordinary soldiers do the work of constables. In my -time they went about the streets with a thick stick of heavy wood in -their hands called a _cocomacaque_, and they used it in such a way -as to confirm the remark that cruelty is an innate quality with the -negro. Never did I see a Haytian of the upper classes step forward to -remonstrate--probably he knew his countrymen too well--whilst the lower -orders simply laughed and enjoyed the sight of punishment. - -Every one arrested accused of a crime is immediately treated as if he -were guilty, and the _cocomacaque_ is brought to play on his head and -shoulders. As an observer remarked, “In Hayti no prisoner has any right -to be considered innocent.” A woman was arrested near my house accused -of having killed the child of a neighbour from motives of jealousy. -They said she was a _loup garou_, and as soon as the soldiers seized -her they began to beat her. Before she reached the prison she was -covered with wounds, and a relative who endeavoured to interfere shared -the same fate. - -One day, whilst at the American Consulate, I heard a disturbance -outside. I took no notice at first, but presently looking out, saw -the police raising a prostrate man. He had been insolent to his -overseer, and a passing general ordered him to be taken to prison by -the soldiers who were following him. They fell upon the man, and in a -few moments he was a mass of bruises, and died before he reached his -destination. A few weeks after, I saw a body of a negro lying near the -same spot; this was that of a thief, on whom the police had executed -summary justice with their clubs. - -An English merchant saw two soldiers arrest a man accused of murder. -As he resisted, they tied his feet together and dragged him along -the streets, his head bumping against the stones. The Englishman -remonstrated, but he was threatened with the same treatment. A negro -arrested for stealing fowls had his arms bound behind him and a rope -attached to one ankle, which was held by a policeman, while another -kept close to the prisoner, beating him with his club, and as he -darted forward to avoid a blow, the other would pull the rope, and the -unfortunate accused would fall flat on his face. And all this done in -public before the authorities, both civil and military, and no man -raising his voice to stop such barbarous work! I have myself seen so -many of these brutal scenes that I feel convinced that no account can -be exaggerated. - -As detectives these soldier-police are quite useless, and crime, unless -openly committed, is rarely detected. Robbers have continued in their -profession for years though perfectly well known, and no attempt has -been made to capture them. There was one who was notorious for the -impunity with which he had committed a long series of crimes. When he -entered a house he intended to rob, he stripped, rubbed his body with -oil, and crawled in, knife in hand. Unluckily for him, one night, being -disturbed in his operations, he stabbed his assailant, who proved to be -a Senator. It was all very well to rob and stab common people, but a -Senator could not be thus treated with impunity; and the man, fearing -no pursuit, was quietly captured in bed. The commissary of police, -thinking that the fellow had had rope enough given him, and being sure -that he would again escape from prison if sent there, had him taken out -of town, and he was promptly shot, under pretence of having attempted -to escape--_la ley de fuga_, as the Spaniards call it. - -General Vil Lubin was, during the time of the Emperor Soulouque, in -command of the arrondissement of Port-au-Prince; he proved efficient -in his post, but he was a hard man, and one day ordered two soldiers -to be beaten. Their comrades carried out the order so effectually that -in a short time two bruised corpses were lying at the barrack door. -Soulouque heard of it, and, furious at the treatment of two of his own -guard, bitterly reproached Vil Lubin, and for months could not meet him -without using the expression, “Rendez-moi mes soldats.” Yet how many -hundreds met their death by his order! In both the civil and military -administration brutality is the rule, not the exception. - -There has been much talk of establishing a rural police, but nothing -effective has come of it. - -The Government rely for the detection of conspiracies more upon -informers than on the police, and as they are to be found in all ranks, -friendship is often used for the purpose of obtaining information. -President Geffrard sometimes referred to conversations to which members -of the diplomatic corps had been parties, and perhaps too often, as, -on comparing notes, they were enabled to fix on their communicative -friends, and were thus free to let the President hear their real -opinion about his measures, only so far, however, as it suited their -purpose. Under Soulouque the system was carried to a greater extent, -and his suspicious mind made him treat as truth every assertion of a -spy. One day an old beggar-woman, passing before the palace, asked alms -of some officers who were conversing together; on being refused, she -ran under the Emperor’s window and began to shout, “Emperor, they are -conspiring against you!” and made so great a disturbance that the guard -turned out. The officers were too happy to get rid of the old woman by -giving her money; she went off laughing, with her hands full of notes. - -Under Salnave and Domingue the spy system was much employed, and it -appears likely that, under the present Government, it is rampant, if we -may judge by the series of military executions which have marked this -Presidency. - -The jails, as might be expected in such a country, are filthy places. -I have often visited that of Port-au-Prince; it is a cluster of low -buildings, surrounded by a wall perhaps ten feet in height, so insecure -that no European could be kept there a night except by his own -good-will. The ordinary negro prisoner, however, has no enterprise, -and, rather liking the lazy life, lies down to sleep out his sentence. - -Prisoners condemned to death, and too often political suspects, are -confined in cells, and are manacled to a bar running across the room. I -looked into one, and saw five men fixed to the same bar. As I knew that -there were only four condemned to death, I asked what was the crime of -the fifth. “Oh, he is a military defaulter, and we did not know where -else to put him.” - -In President Geffrard’s time a little attention was paid to the -cleanliness of the jails, but during Soulouque’s reign and after -Geffrard’s time everything was neglected. A friend once visited the -prison, to find nine negroes manacled to the same bar, lying naked on -the floor on account of the stifling heat, and the jailer admitted that -he had not freed them from the bar for above a week, nor had he thought -of having the cell cleaned out. The horrible odour issuing from the -place when the door was opened fully confirmed the latter assertion. - -I knew a general, still living, who had been confined from political -motives in one of these cells, I believe for seven years, and his -manacles were only occasionally secretly removed by the jailer. -Murderers serving out their sentences, thieves, unimportant political -prisoners, imprisoned sailors, are all indiscriminately confined in -regal rooms opening on a court, and receive their food from friends or -relatives. Unhappy would be the wretch who had no one to care for him, -as the pitiful allowance for the prisoners, irregularly paid, rarely if -ever reaches them. - -Female prisoners are confined in the same building, but their rooms -open on a separate court. The wife of a revolutionary general was -imprisoned there in 1869. She was for a long time kept in irons, but -at length heed was given to our remonstrances, and her irons were -removed. She was a handsome negress, and took the jailer’s fancy, -who tried to violate her, but the powerful woman thrust him from her -cell. He threatened vengeance; but a few nights after she escaped -from prison, and fled to our Legation, where she remained over three -months, and it required the vigorous remonstrances of Lord Clarendon -to enable us to embark her for Jamaica. On the day that we did so, as -we approached the wharf, we noticed a crowd of negroes assembling with -the object of insulting their countrywoman, but on my giving my arm to -the black lady, an old negro remarked in their jargon, “Consite specté -negresse-çi-là” (“The Consul shows respect to that negress”), and -allowed us to pass without a word. This lady was from Cap Haïtien, and -I may add that she was the only refugee out of many hundreds that I can -remember who ever showed any gratitude for the services rendered them. - -All the members of the diplomatic corps, since the first acknowledgment -of the independence of Hayti, have at various times attempted to -persuade successive Governments to look to their prisons, but never -with much result. The prisons are indeed thoroughly bad, as might be -expected among such a people. The worst on the island, however, is -probably at Puerto Plata, in the Dominican republic. - -Murder is sometimes punished with death, but that punishment is -generally reserved for political opponents. I remember an instance -which is worth relating, as it displays the Haytian character in the -form it assumes when excited by political passion. In the autumn -of 1868, five merchants of the southern province were captured and -brought to Port-au-Prince. As they were connected with members of the -revolutionary party then in arms, the mob clamoured for their lives, -and they were ordered by President Salnave, to be shot. As we knew that -these men were perfectly innocent, the French, Spanish, and English -representatives made an effort to save them, and called on the Foreign -Minister to ask him to accompany us to the palace to see the President. -We were told that he was ill in bed, and could not accompany us. We -insisted upon seeing him, and found this functionary covered up and -trembling, not with ague, but fear. We begged him to get up, but he -obstinately refused, declaring he was too unwell. We could not waste -further time, as the execution was to take place within an hour. So we -left, but I could not refrain from saying to this bedridden gentleman, -“In such times as these, sir, a Minister has no right to be ill.” He -never forgave me. - -We went to the palace, but were refused admittance, and only got back -to the French Legation in time to see the five prisoners pass to -execution. Presently one returned whom the President had pardoned. - -When the procession arrived at the place of execution, there was a -mob collected of several thousand spectators, principally ferocious -negresses. A shout arose, “We were promised five! where is the fifth?” -and the crowd closed in on the procession, with knives drawn and -pistols ready. The cowardly officers replied, “The fifth is coming,” -and sent word to President Salnave. He, unwilling to disappoint his -most faithful followers, looked over the list of those in prison, and -finding that there was a parricide, whom he had pardoned but the day -before, ordered him to execution. In the meantime, the four others had -been kept waiting, exposed to the insults of the people--particularly -one prisoner, whose long white beard and hair and white skin made him -particularly obnoxious. - -The arrival of the fifth prisoner pacified the crowd. The five were -clumsily shot, and then the spectators rushed in with their knives and -mangled the bodies under every circumstance of obscenity. Such are the -negresses when excited by political leaders, and such are evidently the -most devoted followers of President Salomon, if we can place any faith -in the accounts of the fearful atrocities perpetrated by them during -the massacres of September 1883. - -The chief of this ferocious band was a young negress who went by -the name of Roi Petit Chout, to whom President Salnave gave a -commission as general. She used to come in front of the Legation with -some of her companions, knife in one hand and pistol in the other, -and utter ferocious threats, on account of our having received some -political refugees. These women were used as a high police to keep -down disaffection, and horrible stories are told of the murders and -cruelties practised by these wretches. When the revolution triumphed, -Roi Petit Chout was arrested, but though murder could readily have been -proved against her, she was soon restored to liberty. - -As all the police department is most inefficiently paid, its members -are generally open to bribes, and are accused of levying black-mail on -the poorer inhabitants. During the time of Salnave they were unbridled -in their savage acts, and every man they met in the streets, foreign or -native, was liable to be seized and sent to the forts as a recruit. As -regular police commissaries accompanied these groups, these arrestments -were made in a spirit of wanton mischief; at other times it was to -obtain a pecuniary recompense for their good-nature in letting a -foreigner go. - -To show how ordinary police affairs are managed in Hayti, I must -give an account of an incident which occurred to the Spanish _chargé -d’affaires_ and myself. A dishonest servant forced open the window of -our wine-cellar and stole eighteen dozen of claret, and then fled. -We gave notice to the police, who were very energetic in taking up -the case, and every now and then brought us information of their -proceedings. At last they recovered some of the wine, and in triumph -brought us two dozen and seven bottles. A few days passed, and a -Haytian friend happening to breakfast with us, took up a claret bottle -and saw the mark, “Château Giscours, De Luze, Bordeaux.” He laughed and -said, “Now I understand a remark made by the Minister of the Interior, -when he said what capital wine the English Minister imported.” On -further inquiry, we found that the police had recovered fourteen dozen -of our wine (the other four had been bought _knowingly_ by our most -intimate friend), and that they had divided eleven dozen and five -bottles among various high officials. The only observation my colleague -made was, “Quel pays!” but I felt inclined to agree with the people -when they say of the officials, “Quel tas de voleurs!” The robber was -afterwards arrested for another offence, and I could not but pity -him, when I saw him tied, bleeding and stumbling under the blows of a -policeman’s club. - -During the siege of Port-au-Prince in the civil war (1868) my French -and Spanish colleagues and I were walking through the town, when we -were startled by the sound of firing in the next street. On arriving -at the spot, we found that the police had arrested a young Frenchman. -As he objected that he was a foreigner and not liable to conscription, -a crowd soon assembled, and a follower of Roi Petit Chout’s band, a -ferocious negro, raised his carbine and shot the lad through the body, -and my French colleague had barely time to catch his last words before -he expired. - -Nothing that the French representative could say had any effect on -the Haytian Government; the murderer was promoted to be a sergeant, -and sent to the army to get him out of the way; but he soon came back -to Port-au-Prince, to be more insolent than ever. We had, however, -the satisfaction of knowing that, when the revolution triumphed, this -man was condemned to death for his other crimes and shot, my French -colleague taking care to be present at the final ceremony, to see that -the sentence was not evaded. For killing a white he would never have -been executed. - -It must not be supposed, because I generally refer to my own -experiences, that things mended afterwards. Probably during the -presidencies of Generals Nissage-Saget and Boisrond-Canal the police, -though as dishonest, were less insufferable; but under Domingue and -Salomon they were worse than ever, as they always are under the -government of the black section of the community. - -Under the present regime neither the white nor the coloured man has any -rights which the black is bound to respect. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. - - -There are two languages spoken in Hayti, French and Creole. French is -the language of public life and of literature, whilst Creole is the -language of home and of the people. President Geffrard, among other -eccentricities, used to extol the Creole as the softest and most -expressive of languages, and his countrymen are unanimously of his -opinion; but no Frenchman can accept as a language this uncouth jargon -of corrupt French in an African form. - -No doubt, African languages, like those of other savages, are very -simple in their construction, and the negroes imported into Hayti -learned French words and affixed them to the forms of their own -dialects. Mr. J. J. Thomas of Trinidad has published a very painstaking -grammar of the Creole language as spoken in that island. I gather from -it that this patois is much the same as that spoken in Hayti; but in -our colony it holds the position of the Saxon in the Norman period, and -interpreters are required in our law-courts to explain the language of -the people. It shows also that in the French colonies of Martinique and -Guadaloupe, as in our French-speaking colonies, wherever the negroes -attempt to speak French, they do so in the same way that the Creole is -spoken in Hayti. I may add that the patois of the inhabitants of the -interior is so corrupt and African, that those who can converse freely -with the negroes of the coast are often puzzled when they visit the -mountains, and require an interpreter. - -As this Creole language is spoken by about a million and a half -of people in the different islands of the West Indies, it merits -the attention which Mr. Thomas has bestowed upon it; and I would -refer those curious on the subject to this elaborate work, in which -everything possible is done to raise the status of a patois which -remains still, in my opinion, but an uncouth jargon. - -There is naturally no Creole literature, but there are many songs and -proverbs, some of which may serve to show the kind of language spoken -by the Haytians. - -The only songs which I can quote are written by persons familiar with -the French language, and therefore do not sufficiently represent the -pure Creole. The proverbs, however, are genuine, and are therefore the -reflex of popular ideas. - -Moreau de St. Méry, who lived in Hayti during the latter part of last -century, quotes a song written about the year 1750, which, though often -reprinted, I will insert here, with a translation made by a Creole some -years later. St. Méry has all Geffrard’s admiration for the Creole -language, and thinks that the inarticulate sounds, which cannot be -rendered on paper, are the most admirable part of the language of the -Haytians, and perhaps it may be so:-- - - CREOLE. FRENCH. - - Lisette quitté la plaine, Lisette tu fuis la plaine, - Mon perdi bonheur à moué, Mon bonheur s’est envolé, - Gié à moin semblé fontaine, Mes pleurs en doubles fontaines - Dipi mon pas miré toué. Sur tous tes pas out coulé. - La jour quand mon coupé canne, Le jour moissonnant la canne - Mon songé zamour à moué, Je rêve à tes doux appas, - La nuit quand mon dans cabane Un songe dans ma cabane - Dans dromi mon quimbé toué. La nuit te met dans mes bras. - - Si to allé à la ville Tu trouveras à la ville - Ta trouvé geine candio, Plus d’un jeune freluquet, - Qui gagné pour trompé fille Leur bouche avec art distille - Bouche doux passé sirop. Un miel doux mais plein d’apprêt. - To va crér yo bin sincère Tu croiras leur cœur sincère, - Pendant quior yo coquin ho, Leur cœur ne veut que tromper: - C’est serpent qui contrefaire Le serpent sait contrefaire - Crié rat, pour tromper yo. Le rat qu’il veut dévorer. - - Dipi mon perdi Lisette, Mes pas loin de ma Lisette - Mon pas souchié Calenda, S’éloignent du Calenda, - Mon quitté bram bram sonnette, Et ma ceinture à sonnette - Mon pas batte bamboula. Languit sur mon bamboula. - Quand mon contré lant’ négresse Mon œil de toute autre belle - Mon pas gagné gié pour li, N’aperçoit plus le souris, - Mon pas souchié travail pièce Le travail en vain m’appelle - Tout qui chose à moin mourri. Mes sens sont anéantis. - - Mon maigre tant com ’guon souche, Je péris comme la souche, - Jambe à moin tant comme roseau, Ma jambe n’est qu’un roseau, - Mangé na pas doux dans bouche, Nul mets ne plaît à ma bouche, - Tafia même c’est comme dyo. La liqueur se change en eau. - Quand mon songé toué Lisette, Quand je songe à toi, Lisette, - Dyo toujours dans gié moin, Mes yeux s’inondent de pleurs, - Magner moin vini trop bête Ma raison, lente et distraite, - A force chagrin magné moin. Cède en tout à mes douleurs. - - Liset’ mon tardé nouvelle, Mais est-il bien vrai, ma belle, - To compté bintôt tourné, Dans pen tu dois revenir: - Vini donc toujours fidèle, Ah! reviens toujours fidèle, - Miré bon, passé tandé. Croire est moins doux que sentir. - N’a pas tardé davantage, Ne tarde pas d’avantage, - To fair moin assez chagrin, C’est pour moi trop de chagrin, - Mon tant com ’zozo dans cage, Viens retirer de sa cage - Quand yo fair li mouri faim. L’oiseau consumé de faim. - -It will readily be remarked that every word is a corruption of a French -one, and as no standard of spelling can exist in what may be called an -unwritten language, every writer has a distinct system of representing -Creole sounds. The seductive beauty of this language can only be for -the initiated, as the beauty of the native women is rarely remarked -except by those who have made a long voyage, and have almost forgotten -what beauty is. The versified translation of the song does not give an -exact idea of the construction of the Creole sentence, I may therefore -insert one verse with an interlined literal translation:-- - - Lisette, quitté la plaine, - _Lisette, quitta la plaine,_ - Mon perdi bonheur à moué, - _Je perdis mon bonheur,_ - Gié à moin semblé fontaine - _Mes yeux semblaient une fontaine_ - Dipi mon pas miré toué. - _Depuis je ne te vois pas._ - La jour quand mon coupé canne - _Le jour quand je coupe la canne_ - Mon songé zamour à moué; - _Je pense à mes amours;_ - La nuit quand mon dans cabane - _La nuit quand je suis dans ma cabane_ - Dans dromi mon quimbé toué. - _Dans un songe je te tiens._ - -It is very difficult to find any very definite rules of grammar in this -song-- - - Lisette quitté (Lisette has left or left), Past. - Mon coupé canne (I cut the cane), Present. - Si to allé (if thou shouldst go), Subjunctive. - Ta trouvé (thou wilt find), Future. - Qui gagné (who possess), Present. - -Absolutely the same form is preserved in all tenses and moods, and in -conversation various expedients are adopted to render the meaning clear. - -A. M. L’Hérison, a Haytian, has written a song, which is quoted in Mr. -Thomas’s grammar, and as it represents the _cultivated_ Creole of the -present day, it is worth while inserting it:-- - - -BADINEZ BIEN AVEC MACAQUE. - - Grand ’maman moïn dit: nans Guinée - Grand mouché rassemblé youn jour - Toute pêpe li contré nan tournée - Et pis li parlé sans détour: - Quand zôt allez foncer nan raque - Connain coûment grand moune agi - Badinez bien avec Macaque, - Mais na pas magnié queue à li - Grand ’maman moïn, dit moïn bon qui chose - Lô li prend bon coup malavoume. - Li dit moin you ça, “Mourose,” - Nan tout ’grand zaffaires faut dit “Houme” - Mais peut-on flanqué moin youn claque - On pilôt terminer ainsi; - Badinez bien avec Macaque - Mais na pas magnié queue à li. - -To get the true ring of popular Creole it is necessary to examine -their proverbs. M. J. J. Audain, a well-known Haytian, whose first -literary efforts brought him into trouble, has published a collection -which is very complete.[19] As Hayti becomes older as a nation and -loses its French element, we may have a distinct Creole literature. -There are many proverbs in M. Audain’s collection that would be quite -incomprehensible to an untravelled Frenchman:-- - - 16. Soufflé fatras pou ou bonais d’lo. - 17. Bonais d’lo, ranne couie. - 124. Quand digdale vernis piquée, cale basse vide douée pringa corps li. - -The following are easy enough to understand:-- - - 174. Bouré empile pas allé avec piti figu. - (Too much hair does not suit a little face.) - - 60. Gé ouait, bouche pé. - (The eyes see, the mouth speaks.) - - 73. Chique pas jaimain respecté pié grand mouché. - (Jiggers never respect the feet of the gentry.) - -Some are so simple that they do not require translation, as-- - - Moune qui rond pas capable vini carré zafaire mouton, pas zafaire - cabrite. - Calle pouésson, pas l’agent. - Toute bois cé bois, main mapon pas cajou. - Cé soulier qui connain si chanssons gangnain trou. - Quand ravette fait dause li pas janmain invité poule. - Pas janmain couri deux chimins à la fois. - Toute pouésson mangé moune, cé requin seul qui pôté blâme. - La fimée pas janmain lévée sans difé. - -M. Audain’s collection contains one thousand and eleven proverbs; they -are constantly quoted by the people, who interlard their conversations -with them as much as ever Sancho Panza did. When speaking of a very -talkative person, they say, “Bouche li pas gagné dimanche” (his mouth -has no Sunday or day of rest). - -It is scarcely necessary to multiply specimens of Creole proverbs or -translations. The former certainly convey a better idea of the language -spoken by the negroes than the latter, though, as written, it is much -more easily understood than when it is spoken. The negroes appear often -to clip their sentences, and leave it to the intelligence of the hearer -to divine their meaning. - -Official documents are always written in French, more or less correct; -it is therefore unnecessary to refer particularly to them; but I may -remark that they have a set stock of phrases which are constantly -repeated. I will, however, quote a short official letter which amused -us. - -A Haytian had committed, or was supposed to have committed, a crime, -and instead of being arrested and tried, he was ordered to be banished. -The letter addressed to him was as follows:-- - - - LIBERTÉ, ÉGALITÉ, FRATERNITÉ. - RÉPUBLIQUE D’HAÏTI. - - No. 392. QUARTIER-GÉNÉRAL DE PORT-AU-PRINCE, - _Le 30 Avril 1867, - An 64ᵉ de l’Independance_. - - Le Général de Division, Chef d’éxécution de la volonté du peuple - souvrain, et de ses résolutions, et Vice-Président du Governement - Provisoire, - - AU CITOYEN JULES C----. - -MONSIEUR,--Dès la présente reçue, vous aurez à chercher une occasion -pour les plages étrangères, afin que vous partiez du pays qui a reconnu -en vous l’homme qui cherche à pervertir la société haïtienne.--Je vous -salue. - - (Signed) V. CHEVALIER, G. - - -This Monsieur Chevalier had been educated in France, and was shrewdly -suspected of having had a hand in drawing up the _Acte de déchéance_ -launched by the revolutionary committee of St. Marc in 1867 against -President Geffrard. Amongst the different articles are the following:-- - - “Attendu que le Général F. Geffrard assassine et empoisonne les - citoyens les plus éminents d’Haïti: attendu qu’il entretient à - l’étranger un très grand nombre d’espions et d’empoisonneurs _à un - prix exorbitant_: attendu que toutes les écoles de filles de la - république, notamment celles de Port-au-Prince, ont pour maîtresses - des femmes d’une vie dissolue, afin de faire de ces établissements des - maisons de séduction à son profit,” &c., &c. - -A Frenchman inquired, “Etait-il indispensable pour incriminer Geffrard -sur ce dernier chapître de faire tort à toutes les demoiselles du pays?” - -Among the most remarkable works published in Port-au-Prince may be -noticed the History of Hayti by Thomas Madiou (clear mulatto). As -it was written in the republic by a Haytian for Haytians, it may be -judged from that point of view. I have read it with great care and -with considerable interest, and some of the descriptions have been -much admired, as the detailed account of the attacks of the French -on the Crête-à-Pierrot. As an historical production it is a work -of considerable value and merit, for although full of prejudiced -statements, and with a strong leaning against foreigners, there is, -as far as local politics are concerned, an apparent desire to be -impartial. This, however, is not the general opinion. St. Rémy, in his -Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture, speaking of Madiou’s history, says, “Du -reste qu’il soit dit en passant que tout le livre de Monsieur Madiou -n’est qu’un tissu de faits érronés et de fausses appréciations.” The -French condemn it as a false account of the war of independence, and -resent the implied defence of Dessalines’ massacres. His partiality -may be proved by his asserting that the French Governor Blanchelande -was the instigator of the black insurrection. Madiou wrote his history -whilst in Hayti, and after searching for materials among the old -survivors of the war, whose prejudices were still warm. No doubt he was -influenced by them, but the industry shown is undoubted. The friends -and admirers of Toussaint had, however, a right to complain of the -evident wish to depreciate the qualities of almost the only black -Haytian who rose above mediocrity. - -Occasionally M. Madiou’s style is very extravagant, as in the -description of a battle (see below[20]) which took place between the -coloured men of Jacmel and their black antagonists. Never was there -such desperate fighting since the days when-- - - “For Witherington needs must I wayle, - As one in doleful dumps, - For when his legs were smitten off, - He fought upon his stumps.” - -M. Madiou is a mulatto, who has played a prominent part in the history -of his country, and his leanings are evidently in favour of his own -colour, and, as I have observed, he is severe on Toussaint L’Ouverture -for his endeavours to crush the attempts at independent command made by -Rigaud. - -Another work of inestimable value for the students of Haytian history -is the one written by M. Beaubrun-Ardouin (fair mulatto). It is -entitled “Études sur l’Histoire d’Haïti.” M. Ardouin attempted to -collect in this work all the documents that could illustrate the -history of his country, and, at the time of his death, ten volumes -had already been published. He was for many years Haytian Minister -in Paris, which gave him full opportunities for examining the French -archives. I only knew him slightly; he was evidently a man of talent -and industry, but as he was justly credited with a prejudice against -the whites, he was generally avoided by them. - -A Monsieur St. Rémy of Les Cayes wrote a Life of Toussaint, which is -but a poor production, and is full of prejudice and virulence against -both black and white. - -A Frenchman, M. Edgar la Selve, has published a work called “L’Histoire -de la Littérature Haïtienne.” It is a volume of some interest, -containing as it does a collection of poetry written by natives, but it -is considered to be inferior in point of style and extravagant in its -appreciations. When you find M. La Selve ranking the crude productions -of a rude school with the writings of the most distinguished among -ancient and modern authors, one may readily feel that this work is an -offering to the vanity of acquaintances. - -It is to be regretted that a person like M. La Selve should have -undertaken this task, as, instead of real criticism, which might have -proved of value, he puffs up the vanity and presumption of Haytian -writers by such observations as the following:--“Rapelle l’invotion -de Pindare”--“La grande éloquence et la magnificence des images”--“Sa -plume magique”--“La délicatesse de Charles Dovalle combinée avec la -grâce de Lamartine”--“Le nom modestement glorieux”--“Esprit vraiment -prodigieux et universel”--“Trois génies supérieurs”--“Cet autre -Augustin Thierry”--“Comparer aux dialogues de Platon.” - -What more could be said of the best classics? No wonder this work was -unable to command any attention. - -In the collection of poetry, it will be noticed that although there are -some very pretty verses, there are none of any remarkable merit. It is -not a special literature; there is seldom much local colouring: it is -rather a reflection of French productions where Lamartine holds the -place of honour. - -It has been remarked by a French critic that the further we recede -from the time of the Declaration of Independence the worse the poetry. -The expressions become less exact, the phraseology common, the style -incorrect, with less cadence in the verses. The versification is seldom -accurate throughout any of these poems. It is but another proof of what -I have elsewhere stated, that Hayti is in a state of decay. - -I may mention a few pieces that have struck a French friend as being -among the best. I prefer his judgment to my own, as I am one of those -who believe that no one can appreciate fully the poetry of another -nation; but as, in this case, my own opinion agrees with that of my -friend, I can take the responsibility of the judgment. - -Coriolan Ardouin (mulatto) has written a very charming piece called -“Alaïda,” beginning thus:-- - - “Sur la natte de jonc qu’aucun souci ne ronge, - Ses petits bras croisés sur un cœur de cinq ans, - Alaïda someille, heureuse, et pas un songe - Qui tourmente ses jeunes sens.” - -There is no local colour in this sonnet beyond, perhaps, the _natte de -jonc_. Only in the tropics are children to be seen sleeping on mats. - -Dupré has written a patriotic hymn which might pass muster among -many others of the same kind. It closes with the following ferocious -sentiment:-- - - “Si, quelque jour, sur tes rives - Osent venir nos tyrans, - Que leurs hordes fugitives - Servent d’engrais à nos champs.” - -Pierre Faubert (mulatto) has written several pieces which might be -quoted:-- - - -LA NEGRESSE. - - Le suis fier de te dire, O négresse, je t’aime, - Et la noir couleur me plaît, sais-tu pourquoi? - C’est que nobles vertus, chaste cœur, beauté même - Sont ce qui charme enfin, le ciel a mis en toi. - -These lines might have been addressed to the pretty negress of -Pétionville of whom I have elsewhere spoken. - -Another, “Aux Haïtiens,” is an appeal to union among blacks and -coloured. - -There is a pretty song by Milscent (mulatto), in the style of Béranger, -commencing:-- - - “J’entends en mainte occasion - Prêcher contre l’ambition; - Mon âme en est ravie--(_bis_.) - Mais ceux qui nous parlent si bien - Regorgent d’honneurs et de biens - Cela me contrarie”--(_bis_.) - -Ignace Nau (mulatto) contributes a very attractive piece called “Le -‘Ttchit’ et l’Orage:”-- - - “Voici, voici l’orage, - Là bas dans le nuage; - Voici le vent, le vent - Tourbillonnant au champ, - Et disant au feuillage - Repliez votre ombrage. - Au lac, à ses bambous, - ‘Roulez, agitez vous.’ - Au parfum ses délices - ‘Refermez vos calices;’ - Au palmier haut dans l’air, - ‘Gardez-vous de l’éclair.’ - Pauvre tchit égaré, chétif oiseau des champs! - Le mont a disparu sous les rideaux de pluie. - Hâte-toi, cher oiseau; viens t’abriter du temps, - Déjà l’eau du lac est ternie.” - -And many more verses equally good. - -Perhaps the most poetic piece in the collection is that written by -a Haïtienne, Virginie Sampeur, “L’Abandonnée,” which I will quote -entire:-- - - “Ah! si vous étiez mort, de mon âme meurtrie, - ferais une tombe, où, retraite chérie, - Mes larmes couleraient lentement, sans remords: - Que votre image en moi resterait radieuse. - Ah! si vous étiez mort.[21] - - Je ferai de mon cœur l’urne mélancolique - Conservant du passé la suave rélique, - Comme ces coffres d’or qui gardent les parfumes; - Je ferais de mon âme une riche chapelle - Où toujours brillerait la dernière étincelle - De mes espoirs défunts. - - Ah! si vous étiez mort, votre éternel silence - Moins âpre qu’en ce jour aurait son éloquence, - Car ce ne serait plus le cruel abandon. - Je dirais, il est mort, mais il sait bien m’entendre; - Et peut-être en mourant n’a-t-il peut se defendre - De murmurer:--Pardon. - - Mais vous n’êtes pas mort! Oh! douleur sans mesure, - Regret qui fait jaillir le sang de ma blessure: - Je ne puis m’empêcher, moi, de me souvenir, - Même quand vous restez devant mes larmes vraies - Sec et froid, sans donner à mes profondes plaies - L’aumône d’un soupir. - - Ingrat! vous vivez donc, quand tout me dit vengeance! - Mais je n’écoute pas! à defaut d’espérance - Une fantôme d’idole est mon unique port, - Illusion, folie, ou vain rêve de femme, - Je vous aimerais tant, si vous n’étiez qu’un âme. - Ah! que n’êtes vous mort.” - -There is something superior in the tone and sentiment of this piece, -the only one of the author that M. La Selve publishes. I may notice -that Virginie Sampeur is a lady of colour. As she is still living, -I will only add that her poem tells her own story. As a rule, these -Haytian poets express fairly well all tender sentiments, but they are -wanting in a careful literary education, and they have not a very exact -appreciation of the genius of the French language. - -In miscellaneous literature there are many publications of merit. Emile -Nau wrote an interesting book called “Histoire de Casiques,” although a -critic might fail to discover in it “une mine immense d’érudition.” It -is seldom that a Haytian writer dedicates himself to anything useful, -so that the efforts of Eugène Nau to bring superior agriculture into -vogue have a double merit. He is best known for his two productions, -“L’influence de l’Agriculture sur la Civilisation des Peuples” and -his “Flore Indienne.” I knew Eugène Nau very well. He was married to -a very charming woman, a sister of Auguste Elie, and no one who has -passed a few days at their estate in the plains of Cul-de-Sac will ever -forget the pleasant gaiety that reigned in that house. Civil war has, -however, devastated that portion of the country, and I fear that even -the inexhaustible spirits of Eugène Nau will scarcely be able to bear -him through such accumulated misfortunes. The small diplomatic corps -were ever welcome guests at Digneron, and I recall with pleasure the -evenings spent there with my French and Spanish colleagues. He had -a fund of intelligence and good sense; and his steady advocacy of a -metallic currency did honour to his perspicacity. - -As might have been anticipated, the black portion of the population has -shown no literary aptitudes. Occasionally an Edmond Paul has written -a political essay which has fallen flat, or a Salomon has indited a -vigorous defence of his policy; but, as a rule, the coloured portion of -the population has produced the historians and poets of Hayti. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND FINANCE. - - -AGRICULTURE. - -M. Eugène Nau, in his pamphlet on the influence of agriculture on -civilisation, endeavoured to bring his countrymen to look with favour -on the principal source of prosperity in all tropical countries; but -the seed he sowed fell on revolutionary soil, and agriculture is more -neglected than ever. - -And yet in all the wide world there is not a country more suited to -agriculture than Hayti; not one where the returns for labour are more -magnificent; a rich, well-watered soil, with a sun which actually -appears to draw vegetation towards itself with such energetic force -that the growth of plants, though not actually visible to the eye, may -be almost daily measured. - -The system of cultivation varies greatly. In the north an effort was -made by King Christophe to keep up large estates, whilst in the west -and south President Pétion encouraged the division of the land among -peasant proprietors. Large estates still remain, however, in these -provinces, which are cultivated under different arrangements, to which -I will hereafter refer. The general rule is that large estates obtain -mostly in the plains, whilst in the mountains the land is practically -in the hands of the peasantry, though many large estates exist -nominally. - -In 1877 a law was passed for regulating the management of the State -domains, for selling them or leasing them for nine years. A longer -lease would require a special authorisation of the Legislature. This -last clause is principally aimed at foreigners, whom the Haytians -desire to keep away from all interest in land. - -The national estates lie in different parts of the country, and the -extent of them in the aggregate is but imperfectly known, owing to -careless administration. According to an official return published in -1877, there were under lease 2105 farms of national land, containing -about 230,000 acres, let on an average at the rate of two shillings per -acre. - -The laws on the tenure of real estate are, with some modifications, the -same as the agrarian laws that were framed by the French during their -possession of the country, and are remarkable for that minute accuracy -and definition of right which characterise French laws in general. - -For the better elucidation of the subject a few retrospective notices -are necessary. - -Going back to 1804, the year of independence, one of the first acts -of Dessalines was to create a national domain out of the following -elements:-- - -All the real estate which constituted the State domains during the -French period. - -All the real estates of the whites which had not been legally -transferred. - -All land without owners. - -Confiscated lands. - -In furtherance of his project to get the best part of the land into -the hands of Government, Dessalines is accused of resorting to every -kind of arbitrary and cruel act, and did not even disdain to encourage -forgery in order to dispossess those proprietors who stood firm to -their rights. This attack on private property was one of the main -causes of the successful plot against his life. - -Of the national estate thus formed a great part was subsequently -parcelled out by Pétion in donations to those who had deserved well in -the war of independence, whilst other lots were sold in fee-simple. - -Of the class of large proprietors created under the republic of Pétion, -but few undertook the cultivation of their own lands. The usage at once -came into favour of letting them out in small lots to working men on -the Metayer system, the landlord to receive half the produce, on the -condition of furnishing, on sugar-cane estates, the mill and the other -necessary appliances. With regard to produce, there are two classes -recognised and kept distinct by law, namely, “la grande culture” (large -farming) and “la petite culture” (small farming). The first consists in -the cultivation of sugar-cane and similar articles; the second in the -cultivation of provisions for the market. As in the “grande culture” -half went to the proprietor, the tendency has been for some years -to encroach with the “petite culture” on the lands reserved for the -former. Each peasant is allowed a patch of ground near his portion of -the cane-field on which to grow vegetables, and it has been found that -his attention is more directed to this than formerly. As long as the -sugar-cane is reserved for the manufacture of cheap rum to keep the -population in a continued state of intoxication, the falling off in -its culture is not to be regretted. In fact, the “great” and “little” -culture did very well when anything exportable was cultivated, but now -are of little practical importance, as they do not so much affect the -great stay of the country, the coffee crop.[22] - -I may repeat that the first thing in point of importance in Haytian -agriculture is the coffee-tree, which grows almost wild in every -mountainous part of the country and around the cottages of the -peasantry at elevations of from 500 to 7000 feet above the level of the -sea--wild in the sense that the plants appear to spring from the seeds -that have fallen from the parent trees, though occasionally I have seen -them carefully planted round the cottages. - -There is a notion in Hayti that the coffee crop will come to an end -by the old trees dying out. I was told this twenty years ago, and -the story is still repeated; but any one who observantly travels in -the interior would find the old trees surrounded by younger ones -that spring from the teeming soil from seeds scattered by the wind or -rain. The idea, also prevalent among many foreigners in Hayti, that -the coffee collected now is taken from the original trees planted by -the French, is untenable. As soon as the civil war caused by King -Christophe’s assumption of power ceased (1820), a marked progress took -place in the production of coffee. There is another fact which is also -forgotten; coffee-plants in wet tropical countries generally bear from -twenty to twenty-five years; therefore their age may be taken at about -thirty years. If this statement be correct, the trees must have been -renewed three times since the old colonial days. Most of the coffee -plantations I saw in Hayti contained shrubs that have seldom exceeded -from seven to ten feet in height, though on the way to Kenskoff I -noticed many from twelve to fifteen feet. At Furcy and at La Selle we -saw some very good plants, properly cleaned and attended to, and kept -at a suitable height for picking the berries. Mackenzie noticed, in -1827, whole sides of mountains covered with coffee-trees of spontaneous -growth, two-thirds of the produce being lost for want of hands to -gather it. So prolific, he says, were the bushes, that many which were -carefully tended produced from five to six lbs. and some were known to -give nine lbs. - -I have never noticed the peasantry use more than the _mauchette_, a -sort of chopper almost as long as a sword, whilst cleaning their coffee -plantations. They simply cut down the weeds and creepers, but never -stir the soil around the roots with a hoe. The use of manure is unknown. - -The only preventable cause for any decline in the coffee crop would -be the neglect following the withdrawal of the peasantry to take part -in civil wars and revolutions, and the lazy habits engendered by camp -life. When riding through coffee plantations after the civil wars of -1868 and 1869, I noticed a marked deterioration from 1864. Creepers -of every description were suffered to grow over and almost choke -the plants, and poor crops were sometimes the result. In Geffrard’s -time, though the cultivation was slovenly, efforts were made to keep -the plants clean, and during the quiet four years of Nissage-Saget’s -presidency the peasantry returned to their old habits. - -Notwithstanding this occasional neglect, there appears no progressive -falling off in the crops; they vary as before, but on the whole keep up -to the average. - -The quality of Haytian coffee is excellent, but its price in the market -is low, from various causes. Sometimes the crop is gathered hastily, -and ripe and unripe seeds are mixed; and then it is dried on the bare -ground, regardless of the state of the weather; and when swept up into -heaps, it is too often intermingled with small stones, leaves, and -dirt; and fraudulent cultivators or middle-men add other substances to -increase the weight. I have known carefully-selected parcels sent to -France marked Mocha, and there realising full prices. Nowhere is coffee -made better than in Hayti; it is roasted to a rich brown, ground and -prepared with a sufficient allowance of the material, all on the same -day, and the result is perfect. - -As with other crops in the world, there are good years and bad years; -but with neglected plants, the bad come oftener than they would if due -attention were paid to their cultivation. - -In 1789, when the French possessed the island, the amount produced -greatly exceeded anything seen since, with the exceptions of 1863, -1875, and 1876. In those years above 71,000,000 lbs. passed through -the custom-house, and it is calculated that about 15,000,000 lbs. were -smuggled. - -The variations have been as follows:-- - - Lbs. - 1789 88,360,502 - 1818 20,280,589 - 1824 46,000,000 - 1835 48,352,371 - 1845 41,002,571 - 1860 60,514,289 - 1861 45,660,889 - 1863 71,712,345 - 1864 45,168,764 - 1873 64,786,690 - 1874 54,677,854 - 1875 72,637,716 - 1876 72,289,504 - 1877 52,991,861 - 1878 63,255,545 - 1879 47,941,506 - 1880 55,562,897 - -This striking increase in the amount of coffee produced since the great -war would appear somewhat to contradict the theory of the degeneracy -and idleness of the Haytians, but it must be remembered that the women -and children are very hard-working; that the women are in a majority, -and that the work is mostly done by Nature; the men, also, are not -very light-handed taskmasters. If a space be cleared round the bushes -with a _mauchette_--easy work that a child can do--the increase in a -plantation will continue, as I have remarked, by the beneficent hand -of Nature; the heavy rains knock off the ripe berries and scatter them -down the mountain-sides, and give rise to those matted undergrowths of -coffee-bushes whose fecundity often surprises the traveller. It is not -likely that the produce of the coffee-plants will decrease. - -During the French colonial days the principal product was sugar, -and in the year 1789 they exported 54,000,000 lbs. of white sugar -and 107,000,000 lbs. of brown. As the slaves left the estates, so -production decreased, and was fast disappearing when Christophe in the -north forced the people by severe measures to resume its manufacture. -He gave the great estates of the old colonists to his generals and -courtiers, with an order that they should produce a certain amount of -sugar under pain of forfeiture. As they had the population under their -command, and an unrestrained use of the stick, they succeeded fairly; -but as soon as this pressure was removed, the manufacture of sugar -ceased, and it is no longer found in the list of exports, except as a -fancy article to obtain bounties. - -In 1818 the export of sugar had fallen from 161,000,000 to 1,900,000 -lbs., and in 1821 to 600,000 lbs., then to disappear from the -custom-house lists. - -The prejudice against sugar-making is still strong, though, could -the owners of estates prove to their people that large profits would -accrue to them from its manufacture, it is very probable that the -prejudice would die out. A friend of mine tried to persuade one of his -cultivators to aid him in a sugar-making project, but the man answered -sulkily, “Moué pas esclave” (“I’m not a slave”), and walked away. The -negroes do not like a bell to be used to ring them to work, as it -reminds them of colonial days, but some bold innovators have introduced -and continued the practice, without producing any other effect than -occasional grumbling. - -Sugar-cane, however, is still very extensively cultivated, and succeeds -admirably, the soil appearing peculiarly adapted to it. The cane is -now grown for making tafia or white rum, and for molasses, which -the people use instead of sugar. Most of the factories built by the -French were destroyed, and inferior buildings have been erected in -their stead. Watermills are generally used, as being economical, and -the never-failing streams from the hills afford abundant power. A few -proprietors have put up extensive machinery for sugar-making, but their -success has been so doubtful as not to encourage others. A Haytian -knows that during a revolution his property would not be respected, -and, if a defeated partisan, would be either confiscated or destroyed: -so no encouragement is held out to agricultural enterprise; and, what -adds to his difficulties, a dangerous spirit of communism has spread -among the people, and in many districts the peasantry begin to regard -the estates as their own. - -Of cotton 8,400,000 lbs. were exported in 1789. This amount, however, -soon decreased under independent rule:-- - - In 1835 there were exported 1,649,717 lbs. - ” 1842 ” ” 880,517 ” - ” 1853 ” ” 557,480 ” - ” 1859 ” ” 938,056 ” - ” 1860 ” ” 688,735 ” - -to rise, on the outbreak of the civil war in the United States, to-- - - In 1861 1,139,439 lbs. - ” 1862 1,473,853 ” - -increasing until 1865, when the crop was over 4,000,000 pounds; but -the fall of prices, occasioned by the collapse of the civil war in -the States, from 2s. 6d. to 11d. in the course of a few months, -discouraged the agriculturists, and cotton was again neglected. In the -last commercial reports the amount of cotton exported from the whole -republic is not given. - -During the Great Exhibition held in London in 1862, the report on the -cotton exhibited there by Hayti mentioned very favourably the two bales -which were sent as specimens, and it remarked that England required -at least 2,000,000 bales of each of the qualities exhibited. It has -been calculated that there is sufficient suitable land in Hayti to -furnish half the quantity required. This, however, appears to me an -over-estimate. - -President Geffrard was fully aware of the importance of taking -advantage of the opportunity offered by the civil war in the United -States, and supported two measures to encourage cotton cultivation. The -first was the immigration of free blacks from America, and the next the -offer of bounties. - -The immigration was badly managed, as blacks from the North were sent, -instead of Southern cultivators. Most of those who arrived, being -unfitted for field-labour in a tropical climate, added but little to -the production of cotton. A few kept to the work, but many died, and -most of the others either migrated to the towns or left the country. As -might have been expected, the Haytian arrangements were as bad as they -could be. Settlers were given ground without any water, but were told -that a canal should some day be cut; food and money were distributed -irregularly, and malversation added to the other difficulties. - -Bounties were scarcely required, as the price rose from 4d. in 1859 -to 1s., 1s. 2d., and 1s. 5d. in 1863, and 2s. 6d. in 1864; and many -Haytians tried to do something in order to win a portion of this -harvest. Field-hands, however, were scarce, and in order to get in -their crops the proprietors had to offer half the amount to those who -would come and gather it for them. One peasant proprietor, in 1863, -managed with his family to secure 8000 lbs. of cotton, which he sold -for £500, a sum to which he was wholly unaccustomed. The comparative -large amounts to be received would have had a very great effect on the -prosperity of the country had there been the necessary hands ready to -take advantage of the opportunity offered. The industrious, however, -were few, and many proprietors had to leave a portion of their crop to -rot on the plants. - -When the prices rose to three or four times the former value, the -Government abolished the system of bounties, and imposed a tax of one -penny a pound, but had to abolish it in 1865 on the sudden fall in -prices. The cultivation is now again neglected, as Haytian cotton has -returned to its old level in price, and the land must be more valuable -for provision crops. With the uncertainty which characterises the -supply of labour in Hayti, it is not likely that cotton will again -become an important export. - -The French appear to have paid but little attention to the cultivation -of the cacao-tree, and in 1789 only exported 600,000 lbs. Even this -small quantity decreased, and the amount that passed through the -custom-house in 1821 fell to 264,792 lbs. The crops have since much -varied, but the export rose gradually, until, in 1863, the amount was -2,217,769 lbs. As far as I have been able to ascertain, no subsequent -year has produced so abundant a crop. - -Cacao is principally grown near the farthest point of the peninsula, -west of Jérémie, amid a population rarely visited, and reported as -among the most barbarous of the island. - -Tobacco is not mentioned in the list of exports during the French -period, and only appears in those returns which were published when -the Dominican end of the island formed part of the Haytian republic. -A little has been occasionally grown for home consumption, as at the -Fonds-aux-Nègres. - -Logwood is found in all parts of the country, and is a very important -article of export. - -There is nothing else grown in Hayti which can be called an article of -commerce, but the peasantry cultivate large amounts of garden produce, -and some rice and Indian-corn, but they do not do so in sufficient -quantities to supply the market. Bananas for cooking purposes are a -valuable crop, as they take the place of bread in the daily consumption -of the people. Fruit-trees abound, particularly mangoes, sour oranges, -and the avocado (alligator pear). The last fruit comes to great -perfection, whilst the mango is inferior except in a few localities, -and is not to be compared to the “number elevens” grown in Jamaica. - -The markets of the capital are well supplied with European vegetables, -which are grown in the mountains at the back of La Coupe, the old -summer resort of the people of the capital. When staying there, I have -often walked to the gardens at the foot of Fort Jaques, where not only -vegetables may be found, but many orchards full of peach-trees--sadly -neglected, however--with their branches covered with long moss, -to the exclusion of leaf and fruit. A few apples and chestnuts are -occasionally brought to market. Fort Jaques is situated about 6000 feet -above the level of the sea. I may notice that the peaches are usually -picked before they ripen, on account of the pilfering habits of the -people. - -There is little to be said about the domestic animals. The horses are -generally small, but strong and full of endurance, and are of Spanish -breed. Mules and donkeys are plentiful, as no person is satisfied -unless he possesses some beast of burden. The cattle are supplied from -the Dominican part of the island, and are much used for traction. Good -beef may often be found in the markets. Sheep and goats are plentiful, -but of inferior breeds, whilst pigs wander about untended, and are -generally so lean that they warrant the reproach that the Haytians -cannot even fatten a pig. Poultry are thought to be getting scarcer -than formerly: they are generally of an inferior kind. - - -COMMERCE. - -Hayti has for many years carried on a very fair commerce with Europe -and America, though probably not a quarter of what she might have if -her inhabitants were industrious. In the colonial days, the exports -were valued at from £6,000,000 to £8,000,000 a year, and in 1790 had -reached nearly £11,000,000 with a less numerous population, whilst the -highest since the independence has probably not exceeded £2,300,000. - -Notwithstanding foreign wars, civil wars, insurrections, and those -continued conspiracies which have almost every year disturbed the -country, the productive powers of the soil are so great, that nothing -appears permanently to depress the exports, and therefore the imports. - -The export trade of Hayti in 1835, which then included the whole -island, was as follows:-- - - Lbs. Value. - Coffee 48,352,371 $6,812,849 - Logwood 13,293,737 86,409 - Cotton 1,649,717 247,457 - Mahogany, feet 5,413,316 405,998 - Tobacco 2,086,606 125,196 - Cacao 397,321 47,678 - ---------- - $7,725,587 - -At the exchange of the day this represented just £1,000,000 sterling. -The last year in which the statistics refer to the whole island is 1842. - -M. Madiou, in his “History of Hayti,” vol. i. p. 31, gives the amount -of the produce exported in the years 1842 and 1845, but does not affix -a value to them:-- - - -1842. - - Coffee 40,759,064 lbs. - Cotton 880,517 ” - Logwood 19,563,147 ” - Tobacco 2,518,612 ” - Cigars 700,000 No. - Mahogany 4,096,716 feet - -and various small amounts of miscellaneous articles. - -It will be remarked that in the returns for 1845 tobacco has ceased -to appear, as Santo Domingo had by this time separated from Hayti. M. -Madiou considers that about 5,000,000 lbs. of coffee are consumed in -the island, which is probably an under-estimate, considering the lavish -manner in which it is used, and that 20,000,000 lbs. are exported -as contraband, to avoid the heavy duties. This calculation appears -too high. Whilst I was in Hayti, the illicit trade was considered to -represent from 15 to 20 per cent of the acknowledged exports. Much, -however, depends on the character of the men in power. - - -1845. - - Lbs. - Coffee 41,002,571 - Cotton 557,480 - Logwood and other woods 68,181,588 - Mahogany, feet 7,904,285 - -The other woods consist of lignum vitæ, &c. It is curious that he makes -no mention of cacao. - -In the next returns it will be noticed how mahogany decreased--the -cuttings near the coast were beginning to be exhausted--whilst the -exports of logwood were greatly increased. This is work that just -suits the negro; it can be done by fits and starts, and never requires -continuous labour. The following tables may appear superfluous, but -they show the effect of comparatively orderly government. These -six years were free from any serious civil trouble, and no foreign -complications prevented all development that was possible. The war in -the States gave trade considerable impulse. - - -1859. - - Coffee 41,712,106 lbs. - Logwood 88,177,600 ” - Cotton 938,056 ” - Cacao 1,397,364 ” - Mahogany 2,690,044 feet - - -1860. - - Coffee 60,514,289 lbs. - Logwood 104,321,200 ” - Cotton 668,735 ” - Cacao 1,581,806 ” - Mahogany 2,264,037 feet - - -1861. - - Coffee 45,660,889 lbs. - Logwood 105,757,050 ” - Cotton 1,139,439 ” - Cacao 1,304,561 ” - Mahogany 1,659,272 feet - - -1862. - - Coffee 54,579,059 lbs. - Logwood 167,005,650 ” - Cotton 1,473,853 ” - Cacao 1,743,853 ” - Mahogany 2,441,887 feet - - -1863. - - Coffee 71,712,345 lbs. - Logwood 116,669,400 ” - Cotton 2,217,769 ” - Cacao 2,338,400 ” - Mahogany 2,016,557 feet - - -1864. - - Coffee 45,168,764 lbs. - Logwood 153,235,100 ” - Cotton 3,237,594 ” - Cacao 1,399,941 ” - Mahogany 2,369,501 feet - -No trustworthy statistics could be obtained for the time of Soulouque, -on account of the monopolies and the various interferences with -commerce. In 1865 the siege of Cap Haïtien, and the disturbances which -followed in 1866, the fall of Geffrard in 1867, and the civil war of -1868 and 1869, completely disturbed trade, and no reliable statistics -can be obtained. - -The latest trade return which I have seen is of the year 1880:-- - - Lbs. - Coffee 55,562,897 - Logwood 321,729,801 - Cacao 2,729,853 - Cotton 957,962 - Mahogany, feet 71,478 - Sugar 2,397 - -Mr. Mackenzie, who was English Consul-General at Port-au-Prince during -the years 1826 and 1827, gives a table of the commerce of Hayti in -1825, which includes the whole island. - - -_Imports._ - - Vessels. Tonnage. Value of cargoes. - American 374 39,199 £391,784 - British 78 11,952 291,456 - French 65 11,136 152,681 - German 17 3,185 85,951 - Others 18 1,328 10,162 - -------- - £932,034 - -The large amount of American vessels will be noticed, and the -comparative extent of their trade. In 1864 English-sailing shipping -rose to 281 vessels (of 41,199 tonnage) and 74 steamers, against those -under the American flag, 88 sailing vessels (of 16,316 tonnage) and two -steamers. This, however, was only nominal, the ravages of the _Alabama_ -having induced American shipowners to transfer their vessels to the -British flag. - -In 1877 the tonnage of vessels calling at the three chief ports of -Hayti (Port-au-Prince, Cap Haïtien, and Les Cayes) was as follows:-- - - Flag. Tonnage. - British 184,331 - French 91,562 - German 80,561 - American 22,350 - -It must be noticed, however, that the English, French, and German -tonnage consists principally of steamers, which have ports of call -on the island, whereas the Americans have two-fifths of the sailing -tonnage. - -In 1863 the imports into Hayti amounted to £1,743,052, and in 1864 to -£2,045,333. The United States then held the first place, having sent -£762,724 and £994,266, their imports, as usual, being principally -provisions and lumber. England occupied the second position with -£503,630 and £626,624; France, £255,747 and £273,778. Both in the years -1863 and 1864 there was a great decrease in the amount of provisions -grown in the country, partly on account of the increase of cotton -cultivation; hence the very heavy imports of provisions from the United -States. - -The exports in 1863 and 1864 were valued at £2,458,000 and £1,895,000, -the decrease arising from the inferiority of the coffee crop, and the -fall in the price of goods. The average value of the principal articles -of export varied as follows:-- - - Articles. 1863. 1864. - Coffee, per 100 lbs. £2 9 3½ £2 5 0 - Logwood, per 1000 lbs. 1 2 9 0 17 10 - Cotton, per lb. 0 1 4 0 2 0 - Cacao, per 100 lbs. 1 9 4 1 6 0 - - -_Present Prices._ - -Prices have fallen lately to an unprecedented extent. During the autumn -of the year 1882, coffee was once quoted as low as 16s. per 100 lbs., -but rose afterwards to 24s.; and all other produce was also depreciated -in value. - -In 1876 the total imports into the island were £2,110,000; the total -exports, £2,200,000. - -In 1877 the total imports were £1,594,200; the total exports, -£1,694,800, which was below the average. - -In 1877 the imports into the capital were as follows, which shows a -marked change in the position of the importing countries:-- - - Great Britain £619,900 - United States 110,200 - France 103,100 - Germany 36,880 - -In some of the smaller ports the position of the trade of the United -States was relatively better. In Les Cayes, for instance:-- - - United States £119,172 - Great Britain 23,692 - France 22,030 - Germany 1,715 - -A portion of these imports from the United States consisted of -manufactures in transit from England. We appear to be holding our own -everywhere as regards piece goods and iron, whilst five-sixths of the -imports of the United States consist of flour, salt pork, and other -provisions. The Haytians are French in their tastes, but the cheapness -of our Manchester goods enables our importers to hold their own. -The great export, coffee, appears in great part ultimately to reach -French ports, as it is not appreciated in other countries, whereas -its cheapness and good quality recommend it strongly to the French -Government for the use of the army. - -When in Port-au-Prince I drew the attention of the Secretary of State -for Foreign Affairs to the great discrepancy between their published -returns and those of our Board of Trade. In 1865 our exports are set -down at £1,163,274, and in 1866 at £1,425,402, for the whole island. -Santo Domingo takes but a small amount, whilst the Haytian custom-house -did not acknowledge more than half the amount of our returns. Either we -overvalue our goods in England, or the smuggling must be large. - -The imports from the United States appear to have greatly fallen off -since 1864, which must imply that the peasantry are planting more food -and consuming a very much smaller amount of imported provisions. - - -FINANCE. - -As in most American republics, the income of the Haytian state depends -chiefly on the custom-house. It is said the people will not bear direct -taxation, and that therefore the Government must rely on import and -export duties. The heavy debt which was imposed on Hayti by France -nearly sixty years ago has been the principal cause of the financial -embarrassments of the republic. - -The mission of Baron Mackau, sent by Charles X. in 1825, had for object -the imperfect recognition of the independence of the republic of Hayti, -on condition of their paying £6,000,000 as an indemnity to the old -colonists--a sum quite out of the power of the country to raise--and -only five years were allowed to complete the transaction. One is at -a loss to understand how President Boyer could have consented to so -burdensome an arrangement. Subsequently the indemnity was reduced to -£3,600,000, but although fifty-eight years have passed, a balance -still remains due. It was not till 1838 that these arrangements were -concluded, and France definitively recognised the independence of -Hayti. The republic had effected a loan in Paris in 1825 of £1,200,000 -nominal to pay the first instalment due, and even this debt has not -been completely settled. The whole transaction proved a cruel burden -to the country, and, by introducing heavy export duties and the curse -of paper money, greatly injured agricultural and every other interest. - -The import duties average about 30 per cent. on the value, whilst the -export duties are at so much a quintal on coffee, and have varied -according to the exigencies of the moment. Major Stuart’s Report for -1877 enters into many details which may be found interesting. I propose -to give here only the general results; but I may say that the duties -embrace almost every article, and are as high as they can bear. - -The progress of the revenue collected in Hayti is another proof to me -that the population has greatly increased. - -It is not necessary to examine the budgets of many years. In 1821, -before the union with Santo Domingo, the income is stated by Mackenzie -to have been $3,570,691, and the expenditure $3,461,993. In these sums -must be included some exceptional receipts and expenditure, as the -revenue of the whole island in 1825 was only $2,421,592. The long and -quiet Presidency of Boyer, coupled with his honest administration, -enabled him not only to pay off considerable sums to France, but -to leave a heavy balance in the treasury. Boyer, however, has the -demerit of having introduced the paper currency, and of having put -into circulation $2,500,000 more than he withdrew, thus reducing the -exchange of the doubloon from 16 to 1 (par) to 40 to 1. - -After Boyer came the period of revolutions, and consequent deficits -and heavy issues of paper money. In four years they had sent down the -exchange to $60 to one doubloon. But the disastrous period of Haytian -financial history was the reign of Soulouque, when millions of paper -dollars were issued every year, sending down the exchange to $289 to -one doubloon. - -In 1849 no less than $4,195,400 were issued to meet the expenses of the -establishment of the empire. - -The budget for 1848, the last year of the republic, is nominally a very -modest one (exchange $25 to £1):-- - - Army $3,232,238 = £129,289 - Interior 770,395 = 30,815 - Finance and foreign affairs 668,814 = 26,752 - Justice, education, public worship 303,393 = 12,135 - -------- - £198,993 - -But as 2,200,000 paper dollars were issued during the year, it is -probable that this budget was not adhered to. - -The budget for the year in which the empire was established is given as -follows (exchange $40 to £1):-- - - Army $3,810,216 = £95,255 - Interior 735,937 = 18,398 - Finance, &c. 2,237,389 = 55,934 - Justice, &c. 309,293 = 7,732 - --------- -------- - $7,092,835 = £177,319 - -But these budgets are not to be trusted, and do not represent the real -expenses. - -When the accounts were examined subsequent to the fall of Soulouque, -it was found that of the coffee monopoly alone £400,000 had been -abstracted for the use of the Emperor and some of his Ministers and -favourites. The comparative large sums of £40,000, £20,000, and £12,000 -were taken at a time, without any account being rendered. During -Soulouque’s reign over $28,000,000 were added to the currency. - -In June 1863, General Dupuy, Finance Minister to President Geffrard, -published a very clear financial statement. The total debt remaining -due to France was £1,436,000. The custom duties produced:-- - - In 1860 £511,666 - ” 1861 463,333 - ” 1862 566,000 - Minor taxes, £26,341. - - -_Deficits._ - - In 1859 £30,276 - ” 1860 35,904 - ” 1861 81,193 - ” 1862 81,483 - -These were calculated on the amount of paper money signed to meet them, -but at the close of 1862 there was £79,834 in hand. - -The budget of 1863-64 was fixed as follows:-- - - Expenses. | Receipts. - Finance £67,776 | Duties £564,050 - Foreign Office 171,828 | Minor taxes 24,725 - War 138,361 | - Interior 171,692 | - Public instruction 44,825 | - Justice and public} | - worship } 27,714 | - ------- | -------- - £622,196 | £588,775 - -The deficit was met by adding ten per cent. to the duties. - -During the Presidency of General Geffrard the finances were better -administered than under Soulouque, but millions of dollars disappeared, -without any one being found willing to give an account of what had -become of them. One coloured and two black generals are supposed to -have appropriated the principal portion. On the Chamber of Deputies -venturing to make inquiries on this interesting point, it was summarily -dismissed, and a packed Chamber substituted. - -Civil war ended by General Geffrard resigning and quitting the country. -I do not believe, however, that he carried with him more than he -could have fairly saved out of his salary. He, moreover, was the only -President that I knew who kept up the position of chief of the State -with any dignity. - -No budgets were procurable during Salnave’s time, and the civil war -that was carried on during three years caused the Government and -insurgents to issue paper money, so that before Salnave’s fall this -paper currency was to be obtained at 3000 paper to one silver dollar. -It was withdrawn by the subsequent Government at 10 to 1 for their own -paper. - -The finances under General Nissage-Saget were, for Hayti, at first -decently administered; but when the bad black element from the south -entered into its councils, malversation became the order of the day. -But during this Presidency a great change was made in the currency: -all paper money was withdrawn at an exchange of 300 to 1, and American -silver dollars substituted. This change was much criticised both -before and since, as unsuited to the circumstances of the country. -On the whole, the balance of arguments was in favour of a metallic -currency. - -Under President Domingue there were no honest financial measures taken. -Everything was done to suit the pleasure of Septimus Rameau, and a loan -was raised in France, and the largest portion distributed among the -friends of the Minister in a manner which astonished even Haytians. It -was a disgraceful transaction, that the next Chamber endeavoured to -ignore; but as it was supported by the French agents, the Government of -Boisrond-Canal had to yield and acknowledge it. - -For the years 1876 and 1877 we have the receipts and expenditure stated -in detail. The income from duties, &c., was £805,900; the expenditure, -£804,737; including £202,876 to the sinking fund. The army and navy -figure for only £167,568, and public instruction was increased to -£82,245. In Soulouque’s budget of 1849, justice, education, and public -worship were credited with only £7732. - - -_Budget for 1876-77._ - - Finance and commerce £89,558 - Foreign relations 46,714 - War and marine 167,568 - Interior and agriculture 111,931 - Justice 36,095 - Public instruction 82,245 - Public worship 12,586 - District chest (communes) 75,160 - Sinking fund 202,876 - -------- - £824,733 - -The latest budget I have before me is that of 1881. It is as follows:-- - - Finance and commerce £67,610 - Foreign relations 48,954 - War 214,837 - Interior 298,913 - Justice 54,565 - Public instruction 115,037 - Public worship 13,875 - -------- - £813,791 - -The amount of the income to meet this expenditure is not stated. - -The circulating medium in the early days of Haytian independence -consisted of foreign gold and silver coins, and then some fabricated -in the country, of inferior quality and appearance, of both silver and -copper. In 1826, President Boyer beginning to feel the pressure of -his engagements with France, issued paper notes of different values. -Being irredeemable, they soon fell to a heavy discount, 3½ to 1. The -succeeding Governments, as I have noticed, continued the same course, -until, on the accession of Soulouque to power, the exchange was about -4½ to 1. The unchecked emissions after he ascended the imperial throne -gradually lessened the value of the paper, until, in 1858, it was 18 to -1. - -Some order having been put into the finances by General Dupuy, the -exchange in 1863 was more favourable, being 12½ to 1; the troubles -which succeeded in 1865 sent it to 17 to 1; and with the revolutionary -Government of Salnave and the civil war that followed it went down -like the assignats during the French Revolution,--in 1857, 30 to 1; in -1859, 3000 to 1. - -The issues of Salnave’s Government were so discredited that they were -at one time exchanged at 6500 paper dollars for one of silver. Until -lately the American dollar and its fractions, with a plentiful bronze -currency, sufficed for all wants. Now, however, a special Haytian -dollar is being coined, with the object apparently of preventing its -export--a very futile expedient, as experience proves. - -A sort of National Bank, managed principally by Frenchmen, was -established a few years since, but its operations do not as yet appear -to have had much influence on the country. As the bank, however, has -some control over the collection of duties, it may introduce a more -honest perception of these imports; but I do not think the managers -will find that their lines have fallen in pleasant places. - - -THE END. - - - PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. - EDINBURGH AND LONDON. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Ever since the reign of Soulouque, professional authors have -been paid by the Haytian Government to spread rose-tinted accounts -of the civilisation and progress of Hayti. But twenty-four hours in -any town of that republic would satisfy the most sceptical that these -semi-official accounts are unworthy of belief. - -[2] Mackenzie states that he noticed the thermometer marking 99° every -day for considerable periods. - -[3] It is a well-known fact that the noise of the approach of an -earthquake is generally heard; but in Port-au-Prince there is a curious -phenomenon which I have never known explained. A subterranean noise -is frequently heard approaching from the plains, and appears to pass -under the town without any movement of the earth being perceptible. The -Haytians call it “le gouffre,” or “le bruit du gouffre,” and many fancy -the whole of that portion of the island to be undermined, and predict a -fearful fate for the capital. - -[4] Our unsuccessful attempt to conquer Hayti does not merit to be -recorded in detail, but it is humiliating to read of the stupidity -of our chiefs at Port-au-Prince, who made our soldiers work at -fortifications during the day and do duty at night. No wonder that -we find a regiment 600 strong losing 400 in two months, and the 82d -landing 950 men, to be reduced in six weeks to 350. - -[5] St. Remy, speaking of Toussaint’s capture, says, “Embarquement par -les _blancs_.” How like a mulatto not to say “par les français!” - -[6] This biography, as well as the others I have seen, is full of -absurdities; talks of Toussaint advancing with an imposing army, which -turns out to be of 950 men. At the battle of Verretes 1500 blacks drive -3500 English troops from their intrenchments, and then 6000 English are -defeated and cut to pieces by a few squadrons. As far as I can learn, -Brisbane had eighty English soldiers and some untrustworthy black and -coloured allies, mixed with French planters. Even a moderately sensible -Haytian could not accept so absurd a biography. - -[7] I am glad to be able to notice that M. Robin (mulatto), in his -“Abrégé de l’Histoire d’Haïti,” remarks in relating Toussaint’s sad -death:--“Ainsi fut récompensé de ses longs et éminents services cet -illustre enfant d’Haïti, qui pouvait bien se dire le premier des -noirs,” &c. &c. Dessalines appears to have encouraged Leclerc to arrest -Toussaint, and then dishonourably betrayed Charles Belair (black), -nephew to Toussaint, and his wife into the hands of the French, who -shot Belair and hung his wife. - -[8] One thing I wish distinctly to state, that I never heard of any -mulatto, except Generals Salnave and Therlonge, who was mixed up with -the cannibalism of the Vaudoux, nor of any black educated in Europe. - -[9] On the African coast the word is Vodun. Burton mentions that the -serpents worshipped at Whydah were so respected that formerly to kill -one by accident was punished by death. Now a heavy fine is inflicted. -Bosman states that the serpent is the chief god in Dahomey, to whom -great presents are made. They are harmless; white, yellow, and brown -in colour, and the largest was about six feet long, and as thick as a -man’s arm. Fergusson, in his introductory essay on “Tree and Serpent -Worship in India,” mentions that at a place called Sheik Haredi, -in Egypt, serpent-worship still continues, and that the priests -sacrifice to them sheep and lambs. On the west coast of Africa, women, -when touched by the serpent, are said to become possessed; they are -seized with hysteria, and often bereft of reason; they are afterwards -considered priestesses. The whole essay of Fergusson is exceedingly -interesting. - -[10] Red, the royal colour at Mdra.--_Bosman._ - -[11] Burton, in his “Mission to the King of Dahomey,” notices that the -fetish priests are a kind of secret police for the despotic king, and -exercise the same influence as in Hayti. They are supposed to be able -to give health, wealth, length of days, and can compass the destruction -of the applicant’s foes, all for a fee. Bosman, in his account of the -slave coast of Guinea, says that a negro who offered opposition to the -priests was poisoned by them, and became speechless and paralysed in -his limbs; and that if any woman betrays the secrets of the priests, -she is burnt to death. - -[12] Barbot states that the common food of the natives of the kingdom -of Ansiko (west coast of Africa) is man’s flesh, insomuch that their -markets are provided with it, as ours in Europe with beef and mutton. -All prisoners of war, unless they can sell them alive to greater -advantage, they fatten for slaughter, and at last sell them to butchers -to supply the markets, and roast them on spits, as we do other meat -(date 1700).--Churchill’s Collection, vol. v. p. 479. Barbot also -notices that the people of Jagos, Congo, and Angola were also cannibals. - -[13] Barbot, in his account of the Ansiko kingdom, says: “That which is -most inhuman is, that the father makes no difficulty to eat the son, -nor the son the father, nor one brother the other; and whosoever dies, -be the disease ever so contagious, yet they eat the flesh immediately -as a choice dish.”--Barbot, in Churchill’s Collection, vol. v. p. 479. - -[14] I may here notice that the Haytians have chosen the mountain -cabbage-palm (_Palma nobilis_) as the tree of liberty in the national -arms. It is in nature a beautiful palm, with its dark-green foliage and -perfect shape. The cap of liberty stuck on the top of it makes it look -rather ludicrous, and the arms around its base are not very appropriate -to so unmilitary a people. - -[15] “Nous ne sommes plus aux temps où quelques rares curés, repartis -dans les principales paroisses de la république faisaient d’énormes -bénéfices par des moyens souvent hélas reprouvés par la conscience et -par les lois de l’église.... Qu’ai-je besoin d’évoquer dans le passé -les lamentables souvenirs de l’église en Haïti. Je suis prêtre, et je -voudrais pour l’honneur du sacerdoce pouvoir laver son opprobre de mes -larmes et de les plonger dans un éternel oubli. Mais il ne dépend ni -de moi ni de personne d’en effacer la triste mémoire.”--Monseigneur A. -Guilloux, Archbishop of Port-au-Prince. - -[16] “Ne suffit-il pas d’ailleurs de parcourir les villes et les -bourgades de la république pour rencontrer encore les témoins vivants -d’un libertinage sans exemple.”--Guilloux. - -[17] Military trials have always been a disgrace to Hayti. Even under -their model President Boyer (1827) they were as bad as they were under -the Emperor Soulouque or the present President Salomon. Mackenzie, in -his notes on Hayti, states that no defence was allowed, as that would -have been waste of time. Four officers were tried and condemned to -death: their arms were tied, and they were led by a police officer -to the place of execution. They showed great intrepidity, though the -soldiers fired a hundred shots before they killed them. President -Geffrard had certainly more respect for the forms of law. - -[18] Mackenzie tells a story of a town-adjutant calling on him in -gorgeous uniform; he next met him cooking the dinner of his host. - -[19] Recueil de Proverbes Creoles. Port-au-Prince, 1877. - -[20] Vol. ii. p. 24:--“Les légionnaires au nombre de 800 environ furent -enveloppés de toutes parts; ils se trouvaient sans nul espoir; assurés -de leur mort, mais résolus de se bien défendre, ils se retranchaient -sous la mitraille la plus meurtrière, les uns derrière des arbres -renversés, d’autres derrière d’énormes? pierres; percés de coups de -baïonettes, criblés de balles, ils combattaient toujours avec une -intrépidité sans égale: plusieurs ayant le bras coupé se défendaient -avec celui qui leur restait; ceux qui par la perte de leur sang -ne pouvaient plus se tenir debout se trouvaient sur leurs génoux, -combattaient encore avec fureur, se faisaient un rempart des corps -expirés de ceux qui étaient tombés,” &c., &c. - -[21] There is a line wanting in this stanza, which the authoress -herself has not been able to remember. - -[22] I would refer to Major Stuart’s excellent Report for 1877 for -details on these subjects. I have myself partly founded my observations -on this Report. - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - - -In this file, text in _italics_ is indicated by underscores. Text in -SMALL CAPITALS has been made uppercase. - -The following changes were made to the text as printed: - -vi “climate; the Senate the House” changed to “climate; the Senate, the -House”. - -ix “goodwill of the masses” changed to “good-will of the masses”. - -xv “THE ARMY AND POLICE” changed to “ARMY AND POLICE”. - -3 “the Artibonite, Arcahaie, Port Margot” changed to “the Artibonite, -Arcahaye, Port Margot”. - -17 “hand-to-mouth system” changed to “hand-to-mouth system.” - -20 “and yellow-fever too often” changed to “and yellow fever too often”. - -21 “as yellow-fever appeared” changed to “as yellow fever appeared”. - -22 “Yellow-fever rarely appears” changed to “Yellow fever rarely -appears”. - -48 “Biasson then ordered all his white prisoners” changed to “Biassou -then ordered all his white prisoners”. - -77 “effort to restrain is authority” changed to “effort to restrain his -authority”. - -112 “Nissage-Saget took up arms” changed to “Nissage Saget took up -arms”. - -125 “Bosroind-Canal, though not a brilliant ruler” changed to -“Boisrond-Canal, though not a brilliant ruler”. - -143 “coromacaque” changed to “cocomacaque”. - -169 “exercise which provokes Perspiration” changed to “exercise which -provokes perspiration”. - -172 “The mistresses of the firstnamed” changed to “The mistresses of -the first-named”. - -194 “The authorities at L’Arcahaie” changed to “The authorities at -L’Arcahaye”. - -209 “associaties of the society” changed to “associates of the society”. - -212 “cannibals of this society.”” changed to “cannibals of this -society.” - -238 “de maintenir l’independance nationale” changed to “de maintenir -l’indépendance nationale”. - -243 “Hérard Rivière was proclaimed” changed to “Hérard-Rivière was -proclaimed”. - -245 “head-clerks” changed to “head clerks”. - -247 A subheading reading “Religion.” was added, to standardise the -formatting of the chapter. - -The anchor to the footnote on page 248 was missing from the printed -text; it has been placed by the transcriber in what seemed the most -probable intended location. - -250 “arrangements of lesser importance” changed to “arrangements of -lesser importance.” - -276 a subheading reading “The Army.” was added, to standardise the -formatting of the chapter. - -282 “is purely nominal” changed to “is purely nominal.” - -286 “Mr. ---- The lady” changed to “Mr. ----. The lady”. - -308 “derrière d’enormes pierres; percès” changed to “derrière d’énormes -pierres; percés”. - -308 “Etudes sur l’Histoire d’Haïti” changed to “Études sur l’Histoire -d’Haïti”. - -309 “la grace de Lamartine” changed to “la grâce de Lamartine”. - -311 “noir couleur me plait” changed to “noir couleur me plaît”. - -311 “Regnrgent d’honneurs” changed to “Regorgent d’honneurs”. - -311 “Gardez-vous de l’éclair” changed to “‘Gardez-vous de l’éclair”. - -315 A subheading reading “Agriculture.” was added, to standardise the -formatting of the chapter. - -320 “riding through coffee-plantations” changed to “riding through -coffee plantations”. - -321 “amount produce greatly exceeded” changed to “amount produced -greatly exceeded”. - -335 “Les Cayes, for instance--” changed to “Les Cayes, for instance:--”. - -338 “Justice, education, pub li worship” changed to “Justice, -education, public worship”. - -339 “custom duties produced--” changed to “custom duties produced:--”. - -Otherwise, as far as possible, original spelling and punctuation were -retained. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAYTI *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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